e. -Forestry, Main

FORESTRY PAMPHLETS

a SILVICULTURE VOL. IX
Shade Trees

The Planting and Care of Shade Trees. ,
New Jersey Forest Commission. 0_

Hints on Rural School Grounds. By L.
H. Bailey. Bui. 160, Cornell Agri.
Exp. Sta.

Roadside Tree Law. Forestry Leaflet
No. 16, Maryland State Board of
Forestry.

Planting and Protecting Roadside Trees,
Bui. No. 1, The Maryland Conservation
Assoc.

b Street Trees; Care and Preservation. Com-
piled from New York Cornell Sta. Bui.
£56.

.hade Trees, Characteristics, Adaptation,
Diseases and Care. Bui. No. 170, Mass.
Agri. Sxp. Sta.

1 Systematic Street Tree Planting. By Henry.
R. Francis. Bui. No. 4 of the N. Y.
State College of Forestry. Vol. XV.

•Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. Bui.
No. 2 of the N. Y. State College of For-
estry. Series XIV.

Annual Report of the Park Commissioners.
San Francisco, Calif. 1912.

<5 J3 •-'

>,

FOREST PARK RESERVATION COMMISSION
OF NEW JERSEY

THE PLANTING AND CARE OF

SHADE TREES

By ALFRED GASKILL, State Forester,

fHOPtirrr

DIVISION o:

FORESTRY

INCLUDING PAPERS ON COLLEGE Of M. AGRICULTURE

ONIveHSlTY CTCAUFORNIA

Insects Injurious to Shade Trees

By JOHN B. SMITH, State Entomologist,

AND

Diseases of Shade and Forest Trees

By MEL. T. COOK, State Plant Pathologist.

TRENTON, N.' J. ,»,'"•*•••

STATE GAZETTE PUBLISHING ,CoV«P«iN7ER&.\,-,'1 ;\ ; *»

1912.

The Forest Park Reservation Commission.

Hon. WOODROW WILSON. GOVERNOR, ex-officio President.
HENRY B. KUMMEL. Trenton, Executive Officer.
ELMER H. SMITH. Salem.
CHARLES L. PACK. Lakewood.
WILLIAM AY. SMALLEY. Bound Brook.

ALFRED GASKILL, Trenton, Forester and Secretary.
JAMES O. HAZARD, Trenton, Assistant Forester.
CHARLES P. WILBER, Trenton, State Firewarden.
OFFICE, State House, Trenton.

Illustrations.

PAGE.

1'iu. 1. — Elms 30 years old 5

Fi-. 2.— Too much shade 9

Plate I. — Shade trees good and bad 11

Fig. 3. — Residence street insufficiently shaded 12

Fig. 4. — Street newly planted 15

Fig. 5. — Diagram — How trees should be placed 10

Fig. 6. — Young tree as received from the nursery 18

Fig. 7. — Same with top and roots pruned 18

Fig. 8.— Diagram— How to plant a street tree 20

Plate II. — Types of tree guards and gratings 23

Fig. 9. — Exposed roots tolerable 26

Fig. 10. — A tree choked by a guy wire 27

Fig. 11. — Guard a tree thus if it must anchor a guy 27

Fig. 12. — Trees guarded while building goes on 28

Fig. 13. — How lack of system gives a poor effect 31

Fig. 14. — Trees on curb and inside footway contrasted 33

Fig. 15. — Old trees on a new grade and with cabled wires through

their crowns 34

Fig. 16. — Abrasion moulding 36

Fig. 17. — Dense crowned Norway maple 37

Fig. IS. — Norway maple after an interior pruning 37

Fig. 19. — Butchered maples 40

Fig. 20. — Diagram — How to doctor a tree 42

Fig. 21. — Cavities from untreated wounds 44

Fig. 22. — Pruning wounds completely healed 44

Plate III. — Tree wounds filled and unfilled 47

Fig. 23. — Trees saved by mounding and raising curb 50

Fig. 24. — A tree "well" 51

Fig. 25. — Street grade raised without injuring trees 51

Fig. 26. — Trees in gutter and on sidewalk 54

Fig. 27. — A well shaded lawn made from native forest near the sea, 55

Fig. 28. — Street lines accommodated to shade trees 58

Fig. 29. — Elm standing in roadway 60

Fig. 30.— Trees left above grade 62

Plate IV. — Insects injurious to shade trees 70

Plate V. Insects injurious to shade trees 71

Fig. 31. — The maple pseudococcus 77

Fig. 32.— The San Jose scale 79

Fig. 33.— A soft scale 81

Fig. 34. — The maple-tree sesiid 82

Fig. 35. — Work of the hickory bark beetle 85

Fig. 36.— Chestnut leaf spot 95

Fig. 37. — Chestnut tree nearly dead of blight 100

Fig. 38. — Section of chestnut killed by blight 101

Fig. 39. — White pine blister rust 104

Fig.. 40. — Fomes igniarius 108

Fig. 41. — Polyporus sulfureus 110

Fig. 42. — Polystictus versicolor 113

Fig. 43. — Armillaria mellea 115

364033

Introductory.

The first two oi? this series of papers, with one on Fungi
<>f X ativo and Shade Trees, by Dr. Byron D. Halsted, were
originally published in the report of the Forest Park Reserva-
tion Commission of Xew Jersey for 1908. Appreciative de-
inauds having exhausted the edition, Mr. Charles Lathrop
Pack, a member of the Forest Commission, and a well known
pioneer in Forest Conservation, generously offered to de-
fray the cost of a new issue. This offer was accepted and the
Forest Commission has caused two of the papers to be thor-
oughly revised and a new one dealing with tree diseases to be
prepared by the recently appointed State Plant Pathologist.

The State is committed to the policy of protecting, improv-
ing and increasing the number of its shade trees. This bul-
letin is published under the direction of the

. , Authority.

Forest Park .Reservation Commission with the
co-operation of the Trustees of the State Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. Fach paper is by an acknowledged au-
thoritv in his line.

Fig. 1. Elms 30 years old, well placed, well spaced, well guarded. (Courtesy of
U. 8. Forest Service.)

G SHADE TKEES.

The reader is reminded that none of the

Scope. . „ . .

papers pretends to be exhaustive o± its sub]ect;
each deals in the briefest possible way with the things that
concern the trees of the State, and aims to tell what to avoid
as well as what must be done. The bulletin will serve as a
manual to those who are accustomed to working with trees,
and will guide those who seek to travel an unknown, though
it may be an attractive, path. More detailed information
will be found in the books listed on page 123, though for any
important work tree owners are advised to seek the assistance
of a reputable tree planter, tree doctor, arborist or forester.
The Agricultural Experiment Station and the Forest Com-
mission have lists of such and will furnish them upon request.
Assistance Both offices are prepared to give advice by

offered. mail on any matter relating to trees, and, when

necessary, either will have a competent man make an ex-
amination and report. Any municipal body, as a shade tree
commission, or the managers of a public institution, will be
aided without charge; individuals will ordinarily be re-
quired to pay the consultant's expenses, but not his salary.

'FORK6TRY

|

:OLUGE OF A AGRICULTURE

fcttVCR$|TV OF CALIFORNIA

The Planting and Care of Shade

Trees.

By ALFBED GASKILL and JAMES O. HAZARD, Foresters.

Xew Jersey is fortunate in having a soil and climate so
favorable that many species of trees can be grown in any part
of it, or some species found for almost any situation. It
must be urged, however, that only a few trees conditions
withstand the trying conditions imposed by favoral»le

and un-
favorable.

city streets and buildings, or the rigors of the
sea coast. Attention is, therefore, given chiefly to street
trees, for the number which may be grown successfully on
any well kept lawn, even in a city, is very great. Upwards
of forty species are found in more or less thrifty condition
on the street, parking and lawns within two blocks of the
State House, and many more might be planted that would
do as well.

Street Trees.

There is little use trying experiments with trees for street
planting. At the best, a tree on a city street is out of its ele-
ment and at a disadvantage; chose, therefore, amongst the
few that are known to thrive under your conditions, get good
trees, plant them carefully, and take care of them.

REQUIREMENTS.

X street tree should be chosen for its (1) Form, (2) Hardi-
ness or Adaptability, (3) Rapidity of Growth, (4) Shade
Production, (5) Neatness, (6) Beauty; the various qualities
ranking in about the order given.

1. Form is placed first because, no matter how good the

8 SHADE TREES.

tree, it is a failure if it does not fit the situation. By careful
pruning almost any tree can be made to grow upright, or to
develop a broad crown, but it is much better to chose a species
that naturally takes the desired form. Trees are beautiful,
or otherwise, as they harmonize with their surroundings.

On narrow streets with houses close to the curb only slen-
der trees of moderate height growth should be planted. Red
maple, reel gum, ginkgo, are good. For wider streets, or
those with parking in front of the houses, larger trees like
ISForway maple, basswood, horse chestnut, or pin oak, may
be chosen. Wide avenues should be dignified with the most
majestic trees — white elm, white oak, red oak, tulip poplar.

2. Hardiness and Adaptability are qualities of prime im-
portance in a street tree. Under any circumstances care-
ful consideration must be given to the native soil, the pave-
ment, the nearness of buildings, as well as to the vigor of
the tree itself and its power to adapt itself to unusual strains.
Strength to withstand the pressure of wind, snow, ice, etc.,

ability to recover from mechanical iniuries, and

A street . " . J

tree must resistance to insect attack and to disease are also

be resistant.

factors. JNo tree at all susceptible to irost
should be planted in this State. Sweet gurn grows well in
clay but not in sand; sugar maple and basswood suffer from
leaf burn when over a smooth, light colored pavement ; horse
chestnut is apt to be infested with insects and fungi.

3. Rapidity of Growth. To most people who plant trees
that which grows most rapidly is best. Thus our streets are
filled with silver maples, box elders and cottonwoods instead
of IsTorway maples, oaks and elms. Quick growing trees are
desirable, yet it is a fact that those which grow most rapidly

are commonly the shortest lived. Plant silver

trees are maple or cottonwood it you must have a good

lived. sized tree in a hurry, but don't forget that it

will have to be replaced when a Norway maple, a red oak, or
a sycamore is at its best. And bear in mind that cultivation
and care will make any good tree grow comparatively rapidly.
A red oak well nurtured will increase in size faster than a
maple that is neglected and abused.

STREET TREES.

Fig. 2. A good row of trees but houses too much shaded.
See Figs. 4 and 14.

4. Shade Production. On many streets it is easily pos-
sible to have too much shade. (Fig. 2.) Houses and side-
walks need sun even in summer ; therefore, on narrow streets
trees with light foliage, like the locusts and ashes, will usually
be better than the denser crowned maples, etc. Early leafing
is never desirable.

">. Xeafncss. A tree is a nuisance when it litters the street
with its bloom or fruit, sends up many suckers, heaves the
pavement by its superficial roots, emits an offensive odor, or
attracts insects. Cottonwoods or poplars are,

., . Avoid trees

therefore, to be avoided because, among other that are

i •, -i • i -I • -i i offensive.

r<-a«>n>. they cover the ground with their bloom

in the spring; silver maples will break up any pavement;

ail an thus has a very bad smell for several weeks each year

unless the trees bear pistillate flowers only; mulberry has a

fruit which when crushed makes the sidewalks slippery and

dangerous.

10 SHADE TREES.

PLATE I.

SHADE TREES GOOD AND BAD IN ONE NEW JERSEY CITY.

A. Extreme Neglect ; the Pole Looks Better Than the Tree.

B. No Tree can Thrive Where the Pavement is so Close.

C. A Street Tree that is Bad in Every Way : It Forks too low
and has no growing space.

D. A Worse than Useless Guard. It is too low to prevent horse-
biting, and so small that the tree is choked.

E. A Newly-planted Tree Protected by a Guard that is Entirely
too Light, and with no Growing Space.

F. A Guard Outgrown and Sidewalk Displaced by Root Growth.

G. A Good Temporary Guard, but too Light to last Long. Grow-
ing space much too small.

H. A Good Guard but Evidently not Placed Until After the

Tree had been Badly Injured by Horses. Growing space en-
tirely too small.

I. A Tree Well Guarded and Well Provided with Growing

Space.

J. A Thriving Street Tree. It has a fair growing space and is

sufficiently guarded with wire.

K. A Growing Space like that Provided for this Tree Interferes

Little with the Footway.

Plate I. See descriptions opposite.

12

SHADE TREES.

6. Beauty. The idea of beauty in a tree is satisfied when
it is normal in form, vigorous in growth, healthy, and suitably
placed. Street trees always suffer by contrast with those in
natural situations, yet when arranged harmoniously in well-
spaced rows, the uniformity of the trees matching the uni-
formity of the street, most satisfactory results
are obtained. This rule demands that all the
trees on a street, or at any rate all in a block, shall be of the
same kind and as near alike as possible in size and shape.
See Figs. 1 and 4.

In choosing shade trees, it is always proper to consider the
buds, twigs, flowers, fruit and coloring of the leaves. The
pendant, spiky balls of the red gum are as at-
tractive through the winter as its brilliantly
colored leaves in the fall. Of all the trees fit for street plant-
ing the most gorgeous are the maples in their autumn dress.
The spring beauty of the horse chestnut in bloom is largely
offset by its dilapidated appearance in early autumn, when
most other trees are still fresh.

Fruits,

flowers,

color.

I'v

Fig 3. A residence street insufficiently shaded. See Figs. 4 and 26.

STREET TREES.

13

Evergreens

WHAT TO PLANT.

The list of trees capable of meeting the conditions in a
city street is not long; it might indeed be curtailed to less
than a dozen. Evergreens are excluded altogether because
their shade is not wanted in winter. The fol-
lowing list is arranged to show the trees best
adapted to streets of various widths and includes all the
species, foreign as well as native, which are in any way
suitable, except perhaps on wide streets where lawn condi-
tions are approached. Those at the top of each column are
preferred to those farther down. See pages 56 to 65 for
descriptions of each species.

THE BEST TREES FOR CITY STREETS.

Streets.
(less than GO feet
wide between building
lines.)

Average Streets.
(60 to 90 feet wide
between building
lines.)

Wide Streets.
(over 90 feet wide
between building
lines.)

White Elm
Red Oak
Scarlet Oak
Sycamore
Sugar Maple
White Oak
Tulip Poplar
Basswood
Red Gum
Ailanthus

Trees not recommended. From the foregoing list several
trees universally found on city streets Avill be missed. Silver,
or white, maple is a rapid grower and able to survive many
handships, yet its youthful beauty is soon lost by the breaking
of its fragile branches and a general early decay. It is also
prone to disturb the pavement by the growth of superficial
roots. The poplars or cottonwoods, of which there are several
species, are even more rapid growers than the silver maple

Ginkgo

Norway Maple

Red Gum

Red Gum

Red Maple

Pin Oak

Norway Maple

Red Oak

Honey Locust

Scarlet Oak

Hackberry

Red Maple

Green Ash

Sycamore

Basswood

Hackberry

White Ash

Ginkgo

Honey Locust

Horse Chestnut

Sugar Maple

14 SHADE TREES.

when, planted in rich, moist soil, and their slender habit
adapts them well to narrow streets, but they are even shorter
lived than the maple, are offensive by the litter that they make
Trees to in spring and by the many root suckers that

nvoid* they produce. For these reasons ihey are ex-

cluded from the streets of Albany, Is". Y., by a city ordi-
nance. In Washington, D. C., the silver maples and poplars
planted years ago are being replaced by other species. Wil-
lows have no recommendations whatever as street trees.
None of these trees, therefore, should be planted unless it
be for a momentary effect. Twenty years after planting, any
of the trees recommended will be in better form and, if wrell
chosen and properly cared for, almost as large. Black locust
should not be planted solely because it is sure to be injured
or destroyed by the borer worm. Except for this fault it
makes a fine tree for narrow streets on account of its hardi-
ness, narrow crown and fine foliage. Beech is a slow grower
and casts too dense a shade for any street. It is further
objectionable for any public place because its smooth bark
tempts every jackknife carver. Walnut and the hickories in-
vite injury by their fruit and, therefore, have no place as
street trees. Chestnut is sure to fall a prey to the bark
disease, see page 101.

PLANT THE TREE THAT SUITS LOCAL CONDITIONS.

Any of the trees here recommended will grow in every part
of the State but, after meeting other conditions, a careful
planter will chose that whose natural habitat is nearest like
the planting site. If the soil be very dry chose scarlet oak,
hackberry, honey locust rather than white ash, white elm or
Norway maple. If it be clay, red gum, pin oak or sycamore
A close re- will be apt to do best. By changing the soil
between soil natural conditions can often be modified so that
and tree. tne preferre(J species may be planted. Any soil
but the very best should be enriched when, a tree is planted,
for the needs of the tree are apt to be forgotten afterwards.

STREET TREES.

15

THE TIME TO PLANT.

Deciduous trees should never be transplanted while the
leaves are on. Midwinter is not a good time because the
ground is apt to be frozen. Late fall is often preferred, yet
it is never well to expose a tree to the dangers of a winter be-
fore it has had a chance to grow new roots and g rfn begt
fix itself in the soil. In this State early spring, tl™*t*°
jn-t after the ground thaws, is by far the best
season. Trees are then quick with new life and if moved
can very promptly provide feeding organs and adapt them-
selves to changed conditions. If a drouth follows the plant-
ing, and spring drouths are common, the trees must be freely
watered until they are established.

ARRANGEMENT ON THE STREET.

Uniformity. "When planting is done by the property
owners individual choice will naturally have the widest
range — as to species, size, location and everything else. But
V erfort should be made to have all the trees on a street

Fig. 4. A residence street newly planted with Norway Maples, well grown
and well placed. (Courtesy of the Newark Shade Tree Commission.)

the same kind, the same size, and uniformly spaced. (See
Figs. 1 and 4.) "Where the building lots are of various

16

SHADE TREES.

widths uniform spacing is sometimes difficult, but there is
no need to place trees in the same position in front of every
house.

Spacing. Do not plant trees so close together that when
grown they will interfere or entirely shade the house fronts.
Too much shade is as bad as too little, and each tree should
have room to develop its own form. (Fig. 4.) In blocks
made up of lots 20 feet wide, or less, a tree should be planted
in front of every other house only, those on opposite sides
being alternated thus :

Fig. 5. How trees should be placed on a narrow street.

On wider streets, 40 feet, 50 feet, 60 feet or even more
may be given to a tree according to its size and habit of
growth, and the arrangement may be opposite or alternate ac-
cording to conditions. But in every case the aim should be to
develop rows, or blocks, of trees, rather than individuals. A
quick effect can be secured by planting trees closely, and as
they grow removing the alternate ones. But a very practical
difficulty, apart from the cost, is that no one wants to thin
them out at the proper time. If close planting is resorted
to the intervals must ~be half or one-third the intended ulti-
mate spacing.

STREET TIJEES. 17

Location. Where pavements are narrow the trees must be
placed close to the curb in order that their crowns may have
room in front of the buildings. They will be crowded at
best. Where space permits it is best to plant Don't plant

• i ^ c mi i close to

inside the lootway. Inere the trees are less curb.
subject to injury and shade the sidewalk and the houses rather
than the road. See Fig. 14.

Footing or Growing Space. As explained on page 24,
every me p] anted should have at least 6 square feet of open
earth above its roots. If the sidewalks and roadway are
paved with concrete this is even more important than where
bricks, or other jointed materials are used. On GIve a tree
narrow sidewalks the space may have to be room-
limited to 1*4 feet by 4 feet, but with that as a minimum
strive for openings 3x8 feet, or better still, a continuous park-
ing. Figs. 8, 14, 26, Plates I, II.

THE TREE.

Be sure to get healthy, well shaped trees. It is a waste of
money and time to set the poor deformed things that nursery-
men sometimes supply. Wild trees can be used, but they are
less apt to withstand the shock of moving than those that
have been transplanted once or twice. Don't seek cheap
trees ; get them from a responsible nurseryman.

It is often possible to set out trees as much as 12
inches in diameter, but the cost increases much more rapidly
than the size. As a rule the stems of the trees should be be-
tween 2 inches and 3 inches in diameter, and about 12 feet
tall. This serves pretty well the common desire for early
results at a reasonable cost.

Roots. Move a tree with as many roots as possible. It
may grow if only the stubs of the main roots are saved ; it will
do much better if the whole root work within a radius of 2
feet is taken ; give especial care to the finer spare the
rootlets, they are the ones that do the feeding. roots-
Xever let them get dry ; a dry root is dead !

2

18

SHADE TREES.

v^

A

Fig. 6. Young tree
received from the
nursery.

Fig. 7. Same with

top and roots

pruned.

Crown. Preserve the normal crown, or the form de-
veloped in the nursery, if possible. If the root system has
been much curtailed it will be necessary to cut back the crown
to maintain a balance between roots and foliage, yet this
balance is much better kept by saving roots than by sacrific-
ing branches. (Figs. 6, 7, 8.) Good trees rarely come from
Expand the ^ne bean poles that are often planted. The
crown. lower branches of a street tree should be not less

than 10 feet above the sidewalk. While it is small something-
less may be permitted, but sufficient headroom should always
be allowed passers-by. If this is not done the tree is sure to
be injured. Observe how the branches bend when the leaves
are wet with rain and give plenty of room for umbrella**.
See Pruning, page 37.

THE HOLE.

Before a tree to be planted is brought on the ground have
the hole made ready for it. If the site is on "made" ground
take out at least a cubic yard of the rubbish and provide as
much good loam. Then prepare the planting hole, by dig-
ging or by filling as the case may be, so that it shall be some-
what larger than the root area, and about a foot deeper than
the roots. On the bottom spread a layer of fine, mellow soil

STREET TREES. 19

mixed with one-third its bulk of well rotted

iiu»t fresh) stable manure. Have the space place for

above this bed just deep enough to accommodate

the roots and allow the tree to stand about 2 inches deeper

than it did in the nursery — not more.

PLANTING.

If a choice is allowed always transplant a tree on a cloudy
day; a bright sun quickly exhausts the stored up moisture.
But whenever the tree arrives get it into the ground without
delay. Thoroughly wet the earth in the hole that has been
prepared, set in the tree and spread out the roots so that they
lie naturally and are not crossed. Cut off with a sharp knife
all that are broken or badly bruised. A mutilated root in-
vites decay. Then fill in finely pulverized earth, work it
under and around the roots by hand, and compact it firmly.
Do not let any manure come in contact with the roots. If the
earth is wetted down as it is put in it will make a much better
contact. Fill the hole to the ground level when well com-
pacted, then rake over the surface and pulverize it to a depth
< >f about an inch. Two points are very important : keep the
tree vertical and be sure that all the roots are well embedded.
It is possible to injure the roots by making the earth about
them too hard, yet more trees are Jost through in,bed
faulty root bedding than in any other way. each rootlet-
Remember that a tree feeds by its roots ; to do that every
smallest rootlet must be firmly in the soil.

When planted tie the tree to a strongly set stake, or place
the guard about it at once.

20

SHADE TREES.

WELL DEVELOPED HEAD,
GOOD LEADER, MAIN
BRANCHES FORMING
WIDE, NOT CLOSE,
ANGLES WITH STEM.

STAKE 2? INCHES BY
10 FEET DRIVEN 2 FEET
IN GROUND.

TREE PRUNED AS
ORDINARILY REQUIRED.
IF ROOTS ARE FULL
CROWN NEED BE LESS
CURTAILED.

BASE OF PERMANENT
CROWN 10 FEET
ABOVE PAVEMENT.

RUBBER COVERED WIRE,Lv
OR CANVAS, BINDER. | 4=

BED DUG OUT 18 INCHES

DEEP, THEN FILLED TO

LOWER ROOT LEVEL WITH

MIXTURE OF ^ GOOD SOIL

AND<j ROTTED MANURE.

BASE OF TEMPORARY
CROWN 7 FEET
ABOVE PAVEMENT.

MULCH OF
PULVERIZE DEARTH.

PLENTY OF FIBROUS
ROOTS. BROKEN
ROOT5 CUTOFF SMOOTH

GROWING SPACE
AT LEAST 6 SQ.

RICH EARTH PACKED
FIRMLY ALL ABOUT ROOT

OT5.

Fig. 8. Diagram — How to plant a street tree.
IT is IMPORTANT TO OBSERVE EVERY POINT INDICATED IN THE DIAGRAM.

STREET TREES. 21

CARE OF TREES.

Xo tree on a city street can look out for itself ; it must be
taken care of. This involves protection against injury of
every kind, provision for necessary nourishment, and, at
tin us, some help to ward off insects or disease.

GUARDS.

The first needs of a newly planted street tree are a stake to
keep it upright, and a guard to protect it against horse-biting,
wheel scraping and all mechanical injury. Young trees are
best protected by devices which serve as well for support, as
the ugly, but practical, box used in Washington, D. C.
(Plate II. C.) Those that are established need only a shield
against horses and accidents, or none at all if the police regu-
lations are enforced. Various forms of guards
are shown in Plate II. Any of these is good lation better
but unless it is strongly fixed in the ground the chanicai"
young tree should be fastened to a stout stake
as in Fig. 8. In binding a tree to a stake, or to a guard,
the bark must be shielded against rubbing. For this purpose
wire covered with rubber hose is much better than cords.
Don't let a tree break loose from its guards. It will get be-
yond the need of support in a year or two, but will always be
subject to abrasion. As the tree grows see that its guard
and fastenings do not cramp it. Keep the guard painted and
in good repair. The necessity for constantly looking after
tree guards shows how much the trees would suffer without
thrni. (See Plate I.)

22 SHADE TKEES.

PLATE II.
TYPES OF TREE GUARDS AXD GRATINGS.

All but cut G from photographs by Dr. W. A. Murrill. of the New
York Botanic Gardens.

A. Tree Guard and Bench. London.

B. Young Sycamore with Pole Support. Wire Guard and Grat-
ing. Paris. The enlarged bases of the guards in cuts B. H.
I., and the sheet iron on the guard in cut F, are to protect
the trees from dogs.

C. The Standard Guard used in Washington, D. C. This is
strongly made of wood, is firmly fastened to four diagonal
stakes driven into the ground, and, by leather bands at the
top, supports the tree as well as protects it. These guards
are unsightly and harbor insects, but they are always re-
moved after the tree is well established.

D. A Simple Guard of Wire Netting. Washington, D. C. This,
and all kinds of metal guards, are now being discarded and
the older trees left to the protection afforded by stringent
police regulations and systematic inspection.

E. A Guard of Pine Poles. Berlin. Not so cheap here as in
Germany and otherwise not desirable.

F. Wire Guard with Sheet-Iron Base to protect the tree from
dogs. Frankfort, a. m.

G. A Neat Iron Guard but too Light to last Long. Trenton, N.
J. Contrast small growing space with spaces shown in other
pictures.

H. Young Tree with Wooden Support, Iron Guard and Grating.

Berlin.

I. Older Tree with Guard and Grating. Paris. Contrast large

grating in concrete pavement with smaller grating in broken
stone pavement, cut H.

Plate II. See descriptions opposite.

24 SHADE TEEES.

Gratings. In some cities the bases of trees are protected
and their roots given air, by means of iron gratings set in
openings in the pavement. Plate II. shows a number of these.
In exposed situations these gratings are valuable, but apart
from their considerable cost they must be raised frequently
and the space cleaned out. It is well to avoid their use as
far as possible.

NOURISHMENT.

More street trees suffer from starvation than from anything
else. In many places food, water and air are all denied ; and
the greater part of the harm is done by laying the pavement
close to the tree. Don't plant a street tree unless it can have
six square feet of open earth at its base. In Washington,
D. C., the regulation openings are 3 feet by 8 feet, or 24
square feet. (Plate IT.) A generous space of earth about
a tree is absolutely necessary for health. While a tree is
youn^ the soil in this opening should be stirred frequently
Tree roots to admit air and control evaporation ; after it
need air. becomes of good size grass may be allowed to

cover the opening although constant cultivation will stimulate
growth.

In summer if rain does not fall for several weeks the tree
should have water, for pavement, sidewalk and house fronts
become so heated that the evaporation from the leaves is
greatly increased. Unless the water thus drawn off is re-
placed the tree suffers. A thorough saturation of the soil
every week or ten days is better than more frequent sprink-
ling. A good plan is to build an earth dam about the tree,
three or four feet from its base, or as near that as the pave-
pienty of mcnt will permit, and fill the enclosed space

water. with water, several times if necessary. When

the water has all been absorbed, and the top soil is dry, break
down the dam and spread the pulverized earth over the wetted
area. That will retard evaporation. Be careful not to
water so frequently that the earth becomes soggy and sour.

STREET TREES. 25

Trees need food as much as animals. In the forest they
get what they require from the decaying leaves and other
Jitter; along unpaved roads they usually are fertilized from
til.- organic matter washed into the gutters, but on paved
streets all this is gathered up and taken away. This de-
ficiency can easily be supplied, however, by a little old stable
manure spread over the open space in spring Feed your
and worked into the soil with a fork or rake, or trees-
it can be heaped about the tree over winter and removed in
the spring. If the exposed manure is objectionable a com-
mercial fertilizer may be substituted. For light soils mix
equal weights of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, muriate of
potash, and ground bone and apply in the spring at the rate
of from 1 to 1% pounds of the mixture to 100 square feet of
exposed soil. This equals from l1/^ to 2 ounces for a tree
with a footing of 8 square feet. For heavy clay soils mix
-2 parts nitrate of soda, 3 parts acid phosphate, 1 part muriate
nf potash, 2 parts bone meal. Apply at the same rate as the
above. In either case distribute the fertilizer evenly and
mix it thoroughly with the soil. Be careful not to use too
much else the tree roots may be burned. Where it is inad-
visable to break the sod, or to work the soil, beneath a tree
make holes with a crowbar about six inches deep and two
or three feet apart and fill them with this mixture.

The task of nourishing a tree properly is not so simple as
these instructions seem to make it, but nothing more specific
can be said without considering the natural soil and the kind
of tree. The essential point is that trees need nourishment
and need reasonable care. Thin foliage, slender branches,
and dead tops (commonly called stag-head) are all signs of
-tarvation and must be heeded or the whole tree will die.

SHADE TREES.

Fig. 9. Such exposure of roots is bad, but may be tolerated until a new
tree can be established.

INJURIES.

All street trees are subject to injury of many kinds other
than those against which ordinary guards are provided.

It is the duty of every owner who occupies space on the
sidewalk to maintain a good tree, to co-operate with his neigh-
bors, the Shade Tree Commission or other local authority,
and with the public service corporations that also use the
streets, to the end that injuries of every kind may be avoided
or promptly remedied.

The principle that shade trees have a direct bearing upon
property values is well established in this State, and one who
Vlllue suffers loss can recover far more than the wood

of trees. value of a killed tree or the cost of a new one.

Nevertheless contests should be avoided, and in the follow-
ing pages an effort is made to show how all interests can be
harmonized as well as how various kinds of injuries should
be treated.

STREET TBEES.

27

CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING.

Shade trees have no proper part in any construction work,
whether of street, sidewalk or building. When they stand
near by provision must be made to secure them against in-
jury, otherwise they are sure to be damaged. Most of the
things to be looked after may be summarized as don'ts.

Don't allow any guy wire or rope to be fas-
tened to a tree. But if this cannot be avoided
be sure that the tree is amply protected by wood blocks as
sh«.wn in Fig. .11. A pretended guard of sacking as shown
in Fig. 10 is of no value.

Don't*.

Fig. 10.

A tree choked by a
guy wire.

Fig. 11. Guard a tree thus if it
must anchor a guy.

Don't allow a tree to be used as part of a scaffold; it can
always be avoided.

Don't allow bricks, stone or any building material to be
piled against a tree unless strong wooden guards are placed
about it. See Fig. 12.

Don't allow piles of sand, stone, etc., to stand long about
the base of a tree ; such material will rob the roots of air
the same as a close pavement. See page 24.

Don't allow a mortar bed where water saturated with lime
can How from it to the ground about a tree ; the roots cannot
stand it.

28

SHADE TREES.

Fig. 12. Every tree well guarded against injury while building goes
on. Paris. Photo by Dr. W. A. Murrill.

SALT.

Salt in excess is fatal to tree roots. Be careful if it is
used to melt ice on the sidewalk, and don't allow brine from
an ice cream tub to be emptied near a tree.

GAS.

Illuminating gas from defective mains is a common cause
of injury to street trees. Other gases, especially sulfurous
acid, when discharged into the air in large quantity may
damage or kill them, but this happens only near chemical
works and under conditions not at all common. If a buried
gas pipe is not perfectly tight the escaping gas poisons the
soil about it and affects nearby trees more or less seriously in
proportion to the quantity of gas discharged into the soil pene-
trated by the roots. Thus, other things being equal, the
nearer a tree is to a leak, the greater ihe danger that it will

STREET TREES. 29

be killed and the quicker the poison will act. Conversely a
small leak, or one at some distance from a tree, may induce
so slow an action that the real cause of the tree's failure
cannot be determined. The activity of gas poison depends
also upon the character of the soil, the material of which the
road and sidewalk are made, the species and the vigor of
the tree. For instance, clay soil will allow gas to escape
from it less quickly than sand, but if the road surface above
it is gas tight tree roots in either will have little chance.

Xot infrequently an actual leak can be lo- Locating
?ated by observing that trees and other vegeta- a Ieak<
tkai are affected with variable severity within a circle having
a radius up to one hundred feet. The source of the trouble
will be found near the center of the circle and near the tree
that suffers most. A poison case may develop so rapidly
from a large, sudden leak that several trees will be killed
within a day or two. Ordinarily, however, leaks are small
and the poison spreads slowly. Sometimes only a part of a
single tree is affected.

But it is often difficult to establish a case of signs of
poison because most of the evidences may be SHS poison-
produced by other causes. If, however, the leaves develop
less size than usual, or wilt after they unfold — usually be-
ginning at the ends of the branches — or if they droop sud-
denly in mid-season, a gas case may be suspected. Later
and surer signs are dark blue stains in the inner bark. These
stains will often be found in the roots when they do not ap-
pear in the body. Loosening of the bark usually follows
death, whether gas or something else be the cause. One who
is not expert should hesitate to declare a case of this kind.
The odor of gas is the surest guide to its presence. If that,
or a failing tree, indicates a leaky main drive a crowbar
three feet into the ground as nearly as possible over the joint
that may be faulty. Then withdraw it and put your nostrils
to the hole. Don't try with a match for that may cause an
explosion. If gas is present lose no time in having the
leaky joint, or joints, exposed and made tight. Where trees
are endangered it is important to free the soil of poison at

30 SHADE TREES.

once. Ordinarily all this will be done by employes of
Report to the gas company if the case is reported directly

Gas com- _ *~ _

pany. to headquarters, lor any gas company wants to

avoid claims for damages on account of leaks. It also wants
to stop the loss that leaks occasion. It is possible to make
this positive statement because gas superintendents in this
State have repeatedly sought advice of the Forest Commis-
sion, or of Shade Tree Commissions, have followed the recom-
mendations made, and in numerous cases have settled claims
for damage on the basis of the opinion rendered. The Forest
Commission is always willing to help adjust differences of
this kind provided both parties wish it and agree to accept the
forester's decision.

How to If a tree has been poisoned by gas, but is not

save a tree. killed when the leak is found and stopped, it
may sometimes be saved by digging a trench about it, on the
«as side at least, as deep as and including the gas main and
from six to ten feet from the trunk, and leaving the trench
open for at least a month. If rain does not fall plentifully
water the earth about the tree roots. This will give the
confined gas a chance to escape. Of course care must be
taken that the tree is not so dug out that it will be overthrown,
and that the earth from the trench is thrown away from, not
towards, the tree. All this may be difficult in a crowded
street, but is the only remedy. If the tree shows signs of
reviving let the out-thrown soil be worked over several times
and thoroughly aerated, or better carted away and replaced
by fresh, then fortified by one-fifth its bulk of well rotted
compost and the trench filled up. Stimulate the tree further
by a top dressing spread within the trench line as advised on
page 25. In some cases a severe pruning of the crown will
aid recovery by reducing the strain on the root system. Un-
less a tree is dry and has no signs of life in buds or stem don't
conclude that it is dead until it has passed a summer after
being affected. Xature is full of resources, and often seems
to make light of serious injuries. On the other hand spring
sometimes gives a semblance of life to a tree that is actually

STREET TREES. 31

dead by developing winter buds into foliage that is apparently
normal.

AYheii a tree is dead remove it, and before planting another
in its place change the soil or freshen it as directed above.

Fig. 13. How lack of system gives a poor effect. Trees of all kinds,
shapes and conditions. Contrast Figs. 1 and 4.

ELECTRIC WIRES.

Contrary to the common belief electric wires Rareiy
are rarely directly harmful to trees. They are harmful-
objectionable chiefly because the workmen who look after
them are careless or indifferent and do unnecessary damage.
The current in a telephone wire is too weak to be injurious
under any circumstances, while a lighting wire
caiTying an alternating current will injure the
living tissue of a tree only when wet weather rents-
and the loss of insulation make possible a close contact. Most
of the injury done to trees comes when a high tension direct
current escapes, as from a trolley feed wire, and burns the
tree at the point of contact or is grounded through its trunk.

32 SHADE TREES.

In the latter case a tree may be killed as by a lightning bolt.
But injuries of this kind are too rare to require special con-
sideration. Moreover, the management of no electric com-
pany will long neglect a contact that means a loss of energy
in its lines.

It wiH ^e admitted that overhead wires are
objectionable in any organized community and
where should be put underground wherever it is prac-

ticable. Let every effort be made to extend the territory
within which all wires must be carried out of sight, but at
the same time let the facts as they affect most tree interests
be not forgotten. These are that electric service is indis-
pensable, that the electric companies have certain denned
rights in many streets, that private, municipal and corporate
interests are more often served by agreement and compromise
HOW to imr- than by contest. And it is always easier to ad-
Hn^wlrinl? Just a matter of this kind before a franchise is
interest^. granted, or before work is begun, than after an

installation is in place. The following suggestions may help
to resolve various difficulties in connection with shade trees :

1. If wires are to be extended to a street not previously
served, seek by agreement to have the poles set behind the
houses rather than in front. This is often difficult, as where
the street lights are on a high tension circuit
while the houses are served from a low tension,

or it may be impracticable for other reasons.
Nevertheless it can be accomplished in some cases, especially
if the property owners are reasonable with respecr to allowing
linemen free access to the poles, and provision is made for

crossing intersecting streets.

2. If wires are to be run on a shaded street where they
have not been before, try to have the poles set on one side or
the other of the tree line, preferably next the curb. (See
Fig. 14.)

STREET TREES.

33

Fig. 14. Trees on curb, A, must compete with electric wires. Those

inside walk, B, have head-room. Note fine row, C, protected

from street by sidewalk.

3. If lighting wires must be run with a line of trees con-
sider whether they shall be carried on high poles over the
trees, on crossarms projecting into the street, or through the
bodies of the trees. The chief objection to the first plan,
next to its unsightliness, is that the growth of the trees will
almost surely bring the upper shoots into contact with the
wires and thereby cause them to be broken and wiring
the tree crowns distorted. At the same time J5jimd0r
the wires will be disturbed, and the current per- <«**»•
haps grounded. This is rarely a good plan. Carrying wires
on projecting crossarms is objectionable because it interferes
with the freedom of the roadway, and looks badly. The de-
vice should be resorted to only in exceptional cases. As a
rule it will be found most practical and most WirlnR
satisfactory to carry wires through the bodies through
of trees and quite low down. They must be
insulated, of course, but when that is done properly the trees
will not be injured and the wires themselves will be less dis-
turbed by the normal tree movements. Trolley feed wires

3

.34 SHADE TREES.

should always be properly insulated and carried as low down
as is practicable.

4. Telephone wires should always be carried through the
wires in lower portions of trees, and when there are sev-

cabies. eraj be Tinited in a cable. (See Fig. 15.) It is

not practicable to cable high tension wires.

Fig. 15. Old trees C, D, E, on a new grade and with cabled wires through

their crowns. New trees should be planted at X, X, X, and

when they are grown the old ones removed.

5; If trees are to be planted in a street where the only
available room is already occupied by wires, that is a street
with little space between the curbs and building lines, there
are just three courses open: one, to induce the electric com-
pany to remove the wires before the trees are set; two, to
get an agreement that they will be removed or raised at a
fixed time in the future, or when the trees shall have grown

so that tree shoots and wires interfere; three,
frees*. *' to plant low growing trees and by pruning keep

them below the wires. The last is often a good
plan, as big trees are out of place in a narrow street.

STREET TEEES. 35

AY i th respect to the damage done bv linemen

" . Damage

there is now less ground for complaint than done by
there formerly was. Nevertheless such men
will bear watching, and should be given to understand that
they will be held responsible for any injury. There is ample
law and precedent in the State to prevent injury in this way,
as well as to secure redress if the property
owii'T will trouble himself to protest and, if
ii< <•( ssary, to prosecute his claim. It will not
often be needful to go further than to make a
formal complaint or claim; corporations dislike litigation
and will satisfy any just demand. Two points only need be
observed: 1. Forbid absolutely the use of climbing spurs;
they are unnecessary in tree work, and every time they break
the bark give disease germs a chance to enter. And forbid a
workman to go into a tree, even by a ladder, with his spurs
on; they will damage the bark on the branches. 2. Require
the man in charge of the work strictly to observe the rules
of the National Electric Light Association. These rules have
been adopted by most of the telephone, telegraph and lighting
companies, and in themselves prove that the officials are ready
to do their share to avoid trouble. The most important of
the rules are : *

"11. Wires shall be strung on the side of the street most free from
trees."

"66. Guy wires shall not be attached to trees without the permission
of the owner or other proper authority."

"68. Tree trunks and limbs shall always be protected from injury by
the use of tree blocks between the tree and the wire attached thereto."

"83. Line wires shall not be supported upon trees."

"89. It is essential for the safe and uninterrupted Jules™6
operation of lines that they be free from possibility of
grounding on trees. It is therefore important that tree branches inter-
fering, or likely to interfere, with the lines should be cut away. Such
trimming must be done with care and judgment, and under the super-
vision of the superintendent, line foreman, or other responsible person."

*From report of Committee on Overhead Line Extension. New York,
June 2d. 1911.

3C SHADE TREES.

"90. Before any trimming is done the consent of the owner of the tree
should be obtained.* Opposition to tree trimming may sometimes be over-
come by offering to employ a professional gardener for this purpose. If
consent to trim trees cannot be obtained, and the interfering branches
cannot be avoided by the use of longer crossarms, or by offsetting the
standard crossarms, tree wire shall be used."

"91. The stubs of branches shall always be painted for their protection
and to make them less noticeable."

"94. Where tree wire is used, if there is danger of limbs or large
branches chafing the insulation, it shall be protected by means of wooden
abrasion moulding."

Fig 16. Abrasion moulding - used to protect trees and

wires. (Courtesy of National Electric

Light Assn.)

INSECTS, DISEASES.

These subjects are presented fully by Dr. Smith and Dr.
Cook in their accompanying papers.

ABRASIONS, HORSE BITES.

A tree whose bark is broken is hastened towards an early
death. Prevent such injuries by guards and by police regu-
lations. Be particular about the lawn mower. Half our
shade trees are repeatedly bumped and permanently injured
through wounds made at their bases. (See page 54.) If a
tree is so damaged have it treated promptly as directed on
page 44 and Fig. 20.

*Where there is a Shade Tree Commission it has authority above the owner
and will help to adjust differences.

STREET TREES.

PRUNING.

Under normal conditions a tree needs little or no pruning
luir, at least until it gets ragged from age, is best left to de-
vi- lop its natural form. Shade trees, however, frequently re-
quire pruning to adapt them to their surroundings and to
maintain a healthy growth. A tree does not develop at ran-
dom but after its kind and with reference to the stimulants
and checks that are brought to bear. One of the most im-
portant of these influences is light. Light has a direct in-
fluence upon the form and health of a tree.
The strongest growth of a tree's branches is
made toward the brightest light. The parts of a tree which
for any reason are shut off from the light weaken and sooner
or later die.

Light.

Fig. 17. Norway maple with character
istic dense crown. The foliage devel-
oped on this drains the roots in
dry weather and weak-
ens the tree.

Fig 18. Norway maple after an interior
pruning. This modifies the shape of
the tree in no way while reduc-
ing its leaf area and thereby
increasing its vigor.

PRUNING FOB VIGOR.

38 SHADE TKEES.

Street trees must be made to develop so that they will not
interfere with traffic, and in such a way as to make the best
use of existing light conditions. This is accomplished by
pruning. Subject to differences necessitated by abnormal
conditions, a tree which has been skillfully pruned for a
number of years will approximate the following description :

1. There will be a primary frame consisting of from one
to three axillary branches, the number depending upon the
species. A tulip or pin oak will have a single axis, while an
elm or maple will have two or more co-ordinate members.
A properly 2. Grouped about the primary frame will be

farmed i i • • i i

tree. several less imposing branches so arranged as

to form a symmetrical frame work and characteristic of the
species.

3. Each branch and branchlet will be free from physical
contact with its neighbors.

Unless the tree has had proper care from the time it was
planted it will fall far short of this ideal, and quite heroic
methods may be necessary to overcome the neglect of years.
The commoner rules for pruning may be summarized as fol-
lows:

AT THE TIME A TREE is PLANTED.

1. The object of pruning at planting is to make the tree
live. If it is necessary to sacrifice form to secure this re-
sult, do so. After a tree is thoroughly established its growth
to the proper form can always be accomplished.
pruning -• ^ tne r°°ts are intact it is not necessary

for life. to priine the crown. It is seldom, however,

that such is the case, and the removal of from twenty-five to
fifty per cent, of such branches as are not needed in the
shaping of the crown will be a wise precaution to counteract
root injury.

3. If any of the roots are broken remove the injured parts
by making a clean cut. Balance this cutting by removing a
slightly greater relative proportion of the crown. Sometimes
it will be necessary to remove practically the entire branch
system to obtain a proper balance. (See Figs. 6, 7 and 8.)

STREET TBEES. 39

WIIKN A YOUNG TREE is FULLY ESTABLISHED.

1. Select the primary frame according to the growth habit
nf the species in hand.

-. Select several secondary branches which pruning
either do, or can be made to, conform with the for form*
primary frame in harmonizing the shape of the tree.

•'!. Remove any of the larger branches which do not con-
form to the general character framework.

4. If the primary frame is vigorous enough to maintain its
domination over the secondary development, simply remove
the smaller interior interfering branches.

.">. Curtail any of the main branches which threaten to as-
sume undue proportions by removing a part of their terminal
growth.

WHEN A TREE is WELL DEVELOPED, BUT UNPRUNED.

Most trees of this class will carry a considerable burden of
dead wood in their interiors, and a large amount of half sup-
pressed and vigor-lacking growth throughout the mass of
branches. There is usually considerable irregularity in the
form of the tree due to the greater vigor in some branches
than in others. (See Fig. IT.)

1. Remove all dead wood. pruning

•2. Select from the most vigorous branches the
character framework as outlined above.

3. Remove all branches large or small which do not fit in
with the scheme of form development decided upon.

4. If the primary frame does not distinctly dominate,
curtail the secondary development by clipping the terminals.

5. If necessary to cut back any large branch by a con-
siderable amount without entirely removing it, leave a vig-
orous small branch near the point where the cut is made to
act as a "sap lifter'1 and thus insure the life of the branch
which has been shortened.

6. Establish an individuality in each branch by removing
from it such parts as would bring it in contact with its neigh-
bors, or which grow contrary to the characteristic habit of the
species.

7. Remove internal decay as indicated under "Treatment
of Cavities," page 45.

40

SHADE TEEES.

WHEN A TREE is NEGLECTED AND DECADENT.

Old untrimmed trees always contain broken branches and
much dead wood, ancj frequently possess certain branches
which have grown disproportionately. This irregular growth
and mutilation often develops a picturesque appearance which
should be retained unless there is some outweighing reason
for altering it. Under no circumstances allow a tree to be
"topped," that is, reduced to a post with branch
but "don't stubs at the top. Fig. 19. Under any but ex-

"top" a tree. . , /.,. ~, . • 7 . . i

ceptional conditions the practice is butchery.
Better take the tree away and plant a new one. "Heading
in" is another matter, and if carefully done may cause
a decadent tree to recover its form as well as its vigor.

Fig. 19. Butchered maples. Not necessary to escape the wires and in

no way justified. The winter aspect of a tree is almost as

important as its summer aspect.

STREET TREES. 41

An old tree if moderately sound will stand, and be thankful
for, any reasonable treatment of its crown. In a case of this
kind observe the following:

1. .Remove all dead wood.

2. If all the large branches must be cut back make at least
two operations, a year or more apart.

•3. Make the cuts so that the stubs of the "headed in"
branches will roughly conform to the desired shape of the
crown to be.

4. Be sure that a small asap lifter" is left on each short-
ened branch near the place where the cut is made.

5. Treat all decay as directed under "Treatment of
Cavities," page -1-5.

How TO PRUNE.

In removing a branch it is important to make the cut close
to the trunk, or remaining branch, and to take such precau-
tions as will insure a clean wound without injuring the sur-
rounding bark. An ordinary hand saw or a pruning saw is
generally used. Unless the branch is quite small saw under-
neath first and finish from above. This is to prevent the
splitting down of the branch, or breaking the surrounding
bark. In removing any sizable limb, make first a half cut
from the under side and about a foot from the trunk; then
sever the limb entirely by a cut a few inches further out.
(Fig. 20 B.) The object of the undercut is to prevent the in-
evitable split from running back to the base of Avoid
the branch. Finally remove the stub close to 8P1Ittins-
the trunk. If a limb is very large and heavy, and there are
other branches beneath, support it from above by means of
ropes in order that it may not fall and do damage. Be sure
to make the final cut as close to the tree trunk
as possible, since a large wound there will close
in a more satisfactory manner than a smaller one at the end
of a short stub. And be especially careful that as the severed
limb finally falls the bark next its underside is not torn from
the tree.

PREVENT A SPLIT OR
MEND A SPLIT BY CHAIN

BOLTS, NOT BY A BAND,
SEE I.

A DECAYED BRANCH
AS C, CUT OFF & ,
THE CAVITY CLEANED
& FILLED.

STUB .
TOO LONG
FOR HEAL-
THY ,
HEALING
AND DECAY
WORKS
INWARD.

REMOVE A HEAVY
LIMB BY MAKING
SCUTS AS

NUMBERED

A LONG STUB LEFT,
DECAY HAS SET IN
& IFNOT TREATED
AS AT M WILL
DESTROY THC MAIN
LIMB.

A PRUNING
WOUND MADE
AS B OR
HEALING PER
FECTLY.

A SOLID BAR WITH
NUTS WILL HOLD A
WEAKENED CROTCH
THOUGH, IN A BIG TREE
NOT SO WELL AS A
CHAIN. SEE A. .

A WOUND FILLED
UNNECESSARILY,
TREATMENT AS
E OR K WOULD
BE BETTER.

WHEN A LIMB IS
REMOVED AND THERE
IS SLIGHT DECAY, CLEAN
OUT THE WOUND ft TAR
BUT DO NOT FILL IT.

NEVER MEND A
SPLIT WITH A
BAND, THE TREE
WILL SOON BE
CHOKED, SEEA&

TREAT A BRUISE AS
H BY CUTTING OUT
INJURED TISSUE,
LEAVING -SURFACE
EDGES SMOOTH, TAR
BUT DO NOT FILL.

A HORSE BITE
OR BRUISE TO BE
TREATED AS F.

A. LARGE CAVITY
PROPERLY FILLED
WITH CONCRETE.

Fig. 20. Diagram— How to doctor a tree.

STREET TREES. 43

SUGGESTIONS.

Do not prune evergreens, except hedges, un- Ever.
less the severed member is wanted out of the ereen*.
way. Evergreens do not sprout from cuts as do most de-
ciduous trees.

Pruning may be done at the most convenient Time to
time unless the wound bleeds. As this is most Pruiie-
likely to occur in spring that season is the least advisable.
Fall or winter is usually best, for then the sap is least active
and the leaves do not obscure the tree framework.

Do not remove a live limb unless it interferes with a better
one or otherwise fails to meet the form and health require-
ments of the tree.

Interior pruning is often necessary in the maples, bass-
wood, and similar dense-crowned trees, because the foliage
develops beyond the power of the roots to satisfy it with
water. A treatment similar to that ordinarily Excess of
given fruit trees is advised. (See Figs. 17 foli«se.
and 18.)

The suckers or long shoots from adventitious buds, often
observed on elms, give them a peculiar beauty not found in
other common shade trees. Spare these instead of removing
them as is often done.

Do not trust your tree work to the first man who comes
along, but seek a reputable worker. Xo chestnut tree can be
cured of the blight; a wound badly filled or
unnecessarily filled would be better left open
(Plate III) : and a tree that is sprayed care-
lessly or with wrong material will be benefited as much as,
and no more than, one that is butchered under a pretence of
being pruned.

Tree owners are warned against men without credentials,
and those who have work of this kind to do are advised to
seek assistance from the local shade tree commission, or, if
help cannot be secured in that way, to apply to the Forest
Commission, to the State Entomologist or to the State Plant
Pathologist.

SHADE TREES.

CARE OF WOUNDS.

Every break in the
bark of a tree should be
treated with an anti-
septic to prevent the en-
trance of decay. But
this rule is commonly
ignored in so far as
clean cut wounds, not
over two inches in di-
ameter, made in the live
wood of a healthy tree,
are concerned. But

every pruning wound of

Fig. 21. Four branch wounds with good cal- . . ,

luses but each showing a cavity, the larger Size must be

treated else decay may
set in before it can heal
over. (Figs. 21 and 22.)
The treatment consists simply in painting the exposed
wood with coal tar, creosote, or lead paint. The first is usu-
ally preferred. Thin the tar by heating it if
necessary and apply with a brush, being care-
ful not to cover the cambium, or tissue between the wood and
bark. Give two good coats and repeat every year or two until
the wound is completely healed.
Wounds due to mechan-
or animal
have all

the injured wood and bark
removed with a knife or
gouge and then be treated
as directed above. (See
Fig. 20.) If the bark is
merely scraped but not

result of long stubs and lack of

treatment to prevent decay.

See Fig. 22.

Tar all
wounds.

ical abrasion
gnawing should

broken through, let it alone
and see that it "does not
happen again."

ig. 22. A group of branch wounds

perfectly healed, no filling needed

as stubs were cut short and

wood was sound.

See Fig. 21.

STEEET TREES. 45

TREATMENT OF CAVITIES.

1. Remove as much of the decayed wood as the location of
the cavity and the condition of the tree seems to warrant;
aim to expose a smooth surface of sound wood at all points.

2. Sterilize the surface by a brush application of copper
sulphate or creosote.

3. Give the cavity at least three coats of coal tar, avoiding
covering the cambium.

4. If the cavity is of such shape that it will catch and
retain water, or if it is so large that the tree is weakened
thereby, fill it as directed below.

5. If the cavity does not fall in either of the above classes
it is best to allow the natural growth of wood to gradually
cover over the defect.

46 SHADE TREES.

PLATE III.
TKEE WOUNDS HEALING WITHOUT, AND IN SPITE OF, FILLING.

A. A bad scar on a fine elm healing perfectly without cement.

B. New growth on a wounded elm which has forced out a cement filling.

C. New growth closing another wound on the same tree and confining

some of the cement.

D. Strong new growth closing a bad scar that would have been better

left without brick or cement.

E. A fine callus closing a bad wound on a hemlock that has had no

treatment. The decayed wound in center should be removed
and the sound core tarred.

Plate III. See opposite page.

48 SHADE TUBES.

A word of warning must be given against the too free use
of cement or concrete in treating trees. The material un-
doubtedly has value in spite of a lack of elasticity that almost
inevitably prevents a filling from being water
cement too tisjht, or causes it to crack and fall out of place.

freely. T , ,

It may always be used where a tree needs me-
chanical support, often where a cavity is unsightly, and some-
times to keep out rain. Under other circumstances it usually
is best to clean arid treat antiseptically a cavity, certainly a
superficial or shallow wound, and leave the rest to Nature.
In many cases a filling secretes rather than excludes mois-
ture, thereby inducing decay, and unless it is very carefully
made may interfere wTith the normal processes of repair.
(See Plate III.)

Where a cement filling must be made a few rules will
serve to guide:

1. Prepare the cavity as above and in addition remove
the bark around its edge for about half an inch. This is
to expose active cells in the cambium from which the healing
callus may develop.

2. Fill the cavity flush with the wood at the edge of the
opening but do not lap over. If desirable the cement may be
sculptured to resemble bark.

3. A small cavity may be filled with pure cement. For
large ones use a concrete consisting of one part cement to
cement *wo Pai"ts of sand and reinforced with stone,
or concrete, brick or iron. Cover the exposed face with
an inch of pure cement. Spikes driven into the wood inside
the cavity will help to hold the filling in place.

Another method is to cover the cavity with sheet zinc,
carefully fitted and securely nailed to the exposed wood at
Zinc its edge, and fill in concrete behind it. The

facing. concrete should be liquid enough readily to

adapt itself to the interior of the cavity. This is a simple
and very satisfactory way to get the filling in place and to
keep it there. Of course the zinc must be first fastened at

STREET TREES. 49

the bottom and the concrete poured in from above. The
zinc and the edges of the wound should be painted or tarred
to render them less conspicuous.

BRACES FOR CROTCHES.

Acute angled crotches in trees of large size often split.
To prevent this, or to repair a break, let iron braces be put
in of size sufficient to withstand the strain. See Fig. 20.
Do not let bands be used, many trees have D0n't use
been rained by them. If the weight of limbs bands-
is not very heavy a solid rod with screw threads on both
ends can be used. Ordinarily, however, it is best to use hook
bolts and a chain, or eye bolt, so that there may be some move-
ment when the wind blows. Whether a single rod or a com-
bination is used let a neat hole be bored entirely through each
limb and as high above the crotch as is prac-
ticable. If a rod is used these holes must be in
line, if a chain or eye bolt it does not matter.
On the outer side of each hole countersink a seat for a washer
at least 4 inches in diameter and for the nut. When the
brace is in place make the whole taut by screwing up the nuts.
If the tree has been split and the gap cannot be closed by the
power of the screws rig a tackle higher up. Let the hook ends
of the bolts project several inches so that they will not be
buried as the tree grows, but see that the washer, nut and
end of bolt are left so that they will be overgrown.

WHAT TO DO WITH OLD TREES.

Xothing that has been said about the choice of trees should
be construed as a recommendation to remove a poor tree be-
fore it can be replaced by a better one. A ragged old silver
maple is often better than none. When systematic tree
planting is decided upon accommodate the plan to existing
trees and provide for a gradual replacement of undesirables.

4

50 SHADE TREES.

In the meantime fix up the latter and help
better™ h*att them to keep alive: cut out all broken and

dead branches, heal the wounds and open the
pavement so that the roots may have air. If necessary
curtail the crowns gradually so that new trees adjoining
shall not be hampered in their development. If a tree is
very bad don't waste time and effort but replace it at once.

Fig. 23. Trees saved by mounding and raising curb when road was lowered.
Note step in curb at A. Base of tree B is 30 inches above the gutter.

Where a change of grade has left a tree above the common
level don't leave it to be kicked and battered by every passer-
by, but cover the roots with a few inches of earth and provide
some means to keep it there. (Fig. 15.) A slight change
in a sidewalk may be fully justified by the necessity of
saving a valued old tree. If a new grade requires a fill
about a tree don't pile on two or three feet of earth at once,
but build a well of brick or stone at least 3 feet greater in
diameter than the tree stem. (Fig. 24.) Let that fill up
gradually and occasionally break the bark on the tree, just
below the soil level, to encourage the growth of new roots.

STBEET TREES.

51

Fig. 24. A " Well" constructed about an elm tree when grade
was raised. Photo by \Vm. Solotarofi\

CO-OPERATION.

In few lines of civic work is co-operation so essential as
in the care of shade trees. The fact that one individual
ordinarily owns and controls but a fraction of the property
in a block makes it necessary for each owner to work with,
and not independently of, his neighbors. In almost every
community the best results will be secured through a Shade
Tree Commission, or a Park Board having similar authority.

Fig. 25. Street grade raised two feet without changing sidewalk or
injuring trees. Practicable only on a side street.

52 SHADE TREES.

SHADE TREE COMMISSION.

Where a community interest in shade trees has been
awakened the best way to get things done is to organize a
shade tree commission. The State laws give ample powers
to such bodies and one properly supported by local ordi-
nances and reasonable appropriations will soon change the
sylvic aspect of a municipality. The only objection to the
laAvs as they stand that is of importance concerns itself with
the unusual powers granted a Shade Tree Commission. The
answer is that in practice the laws have worked no injury
or injustice but have enabled several communities to care
for their trees systematically and effectively.

An individual may do the right things for the trees in
front of his property and the community get the benefit, but
ordinarily his interest is spasmodic and apt to
be ineffective. He neglects to have his trees
fed, or doctored, or trimmed, or he employs a
butcher who spoils them. A shade tree commission can pre-
vent abuses and require symmetrical planting, can doctor,
prune and spray, can make terms with the gas company and
electric company and save the owner all trouble. Some
property owners do not want to give over to a public body
the care of trees which they have planted and nurtured.
The position, though understandable, is unreasonable in a
day when utilities and conveniences are developed for the
advantage of the public. As well might each property owner
insist on being allowed to do as he pleased respecting side-
walks, curbing, sewers. If every owner must dedicate a
part of his property to the public for these purposes, he can
quite as reasonably yield the care of Ids shade trees that
his neighbors as well as himself may be lienefited. An active
Shade Tree Commission can do much good also by anticipat-
pian for ™S municipal improvements and harmonizing

the future. various interests. Where streets are repaved
or grades changed an agreement with the engineers will save
many an old tree from destruction. In not a few instances
in this State has the want of co-operation, or co-ordination
of duties and interests, deprived a town of trees that cannot
be replaced. In new work the same unity is quite as neces-

LAWN TREES. 53

snry. Large open spaces about street trees, for instance,
can be made only with the consent of those who regulate the

pavements.

SHADE TREE FEDERATION.

The shade tree commission idea has progressed so far in
Xc-w Jersey that an organization composed entirely of men
and women actively interested in shade trees has been
formed. It is in no sense a popular body, but devotes itself
to problems that concern the various communities and their
-hade trees. In general it aims to be a sort of clearing
house through which the experiences and needs of each com-
munity or Shade Tree Commission can be made to serve all
their fellows.

Lawn Trees.

The variety of lawn trees that may be grown in this State
is almost unlimited. And here evergreens are quite as valu-
able as deciduous trees. For the main features of any plant-
ing plan the same species recommended for street planting
will be found most satisfactory; for contrasts, for pure orna-
ment, for windbreaks, many other kinds are Many
available. Individual taste will govern in this possible.
and there is no objection to trying novelties. There are
many native trees, however, that are rarely seen but which
well deserve place. Serviceberry, dogwood, several birches,
various magnolias, red bud, silverbell, sourwood, yellow
wood, mountain ash, hawthorn, larch, cypress, arborvita?,
hemlock, are all suitable, especially for sheltered situations.
Many nurserymen are now prepared to furnish well grown
trees and will guarantee them to live. Thus it is quite pos-
sible to give an air of age to a new place within a very few
y< ars. Of course the cost of large trees is considerable.

Trees on a lawn should be planted and cared for the same
as street trees, though they will ordinarily need no guards
and may easilv grow much more rapidly. For

" £f Must be fed.

several years after a tree is planted, no matter
what its size, grass should not be allowed to grow about its
base, but the ground kept open and frequently cultivated and
watered. After the tree is fully established a turf may be
allowed to form, but it will still need to be fertilized because

54 SHADE TREES.

its natural food, the fallen leaves, dead grass, etc., will have
been removed. Open earth at the base of every tree is recom-
mended because, apart from all questions of nourishment,
the bare circle acts as a guard against injury by lawn mowers,
etc.

Fig. 26. Tree A stands in the gutter, Tree B in the curb line, Tree C
is partly on the sidewalk. No harm done.

It is well to observe several points about the qualities and
behavior of trees. Those which give a dense shade are usu-
ally shade-enduring or tolerant ; they carry their own lower
branches for a long while but kill or stunt trees, shrubs or
Shade grasses that are intolerant or light-requiring.

endurance. Qn ^g account grass does not grow well under
a beech or spruce but may under oak or pine. Sugar maple
will do fairly well in the shade of elm, but elm is hampered
by sugar maple. Trees grow tall and slender when crowded,
much broader wiien they have plenty of room.

All trees do best in good soil, but some, as most of the
pines, require it loose and well drained. Others like elm,
ash and pin oak favor moist locations.

SEASHORE TKEES.

55

Evergreens, especially spruce, balsam, cedar, arborvitse,
make the best windbreaks and permanent shade, but they
should not be planted close to the house for they \vind-
cut off the sunlight in winter when it is wanted. breaks-
Thin foiiaged trees like elm, oak, sycamore, ash, are best in
such places.

Seashore Trees.

Whether on streets or lawns, trees planted near the sea are
subject to two great handicaps not commonly found else-
where, namely, strong, constant winds and sterile soil.
Close to the beach salt spray often works injury. These
conditions make it imperative to plant only the hardiest
species, though if great care is taken to prepare large beds of
good earth sheltered lawns may enjoy a comparatively great
variety. Especial pains must be taken to anchor every
planted tree against the wind, for the breezes shield from

, . T • i i winter

of summer are as nothing compared with the wind*.
storms of winter which it must withstand. In any case
many trees will be permanently inclined or distorted as are
those thai grow wild.

Fig. 27. A well shaded lawn made from native forest near the sea.

5C SHADE TREES.

On lawns the native pines, oaks, cedar and holly should be
encouraged. Though of slow growth under natural condi-
tions cultivation and care will stimulate them. The mari-
time pine (Pinus pinaster) of Europe is worth trying in
exposed situations. Spruces and firs need protection.

For street planting it will be best to try few experiments,
but use the trees that are proven hardy and give them every
riant only care. The species most likely to thrive are
species. sycamore, ailanthus, pin oak, scarlet oak, red

oak, chestnut oak, hackberry, honey locust, red maple. Pop-
lars and silver maple will be very short lived. Norway
maple is apt to burn by reflected heat.

It is unfortunate that so little systematic or careful tree
planting has been done in our seaside communities. A little
active interest, and time of course, would transform their
bare, sunny streets to avenues of shade.

Specific Characters of the Most Available Trees
for Planting.

AILANTHUS.

A tree (Ailanthus glandulosus, Desf.,), imported from
Asia, of luxuriant habit and ornamental appearance. It
grows with remarkable rapidity in almost any kind of soil
and makes a valuable tree for wide avenues. It is not well
adapted to narrow streets. The tree is objected to on ac-
count of the litter produced by its leaves and abundant fruit,
its early defoliation, and especially the offensive odor of the
male flowers. This last, however, is easily avoided by plant-
ing only pistillate trees, since male and female flowers are
often found on separate individuals. The tree is remarkably
free from disease arid insect pests and is well thought of in
Paris; where it has been largely planted. It is a favorite in
several cities in this country also, notwithstanding the error
made by planting staminate trees in some cases.

MOST AVAILABLE TREES FOR PLAXTIXG. 57

ASH.

Of all the ashes, the white ash (Fraxinus Americana, L.)
has the most desirable qualities as a shade tree. It requires
a rich soil and does best in the presence of considerable mois-
ture. Under favorable conditions it grows fairly rapidly
and attains a good size with a moderately broad, open crown
and thin foliage. It makes a desirable tree where a moderate
shade is wanted in summer and much sunlight in winter.
The tree has few enemies and is little subject to disease.
The chief objection to it as a shade tree is that the leaves
come late in the spring and fall very early. The European
ash is less desirable than this. Green ash (F. pennsylvanica,
rar. lanceolata Sarg.) is a comparatively small tree but
hardier than white ash. It is planted largely in the West
and should have a place here on narrow streets and where
onlv a moderate shade is wanted.

BASSWOOD OR LINDEN.

The most important species is Tilia Americana, L., a beau-
tiful, large tree with compact crown, broad lustrous leaves,
and a curious winged fruit. This is an admirable tree for
avenues and streets of moderate width where sun glare is not
excessive. On closely paved streets, and near brick or stone
buildings, the tree suffers seriously from sunburn. Bass-
wood requires good soil and considerable care. Where that
can be given its beautiful foliage and fragrant flowers justify
its planting. Under other conditions it should not be at-
tempted. The European linden is apparently less able to
withstand the trying conditions of city streets than the na-
tive species.

BEECH.

This tree has no value for street planting, but either the
native species (Fagus Americana, Sweet) or the European
(F. sylvatica, L.) makes a beautiful lawn tree. They require

58

SHADE TREES.

rich, well drained soil and grow rather slowly. Under free
conditions the tree is quite short but develops a broad heavy
crown which casts a dense shade. There are many orna-
mental forms of the European species — as purple-leaved, cut-
leaved and drooping. Many of the leaves adhere to the
branches through the winter, a habit that some people con-
sider a fault, others like the constant rustle of the dried
leaves, as well as the appearance of the tree when most others
are bare. This tree should never be planted where sunlight
is wanted winter or summer.

Fig. 28. Beech. This and other trees grown on a lawn not sacri-
ficed when street was cut through. Courtesy of
Newark Shade Tree Commission.

CATALPA.

All the species of catalpa should be considered ornamental
rather than practical shade trees. The southern catalpa
(Catalpa catalpa, Karst) is a scrawny, irregular tree, but
very picturesque in maturity, especially when covered with
its large white bloom. The foliage and flowers appear quite
late, and the leaves arc blackened by the first frost or often at-
tacked by fungi. The hardy catalpa (Catalpa specwsa, En-

MOST AVAILABLE TREES FOR PLANTING. 59

gelm) grows more upright and is sometimes used as a shade
tree, yet its large tender leaves, susceptible to frost as well
as to burning by reflected heat, make it undesirable. The
Japanese species (Calalpa bungei and C. kaempferi) are
purely ornamentals of small size.

CHESTNUT.

This is a large tree of very rapid growth (Costarica den-
iaia, Borkh), and formerly was one of the most valuable na-
tive species, but since the appearance of the bark disease (see
page 101), not a single chestnut tree should be planted any-
where. The paragon, or large fruited chestnut, from Europe
is advocated for its nuts, but it is apparently susceptible to
the same disease.

ELM.

Xo other tree, native or foreign, combines so many de-
sirable qualities for a street tree as the American, or white,
elm (Ulmus Americana, L.) It grows too large for narrow
streets, but for those of moderate width, and for avenues, it
has no superior. The trunk commonly divides at from ten
to fifteen feet above the ground and forms a broad, high-
arching crown with pendent branchlots. The tree requires
reasonably good soil and plenty of moisture, and under fa-
vorable conditions grows comparatively rapidly. The leaves
are rather small and the shade produced not too dense. The
autumn foliage is not notable. White elm is subject to
several diseases, but throughout 2^ew England, and in this
State, its chief enemy is an insect called the elm leaf beetle.
(See page 67.) This, however, should not deter anyone
from planting the tree for the insects can always be con-
trolled. Slippery elm (Ulmus fulva, Michx.), and other na-
tive species have no especially desirable qualities as shade
trees. The English field elm (Ulmus campestris L.) and the
Scotch elm (Ulmus monlana, Bauh.) are sometimes planted
as ornamentals.

60

SHADE TREES.

Fig. 29. Neither new road nor new trees require the sacrifice
of a fine old elm.

GINKGO.

A tree (Ginfcgo biloba, L.) introduced thirty or forty years
ago from Eastern Asia. It grows rapidly on almost any
soil, develops a narrow cylindrical or conical crown that
adapts it well to narrow streets, and is apparently not af-
fected by insects or disease. The fan-shaped leaves with
straight veins are unlike those of any native tree and their
bright coloring in the fall sometimes rivals that of the
maples. The only objection thus far made to the ginkgo
as a street tree is that its fruit, an oily nut, is sometimes
malodorous. Even where the heat reflected from paved
streets is considerable the tree thrives. It promises to be
one of our most valuable species.

MOST AVAILABLE TREES FOR PLANTING. 61

GUM.

Of the various gum trees only sweet gum, or bilsted
(Liquidambar styraciflua, L.) is suitable for street plant-
ing. This, however, is one of the very best, since it adapts
itself to many conditions, develops a symmetrical, narrow
crown, and is most attractive throughout the year. The
tree prefers moist, even wet ground, but grows fairly well
under less favorable conditions. Extreme care must be ex-
ercised in transplanting as the roots are tender and lose their
vitality if allowed to dry. The star-shaped leaves color
gorgeously in the fall, and when they are gone the pendent
spiky fruit heads adorn the tree ihroughout the winter.
Many of the branches are furnished with curious corky
ridges, or wings, sometimes upwards of an inch in width.

Sour gum, or black gum (Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh.), also
called tupelo, and pepperidge, is a tree of quite different
character. It grows under most adverse conditions, but is
apparently not well suited for street planting. As an orna-
mental, however, it well deserves a place.

HACKBERRY.

A tree (Celtis occidenialis, L.) closely related to the elms,
but of more upright habit and thrifty in poor soils. It is
especially well suited to narro\v and moderately wide streets
and to the most trying conditions. Almost every mature
tree exhibits curiously knotted branchlets called "witches
broom," the result of disease. This, however, does no ma-
terial harm. (See page 106.)

HORSE CHESTNUT.

A tree (Acsculus hippocastanum , L.) native to the Medi-
terranean countries, and often planted in the cities of
Europe, yet not especially valuable there or here. Its fine
form, beautiful leaves, which unfold very early, and great
panicles of white flowers are its chief recommendations. It
is also hardy in moderately good soil, and grows with fair

62 SHADE TREES.

rapidity. Against these recommendations must be set its
susceptibility to insect and fungus attack, the early fall of
its leaves, the litter produced by its fruit and the liability
to injury by reflected heat when planted on sunny streets.
A tree of undoubted value for parkways and lawns, but it
should be used with discrimination in other situations. One
or two native horse chestnuts, or buckeyes, especially A.
glabra, Wild and A. odandra, Marsh., are also sometimes
planted.

LOCUST.

Common, black, or yellow locust (Robinia pseudacacia,
L.) is so subject to injury by the borer worm (see page 83)
that it should never be planted in this part of the country,
either along the streets or on lawns. This is unfortunate
because the light foliage and narrow form of the crown,
with the hardiness and adaptability of the tree, make it an
admirable one for street planting. Honey locust (Gleditsia
triacanthos, L.), however, is less apt to be injured in this
way. The tree is very hardy, not particular about the soil
in which it stands, and a fairly rapid grower. Apart from
the beauty of the foliage, which is unusually light and open,
the flowers are full of honey and the stout thorns with which
the trunk and branches are clothed make it particularly at-

Fig. 30. Trees left above grade. If others are planted at x, x, x, the old
ones can be removed in a few years without injuring the property.

MOST AVAILABLE TBEES FOR PLANTING. 63

tractive. If these thorns are objectionable they can be re-
moved or a thornless horticultural form may be used. The
tree is somewhat late in unfolding its leaves, yet that is
hardly a disadvantage. The long, coarse, pods that litter the
I »avcments in the fall, or hang on the branches in winter, are
more objectionable.

MAPLE.

.N'«> trees have been more widely used for street planting
than the maples, yet in too many cases the wrong species has
been, employed, or the trees used in situations to which they
an- imt suited. White, silver or soft maple (Acer sacchari-
num, L.) is planted everywhere, yet it is a poor tree, and
for the reasons given on page 13 is not recommended. Nor-
way maple (A. platanoides, L.) is altogether the best tree
that we have for streets of moderate width. It is symmetri-
cal in form, adaptable to almost any soil, hardy, and a fairly
rapid grower. In autumn its foliage takes on the most bril-
liant coloring. The tree is little subject to serious diseases.
Though several insects frequently attack it they usually do
little harm. The drying of the leaves often noticed in early
snmmer is usually due to deficient moisture, or to sunburn.
It is to be prevented whenever possible, though it rarely does
harm. (See page 116.) Red maple (A. rubrum, L.) is of
somewhat more slender habit than Norway maple and thrives
best in moist soil. It also is a good tree for streets of mod-
erate width, though it sometimes suffers from sunburn. The
younger branches are reddish and in autumn the coloring of
rhe foliage is brilliant. Sugar maple (A. saccharum,
Marsh.) is a larger tree than Norway maple, though in many
respects so much like it that the two are often hard to dis-
tinguish. It thrives in cool situations, but invariably suffers
when planted along paved streets. Except on wide streets
with parking the Norway maple is always to be preferred.
Ash-leaved maple, or box elder (A. negundo, L.) is a small
tret- whose only merit is that it accommodates itself to ad-
verse conditions. It is short lived like silver maple, and is
not recommended for the same reasons.

64 SHADE TREES.

OAK.

It is decidedly unfortunate that the many oaks found in
this country have not furnished more street trees. As a
family they are undoubtedly the best shade trees that we
have, for, with few exceptions, they are beautiful, long lived,
and little subject to insects or disease. When properly
planted and taken care of the growth of many of them is not
slow. The following species are recommended. Red oak
(Quercus rubra, L.), one of our grandest forest trees, is suit-
able for broad avenues. It is satisfied with comparatively
poor soil, develops a straight, sturdy trunk surmounted by
a broad symmetrical crown, not too dense, and its foliage
turns a brilliant color in autumn. It is the most rapid grow-
ing of the oaks. Scarlet oak (Q. coccinea, Muench.) is much
like red oak, but smaller in size, and does well on even poorer
soil. Its leaves also are brilliantly colored in the fall, and
quite persistent. Pin oak (Q. palustris, Muench.) grows
taller and more slender than most other oaks and has an
unusually straight stem. It is thoroughly at home on moist
ground, but does not do well where it is dry. The leaves
are less brilliantly colored than those of red and scarlet
oaks and are apt to persist through the winter. Several fine
avenues of this tree may be seen in Washington, D. C., and
on Long Island. The white oaks, including bur oak, swamp
white oak, chestnut oak and the English oak, are less valu-
able for street planting than for lawns. All are compara-
tively short but sturdy and with broad crowns. They are
the longest lived of all our deciduous trees, and, contrary to
the general impression, not at all slow growing when suitably
located.

SYCAMORE.

A tree (Platanus occidentalis, L.) which normally, and
under favorable conditions, grows to an enormous size, but is
capable of being pruned and trained to meet the conditions
imposed by streets of moderate width. It prefers a rich,

MOST AVAILABLE TREES FOB PLANTING. 65

muist soil and in that grows very rapidly. Its peculiar habit
of shedding its bark every year especially adapts it to loca-
tions in which there is much smoke. The leaves unfold late
and are not brilliantly colored in the fall, but the globular
fruit which persists through the winter, the free habit of the
m e and its vigorous growth, recommend it highly. In some
localities a fungus attacks the leaves just after they unfold,
but the injury is not apt to be very serious or permanent.
(See page 97.) Some planters prefer the European syca-
more, or plane tree (P. orientalis, L.), yet its superiority is
at least doubtful. It is said that one-third the trees planted
in Paris are American sycamores.

TULIP POPLAR.

Liriodendron tulipifera, L., a magnificent tree suitable
• aily for wide avenues with broad grass spaces, or for lawns.
It absolutely requires good, well-drained soil ; when that is
given it grows with unusual rapidity and forms a tall,
straight trunk with a comparatively narrow crown. Under
other conditions it suffers from sunburn and many diseases.

5

Insects Injurious to Shade Trees.

By JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., State Entomologist. *

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Iii the following pages it is intended to refer to the lead-
ing species of insects infesting shade trees in the briefest
possible manner only and to give, in the same way, directions
for treatment. If further details are desired concerning
the habits or characters of the insects referred to, they can
be found in the Bulletins and Reports of the Fuller in-

-v T A -n • n • formation

.New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Stations, obtainable.
to which reference is also made for further information con-
cerning insecticides and insecticide machinery.

The colored plates exhibiting the more important insects
were prepared by Mr. John A. Grossbeck, then an assistant
in the author's laboratory. The drawings were made from
published figures, credited as to source in Bulletin 181 of
the Xew Jersey Agricultural Experiment Stations.

The order in which the insects are referred to here, is an
indication of their relative importance.

THE ELM-LEAF BEETLE.
PL IV., Figs. 5, 5a, 5b.

The adult beetle lives through the winter, hiding in attics
and other sheltered places. When the first elm leaves are
full grown in spring it becomes active, begins eating irregu-
lar holes through the leaves and, in about a week, lays eggs.
These hatch into yellow and black slugs which Attaeks
feed on the underside of the leaves, eating only elms only-
the surface layer of cells, and cause them to turn brown, dry
and drop. Early in July the larvae crawl to the base of the

*Died March 12th, 1912.

(67)

68 SHADE TREES.

tree, change to yellow pupae and by August 1st have changed
to beetles. These feed for a few days and then go into hid-
ing, to reappear the spring following. Attack elms only.

Remedial Measures.

Spray the infested trees with Paris green, 1 pound in 125
gallons of water, or, preferably, 1 pound of dry arsenate of
lead in 25 gallons of water, as soon as the first beetle is seen
feeding in spring, and soak the leaves thoroughly. The ob-
ject is to kill the beetles before they can lay eggs, and there-
fore promptness and thoroughness are essential. (See page
88.)

If there has been delay and some eggs are already laid, it
will be desirable to spray a second time as soon as larval
feeding is observed, and this time every effort
prevent ser- must be made to hit the leaves from the under-
side, because there is where the larvae feed.

If, nevertheless, any considerable number of slugs come
to the ground to pupate, kill them off with boiling hot water
or by sprinkling with kerosene. Cotton batting or sticky
bands do no 2;ood.

THE WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK MOTH.
Plate V., Figs. 2, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d.

Winters on the trees in the egg-stage, in a little white mass
on the cocoon of the female. Young caterpillars hatch in
May and feed on almost all ordinary shade trees. Cater-
pillars when full grown have a bright red head, long pencils
of black hair fore and aft, and stubby brushes of yellow hair

on the back. General color yellow with a black
various stripe on back. Become full grown toward end

of June and spin up anywhere on trees, on
fences, under window ledges and other shelter on houses.
In July the males emerge as dusty gray moths which nutter

IXSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 69

about in the early evening and seek the females which are
wingless and rest on the cocoons out of which they emerged.
The females lay egg-masses on these cocoons, cover them with
a snow-white frothy secretion and die. Some of these eggs
hatch and there is a partial second hrood ; abundant in South
Jersey, scant in ^orth Jersey.

Remedial Measures.

Clean off all egg-masses on trees during winter and band
the trees in early May with fluffy cotton to prevent cater-
pillars from getting up from other trees. If the trees are
infested spray with Paris green or arsenate of Band trees
lead as prescribed for elm-leaf beetle. Arse- for this>
nate of lead sticks better, never hurts foliage and, if well ap-
plied, needs only one application. The earlier it is used after
infestation is noted the better results will be.

THE BAG-WORM, DROP-WORM OR BASKET- WORM.
Plate V., Figs. 3, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d.

Winters in the egg-stage in a gray silken bag or sack, which
may be found attached to trees and shrubs of almost all kinds,
coniferous as well as deciduous. The eggs hatch in May and
the young caterpillars at once make a little bag or sack which
is enlarged as they grow and in which they live
during their caterpillar life. Feed on the foli- kinds of
age, openly until July, then change to pupae
within their bags and in August the male moth emerges.
This is black, very active, with transparent wings and is
rarely seen. The female does not leave the bag but, after
impregnation, lays her eggs in a mass of orange cottony ma-
terial, then wriggles to the opening, drops to the ground and
dies.

70 SHADE TKEES.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

1. 3. The Cottony Maple Scale; Pulvinaria inniimerabilis.
la. Pulvinaria acericola; found only on leaves.

2. The Oyster-shell Scale, Hytilaspis pomorum, natural size.
2a. " " female, enlarged.

2b. " male, enlarged.

3. Cottony Maple Scale, male, enlarged.

3a. " one of the recent sets, enlarged.

4. The Scurfy Scale, Chionaspis fiirfunis, natural size.
4a. " female, enlarged.

4b. " male, enlarged.

5. Elm leaf with Eggs and Larvae of The Elm-leaf Beetle, Galerucella

luteola, natural size.

5a. Elm-leaf Beetle larva, enlarged.

5b. Adult Elm-leaf Beetle.

6. San Jose Scale. Aspidiotus perniciosus, enlarged. See Fig. 32.

PLATE IV; See descriptions opposite

3af ^

PLATE V: See descriptions opposite

LXSECTS IXJURIOUS TO SHADE TKEES. 71

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

1. The Fall Web- Worm ; Hyphantria cunea — adult laying eggs,
la. " " adult moth expanded.

Ib. " " pupa.

Ic. " " larva.

Id. " " varietal larva.

2. The White-marked Tussock Moth; Notolophus leucostigma, larva.
2a. " " female pupa.

2b. " " male pupa.

2c. " " female on egg mass.

2d. " " male moth, natural position.

3. The Bag- Worm ; Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis, male adult.
3a. " over-wintering bag which contains the eggs.
3b. " " larva.

3c. " female pupa.

3d. " male pupa.

4. The Wood Leopard Moth ; Zeuzera pyrina, male.
4a. " " " larva from above.

4b. " " " larva from side.
4<-. Work of the larva of the Wood Leopard Moth.

SHADE TKEES.

Remedial Measures.

On shrubs, and especially Arborvitse and other ever-
greens, pick off the bags during the winter and burn them.
On trees, where that is not feasible, spray thoroughly with
arsenate of lead or Paris green as recommended for the elm-
pick off lea^ beetle, just as soon as the young caterpillars
bnss* are observed issuing from the bags. Conifers
will not stand Paris green, but may be safely treated with
arsenate of lead. There is only one brood of this species and
winter work is especially recommended on hedge plants which
are sometimes dense and not easily sprayed.

THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE.
Plate IV., Figs. 1, 3, 3a.

Attacks Maples only, among shade trees; but found also
on Vitis, Ampelopsis and other plants. The impregnated
female winters as a brown scale on the twigs, resumes feeding
in May, and late in that month or in early June begins to
exude a white cottony mass in which a thousand eggs or
Attacks more are laid. The minute young hatch in late

t"e!es,mbutle June or early July, crawl about a few hours
other plants. anc[ |]aeil se^ on leaves, twigs and branches and
suck the juices. When the insects are abundant, the leaves
turn a sickly yellow, often become covered with honey dew,
and badly infested branches may die. The insects mature in
late August and September; the males issue as minute 2-
winged flies, impregnate the female and die. The latter
move from leaves to twigs and fix themselves firmly for the
winter.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 73

Remedial Measures.

This species is ordinarily kept in check by its natural
enemies ; but sometimes it escapes and becomes conspicuously
abundant. It is always well, where easily accessible twigs
are observed with forming white cottony masses in June,
to cut them off and destroy them by fire, and ordinarily

• needs no

this may in ordinary seasons be all that is neces- control.
sary. If the infestation is very bad, cut off an infested twig
in late June and lay it in a box on a sheet of white paper.
When the paper becomes covered with rusty crawling dust-
like particles the young are hatching, rhen spray the infested
portions of the tree with whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 4 gallons
of water, or with kerosene emulsion 1 part to 12 parts of
water. (See also page 78.)

THE WOOD LEOPARD MOTH.

Plate V., Figs. 4, 4a, 4b, 4c.

This insect winters in the caterpillar stage in the wood of a
great variety of deciduous shade and fruit trees, favoring
maple and elm among the former. They live in the trees as
borers for two full years, and in the spring of the third
change to a pupa and then to an adult which is a large white
moth with black spots, the males being strongly Attacks
attracted to the electric light. The full-grown S?g^J,nJut
borer is two inches or more in length and often locally.
girdles branches of considerable size, or even the trunks of
small trees. It is common only in the cities and towns in
the east central part of the State from Paterson to Long
Branch and west to ^ew Brunswick, doing its greatest mis-
chief in the largest cities where the English sparrows exclude
the native birds.

74 SHADE TKEES.

Remedial Measures.

On small trees the borers can be often found and cut out
or destroyed with a soft wire run into their burrow, which
opens outwardly, or bisulphide of carbon may be injected.
(See page 83.) On larger trees gather and burn all the
twigs and branches that fall to the ground or are blown
down in high winds. Where dying branches are noticed,
KUI one by cut t'nem °^ below the point of apparent injury
one* and burn the cuttings. Inject bisulphide of

carbon into all holes from which strings of sawdust are ob-
served exuding, and plug up the opening with putty. When
the moths are observed around the electric or other lights
kill every one that comes within reach. Discourage spar-
rows and favor all other birds that come into town.

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.
Plate IV., Figs. 2, 2a, 2b.

This is the most common of the armored scales attacking
shade trees, and derives its name from the resemblance to
one of the very elongate type of oysters. It winters in the
egg stage under the scale, and in May or June the eggs hatch
into minute yellow crawling atoms that, in 24 hours, set and
begin to form small scales. These suck the juices of the

twigs and increase in size until midsummer or
many trees a little later. Then the males mature as small,

two- winged flies, and the females, after im-
pregnation, lay their yellowish white eggs which fill the space
beneath the scale as the mother gradually shrivels up. South
of the red shale line the tendency is to a second brood of these
scales and in the sandy pine region the second brood is well
denned. North of the red shale there is only one brood.
Maples in South Jersey are often very seriously injured.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 75

Remedial Measures.

There is only one period at which this insect can be satis-
factorily reached; that is when the eggs have just hatched,
and while the larvae are moving about or have just set. The
exact date cannot be given because it varies with the season
and with the section of the State ; but it will be during late
May or early June. As soon as the larvae are Spray at
observed, spray with whale-oil soap at the rate right time-
of 1 pound in 5 gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion 1 part
to 12 parts of water. Repeat if possible a week afterward,
to reach delayed larvae. This will usually prove effective,
and will aid the natural enemies in getting control of the
insects. Winter sprays are not useful against this species
because the eggs are not affected beneath their scaly covering.

THE FALL WEB-WORM.
Plate V., Figs. 1, la, Ib, Ic, Id.

This species winters in the pupal stage, and early in May
the adult moth appears as a medium sized snow-white miller,
sometimes more or less black dotted. It lays its eggs in a
mass on the underside of a leaf, and the little caterpillars
that hatch from them remain together, spinning Attacks
a web in which they live and from which they ™Snou«f~
emerge at night to feed. As they grow, the *rees-
nest increases in size and may measure two or even three feet
across, in large colonies. In July these caterpillars are ma-
ture, pupate and soon after produce a second crop of moths
which in turn lay eggs from which caterpillars hatch in Au-
gust, the nests becoming conspicuous late in that month or
early in September. Because most people notice them only
at that season they have received the name fall web-worm

76 SHADE TREES.

to distinguish them from the tent caterpillars in apple
orchards which are most conspicuous in spring. Linden or
basswood among the shade trees suffers most from this web-
worm which, however, may be found on a great variety of
deciduous trees.

Remedial Measures.

When a forming nest of these caterpillars is observed burn
it with a long handled torch, cut it off and tramp it under
foot or otherwise destroy it. When the nests are not ac-
Destroy cessible or have become so large that cutting

nests. would mutilate the tree, spray the foliage

around the nests with Paris green or arsenate of lead as
recommended for the elm-leaf beetle. It is not necessary to
spray the entire tree, for the caterpillars do not move further
from their nest than necessary to find food; hence spraying
the vicinitv of the nest is all that is needed.

THE MAPLE PSEUDOCOCCUS.

Late in the summer the trunks, and sometimes the
branches, of sugar maples become covered with a white cot-
tony or waxy substance, beneath which will be found yel-
lowish, crawling, grub-like creatures. These sometimes in-
Attacks crease so greatly in number that they form ver-

s«sar i table layers, coating the trunks completely and

maples only. J J

extending to the leaves. When the latter are
attacked they are apt to turn yellow and drop, so that in
severe eases a tree becomes partly defoliated earlier in the
season than is normal. The insect winters in the partly
grown condition, hiding in the crevices of the bark, and not
until after mid-summer does it usually become abundant
enough to attract attention.

INSECTS Ixjruious TO SHADE TREES.

77

Fig. 31. The Maple Pseudococcus : a, the cottony masses covering the

adult females on leaf ; 6, young of both sexes on bark

From Howard. U. S. Dept. Agl.

Remedial Measures.

When the infested leaves drop to the ground they should
IK- regularly raked up and burnt. In the cities and towns
where water pressure is available, a solid jet from a hose on
the infested trunk will wash out and destroy the Wasll with
vast majority of the specimens, leaving not hose-
(in.»iigh to d<> any harm. In winter the tree trunks may be
sprayed with one of the niiscible oils like "Scalecide," di-
lm< d with ten. parts of water and applied with sufficient force

78 SHADE TREES.

to penetrate into every crevice and irregularity of the bark.
This will kill the hibernating forms and prevent any start
next season.

Incidentally, the forcible solid jet just recommended, may
be applied with a pump and small nozzle, and this has also
been used to dislodge the cottony maple scales (see page 73)
from twigs and branches early in the season before the eggs
have hatched. „

THE SCURFY SCALE.
Plate IV., Figs. 4, 4a, 4b.

This scale infests the poplar most frequently, among the
shade trees, but is also found on maple and occasionally on
others. It is very pale gray, almost as broad as long, with
Attacks a yellowish point or head. Beneath this scale

chiefly. the purple eggs are found during the winter,

and in June they hatch into purplish crawling larvae which
have the same general habits of other scale insects, and like
them suek the plant juices. There is only a single brood
which matures in September, and is rarely abundant enough
to do any real injury.

Remedial Measures.

This scale is thinner than most others of the armored
forms, and may be reached by the lime-sulphur or other caus-
tic sprays in winter. The caustic corrodes the scaly cover-
if serious ^no? an(^ tne eggs wash out and are scattered
use caustic. anc] destroyed on the ground. Even caustic
lye or soda at the rate of 1 pound in 1 gallon of water will
accomplish this. If no winter application is made it will be
necessary to wait until the eggs hatch in June, and then
apply whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion as recommended
for the oyster-shell scale.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES.

79

THE SAX JOSE SCALE.
Plate IV., Fig. 6; Fig. 32.

This is a small, round, blackish scale that passes the winter
in the partly grown condition, comes to maturity in early
June, bears living young and reproduces throughout the sea-
son so that a slight infestation in spring may mean serious
danger before the year is over. Not many of the ordinary
shade trees are subject to dangerous infestation Attacks
when well grown; but young elms, especially moil than
of the European varieties, are sometimes much sh«de trees.
injured and occasionally killed.

Fig. 32. The San Jose Scale : a, on a twig, natural size ; b, as seen under a
hand lens, much enlarged. Div. Ent., U. S. Dept Agl.

80 SHADE TREES.

Remedial Measures.

As this insect bears its young alive, the period of reproduc-
tion is spread over a considerable period, and no one applica-
tion can reach all, or even a large percentage, of the Iarva3 in
the naked condition. In consequence, winter

SPRAY. . 7

applications that are either very caustic or very
penetrating are resorted to. The caustics are the lime and
sulphur washes or whale-oil soap, the latter at the rate of two
pounds in one gallon of water. The penetrating materials
are petroleum oils, either undiluted or made miscible, or
"soluble," in water. The latter are used at the rate of 1 part
in 15 parts of water and the application must be very thor-
ough to be satisfactorily effective. This is perhaps the most
dangerous of all the scales and the hardest to control in the
orchards. Fortunately none of our usual city trees seem to
its liking, nor does it occur in our forests, although it is able
to maintain itself on a number of our forest trees.

THE TULIP SOFT SCALE.

This is a very large, livid gray scale, nearly l/i of an inch
in length, almost as wide and very convex. It occurs only
on the tulip tree but sometimes infests that in great num-
bers and does more or less mischief, especially on young
Attacks trees. It winters in the young stages on the

only. twigs, often underneath old scales, begins

growth in May and reaches maturity in August when the
female is very offensive in odor and filled with a rank pur-
plish material. In early September the small black young
are born in great numbers and may set on the twigs so
densely as to completely obscure the natural color of the bark.

INSECTS IXJUKIOUS TO SHADE TREES.

81

Fig. 33. A soft scale as it appears on badly-infested twigs.

Remedial Measures.

About the only really satisfactory application is undiluted
crude petroleum as a winter spray. The miscible oils di-
luted no more than ten times, may answer the purpose; but
have not been sufficiently tested. Whale-oil Xot often
soap at the rate of 1 pound in 4 gallons of water J"»«nfui.
applied just after they are hatched will kill the young, and
this sort of application is feasible on small or moderate sized
trees. On very large trees only the winter applications are
at all practical. Fortunately this insect has some very ef-
f( crive natural checks which usually control it, so that except
on young trees we need not often apply treatments.

OTHER SCALES.

There are a variety of other scales, mostly allies of those
already mentioned, that at times infest shade trees, but rarely
in sufficient numbers to require active treatment. As a rule
winter treatments should be made if the species permits, for
there is not at that season any interference of foliage and
much stronger mixtures can be used on dormant trees.

G

82

SHADE TIZEES.

BORERS.

A variety of borers infest shade trees and, as a rule, they
attack, by preference, such as are weak and sickly. But
that is by no means a universal rule. Maple
trees are not infrequently infested by a small
caterpillar borer that works into the heart-wood
though it does little damage unless water finds entrance
through their holes and causes decay. (See page 119.) The
holes through which they emerge are not over % inch in di-
ameter and nearly round. The moth is a pretty, clear-
winged species, yellow, with bright red markings.

Usually
attack
weakened
trees.

Fig. 34. The Maple Tree Sesiid : a, the larva ; 6, cocoons in cavities made

by larvae ; c, the adult moth ; d, pupa-shell projecting from trunk.

After Riley.

As against this species frequent whitewashing the infested
trunks and sealing up the holes with putty, is about the only
thing that can be done, unless there is a decayed area acting
as the centre of infestation. In that case the cavity should
be thoroughly cleaned and treated as described on page 45.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 83

In fact, the sort of treatment outlined in the above para-
graph may be adopted against borers in general. Sometimes,
when sawdust is noticed coming out of an opening, the injec-
tion of disulphide of carbon is indicated, plugging up with
putty after the injection to prevent the escape of the fumes.
C'arbon disulphide may be injected with a syringe, or even
the ordinary pipette with rubber bulb such as is used in fill-
ing fountain pens. I have a long glass tube drawn to a
point, with a large rubber bulb at the squared end, which
answers perfectly. It needs only a half teaspoon to a tea-
spoonful in any case.

Flat headed borers and bark beetles prefer trees that are
weak or sickly and, in a general way, it pays to keep trees in
vigorous health because of their smaller liability to borer in-
festation. When a tree is once badly infested, especially
with bark beetles, the sooner it is cut out the better. It is
simply a source of infection to its surroundings.

Hickory, and still more often Locust, is very subject to
the attacks of round-headed borers, and these attack perfectly
sound trees.

LOCUST BORER.

The work of this insect is very common on the black or
yellow locust in ISrew Jersey, making it an almost, impossible
tree. As soon as a tree attains a moderate size
IT is apt to be riddled with the large holes made i>iack locust
by the larvae and leads but a sickly life, if it
does not die within a few years.

The beetles themselves are rather attractive creatures,
about three-fourths of an inch long, of a dull black color,
brightly marked with golden yellow, and may be found fre-
quenting the flowers of the goldenrod. In September these
beetles gather on the locust trees and mate, after which the
female deposits her snow white eggs in cracks and crevices.
These soon hatch and the grubs bore into the bark feeding on
the soft inner substance. During the winter they are torpid.
In spring they resume feeding, boring through the sapwood

84 SHADE TREES.

and making irregular passages more or less deeply into the
trunk. Honey locust is little, or not at all, subject to injury
by this insect.

Remedial Measures.

Ordinarily it is impossible to do much to control this in-
sect. Some persons have suggested a repellant wash to pro-
vent egg deposition. It is certainly advisable
?einedy?tive to eu^ an(l burn badly infested trees during the
winter. The beetle seems to like the sun and
has a preference for trees somewhat exposed, therefore, thick
shady groves wrould be least likely to be attacked.

HICKORY BARK BEETLE.

This beetle occurs throughout the State, boring under the
bark of feeble or dying hickories, often killing shade trees
that would otherwise have recovered under stimulating treat-
ment. The beetles, which are small, brown or
only to black, about one-fifth of an inch long, appear

from the latter part of June to the latter part
of July. Attacking the bark of the trunk and large branches,
each female makes a vertical gallery an inch or more in
length. Notches are cut in the sides of this burrow, for the
purpose of holding the eggs. After hatching, the grubs
construct channels diverging from the main gallery. (See
Fig. 35.) The winter is passed by the nearly full grown
grubs, which pupate the following spring.

INSECTS IXJURIOFS TO SHADE TREES. 85

Fig. 35. Work of the hickory bark beetle.

Remedial Measures.

Where a slight infestation is noticed on a tolerably healthy
tree, the tree should be stimulated by means of appropriate
fertilizers (see page 25), and the trunk kept
covered by whitewash to which Paris green has
been added. Strong whale-oil soap suds will
answer the same purpose. If a tree is seriously infested, it
should be cut down at once and burned, as it is certain to
die in a short time anyhow and is only a menace to surround-
ing trees.

PLANT LICE.

Most of our shade trees suffer from plant lice to a greater
or less extent, and none more than the Norway maples.
These insects multiply very rapidly, suck the juices of the

86 SHADE TKEES.

leaves and succulent shoots, and so exhaust their vitality.
When they become abundant the honey dew ex-

Maple louse. -,-,-, • -,

creted by them sometimes covers the leaves with
a sticky secretion that may be abundant enough to drop to
the street below. This secretion tends to clog the foliage so
that it may drop while yet perfectly green, and a black soot
fungus is also likely to develop. Fortunately this sort of
attack does not continue after the first spell of hot dry
weather, and during a normal season is not apt to be bad
at all.

Remedial Measures.

As against plant lice of all kinds on shade trees, nothing is
much better than whale-oil soap suds and this applies not
whaie-oii on^y ^0 those species that attack the leaves but
soap- to some that gather along the undersides of

branches of conifers. In general, 1 pound in 4 gallons of
water is an effective strength, and safe on most kinds of

foliage.

INSECTS INJURING CONIFERS.

Pines and other conifers are not often used as street trees,
but are not infrequently found in parks and grounds around
residences. They suffer from a variety of insects and are
not easily treated, because they are extremely sensitive to
most insecticides. Against feeders upon the leaves, arsenate
of lead is the only arsenical poison that can be
safely used. When plant lice attack them,
whale-oil soap suds, one pound in six gallons of water, lib-
erally applied, will be safe and reasonably effective. Against
those woolly species that are frequently found massed against
the underside of the branches, a forcible jet of water is often
very satisfactory or the whale-oil soap may be used, 1 pound
in 4 gallons of water, locally applied. If the trees are suf-
ficiently valuable, simply scrub the branches with a stiff
brush and weak soap suds.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 87

Scales sometimes infest the needles ; but on large trees are
never harmful in my experience. On small
Tn-cs watch for the hatching of the eggs in r*reiy
June and use the whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 6
gallons, liberally.

White pines are sometimes deformed by the attacks of the
white-pine weevil which lays its eggs in the leaders, the larvae
boring into and killing them. It is the young trees that are
usually affected and in most instances the form White-i»ine
of the tree is permanently spoilt. Fortunately w«evil-
the insect is not at all common in !N"ew Jersey, and young
trees if kept under observation may be protected by collect-
ing the adults or, what is more practical, keeping the leaders
sprayed during May and June with whale-oil soap suds one
pound in six gallons of water, adding half a pound of arse-
nate of lead to this mixture.

If the leaders are at any time observed to be lacking in
vigor or to be unnaturally yellow in color, they should be
carefully examined, and if any signs of feeding are noticed
every puncture should be followed with a soft wire to reach
the feeding larva?. If this is clone in time the shoot will
recover. If the feeding is already well advanced so that re-
covery seems doubtful cut and destroy by fire.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Shade trees in general should be kept free from dead or
dying wood, and all cut wood should be destroyed by fire. It
is always in order to clean the bark during the winter by
means of soda or lye washes which get rid of the growth in
or under which many insects hibernate. A
strong soap solution, even of ordinary laundry
soap, will often do a great deal of good, and it
can be used to advantage on the waxy plant lice or mealy
scale bugs during the winter.

When there is an application of an arsenical spray to be
made, the sooner it is done the better the effect ; young or

88 SHADE TKEES.

partly grown specimens succumbing more rapidly and easily
than more nearly mature forms. A single defoliation rarely
harms a deciduous tree very much; but successive defolia-
tions weaken and eventually kill. And always a healthy,
well fed tree is less attacked by insects than a sickly starved
example which gives up in despair at the least provocation
and invites attack bv its verv inabilitv to resist.

SPRAYING.

Among the first things that must be realized in planning
work to avoid insect injury to city trees, is that by no means
all kinds of trees are equally subject to such injury, nor is
Municipal tnere ail7 one treatment that is equally effective
work. ngainst all insects. There may be one city with

1,000 trees on which insect injury may be kept down by a
single man during the season; another with half that num-
ber may require a power sprayer and a gang to run it for a
month.

At the beginning, find out what trees there are and their
condition. Then, with the assistance of the entomologist,
you are in position to determine what outfit is needed to carry
on the work. It is quite possible to get a cheap sprayer,
which is, at first, adequate when run to the limit; but no
piece of machinery does well for any consider-
mSshlne?0* a^e Pei>iod when run to the limit, and a cheap
outfit is usually a small one. You can get a
barrel with a pump that will force a spray to the top of even
a large elm, and I have personally worked with such an out-
fit; but it was hard on the man at the pump, the tendency
was to lose pressure and too much time was lost in the fre-
quent tank fillings required.

For municipalities with trees running into the thousands,
power sprayers are essential, but no municipality that needs
a sprayer at all, should get anything less than a 200-gallon
tank upon which a pump capable of furnishing 100 pounds
of pressure to two lines of hose should be mounted. The

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 89

pump need not be of large capacity, for it is not expected
to throw large quantities of water in a short time; but it
should have a large air chamber and should be capable of
-applying a maximum amount of pressure with a minimum
amount of work. The stroke need not be long, but the lever
should be long and strong, and the pump should be hori-
zontal, not vertical. An up and down stroke is tiresome and
cannot be long maintained without losing in strength; a
horizontal stroke may be aided by the weight of the body,
and both or either hand and arm may be used. All these
matters are important, because upon the amount and uni-
fnniiitv of the pressure the thoroughness of the

, .• , ** , . The pump.

work depends in large measure. The working
parts of the pump should be of brass, the valves and packing
should be of metal and the valve seats should be readily ac-
cessible. Such a piece of machinery will stand every rea-
-« -liable strain that is likely to be put upon it, and will come
"in at the end of the season almost as good as it was at the
beginning. It will never be worked to its limit in tree spray-
ing, and with reasonable care will last many years without
much expense. Such a pump is never cheap at first cost,
but is a cheap pump in the long run. Of course no piece
of apparatus is entirely fool proof, and that fact should be
kept in mind when hiring men to work it.

There should be two lines of % hose, best quality, each
100 feet in length, and there should be 6 or 8 foot gas pipe
spray rods, at the ends of which the nozzles should be fixed.
There should be a shut-off at the base of each spray-rod and
one rod should have a solid jet nozzle for reaching the tops
of trees, while the other should have an adjustable or bor-
deaux nozzle for making a spray to reach the lower branches.

As to the poison to be used, there is nothing better than
arsenate of lead for all leaf-feeding insects, and for choice I
prefer the dry, powdered form because of its greater con-
venience in handling and because of its keeping Arsenatc
qualities. If the paste form is used, it should of lead>
bo purchased on guarantee of percentage of arsenic, for it
runs all the way from 12 per cent, to 20 per cent., and may

90 SHADE TIIEES.

be a pure material in each instance. Anything that rims 15
per cent, or over is good, and nearly all the leading brands
sold in the State reach that percentage. The dry material
runs 30 per cent., and is therefore about twice as strong as
the average paste. None of the leading brands have more
than a trace of soluble arsenic, and practically it is impos-
sible to injure the foliage of any shade tree with any mixture
likely to be put on by even an ignorant laborer.

All the commercial tank sprayers have an agitator which
keeps the spraying mixture stirred while pumping, and some-
thing of that sort is needed in any case, so as to make sure
that the material is uniform throughout the spraying period.

In all cases the poison should be first mixed up with water
in a paii or tub so as to get it into a smooth thin paste. This
should be gradually run into the tank while filling, and the
agitator should be kept constantly going, so as to get a thor-
stir the oughly even poisonous mixture to start with.

mixture. Then, while a slow settling does begin almost

immediately, it is very slow and the mixture can be kept
in proper shape with very little stirring. It is always better
to use up a tank full of mixture completely, as soon as pos-
sible after it is made, and it should never be allowed to stand
over night. It never stirs up quite as completely next day,
and if part of a tank remains unused at the end of a day's
work, better take out the plug and let it rim to waste than
try to save it for a future day.

With a proper outfit and a good crew, the next point is to
get the material on in such a way as to be most effective. An
ideally effective application would be one in
thSroigbiy? wThich every leaf received an even and complete
coating of the spray, so that not a particle of
the foliage could be eaten by any insect without its receiving
at the same time a dose of poison. As we cannot hope for
ideally effective work, we must try and get as close to it as
possible, remembering always that no one insect eats very
much, and that every female specimen that gets a safe meal
may lay a batch or two of eggs before getting another, and
perhaps fatal, bite.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES. 91

The lesson of thoroughness cannot be too strongly incul-
cated, and it is better to be wasteful of time and material to
secure this, than to do much in an unsatisfactory way. Every
missed branch will stand out later, and to avoid this the crew
should be taught to work in some systematic manner, so as
t< i reach all parts of a tree.

Concerning the cost of machinery and operation, no one set
of figures will cover all conditions. A barrel pump outfit
complete, with a short line of hose, rod and nozzle can be
had for as low as fifteen or twentv dollars,

. . Cost.

while a power sprayer consisting ol an engine,
pump, 200-gallon tank and truck may cost from fhree hun-
dred dollars up.

As for the cost of operating, this depends on the size of
your apparatus, number of men necessary to operate it, num-
ber of trees and their accessibility, availability of water and
in fact numerous other conditions, which will not become
apparent until the work is under way. Where conditions
are favorable large trees are often well sprayed for as little
as one dollar each. Whatever the cost, if one succeeds in
checking insect ravages, he will be amply repaid by the in-
creased vigor and beauty of the trees.

Diseases of Shade and Forest
Trees.

By MEL. T. COOK, State Plant Pathologist.

The increasing appreciation of the great commercial value
of our native forests, and of the importance of trees for
shade and ornamental purposes, has stimulated the study of
methods for the proper care of trees. This conservation
movement has been emphasized by the ravages of the chest-
nut blight, or bark disease, and our growing knowledge of
other threatening diseases. The fact that it is possible to
prevent the loss of many fine trees, which it has required
years to grow, makes it very desirable that we should give
careful attention to this subject.

Trees, in fact all other plants, are subject to diseases which
are due to more or less well known causes and are as well
defined as the diseases which attack animals, causes of
Like the diseases of animals, the diseases of <"»«*»«•
plants may cause loss of color, loss of parts, deformities and,
in some cases, death. The diseases of both animals and
plants are caused by fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, unfavor-
able surroundings, etc. Among animals the most common
causes of disease are bacteria, while among plants the fungi
are responsible for by far the greater number.

A fungus is a plant which does not possess the green color-
ing matter, chlorophyll, and therefore cannot draw its nour-
ishment from the air, soil and water, but must live upon
other plants and animals, living or dead. Those which live
upon and draw their nourishment from living organisms
are known as parasites and are the causes of

,. IT 11 Parasites

manv diseases; those that live upon dead mat- and

. mi /• saprophytes.

ter are known as saprophytes. Ihe fungus

may be so small as to require the use of the miscroscope in

order to see it, or it may be a minute thread-like structure

(93)

94 SHADE TREES.

which grows over the surface of, or penetrates, its host,
eventually coming to the surface to produce its fruiting
bodies or sporophores. These sporophores may vary in size
from the microscopic in some species to the very large
structures of other species which are usually known as mush-
rooms or toadstools. These familiar fruiting bodies on trees
may be from parasitic fungi which cause diseases, or they
may be from saprophytic fungi which follow diseases and
live on the dead and decaying material. In order to defi-
nitely determine this point it is necessary for the observer
to be familiar with the organisms.

Some of these fungus diseases are very destructive to

forest, shade and ornamental trees, and every effort should

be made to eradicate or control them, but most

Not all ... m,

fungi of them are of minor importance. I he ma-

jority of the large fungus growths are sapro-
phytic, and although not the cause of diseases they destroy
great quantities of timber which would otherwise be useful.
In this paper only the more common and conspicuous dis-
eases will be discussed, but some others which at the present
time are of minor importance in the State will be mentioned.
Any part of the plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers and
fruits, are subject to the attack of diseases, but the disease
is not always manifest at the point of attack,

diseases. i. c., a disease of the roots may frequently be

detected by a dying of the leaves and branches. For con-
venience the diseases of trees may be arbitrarily grouped as
follows :

1. Diseases of the foliage.

2. Diseases of the stems.

3. Diseases of the roots.

4. Diseases due to environment.

5. Other diseases.

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES.

95

1. DISEASES OF THE FOLIAGE.

The foliage contains the greater amount of the green color-
ing matter, or chlorophyll, by which a plant is enabled to
utilize the raw food materials which it receives from the air
and soil. Therefore any great reduction of the foliage sur-
face during the growing season results in a proportional
reduction in the working power of the plant and also mars
its beauty for ornamental purposes.

Fig. 36. Chestnut Leaf Spot. (From Report of X. J. Experiment
Station, 1896, Fig. 59.)

LEAF SPOTS.

I In >e diseases are caused by a number of parasitic organ-
•m<. principally fungi and bacteria, which cause discolored
a- <ai the foliage, frequently followed by a breaking out
the dead tissues, thus leaving unsightly holes. The char-
•ter and severity of these various leaf spots vary with the
lisms to which they are due and also with climatic con-
litions. Among the most important of these leaf-spot fungi
shade trees are the following :

96 SHADE TREES.

WALNUT. Marsonia juglandis Lib. causes a brown spot
on the black walnut and butternut, gradually increasing in
size and frequently covering the entire leaflet.

CHESTNUT. Marsonia ochroleuca B. and C. causes nu-
merous circular, ashy white spots on the chestnut. (Fig.
36.) The dead tissue of these spots breaks leaving holes
and the entire leaf finally turns brown and falls prematurely.

ELM. Dothidea idmi Duv. attacks elms causing con-
spicuous black spots. Frequently the foliage is badly in-
fected and the beauty of the tree seriously marred.

MAPLES. Rhyiisma acerium Pers. attacks many of the
maples, but is most severe on the silver maple, causing shiny,
black, hard, slightly elevated patches commonly known as
tar spots. (See below.)

HORSE CHESTNUT. Phyllostida pavice Desm. is the cause
of an important leaf spot or blotch. The spots are irregular
in shape, increase rapidly in size until the greater part of
the leaf is brown and has the appearance of being sun-burned.
The leaves fall early and the vitality of the tree is reduced.
This fungus is frequently accompanied by others which aid
in its injurious work.

CATALPA. P. catalpce Ell. and Mart, and Cercospora
catalpa? Wint. are the causes of unsightly leaf spots on the
catalpa. They are frequently accompanied by Macrosporium
catalpce E. and M. and Microsphcera elevata Burr.

MAPLE. P. acericola C. and E. is the cause of a leaf spot
of the maple, which is frequently so severe as to cause a pre-
mature dropping of the foliage. (See above.)

Treatment.

The burning of the fallen leaves, thus destroying enormous
numbers of spores which could otherwise be distributed by
wind and water, will greatly reduce these diseases. Where
practical to do so, spraying with Bordeaux mixture will hold
them in check.

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 97

ANTIIBACNOSES.

These diseases are very common and attack many different
s]M-cies of plants. They are due to fungi and many of them
arc also found on stems and fruits. On the foliage they
niav cause spots or holes, or a withering very

> J Sycamore.

similar to that caused by irost.

The most important of the anthraciioses on shade and
ornamental trees is that on the Sycamore, caused by the
fungus Gnomonia veneta* (Sacc. and Speg.) Kleb. In. the
( arlier stages of the disease it follows the veins of the leaves,
from which it eventually spreads. It also attacks the young
shoots. In severe cases the leaves are entirely browned and
withered and have very much the appearance of those in-
jured by frost, for which the disease is frequently mistaken.
It often kills the young shoots and sometimes kills the seed-
lings and young trees. This fungus is also said to cause leaf
spots on several species of oak.

Treatment.

Dead branches should be pruned out and the rough, loose
bark which may retain the disease should be removed and
bumed. The trees should also be sprayed with copper sul-
phate or lime-sulphur during the resting period, then with
Bordeaux mixture soon after opening of the buds, again in
ten days and again ten days later.

POWDERY MILDEWS.

The powdery mildews are due to fungi and are well known
on many plants. These fungi, unlike the preceding, do not

*One stage of this fungus has been described under the name Gloeosporium
ncrrifteyuuiri Fckl. by which it was long known and by which is was referred
to in the Fourth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commission
of New Jersey 1908.

7

98 SHADE TREES.

penetrate the foliage, except so far as may be necessary for
the formation of holdfasts, but spread over the
surface of the foliage forming a delicate white
web which has much the appearance of dust.

One of the most important of these mildews is Micro-
sphceni aim (Wallr.) Wint. which attacks lilacs and also
occurs on the oaks, birches, dogwoods and some other plants.
Another very common mildew is Uncinula solids (D. C.)
Wint. which occurs on the poplars and willows. As a rule,
they do not appear until late in the season and cause very
little injury except to young trees and nursery stock.

Treatment.

Spraying with potassium sulphide (1 Ib. to 50 gal. of
water) is an efficient remedy.

LEAF CURL.

The leaf curls are more or less common on many trees, the
most conspicuous being the one on the peach. The most im-
portant one on forest and shade trees is due to Taphrina
Attacks ccerulescens (Mont, and Desm.) Tul. which

oaks- attacks the oaks causing the leaves to appear as

though blistered. It is not often injurious but sometimes
causes death of trees which have been affected for a number
of years.

Treatment.

The burning of fallen leaves and spraying the trees with
copper sulphate or lime-sulphur when dormant will practi-
cally eliminate the pest.

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 99

RUSTS.

The rusts are among the most highly developed of the
parasitic fungi and attack foliage and fruit. Some of them
are verv destructive while others are compara-

. , .' . .„ ^f f. , , Importance.

lively msignmcant. Many ot them have very
complicated life histories and require two host plants to com-
plete their life cycle and in many cases to perpetuate them-
selves.

One of the most conspicuous of the rusts is the Gymno-
sporangium macropus* Lk., which attacks the red cedar and
the apple. On the red cedar they cause the formation of the
large reddish brown bodies known as "cedar Cedar
apples." During the period of early spring apples.
rains the mature cedar apples produce long yellowish or
"range colored horns within which are produced great masses
of fungus spores. These spores will not attack the cedar
but are carried to neighboring apple trees where they attack
the leaves, and sometimes the young twigs and fruit, causing
yellowish or reddish orange spots. On the under side of
each spot are produced a number of small cup-like cavities
within which are borne the spores. These spores are in turn
carried to the cedars where they attack the young shoots and
eventually cause the formation of the next year's crop of
'Vedar apples."

Treatment.

This fungus may be held in check by removing the cedar
apples early in the spring before the maturing of the orange
'•'•lured horns, and by the proper spraying of the apple
orchards.

A moms other interesting diseases of this kind

0 Other plants

are the rust, or leaf cast, of the Jersey or scrub affected by
pine, the rust of the Scotch and pitch pines
which has an alternating stage on the sweet fern, the leaf
rust of the hemlock, rusts of the willows, poplars and ashes.

* There are several species of Gymnosporangium attacking cedars and with
various species of the Pomaceae as their alternating hosts.

100

SHADE TREES.

Xone of these rusts are considered serious and treatments arc
seldom given. The blister rust of the white pine, however,
which attacks the steins is most dangerous and demands most
vigorous treatment. (See page 103.)

2. DISEASES OF THE STEMS.

The diseases of the stems may be arbitrarily grouped into
(a) bark diseases, (b) heart rots, (c) sap rots, and (d) twig
diseases.

Fig. 37. Chestnut Bark Disease. Forest tree nearly dead.
Note characteristic sprouts and dwarfed leaves on sur-
viving branches. (Photo by Perley Spaulding.)

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES.

101

CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE OB BLIGHT.

This is probably the most serious tree disease in America
at the present time. It is caused by a fungus (Diaporthe
l><; i'i.<iiica • * ALurrill) which lives parasitically in the bark,
-•IK ling its minute thread-like processes in all directions from
the point of attack until the trunk or branch is completely
girdled. (Figs. 37, 38.)

It is very doubtful if the fungus can gain entrance to a
tree except through wounds, and it is probably carried from.

Fig. 38. Section of Chestnut tree killed

by blight with bark in successive

stages of decay and pustules in

which the winter spores

are borne. ( Photo by

J. F. Collins.)

place to place by boring insects and by birds (especially wood-
peckers ) . It is also carried on infected timber shipped into

*The proper name of this fungus is at the present time a disputed point
which will require further study before it can be definitely settled.

102 SHADE TEEES.

uninfected territory. Many new points of infection have
been traced to diseased nursery stock. Nurserymen should
spread of lise everj caution to prevent the spread of the
the disease. disease by keeping a careful oversight of their
stock. Unfortunately, the disease cannot always be detected
at the time of shipment, and therefore young trees should
be kept under careful supervision by the grower. It is un-
wise at this time to plant chestnut in this State, and growers
in territory beyond the present range of the disease should
be absolutely sure of the healthy character of the stock used
for planting. The spread of the disease has been so rapid,
the destruction of our chestnut growth so great, and the
financial losses so heavy, that it has attracted more attention
than any other plant disease in recent years. Large sums
of money are being expended in fighting it, but up to the
present time no satisfactory method has been devised. The
planting of chestnuts in the infected districts is a waste of
both time and money.

Treatment.

Individual trees and small plantings may be protected t<>
some extent by frequently cutting out the diseased parts and
painting the wounds wTith coal tar. In doing this all the
primings must be burned. When forest areas become af-
fected their final destruction is practically certain, and the
owners are advised to convert the entire chestnut growth int< >
salable material as rapidly as possible. Otherwise it will
prove a complete loss. Material too small for lumber should
have the bark removed. All waste material should be burned
at once.

The severity of this disease, the rapidity of its spread,
and the desire of the people to protect their trees have de-
veloped a most fertile field for the quack tree-doctors who are
claiming to cure trees by secret methods. These

Tree fakirs. . ^ .

methods usually consist in putting secret prep-
arations under the bark or in the soil about the roots of
the trees, Similar methods have been used for other tree

DISEASES OF SHADE AXD FOREST TREES. 103

diseases in various parts of the country, but without success.
Then- jnv no such treatments for diseases of this character
known ro -cience, and the authors of these secret methods
freely acknowledge that their treatments are not recognized
by seinitiric workers. The public is cautioned against
patronizing these people.

WHITE PINE BLISTER RUST.

The blister rust (Pcridennium strobi Klebahn* ) of the
white pine, a European disease which has been introduced
into this country and apparently stamped out, but which may
be introduced again at any time, causes a spindle shaped, or
-ometinies irregular warty swelling on the

Symptoms.

trunks oi seedlings and young trees and upon

the young branches of older trees. (Fiii- :^> ) Those
-well ings do not occur until one or more years after the in-
fection. which makes it impossible to detect the disease in
ir> earliest stages. As these swellings approach maturity
they form 011 the surface rounded or elongated bodies measur-
ing oiie-eigbth to one-half inch across. The bodies have deli-
cate, whitish membrane coverings beneath which may be seen
masses of orange-colored spores. This membrane ruptures,
allowing the spores to escape (April to June), but may per-
sist for some time after the spores have been carried awTay.
If the spores are carried* to gooseberries or cur- Alternating
rants th< y attack the foliage and young shoots ho*ts-
and cause the "velvet rust" which produces two kinds of
spores, one kind by which the fungus can spread on the
L:< " seberries and currants and another by which It is returned
to the white pines. The disease is of very little importance
on the gooseberries and currants, but is very destructive on
the white and other of the five-leaved pines. It attacks none
of those with two or three needles.

*Pcri<lerm'unn *tn>1)i Klobahn of the white and other five-leaved pinos is the
same as Croiiui-tiuii' i ibicola Diet, of the currant and gooseberry.

104

SHADE TREES.

Fig 39. White Pine Blister Rust. A. A four-year-old tree with
the disease; B. Leaf of Ribes aureum showing uredospore
stage; C. Portion of same enlarged; D. Leaf of
Ribes nmericanum showing teleutospore stage.
(From Bui. 206, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, U. S. Dept. Agricul.)

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 105

AVitbiii the past few years the demand for white pines for
retY'ivstation and for ornamental plantings has been so great
that large numbers of the seedlings have been imported from
Europe. The disease has been introduced on these seedlings
and distributed to many localities in the United States, but
fortunately has been kept in subjection. The disease is very
destructive to seedlings and young trees and, Destruc-
whik nor always destructive, is very injurious «veness.
on the older trees. Therefore we should use the greatest
caution to prevent its getting a foothold in this country.

Treatment.

It is not advisable to plant five-leaved pines of European
origin. Always use American grown seedlings. Even then
the plants should be carefully examined from time to time,
and in case the disease appears they should be destroyed im-
mediately by burning. There is no known remedy for the
disease, and absolutely no safe course to pursue other than
burning the diseased plants.

COBAL SPOTS.

The coral spots on the bark of trees and shrubs are due
to fungi belonging to the genus Xectria. They are readily
ivcujLuiized by the small brightly colored red or orange fruit-
ing l>odies. There are a number of species, but the most
important is JY. cinnabarinna (Tode) Fr. which attacks the
maple, horse-chestnut and many other deciduous trees. The
fungus gains entrance to its host through wounds, gradually
spreads, forming well defined cankers within ^

which will be found the highly colored fruiting
bodies. When once well established it may spread rapidly
from plant to plant and become epidemic. This fungus
also attacks currant bushes and pear trees.

10G SHADE TREES.

Treatment.

The only practical method of control consists in cutting
and burning diseased parts.

BLACK KNOTS.

These unsightly growths occur on the twigs and leaves of
some trees. Among the most important are those on the
plums and cherries which are caused by the fungus (Plow-
rightia morbosa Sacc.), and those upon the hazel caused by
the fungus (Cryptosporella anomala Pk.).

Treatment.

They are of no very great importance 011 shade trees, but
can be controlled by cutting out and burning early in the
fall and by spraying with copper sulphate or lime-sulphiu*
before the buds open in the spring.

WITCHES' BROOMS.

These conspicuous and unsightly growths are quite com-
mon and are due to the attacks of both fungi and insects
which cause the formation of masses of short twigs and are
sometimes mistaken for mistletoe growths. (See page 107.)
The most common and most conspicuous is the one on the
hackberry. (Celtis occidentalis L.) This is so common
that it is extremely difficult to find a tree that does not have
them, and many people consider them a characteristic growth
of the hackberry. However, they are a disease, and if the
tree is kept free from them, it makes a very beautiful growth.
The disease is said to be due to two parasitic organisms, a
powdery mildew (Spcerotheca phytoptophila Kell and S. AY. )
and a mite (Eriophyes sp.)

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 107

Some of the species of the cedar rust (Gymnosporangium)

page 99) and the leaf curl fungi (see page 98) are also

the cause of witches' brooms which die and are broken out

l)v the wind storms, thus leaving irregular and unsightly

Treatment.

A- witches' broom is more unsightly than harmful, it may
be ignored or the trees may be pruned as for other defects.

MISTLETOES.

Mistletoes are true flowering plants which live parasitically
upon, many of our native trees. The common American
mistletoe (Pliomdendron flavescens (Pursh) ISTutt. is rare in
Xcw Jersey, occurring mostly on the black gum and red
maple. Where very abundant they are considered serious
enemies. It will be readily recognized that parasites of this
kind will naturally retard and stunt the growth of the tree.
They are also the cause of unsightly swellings and some
of them cause witches' brooms. Their life is usually shorter
than that of the trees on which they live, and
wlif-ii they die and decay they leave cavities S'ctoi!!?*™
which are especially favorable for the introduc-
tion of pathogenic fungi and other organisms of disease.
.Mistletoes are so rare in this State that most people will be
inclined to look upon them as objects of interest rather than
rious pests.

Treatment.

They can be controlled by pruning out the diseased parts
and painting the wounds with white lead or coal tar.

108 SHADE TREES.

HEART ROTS.

Heart rots are extremely destructive to both living and
dead trees. They are due to a number of fungi, many of
which are both parasitic and saprophytic. The fact that
many of these organisms will live on the dead wood from
which they readily pass to the living trees makes it very
important that all such dead and decaying material be re-
moved and burned.

WHITE HEART ROT.

This is a true disease caused by the false tinder fungus,
Fomes igniarius (L.) Gillet. It attacks the beech, aspen,
Trees willows, maples, birches, walnuts, oaks, hickory,

attacked. apple, etc. The organism gains entrance

through wounds and grows in the heart wood which it trans-

Fig 40. Fomes igniarius on a living aspen. (From Bui.
149, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricul.)

forms into a white pulpy mass bounded by one or more black
layers. During this period of decay the disease cannot be
detected from the outside but after the fungus has progressed
two or three feet from the point of entrance it comes to the

DISEASES OF SHADE AXD FOREST TREES. 109

surface and produces its sporophores or fruiting bodies. (Fig.
4<>. ) These fruiting bodies usually occur at the original
wound and are rather conspicuous but variable in shape, size
and color. They may be described as hoof- Fruiting
shaped, almost as thick as broad, and some- bo*1*8-
times measuring as much as twelve inches in diameter. The
upper surface is smooth when young, becoming concentri-
cally marked as it grows older. The outer part is hard,
brown, gradually becoming black and cracked with age. The
pores within which the spores are produced are formed in
layers on the underside. The under surface is gray or red-
browii in color, varying with the season. The disease works
rather slowly, gradually weakening the tree until it is broken
by storms. It is one of the most widely distributed of tree
diseases and causes enormous losses which, from their wide
geographical distribution and wide range of host plants, are
extremely difficult to estimate. See also Polyporus sp., p. 111.

Treatment.

The most satisfactory treatment for shade and ornamental
trees is preventive. When trees become infected the dis-
eased parts should be removed and the wounds properly
cared for as recommended on page 44.

RED HEART ROT.

This rot is caused by the parasitic fungus (Polyporus sul-
pliureus (Bull.) Fr.). It attacks the oaks, chestnut, maples,
walnuts, locusts, alder, ash, poplar, willows, apple, etc., and
is widely distributed throughout ^orth Trees
America and Europe. It gains entrance attacked.
through wounds and causes the heart wood to rot and be-
come reddish brown or black, the color varying somewhat
with the host plant. After a period of growth within the
wood, it comes to the surface producing a number of large

110

SHADE TKEES.

shelving sporophores or fruiting bodies (Fig. 41) frequently
overlapping. \Yhen young the upper surfaces are a bright
orange-red with a brighter red rim, very moist, and turn

Fig. 41. Polyporus sulfureus on red oak. (Photo by
Dr. W. A. Murrill, N. Y. Botanic Garden.)

brown when bruised. When mature they are hard, dry,
Fruiting brittle and sulphur colored. They are usually

bodies. destroyed very early by insects. The treat-

ment is the same as for the white heart rot.

P. robinicB * Murrill attacks the black locust through
wounds and completely destroys the heart wood of living
trees. The rot begins at the center of the heart and spreads

*P. robinice Murrill = P. rimosus Berkeley.

DISEASES OF SHADE AXD FOREST TREES. Ill

radially, causing the wood to become soft and
yellowish or brownish in color. The sporo-
phon-s are large and shelving and usually al-
ums t twice as wide laterally as from front to back. The
pr< •])('!• care of wounds will help to control the disease but it
i- frequently distributed by the locust borer. (See page 83.)
Tin- disused parts should be removed and destroyed and the
wounds treated.

/'. juniperinus Schrenk attacks old red cedar trees caus-
ing a white heart rot. The fungus probably gains extrance
to tin- tree through dead branches which are most common in
old trees. The wood gradually loses its color, becomes
whitish and eventually undergoes disintegration leaving
holes through the center of branches and trunk. Fruiting
bodies are seldom formed. The removal of dead branches
and diseased parts will reduce the possibility of infection.
P. cameus ".Xees. also causes a white heart rot of both the
red cedar and arborvitae. It has been reported in this
State as occurring on dead logs but no doubt is Heart rots
aUn parasitic. The disease is characterized by andCarbOT-r
the formation of pockets or holes containing vitse-
more or less brown charcoal-like rotten wood. In advanced
suites these holes frequently unite. It should be treated the
same as the preceding.

P. obtusus Berk, causes a soft heart rot of certain species
of the oak but is not of such great importance here as farther
wi >t. It is readily distributed by the oak borer (Prionoxys-
///x rol'initi' Peck). It spreads rapidly up and
down the trunk and branches causing the heart °*tltheart
wood to become soft, white and brittle and very
easily broken in slight storms. The sporophores are hoof-
shaped, almost white when young, but changing with age to
a light brown.

P. fraxinophilus Pk. is the cause of an im- ^h
portaiit disease of the white ash in the Middle
West. It occurs as far east as Albany, Xew York, but has
not been reported from New Jersey.

P. squamosus (Huds) Fr. is not common and is known

112 SHADE TREES.

only in the northern part of the United States.

White rot. . .

It gains entrance to living trees through
wounds, causing a white heart rot. It has been reported on
maples, oaks, elm, basswood, willow and ash.

Polystictus vesicolor (L.) Fr. (see below) is the cause of
a soft heart rot of the catalpa. The disease starts in the
center of the trunk or branch, causing the wood to turn pale
and finally a straw yellow color. The diseased wood becomes
soft and pithy and easily broken. The disease can usually
cataipa ^e ^cognized by the holes which are formed

heart rot. where diseased branches have been broken off.
Trees in the open are not so likely to be attacked as those
grown in crowded conditions which result in the natural
dying of the lower branches.

Treatment.

Careful pruning and treatment of wounds will prove ample
protection for shade and ornamental trees.

SAP ROTS.

The sap rots are the cause of considerable losses, and al-
though it is impossible to draw a sharp line of distinction
between those which are parasitic and those which are sapro-
phytic, the majority of the sap rot fungi must be considered
primarily saprophytes. Among the most important are the
following :

The sap rot caused by the fungus (Polystictus versicolor
(L.) Fr.) is a true saprophyte, except on -the Catalpa (see
above), and attacks cut and fallen timber of many kinds.

Although more of a saprophyte than a para-
Destroys . * y
posts, poies site, the wide distribution and great abundance

of this fungus demands that it should receive
some attention in this publication. It is especially destruc-
tive on railroad ties, posts and poles. It grows in the sap
wood, causing a decay and eventually forming its charac-

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES.

113

thin, tough, leathery, shelving sporophores. (Fig.
42. ) They are variable in size, frequently very numerous
and overlapping. The upper surface is marked with con-

Fig. 42. Polystictus versicolor on dead bark. (From Report
of* Perm. Forestry, 1902, Plate XXII.)

centric zones of various colors while the under surface is
usually white. The pores of the under surface, within which
the spores are borne, are very small and regular.

Another sap rot is caused by Polystictus per game nus Fr.
It is usually found on dead trees and is quite common on
trc< s that have been injured by fire. It also occurs on living

8

114 SHADE TREES.

oaks, red gum, maples, birch, chestnut, hickory, tulip, poplar,
black cherry, beech, willows and others, especi-

Attaeks in- • • i i • • i i

jured trees ally those that have been injured, and is widely
distributed throughout 2s"orth America. How-
ever, it has been questioned whether this fungus ever occurs
on the living parts of trees. The general appearance of the
decay is very similar to that caused by P. versicolor. (Fig.
42.) The fruiting bodies are leathery, generally white when
young but growing gray with age, the upper surface slightly
hairy and the lower surface purplish; the pores are small
and tend to produce a ragged surface with a.2;e.

Treatment.

Protection from injury and the proper care of wounds
will practically prevent the occurrence of this disease.

P. betulinus (Bull) Fr. is the cause of a sap rot on several
species of birch and other trees, but whether parasitic or
saprophytic is a disputed point. The same is true of P.
fomentarius (L.) Fr.

Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr., one of the most con-
spicuous of our shelving fungi is said to cause a sap rot
disease on cottonwoods. However, on most trees it must be
considered purely saprophytic.

There are a large number of other sap rots

heeaeithyfes due to a number of species of fungi occurring

on many species of trees. Most of them are

saprophytic, but some of them are or may become parasitic,

especially on trees which are weakened from other causes.

3. DISEASES OF THE ROOTS.

The diseases of roots are very imperfectly understood.
They may be due to unfavorable soil conditions, or to fungi,
or to both. Probably the most important of these diseases is
the rot due to the fungus Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) Que-

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TKEES. 115

let, which is widely distributed throughout Xorth America.

The fungus usually gains entrance through

\v« •mid-, hut some authorities claim that it will SJJ?™"

arrack uninjured roots. It causes a decay of

the routs, thus cutting off the supply of water and food from

the -nil and eventually causing the death of the tree. In

tin- mots and surrounding soil will be found the so-called

••slim- strings" — hard black strands of the fungus which

branch and interlace, draw nourishment from the decaying

Fig. 43. Armillaria mellea. Parasitic on the

roots of many trees. (Courtesy of

New York Botanic Garden.)

\v< .« »d, and finally give rise to the fruiting bodies. The fruit-
ing bodies, a form of mushroom (Fig. 43) appear to grow
from the soil, are honey colored, the upper surface viscid and
s p. -eked with white; the gills of the lower surface white and
giving off great quantities of spores; the stems are swollen
at the base and have a distinct ring below the umbrella
shaped top.

Treatment.

Xewly cleared land in which this disease is prevalent
should not be set to trees of any kind. When the disease

116 SHADE TREES.

becomes abundant there is no successful method of control.
Diseased trees should be burned, but it is not safe to plant
young trees in the same soil.

GAS.
Illuminating gas escaping from defective

Gas injury. . ., ' .

pipes impregnates the soil, poisons the roots
and causes the death of trees. The remedy for this is evi-
dent, but in replanting it is frequently necessary to remove
the soil from a considerable area and refill with a fresh
supply from outside sources. (See page 28.)

4. DISEASES DUE TO ENVIRONMENT.

Plants respond readily to their surroundings, and (in a
state of nature, undisturbed by man) the best growths will
always be found where the surroundings are most favorable.
The most important natural factors which influence the
growth of plants are soil, water and temperature. The soil
may be unfavorable to plant growth owing to the lack, or
improper proportions, of food substances ; or it may be too
shallow or may not hold the proper amount of water. The
water content of the soil is an important factor, varying
with the requirements of the various species of plants. The
amount of water that may be unfavorable for a tree will fre-
quently be favorable for the organisms of disease. Tem-
perature is also an important factor, both as causing direct
injuries which may retard the growth of trees or cause their
death, and by making it possible for fungi and other destruc-
tive organisms to gain entrance.

Smolce, gases, etc., are also the causes of many injuries
and heavy losses. When trees stand close together, the ef-
fects of smoke and free gases are first noticed in the tops,
but in single trees the injuries may be distributed through-
out the crown. As in cases of poisoning by illuminating gas
(page 29), the first symptoms are discoloration of the young

DISEASES OF SHADE. AND FOREST TKEES. 117

haves followed by slow dying, reduction in the rate of
uT«iwth of the twigs and, in fact, of the tree generally.
I. • utually the twigs die and finally the branches and trunks.
The different kinds of trees show varying degrees of re-
sistance and, therefore, trees in the vicinity of furnaces,
smelter?, mills, etc., will not show an equal degree of injury
from the central point ; some species of trees at considerable
distances from the course of smoke and gas may be killed
while other species very near may continue to live for many
years. ''The order of susceptibility, beginning with the
trees most easily killed, is as follows : *

"White pine (Pinus strobus L.), Hemlock (Tsuga sp.),
Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.), Pitch pine (Pinus
rui'ida Mill.), Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus L.), Hickory
i Hlcoria sp.), Black-jack (Quercus marilandica Muench.),
White oak (Quercus alba L.), Post oak (Quercus minor
i Marsh.') Sargent), Chestnut (Castanea dentata (Marsh.)
Bnrkh. i. Spanish oak (Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sud-
worth). Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea Muench.), Tulip pop-
lar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), Maple (Acer sp.), Black
gum ( Xyssa syh'atica Marsh.)."

Treatment.

The injuries are greatest to leeward of the prevailing
winds. They can be overcome in a great measure by the
eon-traction of tall smokestacks which will carry the in-
jurious gases into the higher strata of air. Devices for con-
densing the gases, such as passing through water, have been
used with some degree of success. There is no satisfactory
treatment so long as trees are exposed to the abnormal en-
virMnments. The causes must be removed.

Dust from cement and other establishments has also proved
r«i be the cause of some injuries. When cement dust settles

*Taken from Bulletin No. 149, Bureau of Plant Industry, TL S. Department
of Agriculture. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. Herman Von Shrenk
and Parley Spaulding.

118 SHADE TREES.

on the foliage, and is wet by the rains it "sets"' and shuts
out the light to some extent and reduces the working effici-
ency of the plant.

5. OTHER DISEASES.

seedbed "Damping off" is one of the most destruc-

disease. ^ve diseases of very young plants, especially

coniferous trees. It is due to fungi which are semi-sapro-
phytic in habit, living in wet, decaying organic matter,
especially in manure. These organisms become especially
active under the warm, moist conditions which are favorable
for the germination of the seeds and for the growth of the
young plants. The fungi attack these seedlings at the sur-
face of the ground causing them to wilt, fall over and die.
The fungi continue to live on the dead plants and spread to
the living seedlings. The disease is especially prevalent in
seed beds and in nature where the plants are growing in
crowded conditions. These diseases are responsible in a
great measure for the difficulties in growing coniferous seed-
lings and other nursery stock in America,

Treatment.

The "damping off'' fungi can be controlled to some extent
in various ways. One of the most common practices is that
of burning a large quantity of vegetable material on the
surface of the bed before planting. Formalin disfectioii of
the soil is also used extensively. By this method the beds
are thoroughly prepared and then drenched with a formalin
solution (1 part commercial formalin to 150 to 200 parts
water) using three or four quarts to each square foot of bed
surface. The beds should then be covered with burlap for
24 hours and after that thoroughly aired for about a week.
In some cases it may be necessary to make two or three ap-
plications, dependent on the character of the soil. This

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 119

treatment must be used with care, as it will sometimes re-
el iu-c the germinating power of the seeds.

Insects are the cause of many diseases, among the most
interesting of which are the cecidia or galls. These ab-
normal growths occur on roots, stems, leaves, flowers and
fruits and are due to insect injuries, in most cases the insects
making their homes for a considerable part of their lives
within the iralls. Some of them fire very in-

Galla not

iurious, but most of those occurring on trees often

harmful.

are considered ol little importance. However,
individual plants are frequently so seriously affected as to
mar their beauty and no doubt reduce their vitality. The
great regularity of shape, color and markings of these galls
will always make them objects of great interest to both
scientist and layman, and future studies will probably prove
them to be the cause of greater injuries than we now at-
tribute to them. Fortunately, owing to the migratory char-
acter of the insects, most species of insect galls do not occur
two or more years in succession on the same trees. Some
few species can be sprayed to advantage with insecticides,
but in most cases where the pests become troublesome it will
be found necessary to prune and destroy the diseased parts
before the insects emerge.

Abnormal structures are also formed as a result of fungus,
bacterial and mechanical injuries.

Animal injuries of various kinds are frequently the open-
ings by which fungi and other organisms of disease gain
entrance to the host plants. Insects, birds, squirrels and
other animals are also the distributers of many
diseases bv making wounds and carrving the promote

•• ,, disease.

organisms from place to place. Storms also
aid in the work of destruction by breaking branches and thus
causing wounds which immediately become sources of infec-
tion.

120 SHADE TKEES.

METHODS OF CONTROL.

It will be readily seen that the treatment of trees must
be primarily protective, rather than curative. It is impos-
sible to use orchard methods in the forests and

Prevention . .

better than frequently impractical to use such methods on
shade and ornamental trees. Good forestry
practice in the forest and proper care of shade and orna-
mental trees will greatly reduce the ravages of many of these
diseases.

The heart and sap rots usually (probably always) origi-
nate with wounds through which the organisms gain en-
trance. Of course not all wounds give rise to diseases any
more than all wounds of human beings and lower animals
give rise to blood poisoning, but all wounds

Wounds . c .

induce must be looked upon as points where infections

are likely to occur and therefore as sources of
danger. Frequent inspection of shade and ornamental trees,
the cutting out of broken branches, proper pruning, and the
care of all wounds are important factors in preserving the
beauty and contributing to longevity. (See page 26.) De-
caying wood forms a most excellent garden for many fungi
which are both saprophytic and parasitic in habit. It should
always be removed and burned.

Spraying may be practiced to some extent for foliage dis-
eases on shade and ornamental trees, especially small ones.
Among the most important of the spraying mixtures is lime-
sulphur which is used extensively for scale insects. It is
also a fungicide and will reduce the organisms that winter
on the stems and trunk.

spraying Bordeaux mixture is the old and reliable

mixtures. fungicide and can be used on most trees for

foliage diseases. However, it is unsafe for some trees and
has the disadvantage of discoloring the parts to which it is
applied. Where the discolorations are undesirable, the am-
moniacal-copper-carbonate solution can frequently be used to

DISEASES OF SHADE AXD FOREST TREES. 121

advantage. Potassium sulphide solution is a very useful
remedy where it is desirable to protect ornamentals against
powdery mildews and other superficial fungi.

FUNGICIDES.

Bordeaux Mixture.

Copper sulphate 2 to 5 pounds

Quick lime 3 to 6 pounds

Water 50 gallons

This is one of the oldest and most reliable fungicides
known. The lime is to prevent certain injuries which might
otherwise arise from the use of copper sulphate and the
amount should always be slightly in excess of the amount
of the copper sulphate. The copper sulphate is dissolved in
a small quantity of wrater by suspending the crystals in a bag
at the surface. The lime is slacked in a small quantity of
water. Each mixture is then diluted to 25 gallons and the
two are poured together. The copper sulphate may be dis-
solved, and the lime slacked, and the two kept as stock for
dilution and use as needed but the mixture will not keep
after being poured together. The strength of Bordeaux mix-
ture varies with the character of the foliage of the plants to
bo treated, since the foliage of many tender plants will be
injured by it.

Copper Sulphate.

One pound of copper sulphate dissolved in 25 gallons of
water makes an excellent winter spray but cannot be used on

plants when in foliage.

Lime-Sulphur.

This mixture has come into general use as a winter spray
and has largely superseded copper sulphate since it serves as
Wh a fungicide and an insecticide. The commercial prod-

122 SHADE TREES.

uct used in the proportion of 1 gallon to 10 gallons of water
is very satisfactory, but cannot be used on foliage. For
trees in leaf a mixture of 1 gallon in 30 gallons of water is
as strong as is safe. This mixture can be made at home
according to the formula given in our State and government
publications, but most people find it more satisfactory to use
the commercial product.

Ammonia-coppcr-carbonate mixtu re.

Copper carbonate 0 oz.

Ammonia (26° Beaume) 3 pts.

Water 50 gal.

Dissolve the copper carbonate in the ammonia and dilute
with water. This mixture has the advantage of not dis-
coloring the foliage. It is rather unreliable and should be
used with care and always tested on a single plant, or small
part of a plant, before general application.

Potassium sulphide.

Potassium sulphide (liver of sulfur), % to 1% Ibs.
Water 50 gal.

This treatment is very successful on the surface-growing
fungi, such as the mildews, but of no value 011 the more
vigorous parasites.

Sprayers.

Spraying pumps and machines are easily obtained of any
seed house. For information regarding forms and sizes see
page 88.

DISEASES OF SHADE AND FOKEST TREES. 123

A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OX THE CARE OF SHADE TREES.

Trees in Towns and Cities. Win Solotaroff. John
Wiley <\c Sons, Xew York City.

Trre Pruning. A. Descars. John Wilson & Son, Cam-
bridge, Mass.

Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration.
Samuel T. Maynard. John Wiley & Sons, Xew York City.

Care of Trees. B. E. Eernow. Henry Holt & Co., Xew
York City.

The Pruning Book. L. H. Bailey. The Macmillian Co.,
X<-w York City.

Concerning Insects Alone.

Economic Entomology. John B. Smith. J. B. Lippin-
cott Co., Philadelphia.

Manual for the Study of Insects. John Henry Comstock.
C'.m.stock Pub. Co., Ithaca, X. Y.

American Insects. Yernon L. Kellogg. Henry Holt &
CM., Xew York City.

Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees, 2 Vol. E.
P. Felt. Xew York State Museum Memoir 8. X. Y.
State Education Dept., Albany.

Concerning Plant Diseases.

Fungus Diseases of Plants. B. M. Duggar. Ginn & Co.,
Boston.

T' .'I Book of the Diseases of Trees. Robert Hartig.
Translated from the German by William Somerville and H.
^Marshall Ward, London, Eng.

Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. H. von Schrenk and
Pcrley Spaulding. Bulletin 149 Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

124 SHADE TKEES.

Diseases of Economic Plants. F. L. Stevens and J. G.
Hall. Heath & Co., Boston.

Diseases of Ornamental Trees. Haven Metcalf. Year
Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1907.

Diseases of Shade and Ornamental Trees. B. T. Gallo-
way and A. F. Woods. Year Book U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 1896.

The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease. Haven Met-
calf and J. F. Collins. Farmers' Bulletin 467 U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Index.

Black-faced figures indicate specific descriptions.

PAGES.

A.

Abrasions 21,36,44

Abrasion moulding 36

Abused trees 11

Aid to tree owners 6,43

Ailanthus 9, 13, 56

Alder, diseases of 109

Ammonia-copper-carbonate

mixture 120,122

Anthracnoses 97

Antiseptics 44. 45 '

Arborvitse 53, 55

diseases of Ill

Arrangement of trees 15 |

Arsenate of lead 68,72,87,89 '

Ash 9, 13, 14, 53-55, 57

diseases of ...99,109,111,112 |
Aspen, diseases of 108

Bag-worm 69

Balsam 55

Banding trees 68, 69

Bark beetles 83

Bark may be cleaned 87

Basket worm, see bag-worm.
Basswood 8, 13, 43, 57

diseases of 112

insects affecting 76

Beauty in trees 12

Beech 14,54,57

diseases of 108,114

Bibliography 123, 124

Bilsted, see red gum.

Birch 53

diseases of 98,108,114

Birds, disease distributors.. 119

Black knots 106

Books about shade trees. . 123, 124
Bordeaux mixture. . 96, 97, 120, 121

Borers 82-85

Box elder .. .8,63

PAGES.

Braces, tree 42, 49

Buckeye, see horse chestnut.

Building, dangers of 27

Butchery, tree 40, 43

Buttonwood, see sycamore.

C.

Carbon bisulphide 74, 83

Care of trees 21, 43, 87, 120

Care of wounds 44

Catalpa 58

diseases of 96, 112

Cavities 42, 44, 47, 48

treatment of 45

Cedar apples 99

Cedar, red 55,56

diseases of 99, 107, 111

Chestnut 14, 59

diseases of 96

101, 102, 109, 114, 117

horse, see horse chestnut.

Climate of New Jersey 7

Climbing spurs 35

Conifers, see evergreens.
Construction and building.. 27

Control of diseases 120

Co-operation 26, 51, 52

Copper sulphate 97,98,121

Coral spots 105

Cotton batting bands 68, 69

Cottonwood, see poplar.

Cottony maple scale 72

Crotches, split 42, 49

Crown 18, 20, 38

Curb lines 17,32-34,50,54

Cypress 53

D.

Decay 13, 43, 44, 47, 48, 93

Defoliation 88

Disease, causes of 93

Diseases, tree 93-122

Doctoring, tree 42,43,47

125

126

INDEX.

PAGES.

Dogwood 53

diseases of 98

Drop worm, see bag-iconn.

Drouth 15

Dust cement 117

E.

Electric linemen 35

Electric wires 31-36

Elm 8, 13, 14, 38, 43, 54, 55, 59

diseases of 96, 112

insects affecting 67, 73, 79

Environment, diseases due

to 116-118

Evergreens 13, 43, 53, 55

diseases of 118

insects affecting 86

F.

Fall planting 15

Fall web worm 75

Fertilizer 25

Filling 42, 45, 47, 48

Fir 56

Fire, disease induced by.... 113

Foliage, diseases of 95-10>0

Food, tree 24, 25

Footing 11,17,20,23

Formalin 118

Frost, susceptibility of trees

to 8

Fruiting bodies 94, 105

10<9, 110, 113, 115

Fungi 93-122

Fungicides 96-98, 120, 121

G.

Galls 119

Gas 28-30,116,117

Ginkgo 8, 13,60

Grade, street, changes in...

50-52, 62

Gratings 23, 24

Grass underneath trees. .24, 53, 54
Growing space, see footing.

Growth, rapidity of 8

Guards .. .5, 11, 19, 21, 23, 27, 28, 36

Guys 27

Gum, black 61

diseases of 107, 117

red or sweet 8,12-14,61

diseases of 114

H.

Hackberry 13, 14, 56, 61

diseases of .. 106

PAGES.

Hardiness of trees 8

Hawthorn 53

Heading in 40

Head room under trees 18

Heart rots 108-112, 120

Hemlock 53

diseases of 99, 117

Hickory 14

diseases of 108, 114, 117

insects affecting 83,84

Hole, the 18

Holly 56

Horse bites 21,36

Horse chestnut .8,12,13,61

diseases of 96, 105

I.

Improvements, municipal

anticipated 52

Injuries 21, 26-36, 93, 116, 119

Insects 67-91, 106, 119

Insecticides 68, 69, 72-76. 78

80, 81, 83-89
Insects attack weakened

trees 82

K.

Kerosene emulsion 73, 75, 78

L,.

Larch 53

Large trees 53

Lawn mower 36, 54

Lawn trees 53,56

Lead arsenate, see arsenate of lead.

Leaf burn 8

Leaf cast 99

Leaf curl 98, 107

Leaf spots 95. 96

Lice, plant 85, 86

Light, influence of upon

trees 37

Lime 27

Lime-sulphur 78, 80, 97, 98, 121

Linden, see basswood.

Location of trees 17

Locust 9, 13, 14, 56, 62

diseases of 109, 110

insects affecting 14, 83

M.

Magnolia 53

Maple 9-12, 38, 43, 63

ash leaf, see box elder.

Norway 8,13,14.56,63

red . . .8. 13. 56. 63

INDEX.

127

PAGES.

.Maple —

silver, or white 8,9,13

14, 49, 56, 63

sugar 54

diseases of 63,96,105

107-108, 112, 114, 117

insects affecting 72-74

76, 78, 82, 85, 86

Mildews 97, 98

Mistletoes 1O7

Mortar 27

Mountain ash 53

Mulberry 9

K.

Neatness in trees 9

Nourishment 24, 25, 53

Nursery stock, diseased 102

O.

Oak 54-56,64

bur 64

chestnut 56, 64

English 64

pin 8,13,14,38,54,56,64

red 8, 13, 56, 64

scarlet 13, 14, 56, 64

swamp white 64

white 8, 13, 64

diseases of 97, 98, 108

109, 111, 112, 114, 117

insects affecting 68, 69

74, 75, 111

Old trees, treatment of. . .40, 41, 49
Oyster shell bark louse 74

P.

Parasites 93

Paris green 68, 69, 72, 76, 85

Pavements 8, 24

Pepper idge. see black yum.

Pine 56

maritime 56

Jersey (scrub) diseases

of 99, 117

pitch, diseases of 99, 117

Scotch, diseases of 99

white, diseases of 103, 117

white, insects affecting. . 87
Plane, see sycamore.

Planting time 15

Planting, tree 19, 20

Police regulations 21, 36

Poplar 9, 13, 14, 56

diseases of 98, 99, 109, 114

insects affecting 78

PAGES.

Potassium sulphide 98, 121, 122

Powdery mildews 97, 98, 106

Pruning 8, 18, 20, 37-44, 102

interior 37, 43

Prune, time to 43

Public service 26, 35, 52

R.

Red bud 53

Red gum 12

Roots 17-20, 25-28, 38

diseases of 114-116

Root suckers 14

Rusts 99

S.

Salt 28

San Jose scale 79

Sap lifter 39, 41

Saprophytes 93

Sap rots 112-114, 120

Scalecide 77, 80, 81

Scurfy scale 78

Seashore trees 55

Serviceberry 53

Shade endurance 54

I Shade, too much 9, 16

Shade Tree Commissions. . .26, 36
43, 51, 52

Shade Tree Federation 53

Sidewalks 17,50

Silverbell 53

Size of street trees 17

Smoke 116

Soil 7, 14, 19, 116

Sourwood 53

Spacing 5, 16, 17

Sparrows, English 74

Splits, in trees 42, 49

Sporophores 94, 113

Spraying . . .68, 69, 72, 73, 75-77, 78
80, 81, 86-88, 96, 97-99, 10*6, 120
See also insecticides and
fungicides.

cost of 91

machines .88-90,122

Spring planting 15

Spruce 54-56

Spurs, climbing 35

Stakes, tree 19-21

Starvation, signs of 25

Starving trees 24

Stems, diseases of 100,114

Sticky bands 68, 69

128

INDEX.

PAGES.

Street trees, requirements

of 7

Sycamore 8,13,14,55,56,64

diseases of 97

T.

Tar spots 96

Temperature, a factor in

disease lib

Topping 40

Treatment of cavities 45

Tree fakirs 43, 10>2

Trees, cultivation of 8

Trees not recommended. ... 9, 13
Trees, what to plant. .8, 13, 14, 56

Tulip poplar 8, 13, 38, 65

diseases of 114, 117

insects affecting 80

Tupelo, see black gum.

U.

Uniformity in trees

V.

Value of trees

12

26

PAGES.

W.

Walnut 14

diseases of 96, 108, 109

Water 24, 116

Well, tree 50, 51

Whale oil soap 73,75

78, 80, 81, 85-87
White marked tussock

moth 68

White pine blister rust. .. 103-105

White pine weevil 87

Willow 14

diseases of 98, 99

108, 109, 112, 114

Wind breaks 53, 55

Wiring rules 35, 36

Wires, electric 31-36

Witches' broom 61, 106

Wood leopard moth 73

Wounds . ..42,44,47 49,50,120

Y.

Yellow-wood

53

Bulletin 160. January, 1899.

Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station,

ITHACA, N. Y.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.

HINTS

ON

RURAL SCHOOL

GROUNDS.

By L. H. BAILEY.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY,

ITHACA, X. Y.

1899.

ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL :
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL.

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University.

ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF.

I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture.
G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry.
JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science.
J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology.
L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture.
H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry.
G. F. ATKINSON, Botany.
M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture.

B. M. DUGGAR, Botany.

J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work.
J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation.
MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study.
A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry.

C. E. HUNN, Horticulture.

W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry.
W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry.
A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology.
L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry.
F. A. STEVENS, Demonstrator."

OFFICERS OF THE STATION.

I. P. ROBERTS, Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer.
EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, January 2, 1899.
HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. ALBANY.

Sir: In the effort to extend the teaching of nature and to
popularize farming subjects, we have found the nature-study
leaflets to be invaluable. These leaflets are now so well estab-
lished in the estimation of New York teachers that we are obliged
to print them in editions of 25,000. These afford subject-matter
for direct teaching. But the surroundings of the child should also
be such as to interest him in rural subjects. The home and the
school premises should supplement the explicit work of the teacher.
We have endeavored to provide suggestions for the improve-
ment of home surroundings in a number of bulletins ; and we
hope that more will follow. For many years, Professor Bailey
has been studying the problem of the improvement of rural
school grounds, but it is only now that he has felt that the time
is ripe for a distinct movement in this direction. This bul-
letin is the first move. It strikes at one of the greatest evils
connected with the education of the farmer's children. We hope
to follow up the movement, and eventually to give suggestions
for the interior of the schoolhouse.

These recommendations are the result of long stud}' of trees
and shrubs as adapted to New York State, and of the principles
of landscape gardening. The report is submitted for publication
as a bulletin under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898.

I. P. ROBERTS, Director.

21. — Where children are taught. An actual example, in one of the most
prosperous fruit-groiving sections of New York.

22. — ^4 suggestion in planting.

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS.

One's training for the work of life is begun in the home and
fostered in the school. This training is the result of a direct and
conscious effort on the part of the parent and teacher, combined
with the indirect result of the surroundings in which the child is
placed. The surroundings are more potent than we think ; and
they are usually neglected. It is probable that the antipathy to

23. — The beginning and the end, — school house and graveyard .
eastern New York.

In

farm life is formed before the child is able to reason on the
subject. An attractive play-ground will do more than a profit-
able wheat crop to keep the child on the farm.

a. THE FACT.

Bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest, — these are the facts about
the average rural school ground. Observe Fig. 21.

Children cannot be forced to like the school. They like it only

276

BULLETIN 160.

when it is worth liking. And when they like it, they learn.
The fanciest school apparatus will not atone for a charmless
school ground. A child should not be blamed for playing truant
if he is sent to school in a graveyard. Observe Fig. 23.

It would seem that land is very precious. Very little of it
can be afforded for a school ground. A quarter of an acre of
good land will raise four bushels of wheat, and this wheat may
be worth three or four dollars a year. We cannot afford to de-

24.— A suggestion for a simple little schoolhouse.

vote such valuable property to children. We can find a bit of
swamp, or a sand hill, or a treeless waste. The first district
school I taught was on a heartless hillside. The premises had two
or three disconsolate oaks, and an old barrel was stuck in the top
of one of them. The second school was on an island in a swamp.
The mosquitoes loved it.

The school building is generally little more than a large box.
It has not even the charm of proper proportions. A different
shape, with the same cost, might have made an attractive
building. Even a little attention to design might make a great

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS. 277

difference in the looks of a schoolhouse ; and the mere looks
of a schoolhouse has a wonderful influence on the child. The
railroad corporation likes to build good-looking station-houses,
although they have no greater capacity than homely ones. I
asked an architect for a simple plan of a cheap school house.
He gave me Fig. 24. Plans for the improvement of shoolhouses may
be obtained of the 'Superintendent of Public Instruction, Albany.

The following sentences are extracted from the ' ' Report of
the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools," of the National
Educational Association (1897) :

' The rural schoolhouse, generall}r speaking, in its character
and surroundings is depressing and degrading. There is nothing
about it calculated to cultivate a taste for the beautiful in art or
nature."

' ' If children are daily surrounded by those influences that
elevate them, that make them clean and well-ordered, that make
them love flowers, and pictures, and proper decorations, they at
last reach that degree of culture where nothing else will please
them. When they grow up and have homes of their own, they
must have them clean, neat, bright with pictures, and fringed
with shade trees and flowers, for they have been brought up to
be happy in no other environment."

' The rural schoolhouse should be built in accordance with the
laws of sanitation and modern civilization. It never will be
until the State, speaking through the Supervisor, compels it as
a prerequisite for receiving a share of the public funds."

b. HOW TO BEGIN A REFORM.

We will assume that there is one person in each rural school
district who desires to renovate and improve the school premises.
There may be two. If this person is the school commissioner or
the teacher, so much the better.

Let this person call a meeting of the patrons at the school-
house. L/ay before the people the necessity of improving the
premises. Quote the opinions of intelligent persons respecting
the degrading influence of wretched surroundings ; or even read
extracts from this bulletin. The cooperation of the most

278 BULLETIN 160

influential men of the district should be secured before the
meeting is called.

Propose a "bee" for improving the school grounds. John
Smith will agree to repair the fence (or take it away, if it is not
needed). Jones will plow and harrow the ground, if plowing
is necessary. Brown will sow the grass seed. Black and Green
and White will go about the neighborhood with their teams
for trees and bushes. Some -of these may be got in the edges of
the woods, but many of the bushes can be picked up in front
yards. Others will donate their labor towards grading, planting,
and cleaning up the place.

The whole thing can be done in one day. Perhaps Arbor Day
can be chosen.

C. THE PLAN OF THE PLACE.

This is the most important part of the entire undertaking, — the
right kind of a plan for the improvement of the grounds. The
person who calls the meeting should have a definite plan in mind ;
and this plan may be discussed and adopted. The remainder of
this bulletin is devoted to plans for school grounds and means of
working them out. If any person is interested in this subject, he
should have our Bulletin 121, on the " Planting of Shrubbery."

Begin with the fundamentals, not with the details. — If
an artist is to make a portrait, he first draws a few bold strokes,
representing the general outline. He ( ' blocks out ' ' the
picture. With the general plan well in mind, he gradually
works in the incidentals and the details, — the nose, eyes, beard.

Most persons reverse this natural order when they plant their
grounds. They first ask about the kinds of roses, the soil for
snowballs, how far apart hollyhocks shall be planted. It is as if
the artist first asked about the color of the eyes and the fashion
of the neck-tie; or as if the architect first chose the color of
paint and then planned his building. The result of this type
of planting is that there is no plan, and the yard means nothing
when it is done. Begin with the plan, not with the plants.

The place should mean something. — The home ground
should be home-like, retired and cosy. The school ground
should be set off from the bare fields and should be open enough

HINTS ox RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS.

279

to allow of play-grounds. It should be hollow, — well planted on
the sides, open in the interior. The side next the highway
should contain little planting. The place should be a picture, not a
mere collection of trees and bushes. Fig. 25 shows what I mean.
As seen in the picture (Fig. 25), this style of planting seems to
be too elaborate and expensive for any ordinary place. But if
the reader will bear with me, he shall learn otherwise.

25. — A picture, of which a schoolhouse is the central figure .

Keep the center of the place open, — Do not scatter the
trees over the place. They will be in the way. The boys will
break them down. Moreover, they do not look well when
scattered over the whole area. When an artist makes a picture
with many people in it, he does not place the persons one by one
all over his canvas. He masses them. Thereby he secures a
stronger effect. He focusses attention, rather than distributes it.

The diagrams (Figs. 26, 27), taken from Bulletin 121, make
this conception plain. The same trees and shrubs can be used
to make either a nursery or a picture. But it is more difficult to
make the nursery, and to keep it in order, because the trees
grow one at a place in the sod, and they are exposed to acci-
dents.

280

BULLETIN 160.

26. — The common or nursery type of planting.

Go to the blackboard. With four lines, represent the borders
of the school grounds, as in Fig. 28. Indicate the schoolhouse

and the out-
buildings. Ex-
isting trees may
be located by
small circles.
Now you have
the facts, or the
fixed points.

Now put in the
walks. The first
fixed point is the
front door. The
other fixed point
is the place or
places at which
the children enter the grounds. Join these points by the most
direct and simplest curves possible. That is all there is of it. In
many, or perhaps most places, the house is so near the highway
that only a straight walk is possible or advisable.

Next comes the
planting. Let it
be irregular and
natural, and rep-
resent it by a wavy
line, as in Fig. 28.
First of all, cover
up the out-houses.
Then plant heav-
ily on the side
next the swamp
or a disagreeable
barnyard, or in
the direction of
the prevailing
wind. Leave openings in your plan wherever there are views
to be had of fine old trees, attractive farm homes, a brook, or

27- — The proper or pictorial type of planting.

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS.

281

a beautiful hill or field. Throw a handful of shrubs into the
corners by the steps, and about the bare corners of the building.

You now have a plan to work
to. It has been the work of five
minutes at the blackboard.

Sometimes the problem is not
so simple as all this. There may
be three entrances to the grounds
and a highway on two sides.
Fig. 29 is a plan made for such
a place in western New York.
It was thought to be necessary
to separate the play-grounds of

.— T/ie blackboard plan.

the boys and girls. This was done by a wide hedge-row of bushes

running back from the schoolhouse.

An interesting case as shown in Figs. 21 and 22. It is indecent

j j to put the two out-

buildings together.
But it was assumed
that it would not be
allowable to move
them. The place is
bald and cheerless .
The outlay of a day's
work, and no money,
might cause it to look
like Fig. 22 inside of
three or four years.

Perhaps some per-
sons object to so much

29.— Suggestions for the planting of a school- shrubbery. They look
yard upon four corners. From "Lessons ., , ,

with Plants^ uP°n Jt as mere brush'

Very well : then use

trees alone. But do not scatter them hit and miss over the place.
Throw them in at the side, as in Fig. 30. Give room for
the children to play ; and make the place a picture at the same
time. Three or four trees may be planted near the building to
shade it, but the heaviest planting should be on the sides.

282

BULLETIN 160.

The mere planting of trees and shrubs is the smaller part of
the problem.— Arbor day has emphasized the mere planting of

trees. Fortunately,
many of the trees do
not live. They are
too often put in the
wrong places. If the
love of trees could be
combined with some
purpose in the plant-
ing, the results would
be much better. Fig.
3 1 suggests Arbor Day
planting ; and this is
certainly much better
than nothing. These
four trees will be useful in their present positions, but the place
will still remain bare. The great thing — the border planting-
has been omitted, and the incidental thing has been done.

Observe how the long foliage-mass adds charm to Fig. 32. A
row is better than mere scattered trees. But even this planting
is not ideal. Heavy planting should have been made along the
fence beyond the schoolhouse. There are too many trees between
the border row and the house, although this is not a serious
fault. A few bushes and vines would relieve the barrenness of
the house ; so would one or two trees close against the house on
the side next the road. But this place is so much more attrac-
tive than most rural school premises that one ought not to find
fault with it.

30. — A border planting of trees.

d. HOW TO MAKE THE IMPROVEMENTS.

Every effort should be exerted to do the work well in the begin-
ning. If all preparations are thoroughly considered, and the
details carried out with care, the premises should become more
attractive year by year with almost no annual outlay of labor.
The school grounds should be able to take care of themselves
when once the place is set in order. Of course, better results

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS.

283

are to be expected when much labor is put on the grounds each
year, but it is useless to advise such expenditure for the rural

31. — 7r<f« enough in the center, but the place needs a back-ground.

32. — A row of willows makes the place attractive.

schools. But it is surprising what excellent results can be
secured with almost no attention from vear to vear. The beau-

284 BULLETIN 160.

tiful garden in Fig. 34 has received practically no labor for three
years except that required to mow the grass.

Making the sod* — In many cases the school yard is already
level or well graded and has a good sod, and it is not nec-
essary to plow it and re-seed it. It should be said that the sod
on old lawns can be renewed without plowing it up. In the
bare or thin places, scratch up the ground with an iron-toothed
rake, apply a little fertilizer, and sow more seed. Weedy lawns
are those in which the sod is poor. It may be necessary to pull
out the weeds ; but after they are out, the land should be quickly
covered with sod or they will come in again. Annual weeds,
as pigweeds, ragweed, can usually be crowded out by merely
securing a heavier sod. A little clover seed will often be a good
addition, for itsupplies nitrogen and has an excellent mechanical
effect on the soil.

The ideal time to prepare the land is in the fall, before the
heavy rains come. Then sow in the fall, and again in early
spring on a late snow. However, the work may be done in
spring, but the danger is that it will be put off so long that the
young grass will not become established before the dry hot
weather comes.

The only outlay of money required for the entire improvement
is for grass seed. The best lawn grass for New York is June-
grass or blue-grass. Seedsmen know it as Poa pratensis. It
weighs but 14 pounds to the bushel. Not less than three bush-
els should be sown to the acre. We want many very small stems
of grass, not a few large ones ; for we are making a lawn, not a
meadow .

Do not sow grain with the grass seed. The June-grass grows
slowly at first, however, and therefore it is a good plan to sow
timothy with it, at the rate of two or three quarts to the acre.
The timothy comes up quickly and makes a green ; and the
June-grass will crowd it out in a year or two. If the land is hard
and inclined to be too dry, some kind of clover will greatly assist
the June-grass. Red clover is too large and coarse for the lawn.
Crimson clover is excellent, for it is an annual, and it does not
become unsightly in the lawn. White clover is perhaps best,
since it not only helps the grass but looks well in the sod. One
or two pounds of seed is generally sufficient for an acre.

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS. 285

At first the weeds will come up. Do not pull them. Mow the
lawn as soon as there is any growth large enough to mow. Of
course, the lawn mower is best, but there is no use of recommend-
ing it for rural school yards. Then use the ordinary field
mower. When the sod is established, mowing the yard three or
four times a year will be sufficient. And here is another advant-
age of the open-centered yard which I have recommended. -
it is easily mown. It would be a fussy matter to mow a yard
planted after the fashion of Fig. 26 ; but one like Fig. 27, is
easily managed. A yard like Fig. 25 can be mowrn in a half hour.

How to make the border planting. — The borders should
be planted thick. Plow up the strip. Xever plant these trees
and bushes in holes cut in the sod. Scatter the bushes and
trees promiscuously in the narrow border. In home grounds, it is
easy to run through these borders occasionally with a cultivator,
for the first year or two.

Make the edges of this border irregular. Plant the lowest
bushes on the inner edge. Fig. 33 shows how a certain yard wras
marked out for the planting. The whole area had been plowed,
rolled, harrowed and raked. Grass seed had been sown and raked
in. Then a line was drawn, by means of a rake handle, to represent
the edges of the border planting. The interior or lawrn space
was now rolled, and the soft area along the borders was left for
the planting. Five years later, the place looked as shown in
Fig. 34. Imagine a schoolhouse at the end of that garden !

For all such things as lilacs, mock-oranges, Japan quinces, and
bushes that are found along the roadsides, two or three feet apart
is about right. Some will die anyway. Cut them back one-half
when they are planted. They will look thin and stiff for two or
three years; but after that they will crowd the spaces full, lop over
on the sod, and make a billow of green. Prepare the land well,
plant carefully ; andlet the bushes alone.

The kinds of plants for the main planting. — We now come to
the details, — the particular kinds of plants to use. One great
principle will simplify the matter : the main planting should
be for foliage effects. That is, think first of giving the place
a heavy bordermass. Flowers are mere decorations.

Select those trees and shrubs which are the commonest, because

286 BULLETIN 160.

they are cheapest, hardiest and most likely to grow. There is no
district so poor and bare that enough plants cannot be secured,
without money, for the school yard. You will find them in
the woods, in old yards, along the fences. It is little matter
if no one knows their names. What is handsomer than a
tangled fence -row ?

Scatter in a few trees along the fence and about the buildings.

33. — ,-i newly made landscape garden, ready for the border planting.

Maples, basswood, elms, ashes, buttonwood, pepperidge, oaks,
beeches, birches, hickories, poplars, a few trees of pine or spruce
or hemlock, — any of these are excellent. If the country is bleak, a
rather heavy planting of evergreens about the border, in the
place of so much shrubbery, is excellent.

For shrubs, use the common things to be found in the woods
and swales, together with roots which can be had in every old
yard. Willows, osiers, witch hazel, dogwood, wild roses, thorn
apples, haws, elders, sumac, wild honeysuckles, — these and
others can be found in every school district. From the farm
yards can be secured snowballs, spireas, lilacs, forsythias, mock-

288

BULLETIN 160.

35. — It is easy to make a yard as good as this.
This is not hardy in the northern

oranges, roses, snowberries,
barberries, flowering cur-
rants, honeysuckles and
the like.

Vines can be used to ex-
cellent purpose on the out-
buildings or on the school-
house itself. The com-
mon wild Virginia creeper
(shown on the right ifi Fig.
36) is the most serviceable.
On brick or stone school
houses the Boston ivy or
Japanese ampelopsis may be
used, unless the lo-
cation is very bleak,
parts of the State.

%**

Honeysuckles, clematis and bitter-sweet are also attrac
tive. Bowers are always interesting to children ;
actinidia (to be had at nurseries) is best for this
purpose.

Kinds of plants for decoration. —

Against these heavy borders and in the
angles about the building, many kinds
of flowering plants can be grown.
The flowers are much more easily
cared for in such positions than
they are in the middle of the lawn,
and they also show off better. Notice
how striking the holyhocks are in
Figs. 34 and 37. They have a back-
ground. Even a clump of weeds looks
well when it is in the right place.
Observe Fig. 36.
It is impossible to grow many flowers

in the school ground under present con- 36'~ A.dumP of weeds in the corner by
. the house — motherwort ana Virginia

ditions, tor what is everybody's busi- ereeper. How pretty they are !

ness is nobody's business ; and then, the place is neglected all through

HINTS ON RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS. 289

the summer. But the children can be taught to plant many
things.

Only those flowers should be used which are very
easy to grow and which have the habit of taking
care of themselves. They should also be such as
bloom in spring or fall, when the school is in ses-
sion. Perennial plants — those which live from year
to year — are excellent. Of these, day lilies, bleed-
ing hearts, pinks, bluebells, hollyhocks, perennial
phlox and hibiscus, are always useful. Nothing
is better than the common wild asters and golden-
rods. They will grow almost anywhere and they
improve when grown in rich ground and given yj. — A dainty bit,—

flowers against a

plenty of room ; and they bloom in the fall. background.

Many kinds of bulbs are useful, especially as so many of them
bloom very early in spring. We propose to issue a nature-study
leaflet on this subject the coming season. Think of a school
yard with crocuses, daffodills and tulips in it !

Annual flowers ma}7 be grown along the borders, out of the
way of the play-grounds. China asters, petunias and Cali-
fornia poppies are very attractive, and they are easy to grow.
They bloom in the fall. Phlox, sweet peas, alyssum, and
many others are also useful. Consult Bulletin 161.

While the main planting should be made up of common trees
and shrubs, a rare or strange plant may be introduced now and
then from the nurseries, if there is any money with which to buy
such things. Plant it at some conspicuous point just in front
of the border, where it will show off well, be out of the way,
and have some relation to the rest of the planting. Two or
three purple-leaved or variegated-leaved bushes will add much
spirit and verve to the place ; but many of them make the
place look fussy and overdone.

e. GENERAL REMARKS.

More than one-third of all public schools will probably always
be in the country. They will have most intimate relations with
rural life. We must make that life attractive to the pupils.

In Europe there are school gardens, and similar plans are

290 BULLETIN 160.

recommended for this country. It 'is certainly desirable that
some area be set aside for the actual cultivation of plants by the
children and for the growing of specimens to be used in the
school room. However, the conditions of Europe are very
different from ours. In the rural school in Germany and other
countries, the school house is the teacher's home. He lives in it,
or by it. The summer vacation is short. In this country, there
is no one to care for the rural school ground in the long summer
vacation. Teachers change frequently. It is impossible to have
uniformity and continuity of purpose. In the Old World, the
rural schools are in the hamlets.

We shall be very glad to correspond with any persons who are
interested in improving school premises, either on the lines
herein suggested, or in other directions. The improvement must
come, or, one by one, the rural schools will die out for lack of
pupils. In the struggle for existence, the pupils will more and
more seek the more attractive schools. There must be rural
schools, whether in the open country or in the hamlet ; and
wherever they are, they must be cheered and brightened.

A Flower Day every October would be a fitting complement of
Arbor Day. Already, flower shows have been held in various
rural schools. They are symbols of the harvest. We want to
focalize this movement in the coming year. We call upon every
citizen for sympathy and cooperation.

A revolution in rural school grounds will not come suddenly.
Here and there a beginning will be made ; and slowly the great
work will spread. L H BAILEY.

FORESTRY LEAFLET No. 16

ISSUED MAY 15, 1914

Maryland State Board of Forefty

BALTIMORE, MD.

ROADSIDE TREE LAW

Acts of 1914, Chapter 824, "An act conferring power upon the State
Board of Forestry to plant trees along the roadsides, to protect road-
side trees, to establish one or more nurseries for their propagation,
to prohibit the unauthorized placing of advertisements and other no-
tices on the public highways or the property of other persons, and
to provide a penalty for the violation thereof."

SECTION 1. The State Board of Forestry shall, in addition to the
powers heretofore granted it, have the power to plant trees along the
roadsides, to make all rules and regulations governing their planting, to
care for and protect all roadside trees of this State, and to establish one or
more State or Forest Nurseries for the propagation of trees for such
roadside planting.

SEC. 2. Roadside trees as designated in this Act shall mean all trees
planted by the Forest Wardens, or existing trees three inches or more in
diameter, measured two feet from the ground, that may be growing within
the right-of-way of any public road or between the curb lines and prop-
erty lines of any street in an incorporated town in this State.

SEC. 3. When the County Commissioners or the Road Supervisors of
any county of this State, the State Roads Commission, the Town Council
of any city or incorporated town, or any organization or person, shall
apply to the State Forester for the planting of trees or for the care and
protection of existing trees along a public road or street, and the State
Forester deems an ezamination necessary, he shall instruct the local
Forest Warden to examine the situation where planting, care or protec-
tion of trees is desired and to report the conditions with his recommend-
ations to the State Forester. If, in the judgment of the State Forester,
the planting of trees or the care or protection of existing trees is ad-
.visable, he shall submit a plan covering the required operations with his
recommendations and an estimate of the cost of the work to the organi-
zation or persons from which the application originated.

SEC. 4. No plan of planting or care of roadside trees shall become
operative under this Section until such plan has been approved by the
organization or person making the application and not until the said or-
ganization or person shall guarantee to the State Forester the cost of the
work, in which the said organization or person may stipulate a maximum
amount that it or he will guarantee. Upon proper assurance that such
a guarantee has been given, and the planting of trees is desired, the State
Forester shall furnish to the local Forest Warden the trees for planting
from any available stock in a State Forest Nursery or elsewhere. If the
planting of trees is not required, but it is desired to trim, spray or other-
wise care for existing trees along the portion of the roadside or street for
which a plan has been approved by the State Forester and accepted by
such organization or person, the Forest Warden shall proceed with the
work in accordance with such plans, at such time and in such manner
as in his judgment will be most practicable, but in executing such plans
he shall work under the direction of the State Forester. When there
exists an officer in any city or incorporated town who has been appointed
for the specific purpose of planting and caring for trees along the roads
or streets, he shall be eligible for appointment as Forest Warden in
Carrying out the provisions of this Act.

SEC. 5. The State Forester may, in his discretion, without being re-
quested as provided in Section 3 hereof, or guaranteed as provided in
Section 4 hereof, plant, care for and protect roadside trees and pay for
such work out of any unexpended balance of the amount hereby appro-
priated or hereafter appropriated for the purpose of this Act; provided,
however, that no trees shall be planted under the povisions of the fore-
going sections without the consent and approval of the owner of the land
on which they are planted.

SEC. 6. It shall be the duty of the Forest Wardens and others having
police powers in this State, in addition to the duties heretofore imposed,
to enforce all laws now enacted or that may be enacted for the care and
protection of roadside trees, and, while holding said office, they shall pos-
sess and exercise the power to arrest without warrant anyone detected by
them in the act of violating any law for the protection of roadside trees,
and take such person before a peace officer having jurisdiction.

SEC. 7. For his services in making examinations as provided in Sec-
tion 3 of this Act, the Forest Warden shall be paid by the State Board
of Forestry upon presentation of his accounts with vouchers, approved
by the State Forester, and for services in planting roadside trees, trim-
ming, spraying, or otherwise caring for existing roadside trees as pro-
vided in Section 4 of this Act, the Forest Warden and the helpers he
may be authorized to employ shall be paid by the organization or person
guaranteeing the cost of the work upon presentation of the Forest War-
den's accounts with vouchers, approved by the State Forester; and for
his services in examining conditions when permits are applied for under

Section 8 of this Act issuing permits, and supervising the work author-
ized by such permits, he shall be paid by the person or corporation ap-
plying for this permit. The rates to be paid under this Section shall be
determined by the State Board of Forestry.

SEC. 8. Any person or persons who may desire to cut down or trim
any roadside tree shall make application to the State Board of Forestry
for a permit. Any person or persons who shall cut down, trim, mutilate,
or in any manner injure any roadside tree, except in an emergency as
hereinafter provided for without the permission of the State Board of
Forestry or its duly authorized representative, shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanor and upon conviction shall be punishable by a fine of not less
than five dollars or more than fifty dollars for each offense, which fine
shall be payable to the State Board of Forestry for the purposes de-
scribed in this Act. Provided that where trees are uprooted or branches
of trees broken in such manner that they shall come in contact with tele-
phone, telegraph, electric light or other wires carrying electric current,
or where such trees or branches shall endanger persons or property, said
trees or branches of trees, as the case may be, may be removed in such
an emergency without first obtaining a permit from the State Board of
Forestry, and no liability shall lie against the person or persons so re-
moving such trees or branches.

SEC. 9. Any person who in any manner paints, puts or affixes any
advertisement, sign, notice or other written or printed matter, other than
notices, posted in pursuance of law, on or to any stone, tree, fence, stump,
pole, building or other structure which is in or upon a public highway,
or which is on the property of another, without first obtaining the written
consent of such owner thereof, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and
upon conviction shall be punishable by a fine of not more than ten dol-
lars, which fine shall be payable to the State Board of Forestry for the
purposes described in this Act.

SEC. 10. Any tree grown in the State Nurseries not required for
roadside planting may be used for planting on the State Forest Reserve
or may be furnished to any land-owner of this State at not less than the
cost of production; provided such trees shall be planted according to
plans approved by the State Forester.

SEC. 11. That all Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with the provi-
sions of this Act are hereby repealed.

The Maryland Conservation Association

BALTIMORE, MD.

BULLETIN No. 1

Planting and Protecting Roadside Trees

The Maryland Conservation Association has been
Organized ' 'To further the utilization and development,
without waste, of all of the natural advantages, and
the natural resources of the State; and to protect and
preserve natural objects of beauty, and historic inter-
est." This publication is the first of a series of bulle-
tins to further these objectsv

PLANTING AND PROTECTING TREES.

Maryland has spent millions of dollars in the past few years in building
good roads. This expenditure is universally approved, as good roads are
essential to our well being. But we are beginning to realize that good roads
without trees to shade and beautify them are like new houses with bare
floors and bare walls— they need furnishing and ornamentation before we
can fully utilize and appreciate them. There is nothing that Can be done
at so little cost that will make the countryside more attractive or travel over
the roads more comfortable and satisfying than the planting of suitable
trees along the roadsides and caring for them properly. A stiff, formal and
forbidding street has often been changed to an attractive neighborhood by
the planting of a few trees. What makes the city of Washington so beauti-
ful is not so much its fine public buildings, but the long avenues of trees,
giving it the appearance of one great park. There is nothing more inviting
to the traveller on a hot summer day than a view along a good road lined
on each side by a row of fine trees, casting shade mingled with sun light
along the path. Trees along the roadside are useful not alone for the
beauty they impart and for the shade they afford, but they help to keep the
road in good condition. The great problem after the roads are built is their
maintenance, and it has been found that the wear and deterioration is rapid.
The heavy traffic grinds the stone surface, while the suction from the swift
moving automobiles lifts this binder in clouds of dust, which is then blown
away. Where the road is shaded the surface moisture is conserved, helping
to hold the binder on the road, preventing wear, and the row of trees
checks the wind so that it cannot do so much damage to the road. Further-
more the trees serve as a windbreak to protect the adjacent fields from the
drying force of the wind thus aiding the farmer with his crops. In a level
open countr}' the influence of a double row of trees as a windbreak is a very
considerable one in modifying the severity of the winds of winter.

A number of States have enacted legislation providing for the planting
and care of roadside trees, and splendid results are being accomplished.
New Jersey was the pioneer in this movement, when a law was enacted in
1893 providing for a Shade Tree Commission in each municipality. Massa-
chusetts passed its Tree Warden Act in 1899, and now all the towns and
cities of the State come under its provisions. Pennsylvania passed a law in
1907 similar to the New Jersey law, empowering the commissioners of
townships, councils of boroughs or cities to appoint shade tree commissioners
who shall have entire charge of the shade trees. California in 1913 passed
a law enabling the Supervisors of each county or city in the State to appoint
County Boards of Forestry who shall have charge of the trees, hedges,
shrubs and flowers growing upon the public roads within the county.

The situation in Maryland, so far as roadside trees is concerned, has
become worse each year. The status of the roadside trees is now very un-
certain. No one is legally authorized to defend them and yet they are
recognized as public property in which- everybody has an interest. The
owner of the land can prevent the cutting of trees on the public road in
front of his property by standing guard over them, but he cannot hold them

indefinitely by this means and he should never be required to enforce his
rights by sheer physical force, especially when a thing so valuable to the
public at large as a fine shade tree that may be a cherished land mark is
concerned, and the only reason for its removal or mutilation may be the
desire of some telephone or electric light company to save a little expense
in erecting or maintaining their lines. The same may be said of unauthor-
ized bill boards and posters that mar the beauty of nearly all of our roadsides.
They have no right in public roads and ninety-nine people out of every
hundred would be glad to see them torn down, but unless they are pro-
hibited bv law this is not likely to be accomplished.

The time has now come when all those in favor of the planting and
protecting of trees along the roadsides and along the streets of cities and
towns in Maryland can do effective work, provided they act at once.

What is known as The Roadside Tree Bill has been introduced in the
State Senate by Senator Benson of Baltimore Count}-. This bill provides :

1. That the powers of the State Board of Forestry shall be so enlarged
as to include the planting and care of roadside trees and the State Forester
is directed to supervise the work.

2. That the County Commissioners, the Road Supervisors, the State
Roads Commission, the Town Council of cities or towns, or any organiza-
tion or person may apply to the State Forester for a plan of planting trees
or for caring for existing trees. An examination of the proposed location
is then made without charge and a plan prepared with an estimate of cost.
If the plan is acceptable to the organization or person applying for it the
State furnishes the trees without cost and the work of planting is done by
the local Forest Warden under the supervision of the State Forester and
paid for by the organization or person making the application and guaran-
teeing the expense.

3. That no one be allowed to cut or. injure any roadside tree, place
posters or signboards along any highway, or upon private property without
the consent of the owner.

4. That the State Forester may use State funds in making demonstra-
tions of tree planting along roadsides or in caring for existing trees.

5. An appropriation of $5,000 annually is carried by the Bill for grow-
ing trees, making planting plans and for demonstration work in roadside
planting in the State.

The purpose of the proposed law is to place the care of roadside trees
in the hands of the State Board of Forestry, an existing organization, ex-
tending over the entire State through its Forest Wardens. In this way the
administrative expenses will be small and almost the entire appropriation
can be devoted to the growing of trees for roadside planting. The law has
been framed particularly to meet conditions here, and its adoption will
place Maryland in the front rank of the States making suitable provision
for beautifying and protecting its roadsides.

THE MARYLAND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION
10 W. Hamilton Street, - Baltimore, Md.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: OFFICERS:

W. McCulloh Brown W. McCulloh Brown, President

Bernard N. Baker Frederick Clement Weber, Rec. Sec.

Wm. Bullock Clark Edwin Warfield, Jr., Treasurer

Wm. M. Ellicott Wm. M. Ellicott, Cor. Sec.
Frederick Clement Weber

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

His Eminence, Cardinal Gibbons Dr. B. Holly Smith

Dr. Wm. H. Welch B. Howard Haman

Hon. Henry D. Harlan Stevenson A. Williams, Belair

Dr. Ira Remsen Harry J. Patterson, College Park

Hon. Isaac Lobe Straus Miss Katherine Lurman, Catonsville

Dr. D. H. Steffens Mrs. Wilbur W. Hubbard, Chestertown

Douglas H. Gordon C. Howard Lloyd, Easton

Robert Garrett Edmund P. Cohill, Hancock

Richard H. Pleasants Dr. Joseph I. France, Port Deposit

Chas. Morris Howard L. Allison Wilmer, La Plata
Daniel Annan, Cumberland

Every one is cordially invited to join this Association and
thus give their encouragement and support. Membership
open to all $1.00 annually. Patrons, $5.00. Life Member-
ship, $25.00.

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI. 9

STREET TEEES; CARE AND PRESERVATION.0

The increasing number of State and municipal laws which are being
enacted for the care and preservation of street trees is ample evidence
of a growing public interest in this matter. It should be borne in
mind, however, that the shade-tree laws of any community can not be
thoroughly effective unless the public is familiarized with these laws
as well as with the important sources of injury to trees. Adjacent
property owners in particular should be equipped with this knowl-
edge, since prompt action on their part will often prevent forms of
mistreatment or injury which may temporarily escape the notice of
the tree warden.

The sources of injury to street trees are undoubtedly more numerous
in the cities and large towns than along village streets and country
roads. Nevertheless, the increasing number of overhead electric wires
in the latter thoroughfares is resulting in much serious damage. This
source of injury and also the effect of
illuminating gas escaping into the soil has
been discussed in previous bulletins of this
series.6

In a recent bulletin of the New York Cor-
nell Station, A. D. Taylor discusses many
ways in which trees are injured through ig-
norance and neglect; as, for example, in the
course of construction work, by piling build-
ing materials against them, in moving build-
ings, in attaching guy wires, and in grading FIG 1 _The correct method

Streets. of attaching a guy wire.

The piling of brick, lumber, and stone slabs close against the trunk may
cause injuries which allow decay to enter at that point. Tying guy wires for
the purpose of supporting derricks or telephone poles is a common practice,
and will cause no injury to the tree if properly done. It is done so often with-
out protecting the tree, however, that serious injury results. The correct
method of attaching a wire of this kind to a tree is to place a number of small
strips of board against the trunk, parallel to its axis, and then bring the
pressure of the wires to bear directly on these (see fig. 1). If the trunk is
forked the wire may be carried between the branches near the crotch and
attached to a crosspiece, which, being placed transversely to the axis of the
two branches, brings the pressure to bear on each, and no mechanical injury
is caused to the tree. When the pole to be guyed brings little prec?ure to bear
on the wire, a lag screw may be placed in the side of the tree and the guy wires
fastened thereto. In any case the growth of the tree may continue without the
common danger of its being girdled. * * *

0 Compiled from New York Cornell Sta. Bui. 256. See also Massachusetts
Sta. Bui. 125.

6 XT. S. Dept Agr., Farmers' Buls. 210, p. 20 ; 316, p. 12.
83022— Bull. 360—09 2

10

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI.

The cutting away of branches in order to make an unobstructed road for
the moving of a building along a highway is frequently seen. * * * Ad-
jacent property owners * * * should obtain from the court an injunction,
by means of which the work could be delayed until a judgment may be given.

The regrading, widening, and general improvement of highways cause an-
nually the unnecessary loss of many beautiful park and avenue trees. Often,
with no intelligent person to direct this part of the work, large numbers of
trees are removed which could well have remained. Because a street has been
widened, and a valuable tree stands where it may inconvenience traffic a little
in the new arrangement, is not sufficient justification for its removal. In such
Instances, the situation should be carefully investigated and the evidence- on
both sides considered. The sentiments associated with old landmarks are
often too strong to be considered as trifling. The tree to be removed may be
so valuable a factor in the esthetic life of the community that the inconvenience
of going around it will never be great enough to warrant its removal.

In regrading lawn areas it sometimes becomes necessary to make deep cuts
or large fills about the bases of trees, which would cause their death were they
not properly protected. In general, when cuts or fills average between 1 foot
and 3 feet in depth, the tree may be preserved by leaving a mound for cuts;
or, in the case of fills by building a well around the trunk to keep the soil from
the bark (see fig. 2). Trees injured as a result of removing soil from the base

die because the roots dry
out, while those injured
from fills die because the
soil packed around the trunk
suffocates that part of the
tree, kills the small feed
roots, and rots the bark.
A few of the very hardy
species of trees will survive
such conditions of fill, while
others are very susceptible to
its ill effects.

Trees with brittle wood, as well as broad-headed, vase- formed
trees, are often seriously injured by wind and ice storms. " Protec-
tion can be given best only by a correct selection of deciduous trees,
and by keeping from conifers the heavy loads of snow, which break
the branches during the winter." All dead wood should be removed,
both for the sake of appearance and because it is a source of danger
to the public.

Trees are often injured, and sometimes killed, from the effects of
freezing.

The greatest danger from freezing lies not in the fact that many trees in a
normal condition of growth are killed back, but rather that improper pruning
and unprotected wounds cause cavities to appear on the trunk and larger
branches; these fill with water during the summer months, and during the
winter months the ice formed in them splits seams up and down these parts
of a tree (see fig. 3). These seams or cracks, small at first, close during the
first summer, but during the succeeding winter are again subjected to freezing

around trees.

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI,

11

processes, which open permanent cracks that continue to increase in size from
year to year, and to give
free access to the many
disintegrating processes of
nature. The only protec-
tion for such a tree is to
employ some one who is
fully informed on the
methods of tree surgery
to seal the cavity, and
thus prevent further decay
or freezing.

In selecting a species
for planting in any par-
ticular region it is best
not to accept the advice of
a journeyman nurseryman,
but rather to seek some
one who is acquainted
with the climatic condi-
tions of the region and
who knows the degree of
hardiness that a species
should possess to be grown
successfully.

Other sources of in-
jury discussed in the
bulletin referred to are
horse bites, grazing by
wagon wheels, starv-
ing of root systems,
smoke and gas from
factories, overcrowd-
ing by improper spac-
ing, and girdling by
wire labels. Trees can
be readily protected
from horses and ve-
hicles by using some
sort of guard. One
made of wire netting,
as illustrated in figure
4, is both neat and
effective. There are
many good ready-
made guards on the j
market.

360

FIG. 3. — Preservation by means of cement filling.

12

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI.

These guards should be removed as soon as the trees attain the size when
binding is likely to take place. Such binding is likely to force the upper part
of the trunk to grow out over the top of the guard and so lessen the strength of
the tree, if not completely to girdle it.

In some cities ordinances provide penalties for the hitching of horses to
trees on the highway, and such ordinances should be enforced. * * * Each
community must expect a certain amount of accidental injury from this source ;

but no community should permit the custom to
prevail of making a hitching post of a tree stand-
ing in front of a residence.

Trees that show injury from the above causes,
and especially those that have areas of the trunk
devoid of bark, should be given attention without
delay, the ragged edges of the bark being cut to a
smooth edge and the entire area covered with paint
or tar to protect the wood during the process of
healing.

The soil along the streets and highways
is frequently of a sterile nature. This is
particularly true wh'ere big fills or deep cuts
have been made. In some cases the soils are
too wet and in others they are too dry for
favorable root development.

The trees on city streets suffer most often be-
cause of a naturally poor soil and a lack of suffi-
cient water supply. City streets that are ma-
cadamized, paved, or concreted present a surface
layer that shuts off almost completely the natural
means by which water may reach the roots, and
directs all of the surface drainage into catch-
basins and sewers. Thus, trees on such streets
are subjected to the extreme of adverse conditions,
and their natural vitality and soil adaptation
must be such that they can withstand the abnor-
mal strain on their vitality or they are certain to
meet with an unnatural and premature death.
Only a very small percentage of the trees used
for city work are of the species best adapted to
withstand the conditions.

A scarcity of water from the surface, together
with an abundant supply from the subsoil, fosters
the production of deep-seated roots, which are one
of the most valuable assets of a good shade tree.
On the other hand, a thoroughly water-clogged soil
admits no air circulation and increases the tendency to the development of
surface roots, which are killed during periods of drought; it also provides
avenues for root diseases, and finally leads to the death of the tree. Poor
soils bring about the condition often known as " stag-head," the symptoms of
which are a stunted and sickly appearance of the tree, the presence of slender
and weak branches, and a sparsely scattered yellow foliage. The remedy for
such a condition depends on its stage of development when detected. In its
360

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI. 13

early stages the tree may be rejuvenated by digging out a quantity of the poor
soil and replacing with good loam; if the specimen shows too great a degree
of weakness it had better be substitued by a younger, vigorous specimen.

Along city streets, where conditions are so often unfavorable to
tree growth, the holes for newly planted trees should be filled with
loamy soil, and they should be large enough to provide for future
root development. A bed 4 feet wide by 8 feet long and 2 feet deep is
none too large. In streets which are often congested with people it
may not be feasible to leave such a large open space for each tree. In
such cases an iron grating, as shown in figure 5, can be placed over
the area that is not paved. This will prevent the soil from becoming
impenetrable to surface water.

In large manufacturing centers smoke and atmospheric gases are
often present in sufficient quantities to seriously injure or even kill the
surrounding trees. " The functions of the leaves are retarded in two
ways : First, the breathing pores, or stomata, become choked with the
soot; and, second, many gases in themselves may be poisonous, even
when diluted with the atmosphere." Since most trees are subject to
the effects of smoke and
gas, it is highly advisable
that "trees should be se-
lected on the basis of re-
sults secured with similar
species in other cities and
towns under similar con-
ditions." Municipal au- FIG. e.-A grating to cover " well"
thorities may be able to

prevent the excessive production of smoke and gases, but it is very
probable that they will always be present in considerable quantities
wherever factory interests are large.

Overcrowding of street trees can be prevented if the trees are prop-
erly spaced when planted. Information relative to the space required
for the normal development of our shade-tree species is not difficult
to obtain. In situations where there are no shade trees, there is a
tendency to plant close, in order to secure shade quickly. There is
danger in the close planting of young trees, however, due to " the
necessity of their removal at a subsequent date, when only a person
possessing the courage of his convictions will take out the trees that
should be sacrificed. * Every town and city possesses trees

that are suffering from this evil of overcrowding. Each community
should designate some intelligent person to direct the work of caring
for the pruning of such trees, who, despite false sentiment, will
accomplish the work."

Trees that have been seriously girdled through failure to remove
the label wires, or from other causes, can often be saved by bridge-

360

14

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI.

grafting the wounded part. " This is done by trimming smooth the
edges of the girdled part and inserting scions of the same species
under the bark in such a way that the wound is bridged over (see
fig. 6). These scions, being placed very close together around the
stem, become united at the ends with the old trunk and serve to con-
duct the elaborated food material down to the lower parts of the tree.
During the period of uniting the scions are covered with grafting wax
much as is an ordinary graft, and no shoots developing from buds
on the scions are permitted to grow. In time, as the tree develops,
the wounded part is entirely healed."

Mr. Taylor calls attention to two forms of tree butchery or improper
pruning : " The butchery that is practiced when wires are first strung,
and later at intervals to prevent the subsequent
growths from coming in contact with the wires,"
and the butchery by men " who, through igno-
rance of the fundamental principles which underlie
the operations they would perform, and yet with
the best of intentions, have ruined whole avenues
of valuable trees by the very process which was
intended to prolong the lives of these trees and to
add to their beauty and usefulness." Such care-
less or ignorant treatment results in many ugly
wounds and projecting stubs of dead branches
which, if neglected, may lead to the development
of large cavities. Tree owners in general should
employ only well-recommended persons to prune
their trees and to treat existing wounds. The
treatment of such wounds has, in recent years,
become known as " tree surgery ; "

FIG. 6. — Bridge graft-
ing, for the preser-
vation of girdled
trees.

Systematic pruning and tree surgery are very closely
related. Tree surgery includes the intelligent protection
of all mechanical injuries and cavities. Pruning requires
a previous intimate knowledge of the habits of growth
of trees; surgery, on the other hand, requires, in addi-
tion, a knowledge of the best methods for making cavities
air-tight and preventing decay. The filling of cavities in trees has not been
practiced sufficiently long to warrant making a definite statement as to the per-
manent success or failure of the operation ; the work is still in an experimental
stage. The caring for cavities in trees must be urged as the only means of
preserving affected specimens, and the preservation of many noble specimens
has been at least temporarily assured through the efforts of those practicing
this kind of work.

The subject of pruning as well as the protection of wounds and the
treatment of hollow trunks is discussed in a previous Farmers' Bul-
letin ° and will not be further considered at this time. The reader

360

0 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 181.

EXPERIMENT STATION WOBK, LI. 15

is also referred to bulletins dealing with insect enemies of trees,0 tree
planting on rural grounds,6 and beautifying the home grounds.0

The literature on the subject of shade-tree protection will be of the
most value when it serves as a means for preventing rather than
curing injuries. By far the greater part of the injuries from which
trees suffer can be prevented. When once inflicted, however, it is
often very difficult or even impossible to remedy them adequately.
In many cases the existing laws are quite sufficient to give all the
protection desired. The people should know the laws, and have in-
terest enough in the preservation of trees to insist that they shall be
obeyed. The most successful plan for cities and large towns seems
to be to place the care of street trees directly in charge of a commis-
sion or park board empowered by special ordinances to carry out
its plans. This gives opportunity for a systematic development of
tree culture throughout the entire community and makes it possible
to employ experts to direct the work. Similar arrangements can also
be adopted in smaller communities with such changes as are neces-
sary to suit local conditions.

SPRAYING FOE WEEDS."

The eradication of weeds by other than cultural methods has been
a subject of study at a number of the agricultural experiment sta-
tions and elsewhere. This has resulted in the discovery that various
chemicals through their corrosive or other action will destroy many
kinds of weeds. As long ago as 1895 it was shown by the Vermont
Station that the orange hawkweed, a pest in lawns and pastures,
could be controlled by sowing salt over the lawns at the rate of about
3,000 pounds per acre without injury to the grass. Lime, salt,
arsenite of soda, gasoline, kerosene, crude carbolic acid, and copper
sulphate have all been recommended for destroying weeds in drives,
walks, tennis courts, and other places where it is desired to keep
down all plant growth. Where cultivated plants are grown, thorough
tillage can be relied upon to keep down weeds, but the serious prob-
lem of eradicating weeds in grain fields, pastures, and large lawns
is the one to which present consideration is given. For this purpose,
whatever materials are used they must not be seriously injurious to

0 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 99 ; 296, p. 19.

6 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 134.

CU. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 185.

d Compiled from Minnesota Sta. Bui. 95; North Dakota Sta. Bui. 80; Rpt
1907, p. 76; Rhode Island Sta. Rpt. 1906, p. 159; Vermont Sta. Rpt. 1895, p.
115 ; Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1906, p. 259. See also U. S. Dept Agr., Farmers' Buls.
.124, p. 19, and 296, p. 10.
360

10 EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, L/I.

the grain crop or the grass, yet they must be sufficiently destructive
of weeds to make their use economically practicable.

In parts of the grain-producing States of the Northwest, wild
mustard, or charlock, and wild radish have become especially trouble-
some, the wild mustard particularly so. This weed is very common
in wheat, oat, flax, and other grain fields from Wisconsin to the
Dakotas and adjoining States, and it not only crowds out more
valuable plants, but it may become positively injurious through its
abundance. Like many others of our most troublesome species, the
wild mustard is of European origin, and for many years spraying
with corrosive chemicals has been practiced in the warfare against
the pest in Europe. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) and iron sulphate
(green vitriol or copperas) are the substances most used. Both are
efficient in destroying the wild mustard, the principal difference
being in their relative cost. The blue vitriol costs more per pound,
but does not require as strong a solution as is necessary of iron sul-
phate or copperas. There is now on the market a granular form of
iron sulphate that can be secured for about $10 or $12 per ton, or
even less when bought in large quantities. This is applied in the
form of a solution, about 100 pounds of copperas being dissolved in
50 gallons of water. At this rate it makes about a 20 per cent solu-
tion, and 50 gallons is sufficient for spraying 1 acre, if properly
applied. For its application a good spraying machine is required,
and if a considerable area is to be treated one of the better power
sprayers that deliver the solution with considerable force should be
used. For small areas, hand or knapsack sprayers may be employed.

The directions given by the Wisconsin Station for spraying oat
fields with a solution of iron sulphate for the eradication of wild
mustard will apply to the treatment of almost any grain or grass
field.

The spraying should be done on a calm, bright day, after the dew has dis-
appeared, as the work is more effective if the solution is put on in the warm
sunlight. When rain follows the spraying within a few hours the extermi-
nation of the mustard will not be complete.

The grain fields should be sprayed when the mustard plants are in the third
leaf, or before the plants are in blossom, in order to have the spray do the
most effective work. The day following the spraying the tips of the blades
of grain may be somewhat blackened, but no detrimental effects can be noticed,
either to the crop or grasses seeded with it, two weeks after spraying.

Daisies, cocklebur, bindweed, ragweed, chicory, sheep sorrel, yellow dock,
wild lettuce, and many other weeds were partially or wholly eradicated from
the fields where tests were made for the extermination of mustard.

In addition to the charlock, or wild mustard, and those mentioned
above, other weeds are destroyed by the spray without injury to the

360

EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI. 17

crops, among them, according to the reports from the North Dakota
Station, being the very troublesome Canada thistle.

The explanation of the action of the chemicals seems to be about
as follows: The chemical, which is corrosive, attacks the young and
tender tissues of the rapidly growing weeds, causing their destruc-
tion, while there is little if any injury to the grain crop, particularly
if it is a winter grain or one that was sown early in the spring, so
that the crop has gained considerable growth before the spraying.

Investigations at the North Dakota Station with chemical means
for the control of weed pests have shown that in addition to weeds
in fields, such persistent weeds as dandelions may be eradicated in
lawns, parks, and meadows by thorough spraying with the iron sul-
phate solution without any injury to the lawn or pasture grass. In
the region about Fargo, where the experiments were conducted, spray-
ing once a month or every six weeks throughout the year was found
to keep the dandelion in check. For spraying lawns the applica-
tion should be made a few days after the grass has been cut, with a
solution of about 2 pounds of iron sulphate to a gallon of water.
The spray should be forcibly applied, not merely sprinkled over the
weeds, on a bright sunshiny day, and the lawn should not be mown
for two or three days after the spraying. Heavy rains soon after
the spraying will destroy the weed-killing power of the solution.
Wherever chemicals are used for weed eradication on lawns it will
be found advisable to scatter grass seed over the lawn each spring
and fall.

In many regions alfalfa and clover fields are infested with dodder,
a parasitic plant that may be recognized by its yellow, thread-like
stems which entwine the plants. Hiltner0 says that dodder may
be destroyed by spraying infested areas with an 18 to 20 per cent
solution of iron sulphate. The immediate effect of the chemical is to
blacken the clover or alfalfa, but after a short time the crop recovers
and is as vigorous as ever, while the dodder has been completely
destroyed. In South Africa,6 spraying alfalfa with sodium arsenite
at the rate of one-half pound to 5 gallons of water when well applied
was found to destroy dodder with little injury to the alfalfa.

MAKKET CLASSES AND GEADES OF SHEEP/

A recent bulletin of the Illinois Station, by W. C. Coffey, defines
and illustrates the various classes and grades of sheep recognized on
the Chicago and other large markets. The information is intended

a Prakt Bl. Pflanzenbau u. Schutz, n. ser., 6 (1908), No. 4, p. 40.
6Agr. Jour. Cape Good Hope, 32 (1908), No. 2, p. 152.

c Compiled from Illinois Sta. Bui. 129. For classification of other farm ani-
mals see U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Buls. 222, p. 24 ; 334, p. 22.
360

18 EXPERIMENT STATION WORK, LI. v

i

to aid those engaged in growing and handling sheep to understand',
and apply the market reports.

The grower or feeder offering sheep for sale often forms a very imperfect
estimate of their market value, and chiefly because his contact with the open
market has not been sufficient to familiarize him with the factors embodied
by the various terms in market reports. * * * Because his judgment as to
the true market worth of his sheep is uncertain, the owner may suffer a finan-
cial loss in dealing with a local buyer by selling under the market value or by
missing a sale by asking too much for them. If, at the time of sale, the owner
could definitely determine the value of his sheep, he would experience less
difficulty in coming to an early understanding with the local buyer, or in case
he shipped them direct to the open market, the chances for disappointment and
dissatisfaction would be greatly reduced. While it is the privilege of a few to
visit the markets often and there learn the requirements and the demands for
the different grades in the various classes, the great majority of sheep owners,
and many feeders, must depend largely upon the market reports for such in-
formation, and the value of these reports to the man who proposes to buy or
sell sheep is determined by the extent to which he can apply them to his par-
ticular purchase or sale.

MUTTON SHEEP.

Under this head are classed " all sheep and lambs sent to market
for slaughter, no matter what the condition, age, or weight," includ-
ing both native and western sheep.

Native sheep are those produced, ordinarily in small flocks, on the farms of
the Central, Southern, and Eastern States. Western sheep are those produced,
usually in large bands, on the ranges of the Western States. As a rule, western
sheep have enough Merino blood to make them markedly different in appear-
ance from natives which are mostly from mutton-bred parents. But even were
they identical in breeding, buyers and salesmen on the market could easily
distinguish between them because of differences resulting from the way in
which they are fed and managed. On markets where both native and western
sheep are received, the daily reports nearly always distinguish between them,
but in this bulletin no attempt is made to classify them separately where they
are both put to the same use. Hence both native and western sheep are placed
in the mutton and in the breeding classes, but only western sheep are placed
in the feeder class. While thin natives are often bought up in the country and
successfully fed, those that reach the market in low condition do not sell as
feeders because they are usually infested with internal parasites, thus making
it difficult and in many instances impossible to fatten them.

It is stated that a common practice is " to prefix the word ' fed '
before a certain class and grade to distinguish grain from grass-
fattened sheep. The term is used for a short time in the autumn and
in the spring when both grain and grass fattened sheep are coming
to market."

Lambs. — Of the various subclasses of mutton sheep " the one known
as ' lambs ' is by far the most important, due to the fact that the pro-
ducer can most profitably market his sheep as lambs and also that
lamb is preferred to mutton by the consumer. * * *

360

(

BULLETIN No. I7O

SEPTEMBER, 1916

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

SHADE TREES,

CHARACTERISTICS, ADAPTATION,
DISEASES AND CARE.

DIVISION

FORESTK

I

COLLEGE Of «& A6 I».
UNI VCR S IT Y

Requests for bulletins should be addressed to the

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST, MASS.

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.

Trustees.

OFFICERS AND STAFF.

COMMITTEE.

CHARLES H. PRESTON, Chairman,
WILFRID WHEELER,
EDMUND MORTIMER, »
ARTHUR G. POLLARD,
HAROLD L. FROST, .

The President of the College, ex officio.
The Director of the Station, ex officio.

Hathorne.
Concord.
Graf ton.
Lowell.
Arlington.

STATION STAFF.

Administration. WILLIAM P. BROOKS, Ph.D., Director.

JOSEPH B. LINDSET, Ph.D., Vice-Director.
FRED C. KENNET, Treasurer.
CHARLES R. GREEN, B.Agr., Librarian.
Mrs. LUCIA G. CHURCH, Clerk.
Miss F. ETHEL FELTON, A.B., Clerk.

Agricultural
Economics.

ALEXANDER E. CANCE, Ph.D., Agricultural Economist.

Agriculture. WILLIAM P. BROOKS, Ph.D., Agriculturist.

HENRY J. FRANKLIN, Ph.D., In Charge Cranberry Sub-
station.

EDWIN F. GASKILL, B.Sc., Assistant Agriculturist.
ROBERT L. COFFIN, Assistant.

Botany.

A. VINCENT OSMUN, M.Sc., Botanist.
GEORGE H. CHAPMAN, Ph.D., Research Physiologist.
PAUL J. ANDERSON, Ph.D., Associate Plant Pathologist.
ORTON L. CLARK, BiSc., Assistant Plant Physiologist.
Miss GRACE B. NUTTING, Ph.B., Clerk.

Chemistry.

JOSEPH B. LINDSET, Ph.D., Chemist.

EDWARD B. HOLLAND, Ph.D., Associate Chemist in Charge

(Research Section).

FRED W. MORSE, M.Sc., Research Chemist.
HENRI D. HASKINS, B.Sc., Chemist in Charge (Fertilizer

Section).
PHILIP H. SMITH, M.Sc., Chemist in Charge (Feed and Dairy

Section) .

LEWELL S. WALKER, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist.
RUDOLF W. RUPRECHT, Ph.D., Assistant Chemist.
CARLETON P. JONES, M.Sc., Assistant Chemist.
CARLOS L. BEALS, M.Sc., Assistant Chemist.
JAMES P. BUCKLEY, Jr., Assistant Chemist.
W. A. ALLEN, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist.
JAMES T. HOWARD, Inspector.
HARRY L. ALLEN, Assistant in Laboratory.
JAMES R. ALCOCK, Assistant in Animal Nutrition.
Miss ALICE M. HOWARD, Clerk.
Miss REBECCA L. MELLOR, Clerk.

Entomology. HENRY T. FERNALD, Ph.D., Entomologist.

BURTON N. GATES, Ph.D., Apiarist.
ARTHUR I. BOURNE, A.B., Assistant Entomologist.
S. C. VINAL, B.Sc., Graduate Assistant.
Miss BRIDIE E. O'DONNELL, Clerk.

Horticulture. FRANK A. WAUGH, M.Sc., Horticulturist.

FRED C. SEARS,1 M.Sc., Pomologist.
JACOB K. SHAW, Ph.D., Research Pomologist.
HAROLD F. TOMPSON, B.Sc., Market Gardener.
R. P. ARMSTRONG, M.Sc., Graduate Assistant.
Miss ELEANOR BARKER, Clerk.

Meteorology.

JOHN E. OSTRANDER, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist.
J. S. SIMS, Observer.

Microbiology. CHARLES E. MARSHALL, Ph.D., Microbiologist.

F. H. HESSELINK VAN SUCHTELEN, Ph.D., Research Micro-
biologist.

Poultry Husbandry. JOHN C. GRAHAM, B.Sc., Poultry Husbandman. •
HUBERT D. GOODALE, Ph.D., Research Biologist.
LLOYD L. STEWART, B.Sc., Graduate Assistant.
Miss MARCELLA C. CURRY, B.Sc., Clerk.

Veterinary Science.

JAMES B. PAIGE, B.Sc., D.V.S., Veterinarian.
G. EDWARD GAGE, Ph.D., Research Pathologist.
ARNOLD B. STURTEVANT, A.B., Assistant.
J. B. LENTZ, V.M.D., Assistant.

i On leave.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction,

Requirements of shade trees, .

Adaptability to climatic conditions,

Hardiness and resistance,

Configuration and conformity,

Longevity,

Rapidity of growth,

Shade production,

Root peculiarities or habits,

Neatness, ....

^Esthetic value, .

Susceptibility to insect pests and diseases,
Commercial importance,
Street and roadside trees,
What shall we plant?
Rapidity of growth of trees,
Streets and avenues, .... .141

Distance to plant, .......

Country roadsides, ...... • 145

Root characteristics, . . . . . . . . . .146

Depth of roots, . 147

Obstruction of sewer tile, etc., by roots of trees, . . . . .148
Branching characteristics, ......... 148

Soil conditions, texture, etc 149

Soil covers, lawns, macadam, etc., ........ 152

Excavations, curbings and sidewalks, . . . . . . . 153

Effects of light and shade, . . . . . . . . .154

Transplanting, . . . . . . . . . . .155

Tree surgery, ........... 159

Pruning 160

Healing of wounds, .......... 164

Disinfectants for wounds and cavities, ....... 165

Chaining and bolting trees, . . . . . . . . .167

Treating decayed cavities, filling, etc., ....... 170

Methods of treating cavities, ........ 173

Shaping the cavity, 175

Concrete fillings, 176

Sectional concrete fillings, 179

Concrete coverings for the cavity opening, . . . . . .181

Metal coverings, ..... ... 181

Elastic cement 182

Asphalt fillings 183

Wooden block method 184

Tree guards ... 185

Fertilizing trees, . . 187

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Diseases of trees, ........... 188

Diagnosis of disease, . . . . . . . • . . . 189

Fungous diseases of trees, ......... 190

Wood-destroying fungi, ......... 196

Slime-flux 198

Treatment of fungous diseases of trees, . . . . . . .198

Winter injuries, ........... 199

Winter injuries of roots, ......... 200

Winter injuries above ground, ........ 204

Frost cracks, ........... 204

Winterkilling of cork cambium, ........ 206

Sun scald, 207

Drought, 208

Sun scorch and bronzing of leaves, ........ 210

Mechanical injuries, ....... . 212

Earth fillings around trees, ......... 214

Bleeding of trees, 215

Injurious chemical substances, 216

Kerosene oil, ........... 216

Gas oil, 216

Paint 218

Miscible oils, ........... 218

Road oil, 218

Creosote, 218

Coal tar 218

Salt, 219

Other injurious substances 219

Banding substances, .......... 219

Effects of illuminating gas on trees, ........ 220

Effects of atmospheric gases on vegetation, ...... 228

Electrical injuries, ........... 233

Effects of alternating currents, ........ 235

General effects of direct currents, . . . . . . . . 236

Death of trees from direct current, 238

Electrolysis 241

Lightning, 241

Earth discharges, .......... 242

Susceptibility of different trees to lightning stroke, .... 244

Injuries to trees from arc lamps, ........ 245

Injury to trees from wires, ..... . 246

The spraying of shade trees, ......... 249

Valuation of shade trees, 255

Court decisions concerning damages to trees, 258

Codified shade tree laws of Massachusetts, 1915, 261

PUBLICATION1" OF THIS DOCUMENT

APPROVED BY THE
SUPERVISOR OF ADMINISTRATION.

f«OP£f?Tr

FOR!!'

<

,.AU*V

BULLETIN No. 170.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.

SHADE TREES, CHARACTERISTICS, ADAPTA-
TION, DISEASES AND CARE.

BY GEORGE E. STONE.

INTRODUCTION.

The general interest in shade trees, particularly in the eastern States,
well illustrated by the amount of money expended upon them and the
many questions asked concerning their welfare, has created a demand
for a brief, practical bulletin covering the various questions relative to
shade trees and their management. Bulletin No. 125, issued in 1908 by
the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station and the Massachu-
setts Forestry Association, covered the subject in a general way, but the
publication is now exhausted.

Shade trees add greatly to the desirability of a community as a place
of residence, and their aesthetic value cannot be estimated in dollars and
cents. It is no exaggeration to say that the complete destruction of all
the trees and shrubbery would reduce the valuation of some cities and
towns very materially.

Trees also possess a utilitarian value which is recognized by the courts,
and for the careless destruction of street trees the abutter is entitled to
compensation. A street tree adds value to real estate in the same way
that a sidewalk or curbing does, but while the sidewalk and curbing may
deteriorate, a tree increases in value for many years; for example, a tree
originally costing §2 to set out may be worth 8150 in sixty years, which
is equivalent to 1\ per cent, compound interest on the investment.

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the care of shade trees. In
common with crops they give the best results under cultivation, but
unfortunately the best conditions do not always exist. Trees grow fairly
well on lawns, however, especially when the lawn is occasionally fertilized.
Conditions on congested streets are quite different. Many of the trees
on our village greens, where often little attention is given to their care,
show neglect and need of better treatment. In many places they have

124 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

been growing for years in sod to which no fertilizer has been applied and
a hay crop removed annually, and in such cases one year's use of a plow
and harrow, together with manuring and some kind of cropping, would
work wonders in restoring them.

In applying remedies to trees it is well to be on the conservative side,
since it is a very easy matter to cause them serious injury. The dif-
ferent spraying mixtures, etc., recommended for trees are not always to
be depended upon, and many trees are injured by their use; hence a
word of caution is not out of place. Unfortunately, at the present time
it is necessary to be on the watch for fake "tree doctors" who often do
more damage to trees than good. This class of so-called "tree experts"
has greatly increased within the last few years, and in some localities
has become a nuisance. The "tree faker " is not only ignorant and incom-
petent, but is dishonest and a "divine right" fiend. There is another
class of workers who may be ignorant, but honest; and still another
class possessing some intelligent ideas as to tree work and a desire to be
conscientious, but they fail to produce the best results. The men who
possess sufficient technical knowledge and skill to undertake work on
trees are comparatively rare, although fortunately there are a few com-
petent firms and professional men who are capable of giving advice in
regard to the treatment of trees.

The tree warden should be, and often is, a man of intelligence and
common sense, and one to be called upon for advice pertaining to trees.

REQUIREMENTS OF SHADE TREES.

As a rule, those trees should be planted which are known to thrive
well in the particular environment under consideration. The fact that
a tree does not grow naturally in one locality is no evidence that it will
not thrive in some other, and it is well known that species of trees peculiar
to wet places will grow in those inclined to be dry; but there is a limit
to the adaptability of trees as regards their best growth and development
which should be taken into consideration. A species naturally adapted
to a wet environment is more likely to suffer from the effects of extreme
meteorological conditions when planted in a dry situation than one
normal to such places. The nature of the soil environment is, therefore,
important; and there are many other factors which enter very largely
into the problem of selection and planting of shade trees. Naturall}'
there is a considerable difference of opinion in regard to what are the
best trees to plant. It is important, therefore, to choose those species
which are best adapted to the conditions under which they are to be
grown, all trees having their weaknesses and defects, and perfection being
no more common to trees than to the human race. The past decade has
been characterized by extremely erratic conditions, such as unprecedented
drought during the growing season, and severe winters, both of which
have been responsible for so much deterioration of trees that the question
of selecting resistant types has been a vexing one. Moreover, the presence

SHADE TREES. 125

of destructive insects and fungous pests, which heretofore have not been
troublesome, has rendered the problem still more perplexing.

Some of the factors which enter into the problem of selecting species
and varieties for shade trees are the following: —

Adaptability to Climatic Conditions.

One of the first requisites in selecting a tree for street planting is a
knowledge of its climatic requirements. Many species of trees are likely to
suffer from extreme meteorological conditions, and even species indigenous
to a certain region may prove a failure when planted in a city or town as
shade or street trees. There are also certain species which have their
limitations as regards climate, such as some Japanese varieties, and in
planting this should be taken into account. Under adaptability to climatic
conditions is included the ability of a species to withstand the detrimental
effects resulting from heat and cold, wind, snow and ice. atmosphere and
soil moisture and light intensity.

Hardiness and Resistance.

Hardiness and resistance are the capacity of a species to withstand
extremes of climate and the more or less abnormal and severe conditions
of the particular environment in which it may be placed. These may
arise in part from the peculiar atmospheric and soil conditions which
are characteristic of congested settlements where the soil has been made
from various types of refuse, or may be due to the presence of large man-
ufacturing establishments.

Configuration and Conformity.

The shape or form of a species, as well as its conformity to its environ-
ment, is essential. Wide avenues demand different species from narrow
avenues; ajid the habit of branching, root development, height, spread
of the crown and general symmetry of the tree should be considered.

Longei itij.

The age which a species is capable of attaining is important in its
selection for planting, and while short-lived trees may have their use in
certain places for temporary growth, a longer-lived variety should be
selected for permanent effects. While the causes underlying senescence
and rejuvenescence are hereditary in individuals, the life and usefulness
of a tree may be prolonged by treatment, and its configuration greatly
modified. Some trees, such as the apple, are readily rejuvenated, while
others respond very poorly to treatment.

Rapidity of Growth.

The growth of trees in general is quite variable. Even individuals of
the same species are different in this respect. Much also depends on
environment in the growth of trees. The modern tendency in tree plant-

126 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

ing is to secure quick results; hence during recent years much use has
been made on streets of the Carolina poplar and soft maples instead
of the better and more slowly growing species, such as rock maples, elms
and oaks. Excepting a few rapidly growing trees like the poplars and
others, there is not much difference in the rapidity of growth of different
species if they are given ideal conditions. While the production of quick
growths is quite legitimate in planting, the idea of a permanent effect
should not be lost sight of; and it is possible to accomplish both of these
results by methods of planting.

Shode Production.

The amount of shade produced by any kind of tree depends on the
shape of the crown and the density of the foliage. The more rapidly a
tree grows the more quickly shade is secured. The shape of the crown
varies with different species, but may be readily modified in such trees
as the poplar by pruning. Shade constitutes the important feature in
street trees, and is perhaps the most essential qualification of an orna-
mental tree.

Root Peculiarities or Habits.

The nature of the root development is an important factor in the
selection of shade trees. Such trees as the maple and elm possess large,
spreading root systems which are generally interfered with by street
repairs, excavations, etc., while some other trees more restricted in their
root development more often escape injury. The tendency of the roots
of some trees to penetrate drainage and sewer pipes is an objectionable
feature, as is also the upheaval of sidewalks, dislocation of curbings, etc.,
which result from the root development of certain species of street trees.

Neatness.

Much objection is often made to species like poplars, horse-chestnuts,
etc., that produce litter, which requires frequent cleaning up. Some
fruits, such as the mulberry, are mucilaginous and often become danger-
ous on sidewalks. Nut trees are also likely to be objectionable on resi-
dential streets because of the nature of their fruit and the liability of
injury to the trees when it is gathered. It should also be mentioned that
certain trees — such as the staminate form of Ailanthus — which emit
disagreeable and irritating odors are undesirable.

^Esthetic Value.

The modern civic requirements in street planting demand not only the
selection of healthy and vigorous trees and their general adaptation to the
physical conditions surrounding them, but the consideration of beauty,
taste and general arrangement as regards surroundings and conformity
to an intelligent treatment, or, in other words, the aesthetic and land-
sr-a.pt' features. At the present time city streets are often provided with

SHADE TREES. 127

parkways which are planted with shrubbery and trees, and consequently
both the nature of the species to be planted and the arrangement of the
individual trees should be studied in order to have them conform with
the general surroundings. This point of view of the matter is important
and should not be lost sight of, since the aesthetic arrangement of streets
and avenues adds to the value of adjoining estates in general.

ibnity to Insect Pests and Diseases.
Injurious fungi and insects are indigenous to every community, and
many new pests are constantly being introduced, so that it is impossible
to draw definite conclusions as regards immunity or susceptibility of any
species of shade trees or ornamental shrubbery to those organisms. Judg-
ment upon the probability of injury in any particular case must be based
upon individual experience. There are scarcely any shade trees, how-
ever. which are not regularly affected by certain insects and fungi, and
they are, moreover, subject to local and sporadic attacks. Trees which
are exceptionally susceptible to insects, fungi and other injurious factors
should be .sparingly planted.

Com mercial Importa nee.

Street trees are, as a rule, not planted for any commercial considera-
tion, and the commercial idea should always be a secondary one. It
happens, however, that sometimes the nature of the growth along country
roadsides is such that thinning may advantageously be done, much
good timber thus being obtained by the abutter; but this thinning should
be done with discretion. There are also quite a few trees, such as the
basswood and tulip, for example, and many shrubs, that are valuable
as honey species, and their utilitarian value in this respect should not
prevent their selection for planting. In European countries fruit trees
are often planted along the country roadsides, where they not only serve
ornamental purposes, but have a distinct commercial value in the pro-
duction of fruit.

STREET AND ROADSIDE TREES.

AMERICAN ELM (Ulmus americana}. — This is one of the most widely
planted trees in New England, where it reaches its height of perfection.
It is generally symmetrical in outline, attaining a good age, one hundred
to three hundred years, and often large dimensions. The best developed
types are majestic and more beautiful than any other tree known. Accord-
ing to Olmsted Brothers, landscape gardeners, "there is no other sort of
tree which gives the effect of a lofty, over-arching canopy of foliage, which
observation of village greens leads us to believe is the effect mostly to be
desired." It is difficult for an elm to thrive on dry, gravelly soil, and
when located in such situations it is inclined to be lanky, develops slowly,
and is unhealthy in appearance. It is best suited to a fertile, more or
less moist soil where fine sand and silts predominate, and is wrell adapted

128 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 1. — The Lancaster elm.

to lawns and roadsides, but not at all to mowings. The high branching

habits of this tree render it the best type we have for streets on which

there are numerous wires. In recent years it has become infested with

such insects as the elm-leaf beetle,
and most disastrously by the leopard
moth. It has suffered more of late
from the effect of drought than any
other tree, and extreme cold has
affected its root system to a con-
siderable extent. These defects have
been the means of discouraging its
planting. The elm has a habit of
occasionally shedding its leaves and
twigs, and is sometimes affected by
a leaf fungus (Dothidella).

SLIPPERY ELM (Ulmus fulva).—
Occasionally the slippery elm is
planted by mistake for the American
elm. It is, however, a much smaller
and inferior tree.
ENGLJSH ELM (Ulmus cam.pestris) . — This tree, which attains a large

size, is a handsome species, and was formerly planted more extensively,

at least in certain localities. It is,

however, more susceptible to the elm-
leaf beetle than our native species.

Other elms which may be mentioned

here are the Scotch elm (U. montana),

which is occasionally seen; the Cork

elm ( U. racemosa) , a tree of fairly good

size with a corky bark and of slow

growth; and the Japanese elm (U.

japonica), a handsome, symmetrical

tree of rapid growth, little known in

America. Although affected to some

extent by the elm-leaf beetle, this elm

gives promise of becoming a valuable

shade tree.

ROCK MAPLE (Acer saccharum). —

The maples as a whole have been more

extensively used for street planting

than trees of any other group. The

rock maple, like the elm, has been ex-
tensively employed as an ornamental

tree; indeed, there is no species that has been used more widely for

lawns and avenues than the rock maple. It is one of our handsomest

trees, being characterized by unusual symmetry and dense foliage. It

FIG. 2. —Type of feathered elm.

SHADE TREES.

129

develops rapidly under good soil
a diameter of 12 inches in fifteen

FIG. 3 — Rock maple growing in
pasture.

cent .specimens may occasionally
planted on avenues and lawns to
habit of its branches,
together with its liability
to injury, affect its value
somewhat for street plant-
ing. In most situations
its real value consists in its
rapid growth and ability
to produce quick shade
effects. It is attacked by
a leaf spot fungus (Rhy-
tisma) which, however,
does little harm.

RED MAPLE (Acer rub-
rum). — The red maple is
a tree of rapid growth,
well adapted to swamps
and fairly moist places.
It has been planted quite
extensively on streets,
often, no doubt, in mis-
take for the rock maple.
It develops large branches,
usually rather low, which
should be pruned at the

conditions, and occasionally will attain
or sixteen years. In some situations it
grows to be an enormous tree, and quite
often attains an age of one hundred and
fifty years or more. The rock maple is
sometimes affected with a leaf spot,
and is more susceptible than any other
tree to sun scorch and bronzing of the
foliage. It is also quite susceptible to
frost cracks. During the past five or six
years this tree has suffered much from
extreme drought, and as a result many
staghead specimens are to be seen.

WHITE OR SILVER MAPLE (Acer sac-
charinum). — This species is not equal
to the rock maple, either from the point
of view of durability or of beauty, and
it is too commonly disfigured by ice and
winds. It grows very rapidly, and in
southern New England, where magnifi-
be seen, it attains a great size. It is
a very large extent, but the drooping

FIG. 4. — Avenue of elms planted close.

130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

time of transplanting. The foliage of the red maple is inferior to that
of the rock maple both as regards color and density. This species has
suffered much from drought and winterkilling of roots, which is character-
ized by a "staghead" condition. The leaves are often conspicuously
spotted by the fungus Rhytisma.

NORWAY MAPLE (Acer platanoides) . — The Norway maple is a wide-
spreading tree, with large leaves which give a dense shade. It is well
suited to lawn planting, and is highly regarded for streets and roadsides.
The Norway maple is perhaps at the present day one of the most exten-
sively planted street trees, especially in cities. It is a rapidly growing
tree, and, at least when young, is very symmetrical and well adapted to
city conditions. However, whether the Norway maple will in the long
run prove equal to the rock maple as a shade tree under severe city -con-
ditions is a question. When planted in unfavorable locations it is some-
times badly affected with sun scald, and the small terminal branches
sometimes winterkill and become affected with the cinnamon colored
fungus Nectria.

WHITE OAK (Quercus alba). — This species is seldom planted as a
street tree because of its slow growth. Its habits of branching are not

always well adapted to streets,
although it makes magnificent in-
dividual specimens for lawns and
roadsides. It is occasionally
affected by a leaf fungus (Glceo-
sporium) and by various insects,
and is one of the preferred food
plants of the gypsy moth.

RED OAK (Quercus rubrd) . —
In former years little considera-
tion was given to the red oak as a
street or ornamental tree, although
recently it has received much well-
deserved attention. At present it
ranks among the first as a species
possessing all the required qualifi-
cations for planting. The growth
of the red oak is quite rapid; it is
symmetrical and clean in appear-
ance and exceptionally free from
injury resulting from insects, fungi
and other causes. It is adapted
to a variety of soils, quite easily

transplanted, and should bo moro extensively used as a street and country
roadside tree.

BLACK OR YELLOW OAK (Quercus velutina). — This oak is often found
associated with the red oak, but will tolerate much drier soils. It does

;. 5. — Specimen of red oak.

SHADE TREES. 131

38, however, the qualifications of the former species, and is best
adapted to country roadsides.

LET OAK (Quercus coccinea). — The scarlet oak is one of the most
beautiful oaks in New England. It is adapted to the driest and poorest
of soils, often being associated with the black or yellow oak. It is a tree
of slow growth, and on this account has been planted very sparingly in
the past. Recently, however, it has come to be more appreciated. The
beautiful scarlet foliage, characteristic of this tree in the fall, is much
admired. It is well suited to dry, gravelly soil where other trees, such as
the elm, will not thrive. In some cases it has been effectively alternated
on country roadsides with some tree of rapid growth, as the Carolina
poplar, the poplars being removed when the oaks have reached a fair
size. The scarlet oak is worthy of much more attention as a shade tree
than it has received, especially for suburban streets and country roadsides.

Fix OAK (Quercus palustris). — • The pin oak has its northern limit in
Ma»achusetts. and in the Connecticut valley, where it is found quite
abundantly, it becomes a handsome tree. It naturally grows in rich,
moist soil and often in water, and appears not to tolerate too dry con-
ditions. The symmetrical, triangular or pyramidal shape of the crown
and its drooping branches give it an individuality distinct from other
trees. The growth characteristic of this tree in New England appears to
be somewhat different from that further south, as is the case with most
trees. In the north it appears to retain its youthful form longer than
elsewhere. It should be planted in soil having a texture capable of hold-
ing moisture, and the addition of organic matter is advisable. Under
desirable soil conditions the pin oak attains a diameter of 6 or 7 inches in
nine or ten years. It is well adapted to narrow streets, and especially to
lawns and parks. The characteristic drooping habit of its limbs neces-
sitates careful and high pruning when planted on streets. The pin oak
resembles the red oak in being relatively free from troubles induced by
8, fungi, etc., and may be considered one of our most promising
shade trees.

MMS>Y CUP OAK (Quercus mmrocarpa) and swamp white oak (Quercus
bicolor) are sometimes planted on country roadsides. The latter, which
makes slow growth, is adapted to wet places.

BASS WOOD OR AMERICAN- LINDEN* (Tilia amcricana) is a native of New
England, but is seldom planted on streets, although it is adapted to certain
locations. It is a beautiful tree — with bright green foliage, graceful and
symmetrical when young, but when planted too closely it loses its lower
limbs and is inclined to early deterioration.

EUROPEAN LINDEN (Tilia sp.). — The linden has been much planted as
a shade tree, and is a good tree when young and vigorous. The tree is not
as a rule long lived, and it is often subject to sun scald and frost cracks
from which it deteriorates rapidly. It is also likely to be affected with
sooty mold, which follows the honeydew secretions of aphids. This
materially affects the appearance of the tree. There are several species

132 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Fiu. 6. — A venue of lindens.

of linden under cultivation which possess distinctive characteristics, and
these have been sadly confused by nurserymen. The two species most

commonly planted are T. vulgaris
and T. platyphyllos. According to
H. J. Koehler,1 T. milgaris is one
of the best trees to plant, while T.
platyphyllos is one of the worst.
Excellent types of lindens may
be seen in the Arnold Arboretum,
some of which will perhaps eventu-
ually prove superior to either of
the above species.

HORSE-CHESTNUT ((Esculus hyp-
pocastanum). — The horse-chest-
nut, like the linden, was introduced
from Europe, and has been much
planted on streets. It grows
rapidly, but it is not, as a rule, a
long-lived tree. It is affected by

a leaf -spot fungus (Phyllosticta) , sometimes losing much of its foliage
on this account, and often many of the twigs are winterkilled and affected
with Nectria. It is also susceptible to sun scald and frost crack, and
the amount of litter produced by the fruit is somewhat objectionable.
The red-flowering horse-chestnut is occasionally planted and is preferred
by many.

SYCAMORE (Platanus occidentalis). — Fine individual specimens of our
native sycamore may often be seen on lawns and roadsides in New Eng-
land, but it has been used in the past to a limited extent for avenue effects.
The sycamore has a wide range, being confined in the north to river
valleys. It naturally prefers a rich soil, and when transplanted under
good conditions it attains a large size. The sycamore will endure any
amount of pruning, and can be adapted to any street, even the busiest
thoroughfares. Much more use is made of the sycamore than formerly,
especially in cities, and the oriental species (P. orientalis) is also much
employed. The sycamore is severely affected with a leaf-spot fungus
(Gloeosporium} which often causes serious defoliation. The younger twigs
sometimes winterkill badly, but the tree will stand a great deal of hard
usage and mutilation.

AILANTHUS (Ailanthus glandulosa). — The Ailanthus may be termed
a "scavenger tree," as it will grow anywhere and will endure more trying
conditions than any other tree. It is frequently found growing along
railroad embankments, on dumping grounds, — in fact, no conditions seem
too severe for it. It is used to some extent as a street tree, and excellent
individual specimens may be seen here and there. Where quick effects
are desired it is worthy of consideration. The Ailanthus, which is a native

Landscape Architecture, July, 1915.

SHADE TREES.

133

of China, is often termed the "tree of heaven," concerning which Dr.
Asa Gray has well remarked that its blossoms are "redolent of anything
hut airs from heaven." To obviate the disagreeable odors arising from
this species only the pistillate trees should be used for planting, the dis-
agreeable odor being given off by the male or staminate flowers, which
are often borne on separate trees. The Ailanthus apparently tolerates
obnoxious atmospheric gases better than most other trees.

TULIP TREE (Liriodendron tulipifcra). — This is an excellent tree for
roadsides, although it is not very much planted. It is probably better

Fn;. 7. — Avenue of pin oaks transplanted seven years in 40 foot avenue.

suited to lawns and country streets than to the hard usage it might receive
on city streets. The tulip is indigenous to different parts of New England.
It is a difficult tree to transplant successfully, and this may account for
its not having been more extensively employed. This species attains a
large size, developing a large symmetrical crown with -handsome foliage.
It requires good, well-drained soil, and is best adapted to wide avenues
provided with generous tree belts. The leaves sometimes become badly
spotted from attacks of insects and fungi, but the loss in transplanting
and its lack of adaptability to certain situations are the chief objections
to its use as a street tree, at least in the north.

WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana). — This ash is commonly seen on
streets. It was formerly planted more extensively than at present. Our
measurements of a number of white ash trees which had grown in good

134 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

.soil and which were twenty-two years old showed an average diameter
of 16 inches, while others grown in dry, gravelly soil attained an average
diameter of only 12 inches during the same time. The white ash develops
a widespreading top, and is a fairly desirable shade tree, although in
too dry locations it may become affected by borers and scale insects. It
has suffered much in recent years from drought, winterkilling and in
some locations from a rust (Mcidium fraxini). Other species of ashes,
like the black ash, are occasionally planted accidentally for the white ash.

CUCUMBER TREE OR MAGNOLIA (Magnolia acuminata) has been highly
recommended by some authorities for roadside planting. It has been
employed extensively as an ornamental tree, but no attempt so far as we
know has been made to utilize it as a street tree in the north.

SWEET GUM (Liquidambar styraciflua) is a native farther south, Mas-
sachusetts appearing to be a little too far north for its best development.
At any rate we have observed no satisfactory growth of this species in
this section. It is subject to winterkilling and frost cracks in the north.

GINKGO (Ginkgo biloba), a Japanese species, is occasionally seen on
lawns, and forms a beautiful avenue on the agricultural grounds at Wash-
ington, D. C. Well-developed individual specimens of Ginkgo may be
observed here and there in New England, and this tree has been used to
some extent for street planting. It is adapted to a wide variety of soils,
and is remarkably free from diseases. It develops a narrow cylindrical
or conical crown, which adapts itself to narrow streets. This species is
undoubtedly better adapted to planting farther south than in New
England; nevertheless, it possesses many qualifications as a desirable
street tree, and should be utilized for this purpose in suitable locations.

CAROLINA POPLAR (Populus deltoides}, which is now quite extensively
planted, is one of the most rapidly growing species, and is a valuable tree
for producing quick effects. The Carolina poplar is especially useful to
fill in between trees of slow growth but of more desirable types. Good
avenues of this species may be seen about Boston in the metropolitan
park system, where the trees have been cut back to form a compact head.
This tree, however, is subject to various troubles, and is short lived. Two
other native species of poplar, i.e., P. grandidentata and P. tremuloides,
an> common, but have no value for planting.

BLACK OR ITALIAN POPLAR (Populus nigra). — This species has been
planted somewhat as a lawn and avenue tree. It grows even more rapidly
than the Carolina poplar, and possesses similar characteristics. It is
affected by a rust (Melampsora populind) which sometimes causes much
defoliation.

LOMBARDY POPLAR (P. nigra var. italica) has been planted sparingly
for more than a century in New England, and has come into wider use
of late. It is used somewhat on narrow avenues, although on account of
its ascending and close-branching habit of growth it does not furnish
much shade, and is, moreover, too stiff and conventional in appearance
for most plncos. The white or silver-leaved poplar (P. alba] and the

SHADE TREES. 135

balm of Gilead (P. candicans) have been planted occasionally on streets
and near dwellings for many years. The former, which is characterized
by its silvery leaves, grows to a large, widespreading tree.

BLACK LOCUST (Robinia pseudacacia) . — • The black locust is one of out-
most rapidly growing trees, and while it is spontaneous here it is native
farther south than New England. It adapts itself to severe conditions,
and withstands obnoxious atmospheric gases better than any other tree,
but it is so attacked by borers at times as to render its use as a street tree
of little account. It is a valuable honey tree, and may be employed as a
hedgerow or screen near dwellings, and near smelters and large man-
ufacturing plants where noxious gases prevail.

HONEY LOCUST (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tree reaching large dimen-
sions and provided with stout thorns. It is sometimes used in planting".

CHESTXUT (Castama dent-ata) frequently grows profusely along, road-
sides and at times on lawns. It is not adapted to street planting on
account of the litter accompanying fruiting, and its rapid destruction,
from the blight at present renders this species useless for any purpose; -

HACKBERRY (Celtis occidentalis) , which is closely related to pur elm.
is found sparingly in some of our river valleys, and occasionally jnet
with on streets side by side with the elm. During recent years some have
advised planting this tree instead of the elm, as it is said, to be less: sus-
ceptible to insects, particularly the elm-leaf beetle. It is a much inferior,
tree, however, to the elm.

HARDY CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa) is more at home in the west, al-
though used here as an ornamental tree. With us it does not sustain its
western reputation for growth, and according to our observations it has
little or no value as a street tree in most northern sections. ,

Some of the willows are employed effectively for planting near marshes
and low, swampy grounds. They afford protection to roadsides and are
valuable as screens to unsightly places. The laurel-leaved or bay willow.
(Sdix pentandra), which attains a height of 20 or 25 feet, is used on
country roadsides and sometimes on lawns. It has dark green, glossy
foliage. It is adapted to hedges and thrives well near the seashore. The
weeping willow (Salix babylonica) and a few other forms are planted for
ornamentation and shade-producing effects.

Fine individual specimens of the black walnut (Juglans nigra), a tree
sparingly native in New England, may be seen on lawns, but according
to our observations on the results of planting this species on roadsides it
appears to be a failure as a shade tree.

Box elder (Xegundo aceroides) is occasionally grown near dwellings, but
is not a satisfactory street tree under New England conditions.

The various conifers may be used under suitable conditions, such as
on country roadsides, and some use is made of them for this purpose.
The white pine and Norway spruce are sometimes planted along road-
sides, and are especially valuable as wind breaks. The European larch,
Scotch and Austrian pines, as well as our superior red pine, may be em-

136 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

ployed advantageously for the same purpose. The shade produced by
roadside planting is beneficial to a roadbed, as it prevents the rapid
evaporation of water from the surface, and has a similar effect in this
respect to some chemical road dressings in controlling dust. Moreover,
a roadbed under such conditions retains its surface better than one con-
stantly exposed to the sun, and there is less trouble from drifting snow.
Since new plant material is being constantly introduced into the United
States from foreign countries there is a likelihood of some new and desir-
able species of shade trees
becoming available in the
future.

The large and unrivaled
collection of trees to be
seen in the Arnold Arbo-
retum, Jamaica Plain,
Mass., furnishes good ex-
amples for consideration.
According to the most
experienced planters the
trees best suited for street
purposes in New England
are as follows: elm, rock,
white, red and Norway
maples, red, scarlet and
pin oaks, basswood, tulip
tree, Ginkgo, cucumber
tree, hackberry, English
elm, horse-chestnut, syca-
more and white ash.

For wide avenues large
species such as the elm,
rock and white maples,
tulip tree, sycamore, etc.,

are recommended; and for narrow streets the pin oak, Norway maple,
sweet gum, catalpa, Ginkgo and horse-chestnut. For severe conditions
the English elm, horse-chestnut, linden and Ailanthus are considered
the most desirable species. No fixed rule, however, can be laid down
as regards the use of the different species of trees for wide, medium
or narrow streets, as different effects in planting are often sought.
Indeed, one of the most serious defects in planting of all kinds is the lack
of originality. Imitation in methods, the constant use of certain species
and varieties, and the extreme conventional effects often produced be-
come wearisome, while the marked diversity of Nature's planting, always
resourceful in producing harmonious effects, never becomes tiresome. In
general, however, the large type of shade tree, like the elm, maple and
others, should be used on wide streets, and those having a more pyram-

Fie. 8. — Street with ideal tree belt. (See Fig. 13.)

SHADE TREES.

137

idal type of crown are better suited for narrow avenues. In considering
the problem of the selection of shade trees it should be borne in mind
that there exists much variation in their habit of growth due to the con-
ditions under which they are grown, and what may do well in one loca-
tion will be more or less of a failure in another. There exists a marked
variation in the growth of trees, even of the same species, in a restricted
territory, and one can find much variation in their mode of development,
such as habit of branching, size and color of leaves, height to which they
grow, and age to which they attain, — in short, their general configura-
tion. The elm grows quite differently in the north than in the south,
and even in New England many specific types may be met which are
characteristic of special localities. Hence, in order to secure the best
type of elm trees for planting it would be well worth while to obtain
them from localities which develop the best branching habits, such, for
example, as the Berkshire region in Massachusetts. There are some
species that are indigenous to the south which grow larger and do better
in their native environment than in the north.

Such trees as the magnolia, catalpa, Kentucky coffee tree, box elder,
persimmon and mock orange are much better adapted to the south than
the north, and consequently are of much more value as ornamental trees
in that section.

WHAT SHALL WE PLANT?

Perhaps the most perplexing question relating to shade trees, at least
during the last decade, is ''What shall we plant?" There has probably
never been a period within the memory of living man during which such

severe conditions for _^_______________

vegetation have pre-
vailed, especially in
the eastern States, as
in the past few years.
Meteorological rec-
ords for many years
back would undoubt-
edly fail to show
similar conditions,
and even if they did
they would be of
little value, owing to
the fact that there

:ire important factors

, , , , , , FIG. 9. — Showing deterioration of elme, largely due to the

other than those re- leopard moth.

corded by meteoro-
logical observations which greatly affect vegetation and its mode of
development. The growth of trees themselves, as well as local variations
in a restricted environment, constitute a record of general meteorological
phenomena. Since trees live a century or more, these data are valuable.

138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Considering the amount of deterioration in trees during recent year?
many tree wardens and city foresters have been in a quandary as to what
species to plant. But there is reason to believe that these severe condi-
tions are past, and it may be a century before they occur again. One of
our most valuable and beautiful species, i.e., the elm, has been practically
abandoned as a shade tree in some places owing to its rapid and general
deterioration. There are many other species that have been affected in a
similar manner to the elm, although perhaps not so seriously. Notwith-
standing the fact that some trees have suffered particularly from various
causes, we believe that these should still be utilized for planting, their
esthetic and other qualifications being such that they cannot be dis-
pensed with. Moreover, affection by insects and fungous diseases must
not always be considered too seriously in judging the value of a species,
since control of many of them is possible with the use of modern methods.
It should be borne in mind that many of the pests are secondary or are
subservient to other causes;

The European cut-leaf birch, which has been dying off in wholesale
fashion of late, is always associated with borers, which are considered
a specific cause of the dying of this tree. Quite the reverse is true, howr
ever, as the borers are secondary to drought injury. In fact, every serious
drought period affects the cut-leaf birch in this manner; the roots become
dried out and the tree falls a prey to borers. Borers in trees may not
always occur secondarily to some other cause, but it is extremely rare to
find healthy trees affected with borers. As soon as a tree becomes slightly
abnormal from any cause, infection follows. Even the slightest poisoning
from gas or injury to the roots by drought or winterkilling is sufficient
cause for weakening the trees, and borers and other insects follow as a
secondary cause. There is no reason, however, why the European cut-
leaf birch or other trees should fall a prey to borers if properly planted in
a suitable soil and well supplied with water during drought periods, prefer-
ably by subirrigation methods.

The elm has suffered from elm-leaf beetle to some extent, although
rarely is one found dying from this cause. Many elms have been prac-
tically ruined by the leopard moth. However, it can be stated as a general
principle that weak trees, or those that are under more or less abnormal
conditions, are more likely to be affected by insects and fungi than strong,
healthy, vigorous ones. In our opinion this holds true for the elm-leaf
beetle infestation, and some of our most careful observers regard the
leopard moth as secondary to other causes. The so-called "chestnut
blight" is held by some competent pathologists to be secondary to somo
other cause or deteriorating factors common to the chestnut. In sup-
port of this idea it is known that numerous chestnut trees have been dying
the last few years, from New England to Tennessee, which are not and
never have been affected with the blight fungus.

The most important lesson to be learned from the behavior of shade
trees during the past years of trying experience is that we must give more

SHADE TREES. 139

attention to the specific requirements of the different species of shade
trees, particularly as regards soil conditions. Species which cannot tol-
erate drought or the slightest soil desiccation should never be planted in
sandy or gravelly soils possessing little water-retaining capacity; hence
care should be taken in dry situations in eliminating those species which
naturally grow in wet places. Neither should species that are adapted
to dry soil be planted in wet places. The more extensive use of loam or
soil containing a considerable amount of organic matter is needed in tree
planting.

In conclusion it may be stated that the problems associated with tree
planting during the last decade do not constitute a reliable criterion of
the specific value of any species, since the same combination of conditions
is not likely to occur in a century. We believe, therefore, that any one
is justified in planting the much condemned elm, at least in country
towns, where atmospheric conditions are much more favorable than" in
cities, and where the leopard moth is not so destructive.

RAPIDITY OF GROWTH OF TREES.

The variation in the growth of trees, due to the influence of many dif-
ferent factors, is quite marked, and even when trees of the same age are
growing side by side great difference in the size and development are
noticeable. A chestnut tree under certain conditions will attain a diameter
of 3 feet in fifty-six years, while another may require one hundred and
fifty years to reach a diameter of 18 inches. The average diameter of 20
white ash trees measured by us was 16 inches in twenty years; and Italian
poplars will occasionally grow 26 inches in the same length of time. The
Carolina poplar will reach a diameter of 30 inches in fifteen years, which
almost equals the growth of the eucalyptus in California. We have
observed pin oaks that grew 18 inches in diameter in twenty years. The
average diameter of 16 elm trees thirty years old was 17 inches. In
another instance a similar number of elm trees attained an average diam-
eter of 20 inches 4 feet from the ground in forty years. Recent measure-
ments have shown that the average diameter growth of the thirty-year-
old elm trees for a period of seven years was 3 inches, while that of the
forty-year-old trees during the same period was -H inches. It is not un-
common to find elms that have grown 3 feet in diameter in fifty years, or
4 feet in seventy years. An elm one hundred and thirty-one years old had
a height of 110 feet, and a diameter of 6 feet at the base. On the other
hand, many instances might be mentioned where trees have made very
slow growth. Some elms, for example, showed a growth of only 11 inches
in diameter in fifty years, and a white oak one hundred and thirty-two
years old reached a diameter of 16 inches. Rock maples grow fairly
rapidly in good soils, but we know of instances in which they have made
only 6 or 8 inches growth in diameter in sixty years. Species accus-
tomed to swamps, such as the white cedar and black spruce, grow quite

140 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

slowly, the latter not growing more than 5 inches in diameter in seventy
years.

To obtain the approximate growth of trees in any particular locality
would require measurements of a very large number of specimens. The
age of trees may be obtained by counting the annual rings of felled trees,
or by cores taken from the trunk of living trees, while the age of conifers
and others may be estimated by the number of internodes formed. There
is often a vnde difference of opinion as regards the age of living trees, as
the total leaf area is seldom taken into consideration. Since trees acquire

CM.
II

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

0 «0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 i30YRS

FIG. 10. — Grand period of growth (cross-section measurements) of an elm
tree (Ulmus americana L.) in centimeters and decades. The maximum
growth occurred between the tenth and thirtieth years, followed by a
gradual decrease. From the nature of the curve we may conclude that
if the tree had survived under normal conditions it was capable of
developing for one hundred years more.

practically all their structural material from the air by means of the
chemical processes going on in the leaves, it follows that those possessing
a large total leaf area grow much faster than those" with a smaller leaf
area. A well-branched tree in the open will, therefore, grow six times as
fast as one in the forest under crowded conditions. Consequently there
is likely to occur much misconception regarding the age of living trees
on account of the marked variation in their rate of growth under different
conditions. The white pine, according to historical tradition, developed
6 feet in diameter and 250 feet in height in the New England primeval
forest, and elms as street trees are known to have lived two hundred years.
There are instances in Massachusetts where elms have lived to be
three hundred years old. Many shade trees live to be one hundred and
fifty years old and even more, and this age is not uncommon for forest

SHADE TREES.

141

trees. Trees, however, do not grow with the same uniformity throughout
their period of existence. At first they start in to grow more or less slowly,
which is generally followed between the tenth and thirtieth year by the

FIG. 11.— Plan of street at Hadley, Mass., approxi-
mately 300 feet wide, provided with two driveways
with green (G ) in center and generous tree belts.

maximum development, this being followed throughout the remaining
cycle by a gradual diminution in growth. (See Fig. 10.)

The following list, showing the average growth of trees, represents
approximately what a 3-inch sapling will develop into in twenty years.

White maple,
American elm, .
Sycamore,
Tulip tree,
Basswood,
Catalpa (speciosa),
Red maple,
Ailanthus,
Cucumber tree, .
Chestnut, .

Inches.

Inches.

21

Yellow locust, .

. 14

19

Hard maple,

. 13

.

18

Horse-chestnut,

. 13

18

Honey locust,

. 13

.

17

Red oak, .

. 13

,

16

Pin oak, .

. 13

16

. 13

16

White ash,

. 12

15 White oak,

. 11

14 Hackberry,

. 10

STREETS AND AVENUES.

The modern city streets are, as a rule, much better laid out for tree
planting than the older ones, although there are some exceptions to this.
In the Connecticut valley, where there is considerable level land, the
early settlers showed remarkable judgment and taste in laying out their

142 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

towns. Many of these old towns are arranged with exceptionally wide
streets that from early times were systematically planted with shade
trees. Some of these streets are 300 feet wide and have two rows of shade
trees on either side of the street. On the. other hand, many towns are
poorly laid out, with no proper provision, or at any rate very poor pro-
vision, for planting trees.

FIG. 12. — Narrow avenue, showing trees planted alternately
about 45 feet apart.

Most towns will not accept a highway under 40 feet wide, which is
narrow enough for tree planting; in fact, it would be much better if towns
would not accept avenues less than 50 or 60 feet in width. Some of our
modern cities, when laying out avenues, now make provision for a tree

Fi<;. 13.— Plan of modern avenue provided with a 40-foot roadbed,
6-foot sidewalks, 23-foot tree belts, with alternating rows of trees
60 feet apart.

belt or a space between the curbing and the sidewalk where trees may be
planted. This space should be at least 4 feet wide, and 20 or even 30 feet
wide is better. A tree belt 2 or 3 feet wide is far better than none,
since this allows some space for planting. In case the sidewalk comes
next to the curbing, and a special tree belt is lacking, it is always advis-

SHADE TREES.

143

able to plant the trees near the abutter's line to protect them from horses,
etc.; besides, the conditions for development are better here. When
trees are planted too close to the sidewalk and curbing the roots interfere
with them, and if the tree belt is narrow the roots are continually injuring
the walks. In no case is it advisable to plant trees in the ditch, or even
so close to the roadbeds that they are likely to be constantly scarred.
Wide tree belts make it possible to alternate two rows of trees and secure
more massive effects. A street having wide tree belts provided with good
soil furnishes an excellent opportunity for tree growth and development,
and with the installation of the best modern gas lines, sewer conduits,
etc., there is no reason why trees should not nourish under these con-
ditions. When the streets are narrow it is desirable, if conditions will
permit, to plant alternately. This system allows much better opportunity
for development of the trees.

Besides the tree belt, many of our modern cities reserve a space in the
center of the street for a miniature parkway, to furnish a chance for the
planting of trees and shrubs.

Much more attention should be given at the present day to the laying
out of streets, and towns should be more careful about accepting too
narrow highways. The present generation might learn much concerning
street planning from the early settlers of our New England towns.

DISTANCE TO PLANT.

Opinions naturally differ in regard to the distance apart to plant
trees. In fact, we must expect to find a diversity of opinion in all matters
relating to the care and treatment of trees and shrubs owing to the vari-

Fni. 14. — Plan of street with parkway and 6-foot tree belt.

able conditions under which they grow; neither are the results sought
for always the same.

If street trees are to be planted for their final individual effect they
should be set far enough apart not to interfere with one another; but if

144 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

the effect of the avenue as a whole is aimed at they can be planted closer
together. What holds true in regard to trees is also true of shrubbery.
Some gardeners plant masses of shrubbery together to get the effect of
the whole, while others plant for the individual effects. Trees planted
20 or 25 feet apart will interfere in a few years, and if allowed to remain
at this distance the individual effect of the tree is destroyed, although
such close planting on an avenue is often effective.

In one city which we recall the elms were planted 25 to 30 feet apart
many years ago, presumably with the intention of future thinning, but
as no one apparently ever had the courage to do this, the trees have now
so developed as to interfere, and as a result have become deformed through

crowding. It is now too late
to practice thinning on these
streets. While their indi-
vidual characteristics are de-
stroyed by their restricted
development, yet it must be
confessed that the high
Gothic arch effect produced
by such close planting is
effective.

When trees are planted
very closely, every other one
can eventually be taken out.
The principal difficulty with
this method is the courage
required to do it; besides,
in most places a hearing
would have to be given for
their removal which might
meet with strong opposition.
In one instance ash trees

were planted in a row 25 feet apart. The limbs touched in twenty years,
and later every other tree was removed, leaving the trees 50 feet apart.
At their present rate of growth it will be some years before they interfere
with one another.

The limbs of medium-sized rock maples planted 40 feet apart will inter-
fere, as will those of larger trees of this species when planted 60 feet
apart. A good average distance for planting most street trees, however,
is 45 to 55 feet. Even 70 to 80 feet is not too far apart to plant elms in
some localities, as this tree grows to a large size, with a wide spread of
foliage, and we are familiar with specimens of rock maples growing along
a roadside which have a spread of 75 feet. For smaller trees, such
as the European linden, 30 feet apart is not bad. Many maples are set
50 feet apart, and in localities where the development is slow and they
do not attain a large size, even 40 feet apart is suitable. When the growth

FIG. 15. — Street with tree belt, showing close
planting.

SHADE TREES.

145

of permanently planted species is slow, alternating trees of quick growth,
like the Italian and Carolina poplars, is advisable, and when the more
permanent trees have reached a fair height the poplars may be removed.

COUNTRY ROADSIDES.

One of the wisest provisions of the Massachusetts laws relative to shade
trees is that trees and shrubs bordering country roadsides shall be pro-
tected by statutes similar to those in residential districts. Much of the
senseless slashing of roadside shrubbery so long in vogue is now largely
prevented. Xew England country road-
sides are unsurpassed in beauty, and the
miscellaneous character of trees and shrubs
to be found growing along them is a source
of great pleasure to tourists.

There are several ways of treating
country roadsides. One of these methods
is to maintain a regularly planted tree
belt on a graded and neatly kept roadside,
which results in a conventional effect.
Another scheme consists in allowing the
development of shrubbery and eliminating
the tree growth which is often objection- FIG. 16._Illu3trating method of
able when crops are growing up to the
highway. Or a system combining both
shrubbery and trees may be employed,
allowing the trees eventually to crowd out
most of the shrubbery.

Most roadsides are lined with a miscel-
laneous growth of shrubbery and trees,
located irregularly, which produce good

effects, but when conventionality in the surroundings has been aimed
at the well-kept roadside and tree belt are legitimate. However, there
are roadsides on which no trees or shrubbery can be allowed, — for
instance when the road runs through valuable farm land used for more
or less intensive agricultural purposes. Trees absorb a great deal of
moisture, and this factor and the shade produced interfere greatly with
crop production.

For generations roadsides have been used for dumping grounds by
certain misguided persons, and one of the objects of maintaining road-
side shrubbery in its natural condition is to cover this extreme unsight-
liness from view. Unfortunately many think they are conferring a benefit
on the public when they cut roadside shrubbery and leave it beside the
road to decay. Roadside planting is Nature's planting, and is envied
by the best landscape architects. It has the merit of intrinsic beauty;
it is harmonious, no matter how heterogeneous the mass may be, and
never becomes tiresome or monotonous like conventional planting. Many

growing trees on busy thor-
oughfares. The conventional
type, such as the Oriental
plane which tolerates severe
annual pruning, is planted
between the sidewalk and
curbing in a rich loam 3 or 4
feet deep, provided with spe-
cial subirrigation tile.

146 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

of the shrubs and vines which decorate roadsides are now used extensively
by landscape gardeners in planting, and various species are very highly

prized.

The native shrubbery consists of the various elderberries, Viburnums,
honeysuckles, cornels or dogwoods, hawthorns, hollies, sumachs, azaleas,

laurels, blueberries, etc.
There are also such species
as the chokecherries, witch-
hazel, sassafras, alders, etc:
The most characteristic
New England country
roadside trees are the
chestnut, various oaks and
maples, hickories, ashes,
pines, hemlock, elm, cher-
ries, hornbeam, tupelo,
birches and poplars. They
are found growing in all
sorts of combinations,
mingled with different
types of shrubbery, vines
and herbaceous plants,
with resulting effects quite
unlike those obtained by
artificial planting. Aside
from the removal of briers
and other growths too

close to the roadbed, or the cutting out of the natural vegetation near
abrupt curves where its presence constitutes an element of danger to
traffic, or in cases where some legitimate scheme involving permanent
improvement is concerned, roadside shrubbery should not be destroyed.
There are, of course, occasions when the cutting of roadside shrubbery
is desirable to improve the new growth which soon follows, but this should
be done with discretion and care.

FIG. 17. — Country roadside, showing spontaneous
growth of native species.

ROOT CHARACTERISTICS.

There are well-defined differences in the development of the root
systems of shade trees. All seedlings develop what are termed primary
and secondary root systems; the former are known as taproots and the
latter as laterals. In certain species like the red cedar the taproot develops
quite extensively. In young trees its function is relatively more im-
portant than in older ones; hence it is usually easier to transplant large
pasture cedars than small ones, which are more dependent on the tap-
root.

The lateral root system in some trees is well developed, and those
having this system are in general the easiest to handle. The elm, maple,

SHADE TREES. 147

hemlock, pine and others are easily transplanted with little loss because
it is not difficult to obtain enough of the lateral root system to supply
the tree. Some species, however, possessing lateral root systems appear
to be dependent upon root fungi (micorhiza), which restricts them to
particular soils and renders them sometimes difficult to get established
in certain localities. Many plants, like the sumach and others, possess
long, creeping lateral roots which must be taken up carefully to insure
successful transplanting.

Depth of Roots.

Some idea of the depth to which roots extend may be had by examining
excavations near trees, and also to some extent by plowing. Most elm and
maple roots are confined within 2 feet of the surface, but in wet soil they are
generally much nearer than this. The large roots of the European larch
are very near the surface, and usually somewhat exposed. Pine and
hemlock roots are frequently seen running on top of the ground, and in
swamps, where trees often blow over, it may be observed that the entire
root system is located within a few inches of the surface. Oak and chest-
nut roots do not appear to penetrate very far, as shown by the ease with
which winds uproot the trees when growing even in ordinary soil. The
maximum number of roots of most trees in ordinary soil is probably
located between 1 foot and 18 inches below the surface.

Roots often penetrate soil to great depths, and when growing in gravel
become flattened out in irregular shapes from growing around large
pebbles. Apple tree roots have been known to grow through a mass of
coarse gravel 8 feet to obtain water, and elm and rock maple roots will
penetrate quite a distance to reach a water table. The roots of the com-
mon clover one year old have been known to descend to a depth of 8 feet;
those of parsnip more than 13| feet; and of lucerne, a leguminous plant,
more than 20 feet. The roots of a leguminous tree growing in India have
been traced to 69 feet below the surface without reaching their full length.

The distance to which roots extend laterally may generally be roughly
determined by the spread of the crown. Practically all trees extend their
roots beyond their foliage or branches. The Norway spruce and others,
which have narrow crowns, do not have an extended lateral system. The
maple and elm have well-developed root systems which extend to a con-
siderable distance.

There is a correlation between the shape of the aerial portion of a
plant and its root system. The leaves of root crops like radish, turnip
and others are so placed on the stalk that they divert the rain toward the
axis of the plant, or taproot. On the other hand, the apices of the leaves
of many plants are deflected away from the axis, i.e., toward the lateral
or feeding roots. Most shade trees are noted for their large crowns, with
the leaves pointing away from the trunk and directing the rain where it
is most needed, whereas the soil near the trunk does not receive much
water. This feature admirably illustrates biological adaptation.

148 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Such trees as the balm of Gilead and Italian poplar possess extensive
root systems. This is evident from the root suckers which may fre-
quently be seen coming up quite a little distance beyond the spread of
the branches, and many roots will grow in a horizontal direction to great
distances. There is an authentic case of an elm whose roots were found
in abundance 75 feet from the trunk, — just the height of the tree. In
another case the roots of an elm were found obstructing drain tile which
was 450 feet from the tree. The leading roots of a pear tree developed
in 60 feet of a line of drain tile during five years measured 8,498 feet
(1.61 miles); if smaller roots be included, the total length was about 2
miles. A squash grown in a greenhouse produced in a few weeks a total
of 15 miles of root growth, or over 1,000 feet of roots per day.

Obstruction of Sewer Tile, etc., by the Roots of Trees.

The obstruction of sewer services and drain tile by tree roots has in
some places become such a nuisance that steps have been taken in certain
cities to obviate it. The elm is a troublesome tree in this respect, often
completely filling land drain tile for long distances with roots, and putting
the tile out of commission.

The Carolina poplar is a more troublesome tree, however. This causes
so much damage to house sewer connections that its use for planting
has been discontinued in some sections. The Carolina poplar is a tree
of such rapid growth that an extensive root system is developed in a
short time. Sewage appears to have an especial attraction for the roots
of this tree. They seem to have no difficulty in penetrating even the
cement joints of Akron tile, and when once in the tile the root develop-
ment is remarkable. In one city as many as eighteen sewer services had
to be taken up and repaired in one month the sections were so badly con-
gested with roots of the Carolina poplar. Other tree roots occasionally
enter tiles, cesspools and wells, but the Carolina poplar appears to be
the greatest offender in this respect.

From the results of numerous experiments covering a period of years
it is evident that roots can be kept from penetrating drain tile by properly
packing the joints with chemically treated fibers, which destroy the
delicate roots as they attempt to enter.1

BRANCHING CHARACTERISTICS.

There is considerable difference in the branching habits of trees. This
must be understood before a tree can be developed along desirable lines.
The red and Norway maples have a habit of sending out large branches
or secondary leaders at more or less oblique angles, very close to the
ground. If allowed to develop, these render the trees undesirable for
street use; but if started right when young by pruning, such trees may
be trained ta meet the requirements of residential streets. However,

iMass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 23, Pt. 2, p. 35 (1911).

SHADE TREES. 149

if pruning is attempted when they are fairly well developed, great injury
results, and the symmetry of the tree may never be entirely regained.

The habit of the rock maple is to prodnce one or two strong vertical
leaders, and its ultimate development is such that it seldom gives much
trouble so far as pruning is concerned.

The branches of the pin oak are low and drooping. This objection-
able feature detracts from the value of this tree for use on streets, but
may be overcome by high pruning.

The branching habits of the elm, on the other hand, make it one of
our most desirable shade trees, the branches invariably forming acute
angles with one another. Elms oftentimes develop low, more or less
horizontal branches, but these possess no permanent value and may
subsequently be removed. The ideal mature elm offers no obstacles to
street traffic, and even the wires of public service • corporations seldom
interfere with the branches.

On the other hand, evergreens, like the Norway spruce, branch to the
ground, and for their best development they should never be placed
where it is necessary to prune them, as cutting the lower limbs of the
Norway spruce and most other conifers detracts greatly from the beauty
of the trees.

Many trees, including some of the maples, birch, oak, chestnut and
elm, and most shrubs, have a habit of suckering or sprouting from the
roots. Much of the timber growth such as the chestnut is of this nature,
and is termed "sprout growth." This growth is very common in wood-
lands and along roadsides which have been cut off. Trees originating
from root suckers do not possess the value of those grown from seed, and
consequently should not be used for transplanting. Stump growth may
develop faster for the first few years than seedlings, but later growth is
often slow. As the sprout growth reaches maturity it generally becomes
involved with the stump, which ultimately decays, leaving an ugly cavity
at the base of the tree. Most sprout growth shows abnormalities in
the foliage the first few years, and it is likewise more susceptible to aphis.
The extensive root system of the tree which nourishes it induces malnutri-
tion or overfeeding characteristics which are pathological.

The formation of sprouts on the trunks and branches of trees is of
great value in their restoration. Sprouts sometimes originate from the
callus of wounds, and are quite serviceable in accelerating healing.

SOIL CONDITIONS, TEXTURE, ETC.

It requires only a glance at the trees of any particular region to observe
their natural choice of environment. While this does not always mean
that trees will not grow elsewhere with the same degree of vigor as in
their natural habitat, — indeed the growth is often more vigorous, —
they are very likely to prove less resistant to various troubles. One
cannot be always certain, however, that, because a species is restricted

150 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

to a particular location or habitat, it has realized its optimum condition
for development. In some cases there is reason to believe that their
choice may be determined by some minor inherent peculiarity common
to the species, such as seed habit.

Some species of plants are confined to dry soils, while in other loca-
tions the same species grow in moist situations. In a botanical sense
these are identical species, but they may possess such different physiolog-
ical adaptations as to warrant the term " physiological species."

Soil texture plays an important role in the distribution and develop-
ment of plants, and is inseparably associated with water-retaining capacity.
Soil texture affects the color, size and 'thickness of the foliage, and also
has an influence upon susceptibility and nonsusceptibility to certain
troubles.

Even in limited areas trees possess different habits of growth, and soil
texture is probably the most important contributory factor. For example,
the elms in the eastern part of Massachusetts are different from those in
the Connecticut valley. Those growing in the Housatonic valley differ
from either, assuming a more vase-like form and being characterized
by the development of a larger number of vertical leaders or branches.
The greatest number of symmetrical elms and the best types of branch-
ing occur in this region.

The rock maples in the Connecticut valley are of a different type from
those found elsewhere, growing larger and more luxuriantly. This region
is characterized, also, by the occasional occurrence of a beautiful, dark-
colored, densely foliaged form resembling the black maple, Acer sac-
charum var. nigrum, noticed farther west. Like the elm, much difference
in the branching habits of the rock maple may be observed here and
there which appears to be characteristic of certain localities.

There is, however, a wide diversity of conditions in nature under which
trees may live and develop. The rock maple, oak and hickory appear to
be at home on our rocky hillsides, while the basswood, canoe birch and
beech are adapted to soil containing humus. The chestnut is confined
largely to clay hills or "drumlins," where it has grown since time im-
memorial. The sycamore, pin oak, red maple, tupelo and swamp white
oak are confined to low, moist soil ; while the scarlet, red, white and yellow
oaks, pitch pine, poplar, gray birch and red cedar prefer drier locations.
The willows, Carolina poplar, red birch and hackberry are closely re-
stricted to streams; and the white cedar, tamarack and black spruce to
swamps. The white pine is quite generally distributed, and in New
England it is adapted to a greater variety of conditions than any other
tree in our flora.

Notwithstanding the wide diversity of conditions to which our native
trees are subject, they can with care be made to thrive under different
conditions. Rhododendrons may be grown successfully in dry soil having
2 or 3 feet of muck placed underneath, and trees adapted to moist places
will develop well in poor soil if freely supplied with fine-textured loam.

SHADE TREES. 151

The moisture content of a relatively dry soil may be greatly modified
by the addition of organic matter, which increases the water-retaining
capacity and makes the soil more suitable to swamp-loving species. But
swamp trees that make excellent growth in dry soil need to be supplied
with water during drought periods.

There are other factors than those of soil texture, water supply, etc.,
that influence the distribution of plants. The chemical composition of
the soil affects the habitat of trees, and is capable of modif ying to some
extent their mode of growth. Many plants are restricted in their range
owing to differences in the chemical composition of the soil. Certain
species are practically confined to the seacoast, where the percentage of
chlorine in the soil is greater than it is inland; but these species may be
grown successfully elsewhere. The amount of humus in the soil affects the
growth of trees materially. While 20 or 30 per cent, of organic matter
was formerly contained in the upper strata of our soils, now not more
than 2 to 5 per cent, may be found in a large portion of it. Organic matter
has ;i vital effect not only on the physical properties of soils, but on their
chemical and biological properties, influencing the development of mi-
corhiza (beneficial root fungi) that are intimately associated with the
roots of some of our shade trees. Soils also contain toxic elements that
are often found in sufficient abundance to make it difficult to establish
certain species in the desired location.

It is desirable in all cases when planting trees to give them conditions
closely approximating their requirements as determined by their natural
habitat. Elm trees often grow in swamps, as well as in dry and sandy
soils, but both of these habitats produce poor specimens. The swamp
tree is usually of inferior shape, and sandy soil as a rule produces a lank,
spindling growth, with inferior foliage. Even the best type of elm, if
planted under uncongenial conditions, will make poor development
regardless of its inherent qualifications. The elm, therefore, should never
be planted in dry, gravelly soil without being supplied with a large amount
of good loam of the proper texture. The rock maple, on the other hand,
will endure a dry soil much better than the elm, although if too dry borers
may affect the tree. The scarlet and black oaks will thrive in such a soil.

In general, the texture of the soil in most towns is fairly well suited to
the growth of a large variety of trees. The soils often lack organic matter,
hence the application of loam is advantageous. On the other hand, some
of our New England river valleys are particularly adapted to the growth
of elms and maples, and the addition of loam in such cases is not so
necessary.

Street trees are too often forced to exist under extremely unfavorable
conditions; therefore they require different consideration from those more
favorably located. Many city trees are planted in made soil, and some
of the refuse found in these fillings is hardly adapted to tree growth. Such
soils are, moreover, likely to be deficient in organic matter and plant food,
and are often in such poor mechanical condition that the soil capillarity
is of little account.

152 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

SOIL COVERS, LAWNS, MACADAM, ETC.

The nature of the soil cover surrounding trees is scarcely less important
than that of the soil in which the roots are growing. We find trees growing
under many different conditions: e.g., lawns, mowings, cultivated fields,
paved and macadamized roads, sidewalks, etc., and it is hardly necessary
to point out that cultivation is much superior to all other conditions.
The importance of tillage is scarcely appreciated in the case of ordinary
crops, even by lifelong farmers. Stirring the soil, even without the use
of fertilizers, has enormous influence on the growth of crops, and is also
an important factor in the control of various tree pests, a thrifty tree
being more resistant to infection. Cultivation not only aerates the soil,
but breaks up the capillarity and conserves the moisture, — of great
importance in dry soils.

Examples of the good effects of cultivation on shade trees may be seen
in the many specimens growing luxuriantly in soil in which crops have
been cultivated for years. Trees under these conditions branch freely
and produce large leaves of a deep green color. Cultivation of the soil
about trees for even one year has a decided effect.

Next to cultivation, lawn conditions are perhaps the best. The grass,
which is constantly being mowed and left on the ground, acts as a mulch
and conserves the moisture. Some of our best trees grow in pastures,
where the conditions are often unfavorable to the growth of grass or where
the grass is kept closely cropped by grazing. A mowing or hay field is
one of the worst possible locations for a tree, the elm being particularly
susceptible to the ill effects of such an environment. Measurements of
elms growing on either side of a road, one series being under partial lawn
and the other under partial mowing conditions, showed differences in
their development. The average growth of these trees during a period
of twenty-five years is as follows: those on the lawn side of the road had
a circumference of 56 inches, while those on the other, or mowing, side
were only 49 inches. In another case the average circumference of lawn
trees was 37 inches, and that of the mowing trees, 26 inches. These trees,
which had been growing under these conditions for many years, were of
the same age, and were so located that the difference in light intensity
cannot be considered a factor in their development.

The extensive use of various materials for paving roads can hardly
have a beneficial influence on tree growth. In some cities a great many
trees are found on streets paved with asphalt from one block front to
another, allowing nothing but a small space around the trees unpaved.
.t is a question in such oases where the trees obtain their moisture, al-
though they exist year after year, and make some growth. No doubt
some water is obtained from catch basins and sewers; at any rate, moisture
is usually found in the soil under the most impervious substance employed
in paving, and during the most severe droughts trees on paved streets
often suffer less from lack of water than others apparently more favorably

SHADE TREES. 153

located. This may possibly be explained by the fact that whatever
moisture reaches the soil under these paved streets is to a certain extent
conserved, the surface evaporation being less than where no pavements
are found. The severity of the conditions to which trees are subjected
when surrounded by pavements varies considerably, and when more or
!i->< water is allowed to leach through them the soil moisture conditions
cannot be unfavorable. The more thoroughly a roadbed is sealed the
more soil aeration must be affected. How largely this factor enters into
the problem is unknown, but while trees do survive under extremely severe
conditions, their length of life must be limited.

EXCAVATIONS, CURSINGS AND SIDEWALKS.

Remodeling and regrading streets are a frequent cause of injury to
trees. In placing curbstones large roots are often cut, and in regrading
streets so much soil is frequently removed that the base of the tree is
left high in the air and the exposed root surfaces become injured by traffic.
Besides these mechanical injuries, the exposed roots are likely to be injured
from other causes such as winterkilling, sun scald, road oil, etc. If the
roots are cut to any extent the tree deteriorates in value, and if grown
under other unfavorable conditions it usually succumbs to a lingering
death. Again, root mutilation too often takes place when sidewalks are
being laid, and it is quite difficult to prevent it when the trees are large
and have extensive root systems. The cement sidewalk with, its deep
foundation constitutes more of a menace to roots than a tar or brick
walk, but if care is used in excavating, much root cutting may be pre-
vented. The roots of trees located under a modern roadbed have little
chance of remaining uninjured, with the sewers, water pipes, gas lines,
telephone systems, electric wire and other conduits that are constantly
being installed. Electric railways may also cause injury to trees in various
ways. It is more injurious, of course, to the tree to cut the large roots
close to the trunk than the small ones some distance from it. In widening
a certain road a few years ago 4 or 5 feet of the banking adjoining a row
of ash trees were removed, destroying a large number of the smaller roots
on the west side of the trees, but this cutting had little or no noticeable
effect upon the trees. They were young and vigorous, and on the east
side the roots extended into cultivated ground, apparently soon making
up for the loss on the roadside. Since the cutting of these roots, every
other tree has been removed, and measurements of the rings of the stumps
show that not the slightest retardation in growth had taken place follow-
ing the operation. One fact should be remembered: mutilation of the
root system is not so serious as that of the stems and branches, the former
responding more quickly to the stimulus caused by mutilation. In
transplanting young trees 80 to 95 per cent, of the essential part of the
root system is usually destroyed, and even with a slight pruning of the
top the tree usually survives when the work is properly done. Indeed,
the cutting of the roots has been known to be beneficial, as, for instance,

154 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

in the case of gas leaks in the street. Many cases are known to the writer
where large trees have escaped gas poisoning owing to the fact that when
the curbing was put in some of the larger roots leading towards the gas
main were destroyed; therefore when leakage occurred there were no
roots favorably located to absorb the poisonous substances.

The cutting of roots on vigorous trees is not so serious as cutting those
of old trees. In the latter case judgment should be exercised as to root
cutting.

EFFECTS OF LIGHT AND SHADE.

Most plants are quite susceptible to light and shade. Those which
require light are termed photophilic (light friendly), and those which
thrive best in shade, photophobic (light shunning). Shade has an unfavor-
able effect on plants, causing a spindling growth and rendering them
more susceptible to diseases. On the other hand, too much light is detri-
mental to certain species. The dense shade from street trees interferes
at times with the growth of grass and shrubbery on lawns. Since there
are relatively few varieties that are adapted to shade, it often becomes
a problem as to what to plant in such locations. However, a glance at
any native flora will give a hint of what is best adapted to shady places.
Such wild species as clethera, rhododendron, hobblebush, leatherwood,
moose and mountain maples, laurel and honeysuckle tolerate shade, and
there are some exotic shrubs, such as Ligustrum regelianum, Symphoricarpus
tulgaris, Xanthorrhiza apiifolia, etc., and vines like Euonymus radicans
and Vinca minor, that are adapted to shade.

Notwithstanding the fact that shade is natural to some species, they
develop a less spindling growth in light. Shade trees require light ; hence
for their best development they should be planted far enough apart to
prevent interference and spindling growth. The effect of shade on trees
when growing thickly together is a dying of the lower branches, inducing
growth in height at the expense of spread of the crown and growth in
diameter.

The variation in light intensity differs, as is well known, during the
year. Light intensity is also variable in different localities, and there
are definite variations that occur in light intensity during the day which
are more pronounced at some seasons of the year than at others. The
difference in the amount of sunshine peculiar to any region is not depend-
ent on latitude but on other conditions. For example, the number of
hours of total sunshine occurring during the year at Boston, Mass., is
2,493; Cleveland, Ohio, 2,075; Chicago, 111., 2,616; Milwaukee, Wis.,
1,865; Seattle, Wash., 1,973; Elkins, W. Va., 1,737; Phoenix, Ariz.,
3,742, and New Orleans, La., 2,378. These marked variations in the
number of hours of sunshine show that latitude does not necessarily con-
stitute an important factor in determining light conditions. The amount
of possible sunshine, according to the United States meterological ob-
servatories, varies from 37 to 84 per cent. Variations in light intensity

SHADE TREES. 155

or number of hours of sunshine are correlated with growth and develop-
ment of vegetation, although temperature is very important too.

Morning light is more intense that that of the afternoon, and this
difference exerts an influence upon the growth of trees. Measurements
of a large number of tree stumps ranging from ninety-five to two hundred
and twenty years old showed 17 per cent, more growth of the radii on the
east side than on the west, and the radii measurements attained from the
stumps of a row of ash trees running north and south were 24 per cent,
greater on the east than west side. Two rows of trees bordering either
side of a road running approximately east and west showed a difference
of 11 per cent, in their circumference growth 4 feet from the ground,
during a period of seven or eight years, in favor of the south row. Daily
measurements of light made by us for one year showed an average dif-
ference of 10 per cent, in favor of morning conditions. Since photosyn-
thesis or carbon assimilation is proportionate to light intensity, and
growth is in proportion to photosynthesis, there naturally follows a
greater growth on the east than on the west sides of trees, and the
same holds true for the east and west slopes of high elevation. The light
conditions at high elevations are more intense than low elevations, and
the difference may equal 25 per cent, more or less, depending upon the
altitude and other conditions.

Light is an important factor in the process of photosynthesis or carbon
assimilation in leaves, about 95 per cent, of the structural material of the
tree being obtained by this process. Light inhibits growth and stimulates
the formation of mechanical and resistant tissue; on the other hand,
darkness or lack of light stimulates growth. Light affects the size, color
and texture of the foliage, and, in fact, the whole configuration of the
organism.

Since morning light conditions are better than those in the afternoon
it is well to set trees with their poorest developed sides towards the south-
east, as they will become more favorably exposed to light conditions;
hence they will develop more rapidly on this side. Moreover, an avenue
of trees located on the east and south sides of a road will develop more
rapidly than those on the west and north sides, and trees and crops located
on the east side of a hill will develop more rapidly than those located on
the west side. An east exposure is therefore much better for the rapid
development of an orchard than a west exposure, and the same holds
true for different crops and shade trees.

TRANSPLANTING.

Too little attention is given to the details of transplanting. It is quite
essential that soil conditions should be suitable for the growth of the
particular species of tree planted, and in the selection of material for
planting there is great need of more care. A large amount of poor material
is constantly being used, besides which, injudicious use of the knife and
pruning shears maims many trees for life. Trees 6 to 8 feet high are usually

156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

too small for street planting, not being so well adapted to street con-
ditions as larger ones ranging from 1£ to 3 or 4 inches in diameter. More-
over, by using larger trees one can obtain a better idea of their future
development and configuration.

The life cycles of trees are by no means identical even in the same
species. The conditions which a certain species seems to require at one
period of its existence are less suitable for another period, especially as
regards soil requirements for root development, older trees appearing to
tolerate certain conditions better than younger ones. Young trees 5 to
6 feet high will often fail to grow for some years after transplanting under
the poor conditions often prevailing on streets, while larger ones will
start immediately to grow.

Much more attention should be given to the type of tree transplanted
than is generally given. The same species varies greatly in different

localities. Lopsided elms should be
avoided, and only those selected which
possess a habit of growth calculated to
produce a desirable type. It is worth
while to secure elms from those localities
where the most perfect types abound.

In localities where much desirable native
material exists this can be used to ad-
vantage for street planting, and if care-
fully handled it will prove successful.
Native material, or that gathered from
the fields, however, is much improved by
nursery conditions, and two or three years
under such conditions are desirable when
utilizing native stock.

Most competent authorities recommend
planting a few trees well rather than
many poorly, and when one recalls the
large amount of poor planting seen around

dwellings, and the weak-looking specimens of trees and shrubs, this advice
will appear pertinent.

Town funds1 do not always allow the appropriation of a large sum of
money for transplanting trees, and one must do the best he can with the
conditions under which he has to labor. Special attention, therefore,
should be given to the adaptability of certain species to the conditions
at hand, since the cost of extensive preparation and soil modification is
too often beyond the funds allowed for this purpose. The advice given
by Olmsted Brothers, landscape architects, in one of their reports, regard-
ing the planting of elms, is to the point: -

» During the year 1914, 12,498 trees were planted by tree wardens in 58 cities and towns in
Massachusetts.

FIG. 18. — A State highway speci-
men of elm worthless for future
development.

SHADE TREES.

157

It would be better to prepare tree beds 2 to 3 feet deep and 20 to 30 feet square,
filled with good loamy soil where the present ground is dry and sandy gravel, even
if the expense of doing so would be so great that only one tree a year could be
planted.

Few trees, however, outside of those planted in the Arnold Arboretum
and on a few private estates receive any such treatment. It must
be borne in mind in planting that shade trees are always under more or
less disadvantageous conditions as regards atmosphere and soil. Hence it
is of the greatest importance that they should be aided as much as pos-
sible, and the time is not far distant when much more specific methods
must be employed in the planting of street trees in thickly settled com-
munities. Even at the present tune, where ideal conditions are sought
much more money is spent in prepara-
tion for transplanting than in purchase
of the trees. The majority of street
trees which are planted are not sup-
plied with loam or placed in holes over
2 or 3 feet wide and 15 inches deep,
and some of them are given space only
large enough to contain their roots.
Loosening up the soil to a considerable
depth is very important, as shown by
the results of the use of dynamite in the
preparation of soil for transplanting. A
hole 5 to 6 feet wide by 20 inches deep
in any case should be the smallest used,
and it should be as much larger as can
be afforded.

When digging up young trees the
roots should be preserved as much as
possible, and the more earth taken up
with the roots the better. The roots

should not be exposed to sun and wind, and if possible should be kept
covered and moist. For this purpose damp straw, bagging or sphagnum
moss may be used.

It is usually the practice to place the best side of the tree toward the
north and the poorest toward the south, since the light conditions on the
south side are better, and naturally better growth results. It is also
advisable to lean a tree toward the direction of the prevailing winds,
and if these are strong enough to interfere with the growth of the tree it
should be fastened to a strong stake. Trees obtained from the field where
they have been growing close together have long, slender shafts and are
top-heavy. When such trees are planted in windy situations it is neces-
sary to support them by stakes.

When the ground is prepared for planting, the injured roots should be
recut so that healing may take place, and before being covered they

FIG. 19. — Elm severely cut back when
transplanted. This has destroyed
its natural symmetry.

158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

should be properly arranged in the soil. According to good authorities
trees should never be planted more than two or three inches deeper than
they originally grew, and too deep planting often causes their death.
It is more convenient for two men to set out a tree than one, as one can
hold the tree in the proper position while the other is filling the soil in
around the roots.

The top soil, if of good quality, may be used, but it is better to dis-
card the poorer subsoil and replace it with loam. Much depends, how-
ever, upon the nature of the subsoil and whether the species is adapted
to grow in it. In any planting the best soil should be placed at the bottom
of the hole or under the roots, and the sod when properly pulverized may
be used, care being taken not to interfere too much with the soil capil-
larity. The poorer soil which covers the roots may be enriched and its
texture improved by working in manure or other organic matter. Manure,
however, should be sparingly used and thoroughly incorporated with
the loam, care being taken not to bring it in too close contact with the
roots. Towns and cities which do much transplanting might make good
use of composted street cleanings; and if land were available for a small
nursery, it could be used to good advantage by tree wardens and foresters.

When a tree is being set out the soil about the roots should be well
tamped. Many people apply water to the roots at the time of trans-
planting, and if the season is an unusually dry one the watering may be
repeated occasionally. But persistent watering is injurious, and young
trees are sometimes killed in this way. If the soil around the roots is
well tamped when the trees are set out it is not essential that water should
be applied at all, and it may even be injurious by washing the soil from
the roots and leaving air spaces. One of the most essential features in
transplanting is to secure as nearly as possible normal conditions of the
soil about the roots. It may be mentioned here that watering large trees
near their trunks is not a wise practice, since the feeding roots are quite
a distance from the tree. One would suppose that an elementary knowl-
edge of tree growth would discourage such a course, although it is possible,
by constant watering and cultivation, to encourage the formation of roots
at the base of the tree.

After the tree is set out a mulching of hay, straw or horse manure con-
taining considerable straw may be used to help conserve the moisture
in the soil and to keep down the grass and weeds which rob the soil of its
moisture and food.

Transplanted trees require a certain amount of pruning to accommodate
the leaf and root systems to each other, and it is usually necessary to cut
back the branches to meet these requirements. (See Pruning.)

There are differences of opinion in regard to methods of transplanting
trees, and undoubtedly more than one method may be used. Opinions
also differ in regard to the best time of year for transplanting, but it may
be said that most persons prefer the spring to the fall. We are of the
opinion that it is not advisable to plant too small trees, preferring elms

SHADE TREES. 159

and maples 1\ to 4 or 6 inches in diameter, since they take hold of the
<oil better.

At the present day many very large trees and shrubs are being trans-
planted successfully. Special machines have been designed for use in
this work. The Hicks Tree Mover, designed by Mr. Isaac Hicks of
Westbury Station, Nassau County, N. Y., is extensively used, and Mr.
Hicks has achieved remarkable results in handling very large specimens
of trees and shrubs. These tree movers are expensive, however, and for
trees 6 to 10 inches in diameter a pair of high, heavy truck wheels, with
some simple improvised arrangement, may be adapted. At the present
time many individuals are willing to pay a good price for large trees, for
which tree movers are admirably adapted and should be more extensively
used.

A general tendency has been to plant street trees rather closely, with
the idea in some cases of cutting every other one when it should become
necessary. The courage to do this when the time comes is often unfor-
tunately lacking, however, and the trees are allowed to grow and crowd
one another until it becomes too late to thin them out.

The loss from transplanting need not be great, although there is a
great deal of difference regarding species in this respect. During a normal
season the loss from transplanting need not exceed 2 or 3 per cent., and
sometimes 100 trees from 100 will live. During severe drought periods
a greater loss is expected, and even 50 per cent, loss in a good season occa-
sionally occurs from poor planting. Such trees as the tulip tree and
tupelo are naturally difficult to transplant with success, and a consider-
able loss with such species is anticipated.

TREE SURGERY.

The term ''tree surgery ' is a legitimate one to use in describing modern
methods of treating trees, as they are similar to those used in human
and animal surgery, i.e., the treatment of trees is based upon aseptic and
antiseptic methods.1 In the same manner that modern surgery is success-
ful in correcting deformities, performing operations, etc., so a young and
vigorous, although often imperfect, tree may be unproved and rendered
more valuable by the use of the same methods. While old and decrepit
trees are often treated to extend their period of usefulness, it should be
borne in mind that it is more desirable to care for the younger, more
promising trees, and it is only too apparent that if more attention had
been given to the care of old trees at the proper time they would never
be in the condition in which we often find them.

Unlike the surgeon, who has no choice of subjects, the tree expert can
select his individuals at the start and eliminate the imperfect specimens,

1 Some prefer the term " tree repair work" to that of " tree surgery " on the ground that the
work is of a much cruder type than that generally recognized as " surgery." There are, how-
ever, many instances where as much skill and knowledge are required in this work as in animal

surgery.

160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

although in the process of development trees need constant attention.
It is desirable that antiseptic methods of treatment following pruning,
mechanical injuries, etc., shall be adopted.

Pruning.

Besides the necessary pruning at the time of transplanting, the removal
of dangerous dead wood and branches every two or three years is essential.

In the case of street trees the lower branches
frequently need removing or lightening up.
When limbs are so close as to interfere, thin-
ning out is necessary to prevent their injuring
one another; but this thinning may be over-
done so as to affect the beauty of the tree.
Some make a practice of thinning and shaping
trees when young, thus preventing too much
thinning when the tree reaches maturity. The
amount of dead wood annually produced in
trees is quite large, and it costs about as much
to dispose of it as it does to prune it aw:iy.

In towns a distance of 10 or 12 feet or
more may be left between the roadway and
the lowest limbs, but in cities the nature and
amount of traffic necessitate higher pruning.
When street trees are growing close together
high pruning is often necessary in order to let
in sufficient sunlight, and when different types
of trees are planted together, such as maples
and elms, the pruning is often high in order
that the high canopy or Gothic arch effect
formed by the elm trees may not be destroyed.
If a more or less symmetrical type in indi-
vidual specimens is desired, the removal of

certain limbs often changes the contour of the trees. We do not believe
it desirable to prune the feathery growths often found on the trunks of
elms, as they are apparently protective in nature; moreover, in our
opinion they add to the beauty of the tree, taking a\vay much of its con-
ventional appearance.

As a rule, the limbs of vigorous maple trees will droop a foot or more a
year owing to their increased weight, and in a short time they become
too low. Limbs over a sidewalk may be left lower than over roadways.
During rain and sleet storms limbs are heavily weighted and often give
trouble when too near the ground.

On country roadsides pruning should be high enough so that the limbs
will not interfere with hay and wood traffic. All limbs should be cut as
close as possible to the tree, and cuts over 1| to 2 inches in diameter

FIG. 20. — Specimen showing
poor pruning. Note the long
stubs.

SHADE TREES.

161

should be treated antiseptically to prevent decay. Strictly horizontal cuts
should never be left. They retain water so that rot is likely to result, and

- Showing the evolution of a cavity and method of treating it: (a) long stub left
from pruning; (6) beginning of decay; (e) more advanced stage; (d) cavity formed
in the wood; («) longitudinal section of the trunk showing cavity; (/) cavity cleaned
out and ready for orifice covering.

of pruning large limbs: (a) tree before pruning; (6) showing relative
•>t cut from the tree trunk; (e) the same with limbs cut close and the
with mallet and chisel.

the cleaner the cut the better it will heal. There is, moreover, less chance

for subsequent rotting.

162 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Many of the cavities in trees are caused by leaving long stubs on the
trunk of the tree, which become infected and disintegrated, the decay
following back into the heart of the tree. (See Fig. 21.) It is therefore
essential that close pruning and antiseptic treatment of the wounds
should be practiced in order to prevent this decay. The plastic materials
in a tree will not follow up a long stump and form a callus unless there
are some branches left upon it which bear leaves, and even then healing
is most likely to take place only close to the living branch of the stump.

Two or more cuts should be made when pruning practically all limbs
to prevent peeling, and on limbs of any size it is necessary to make the
incision on the under side for the same reason. (See Fig. 22.) After re-
moving the limbs with a saw, a mallet
and chisel may be used to smooth up the
cut surface. This induces a better callus
growth. It is well to prune carefully at
the time of transplanting, when all street
trees should be trimmed to a height of 8
or 10 feet or more. It is usually necessary
at this time to prune for the purpose of
balancing the root and branch system,
and when this is done some of the less
desirable branches may be sacrificed, and
those remaining may be cut back to some
extent, if necessary. However, a great
deal of unwise and careless pruning of
nursery stock and young trees is done,
and many specimens are ruined in this
way. Tree pruning shears should not
be used in a haphazard manner, and a
distinct idea of the object in view should
be borne in mind. Moreover, species

differ greatly in their response to mutilation, and what may prove of little
consequence to one may be quite injurious to another.

The practice of topping trees is injurious, and should never be resorted
to except in special cases. All of the reserve material in the tree is stored
in the roots, stem and branches, and in a transplanted tree this is suf-
ficient to develop the foliage. It is necessary that a young transplanted
tree should have a certain amount of foliage for growth and development,
since the rapidity of growth is dependent upon leaf development.

The type of trees termed "bean poles," having the tops so cut away
that there are no limbs left, is not suited, therefore, to transplanting.
Trees like the willow will survive any amount of mutilation, but elms,
maples and others must be handled more carefully to obtain the best
results. Pruning has a marked effect on the conformation of trees.
Pruning the branches or secondary organs directs the energies of growth
to the trunk, whereas topping, or the destruction of the leader, has the

FIG. 23. — Formation of a cavity in
tree caused by the removal of a
large limb, and wound not prop-
erly cared for.

SHADE TREES.

163

reverse effect. Continual pruning of the lower branches induces the
tree to grow taller than it otherwise would, and in some locations is
advantageous to the tree. Topping is destructive to the formation of
typical crowns in such trees as the elm, hornbeam, etc., whereas in other
trees, like the Carolina poplar, topping or pollarding has a tendency to
thicken them up and make them more desirable shade trees. The con-
figuration of the crowns of maple trees is modified to some extent by
topping them when they are young. This modification is manifested by

/

Fn;. 24. — Too common method of pruning limbs, resulting in the disfiguration of the tree :
(a) tree before pruning; (b> limb cut too close, resulting in the peeling of the bark;
(r) unsightly wound caused by this method of pruning.

the more vertical growth of the branches, thus producing a more narrow
crown.

The cutting back of old trees is usually disappointing. It is often a
question as to whether this is worth while, although if not too far gone,
old trees may be restored to a more or less vigorous condition by judicious
pruning, tillage and feeding. When elm branches a foot or more in
diameter are topped, nothing but a bushy growth results. By removing
all but a single sprout, thus diverting the plastic materials, much better
growth may be obtained, and replacing of the sacrificed member may be
more readily obtained.

164 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

There is a difference of opinion as to the best time to prune, some
authorities advocating spring and others preferring the fall of the year.
Many people prune when the tree is in foliage, — in May or later. There
are advantages in pruning in either season. Since trees occasionally bleed
when pruned in early summer, painting the wounds is not always success-
fully accomplished under these conditions; on the other hand, scars on
vigorous trees are likely to heal somewhat during the summer if the
pruning is done early.

The tools required in pruning are as follows: for general work, a good
coarse-tooth, wide-set saw (5 teeth per inch) ; for larger limbs, a small 3
or 4 foot hand cross-cut saw; and for smaller limbs not easily accessible,
a pole saw is convenient. Pole-saw blades may be ordered through hard-
ware dealers, and may be fitted to poles of any desired length. A pole
hook, which can be made by any blacksmith, is often useful for removing
the small dead branches. For lowering large limbs a set of blocks is
necessary, and in the felling of trees a cross-cut saw is indispensable. Ropes
of various sizes, iron wedges for felling trees, axes, mallets and chisels,
ladders, spurs for climbing, etc., are also indispensable.

The above are the most essential tools for pruning shade trees, although
there are others which are extremely useful and time saving.

Healing of Wounds.
A protective feature characteristic of all plants is well illustrated in the

healing of wounds. The healing tissues (callus) in a tree are the cambium

and adjacent meristematic cells located be-
tween the wood and the outer bark. The
plastic substances which provide the material
for growth and healing are manufactured in
the leaf, and are transferred through certain
tissues of the inner bark (phloem) adjacent
to the cambium to various parts of the tree.
When the tree is girdled or the bark removed
no growth takes place below the girdling be-

i«fty?!flH[:^SRHl cause the channels of transportation are

\ itfXw destroyed-

In some young plants the pith cells possess
the power to form a callus, but such cases
are rare and of little importance. The
younger the tissue or organ the more quickly
it will heal, providing other things are favor-
able, and vigorous trees will form a callus
much more quickly than old or weak ones.
Since the plastic substances are manufac-
tured in the leaf, and since it is these sub-
stances which are necessary for the develop-
ment of healing tissue, it is only when

FIG. 25. — Healing of wound.
Most active healing follows
most direct lines of trans-
ference of plastic materials.

SHADE TREES. 165

wounds are located along the line of transference of the plastic substance
that they develop healing tissue. The sides of a circular wound as a
rule heal over most rapidly because they are most directly in the chan-
nels of the transference of the plastic substances, and the top and
bottom of the wound heal more slowly. When these facts are borne
in mind it will be seen that a proper shaping of the wound is im-
portant for the development of a more or less even callus formation. (See
Fig. 25.) Cuts made near large, leafy branches are more likely to heal
quickly than those near small ones, for the reason that a larger amount
of the plastic materials is available.

To facilitate healing, recourse is occasionally made to cutting the bark
smooth around the stumps of the removed limbs, and it is also claimed
that after the callus is well started a recutting of the surface stimulates
its growth.

Moisture is said to stimulate the growth of the callus, and the old
practice of covering the wound with a mixture of cow manure, clay and
lime had this object in view.

Disinfectants for Wounds and Cavities.

There are many erroneous ideas concerning the effectiveness of dis-
infectants and their use in general. This is particularly true of disinfect-
ing materials used in tree work. Because a certain disinfectant is used

FIG. 26. — Effects of antiseptic treatment of wood in soil two years:
(a) treated with Carbolineum; (6) creosote; (c) untreated. Little
difference between (a) and (b) ; in (c) practically all decayed and
about 50 per cent, completely.

successfully for one purpose it does not follow that it is applicable to all.
As a matter of fact, all disinfectants are limited in their usefulness owing
to the great variation existing in organisms as regards amenability to
treatment by chemical substances. Disinfectants, therefore, possess
specific rather than general properties, which are determined by many
different factors. Copper sulfate, for example, is remarkably effective

166 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

when applied to reservoirs, ponds, etc., for cleaning out objectionable
growths of many kinds, even when used at 1 to 1,000,000 parts or at 1 to
10,000,000 parts; while to be effective against the common blue mold,
Penicittium, which is often found in the wood of dead trees, it requires
a solution of about 1 to 30, or several thousand times stronger.

In the disinfection of wood tissues the following points should be con-
sidered. The disinfectant should be capable of penetrating wood tissues.
An oily substance, which has more penetrating power, is far better adapted
to this purpose than a watery solution. The substance should be only
slightly volatile and should keep its original form, or at any rate its
antiseptic properties, indefinitely. Copper sulfate, corrosive sublimate,
formalin, lime and sulfur, and Bordeaux mixture have been used as dis-
infectants and preservatives in the
treatment of tree cavities, scars and
wounds, and while all of the above-
named substances have specific disin-
fecting properties it does not neces-
sarily follow that they are adapted to
wood tissues.

The above-named substances pos-
sess limited powers of penetration,
and have little or no permanent anti-
septic value when applied to tree
wounds. Coal tar is also objection-
able because of its lack of penetrating
power, and because it loses its fungi-
cidal value as it becomes hard. A
thick, nonpenetrating material applied
to wood is not only of no value, but
becomes an injurious agent, as shown
by the treatment of shingles on roofs.
The old practice of tarring roofs
simply induced decay because the tar

coating conserved moisture in the shingles, and decay followed more
rapidly than in the untreated shingles. Coal tar, however, is useful in
covering surfaces previously treated antiseptically. In fact, the use of
creosote followed by coal tar constitutes one of the best scientific treat-
ments known, especially for exposed wounds. On the other hand, paint
which contains plenty of oil is valuable, as has been proved by long
years of experience. It lacks durability however.

Shellac dissolved in alcohol and applied to wounds is serviceable for
filling the pores of wood and preventing decay, and hence is of some
value as a wound dressing. Gas tar and liquid asphaltum are also some-
times used to cover wounds, and there are specially prepared paints and
other substances for use as wound dressings. Even common painter's
oil is excellent for the treatment of wounds, as it prevents checking of

FIG. 27. — Inferior mechanical work.
Iron band too low for best support,
and also causing girdling.

SHADE TREES.

167

the wood tissue. As the transpiration current remains practically normal
because checking of the wood is prevented, trees will support a large
amount of foliage even when badly girdled. Painter's oil is especially
suitable for bark wounds. These should be first properly shaped and
their surfaces scraped before applying the oil or other substances. Prac-
tically all disinfectants injure delicate tissue such as the cambium layer,
but it should be borne in mind that the cambium always dies back to a
certain extent when exposed to the air, and more of this dying back
results from dessication than from the use of antiseptics. All antiseptics
must be used with judgment, especially when the vital tissues are likely
to be seriously injured by their use.

Chaining and Bolting Trees.

It often becomes necessary to bolt or chain trees to render them more
secure and to prevent injury and disfiguration. As this process is not
necessarily always an expensive one it should be
much more commonly employed, many valuable
trees having been made practically worthless by
the loss of large limbs during wind storms, etc.
Although the elm is a very tenacious tree with
wood that is very difficult to work up into fuel, it
is very likely to split. For this reason it is advisable
to chain and bolt elms and any other trees which
show a tendency to weakness. For an outlay of
from S10 to $15 it is often possible to save a tree
worth S150 to $200 from destruction.

Different devices are employed for strengthening
trees. Some of these are objectionable and do more
harm than good. It has been a common practice
to place chains around limbs to prevent then* split-
ting, but as the tree develops the chains become
imbedded in the bark, resulting in partial girdling,
and ultimately disfiguring and injuring the tree.

Another equally objectionable method which invariably results in
girdling consists in placing strong bands of iron around limbs and trunks.
For making trees more secure some prefer to use an iron rod rather than
a chain, and although both have their place, in our estimation the chain
system is the better for most purposes. If it is necessary to fasten branches
near the point of forking where swaying is limited an iron rod is prefer-
able; but for connecting limbs a few feet apart more or less remote from
their junction with one another (where swaying is more pronounced) the
chain method is superior. A rod is likely to break when the tree is swayed
by the wind owing to its rigidity, whereas a chain, which is flexible, will
stand the strain better. Moreover, a chain is easier to place than a solid
rod, as less attention has to be given to boring the holes. However, if

FIG. 28. — Girdling by
chain placed around
tree.

168 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

one or two links are placed in the rod, as is sometimes done, this dif-
ficulty is of course obviated to some extent.

Galvanized stranded guy wire or cables, such as are employed by
public-service corporations for anchoring their poles, are superior to
either chains or rods for holding in place defective limbs and branches,
and are far more pleasing to the eye. These wire cables may be obtained
in various sizes and are much cheaper and stronger than chains. Their
tensile strength varies according to size and quality from a few thousand
to several thousand pounds, but the more flexible cables are best suited

to this work. A chain is as

strong as its weakest link or

member, which sometimes

may be very weak, whereas

a stranded wire cable is much

more homogeneous in its con-
struction and less likely to

break. The strain which it

is necessary to overcome in

swaying trees is often very

great, and we have known

many chains to break when

the links were composed of

three-eighths or five-eighths

inch iron. Wire cables and

chains are usually used with

eyebolts, provided with washer

and nuts, but the eyebolt

FIG. 29. — Showing com-
bination of bolting and
banding method which ,

caused girdling to the often constitutes the weakest
tree. feature. It is therefore im-

that only the best

FIG. 30. — Illustrat-
ing the combination
banding and bolt-
ing method. It is
extremely faulty in
all respects.

portant that only
quality of iron be used in the construction of eyebolts. Moreover, work
of this nature demands skillful blacksmithing.

When stranded cables are used the eyebolt method is sometimes dis-
pensed with. In this case the wire passes through a hole in the tree and
around an embedded piece of iron. The wire method is also valuable in
temporarily rendering safe weak or dangerous limbs, and in anchoring
more or less decrepit trees to strong supports.

Most of the chaining, bolting, etc., observed in trees follows extremely
poor mechanical principles. The chains or bolts are often too small, and
are seldom placed advantageously as regards leverage, the majority
being placed too low or too near the crotch of the tree, thus requiring
too much strain to be overcome. Where large limbs are involved, most
eyebolts should be 1 inch in diameter and extend through the tree, these
being supplied with a 3 or 4 inch washer and nut. The practice of screwing
eyebolts or hooks into a tree for a short distance for the purpose of attach-
ing a chain is bad, since they may be pulled out or broken off with the

SHADE TREES.

169

slightest strain, and only a bolt passing through the tree, provided with
a washer and nut, is suitable for such work. If stranded wire is employed
it may pass around an imbedded iron bolt
at the back side of the limbs.

In any system of strengthening trees,
whether by wires or other methods, the
best mechanical principles should be em-
ployed and a careful estimate made of the
amount of load that must be carried; also
the proper angle of attachment, etc. The
amount of strain to overcome in wiring
trees is invariably underestimated, even
with an ordinary amount of swaying.
During severe tempests hardly any treejs
safe, a twisting air movement of great
velocity acting as a severe strain. It is
always wise to have the chain or wire used
far within the limit of safety. Since the
limbs or branches of a tree have a tendency

FIG. 31. — Iron band around limbs
of tree. An objectionable method.

to move inwards during cold
weather, causing chains and wires
to become slack, ah1 wires should
be drawn tight at their installa-
tion.

In many cases of chaining and
bolting the washer and nut are
placed on the outside of the bark,
and often no attempt is made to
cut off the ends of the bolts. The
unsightliness of this method makes
it objectionable. It is better to
cover the nut and washer, which
may be done by countersinking them into the wood of the tree by means
of Ja gauge or extension bit, and the free ends of the bolts should be cut
off close to the nuts. The washer and nut should be well imbedded in

FIG. 32. — Improper method of chain-
ing tree. Dotted lines show more
effective method: (6) bolt, (c)
chain. All chains, however, too low.

170 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

thick paint or coal tar, and either elastic or Portland cement used to

cover them, allowing the cement to come flush with the exterior surface

of the wood. By this method
the ends of the bolt, washer and
nut are covered, and the scar
produced by this operation will
heal over in a short time, leav-
ing no trace.1

The poles of public service
corporations are often attached
to trees by guy wires, and care
should be taken to prevent in-
jury to the tree from girdling,
etc. A large wire loop placed
round a tree and properly in-
sulated from the trunk by special
hard wood blocks is usually
harmless, and is more desirable
on streets than other often un-
sightly methods of anchoring
poles. These blocks may be
made from oak, and should be
2 inches wide, 1^ inches thick
and 8 or 10 inches long for
heavy wires. They should be
provided with a shallow groove
to take the wire, the groove

being made a trifle narrower than the wire to insure a tight fit. (See

Fig. 42.)

Treating Decayed Cavities, Fillings, etc.
Decayed cavities in trees are very undesirable
since any fungi and insects which may be present
will extend their range of activity, causing decay and
shortening the life of the tree. Cavities result from
poor pruning of limbs, the breaking off of branches,

1 The weight of a limb may be roughly obtained by multiplying
the average diameter by the length. This calculation should include
the numerous small branches, limbs, etc.

According to Prof. C. S. Sargent (Woods of the United States, 1885),
the weight of a cubic foot of elm wood is 40.55 pounds when dried at
100° C., and according to W. S. Clark (32d Kept. Mass. State Board of
Agriculture for 1874) the amount of water in elm wood varies from
40 to 60 per cent.; thus a cubic foot of green elm wood would equal
about 60 pounds. A limb 40 feet long with an average diameter of 8
inches would weigh about 840 pounds, and a section about 34 inches
long would equal 1 cubic foot. Of course the leverage which must be
overcome is determined by angles of the limb and point of attachment
of the chain or wire. (See Fig. 36.)

FIG. 33. — Chain and bolt method of support-
ing limbs.

FIG. 34. — Tree prop-
erly bolted; washer
countersunk and im-
bedded in cement.

SHADE TREES.

171

and other injuries which are not followed by proper treatment at the
time.

The treatment of cavities naturally involves some expense, but if a
tree is of any value it is worth treating, even though its value may be
sentimental in nature. There are many trees which to the casual observer
would appear to be of little consequence, but the associations connected
with them may be highly cherished. Then, again, the location is often
important. A tree may furnish shade which cannot be dispensed with,
and even if old and decayed it is often more satisfactory to treat it than
to wait for a new tree to grow.

The rationale underlying the cleaning and filling of cavities is similar
to that in dentistry. If the work is properly done, and if antiseptic con-
ditions are secured, the length of a
tree's life may be extended.

For centuries trees have been
treated in various ways. Cavities
have been filled with wood, brick,
stone, cement and other sub-
stances, but as a rule much of
this earlier work was very crude
in nature, and has accomplished
little or nothing toward the pre-
vention of decay. During the past
few years, however, more scientific
attention has been given to the
treatment of decayed cavities in
trees, and many good examples

may be seen here and there, although it must be confessed that as yet
the work is in more or less of an experimental stage.1

As has been said, the object of treating decayed cavities is to prevent
further decay and to prolong the life of the tree; but there is no particular
reason why people should spend one or two thousand dollars on a single
tree for repair work when it is possible and certainly more reasonable to
transplant a larger and better one for two or three hundred dollars.

The first step in the treatment of cavities is to remove all decayed and
infected tissue, which is done by a thorough cleaning out of the cavity.

Second, to treat antiseptically all the exposed tissues which are sus-
ceptible to decay, preventing further disintegration. The disinfecting

1 The writer's first attempt to establish a course covering shade-tree management was in 1895
although the research work concerning shade-tree problems antedated this period. At that time
there was little material of a reliable nature at hand touching upon the many shade-tree problems
which were continually coming up, and it was practically impossible to organize a course of study
relative to the subject which would be of any great practical, scientific or pedagogical value. It
was, therefore, apparent from the first that an extensive course of study covering this subject,
to be of practical value, would require a scientific basis. However, the numerous investigations
carried on during recent years relating to shade-tree problems have placed this subject on an
entirely different basis, although there is still great opportunity for further research work along
these lines.

FIG. 35. — Longitudinal section of
limb, showing method of bolting.
B, bark; X, wood; B, bolt; W,
washer; C, cement.

172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

I7HO

substance should be one which can safely be used and still be permanent!}'
effective. Creosote is one of the best antiseptics because it possesses
superior properties for penetrating wood, and is
quite permanent as a disinfectant. In some cavity
work this is as far as it is necessary to proceed,
especially in the treatment of old, weak, decrepit
trees which at most have only a brief period to
live, and when there is already considerable
strengthening tissue owing to the inward growth
of the callus and wood. It is often inadvisable to
remove this strengthening tissue and fill the cavity.
(See Fig. 43.)

Third, to cover the orifice or opening of the
cavity to direct the growth of the callus or healing
tissue. However, trees are seldom if ever strength-
ened by fillings; on the other hand, they are too
often weakened by overloading, although ulti-
mately, as new tissue develops over the surface of
the filling, strengthening may follow as a result
of growth.

Innumerable instances may be observed of
positively injurious tree repair work which has
been done by incompetent men, some of whom
are downright scoundrels; and many trees have
come to a sad end from overloading with heavy
concrete. Sometimes the tree collapses
before the contractor actually finishes the
work, in which case litigation usually
follows.

The writer has had many opportunities
to observe cavity work in trees. Some of
these cavities were treated forty years
ago, and when thorough cleaning and
antiseptic treatment were given the cav-
ities, decay has been arrested to a very
remarkable extent. Even some of the
work done by ignorant men and am-
ateurs, who are unable to distinguish
between normal and infected wood, has
been effective in arresting decay, although
only the punk and discolored tissue is
usually removed from the cavities.

While some progress has been made in
cavity treatment during recent years, the greatest drawback to the de-
velopment of a more scientific and intelligent method of treatment is
ignorance and incompetency on the part of those undertaking such

FIG. 36. — Showing
relative strain in
pounds on wire
or chain holding
limbs at different
angles. The strain
at x would be twice
as much as at a.

FIG. 37. — Illustrating a faulty
method of chaining trees.

SHADE TREES.

173

work. The use of worthless disinfectants, the improper shaping of the
cavity opening, and many other wrong methods show a total disregard
for the first principles of scientific treatment and for common sense. It
is unfortunate that so many have undertaken to do tree repair work with-

FIG. 33. — Showing cross-section illustrating the eyebolt and the
stranded wire method of attachment. (Compare Fig. 39.)

out adequate training or special aptitude for it. There are innumerable
so-called "tree experts," "tree specialists," etc., whose whole experience
consists in having filled one or two tree cavities. They possess little
or no knowledge of trees or tree problems. Too much stress is also laid
on the external appearance and smoothness of their cavity work. They
seemingly fail to realize that the
scientific treatment of a wound
or cavity is fully as important
as its appearance when done.

The principal advance in cav-
ity work has consisted, in more
thorough cleaning and more
effective antiseptic treatment,
and some improvement has been
made in the technique of cement
work. However, these innova-
tions are of minor importance,
considering the extent of the
work done and the opportunities
offered for improvement in the
scientific and rational treatment
of cavities.

Methods of treating Cavities.

- The greatest need in tree

cavity work at the present time

is more suitable material and

improvement in methods of

doing the work. There is no reason why a cavity should be filled, —
in fact, there are reasons why it should not. The principal problems as-
sociated with cavity work are those involving the eliminating of fillings
of all descriptions. A durable material with physical properties similar
to those of the tree to direct the callus growth must also be found.

There are several methods for the treatment of cavities, some of which
were^first used years ago. Brick and stone laid in cement have been used

FIG. 39. — Illustrating eyebolt and stranded
wire method of attachment.

174 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

as a filling to cover the cavity opening, and some years ago use wasmade
of irregular pieces of untreated wood for filling cavities. However, cement
in different forms has been most frequently employed for cavity fillings,
and various metals have been used as a covering for the cavity opening,
Use has also been made of wire mesh covered with elastic cement; com-
binations of asphalt and sawdust; paraffine and sawdust; wood pulp and
cement; excelsior and asphalt; sawdust, tar and oakum; certain com-
posite substances like papier-mache*; special floor cements; and chemically
treated wooden blocks.

FIG. 40. — Different methods of fastening branches. The solid
lines represent the best method; dotted lines inferior
methods.

Various disinfectants, such as copper sulfate, corrosive sublimate,
Bordeaux mixture, kerosene, formalin, carbolineum, coal tar, creosote,
etc., have been employed for cavity work, but some of them are
poorly adapted for the purpose. Creosote and carbolineum are similar
in nature, and are the best materials for disinfecting cavities. The
former apparently possesses greater power of penetration than the latter,
although carbolineum seems to form a more permanent external covering
than creosote. (See Fig. 26.) Owing to the slow penetration of all dis-
infectants into moist wood, more than one treatment is needed, and if
the cavity is left open for a while before receiving later treatments, so
much the better.

Although there have been complaints that creosote injures trees, we
have never observed any such injury, notwithstanding the fact that we
have treated cavities within 1 inch of the vital area. In all instances

SHADE TREES.

175

observed, where injury was reported from the use of this substance, the
pathological conditions were due to other causes, and were present pre-
vious to the time of the repair work.

The expense involved in the different methods of treating cavities
varies considerably, and it is not well to increase it unnecessarily. How-
ever, if a tree is worth treating
the work should be done well,
and the more costly methods
need not be condemned if they
achieve superior results. Before
an attempt is made to repair a
tree a thorough examination
should be made, but this is
seldom done. Often a consider-
able portion of a tree above and
below the ground may be dead
without the fact being noticeable
to the casual observer. A careful
examination would reveal the fact

that the tree is not worth expen- FIG- •*!. — Bolt passing through a tree with
, , , large square washer. A smaller round one,

represented by the white circle, is a more

Shaping the Cavity. — The shape desirable form to use.
of the cavity interior is determined

largely by the necessary removal of the decayed material. As the decay
of the heartwood is usually more extensive than that of the sapwood, the
interior dimensions of a cavity are usually greater than those of the
orifice or opening. A shoulder is thus formed, and this is of great ad-
vantage when cement and other substances are used in filling. In cases

FIG. 42. — Least objectionable method of anchoring
guy wires to trees.

where there is no shoulder, spikes may be driven into the wood or iron
bolts used, or grooves in the wood may be chiseled out to anchor the
filling substance more thoroughly and to prevent its dislocation. But
the shaping of the cavity opening or orifice is most important, the main
object in filling a cavity or covering its opening being to direct the callus

176 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

or healing tissue. It is therefore essential that the shape of the cavity

opening conform to the path of the translocated plastic substances of
the tree. These are confined to the phloem, or
inner bark. The sides of the cavity opening
should, in a general way, conform; and the less
the irregularity of the edges of the opening the
better.

If the cavity is above the surface of the ground
the apex and base of the opening should never be
truncated or flattened, but should be apiculate or
pointed. There is no particular objection, how-
ever, to having the opening of the cavity per-
fectly square or rectangular if the bark is re-
moved above and below the opening and brought
to a pointed or rounded termination. (See Fig.
49.) This allows the healing tissue to form reg-
ularly and uniformly over the outside of the
cavity. This also holds true in the treatment of
scars and abrasions on trees. After removing
the bark the wood should be scraped and treated
as with any wound.

Concrete Fillings. — Concrete has been used
more largely than any other substance for fill-
ing cavities in trees, but its physical properties
are so unlike those of wood that it has never been
regarded by competent authorities as a suitable
material for work of this nature. By some workers

its use has only been tolerated until something better could be substituted.
Some of the numerous objections to be raised against filling cavities

with cement are as follows: —

FIG. 43. — Demonstrating
the object of treating
cavities. Upper figure
shows cavity of long
standing, with callus
curved in, which, if it
had been treated,
would be as repre-
sented below.

FIG. 44. — Cross-section of filled cavity showing one
method of treatment. B, bark; Y, sapwood; M,
medullary rays; H.heartwood; A, annual rings,
G, grouting; S, cement surface covering; W, wire
re-enforcement; E, elastic cement. Inferior to the
dry cement methods now used.

SHADE TREES.

177

(a) Cement cannot accommodate itself to the constant swaying move-
ments of trees. As a consequence the fillings are likely to become dis-
placed and crack, although this is not so often the case with fillings low
in the tree. This unavoidable cracking of the cement renders it extremely
unsuitable for use in cavities.

(6) Cement upon drying shrinks from the wood, furnishing an entrance
for water, frost and injurious organisms which may cause damage if the
conditions are favorable.

(c) It is practically impossible to stop bleeding from a cavity that has
been filled with cement. This exudating sap or "slimeflux," which is

FIG. 45. — Cross-section of split tree with bolt and
countersunk nuts and washers and iron braces to
obviate movement. Instead of cement, wooden
blocks should be employed to cover the opening of
the cavity.

not uncommon in trees, discolors the bark and in some cases injures the
underlying tissue.

(d) There is nothing to be gained from filling a tree cavity with cement
or any material. The chief object of filling is to protect the healing tissue
or callus of the tree after the cavity has been thoroughly cleaned and dis-
infected, and this can be accomplished by other methods.

(e) Cement does not in any case strengthen the tree; on the contrary,
it often proves weakening because of its cumbersome and quite unneces-
sary weight. It is not adapted to horizontal cavities, which are difficult
to seal sufficiently to prevent trouble from water, etc.

(/) The several schemes devised to increase the efficiency of cement
fillings, such as re-enforcing with iron, wire, etc., covering the cement

178 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 46. — Cement-filled cavity
favorably shaped for healing
over.

surface with metal, the use of elastic material and special grooves, laying
the cement in sections, and many others, have not proved of any material

value in solving the problem.

(0) The tissues back of a cavity are
rendered more susceptible to decay by
the cement filling. This is especially
true if proper antiseptic treatment is not
given, or if the cavity is not thoroughly
cleaned.

From the various objections given it
follows that it is often better to leave
the cavity open, or merely to cover the
same, than to fill with cement.

Several methods have been employed
for the use of cement, and a detailed
description of all of them is hardly
worth while. It has been extensively
employed as a filling, and also as a
covering for the cavity opening, in
which case the main cavity itself would
be left unfilled. In most of the older work in filling cavities with cement
the opening of the cavity was boarded, up and grouting of a more or
less soft consistency, consisting of 1 part cement to 5 or S of sand,
gravel or other material, was poured in.
When this was partially set the boards
were removed and the surface of the
grouting was coated with about 1 part
cement to 2 parts sand, this extending to
the outer edges of the wood and conform-
ing to the general contour of the tree. In
other cases cement in the proportion of 1
part to 2 or 3 parts of sand has been used
in a relatively dry form, applied in small
quantities, and thoroughly tamped. This
method does not require the use of boards
at the cavity opening, as the cement,
which is uniform throughout, is gradually
built up until the filling process is com-
pleted. The outer surface conforms to
the general contour of the tree. The use
of relatively dry cement has proved more
desirable for cavity work than grouting,

followed by a surface covering of a different consistency, and has done
away with considerable of the cracking and dislodgment of cement which
followed surface covering over grouting. In cavity work of all kinds
where cement is used, nails, spikes, wires, iron rods and bolts, wire mesh,

FIG. 47. — Cement-filled cavity
with bolt.

SHADE TREES.

179

etc., have been used freely in numerous ways for re-enforcing. When
the cavity has no " shoulders" to hold the cement in place, spikes
driven into the wood are effective in anchoring the cement, and we have
observed such fillings to remain undisturbed for many years.

Any filling substance or covering of a cavity should always come flush
with the exterior of the wood. For this purpose it is best to cut the bark
back as little as possible to expose the edge of the wood to view. Special
grooves cut in the wood of the cavity just anterior to the outer edge of
the wood have been used with the idea of directing the flow of surface
water which may enter the cavity, or that arising from the interior caused
by bleeding, but these grooves have not
proved of practical value. A V-shaped
groove cut in the edges of the cement
before hardening, filled with elastic cement
to prevent water from entering, is some-
times used. As there is always more or
less separation of the cement from the
wood after setting or hardening use has
been made of thick elastic substances to
cover the surface of the cavity to make
the contact more complete.

Sectional Concrete Fillings, — The writer
first experimented with sectional concrete
fillings in 1902 and 1903, and has at dif-
ferent times since suggested this method
of filling cavities to those seeking to avoid
cracking of the cement where considerable
movement exists. In our original experi-
ments the. cement was laid in sections, each
section being allowed to become set or
hardened before another was put on. The
sections were further separated from one
another by the use of such substances as
cardboard or tarred paper, fiberoid, elastic
cement or wire mesh. Our idea in de-
veloping the use of sectional work was to eliminate cracking of the
cement which so commonly follows the use of this substance, and the
purpose of using more or less elastic substances between the sections was
to form a bed for each section or independent unit to move upon dur-
ing swaying without causing chipping of the edges of the sectional blocks.
The sectional method of filling has been employed quite extensively within
the last six years, and at present it constitutes the best method of
employing concrete cement in tree cavities.

In some of this work the sections are bolted to the tree, thus restricting
independent movement to a certain extent by anchoring the sections.
In consequence of this anchoring the sections load the tree with weight,

FIG. 48. — Stump growth of white
oak with cavity cleaned and
treated with creosote and filled
with cement. Edge of cavity
effectively sealed with elastic
cement.

180 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

whereas in basal cavities if not anchored they would not, and with the
use of entirely independent sections the movements of cement would be
slightly different.

The first to use sectional concrete in tree cavities with bolted sections
was probably the late city forester W. F. Gale of Springfield, about 1906.
Mr. Gale employed two cross bolts to each section, the sections being
about 20 inches* long and separated in part by wire mesh. After the
cement had sufficiently hardened the bolts were tightened to separate
the sections or indivilual units still further. At the present time tarred
paper is usually employed between sections, but where there is much
movement this substance is hardly thick enough, especially on the outer
edges, to prevent cnipping. We had this feature in mind in our original

FIG. 49. — Showing a square cavity filled with
cement. D, disintegrated bark above and
below the filling; E, general path of plas-
tic or healing substances; F, bark cut to
point to accommodate the process of heal-
ing and conforming with the path of heal-
ing substances.

sectional work. With the judicious use of iron bolts (which should in our
opinion be independent of the sections) in order to secure rigidity, the
sectional cement method has proved superior to the older methods of
filling cavities, since it has done away with much miscellaneous cracking
and dislodgment of fillings.

Much improvement in the quality of the cement work done on trees
has been made within the last few years, especially in cement technique,
and some of the Portland cement surface in cavities is excellent. A
great deal of puttering and detail work such as thorough tamping and
troweling of the cement is often done in tree cavity work, especially
when the contract is for work by the hour. Thorough tamping and
troweling improve the cement, and as a result of this frequent time-
killing process practiced by certain unscrupulous workers some of the
best individual examples of cement technique may be found in trees.
While the sectional method of filling cavities with cement has caused

SHADE TREES.

181

some advance in cavity cement work, it does not solve the problem of
treating cavities. In many cases of sectional work it is an absolute fail-
ure. This is true especially when there is too much swaying or when
the tree cannot stand the
load, or when there is too
much crushing force, as
in narrow cavities. All
concrete work on trees
is better adapted to cav-
ities located near the
ground or below the sur-
face than to high cavities
where swaying constitutes
an important factor, and
where an increase in the
load which a tree is
obliged to carry is ob-
jectionable.

Concrete Coverings for
the Cavity Opening. — •
Concrete may be used to
advantage as a covering
for cavity openings to
form a surface for direct-
ing the healing tissue.
With this method the
interior of the cavity is
left unfilled, and if the
cement is properly re-
enforced with iron the
scheme is practicable and
possesses many advan-
tages. The writer has
treated some large cav-
ities by this method, and it has proved as satisfactory as solid fillings.
Considerable cement is also saved. (See Figs. 51 and 52.)

Metal Coverings. — Metal was much used formerly, and is to some
extent to-day, to cover the openings of cavities, and some very creditable
work has been done in this line. For this purpose tin or zinc is cut and
shaped to meet the requirements of the cavity opening, and after some
of the bark has been cut away the metal is securely fastened to the sap
wood with tacks. With this method of treating cavities the usual clean-
ing and disinfecting are done, but the cavity itself is left unfilled.

The principle underlying this method is good, but metal has not proved
a durable covering, nor are its physical properties suitable to work of
this nature. It is affected too greatly by changes in temperature, which

FIG. 50. — Concrete filling built in sections. fFrom
"Tree Talk.")

182 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 61. — Chestnut tree cavity resulting
from stump growth, with cavity covering
of cement about 6 inches thick. (See
Fig- 52.)

has a tendency to displace the tacks; consequently the metal covering

becomes loose and valueless in a short time. Metal is inclined to deteri-
orate in a few years, and cannot
accommodate itself to much
movement in the tree unless it is
used in sections and imbricated
or overlapped like shingles.

Sometimes metal is used to
cover cement-filled cavities, but
this is of no particular value, and
does not improve the appearance
of the tree. The principal pur-
pose in using it over cement is to
cover the cracks, and when used
in connection wjth iron bands
over the surface it is supposed
to help hold the cement in place.
In some cases where metal is used
in this way it is lapped over on
the bark 4 or 5 inches, but this
destroys the underlying tissues
and arrests their future develop-
ment, thus defeating one of the

main objects of treating cavities, — i.e., encouraging and directing the

healing tissue or callus formation.
Elastic Cement. — Elastic cement, such as is employed by slaters, has

been used for some years in tree repair

work, and Was recommended for this pur-
pose by the Massachusetts Forestry Associ-
ation about 1900. Its principal value in

tree repair work consists in its elastic

properties and its adaptability to places

where there is considerable movement. It

is too expensive for use in large cavities,

costing from 4 to 15 cents per pound, but

it has been employed to some extent for

filling small spaces and also as a thin

covering for cavity openings. In the latter

case wire mesh is strung across the cavity FIG> 52. - illustrating cross-sec-

opening, the wire mesh being re-enforced tion of the cement surface

with iron and shaped to conform to the

outer contour of the tree; and the elastic

cement is plastered on the mesh. (See

Figs. 54 and 55.)
This method of treating cavities has been especially recommended by

Mr. L. F. Prouty, associated with the city forestry department, Spring-

covering to cavity shown in
Fig. 51. W, wire stapled to
sides of cavity; I, iron re-en-
forcing; C, cement.

SHADE TREES.

183

field, Mass., who has made quite a little use of elastic cement for cavity
work. One of the drawbacks in the use of this substance for tree work
is that it does not harden suffi-
ciently, the surface easily becoming
disfigured. On the other hand, it
is valuable for cavities in high
swaying trunks and limbs of trees,
and especially for cavities with
horizontal openings.

Wood pulp with a thin facing of
Portland cement has also been em-
ployed for covering the openings
of cavities.

Asphalt Fillings. — During the
last twenty years numerous at-
tempts have been made to use
asphalt in tree repair work, and
more recently it has been employed
in combination with other sub-
stances. Asphalt and sawdust
have been used for cavity work by

Mr. John Boddv,1 city forester of

™ , i /\«. ' -n -x- • FIG. 53. — Cavity in apple tree cleaned out,

Cleveland, Ohio. For cavities in treated a ntiseptically, and surf ace covered

swaying branches he uses 1 part with tin.

FIG. 54. — Elastic cement covering of cavity
opening. Wire mesh only supports the thin
covering of cement. (After L. F. Prouty.)

asphalt to 3 or 4 parts sawrdust,
and for other cavities 1 part
asphalt to 5 or 6 parts sawdust.
The sawrdust is stirred into the hot
asphaltum until the desired con-
sistency is obtained, and the
mixture while still hot is put
into the cavities with tools
smeared with crude oil. Mr.
Boddy recommends a grade of
asphaltum termed "Byerlyte" as
best suited for this purpose. This
is derived from refining petroleum
with an asphaltum basis, and is
the same as that used on street
pavements. The mixture of
asphaltum and sawdust is better
adapted physically to the move-
ments of the trees than the more
rigid Portland cement.

i Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.
June 11, 1915.

Cir. No. 150,

184 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 55. — Section of tree with
cavity illustrating wire and
elastic cement method of
covering opening. C, elastic
cement; W, wire mesh; I,
iron re-enforcements.

Another method of treating tree cavities with the use of asphalt has
been devised and described by Elbert Peets. This consists of using brickets
or units composed of asphaHum and excel-
sior. These brickets are employed as a
covering to the outer surface of the cavity,
and are cemented together with asphaltum.
The brickets are secured to the side of the
cavity opening by spikes, a^nd are held in
place by iron re-enforcements, the portion
of the cavity back of the brickets being filled
with sawdust, cinders or other material.
An especially commendable feature of this
method is the unit system employed, and
the adaptability of the material to the move-
ments of trees. On the other hand, asphal-
tum is not a convenient substance to use
because it has to be heated. The same objec-
tions to completely filling a cavity apply

also to asphaltum, although with the use of this
material such a practice may not always be
necessary.

Wooden Block Method. — This method of seal-
ing cavities (invented by the writer) has been in
use only recently. It consists in the use of chem-
ically treated wooden blocks to cover the open-
ing of the cavities, and makes filling unnecessary.
The blocks are of different sizes. Each one
constitutes a homogeneous structural unit com-
posed of various cellular elements, similar to
those in trees. With this method, as in others,
the cavities are cleaned and treated antiseptically,
the blocks being used simply to cover the orifice
of the cavity and to direct the growth of the
callus or healing tissue.

The advantage of wooden blocks for cavity
work consists in the fact that the blocks are
composed of the same type of element as found
in trees. The geometrical arrangement of the
various elements, as well as their chemical com-
position and molecular structure, is similar;
moreover, the physical properties — rigidity,
elasticity, etc. — are practically identical. The
various movements in the cavities of trees re-
sulting from variation in temperature, moisture,
barometrical influence, etc., may be better conformed to by the use of
this material than by any other yet employed for the cavity treatment.

FIG. 56. — Chemically
treated wooden block
covering of cavity open-
ing, with back re-en-
forcements of wood.
The normal growth of
the callus is not dis-
turbed. (After J. A.
Davis, City Forester,
Springfield.)

SHADE TREES.

185

The blocks should be arranged in the cavity opening so that the radial
and tangential surfaces of the structural elements in the blocks coin-
cide in general with those in the tree. It is not necessary to lay the
blocks in cement, but in some cases painting
the surfaces which will come into contact
with one another with an elastic cement is of
advantage. The blocks are fastened to the
tree by means of special iron braces and held
securely by iron re-enforcements. Besides
being especially adapted, owing to their
physical properties, to use in trees, such
blocks are durable, light and easy to fit, and
are better adapted to swaying movements
and crushing pressure found in narrow
cavities than rigid or less plastic substances
such as have been used heretofore. The
disagreeable and injurious effects arising
from bleeding may be taken care of by
this method of cavity treatment, and con-
structive work may be done in winter as
well as in summer.

TREE GUARDS.

There is almost no end to the types of tree guards used to protect trees.
Some of these are good and others are of little value. The purpose of a

FIG. 57. — Cross-section of
illustration shown in Fig.
56. C, cavity; B, chemi-
cally treated blocks; I,
iron re-enforcement in
grooves; X, longitudinal
section of blocks.

FIG. 58. — Different types of tree guards: 1, wooden strips nailed to a tree; 2, wooden
strips nailed to a tree and banded with iron; 3, old type of wooden tree guard;
4, wooden strips banded with iron tightly to the trunk of the tree; 5, similar to 4:
all objectionable types.

tree guard is protection, and the guard should cover the tree to a height
of about &5 feet; it should be as light and as inconspicuous as is con-
sistent with strength and protection; and should allow the tree ample

186 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

opportunity for growth without causing injury. The ideal tree guard
is durable, easily placed and not easily displaced, inexpensive and neat
in appearance. Some tree guards are attached to trees by means of
staples or nails, but this method of attachment is objectionable. The
old-fashioned tree guard made of wood usually became useless in a few
years. However, while it may not have possessed much beauty or per-
manent utility, it at least showed a commendable spirit and desire for
tree protection.

A very cheap and efficient tree guard is used to quite an extent in
some places, and is known as the " Clinton Tree Guard." This guard is
made of No. 15 galvanized wire, having a mesh three-fourths inch in
diameter, all the wire contacts being soldered. This wire may be bought
in strips of various widths from 12 to 48 inches, and cut off any length
desired, 6 and 6^ feet being the more-usual lengths. Strips 12 to 18 inches
wide are well suited for small trees. These are rolled up in cylindrical form
of the desired diameter, and tied together by a few pieces of copper wire.
To prevent the top of the tree guard from chafing the tree the top is

protected by wiring through the rough
edges of the guard a split piece of dis-
carded rubber hose. Use is also made of in-
sulated wires or springs placed diagonally
through the top of the guard to hold it away
from the tree. The great advantage of this
guard is its cheapness, but it is made of
heavy wire firmly woven, and answers the
requirements very well. This wire is made
by the Clinton Wire Company, Clinton,
Mass., and costs about 4| cents per square
foot. (See Fig. 60.)

A re-enforced wire cloth guard manu-
factured by the Wright Wire Company,
Worcester, Mass., has recently come into
use. It is made from close mesh wire similar
to that of the Clinton guard, but is re-enforced
with flat metal strips. This re-enforcement
is considered a valuable innovation because
even heavy wire mesh is likely to crumple up
with hard usage, and becomes ineffective as
a tree guard. The re-enforced metal edges
are provided with holes for the purpose of
stapling the guard to large trees. (See Fig.
61.)

One of the neatest and most durable tree
guards is shown in Fig. 59. It consists of an

open-mesh, heavy-wired guard supported by a piece of angle iron on
either side driven into the ground. The angle iron acts as a re-enforce-

Fio. 59. — Effectual tree
guard used on Boston Com-
mon. The wire guard is
re -en forced by pointed
angle irons driven into the
ground.

SHADE TREES.

187

nient and holds the guard in place. The use of any guard around trees
is more or less of a nuisance, but at the present time they have to be
applied to street trees. Planting inside of the sidewalk or on wide
tree belts will obviate much of the use of tree guards
in the future.

FERTILIZING TREES.

Trees, like agricultural crops, respond to tillage and
treatment with fertilizers and manures, but there are only
meager data relative to the specific effects of the various
chemical constituents in fertilizers on shade trees. From
what is known regarding their effects on other crops, and
from their limited use on trees and shrubs, it is evident that
they may be applied with a reasonable degree of success.

Wood ashes have been used to some extent for treating
shade trees, also bone meal, nitrate of soda and potash in
the form of muriate or sulfate. Any good complete fer-
tilizers, such as those adapted to lawns, should prove
valuable for trees. Wood ashes, which are not so easily
obtained as formerly, are of benefit to lawns, and there is
no reason why they should not prove suitable for trees.
A certain amount of nitrate of soda, at the rate of 150 to
200 pounds per acre, may be used to good advantage, but
care should always be used not to apply it too freely.
The nitrate of soda stimulates wood production, and, like
lime, helps to give a deeper color to the foliage; but an
excess produces symptoms of malnutrition hi many crops
which usually takes the form of an abnormal development of
foliage. Bone meal is slow to become available, but it
does not injure plants when applied freely, and makes a
good fertilizer. Pulverized sheep and cow manure are
valuable lawn fertilizers, and even though the price is
rather high for the plant food contained, they supply organic
matter and therefore have an especially beneficial effect on
the soil. They can be applied freely without danger of
harm.

While trees will respond favorably to judicious treatment with fertilizers,
it must be borne in mind that no fertilizer can take the place of cul-
tivation. Fertilizers should be applied wrhere the feeding roots are located,
and these are confined largely to an area corresponding with the spread
of the foliage and not close to the trunk of the tree, as imagined by many
persons. This also holds true for tillage, i.e., the whole area surrounding
the tree should be cultivated to some distance beyond the spread of the
foliage. As the tree develops in size the smaller feeding roots become
less abundant near the base of the tree, although cultivation and feeding
have a marked tendency to induce root development wherever they are

IG. 60. — Clin-
ton tree guard,
with hose pro-
tection at top.

188 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

practiced. All fertilizers should be applied evenly. Spreading by hand
is at best a poor method, as shown by the dark green plots of grass on
lawns where nitrate of soda has been applied in this way; but when
fertilizer spreaders cannot be had the hand method must be used. Another
factor to be considered when applying fertilizers to lawn trees is that the
grass roots will obtain their full share. Turning under the sod and cul-
tivation of the soil around the tree is of
the greatest importance from the very
considerable amounts of organic matter
added to the soil. Fertilizers applied
under these conditions, or, far better,
stable manure well incorporated into the
soil at the rate of 20 to 30 cords per acre,
are of the greatest benefit to the tree,
even if it becomes necessary to reseed
immediately. In cases where it is incon-
venient or undesirable to disturb the
soil around a tree, and when the applica-
tion of fertilizer to the surface does not
accomplish the desired results, holes 1 or
2 feet apart and 15 inches deep may be
made with an iron bar and then filled at
different times with a liquid fertilizer.

There are a number of fertilizer mix-
tures prepared for shade trees that are
undoubtedly of value, but some of them
are apparently not based on any expert
knowledge of the tree's special require-
ments.

FIG. 61. — Re-enforced wire cloth
tree guard, showing edge stiffen-
ing with nail holes for attaching
to tree. (From the Wright Wire
Company.)

DISEASES OF TREES.

Trees, like other living organisms, are
very liable to attacks from disease, and a
tree of any maturity is seldom found

perfect in all respects. A disease may be denned as a disorder caused by
any failure in or diversion of the normal physiological activities of the
organism.

The diseases of plants with which plant pathologists have to deal may
be divided into three classes: First, those caused by parasitic fungi;
examples, — rust, smut, etc. Second, those brought about by functional
irregularities which induce saprophytes (dead wood fungi) or parasites
to thrive, such as " damping off," mildew, etc. Third, those of a purely
functional nature, pathogenic organisms not necessarily being present;
examples, — dropsy or cedema of tomatoes, malnutrition and others.
All these types of diseases are found in trees, but the first and second are
most common.

SHADE TREES.

189

Diagnosis of Disease.

A successful diagnosis of disease necessitates a thorough knowledge of
the normal and abnormal functions of the organism, together with an
understanding of the specific reactions of the plant to various external
and internal agencies or stimuli that may affect it. The specific reactions
of plants are so little understood as compared with those of animals which
have been studied for centuries that it often requires considerable study
to make a complete and accurate diagnosis of some of the troubles affect-
ing plants, especially without knowledge of
the conditions to which they have been
subject. Plants have their peculiarities,
like animals, and the large number of
different species which are normally adapted
to a great variety of conditions and which
are likely to be subject to disease renders
the problem of diagnosis often quite diffi-
cult. The reactions of plants to stimuli are
manifold, and much more depends upon
the nature of the organisms stimulated, as
regards the nature of the response, than
upon the particular stimuli giving rise to
the reaction. The same agency may produce
a variety of reactions even in the same
organism, and different agencies will often
produce like effects.

It might be difficult to tell whether a
particular plant was affected by coal gas,
hydrocyanic acid gas, burned sulfur, for-
malin vapor, or other gases without other
evidence than that afforded by the plant,
unless the observer possessed a special
knowledge of the effect of these gases.
But there are distinct symptoms displayed
by plants which enable one, after much
experience and careful investigation, to de-
termine with some degree of accuracy the exact cause of injury resulting
from injurious agencies.

In diagnosing diseases it is first necessary to distinguish between primary
and secondary causes. A tree may be subject to borers and fungi, but these
may not be the primary cause of the trouble; indeed, they are more
often merely secondary effects. A tree may sometimes winterkill and
become subject to fungi, but one would not be justified in diagnosing the
case as injury from fungi, although in the diagnosis of disease secondary
causes are often mistaken for primary ones. It should be borne in mind,
however, that no plant ever dies without some definite cause. In deter-

FIG. 62. — Open mesh tree guard
with protective springs at top.
(From the Wright Wire Com-
pany.)

190 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

mining the health condition of a tree it is important that all the factors
in any way concerning it should be well understood; in other words, one
should be able to judge of the degree of vigor possessed by the tree. A
tree in a vigorous condition has a quite different appearance from one
that is less thrifty. In the former case the bark has a certain color and
other characteristics by which it is easily distinguished from those in a
less healthy tree. This is also true of the branches, twigs and leaves as
well as of the general habit of growth.

Finally, in all tree work it is essential that as thorough knowledge as
possible should be secured of the structure and function of the tree, its
normal and abnormal characteristics, and the causes responsible for
health and disease. As a rule, tree workers have little idea of tree structure
and function; consequently their diagnoses are seldom correct.

Fungous Diseases of Trees.

There are troubles of a serious nature affecting trees which are not
associated with organisms; but by far the most numerous and trouble-
some diseases are caused by fungi, and occasionally by other types of
organisms. The fungi responsible for decayed cavities do the most
damage to trees.

There are a great number of leaf spots — Septoria, Cercospora, Phyl-
losticta and other genera — which affect both our native and introduced
trees and shrubs, and mildews are found on almost every tree and shrub.
Much careful investigation has been given to the control of plant diseases
in general, and valuable results have been obtained from spraying and
other methods of treatment. (See Treatment.) The fungous diseases of
our agricultural crops have been thoroughly studied, and most of them
are of enough importance to warrant systematic treatment every year;
but a large number of the leaf spots affecting shade trees are not common
enough to do any particular harm, and at least during the past many of
them have not been considered worth serious study from the viewpoint
of treatment.

Most of the fungi affecting leaves and branches are parasitic; a few
are saprophytic, i.e., attacking only dead tissue; while still other forms
flourish either as parasites or saprophytes. The root-like mycelia of
parasites in most cases penetrate the cells and rob them of nutriment.
Often fungi cause distortion of the tissues so that galls and other abnormal
growths are formed. They also have acquired the peculiar habit of
secreting ferments that dissolve the cell walls. All fungi are capable of
producing some injury, but economically considered, treatment is neces-
sary only when the injury greatly retards the growth of the tree or seriously
impairs its appearance.

Among some of the commoner forms of fungi that affect shade trees
may be mentioned the following: —

SHADE TREES.

191

FIG. 63.— Oyster mush-
room (I'leurotus
anpidu*} on maple,
following injury.

MAPLE (Acer). — Leaf spot (PhyUosticta acericola C. & E.) forms irregular
brownish .spots on the leaves of the rock and white maples.

Anthracnose (Glarosporium apocryptum E. & E.) is known to cause serious in-
jury to the leaves and shoots of the box elder. and maple.
Leaf spot (Rhytisma acerinum Fr.) is characterized by
conspicuous black spots on the leaves of the red and white
maples, but is practically harmless.

Xectria cinnabar ina (Tode) Fr., a common fungus char-
acterized by small cinnamon-colored pustules occurring on
dead wood, follows winterkilling, sun scald, etc. It is
especially noticeable on winterkilled twigs of Norway
maples.

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sapidus Fr.) is a large,
edible fungus growing in masses on maples that have been
injured by borers and other agencies. A mildew (Uncinula
circinata E. & E.) sometimes infects the leaves of various
maples.

Sun scald and frost cracks are not uncommon on
maples. The rock maple is one of the most susceptible
trees to sun scorch and "bronzing" of foliage induced by
excessive transpiration during dry periods. The red maple
is susceptible to winter injury of roots, and like the rock
maple suffers from drought.

HORSE-CHESTNUT (JSscu-lus). — Leaf spot (PhyUosticta
sphceropsoidea E. & E.) appears in the early summer, and

later causes a conspicuous yellow spotting of the foliage. This disease is more or
less common every year. The leaves of the horse-chestnut are occasionally affected
with mildew (Uncinula flexuosa Pk.), and the
winterkilled twigs are sometimes attacked by
Xectria cinnabarina.

CHESTNUT (Castanea). — This is seldom
planted as a shade tree, although it is some-
times seen on country roadsides and on lawns.
The chestnut blight, which is so serious and so
universally distributed at the present tune,
renders the use of the species as an ornamental
tree out of the question. The chestnut is also
affected with certain leaf spots, etc.

AMORE (Platanus). — The tree most likely
to be severely defoliated by a fungus is the
sycamore. The causal organism is Gloeosporiurn
-cquum (Fckl.) Sacc., which affects the
petioles and veins of the leaves, causing small
black areas on these organs. More or less large
portions of the leaves turn brown and the leaf
finally falls.

The sycamore is unusually susceptible to
winterkilling of the twigs, but in spite of this
:int defoliation and twig killing it is a very
hardy tree.

POPLAR (Populus). — The principal species
in cultivation as shade trees are the Carolina
poplar, white poplar, Italian poplar and the

Lombardy poplar. The Italian poplar is often severely affected with rust
(Mdampsora populina (Jacq.) Lev.), and a mildew (Uncinula salicis DC. Wint.)
is frequently observed on the leaves of poplars. Anthracnose (Marssonia populi

FIG. 64. — Horse-chestnut leaf spot
(1'hyllosticta).

192

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 65A. — Italian poplars affected with rust (Melampsora populina (Jacq.) Lev.).
Unsprayed. (After Maynard.)

SHADE TREES.

193

FIG. 6oB. — Italian poplars affected with rust (Melampsorn populina (Jacq.) Lev.). Sprayed
with Bordeaux mixture. (After Maynard.)

194 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Sacc) which attacks the twigs, has been known to cause great injury
o any poplaTs Poplars are often affected by crown gall and various other

dl ^(Quercus). - The oaks are affected by a number of diseases such as Septoria
' u Cite wh ch produces a leaf spot, and by several mildews, e.g., Phyttactinid
M Reb. A^erL intricate E. A M. and Asterina patelloides E. « , M 'Micro.
sphcrra auercina (S.) Burr. The fungus Glvosporiurn ™«uum (Fckl. Sacc
which also affects the sycamore, is sometimes found on oaks affecting the 1
>etioles and veins, causing a browning, and, in severe cases, a loss of the foliage.
It s most common on the leaves of the shaded branches.

(Tode) Fr also affects the oak. Oak "spangles," little saucer-shaped bodies on
the leaves which resemble the work of fungi, is caused by insects.

HICKOBY (Can/a). -Two or more leaf spots are found on the hickory e.g.,
Microstroma juglandis Sacc. and Phyllosticta caryce Pk. Some seasons hickory
leaves are quite badly spotted.

BUTTERNUT (Juglans). — Butternuts are affected
by the following leaf spots: Ascochyta juglandis
Bolish, which is more or less common; Cercospora
juglandis K. & Sw., Glccosporium juglandis (Lib.)
Mont., Marssonia juglandis (Lib.) Sacc. The butter-
nut has suffered greatly from climatic conditions in
the past decade.

TULIP TREE (Liriodendron) . — The leaves of the
tulip tree are sometimes badly spotted by insect work
which is often accompanied by fungi.

SWEET GUM (Liquidambar) . — The sweet gum is
affected by a leaf spot (Septoria liquidambaris Cke. &
E.) and is susceptible to winter injury in the north.

MAGNOLIA. — The magnolia is affected by an
anthracnose (Colletotrichum spinacice E. & H.) which

FIG. 66. — Armlllaria mellea ruins the smaller branches and foliage of the tree.
on roots of maple. Mildew (Asterina picea B. & C. and Asterina comata

B. & Rav.) is also found on the leaves.

PINE (Pinus) . — The white pine during the past ten years has been affected by
a root killing, which has been responsible for the burning of the leaf tips (sun
scorch). Various fungi, such as Septoria parasitica Hartig, and H endersonia folii-
cola Berk., have been associated with this trouble, but both are apparently sapro-
phytes. The terminal twigs of the white pine are occasionally affected with Phoma
Harknessii Sacc., which causes the death of both the leaves and twigs. Scorias
spongiosa Schw. forms black incrustations on the leaves and twigs of the white
pine in the secretions of the woolly aphis. Rust (Coleosporium pini) sometimes
occurs on the leaves of the pitch pine.

CATALPA. — The catalpa is affected with the leaf spots Phyllosticta catalpce E. &
M., Cercospora catalpce Wint., Macrosporium catalpce E. & E., also with mildew
(Microsphcera elevata Burr, and Phyllactinia suffulta Reb.). A blight disease is
recorded which causes the leaves to turn black, shrivel and fall. This is said to be
caused by insect larva*. Two wood-destroying fungi, e.g., Polyponis versicolor (L.)
Fr. and Polyporus (Poria) catalpce are found on the catalpa.

HACKBERRY (Celtis). — The hackberry is occasionally planted as a shade tree,
and is affected by two mildews (Uncinula polychccta B. & C. and Sphccrotheca
phytoptophyla K. & S.) which are associated with a mite (Phytoptus) in producing
distortion of the leaves. Phleospora celtidis E. & M., Phyllosticta celtidis E. & K.,
Ramularia celtidis E. & E. and Septoria gigaspora E. & E. are responsible for leaf
spots.

BEECH (Fagus). — A mildew (Microsphcera erineophila Cke.) is associated with
a mite (Phytoptus) on the leaves of the beech. The fungus (Scorias spongiosa

SHADE TREES.

195

Sehw.) grows in the secretions of woolly aphis, causing a large spongy black mass
on the leaves.

HAWTHORNE (Cratcegus) . — The leaves of the English hawthorne are affected
often seriously with Entomoxporiinn thumcnii Cke., which produces spots.

ASH (Fraxinus). — The stems and leaves of the ash for the past few years have
been troubled with a rust (sEcidium fraxini Schw.). The worst cases have been

Fi<;. 07. — Linden leaf spot (Cercoaporn).

found in the vicinity of Cape Cod. The ash is also subject to a leaf spot (Septoria
Ifucostroma E. & E.) and mildews (Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sacc. and Phyl-
losticta viridis E. & K.).

LOCUST (Robinia). — The locust is unusually susceptible to borers, and when
attacked by them often becomes infected with various species of fungi.

LIX~DEX" (Tilia). — The leaves of the linden are sometimes badly affected with
leaf spots, such as Cercospora nticrotora Saee., which may be largely controlled by

FIG. 68. — Linden tree in center sprayed twice with Bordeaux mix-
tare; others unsprayed.

spraying. The linden in some Locations suffers very badly from frost cracks. The
American basswood (Tilio <nm rlcand) is subject to a leaf mildew (Uncinnln din-
tonii Lev.) and to the leaf spot (Cercospora tilia Pk.).

ELM (Ulnnis). — • The most common leaf spot found on the elm is Dothidella ulmi
(Duv.), which is characterized by numerous small black spots on the upper surface
of the leaves. Another leaf spot caused by Phleospora ulmi Wallr. is characterized
by numerous small spots from which gelatinous masses exude in damp weather.

196 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

This fungus causes defoliation, and sometimes a great deal of injury results. The
mildew (Uncinula macrospora Pk.) is found on elms, and Taphrina ulmi Johan. is
found on Ulmus montana and Ulmus campestris.

The American elm is very susceptible to drought and winterkilling of roots.
Frost cracks are also rather common on the elm, and from these and injury from
borers the elm bleeds rather freely.

Sun scald, sun scorch, "bronzing" and various types of winter injury, -
such as root killing, death of buds, twigs and branches, frost blisters and
frost cracks, — drought effects, "staghead" from various causes, and
many other troubles not caused by organisms, are quite commonly found
on trees.

There is also a sooty mold that grows in the "honeydew" secreted
some years quite abundantly by aphids on various species, which some-
times causes considerable retardation of growth. The honeydew is usually
washed off the leaves by rains before it does very much harm, but occa-
sionally, in periods of drought, the concentrated sticky covering remains
on the leaves long enough to plasmolyse the cells, causing a mottled
appearance of the leaves.

Wood-destroying Fungi.

There are a great number of fungi that may be found on dead wood
following various injuries caused by sun scald, insect work, fires, illum-
inating gas, oil sprays and other agencies. Some of these parasites attack
the dead bark and penetrate living tissues of the host, destroying the
cell structure, and others are found in the heartwood. By far the largest
number of wood-destroying fungi, however, are saprophytic in nature,
and find congenial conditions only on dead tissue or that which has
become weakened from some cause. These fungi produce different
chemical and mechanical effects on the tissues, depending upon the nature
of the host and of the attacking organism.

A great many of the fungi that attack wounds are capable of pro-
ducing cavities, although the heartwood fungi are the chief offenders in
this direction. These wood fungi are the most insidious enemies of trees,
and quite often no trace of their work is discovered until a great deal of
injury has been done. They penetrate the tissues slowly and persistently,
and the decay is usually so well hidden from sight that the damage does
not appear until the injured tissues are removed with mallet and chisel.

While the wood-destroying fungi are responsible for much injury to
trees, fortunately it can be prevented by the antiseptic treatment of
wounds; and if the decay has progressed until cavities are formed, these
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The great amount of tree
work done during the past few years has demonstrated that the careful
removal of infectious material from cavities, followed by thorough anti-
septic treatment of the cavities, has been very successful in arresting
decay and preventing further injury.

SHADE TREES.

197

Some of the more common wood fungi are given in the following list.
This list is by no means complete as there are innumerable deadwood
species belonging to many different genera which it is unnecessary to
give. Even some of those listed, e.g., the common birch Polyporus, are
seldom if ever found except on dead trees.

Most of the wood-destroying fungi develop conspicuous fruiting organs
that make them easy to identify. Molds and bacteria are also responsible
for hastening decay in trees, often preparing the way for other organisms.

Armillaria mellea Vahl. — A parasite mushroom affecting the roots of maples,
oaks and other trees.

Dcedalea quercina (L.) Pers. — Occurs in wounds and on dead tissues of the oak
and chestnut.

Forties igmarius (L.) Gillet. — False timber fungus. This is responsible for a
heart-wood rot common to a large
variety of trees, such as maple,
oak, hickory, poplar, beech and
others.

Forties rimosus Berk. — Common
on the black locust, where it forms
large, conspicuous fruiting bodies.

Fames fomentarhis (L.) Fr. —
Occurs on the beech and yellow
birch, probably as a saprophyte.

Fames applanatus (Pers.) "Wallr.

— A deadwood fungus often fol-
lowing injury from fire, etc.

Fames pinicola Fr. — Causes a
decay of conifers.

Hydnum septentrionale Fr. — A
large, creamy white growth occur-
ring on wounds of rock maple.

Pleurotus sapidus Fr. — Oyster
mushroom (edible). Occurs on
maples, elms, etc., injured by borers
and on neglected wounds.

Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr.

— Red heart rot. Occurs on vari-
ous trees, such as oak, maple, locust
and conifers. Fruiting bodies con-
sist of a series of sulfur-colored

shelves overlapping one another and forming a large, round mass.

Polyporus betulinus (Bull.) Fr. — Common on dead birches.

Polyporus gilvus Schw. — On deadwood.

Polyporus nigricans. — A wound and heartwood fungus.

Polyporus borealis (Wahl.) Fr. — A wound parasite on species of hemlock.

Polystictus versicolor Fr. — One of the most common fungi, found on a great
variety of trees and cut timber. Very destructive as a saprophyte, and as a wound
parasite causes injury to catalpa.

Polystictus pergamenus Fr. — Common on trunks of trees following fires.

Schizophyllum commune Fr. — Common on trees injured from various causes.

Stereum frustulosum Fr. — Causes decay to trunks and occasionally found in
wounds, etc.

FI<T. 69. — Hydnum septentrionate.
A. White.)

(After E.

198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Slime-Flux,

This trouble is common to trees like the elm, maple, yellow birch and
apple. It is associated with frost cracks, injury from lightning, splitting
of the trunk, defective pruning, etc., and is not uncommonly found in
cement-filled cavities. Slime-flux is characterized by the exudation of a
slimy, discolored sap from wounds. This exudation of sap is contaminated
with various forms of algae, bacteria and fungi, and occasionally with low
forms of animal life, all of which give the sap a sour odor. This fermenting
mass is apparently poisonous to vegetation, since it will kill the grass
upon which it falls, and also causes injury to the bark and underlying
tissues of trees. The whitish appearance given to the bark by the slimy
sap often persists for some time after the flow has stopped.

Bleeding wounds often prove injurious to trees, and are very difficult
to treat. The bleeding can usually be stopped when it follows defective
pruning, as it often does in the elm. Sometimes wooden plugs nicely
fitted and driven into the wound firmly will prevent bleeding, and in some
cases the tissue may be cauterized by heat. Cement should not be used
in cavities that show a tendency to bleed.

Treatment of Fungous Diseases of Trees.

The methods of treating fungous diseases are numerous, but undoubtedly
in the future different, as well as simpler, cheaper and more efficient,
methods will be used. The use of antiseptics in the treatment of wounds
and cavities caused by the worst enemy of trees, — i.e., the wood-
destroying fungi — is absolutely essential in controlling this type of
diseases.

Little attention has been given to the treatment of the many leaf spot
diseases of trees and shrubs, but from what has been already accomplished
along these lines we are justified in assuming that these spots can be
controlled largely by spraying; for example, trees like the linden, which
often becomes badty infected with a leaf spot, are much benefited by
spraying. A linden tree,1 sprayed twice during July and August with
Bordeaux mixture, retained its leaves ten days later than trees unsprayed,
and the amount of leaf spot was materially less on the sprayed tree.
(See Fig. 68.) The leaf spot Entomosporium affecting the English haw-
thorne may be controlled, according to our observation, by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture; and there are many other shade-tree leaf spots
that yield to this treatment. In many cases, however, it is a question
whether the trees are worth the expense and trouble of treatment.

All the rusts are difficult to control, and it is doubtful whether some of
them at least are worth treatment. The rust affecting the Italian poplars
(Melampsora), which at times has been more or less serious, was held
in control quite effectively by Prof. S. T. Maynard,2 who sprayed for

1 Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 15, 1905.
* Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 25, 1894.

SHADE TREES.

199

this trouble with Bordeaux mixture many years ago. This rust affects
the lower foliage, usually when the dew is most abundant. Infection is
sometimes so severe that it destroys the twigs and branches. However,
the use of Bordeaux mixture as a spray for ornamental trees is objection-
able on account of the discoloration of the foliage, and some prefer the
fungus to the unsightly foliage. If possible, some less objectionable
spraying material should be employed for ornamental
trees and shrubs. Although Bordeaux mixture has
proved after many years' trial to be the best all-round
summer spray for leaf spots, of late the diluted lime
and sulfur solution is being substituted for it with more
or less good results. Lime and sulfur applied to dormant
trees for the San Jose* scale has proved invaluable as a
means of controlling leaf spots, and in some cases it
can undoubtedly be used to advantage for certain fungi,
such, for example, as the Glwosporium infection of the
oak and sycamore. It should be applied in late winter
before the leaves have begun to appear.

A valuable preventive treatment for fungous infec-
tions of trees, in some cases at least, consists in burn-
ing the leaves each fall. This is especially valuable
with Rhytisma, common to maples, for this fungus
does not mature its spores while the leaves are on the
tree, and burning the contaminated leaves would lessen
the chance of infection.

Finally, attention should be given to keeping trees
in a healthy condition. Countless examples could be
given of the lessened chances of infection possessed
bv a healthv tree.

WINTER INJURIES.

FIG. TO. —Elm tree
showing pitted
trunk associated
with borers. Of-
ten observed on
trees under un-
congenial con-
ditions.

Injuries resulting from low temperature are common
and often cause considerable damage to vegetation.
Whether a species is native or introduced it is likely
to suffer from winter injury if the proper condition
prevails, but plants introduced from regions where the climate is mild
are more likely to suffer from the effects of severe cold, although "this
does not always follow. Moreover, plants grown out of their customary
habitats, or under uncongenial conditions, become more susceptible to
winter injury. The red maple, for instance, which usually grows in wet
places, becomes more susceptible to winter injury when grown in a dry
situation, and the same holds true for other swamp species.

Winter injury is often restricted geographically, although during some
seasons it may be quite universal. The same type of injury may also
be more common, as well as more serious, in one locality than another.
The effects of winter injury to trees may also be local, i.e., only the

200 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

FIG. 71. — Same as
Fig. 70, with bark
removed, showing
characteristic sculp-
turing.

branches or buds or flowers will be affected; or, again, it may be con-
fined to the roots or other portions of the tree. The apple, pear, quince,
peach and plum, various shrubs and vines and
small fruits are often injured severely both above
and below ground from winterkilling, and much
loss results to agriculturists.

There are several types of injury resulting from
low temperature which may be easily distinguished,
and which occur almost every year, such as winter-
killing of the roots, of the trunks, branches, twigs
and buds; also injury to exposed roots; to the cork
cambium, resulting in exfoliation of the outer bark;
and frost blisters, causing subsequent defoliation.

Winter injuries are not always the result of
severe cold, but follow from a combination of
factors. Even the temperature of a comparatively
mild winter is sufficient to cause much injury to
trees and vegetation in general if the preceding
summer and fall have been unfavorable for nor-
mal plant development. A very dry summer affects
the normal growth of vegetation, and if a warm and
unusually wet fall follows such a period the plant will go into the winter
resting stage under abnormal conditions, and may therefore possess little
power of resistance to cold.

Some of the conditions which underlie winterkilling are as follows : —
Severe cold, causing frost to penetrate to a great depth.
Sudden and severe cold following a prolonged warm spell in the fall,
in which case the wood tissue is tender and immature.

Conditions which favor a soft growth and immaturity of wood. Various
causes may be responsible for this, such as growth in a low, moist soil,
too heavy manuring or fertilization, or absence of sufficient sunlight.

General low vitality, caused by insect pests and fungous diseases and
lack of moisture in the soil.

Insufficient soil covering, such as lack of organic matter, light mulching
and snow covering in winter.
Location in unusually windy and exposed places, etc.

Winter Injuries of Roots.

During the past decade an unusually large amount of injury has occurred
to trees through the northeastern portion of the United States as a result
of root killing. Innumerable orchards, small fruit plantations and various
ornamental plants have suffered, and forest and shade trees form no
exception. This injury has been more severe in New York and Ohio than
in New England. The trees most severely affected by root killing are the
white pine, black oak, white oak, ash, red maple, white maple, elm,
butternut, etc.

SHADE TREES.

201

There are many symptoms characteristic of this root injury which
manifest themselves according to the extent and nature of the injury. If
the entire root system is killed the tree dies rather quickly. Sometimes
an effort will be made on the part of the tree during the spring, especially
if a few roots are still alive, to produce foliage, but the tree soon dies.
Then, again, a tree will mature its foliage fairly well, but as soon as the

FIG. 72.— Elm slowly dying from defective root system.

soil becomes slightly dry it will die. In such cases the leaves often turn
brown and dry up, and remain on the tree in this condition. There are
many cases in which the root systems are only slightly affected, when
the tree may live for some time and only show a defective top. This
slight affection of the root system is particularly common in red maples,
which very often recover in a year or two, the only apparent effect being
the somewhat smaller leaves found at the tree's crown. In more severe

202 MASS. JCXPMMMI AT STATION IllLLKTIN 170.

CIUNW th- l..p

effect fl seen

Hills to produce foha^e, and the character! tic

(See Kitf. K-.) \\e have observed elm trees I
] )1|;imi. ,,.,. ,|1(. uddenlj frOffl Winter injuries to the roots, l.ul more

often death fn.m n.ot Injury m elmi is a rather iloti procew, the branohei

,|xlni'. al the lop ami usually

•.liiiriictcriBtio staghead

Klms :llll| |,|;irk osiUs oil,-., slum Hi- results nl root injury by tufted
, peciatyf «rhw much of theupper P.-M-I «>i' the tree la

Fl«>. 78. — Kim branch with tufii-il foli:nr«', n«Hnl!ln>i: from winterkilling.
i of tlu> lir:iucl\«'H on tlilH trro arc dcMil.

The I'rw riMiiMiniiii'; li\c lirnnclu's produci1 nunu%rous IMTI^C LeaVOB,
tlu» rcsull of MM unl>:il;mrr<l ivlnl ionship IxMwcvn I he root system and
Ilie upper portions of the live. In nil cnsos o! foot injury those portions
of the live further ;,\VM\ from the \v:iter supply, or. inoiv properly, those
\\lueh ;ire in le «>mnnmir:ition \\ith Hie 111:1111 or principal ehan

nels of ti:in-lor;»tion or inol>ih/.;ihon, are MtVreted lirsl. In trees naturally
lo loaders, Mieh us Ihe rofk mnple, the tops di(> hack lirst ,
\\hereMs in th(> elm. \\lueh h:is --ever:d leadiM's or l»r.Mnehes located more or

lew alike as regards water supply, each branch i- likely to be affected

•iv. In evergreen trees possessing a defective root system, sun

h or burning of the tip of the

r/jes follows. This W

and may cause a loss

of all the foliage, and later the death
of t' :,jnc blight).

) til fruit-, grajx;

'•niinonly Differ from

winterkilling' ! 'lants affected

itt • will leave out in the

"t their fruit and then

•

it the maturing
ing of fruit acts asaftf-
drain on th« the

plant. A fairly large- number of
es located near

have died from winter-
killing < •) recent years, ne-
cessitating considerable outlay in re-
Trees located on
inkrrients are very likely to
that i>ortiori of the tree
the embankment

•viDU'rktitefi root from elm
tree. Note Uu;k of fine flbrout root*,
which bare dtod.

affected. Hoots growing under favor-
able condition-; are less likely to be
affected than those growing under
poorer conditions, even in case of
a (single tree. The smaller, younger
feeding roots are usually most
severely affected, and there is a
marked tendency in some species
for the roots continually to die back
to the trunk when the terminal root
system is affected. In these cases

numerous new lateral root- are often
formed, but as the dying back con-
tinues, these are eventually involved.
Various fungi soon attack any part
of a tree dying from root injury.
Later, the bark falls off, but deteri-
M is not so rapid as in trees
killed by other causes.

While the symptoms of dying back
resulting from winterkilling of roots

204 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

are not alike in all cases, they are easily distinguished from those
of troubles caused by other agents, such as gas poisoning, etc. In the
majority of cases trees showing this staghead effect, whether from drought
or winterkilling, die gradually, and even when their death is more or less
rapid there are few of the symptoms characteristic of gas poisoning. Trees
poisoned by gas usually die and disintegrate rapidly; also the diagnostic
features to be found in the tissues of trees killed by gas are entirely
different.

Winter Injuries above Ground.

There are numerous cases of injury occurring above ground from the
effects of winter, such as the dying back of California privet, various
_^ fruit trees and vines, our native alders,

white birches, the terminal twigs of trees
like the horse-chestnut, Norway maple,

%^ sycamore, Japanese maple, and a con-

^^^ siderable variety of exotic trees and shrubs.

^fc^ Some of the specific types of winter in-

^^^H£ jury to trees will be best treated under

the different names by which they are

known.

Winter injuries, like other types of in-
jury responsible for the production of dead
tissue, are usually followed by various
species of fungi, a common form being
Nectria cinnabarina, characterized by the
appearance on the bark of numerous cin-
namon-colored pustules, — fruiting bodies
of the fungi.

FIG. 76. — Same as Fig. 75, en
larged, showing pustules.

Frost Cracks.

Frost cracks are often seen on many of our shade and fruit trees in
winter, and are particularly common to the elm and linden, although
occasionally seen on maples. They extend down the trunk for some dis-
tance on the sunny side of the tree, and are caused by severe changes in
temperature during the winter. Some of our forest trees are also subject
to frost cracks; e.g., the striped maple when planted in the open, but
never in the dense forest, its native habitat, showing that the trunks of
certain trees need to be shaded. Frost cracks open in winter and close
more or less in summer, although quite often they never succeed in entirely
healing over. In the spring they usually bleed profusely, giving forth a
sour, dingy-colored sap called "slime-flux," which shows under the micro-
scope various species of fungi, algse and yeast.

The opening and closing of frost cracks vary with the temperature,
barometer and relative humidity, and so closely is this variation allied
with meteorological factors that the weather conditions can be deter-

SHADE TREES.

205

mined quite accurately. Sometimes frost cracks open 4 or 5- inches or

more in winter and close pretty well in summer. They usually extend

rather deeply into the wood.
The best way to treat frost cracks is to staple

them together. (See Figs. 77 and 78.) Since

the cracks open more in cold weather than in

warm, this operation should be done in the spring

or summer, when the cracks are more or less

closed. Staples made from iron three-eighths to

five-eighths of an inch in diameter and 4 to 5

inches wide, with prongs of the same length, are

best suited to this purpose. The size of the

staples depends upon the nature of the frost

cracks to be treated. In making up the staples it

is a good idea to have the ends of the prongs bent

inward a trifle, as they are more likely to hold.

The staples are driven into the tree at a distance

of from 15 inches to 2 feet apart, as the case re-
quires, and this is best done by first boring holes

about the size of the staples. The bark and

wood should be removed sufficiently to allow the

staples to be driven in flush with the wood,

and the exposed tissue should be treated with

some antiseptic substance, such as paint or

creosote. If it becomes necessary to treat the

cavity of the frost crack it should be done in

the winter when the crack is open, and such materials as creosote, coal

tar and elastic cement or oakum may be employed for this purpose. Dis-
infecting the wood is a most important
treatment, but filling the crack is of
secondary importance and is not abso-
lutely necessary. In our experiments the
use of staples in large trees has been suc-
cessful in holding the crack together so
that healing of the tree may follow. If
the cracks are not held securely together
their constant opening and closing, due to
the changes of temperature, rupture the
healing tissue and prevent the callus from
joining. Trees are sometimes so severely

tto. >. -section of tree showing injured by frost cracks that they bleed

frost cracks and iron staple method . j .« j i u j i

of preventing opening, thus facili- to death> and We have observed maples

tating healing. that had bled to death in a few weeks

from this cause. Occasionally the cracks

extend from the very top of the tree down to the base, when there is small
chance of the tree surviving.

FIG. 77.— Effective method
of treating frost cracks
by iron staples. (See
Fig. 78.)

206

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Winterkilling of Cork Cambium.

\s already stated, the effects of low temperature on a tree may be en-
tirely local; i.e., it may affect some particular organ or some one portion

95

90

85

80 '

75

70

65

40*60*
5CT
20*
10*
0*

r

U

Li

L

U

n

u

305..,
50.0 Lf
29.5

29.0m

35
50
25

20
15
iO
5
0 x 4

U / U L_.

n

_T

ME AN RE L HUMIDITY

^EAN TEMP

---BAROMETER
FROST CRACK

Fiu. 79. —Showing curve of opening and closing of frost cracks in elm trees. The
lower curve represents the variations in the opening and closing the others
represent the mean relative humidity, mean temperature and barometer in
the order named.

of the tree only. Following one of our extremely severe winters a few
years ago, elms and some sycamores were found suddenly discarding
their outer bark, — a rather unusual phenomenon. This loss of the outer

SHADE TREES.

207

hark was brought about by winter injury to the cork cambium, a vital
layer located between the outer and the inner bark. It did not injure the
tree in the least, since the inner bark and the cambium layer underneath
remained unaffected. As the collapsed cells of the cork cambium decom-
posed, the outer bark became loosened from the tree and fell off in a year
or two, covering everything it happened to fall upon with a peculiar red-
dish powder. A microscopic examination of this powder showed it to
consist of disintegrated cork tissue, or lamellae. This injury to cork cam-
bium from low temperature, although
observed here and there, was not common.
In one city in New York, however, 50
trees were affected, but in only one or two
instances did injury extend to the wood
and involve the cambium layer. One large
sycamore tree 4 feet in diameter, which we
observed, lost all of its outer bark, but is
in good condition at the present time.
The large section of bark, composed of
many annual layers of cork, fell off in a
comparative!}" short time, giving to the
trunk an unusual whitish appearance.
Occasionally there may be found in our
State elm trees in which the cork cam-
bium has been affected by winter tempera-
ture, resulting in a subsequent loss of the
outer bark. But the exfoliation of small
portions of the outer bark of elm trees
is not uncommon, and should cause no
apprehension.

Sun Scald.

Sun scald is a type of injury affecting FIG> so. -Elm tree which has lost
unripened wood. It is quite commonly its outer hark, resulting from
met with on rock maples and orchard
trees and on some of our wild shrubs.

Shade-loving trees are particularly susceptible to sun scald, as may be
observed in any forest clearing. For instance, the moose maple, a shade
plant, seldom scalds in its native habitat, but when timber is removed
and the sun allowed to enter, it is affected. This tree is undoubtedly
the most susceptible of any to sun scald.

On the apple sun scald is often associated with canker (Sphceropsis) .
White pines also, when thinned too freely, will sun scald severely on the
trunk. Many shade trees in our State show injury from this cause, the
trouble being more common in some localities than in others. In one
section of a city in the eastern part of the State more than 60 per cent, of
the maples were found to be suffering from sun scald. The scars, which
were confined to the trunk, were invariably on the sunny side of the tree,

208 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

being more commonly on the southwestern side, where the maximum
temperature was usually found.

Sun scald does not usually involve the whole trunk of large trees, but
in many cases, particularly small maples, the whole tree will suffer. A
few years ago, in a comparatively short distance on one street, 16 maples
had died from sun scald, and at one time our wild cornel (Cornus circinata)
suffered severely from this trouble, many of them never recovering.

Quite often young rock maples will show only small spots affected by
sun scald, proving that the injury may be only local, as in the case of the
apple, on which tree sun scald often takes the form of collar rot. Sun
scald on apples is often confined to the shaded branches, and sometimes
occurs on severely pruned or dehorned trees.

In some cases sun scald will be found on tree roots
and root buttresses exposed by regrading. Instances of
this class of injury have been noted, particularly in the
case of hickories. Any regrading necessitating the ex-
posure of roots should be done in the spring rather than
in the fall. Piling soil too high around the base of young
apple trees produces injury, and frequently results in
girdling the trunk and the death of the tree.

Most cases of sun scald are followed by an outbreak
of Nectria cinnabarina, as is often the case with winter-
killing. The treatment of sun-scalded areas should
consist in scraping the wood, after removing the bark,
and treating with some such antiseptic or preservative
material as creosote and coal tar, or thick paint.

FIG. 81. - Fungi DROUGHT,

followingattacks

of borers on rock The unprecedently long period of drought of the past

from68' Extreme ^Ve or S*x years ^as ^een an unusuan"y severe drain on
drought. vegetation in general. While the rainfall records for

this period show quite a marked falling off from
normal, it should be borne in mind that rainfall is only one factor in
producing drought, and the amount of rainfall seldom gives a correct
idea of the severity of drought. So far as crops are concerned, the amount
of water contained in the soil is a most essential factor. This is determined
not only by rainfall but by the amount of water withdrawn from the soil
by surface evaporation and the transpiration of plants. Enormous quan-
tities of water are removed from the soil by these processes, which are
much influenced by sunshine and wind. The amount of water transpired
by the foliage of trees varies greatly from day to day. When the meteor-
ological conditions are favorable for this function, as they usually are
during hot, dry seasons, enormous quantities of water are taken from the
soil into the air; consequently the soil may contain much less water than
rainfall records would indicate.

SHADE TREES.

209

One of the common effects of drought on trees is the premature yellow-
ing and falling of the leaves. Quite often, however, as in the case of the
elm, the leaves fall off in large quantities without turning yellow, and the
not unusual habit of this tree of shedding its terminal branches may be
associated with drought. During dry periods the leaves of rock maples
often sun scorch, particularly when strong winds are blowing; and what
is known as bronzing of the foliage is associated with a lack of water.

Drought in summer interferes with the development of the tissue,
thereby affecting the growth of trees. In times of unusual rainfall a
renewed activity often takes
place in the fall, when many
shrubs will begin to blossom
again and throw out new
leaves. The result, especially
in very cold winters, is a
susceptibility to winterkilling
on the part of the tissue.

Drought is responsible for
many pathological conditions
in trees. Many of them,
such as the rock maple, the
European cut-leaf birch, the
white ash and others, become
weakened and therefore more
susceptible to attacks from
borers and in some instances
to scale insects, as a result of
which many trees die. When
plants enter the winter resting
period after a drought in the
fall they are very likely to
become victims of winter-
killing.

Severe drought affects the
roots of trees, which are un-
able to thrive with so little soil moisture for any length of time, especially
when the soil is dry as powder to a considerable depth. During the past
three years the root systems of numerous maples, elms and other trees
have been severely affected by drought, as shown by the cases of staghead
and the unusually large number of trees that have died during this period.
Trees affected by severe drought sometimes die suddenly, but more often
they linger in a dying condition for a few years. The wood of trees like
the elm, when dying from drought, is invariably quite brittle, owing to
the fact that the decreased water supply from the roots causes a trans-
formation of the sapwood into hard wood.

Shade trees growing in dry situations may be greatly helped over periods

FIG. 82. — Showing maple with staghead effect.

210 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

of drought by cultivating around them, by supplying water, or by turning
under the sod and applying manure heavily. Planting a crop around the
tree is also beneficial, but when this cannot be done conveniently, water

may be supplied to the
roots through numerous
holes 1 or 2 feet apart and
12 or 15 inches deep, driven
in the soil by means of an
iron bar. In applying the
water it is important that
the feeding roots be
reached, and perhaps a
small amount of plant food
may be added at the same
time. Sometimes wells are
installed near the feeding
roots of trees; and tile
aqueducts can be placed
under trees at the time of
planting, through which
water can be supplied to
the roots of the tree. This
latter method would prove
valuable in periods of
drought for trees like the
European birch and others
which are greatly weak-
ened by any deficiency in

FIG. 83. — Red maple, alive with inferior foliage
at the top.

the water supply.

SUN SCORCH AND BRONZING OF LEAVES.

Sun scorch is a physiological trouble characterized by the wilting and
burning of the foliage of several species of trees during the spring and
summer. Sun-scorched leaves often present only a few dead, brownish
areas located on the margin of the leaves, or comprising more or less large
areas of dead tissues between the leaf veins. When a strong wind is
blowing the dead areas often disappear and the leaves present a lacerated
appearance.

Sun scorch is caused by severe warm winds when the soil moisture is
low. It is more common in the spring and early summer, when transpira-
tion is at its maximum, the leaves transpiring more water than the roots
can obtain from the soil. As a result they become wilted, and those parts
of the leaves which fail to recover from the wilt die. Identical troubles
affect agricultural crops, ornamental shrubs, etc., although known by
different names. Tipburn of potatoes and onions, topburn of lettuce and

SHADE TREES.

211

the so-called winterkilling of conifers and rhododendrons in the spring
are in reality sun scorch.

The rock maple is most commonly affected by sun scorch, although
other trees suffer to a certain extent. There is seldom a season that this
species does not sun scorch, and during the summer of 1913, 30 per cent.
of the trees in some localities were sun scorched so badly that the foliage
presented a decided reddish brown appearance.

FIG. 84. — Elm tree showing staghead from defective root system.
Note dead, stubby branches at the top.

A> already stated, strong winds are one of the prime causes of sun
scorch. A few years ago in May there was a wind from the northwest
which blew at the rate of 71 miles per hour, and as a result many thou-
sands of rock maples sun scorched throughout the State. Burning in all
cases was confined to the northwest side of the tree. The particular winds
which cause sun scorch may easily be ascertained, for that part of the
tree exposed to the prevailing winds is always the one affected.

Some trees are subject to sun scorch each year. Light, porous soils
having little water-retaining capacity are responsible for a great deal of

212 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

this trouble, as shown by the fact that the white cedar, arbor vitae, etc.,
accustomed -to wet situations, are quite susceptible to sun scorch when
grown out of their natural habitat. There is also reason to believe that
in some cases a peculiar chemical condition of the soil or some variation
in the root absorptive capacity, which limits absorption, is at the root of
the trouble.

We have been observing for a long time maple trees which sun scorch
badly each year. During especially severe droughts every leaf is affected,
while trees located near by are not in the least injured. The leaves of
trees suffering from sun scorch do not usually fall off, but remain alive,
although discolored. It is impossible for them to perform their full func-
tions, but little injury results to the tree.

Rhododendrons, arbor vitses and other conifers often burn in the spring
before the frost is out of the ground, when strong, warm, dry winds occur.
When they are mulched the frost remains in the ground longer than it
otherwise would, and the winds cause more transpiration of water than
the roots can supply. Many rhododendrons meet their fate in this way,
their death usually being attributed to winterkilling. This can be pre-
vented by removing the mulching early in the spring and allowing the
sun to thaw out the frost.

"Bronzing" of foliage is merely another form of sun scorch common in
very dry, hot periods. It is not caused by wind, and there is no laceration
of the foliage. Examination shows that the cells near the veins and vein-
lets of the leaves are alive, but those farthest away are dead. This bronz-
ing is caused by a lack of water supply to the cells of the leaves located
most remotely from the veins or source of water supply. Like sun scorch,
it is associated with excessive transpiration and diminished root absorp-
tion. The leaves become a reddish brown or bronze color, the dead tissue
giving them this peculiar hue. It is most commonly met with on the rock
maple, though other trees sometimes show the same trouble.

MECHANICAL INJURIES.

Although trees possess quite a remarkable power of growth, by means
of which they are able under certain conditions to overcome apparently
insurmountable obstacles, they do not always make use of this power.
When roots and other organs are restricted in some way in their growth,
they often lift objects weighing many tons, but when there is opportunity
for active tissues to flow around the object, as it were, this more practical
and easier method is used. Every type of injury to a tree acts as a stim-
ulus, hence there usually follows an accelerated growth of the tissues
around the wounds, which often produces disfigurement.

Under the heading "mechanical injuries" may be described many
injuries arising from various causes. The injuries due to wires have
been treated in Bulletin No. 156. In cities and towns perhaps one of
the most common injuries to be seen on roadside trees is that caused by
horses' teeth. Trees located between the sidewalk and the road are

SHADE TREES.

213

especially liable to be gnawed by horses, but the many good types of
tree guards to be had make most of this inexcusable. There are statutes
which cover such cases of injury,
but it is always better for the tree
warden or city forester to prevent
injury by the use of a tree guard
than by resort to courts. Very
often trees are injured by being so
close to the roadbed that heavy
teams come in contact with them
and cause abrasions. This is com-
mon in large cities where there is a
great deal of heavy traffic. Run-
aways are also responsible for
occasional injury, and for all these
reasons the ideal location for a
street tree is that known as a "tree
belt." Many of the modern streets
are now provided with tree belts 4
to 10 feet wide or more, situated
between the sidewalk and the
road. When such space is avail-
able it is possible to plant trees FIG. 85. — Elm trees with l>ark scraped, illus-
SOme distance from the curbing, trating a hideous and useless practice.

preventing injuries from heavy

teams and horses' teeth. The most frequent
offenders are grocerymen and marketmen. It is
their common custom everywhere to leave their
horses unhitched in front of a house, within easy
reach of any trees located near the roadside.
Tree-belt planting prevents this difficulty. If
tree belts are not available, it is advisable to
plant the trees inside the sidewalk near the
highway line, and since on every well-kept
avenue there are fertilized lawns, a tree in such
a location is under desirable conditions for
health}7- growth.

Placing signs on trees is another objection-
able feature. Since the signs cannot accom-
modate themselves to the tree's growth, the
bark grows over them, causing ugly scars. The
same objection holds true of the fastening of
other objects, particularly wire fences, to trees.

FIG. 86. — obliteration of Some injury to trees is occasionally caused by

signboard on tree, result- Treeg have sometimes been severely

ing from stimulated cal- .p. . . J

IUB growth. injured in this way, and as a rule all climbing of

214 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

trees should be done without the use of spurs. Most of our intelligent and
thoughtful foresters and tree wardens never allow them to be used.

Ice is responsible for much disfiguration of trees which cannot easily
be prevented. It affects more particularly such soft-wooded trees as the
white maple, and greatly mutilates them by breaking down their limbs.

Posting advertisements on trees on country roadsides is another objec-
tionable practice, but this is prohibited by law in Massachusetts. (See
page 263.) A great many roots are injured and destroyed by the

FIG. 87. — Trunk of an elm tree, showing old trunk and new formation of roots.

laying of gutters and curbs, sewers, water and gas pipes, telephone con-
duits and catch-basins, but at present this seems to be unavoidable.

Earth Fillings around Trees.

The remodeling and regrading of streets, lawns, etc., often necessitate
filling in around trees. These earth fillings are usually fatal to trees, no
doubt owing as often to the effects of the earth on the bark as to the lack
of air to the roots from the deep covering of the soil. We have seen trees
growing on a bank with one side of the root system and part of the trunk
covered with soil. Those parts covered with soil gradually died, and
finally the whole tree died. The maximum depth of soil around the
trunk was not more than 8 inches, but the roots were covered for 18 to
20 inches. The soil used for refilling was of a fine texture, — undoubtedly

SHADE TREES.

215

more injurious than a loose-textured soil would have been. In this case

the death of the trees was caused by too close contact of the soil with

the bark. When a stone

wall is first built around the

tree at sufficient distance to

allow for future growth, to

keep the soil away from the

trunk, trees filled in to a

height of 5 or () feet have

been known to survive for

Fi<i. S8.^-Red maple injured by earth filling 1
foot deep.

many years.

Some trees are undoubt-
edly more easily injured by
earth fillings than others,
but building a wall around
them to keep the dirt from
the trunk, or even the use
of cobble stones, brick or
coarse gravel close to the
trunk, tends to prevent in-
jury. Banking soil for even a few inches around young trees sometimes
causes injury.

There are many instances where trees which have been buried partly
up the trunk threw out a new root system nearer the surface of the soil.

The tree shown in Fig. 87 had been filled
in with soil to a depth of 4 feet thirty-five
years ago, and in removing the tree it was
found that the old stump and roots were
all decayed, but the new surface roots had
proved sufficient to support the tree.

Bleeding of Trees.

A great many trees suffer from bleeding
from different types of injury such as borers,
lightning strokes, frost cracks, splitting of
the trunk, and occasionally linemen's spurs.
Often trees filled with cement bleed; and
the exudation, containing magnesium com-
pounds derived from the cement together
with various microorganisms which thrive
in the exuded sap, gives an unsightly
appearance to the bark. Bleeding to ex-
cess is very injurious. Sometimes the death of trees from this cause is
sudden, and in other cases the tree will linger, gradually dying back at
the top, and eventually dying. The exuded sap, or "slime-flux," some-
times proves detrimental to the living tissue, as shown by the presence
of saprophytic fungi.

FIG. 89. — Wall built around the
base of a tree to prevent in-
jury from earth filling. (See
Fig. 88.)

216 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Elm trees often show a white streak on the bark, caused by some injury
resulting in bleeding, and maples are also quite often affected, sometimes
going into a slow decline, followed by death from bleeding alone. These

injuries are a difficult class to treat, and at present

no satisfactory method is known.

INJURIOUS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE.

Kerosene Oil.

Many different oils have been used for spraying
insect pests, some of which have proved reliable and
others injurious. Kerosene oil can be used on some
plants under certain conditions without causing
injury, while in other cases it will kill them. A
few years ago there was placed on the market a
spraying device for the mechanical mixing of kero-
sene and water in different proportions, but when
these materials are mixed mechanically they separate
on the tree, and they have been responsible for the
death of many trees. The oil soaks into the bark and
often reaches the cambium and sap wood, destroying
the tissue; and we have seen quite a few shade trees
killed by spraying with kerosene and water to exter-
minate woolly aphis. In some cases every part of
the tree touched by the kerosene was injured, while
in others the injury was only local, a more com-
monly noticed condition on thick bark trees, while
the former case was invariably restricted to trees
with thin bark. The bark of trees killed by the use
of kerosene presents a different appearance and
develops usually a different type of fungous flora
from the bark of trees dying from other causes;
besides, traces of the oil, which remain on the tree
for a long time, can be detected by the sense of
smell. A fair diagnosis of this type of injury may
be made from specimens of the bark, but when there
are comparatively slight local injuries it is best to
examine the tree in situ. Even slight traces of oil
may be detected by removing small portions of

the outer bark on the sunny side of the tree, the sun's heat causing

a slight volatilization and perceptible odor.

Gas Oil.

Gas oil, a heavy oil used in the manufacture of water gas, is very in-
jurious to trees when used as a spray. A few years ago several hundred
shade trees were severely injured in one of our eastern cities by spraying

FIG 90. — Bleeding
elm. The white
streak on the limb
and trunk shows
the slime-flux.

SHADE TREES.

217

the trunks with this oil to kill clusters of gypsy moth eggs, it being used
without any knowledge of its adaptability to this purpose. (Fig. 91.)
The oil quickly soaked into

the bark, cortical tissue and | ^^^fS&^&&($&&-'- -*

cambium, and in some cases
extended into the sapwood
for one-half to three-fourths
of an inch. This injury
occurred even on trees with
fairly thick bark, killing all
the living tissue wherever
the oil was applied. While
in some instances the trees
did not show extensive in-
jury, in others the trunks
were 50 to 90 per cent,
girdled, and many of the
trees died from complete
girdling. The most striking
feature of this case was the
ability of the trees to pro-
duce perfect foliage even
after serious injury had

FIG. 91. —Effects of spraying heavy oil on trees.
The oil penetrated the bark and killed the
tissue.

taken place. One tree was examined whose trunk
was girdled for a height of 15 to 20 feet, but this
tree persisted in producing foliage for two years after
the bark had fallen off. An explanation of this
remarkable case consists in the fact that the heavy
oil soaking into the sapwood prevented it from
checking or cracking, therefore the supply of water
from the roots was uninterrupted. The trees treated
were elms, different species of maples, which are
especially susceptible to injury, and others. The
presence of oil in the sapwood in the cases cited above
was of the greatest aid in preventing cracking and
in helping to maintain the transpiration current and
normal foliage, and this bears out the recommenda-
tion that tree wounds, very soon after they are
formed, should be painted or treated in some way to
prevent cracking. It is sometimes necessary to
scrape the wound before applying the paint.

FIG. 92. -Maple in-
jured by burning
leaves near the base
of the tree.

218 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Paint.

Ordinary house paint, although a crude enough treatment, has some-
times been used by ignorant persons on smooth bark trees, with, of course,
resultant injury.

Miscibk Oil*.

Occasionally commercial oils used for spraying fruit trees for the San
Jose" scale cause local injury, and some shade trees have been known to be
affected by their use. This is especially true of maples, and it is never
safe to use oils of any sort on many smooth bark trees.

Road Oil

Oils and other materials to keep down the dust in roadbeds are now
much in use, and we have observed some injur}- from this source when the
trees were located close to the highway and the buttresses of the roots
were exposed. The roots are much more susceptible to injury from various
causes than are the trunks, as they are not so well protected by bark, and
when oil sprinkled on a roadbed touches some of the exposed roots it kills
the tissue. Particles of dust from oiled roads which sometimes alight on
the foliage of trees are said to cause injury, but this type of injury is rare
with us. Whether the oil ever penetrates deeply enough into the road-
beds to reach the root systems of trees is not as yet known, but if it does
it may cause serious injury. Neither are there specific cases of injury to
the roots of trees by the dripping of oil and gasoline from automobiles,
although if this leakage were sufficient it might reach the roots and cause
injury. Not long ago, however, our attention was called to a tree sup-
posed to have been killed by gasoline leakage from a near-by garage.

Creosote.

This material is used extensively on trees for disinfecting cavities, and,
mixed with lampblack, for painting gypsy moth egg clusters. It does not
appear to penetrate to any great extent when combined with lampblack.
We have examined a great many trees to discover injuries from its use
with no success, except in the case of linden roots, which had been exposed
by regrading, where the underlying tissue was injured. But such instances
are rare and the injury purely local in character.

In one case a combination of creosote and naphtha applied to a large
number of trees for the destruction of gypsy moth caterpillars appeared
to soak into the outer bark, apparently killing the cork cambium, which
later resulted in a disintegration of the tissue. Whether these substances
did further injury to the tree we were not able to learn.

Coal Tar.

Coal tar is much used for painting wounds and scars caused by pruning,
and sometimes injures delicate tissue when first applied. The injury,
however, is not serious, as shown by the fact that various saprophytic

SHADE TREES. 219

fungi will develop where the coal tar has been put on. After coal tar has
been on for some time it is evidently not injurious., even to delicate tissue.

Salt.

Salt used on sidewalks, in gutters and on trolley lines in winter has been
known to cause injury to the root systems of trees. In one instance we
noted injury to several small maples growing near a sidewalk and gutter
which had been treated heavily with salt. In some cases where salt had
been used extensively on trolley tracks, injury to trees was observed.
It should not be used near valuable trees.

Other Injurious Factors.

Arsenate of soda, potassium cyanide and other chemicals are extremely
poisonous to trees, and when placed in holes bored in the tree the two
first named will soon cause death. Since arsenate of soda is often used
as a weed killer, it is recommended that care be taken in applying it
around the feeding roots of trees.

A quite common opinion among linemen is to the effect that copper
spikes driven into trees will kill them, but a small maple so treated by us
a few years ago showed no abnormal symptoms.

The foliage of different trees is often injured by spraying with various
fungicides and insecticides. It is well known that plum and peach foliage
is quite susceptible to this type of injury, and even the leaves of maples
and other trees may be injured by arsenate of lead. The extent of the
injury depends not only on the nature of the spraying solution or mixture
used, but also on the condition of the foliage sprayed. We have observed
injury to maples from the use of 12 pounds of arsenate of lead to 100 gallons
of water; and Paris green, owing to its present-day uncertain composition,
often burns foliage.

Burning insect nests with torches, although a common practice, is a
bad one, and invariably causes injury. Serious harm often results from
burning leaves and grass around trees, and the roots of forest trees,
which are often close to the ground, are sometimes injured by burning
the underbrush.

In conclusion it may be said that in any treatment of trees one should
always have before him some definite object; he should leave strictly
alone the numerous irrational methods constantly being advocated, or
apply to them first the measuring stick of common sense.

Banding Substances.

During the past fifteen years a large number of banding substances
have been placed on the market, all of which with one or two exceptions
have proved injurious to trees. These substances usually contain some
oil which affects vegetation injuriously, in some cases even when applied
over tarred paper. The injury caused by banding substances varies

220 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

greatly, the tree often being completely girdled, and again only a local
effect is produced; i.e., portions of the tissue here and there will be af-
fected by the material. This results in relieving the tension of the tissue
at places, and an abnormal growth of the tissue follows.

" Tanglefoot" appears to be the only substance that does not cause
injury when applied directly to the bark, i.e., when tarred or other heavy
paper is not used. Many laboratory samples of substances resembling
" Tanglefoot" have been made up, but in only one instance have any of
these materials resembled " Tanglefoot" in virtually all its properties;
at least, among those which have come to our notice. While the injuries
from banding substances have been quite pronounced, practically all of
the substances causing injury have now been discarded.

An examination made by the writer of many trees treated with the
so-called "Tanglefoot" has revealed only one case of girdling, and even
in this case we were not able to obtain any clue to the jnanufacturer
of the particular material causing the injury. This substance, although
resembling "Tanglefoot," may have been one of its many imitations
some of which are known to cause injury. The only other case of injury
from "Tanglefoot" was where it had been applied to the trunk at the
same place for a number of years. The oil seemed to penetrate the outer
bark to some extent, affecting the texture of the bark; but this injury
is not serious, so far as we have observed, and can be prevented by chang-
ing the location of the band occasionally. We have never noticed any
injury from the use of "Tanglefoot" to the cortical tissue or cambium
located underneath the bark. Our previous experiments show that the
most delicate tissue was not injured when it was applied to various plants.
But injury was noticed to smooth bark trees when other banding sub-
• stances were applied, even on tarred paper. Tarred paper alone is capable
of injuring the bark of some trees, and the injury mentioned above may
have been caused in this way in some cases.

EFFECTS OF ILLUMINATING GAS ON TREES.

A much larger number of trees suffer from the effects of escaping
illuminating gas in the soil than formerly. The increased death rate from
this cause may be accounted for by the fact that gas is now more exten-
sively used, and the larger pipes and different types of connections em-
ployed, together with the changes in the methods of laying and calking
the joints, also play their part; at least there is much less leakage from
small pipes having thread joint connections, which have been in the
ground for many years, than from larger pipes calked with oakum and
cement or lead. Electric cars, steam rollers, motor trucks and other heavy
traffic on highways are often responsible for defective joints and the
consequent leakage of gas, especially in newly installed lines. Also, the
continual undermining of gas conduits made necessary by the construction
of sewer and water lines, as well as the effects of frost in very cold winters,

SHADE TREES.

221

cause leakage; and, finally, the wires, steel rails, etc., carrying electricity
are a constant source of danger to gas pipes, as is occasionally proved by
cases of electrolysis.

A large amount of the gas manufactured is unaccounted for, often
averaging 10 per cent. This loss may be accounted for in part by dis-
crepancies in meter readings, etc., and should not be laid wholly to leak-
age, and a small percentage of unaccounted-for gas is of slight importance.
It should be stated in justice to many of the large gas producers that every
effort is usually made to prevent leakage and injury to trees. Some of
the most progressive manufacturers spare no
expense in constructing and maintaining their
lines, although it must be confessed that there is
great need for improvement in methods of convey-
ing this dangerous substance. The larger pipes,
which are more difficult to keep calked securely,
furnish better facilities to patrons; nevertheless
the danger from leakage is greater. There are
numerous connections in gas mains from which
the leakage is slight, perhaps only a few cubic feet
a day, while in others it is very great. Even small
leaks, if neglected, will injure trees in the course
of time, owing to the gradual saturation of the
soil with gas.

There are several kinds of gas used for lighting
and heating, i.e., water gas, coal gas, gasoline gas,
acetylene gas and others, but their effects on the
plant are quite similar, and they are all very
poisonous to vegetation. The poisonous prop-
erties are largely confined • to the numerous
products absorbed in small quantities by the soil
moisture, taken up by the roots and translocated
through the tissue. The reactions to the substances
are not quite the same in different locations nor
in different species of trees. Trees poisoned by

illuminating gas usually show some characteristic post-mortem symptoms,
but the problem of diagnosis is greatly complicated by the fact that
many of these symptoms may be found in trees dying from other causes.
More or less rapid deterioration and increased brittleness of the wood
are quite characteristic symptoms, however.

In summer, the first effects of gas poisoning may be seen in the foliage.
The leaves often turn yellow and drop off, while in other cases the leaves
will fall when still green, and, again, the leaves will turn a reddish brown
and die without falling. The upper part of the tree, being far from the
source of water supply, usually shows the effects of defoliation first. These
various symptoms occur before there is any evidence of abnormal tissue
above ground. But after the water in the soil containing the poisonous

FIG. 93. — Maple tree dy-
ing from the effects of
illuminating gas, with
characteristic fungous
(Polystictu*) growth.

222 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

gasVinciples has passed up through the roots and stems, the sapwood,
cambium and bark become abnormal. The first symptoms take the
form of a characteristic dryness of the cambium and other tissues outside

the wood, this being the first indication of
' the approaching death of the tissues. Later,
these tissues — cambium, phloem and cortex
— turn brown, and disintegration follows.
The roots, which first absorb the poison,
are naturally the first to become abnormal,
but later, as absorption and translocation
proceed, the poisonous constituents may be
detected in the wood at the base of the tree.
It not infrequently happens that the tissue
here is dead, while that in the trunk a few
feet above is alive, but this condition does
not endure, the whole tree sooner or later
becoming affected. When the underlying
tissues die the tissue tensions are destroyed
and the bark changes color, gradually grow-
ing darker, and its physical properties become
greatly changed. Soon various species of
fungi, such as Polystictus, Schizophyllum and
others, find a foothold on the bark, and
borers and other insects attack the dead
tissue. Even bacteria and molds, like Peni-
cillium, become active and hasten the proc-
ess of disintegration. The smaller twigs
become dry and brittle, and the ends often
break off; the upper limbs usually lose their
bark first, but eventually the larger limbs
present the same appearance. Disintegration
may take place so rapidly that in one and a
half to three years the bark disappears and
most of the larger branches break off, and
soon nothing but a portion of the trunk and
a few stubs remains.

It must be understood that many of the
symptoms mentioned above may also be
found in trees dying from other causes and
do not necessarily constitute reliable guides

Fl«. 94. -Effects of illuminating t th detection Qf gas injury. The tisSUC
gas on elm tree one and one-
half years after leakage oc- furnishes the best symptoms for diagnosis,
curred. and the writer, who has for the past twenty

years been examining hundreds of trees killed

by gas, from the first found it necessary to make a thorough examination
of the tissue to warrant any degree of accuracy in the diagnosis. He has

SHADE TREES.

223

Fio. 95. — Showing cross-section of Carolina poplar (1'optilusdeltoide* Marsh). 1, Cross-
section of normal stem, enlarged; 2, same, showing abnormal growth; 3, naked-eye
view of same; 4, section of a normal stem: 5, cross-section of trunk of tree showing
the splitting of the bark; a, bark; 6, cork cambium; c, cortex; dt phloem; e, abnor-
mal parenchyma ; /, cambium ; g, wood or xylem.

224 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

also taken exhaustive notes on every symptom shown by trees dying
from various causes, and from these notes may be had many interesting
data on the relative importance of various symptoms. In diagnosing
gas injury one must learn to detect either by chemical means or from direct
observations and experience the presence of the poisonous constituents
of illuminating gas which are absorbed by the roots and circulate to a
certain extent through the tissues of the wood.

As already intimated, no two species of trees suffering from gas poison-
ing present precisely the same symptoms, and there is much difference
existing in the same species, the location, season of the year and other
factors having an important modifying effect. Trees, for example, when
examined in the fall, will show slightly different symptoms from those
examined in the spring. This is also true of trees poisoned by gas from
different manufacturing plants, which varies considerably. The varia-
tion in the chemical constituents of the soil here and there may to a certain
extent account for the variations in the reaction of gas on the tissues,
but this factor is probably not very important, since these variations in
the soil are likely to be found even in a single town supplied with gas
from one source, and as a rule the symptoms of trees injured by gas from
a single manufacturing plant are alike. Tables giving the results of gas
analysis from various corporations, however, show that there is consider-
able difference in the composition of gas, and that gas from a single manu-
factory is likely to vary slightly from day to day, not only in the percent-
ages of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but in the other products.

The odor and color of the tissue should first be examined carefully when
diagnosing a gas-injured tree, although it is possible by the use of chemi-
cals to obtain reactions and to detect certain products in the tissue.
There are different odors associated with the wood of trees which die
from various causes, and it is therefore necessary to become familiar with
these before relying too closely on this factor. For instance, molds and
other micro-organisms found in the sap of trees dying from various causes
often cause decomposition with resultant odors. But there will always
be found in trees killed by gas peculiar characteristic odors difficult to
describe, and more easily recognized, at least above the ground, after a
tree has been dead for a few weeks or months. The odor is more prominent
in moist than in dry trees, and can be detected in the tissues of the bark
as well as of the wood. Sometimes this odoriferous wood is found deep in
the sapwood, and can be recognized in the stumps of trees freshly cut,
but in old stumps, where decay has set in, it is not always discernible.
In such cases some part of the root system, if dug up, is likely to give a
characteristic odor, except when the wood has become too dry and a more
or less advanced stage of decay has set in. Even the rate of disintegration
and the nature of the decay are often characteristic, and are of some
value in diagnosis.

It should be remembered that the odors of different species of trees,
even when in normal condition, differ greatly; i.e., the natural odor of the

SHADE TREES. 225

maple is quite different from that of the elm, horse-chestnut or red oak,
and their products of decomposition also differ. The accurate diagnosis
of trees killed by illuminating gas is highly specialized and technical.
Nevertheless the characteristic odors given to the tissue by illuminating
.11 be discerned quite accurately by one thoroughly familiar with
them. Sometimes these odors are found in all of the tissues of the trunk,
but more often they are confined to some special part of the tree or root.
They are far more pronounced at the base of the tree, and rarely found hi
the top. Carolina poplars and willows often display peculiar reactions
to gas poisoning. The bark splits open and large masses of soft, paren-
chymous tissue are formed directly from the cambium layer. When the
tree dies this parenchymous 1 tissue decomposes into a mucilaginous
(See Fig. 95.) Some species appear to be less often affected by
gas poisoning than others. It is a question whether there is much differ-
ence in susceptibility, however, as regards species. Trees like the elm
and maple, with a large spread of the roots, naturally become poisoned if
located near gas leaks, and some trees are adapted to more strenuous
conditions and possess a greater capacity for regeneration than others,
although they may be as susceptible to poisoning as trees of other species.
Coniferous trees possess the greatest resistance to gas poisoning of any
species, and in many instances they have been observed surviving in an
apparently healthy condition when located dangerously near broken
mains, while deciduous trees located much farther away would always
succumb. In some cases where conifers have actually been poisoned to
quite an extent they have completely recovered. This response may in
part be explained by the protection furnished by the coating of micorhiza
on the roots of conifers.

We know of no remedies which can be applied to trees already poisoned
3, since the injury occurs below the surface of the ground, and the
effects are seldom noticeable until the poisoning is more or less pronounced.
If the leakage of gas could be discovered quickly and the leak repaired,
the effects on the roots might be prevented, but this is rarely the case.
Illuminating gas in small quantities acts as a stimulus to plants, and
there is a certain capacity for adaptation to poisons possessed by them,
although limited. By the time the effect appears in the foliage consider-
able gas has been absorbed by the roots, and since it is impossible to
eliminate the gas from the soil, absorption is bound to continue and the
tree is doomed. We have known of only a few instances (with the excep-
tion of the conifers above noted) in which trees have shown even slight
symptoms of gas poisoning and survived for any length of time. In some
instances where only one root has been affected, and the poison has not
reached the trunk of the tree, amputation of the root may prevent further
injury, and is known to have been effective. There are many cases in
which trees have not suffered from gas poisoning although located near
large leaks, owing to the amputation, during the installation of curbings,
etc., of the larger roots which extended over the gas pipes.

i Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 25, 1913, Pt. I., p. 51.

226 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

When the soil is charged with gas, digging it up and aerating it is
beneficial and in the case of severe leakage it is well to leave the trench
open for a few days, if possible. On the other hand, boring holes in the
soil and filling with water or lime is a perfectly useless practice,
generally believed that if young trees are planted near others which have

died from gas poisoning, they will not live, but this is true only in some
cases. If the soil is thoroughly saturated with gas, bad results will follow,
but if the trees are planted in fresh loam and the old soil aerated, there
is little likelihood of the tree dying.

Gas escaping into the soil from a leak follows the line of least resistance.
For this reason, if leakage occurs in the street in front of a house, one can

SHADE TREES.

227

often detect the odor of gas in the cellar, as the gas will follow the ex-
terior of the pipe leading into the cellar, and often escapes into sewers,
underground conduits, hydrants, etc. Wells are often badly contami-
nated even when located some distance away, and in the winter gas
leakage becomes a source of danger to near-by greenhouses.

There is considerable difference in the resistance of soils to gas. In
gravelly soils we have known gas to travel 2,000 feet when the ground was
frozen and escape into the cellar of a house, while in heavier soils it is
more likely to be restricted to smaller areas. It requires a considerable
amount of gas to kill a large tree, although not so much as it would were

FKJ. y:. — Protective arrangement against injury resulting from leakage of illuminating
gas. A, cross section of protective conductor; B, adjustment of same to pipe; C,
black lines showing method of arrangement of protective device on street and house
service ; D and E, vents for leakage.

it not confined so closely by the soil covers, especially in winter, and by
the impenetrable macadam and other styles of modern roadbeds.

The danger to human life from illuminating gas is too great to be ig-
nored, and even with the present defective systems of distribution it is
not only possible but practicable largely to eliminate the dangers from
this source to trees as well as to human life by the use of certain devices
to prevent the leakage of gas into the soil.

The comparatively recent introduction of joints welded by the acety-
lene flame may prove superior to the threaded or calked cement and
leaded joints in preventing leakage, but this system of laying street mains
has not been thoroughly tested out in cold climates. There are also pro-
tective arrangements covering the pipes designed to prevent leakage of

228 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

gas. This protection may be secured by laying a simple device, originated
and used by the writer, over the gas main to convey the leaking gas to
certain points above the ground, thus preventing contamination of the
soil. By using a block system or applying it to sections 100 or 200 feet
long, as the case may require, and ventilating each section, a leak may be
readily detected and repaired before it has an opportunity to cause any
damage. The device made of chemically treated wood and shown in
Fig. 97 is suitable for this purpose. It consists of pieces 2 inches square
in cross-section and of any desired length. This size may be adapted to
any size pipe and secured to it by wires at intervals of 6 to 12 feet (B) .
Each section, which may be 200 or more feet in length, is vented by means
of a pipe running to a pole or tree or any convenient object (D and E), or
may be vented directly over the pipe or near the sidewalk or curbing by
using an ordinary iron shield provided with vent cap, such as is used for
gas shut-offs. This takes care of all the leakage, conveying it into the
atmosphere at certain points. If leakage occurs it can be detected by
pedestrians and prevented from permeating the soil, where it would be
likely to kill trees on the highway. While at present it may not be feasible
to equip all pipe lines in this way, all new systems should be protected,
and those already laid as fast as possible. This protection should also be
extended to house services to prevent asphyxiation to human beings and
injury to shrubbery and trees on private property.

EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES ON VEGETATION.

The atmosphere of industrial centers is a complex mixture of various
substances. Besides the presence of the well-known gaseous constituents
found in the atmosphere, — such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
and water vapor, — hydrocarbons, solid particles and compounds of
carbon, nitrogen, chlorine and sulfur are present in varying quantities.
Argon, helium, krypton, neon, xenon and ozone are also found in the
atmosphere in small proportions, but so far as is known they cause no
detrimental effect to living organisms. Carbon dioxide, which is present
in the atmosphere normally ranging from .03 to.04 per cent., is not destruc-
tive to living organisms at this dilution. On the other hand, it furnishes
the most important source of food for vegetation, and plants will thrive
even better with a much higher concentration than that normally existing
in the atmosphere. Sulfur, which may be present in the air in several
forms, constitutes one of the most injurious agencies to plant life, and sul-
furous gases arising from smelters, which often contain other poisonous
substances, are frequently detrimental to animal life. There exists some
sulfur in most grades of coal, and during the process of combustion sulfur
dioxide is given off. This pollutes the air to a certain extent, and if
sufficiently abundant will injure plants. When oxygen combines with
sulfur dioxide, it forms sulfur trioxide, which in turn forms sulfuric acid
with water. Sulfuric acid is very corrosive, attacking and decomposing

SHADE TREES. 229

various building materials, and is more or less injurious to plants and
animals. The amount of sulfurous gases in the atmosphere, however, is
often quite insignificant, and very exact methods of chemical analysis are
required for quantitative determinations. The most exact and refined
methods of analysis in use are hardly reliable for amounts less than 1 to
5,000,000 parts of sulfur dioxide. Particles of cement dust, such as may
be found near cement manufactories, injure vegetation, as does the soot
arising from incomplete combustion of coal. Moreover, dust particles,
which may equal 50,000,000 to a cubic inch, form the nucleus of fogs,
which in turn imprison various obnoxious gases, thus rendering the dust
particles indirectly detrimental to vegetation.

Besides the injury to vegetation resulting from gases associated with
smoke, smoke affects vegetation by causing a deposit of soot on the leaves,
thus obstructing the light. The soot also clogs the breathing pores or
stomata of the leaves, causing asphyxiation. The acids resulting from
coal combustion which accompany smoke also affect the soil by producing
soil acidity. At Leeds, Eng., a manufacturing city, it is estimated that
the daily deposit of soot is about one-half ton, and in the vicinity of other
English cities, where much soft coal is burned, the soil has become so
impregnated with smoke acids as to be of much less value for agricultural
purposes. Soft coal contains more sulfur than hard coal, and combustion
is less complete, resulting in more smoke and solid particles, which are
conducive to fogs. Fogs hold the sulfurous gases down, and in cities
where considerable soft coal is burned such gases affect vegetation more
severely.

Soft coal is burned on steam railroads, but the escaping smoke and
gases are readily dispersed in the atmosphere. Moreover, the exposure to
gases of the vegetation along railroads is of such brief duration that in-
jury to plants is seldom noticeable. Injury to trees is frequently .dis-
cernible in the vicinity of railroad engine houses, or roundhouses as they
are called. Soot is often found deposited on the trunk and foliage of
trees hi such situations, and the contained gases affect the size and color
of the leaves.

Trees in general are affected by atmospheric gases, but some are much
more immune than others. The black locust, Ailanthus and peach are
especially so, while most conifers and some of the oaks are quite susceptible
to injury. Many herbaceous and annual plants, such as morning glory,
cosmos, ragweed, etc., are very susceptible to injury from gases. Short-
lived trees of rapid growth, such as poplars, willows, box elders, cotton-
woods and soft maples, will survive and resist smoke and gases more
readily than the oak, elm, hard maple, chestnut and linden. Our native
elm appears to be affected most seriously by atmospheric gases, although
the nature of the symptoms resulting from constant exposure to atmos-
pheric gases is such that few ever guess then* true significance. The
pathological effects following exposure to gases indicate troubles of a
chronic rather than an acute nature, and the trees gradually lose vigor

230 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

through a series of years until they finally die. There are many instances
in New England, particularly in large industrial centers, where the expec-
tation of life of elm trees is reduced from one-half to one-third the normal,
owing to the presence of noxious atmospheric gases, and no amount of
soil renovation or tree surgery can correct these conditions.

It is questionable whether injury ever occurs to vegetation from smoke
derived from wood, although in one or two instances injury to crops has
been surmised. In each case the crops were located near brick kilns.

Lichens are the most sensitive organisms to smoke, although the smoke
and gases derived from wood combustion appear not to affect them.
These lowly organized plants are invariably absent on trees in cities, and
in the thickly inhabited parts of towns where coal is burned, but may be
observed in suburban settlements where wood is more used as fuel. These
organisms are apparently affected even by the minutest trace of sulfurous
gases in the atmosphere.

The greatest injury to vegetation occurs near smelters, where sulfur
dioxide and other gases contaminate the atmosphere. In some places
vegetation is affected 75 to 100 miles from such establishments. Where
sulfur is used for bleaching purposes, and the atmosphere becomes polluted,
vegetation is likely to suffer, and many manufacturing establishments
which make use of coal-tar products, naphtha, ammonia, carbolic acid,
creosote oil, etc., frequently fill the atmosphere with poisonous gases
which injure vegetation and animal life. However, the manufacture of
sulfuric acid by smeltering companies has done away with much of the
injury formerly occurring to vegetation in their vicinity. In the manu-
facture of sulfuric acid the furnace smoke, which is heavily laden with
sulfur dioxide, is used, and in modern equipments most of the sulfur con-
tents are removed. Sulfur dioxide is much heavier than air, and possesses
a pungent and characteristic odor. Persons familiar with the odor of
sulfur dioxide are comparatively rare who can detect 2 to 1,000,000 parts
when present in the atmosphere. Even 3 to 1,000,000 parts is detected by
only few, while 4 to 1,000,000 parts is discernible to those of average
sensitiveness.

The limitation of injury from sulfur dioxide to the most sensitive plants,
or threshold of discoloration as we term it, is according to some experi-
menters 1 to 1,000,000 parts. This, however, is regarded as the theoretical
limit, since it would require many, hours to produce visible injury to the
most sensitive plant with this concentration, and, as a matter of fact,
burning or visible injury probably never occurs in nature with this dilu-
tion. Very sensitive plants will show discoloration when subjected to
sulfur dioxide from 3 to 4 parts to 1,000,000 if they are exposed to this
concentration for a number of hours. Or, in other words, to produce
burning a concentration would have to exist in the atmosphere for some
hours, even when present in sufficient quantity to be discernible to the
sense of smell. Burning in general from various gases presents different
appearances, and the same gas will produce entirely different pathological

SHADE TREES. 231

symptoms even in the same species. Burning from gases in general is
affected by light, soil and air moisture, and the age of the foliage consti-
tutes a factor, as probably does the condition of the stomata or breathing
pores of the leaves, which vary in number from 800 to 170,000 per square
inch of leaf surface.

Some recent European experiments show that burning from gases is
intimately associated with sunlight, a fact long recognized by American
gardeners in connection with the fumigation of greenhouses. Fogs and
mists are conducive to burning. As is well known, they have a tendency
to drive gases downwards, imprisoning them, as it were, and preventing
their diffusion. Burning even with the same concentration of gas is more
severe in moist than in dry air. Southern exposures are the most favor-
able to burning from gas, as are the exposed tops of trees, where the light
conditions are more intense, and it has been demonstrated that burning
is associated with the assimilative activity of the leaf, which is at its
maximum during bright sunlight. Hence, a plant in sunlight will show
discoloration or burning at a much less degree of concentration of the gas
• than during cloudiness or darkness, and the proportions of sulfur dioxide
in the atmosphere must be considerably greater to produce the same
effects under poor light conditions than during sunlight.

As the stomata or breathing pores are open during bright sunlight and
closed during dull days and darkness, these organs would appear to have
some influence as regards burning. However, experiments have shown
that the stomata or breathing pores of the leaves, at least in some cases,
close immediately when exposed to various gases, and in this way they
may prevent severe injury to a certain extent. The age of the leaf is
very important as regards susceptibility to burning, the younger leaves
not being so susceptible to burning as the older ones. This is shown by
injury from illuminating gas in greenhouses. This gas affects the older
foliage, while the younger leaves remain normal or unaffected with small
dosages. This may be explained in two ways, i.e., that the stomata of
the older leaves which are injured are more or less inactive, whereas on
the younger ones they are more active. Moreover, the assimilative
processes more nearly approach their maximum condition in the well-
developed or older leaves than in the younger ones; or, in other words,
carbon assimilation is undoubtedly more active during June and July
than during April and May in some species, and as burning is associated
with the assimilative activity of the foliage, burning may naturally be
expected to occur more severely to older leaves than younger ones. The
probability of the inactivity of the leaf stomata constituting a factor in
susceptibility to burning from gases is borne out by the fact that some
species which possess thick and tough leaves appear to be the most sus-
ceptible to burning, and the inability on the part of the stomata to respond
to external influences may be an important factor underlying injury from
gases. The condition of the atmosphere is often extremely variable even
in the same locations, and any gas would be variable in its concentration,

232 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

hence one part of sulfur dioxide per million might be present for a few
moments at any particular point, while a few moments later only slight
traces would be found.

The preparation of asphalt and tar on streets lined with shade trees
sometimes results in burning of the foliage; and this is also true of steam
rollers when employed for road work.

Sewer gas has often been suspected of injuring shade trees. The con-
stituents of this gas are, however, extremely variable. Some of them are
toxic, and in sufficient quantities are capable of injuring vegetation.
As a' matter of fact, however, injury to plants from sewer gas seldom
occurs; on the contrary, sewers and cesspools furnish one of the best
environments for root growth. Even when the poisonous gases of the
sewers reach rather high percentages they are seldom produced in. large
enough quantities to do harm, and soon become diffused in the atmosphere.

In summarizing the effects of smoke on vegetation the following factors
should be considered : —

Smoke is the product of combustion diffused in the air, and may be
either visible or invisible, affecting vegetation in the following ways: —

By retarding growth and development of plants in consequence of the
presence in the atmosphere of noxious gases, acids, etc.

By causing a direct burning of the foliage resulting from the gases
present.

By causing asphyxiation through the deposition of soot on the foliage.

By reducing the light intensity and thereby affecting photosynthesis
or carbon assimilation.

By constituting an important factor in the formation of fogs, which
increase the susceptibility of plants to injury from gases.

By combining with certain soil constituents to form an acid soil, thereby
affecting the roots of plants.

Smoke affects plants both directly and indirectly, although the effects
are often slow in asserting themselves.

The direct effects of smoke arise from the products of combustion, such
as soot and sulfurous gases, which affect the foliage and young shoots,
also the soil, and, consequently, the roots of plants.

The indirect effects of smoke follow as a result of fogs, which are due
to the solid particles present in the smoke and which also interfere with
the normal light conditions, thereby affecting photosynthesis or carbon
assimilation.

The factors involved in burning from gases may be classified as follows : —

1. Inherent susceptibility to burning, which is determined by the
anatomical and physiological characteristics of the organism.

2. Susceptibility of a periodic nature, which is associated with the
activity of some particular life cycle function.

3. Susceptibility associated with meteorological conditions or agencies.

SHADE TREES. 233

ELECTRICAL INJURIES.

The increase in electric railroads, electric lighting systems and tele-
phone lines, whose wires are usually located near the tree belts of our
cities and towns, has made necessary a lamentable amount of disfiguring
pruning. When strung too close to trees, wires also often cause serious
injury by burning, sometimes mechanical injury is done, and lightning
discharges will cause harm when guy wires are attached to trees.

Both the alternating and direct currents are used. They produce
different physiological effects on plant life, the alternating current ap-
parently being less injurious than the direct; and when either is used at a
certain amperage it acts as a stimulus to the plant, and growth and devel-
opment are accelerated.

There are minimum, optimum and maximum currents affecting plants.
The minimum represents that strength of current which just perceptibly
acts as a stimulus, and is very insignificant. The optimum is that pro-
ducing the greatest stimulus — about .2 milliampere — and the maximum,
that causing death. The maximum current necessary to cause death is
very variable. The direct current has a less stimulating effect than the
alternating, and on account of its electrolyzing effect is capable of causing
more injury to vegetable life than the alternating current.

Most of the injury to trees from trolley or electric light currents is
local, i.e., the injury takes place at or near the point of contact of the
wire with the tree. This injury is done in wet weather when the tree is
covered with a film of water, which provides favorable conditions for
leakage, the current traversing the film of water on the tree to the ground.
The result of contact of a wire with a limb under these conditions is a
grounding of the current and burning of the limb, due to "arcing." The
vital layer and wood become injured at the point of contact, resulting in
an ugly sear and sometimes the destruction of the limb or leader. In a
large number of tests made by the aid of sensitive instruments with guy
wire and other connections of wires to trees we have never found any
leakage during fair weather or when the surface of the tree is dry. Since
the amount of current that can be passed through a tree depends upon
the resistance and electromotive force, we shall consider this resistance.

As might be expected, there is considerable difference in the electrical
resistance of various trees as well as of the different tissues found in trees.
The heartwood, sapwood, cambium, bark and sieve tubes possess quite
different properties and functions, and their electrical resistance would
naturally vary to a large extent. The living cells containing protoplasm,
such as are found in the cambium, present the least resistance, as shown
by various observations on lightning discharges. The minute burned
channel caused by comparatively insignificant lightning discharges follows
down the cambium, indicating that this is the line of least resistance.
Moreover, by driving electrodes into a tree to different depths and meas-
uring the resistance it can be shown that the least resistance occurs in the
region of the cambium.

234 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

The electrical resistance may average throughout the year about
25,000 ohms in 10 feet of the trunk of a large maple tree, but in cold weather
it often exceeds 100,000 ohms. The lowest resistance in all cases corre-
sponds to periods of high temperatures, and the highest to periods of the
lowest temperature. The difference shown by the various sides of the
tree is also related to temperature. The resistance of the sapwood is very
much greater, and probably that of the heartwood is even higher than
that of the sapwood.

In determining the electrical resistance it is necessary to know the path
or course of the current, and the only manner in which the resistance of
different tissues can be determined accurately is by isolating the tissues.
By girdling a tree and scraping the trunk down to the solid wood we can
get the resistance of the wood. Mr. G. H. Chapman1 found the resistance
of a freshly cut rock maple stem, 1£ inches in diameter, to be 70,000 ohms
with the bark on, but 150,000 ohms when the bark was removed. The
electrodes were 1 foot apart. Next to the cambium the phloem has the
least resistance, followed by the sapwood. The outer bark appears to
offer the most resistance, but when wet the resistance may be decreased,
owing to the less resistant film of moisture on the bark. The resistance
obtained from an elm tree in summer, with the electrodes 10 feet apart
and in contact with the cambium, was 10,698 ohms, whereas when the
electrodes were inserted into the middle of the cortex or phloem we ob-
tained 11,300 ohms' resistance. When driven one-quarter inch into the
wood, and some of the exterior tissues surrounding the electrodes re-
moved, the resistance was 98,700 ohms. The outer bark gave 198,800
ohms' resistance, but 'when the electrodes were inserted slightly deeper
into the bark we obtained 109,900 ohms. It should be pointed out,
however, that the data given here do not represent the actual resistances
of the various tissues, but they indicate that there exist very material
differences in the electrical resistance of the tissues in trees. The resist-
ance obtained for the cambium, however, may be taken as fairly repre-
sentative, as shown by the use of other methods, such as the employment
of relatively high potentials and current measurements.

The resistance given by small tree trunks and woody stems, even for
small distances, is quite large. About 4 feet of a young pear tree, includ-
ing the root system, with a maximum diameter of stem equal to 1 inch,
gave a resistance of about 300,000 ohms; and the resistance given by a
tobacco plant, in which the distance between the electrodes was only
14 inches, was much higher (110,000 to 165,000 ohms) than that shown by
trees at corresponding temperatures.

The water and various salts in the living plant undoubtedly play a role
in resistance, and it might be expected that the various plastic substances
would influence it also.

The cambium ring is very insignificant in size, and even on a large tree
the total area is small. In all probability it is the protoplasm itself which

i Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept. 24, Pt. I., 1912; also Bulletins 91 and 156.

SHADE TREES.

235

offers the least resistance to the transmission of an electric current; and
even if there were no continuity it would be necessary for the current to
pass through a great many cell walls even for comparatively short dis-
tances on the trunk. In case the protoplasm was continuous or there
existed continuity, the strands would be so very small that they would
undoubtedly offer high resistance, due to their attenuation. Whatever
conditions prevail, trees show relatively high electrical resistances, a
feature which is no doubt
of some biological impor-
tance. The high resistance
of trees, moreover, is un-
doubtedly a protection in
case of lightning strokes,
since often the heat devel-
oped is enough to do only
slight injury. On the
other hand, if trees pos-
sessed tissue with rela-
tively small electrical re-
sistance, they would be
more seriously affected by
currents from high-tension
wires. The electrical re-
sistance of trees is so high
that it is doubtful whether
injury ever occurs to them
from contact with low or
even high-tension wires,
except that produced by
grounding when the bark
is moist. Any escaping
current from transmission
lines that can be trans-
mitted even through the
least resistant tissue is
likely to be insignificant.

Fi<;. 98. — Showing disfigurement of trees caused by
high-tension alternating current wires.

Effects of Alternating Currents.

The alternating current systems employed for lighting purposes vary
greatly in their potential. Cases of burning from alternating currents are
more numerous than those from direct currents because trees are brought
into more frequent contact with the wires, and, owing to the higher po-
tential, more leakage is likely to occur. The high and low voltage lines
may vary from 100 to 100,000 volts. The high-tension systems are in-
variably constructed across country, and are naturally not brought into
very close proximity to shade trees. No injury to trees whatever occurs

236 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

from the low voltage (110-volt) lines, but the lines of higher potential
found on streets constitute a source of danger to trees. The higher the
electrical potential the more dangerous the wires become to trees, for,
owing to the lessened effectiveness of the ordinary insulation, more leak-
age occurs and consequently greater opportunity for burning.

The effects of alternating currents on trees are local, producing injury
only near the point of contact with the wire. Such contact results in
death of that part of the tree, and if it is a leader or large limb it usually
has to be sacrificed. In no case, to our knowledge, has an alternating
current caused the death of a tree, although it may burn or disfigure the
tree so badly that it amounts to practically the same thing. It is doubtful
whether the current from a fairly high potential wire would kill a large
tree under any circumstances. It is different in the case of small plants,
as has been frequently demonstrated in the laboratory, although the cur-
rent must produce heat enough to kill the protoplasm. The close rela-
tionship between the maximum temperature required to kill a plant and
that induced by electrical current indicates that the collapse of the plant
tissue in such cases is probably due to the heat rather than to any specific
electrical shock. It is possible to pass the same current through larger
plants where heat is not generated without causing any collapse of the
tissue. The ordinary house circuit wires are perfectly harmless to trees,
and it seems strange that a judge could render a verdict to the effect that
an ordinary insulated 110-volt house circuit was responsible for the death
of a tree whose terminal branches were located 3 feet from it. There is
only one court record of which we know where such a judgment has been
given.

Very high-tension line wires are not provided with insulation and are
known to affect the atmosphere surrounding them to a considerable extent.
Any increase in the electrical potential of the atmosphere if not too high
would favorably affect vegetation in general.1

General Effects of Direct Currents.

Most of the direct currents affecting trees are those used for operating
electric railroads. Trolley feeders may be at 500 to 550 volts. Ordinarily
the burning from direct currents is similar to that produced by the alter-
nating current in being largely local or confined mainly to the point of
contact with the wires. The feed wires cause no burning except when the
tree is moist, in which case grounding takes place.

The strength of current which will kill one plant will produce not the
slightest effect on another; in other words, the maximum current for
each individual varies materially. Small, tender plants possess a maxi-
mum much below that of woody plants. A young, succulent tomato

1 There is evidently much difference in plants in this respect. A crop of radishes showed a
gain of 57 per cent, when subjected to an average atmospheric potential of 167 volts, whereas an
electrical potential equal to 500 or 1 ,000 volts is beyond the stimulation zone for some plants (16th
Ann. Kept. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. (Hatch), 1904, p. 31).

SHADE TREES. 237

plant, one-eighth inch hi diameter and 5 inches high, was instantly killed
when treated with a current of 20 milliamperes, and currents of 2 and 3
milliamperes of thirty to sixty seconds' duration accomplished the same
result. In all the tomato plants, considerable heat was developed, and
their death was caused by the generation of heat developed by the current.
The electrodes in these tests were about one-half inch apart. If the elec-
trodes had been farther apart, no perceptible effect would have been
observed.

When trees with a more or less thick bark are drenched with rain the
conditions are quite different. A large maple tree which was in circuit
with a feed wire (500 volts) and rail of an electric road when dry gave a
current equal to 70 milliamperes (one-fourteenth ampere) with the elec-
trodes placed vertically 1 foot apart. These connections were left on the
tree for several months. The observations were made on dry days and
no appreciable amount of heat developed with this current. During
periods of wet weather considerable heat always developed, especially at
the positive electrode, but not enough to melt the soft solder which con-
nected the wires with the electrodes.

Examination of the tree ten months later showed that a portion of the
tissues near the electrodes had been killed. After removing the dead bark
an oval space 6 by 11 inches was found to be dead about the positive
electrode and a space about 14- by 3 inches near the negative electrode.
The burned area about the positive electrode was about 95 per cent,
greater than that occurring about the negative electrode; in each case
it extended about twice as far above and below the point of contact as
out to the sides of the electrodes, thus showing a tendency of the current
to spread laterally as well as vertically, but more largely vertically. The
immediate area around the electrodes was more affected than that
farther remote. There was an area of tissue about 5 inches long
between the large and smaU oval burning that was uninjured, showing
that burning was confined about the electrodes. The current traversing
the film of water on the bark between the electrodes was not sufficient to
destroy the tissues at that point.

If a miUiammeter had been placed in the circuit when the tree was wet
a greatly increased current would have been detected, since the current in
this case traversed the less resistant film of moisture on the bark. But
the electrical resistance of the vital layer under such conditions would
remain practically the same as when the tree was dry, or it would show
only such variation as might be induced by an increase in temperature.
The burning and injury in this case resulted from the heating of the film
of moisture, which became so intensely heated that the vital tissue was
destroyed, especially near the point of insertion of the electrodes. The
more the film became heated the greater was the lessening of the resistance
and increase of the current.

Practically all of the burning of trees from either alternating or direct

238 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

currents occurs in this way, since the high electrical resistance charac-
teristic of trees does not permit injurious currents to pass through their

tissues.

Death of Trees from Direct Current.

Instances are known in which large trees have been killed by direct
currents used in operating electric railroads. Attention was first called

to these cases in Bulletin No. 91, issued
by this station, and since the publica-
tion of this bulletin other cases have
been observed. In all of these cases
the escaping current had burned and
girdled the trunks for a distance of
from 5 to 10 feet from the base; the
point of contact of the feed wire with
the limb 18 or 20 feet above showing
little or none of the characteristic local
burning effects usually observed in
ordinary cases of grounding. In fact,
the difference between the burning from
direct currents in these cases and that
from ordinary cases of electrical injury
may be seen at a glance. On electric
railroad systems the so-called positive
current generally traverses the over-
head feed wire, where the injury (burn-
ing) takes place. It does not differ
materially from that produced by low-
tension alternating current wires. In
all cases of death from direct-current
electricity that have come to our
notice, however, the rail was positive
and the overhead wire was negative,
constituting what is called a " reversed
polarity." How common this practice
is we cannot say, but apparently it has
been employed intentionally at times to
prevent electrolysis as well as uninten-
tionally by various companies, and is
responsible in a few instances for the
death of shade trees near electric rail-
roads. There is much greater oppor-
tunity for extensive burning in the case
of reversed polarity than in the regular
systems employed. The moisture

conditions of the soil and bark are such as to reduce the resistance,
and in consequence the film of water and the water-soaked bark

Fi<;. ;»'.). —Showing elm tree killed by
direct current (reversed polarity)
from electric railway system. Note
effects of burning at the base of
the tree.

SHADE TREES. 239

become intensely heated, destroying the living tissues and girdling the
tree to a considerable distance. The part of the trunk towards the rail is
almost invariably the most severely affected. With reversed polarity, as
already pointed out, the injury is confined mainly to the base of the
trunk, where the destruction of tissues causes great damage. Such dam-
age does not occur when a positive overhead feed wire comes into con-
tact with limbs. The entire area between the base of the tree and the
overhead wire is not, as a rule, affected, although the extent of injury may
vary somewhat. On the elm shown in Fig. 99 the burning was caused by
a reversed system, and there was only slight injury at the point of contact
with the overhead wire, while at the base about 6 or 7 feet of the tree were
affected. This injury takes place when the soil and the bark of the tree are
moist, and may occur during a single period of excessive moisture, or
intermittently. In some instances trees show serious effects a short time
after the current has been reversed, when the bark will become loose and
later fall off. The writer has observed both elms and maples — some of
them 2 feet or more in diameter — which have been killed in this way.
In some cases the trees were not more than 3 feet from the rails, while in
others the distance was considerably greater.

In one city, 51 trees were reported killed or so badly injured as to be
of no value, 67 had large limbs removed, and many more were saved by
removing limbs likely to come into contact with wires. Some of the in-
jury took place on streets having trolley wires but no electric railways,
and it is surmised that the ground connections were made through several
pipe lines located near the trees, which led very close to the electric rail-
way. According to Mr. G. A. Cromie,1 who had these under observation,
the injured trees were in some cases located from 200 to 1,000 feet from
the track. The effects on the trees were noted shortly after the street
railway had changed its system, i.e., using the rail to carry the positive
and the overhead wire the negative or return current. The trees in con-
tact with the overhead wires became electrically charged, and when wet
it was impossible for linemen to work on them. Under these conditions
the insulation was much less efficient, and even wooden sleeves im-
bedded in coal tar and rubber proved of small use in preventing leakage.
A large percentage showed a characteristic burning at the base, and
the bark was burned off in some instances to quite an extent. One limb
that had been in contact with the negative feed wire was found dead, but
the tissue at the base of the trunk was normal. Dr. J. W. Tourney,
director of the Yale Forestry School, who examined many of these trees,
found a disintegration of the wire where it came into contact with the
limbs, apparently due to electrolytic action, and chemical analysis showed
the presence of copper and zinc in the tissues of the wood that had been
in contact with the negative or overhead wire. Dr. Tourney believes
that in such cases the disintegration of the copper wire and the absorption
of the copper by the tissue were responsible for the death of the limbs. If

1 G. A. Cromie, "Scientific American" supplement, No. 1985, p. 40, Jan. 17, 1914.

240 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

true, this entirely new state of affairs would indicate that the electrical
injury from direct currents arises not only from heat but also from the
electrical disintegration of metals, which may poison the tissues. These
observations demonstrate that we have a variety of conditions to deal
with in considering the effect of direct-current electricity on trees, and
these phenomena may be summarized as follows : —

Burning and injury to plant tissue are much more prominent at points
with a positive potential1 than at points with a negative potential.

When the rail is at a positive potential and the overhead wire which touches
some part of the tree is negative, and the bark and soil are saturated with
moisture, a circuit is formed by means of this surface moisture.

The moisture conditions and the electrical resistance, etc., at the base of
the tree are different from those above; therefore, a larger area of tissue is
affected by the' positively charged rail.

As the bark becomes heated through the film of water, the electrical resistance
is reduced and the current increased to such an extent that the vital layer is
destroyed.

The actual current passing through the inner tissues must necessarily
be insignificant, and when there is a film of water on the bark, probably
no current passes through the cambium; furthermore, the moist soil
between the rail and the trunk of the tree becomes a better conductor
for the current than the roots. The actual injury, therefore, is done by
the current traversing the film of water rather than any of the inner
tissues. The maximum heat and the areas most affected are near the
base of the trunk.

In regard to the possibility of injury to large trees by direct currents
passing directly through them, experiments show that what holds true
for alternating currents is true also to a great extent of direct currents.
However, it would require a voltage much higher than that furnished by
most electrical railways at the present time.

It might be possible for direct currents to affect treqs without causing
any perceptible burning. If, for example, a tree were subjected to a suffi-
cient strength of current, there might occur a disintegration of the cell
contents, causing the tissues to become abnormal and finally to die, but
the electrical resistance of trees is so great that a quite high potential
would be necessary. If the potential of the electric railway systems were
greatly increased it is possible that some injury might result tp trees even
under ordinary conditions.

Probably the amount of ground leakage occurring through imperfect
rail connections would not cause any perceptible injury to trees; nor
is there any direct evidence that lightning arresters when placed near
trees cause any injury by discharges. However, the guy wires used by

1 Positive electro-static charges have a more stimulating effect on plants than negative
charges, and retardation of growth and injury to the cells are more pronounced. The phenomena
associated with the positive and negative galvanotropic bendings of roots may be explained in
this way (24th Ann. Kept. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., Pt. I., p. 144, 1912).

SHADE TREES. 241

electric systems are a source of danger from lightning, and we have ob-
served cases where large limb.s have been destroyed and the trunks of the
trees badly lacerated by electrical discharges from these wires.

On the whole, the cases of death to trees from electricity are by no
means so numerous as is generally believed. Because a large number of

FIG. 100. — Showing electrolysis of gas pipes. (After A. A.
Knudson, " Corrosion of Metals by Electrolysis.")

trees near electric roads, etc., often look sickly it must not be concluded
that electricity is always the cause. In cities and towns, where most of
these unhealthy specimens are found, there are innumerable destructive
factors for trees to contend with. It is quite essential in diagnosis work,
therefore, that all of these factors be taken into consideration before a
definite opinion in regard to the cause of any abnormal condition is formed.

Electrolysis.

Direct current electricity is frequently responsible for electrolysis of
gas and water mains, and lead coverings of underground telegraph circuits
are often affected. The trouble is often so serious that the iron gas and
water pipes become corroded and eaten with holes in a few weeks or
months, causing leakage. When gas mains are affected by electrolysis,
the gas escapes and permeates the soil, so that electricity sometimes be-
comes a primary and gas a secondary factor in the death of trees.

The phenomena associated with electrolysis are often complex and
difficult to do away with entirely, according to expert electricians, but
much of the trouble can be eliminated by proper bonding of the rails of
electric roads and the grounding of different systems.

Electrolysis is more common in wet than in dry soils. Cases are on
record where severe electrolysis has taken place 700 or more feet from the
source of the leakage. It more often becomes troublesome in cities where
numerous railways and public-service corporations of all kinds make use
of the streets. We have observed cases where plants have been stimulated
and their growth increased by escaping electricity in the soil.

Lightning.

The common effects of lightning strokes on trees are so well known that
it is not necessary to dwell upon them here; but lightning does not always
strike a tree in the same way, and the peculiar effects sometimes produced
are often interesting. Very powerful discharges of lightning act somewhat

242 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

like an avalanche, causing a severe shattering of the tissue, while less
powerful discharges may remove a strip of wood only a few inches wide
and 1 or 2 inches thick. Lightning often takes a spiral course, following
the grain of the wood, which is sometimes very irregular. Even when
strips of wood 4 or 5 inches wide and 2 or 3 inches
thick are removed, in which case the electrical energy
is enormous, the path of the discharge is shown only by
a dark-colored streak 2 or 3 millimeters wide.

Sometimes trees are killed outright by lightning with-
out being shattered or displaying any other of the com-
mon effects. In such cases the discharge is apparently
dispersed so as to cause no visible mechanical injury to
the tree, but the girdling of a large or small area of the
living zone or cambium layer of the trunk would be
sufficient to cause its death. This might follow as a
result of an earth discharge either destroying the vital
tissue directly or by a dissipation of heat over a surface
film of moisture. In some instances the leaves wilt im-
mediately and die, indicating injury from heat. How-
ever, in a very large number of instances neither death
nor mechanical injury of any importance takes place.
Hundreds of trees are annually struck by lightning
that never show any effects except to those capable
of interpreting the small narrow ridges which later
make their appearance on the trunk. In such cases
the lightning discharge follows the line of least resist-
ance, — the cambium zone, — burning a small chan-
nel usually about 1 millimeter in diameter. The tissues
surrounding the channel are apparently not injured,
but the annular rings which are later formed outside
the burned channel are much broader, resulting in the
formation of a ridge on the bark.

Earth Discharges. — There are many cases of light-
ning that are apparently earth discharges. Their effect
on the tree is quite characteristic and not at all
similar to the ordinary forms of lightning strokes.
Our attention was called several years ago to some
shade trees to which lightning had apparently caused
some injury. These trees were maples 5 to 18 inches
in diameter, growing in soil composed mainly of gravel
containing oxide of iron, and underneath this a stratum of quicksand. A
considerable number of the trees showed the effects of repeated earth dis-
charges, in some cases becoming so disfigured that they had to be replaced
for the third time. These discharges occur during thunderstorms, and
those who have observed them for many years relate that they give rise
to a dull, characteristic report resembling that caused by throwing a wet

FIG, 101.— Showing
ridge on elm tree
caused by feeble
lightning dis-
charge.

SHADE TREES.

243

cloth on a hard surface. The whole tree is not affected as a rule, as the
lightning stroke seldom follows up the main trunk, but discharges at the
points of several branches. As a rule, however, one side of the trunk and
one or more of the limbs on that side are affected and the symmetry of the
tree destroyed. The first indication of the discharge is shown by the
immediate wilting and subse-
quent death of the leaves of the
affected limbs, which also die
later. In the course of time cracks
similar to those caused by frost,
and later ridges due to healing,
will be seen on the trunk, show-
ing the path of the discharge,
and occasionally, when the in-
jury is considerable, the bark near
the affected part of the tree falls
off. The limbs, however, are not
always.killed, frequently splitting,
and a cracking of the wood for
some depth is now and then
observed on the trunk and limbs
along the path of discharge.

Whether the chemical composi-
tion of the soil has any particular
bearing on earth discharges is not
positively known. It is known,
however, that there frequently
exist great differences in the elec-
trical potential between the earth
and air during thunderstorms, and
that the electrical conditions of
the atmosphere and earth may
change instantly from negative to
positive. Some observations made
in our laboratory with a Thom-
son self-recording quadrant elec-
trometer show that the electrical
potential of the atmosphere, at a
distance of 30 feet from the
ground, may vary, often in a

brief period, from a few volts to 300 or more. It is also known that
trees occasionally discharge sparks at their apices, showing that insig-
nificant earth discharges occur through trees; and when the soil in which
potted plants are growing is charged electrostatically, small sparks are
thrown off from the leaves. Earth discharges through trees, whether
strong or weak, appear to be similar in nature, and may be associated

FIG. 102. — Maple showing effects of earth
discharges (lightning), causing splitting
of the trunk and death of limbs.

244 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

with changes in the potential of the earth and atmosphere. The high
electrical resistance shown by plants in general, as already stated, serves
as a great protection against death from lightning and electric currents.

Susceptibility of Different Trees to Lightning Stroke. — There has always
been much difference of opinion in regard to the susceptibility and non-
susceptibility of various trees to lightning, and the data of the subject
gathered from this and that source are altogether too meager to admit of
reliable conclusions; but it is known that the location of the tree, nature
of the soil, elevation, etc., are of great importance in determining sus-
ceptibility to lightning.

It has already been pointed out that electrical resistance is influenced
by temperature, and the percentage of moisture in the tissues is also an
important factor. During thundershowers, trees become more or less
drenched with rain, and, according to Stahl,1 the more thoroughly wet
the tree is the less susceptible it becomes to lightning stroke. He bases
his observations on the fact that smooth-bark trees, like the beech and
others, which are considered more immune to lightning, become thoroughly
wet during storms, while the oak and other rough-bark trees do not.
Stahl's idea, therefore, is that smooth-bark trees possess a better water-
conducting surface and have a tendency to equalize the electrical tension
existing between the atmosphere and the ground, so that they are ren-
dered less susceptible to lightning. His deductions were based upon
experiments with electrical discharges made with the bark of different
species of trees containing various percentages of moisture. He further
observed that vertical limbs were more likely to become drenched than
horizontal, and that the lenticels and stomata play a role in the equaliza-
tion of the difference in electrical potential existing between the tissues
and the atmosphere. There appears to be no difference in the electri-
cal potential, at corresponding heights, under deciduous trees and in the
open air when there is no foliage, while the electrical potential will average
40 per cent, less under the trees than in the open air when the foliage is
developed.

The potential of the air is usually negative, although occasionally
changing to positive. In the case of coniferous trees, however, like tin-
Norway spruce,2 we found that the potential under the foliage was in-
variably positive or similar to that of the earth, which may be explained
<m the theory that conifers are constantly discharging positive electricity
to such an extent that the air surrounding them becomes charged similar
to the earth. To what extent* the iihn of water on the bark is capable of
equalizing the difference in electrical potential in the air surrounding the
trees, as well a* in t lie ground and in the tissues themselves, has not been
wholly determined, but we had difficulty in obtaining potential readings
under the foliage of elms in wet weather in our experiments covering
two summers. This may in part be explained by the improper installa-

1 Stahl, E. Dio Blitsgef&hrdunR <U>r versohiedenon Baumarten, Jena, G. Fisher, 1012.
« Maw. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept., 1905, ]>. 1 ».

DK TREES. 245

our collector. It i.s not unlikely that the film of water on the bark
of trees during such jieriods would have a tendency to affect materially
the potential of the surrounding air, as Stahl has pointed out, and possibly
to equalize the electrical tension. The subject should have further investi-
gation, but we believe that it is possible to protect trees from injury by
light ' * her they be atmospheric or earth discharges.

Injuries to Trees from Arc Lamps.

Damage to trees from artificial light rarely occurs. We know of only
one instance where any definite injury has occurred to trees from the use
of the arc light. Mr. William G. Keith, gas and electric light commis-
sioner of Chicago, 111., has reported a case where the electric lights caused
damage to adjacent trees located on certain streets in Chicago. The
injured were in all cases young Carolina poplars. The particular
lamps causing the trouble were known as the G. E. Company, type W,
10 ampere. 465 watt, 1,000 candle-power, series flame arc lamps, and
were operated on the same circuits. These lamps were in operation nearly
a year. Shortly after their installation damage occurred to the poplars
adjacent to the lamps. The damage to the trees in all cases was confined
to that side near the source of light, the trees being stripped of leaves and
some of the branches apparently killed. The injury to the branches was
such that they became infested with borers. As the injury to the trees
seemed to be persistent where this type of lamp was employed and not
noticeable where other types of lamps were used, — such as the direct-
current open arc lamp and the 300-watt 600-candle-power gas-filled in-
candescent lamp, — the system was changed to the latter type, and the
trees became normal, throwing out new twigs and leaves.

At first it was thought that the heat generated by the lamps was re-
sponsible for the damage to the trees, but the heat generated from the
gas-filled lamps was equal to or greater than that from the other types;
hence it appeared that the damage did not result from the heat. Finally
demonstrated that the trouble was caused by the practice of empty-
ing the contents of the globes, consisting of such products of combustion
as fluorides and possibly other injurious salts which accumulate in them.
The trees were located very close to the lamps and somewhat below them;
hence in emptying the globes the poisonous products would fall on the
foliage. A stated, the injury in all cases occurred on that por-

i the tree adjacent to the lamp, the other or remote portions being
unaffected.

I'pareutly the first authentic case at least of noticeable injury
rom electric lamps, and the theory of Commissioner Keith
relative to the specific cause of the injury to the foliage — namely, it
being due to the deposition of the products of combustion from the carbon
on the foliage — appears to be a most rational one. It should be pointed
out. however, that there are other ways in which injury of a similar
nature might occur to trees from electric lights, and as innovations in

246 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

street lighting systems are frequent, attention should be given to this
subject by those having the welfare of trees in their charge.

It would, of course, be possible for injury to be produced directly to
the foliage of trees in close proximity to lamps resulting from the intense
heat produced by the electric current setting free poisonous gases from
the heated carbons used for lighting purposes, the carbons in such in-
stances being composed of or containing chemical substances which when
volatilized by intense heat and diffused in the atmosphere would be toxic
to plants.

Moreover, it is possible for light itself to affect vegetation detrimentally.
It is well known that artificial lights differ from sunlight very materially,
and in proportion as they are characterized by rays of high refrangibility
they produce abnormal conditions on vegetation. However, the in-
jurious effects to plants resulting from various artificial lights can be
and are eliminated to a large extent by the use of globes and glass screens.
We have never observed, however, any detrimental effects upon shade
trees from any lighting system which could be attributed to any peculiarity
in the nature of the light itself.

The carbons in the older type of arc lamps which have been extensively
used are supposed to be pure, while those used in the flame arc contain
certain admixtures, such as fluorides. The older type of arc lamps pro-
vided with pure carbons were apparently harmless to street trees and to
vegetation in general when the light was properly screened through glass,
although more or less delicate, rapid-growing plants became abnormal
when subject to the naked arc.

Apparently the flame arc lamps have not as yet been extensively em-
ployed on street circuits, and if the trouble to trees resulting from their
use is caused by the deposition of the products of combustion of the car-
bons on the foliage, which appears to be the most rational explanation,
it is not likely that any serious difficulty to street trees will follow their
use if ordinary care is given to the handling of the residue which gathers
in the globes.

Injury to Trees from Wires.

The constantly increasing use of electricity for various purposes makes
necessary a more extensive use of wires, which has become a great menace
to shade trees. The appearance of streets is injured by the increased
number of poles and wires, and the legal restrictions as to the height,
distance apart, etc., of the wires of the telephone, telegraph, trolley and
electric light companies make the problem of maintaining shade trees on the
same street with public-service corporations a serious one. Of all the
troubles with which tree wardens have to contend, the wire problem is often
regarded as the worst. Notwithstanding the strict laws which some States
have adopted in regard to injuring shade trees, the agents of some public-
service corporations often have little regard for trees or the laws respecting
them. Where 40-foot poles must carry the wires of three or four public-

SHADE TREES.

247

are

service corporations there can be little or no opportunity to preserve the
natural symmetry of shade trees, especially when low branching maples
and other trees are planted on the same side of the street with the wires.
There is less interference from limbs with low than with high tension
wires. Trees like the elm, whose branches form acute angles, offer less
obstruction to wires than maples; but not all streets, of course,
planted with elms, which may be as well,
considering their susceptibility to various
pests and unfavorable climatic conditions.

The best solution of the wire problem
lies in burying the wires. This has been
done to quite an extent in large cities,
especially in the business sections, the
telephone corporations having adopted
this system to a much greater extent
than the electric light companies. It is an
expensive system, however, and those who
so strenuously advocate its adoption do
not always consider that in the end it is
the patrons who have to pay for it.

Another method of preventing wire
injuries is the erection of high poles to
bring the wires over the trees. This is
sometimes done, especially where the
trees are young or of a species that
naturally grows low, when a very high
pole would be sufficient to clear them for
many years. The cable system may be
used for telephone wires, and much injury
to trees prevented. Large cables are
rather expensive to install, but what is
termed the "ring construction" system
may be used to advantage in many
instances, particularly in the suburbs.
In this way it is possible to run a line
through avenues of fine trees in the
country districts without necessitating
pruning or disfiguration.

Rights of way for poles on private property back of residences are
sometimes secured, and by this means the poles and wires may be re-
moved from the streets, much to the advantage of the trees. But such
rights are often difficult to secure, and are not alwajTs satisfactory either
to the public-service corporations or the owners of the property. The
former naturally do not care much for these rights of way unless they are
legal and permanent, and the owners in granting permanent rights run a
risk of lowering the value of the property. Most of the very high-tension

FIG. 103.— Showing the destructive
effect on the growth of a maple
tree of a mass of wires.

248 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

transmission services, however, are at present on private property and
seldom interfere with trees. High-tension lines are affected seriously
merely by close proximity to trees; therefore, these rights of way have
to include broad strips of land, which of course is expensive.

On general principles, it is not wise to allow wires to be attached to
trees, although this is often done. Trolley and electric light wires are
frequently guyed to trees, but they are a source of
danger, since injury is likely to occur from the cross-
ing of the wires, and lightning discharges occasionally
pass from the wires to the tree, causing damage. It
is, however, often better to allow this than to allow
the erection of ugly poles; but proper insulation of
the wires should be insisted on, although ordinary
insulators have little effect on lightning discharges.
The lagbolt system in common use for guying wires
to trees is not the best method, for sooner or later the
wire and bolt become imbedded in the tree and cause
injury. Moreover, a direct metal connection with a
tree is objectionable, as has in more than one instance
been proved. The l)lock system is better, although
it may not in all cases be free from objections.
(See Fig. 42.) In no case should a wire be allowed
to pass tightly around a tree, as it will girdle it in
time. When live wires come into contact with limbs,
some type of insulator should be employed similar to
that shown in (1), Fig. 105, of which there are various
types, some being quite effective in preventing injury
from low-voltage lines. The type shown in (2), Fig.
105, is cumbersome and unsightly, but is one of the
most effective. The principle of the porcelain and
dowel insulator is good, but it has a tendency to slide
on the wires and to become displaced. If it were
provided with larger dowels, and the danger of dis-
placement on the wires done away with, it would
prove much more satisfactory.

Wires often accidentally come into contact with
trees by the displacement of poles, particularly on
curves where the strain is very great, but much of this injury may be
prevented by imbedding the poles in Portland cement. It should be
pointed out that the necessity for guying poles to trees may be obviated
in this way.

Better methods of handling this vexatious question of wires and shade
trees should be forthcoming in the future, and even at the present there
must be a compromise between the tree warden or city forester and the
companies as to the best method of wiring through tree belts and the
amount of pruning allowed. Conditions at present favor the corporations,

FIG. 104. — Showing
maple tree in-
jured by lightning
discharge from
trolley guy wire,
causing death of
limb and lacera-
tion of trunk.

SHADE TREES.

249

as they are furnishing valuable and necessary facilities for business,
and in towns they obtain their franchises and location of poles from the
selectmen with little difficulty. The selectmen notify the abutters of any
contemplated installations of poles and wires or of changes to occur in
the systems, and the abutters are given a hearing. However, they usually
wake up to their duty only after the installation of the lines, when the
tree warden must assume all responsibility for injury to trees. He has to
choose between two courses, — prevent the pruning or permit it. In
either case the companies can erect the poles and install the wires, allowing
the wires to burn their way through the trees, although this, of course,

FIG. 105. — Showing different types of guards for electric
wires: 1, porcelain dowel guard; 2, porcelain wood guard;
3, wooden sleeve.

often causes trouble to the corporation as well as to the abutter. In case
of injury to trees the warden has access to the courts, but most companies
are willing to put up with a few moderate fines for the sake of the right of
way through a tree belt.

THE SPRAYING OF SHADE TREES.

The great value and economic importance of spraying shade and fruit
trees have resulted in placing on the market a large variety of fungicides
and insecticides and types of machinery. Massachusetts has unfortu-
nately been obliged to spend more money in spraying than any other
State, and many towns and cities in the eastern part of the State, where
the brown-tail and gypsy moths are so prevalent, appropriate thousands of
dollars yearly for spraying.

250 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

Besides the larger spraying enterprises which are being carried on for
the suppression of the gypsy and brown-tail moths, much private work
is being done, and hundreds of tons of arsenate of lead are used annually
in this work. While the above-named pests have not at present invaded
the central and western parts of the State to any extent, other pests ne-
cessitate spraying our shade trees.

For years a great deal of attention has been given to the improvement
of spraying machines, nozzles, etc. It has often been a question whether
our towns of cities can afford to use the methods which are recommended
and practiced by the best orchardists for shade trees. The aim of the
orchardists is to cover every part of the tree which needs protection with
a very fine mist spray. This method cannot be too closely followed by
orchardists, since it is not necessarily expensive when only orchard trees
and small fruits and crops, such as potatoes, are concerned. However

FIG. 106. — Large spraying equipment.

when we have to spray large elms, the question becomes an entirely
different one.

A few years ago some large elms located in the public square in one of
our cities were sprayed by the same methods used by the best orchardists,
at an expense of something like $16 per tree. These trees, to be sure, were
unusually large, but the cost was so great that in our opinion it set a limit
to the amount of spraying which should be undertaken by such methods.
Most of the former spraying of shade trees was done by this very expen-
sive method at a cost of $1.50 upwards for trees 14 to 18 inches in diameter.
In much of this early spraying the Vermorel, Ware or similar fine-spray
nozzles on poles were used, and spraying had to be done at close range for
the best results. The early gypsy moth work was done in this same way,
any other method at that time being considered useless. This method
entailed a great deal of climbing on the part of the sprayers, and was a
slow and costly process. With the improvement of gasoline engines,

SHADE TREES.

251

pumps, etc., together with the utilization of coarse nozzles, more efficient
methods came into vogue. Some years ago the Gypsy Moth Commission
abandoned these fine nozzles and close-range methods of spraying, and at
the present time use is made only of wide aperture nozzles and solid
streams, with large hose. Exceptionally high pressure is obtained from
powerful machine sprayers. With the larger area which has to be treated
at the present day the older method would prove prohibitory, not only
on account of the expense, but also because of the time involved. Virtu-
ally all the spraying with
these large modern ma-
chines is done from the
ground, doing away with
the necessity for ladders
and for climbing trees;
and by using one or more
lengths of hose large
areas may be treated
from one spot. This
method of spraying trees
is very effective and very
much cheaper, the aver-
age cost of spraying
woodlands being some-
thing like $6 or less per
acre. With this method
the spraying mixture is
delivered to the nozzle
through a large strong
hose 1 inch in diameter,
under a pressure of 200
to 275 pounds, the high
pressure breaking the
spray up into a fine mist.
The spray has consider-
able spread when broken

up, which is a desirable feature in treating woodlands and country road-
sides, but on this account it is more or less objectionable for use on resi-
dential streets in cities and towns, as it is likely to disfigure anything it
touches. The high-pressure, solid-stream equipments are the cheapest',
and are more practical for shade tree work than anything that has as
yet been devised.

What might be termed a compromise between the fine-nozzle system
and the high-pressure, coarse-nozzle or solid-stream system employed in
the gypsy moth work is often used in spraying shade trees at the present
day. This consists in the use of the Bordeaux nozzle, which has an aper-
ture of about three thirty-seconds of an inch. When used on a hand

FIG. 107. — Spraying from the ground with solid stream
and high pressure (Worthley nozzle).

252 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

pump with a pressure of from 50 to 70 pounds, or even more, it does not
give, in our estimation, a satisfactory spray because it is not broken up
sufficiently. When a small number of trees is to be sprayed and an expen-
sive equipment cannot be afforded, small hand pumps will do the work,
but when it becomes necessary to spray 500 or 1,000 trees in the course
of a few weeks, power sprayers are necessary and more economical.

The Bordeaux nozzle has the advantage of being adjustable and can
be used either as a mist nozzle or at more or less long distance. As a

long-distance nozzle, how-
ever, under any pressure, it
is unsatisfactory and much
inferior to other long-dis-
tance sprays. Moreover,
with the use of the Bordeaux
nozzle it becomes necessary
to use a ladder and to do
some climbing. The aperture
is so small that with any
pressure the stream is limited
in its height.

The most important fac-
tors necessary for economical
work in spraying shade trees
on a large scale are machines
powerful enough to maintain
a constantly high pressure,
an efficient nozzle, and com-
petent men to do the work.
By high pressure we mean a
pressure of 200 to 250 pounds,
preferably the latter. This
should be maintained con-
stantly, and the capacity
should be sufficient to mam-
tain this pressure in a 1-inch
delivery hose, if necessary, provided with a nozzle with an aperture one-
quarter inch or more in size. With the mist nozzles, or even with the
Bordeaux nozzle, a pressure of over 150 pounds is useless and unneces-
sary. With this pressure, or even less, depending on the nature of the
nozzle employed, the maximum results may be obtained. It is extremely
important for the best work in spraying that there should be as little
friction as possible. Therefore, care should be exercised to have no reduc-
ing valves or couplings anywhere on the line to reduce the volume, since
it is essential to have an uninterrupted flow of the spraying mixture
directly to the nozzle. In this respect the fixtures usually found on the
market are poorly adapted to good work, and are often useless, with the

FIG. 108. — "M A. C." nozzle spray with high-
pressure and atomizing point intercepting the
stream.

SHADE TREES.

253

exception of those used by the State in spraying for the gypsy moth.
These are excellent.

Too much attention cannot be given to the nozzle. It should be adapted
to the work required of it, and a satisfactory or ideal nozzle is worth
almost any price. It should be constructed on mechanical principles
which will enable it to break up the spraying mixture into as fine a mist
as possible, and to do this at a distance convenient for the economical
spraying of trees. The ideal nozzle for spraying either from the ground
or from a ladder should
possess some carrying fea-
tures, and still break up the
spray finely. The nozzle
should not be encumbered,
any more than the hose,
with worthless mechanical
devices which produce fric-
tion without adding any-
thing to its efficiency, and
for this reason we believe
that it is better to employ
mechanical devices to break
up the spray after it has
left the nozzle rather than
in the nozzle itself. This
applies, of course, to that
type of nozzle intended to
be used with high pressure,
either from the ground or
from a ladder, since in this
case it is necessary to have
nozzles adapted to throw a
certain distance in order to
reach the foliage, and have
it broken up into as fine a
mist as possible. This does not apply to types of nozzles like the Ver-
morel and Friend, which are well adapted to the purposes for which they
are intended.

For high-pressure, solid-stream spraying in long-distance work, the
Worthley tips are best. These tips range in size from one-eighth inch
upwards, according to height of stream desired. They are constructed
so as to break the stream into a mist at a certain height. With this type
of nozzle the tops of trees can be sprayed most effectively, although the
lower foliage does not receive so much of the spray. To overcome this
difficulty the writer has devoted a great deal of time to experimenting
with new types of nozzles, and from some forty or more designs two have
been constructed which have given good results. One of these, known as

FH-. 10H. — " M. A. C." no/.zle. A, atomizing
point or dellector; B, wing handle to adjust
or swing point; C, nozzle proper; D, hollow
case to protect A and C.

254 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

the "M. A. C. nozzle,"1 has been patented and placed on the market.
This nozzle is adapted for use with apertures ranging from one-eighth
inch upwards, and is adjustable so that different types of sprays may be
produced. It is designed for high-pressure work, and is more efficient at
relatively close range than long distance; consequently, when used in
connection with the Worthley tips an effective method of spraying results.
With a three and one-half to six horse-power machine it can be used with
one-eighth to three-sixteenths inch tips effectively, but in such cases a
ladder must be employed with high trees.

The securing of competent men is also important in spraying. Any
reliable man of common sense can learn to spray in a short time, and
there should be little difficulty in securing such men if they are treated
properly and well paid.

At the present time there are numerous types of spraying machines
on the market ranging from two horse power on, and costing from $200
to $1,200. When it becomes necessary to spray a large number of trees
in towns or cities, only the large size machine should be used, but the
large machines are rather costly for small towns with a limited amount
of work to be done.

In the case of towns having a limited amount of work to be done, it is
better either to contract the work or secure a five or six horse-power
machine. As a rule, contract spraying of shade trees, done with small
hand pumps or with small machines, is quite unsatisfactory, the equip-
ment not being adapted to the best work at the usual contract prices,
especially when many large trees must be sprayed. The cost of spraying
large trees with hand pumps or small machines with the Bordeaux nozzle
should be at least $1.50 per tree, and few contractors take work at this
price. When contracts are accepted at the price of 70 cents per tree the
work must be slighted with the inferior equipment employed, and even
then it is done at a loss. With the use of large machines and solid-stream
sprays, city trees have been sprayed for about 20 cents each, and an
average price in cities and towns would be from 20 to 39 cents. In one
instance the average price for spraying about 900 elm trees, with an
average diameter of 20 inches, during a period of six years was 57 cents
per tree; a three and one-half horse-power engine and an " M. A. C. nozzle "
were employed. Use was made of a ladder, but very little climbing was
done, and the price represents the bare cost of material and labor. Dete-
rioration of machinery, repairs, etc., are excluded. An outside contractor
should of course receive considerably more for spraying to offset the extra
items of expense, such as the cost of transportation, housing his men, etc.

i This nozzle was devised by the writer, and the patents are held by the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. It is manufactured and sold by Brackett, Shaw & Lunt, 62 North
Washington Street, Boston, Mass.

SHADE TREES. 255

VALUATION OF SHADE TREES.

The valuation of shade trees is a very important question, and opinions
on the subject often differ greatly. There are several different ways of
arriving at the value of a shade tree, but in all of them the many factors
modifying the value of a tree must be taken into consideration.

Since a tree planted for its shade, ornamental purposes, etc., possesses
a utilitarian or property value, its real worth is usually represented by
the cost of duplication. The amount of reduction in value of property from
the loss of a tree is simply equivalent to the value of the tree, which in turn
is represented by the amount it would cost to duplicate it. There .is a
limit to the size of tree that can successfully be transplanted, but it is
possible to duplicate an 18-inch tree, and the value of trees that are too
large to transplant may be estimated proportionately.

The transplanting of large trees is thoroughly practicable when done
by men who understand it. A tree 6 inches in diameter may be moved
for from S6 to 820, and one 14 inches in diameter for from $30 to S80,
depending upon the availability of transplanting apparatus and of suitable
trees.

Another method of determining the value of a tree, mentioned briefly
above and often used in court, is to determine the decrease in value of the
real estate affected by the loss of the tree, and expert appraisers of prop-
erty are usually called in when this method is used.1

This method has its limitations, for real estate men are not necessarily
familiar with all the factors affecting the value of a tree, — diseases, ex-
pectation of life, etc., which must be taken into consideration; conse-
quently, they often set the value too high or too low. Moreover, the
price per foot of real estate has little or nothing to do with the real value
of a tree, which may be worth as much on a piece of property valued at
$2,000 as on one valued at $6,000. As a matter of fact, the trees located on
real estate have very little effect on the price obtained for the property,
this depending much more upon the ability of the salesman. Then, too,
while trees, shrubbery and other ornamental planting undoubtedly add
value to property, it is a question whether the buyer often very seriously
considers this fact when it comes to actually paying over his money.
A tree is likely to be destroyed at any time by wind storms, lightning,
etc., in which case it is impossible to recover damages, and it therefore
does not appeal to the average buyer as a substantial property asset.
Trees may be insured, but the writer's experience is that comparatively
few persons regard trees as of sufficient value to warrant much expendi-
ture. This is substantiated by the fact that in only a few cases, where
trees have been destroyed by public-service corporations, and damages
paid for them, have we observed any attempt to replace the dead trees

1 Many trees attain to a diameter of at least 18 inches, and in many cases even more, in fifty
years. Assuming that it costs $2 to plant a tree, and that it is worth $150 at this age and size when
in good condition, the return on the original investment would be 9 per cent., compound interest.

256 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

with others of large size, and seldom -even with small ones. Not infre-
quently the destruction of a tree is considered in the light of a blessing,
although damages are always insisted on. It is almost invariably true
that real estate owners who allow horses to disfigure their trees year after
year, not showing enough interest to expend 75 cents or so for wire pro-
tection, usually insist on the heaviest damages when these same trees are
destroyed by public-service corporations.

Another method of estimating the value of trees is by obtaining the
cross-section area. Cross-sjection areas of trees are often obtained at a
certain distance from the ground and the value computed at so much per
square inch. The aesthetic features, location, species, imperfections,
etc., are also taken into consideration in determining the value of the
tree. This method may be used in deciding the value of trees too large to
transplant, but even here some allowance should be made, since their
utility, shade value, etc., do not increase proportionately with their
increase in size.

There are many factors underlying the valuation of trees which should
be, but seldom are, taken into consideration, and a short discussion of
these follows: —

A tree may be valuable in more than one way. It may possess a species
or varietal value, i.e., it may be of a type possessing horticultural value
for propagating purposes; it may possess historic value, such as the
Washington elm and others; it may have merely a sentimental value, in
being associated with some family event; or it may possess asthetic value,
from its landscape effect and intrinsic beauty; again, it may possess
only a timber value, which in most cases is insignificant; and finally, it has
"a utilitarian or property value, which naturally includes many factors.

Other features which help to determine the value of a tree are as
follows : —

Size. — Size is of importance in determining the value of a tree.

Form. —A tree may be of good size and of very poor shape. Unfor-
tunately there are many trees which, on account of their poor shape,
should never have been planted.

Vigor. — Shown by the rate of growth, size of leaves, color of foliage
and condition of bark.

Susceptibility to Various Troubles, to Specific Diseases, etc. — These
may follow as a result of the environment or may be peculiar to individuals.

Physical Condition. — Shown by freedom from cavities and wounds,
caused by unscientific pruning and other mechanical agencies, — borers,
various animals, etc.

Species. — The species is important also, not only from the standpoint
of beauty but from its conformity to the environment, its longevity and
susceptibility to disease. There are many species which were formerly
of much greater value than they are to-day, owing to the increased number
of troubles affecting them now, e.g., the elm-leaf beetle, leopard moth,
winter injury and drought.

SHADE TREES. 257

Location. — If the importance of the location of a tree were better
ivulized, much more accurate valuations would be given trees which
have been destroyed. For instance, a tree located on a well-planted avenue
is worth more than one growing on a poorly planted avenue.

A tree forming part of a symmetrical line of trees is, as a rule, of more
value than one of an irregular group.

A tree planted too closely to others is of less value than one which has
a chance to grow without restriction.

A tree located in a wide tree belt is worth more than one growing in a
narrow tree belt.

A tree growing on a narrow avenue is of less value than one on a wide
avenue, for in the latter case the water mains, sewers, etc.. may be farther
from the roots, which are less likely to become injured.

A tree growing inside the sidewalk is of more value than one growing on
the edge of a road near the curbing, or in a ditch. Usually the farther
from the roadbed the tree is located, at least in cities, the more valuable
it is, for the roots are often amputated close to the trunk in street exca-
vating, sidewalk and curbing construction, etc., and the tree is much more
liable to injury from horses and trucks, runaways, etc.

A tree growing in a street where water mains, sewers, underground
conduits and gas pipes are so numerous as to necessitate digging up the
roadbed cannot have the value of one growing in an undisturbed roadbed.

A tree planted near manufacturing establishments or in other locations
where it is subject to an atmosphere of smoke and various gases is also
unfavorably located since its expectation of life is reduced.

A tree located where it is likely to become affected by sun scorch or
drought is of less value than one growing under more normal conditions.
Cultivated soil is better for a tree than a lawn, mowing or pavements,
but next to cultivation the lawn conditions are most favorable. Abnormal
chemical conditions of the soil and unsuitable soil texture affect growth
and development. The location of a tree as regards distance and direction
from a residence are important from the shade point of view.

Trees located close to oiled roadbeds are unfavorably situated, since
the dust from oiled roads injures foliage. There is also a possibility of the
roots themselves being affected by the oil.

On account of variation in their susceptibility to disease and to injury
from climatic conditions, trees are often of more value in one location
than another; for instance, those growing in country towns are usually
under more wholesome conditions than those in cities. They may also be
located in situations where certain pests thrive. While trees in cities are
relatively short lived, they are considered of more value than town trees,
because they serve a larger population.

The nature of the species and the conditions under which a tree is
growing help to determine its expectation of life. An elm tree may live
for two hundred to three hundred years in some localities, and in others
sixty or seventy years is its limit, while the duration of life of other trees
is even more restricted.

258 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

The extensive cutting of roots, made necessary by modern city street
conditions, where business blocks with their deep foundations are often
erected within a few feet of the highway trees, and where the placing of
sidewalks, curbings and various other modern conveniences necessitate
considerable excavating, renders even the most perfect specimen of tree
almost worthless in .a short time.

COURT DECISIONS CONCERNING DAMAGES TO TREES.

Of the many court decisions regarding the injury and death of trees,
quite a few are valuable as precedents. It is too often the case that the
official representatives of public-service corporations, which hold franchises
granted by cities and towns, assume that the corporations have entire
jurisdiction over everything interfering in any way with the operation of
their systems. As regards this point may be quoted the decision of a
justice of the Supreme Court, who stated that public-service corporations
"have only such rights as others to the use of streets, and are subject
therein at all times to reasonable regulation or even to termination at any
time if the supreme authority acting in the public service shall so deter-
mine." He further maintains that "they have no rights of property in
the streets, and their privileges are merely temporary ones, which may
be recalled at any time and which carry with them no right of property
whatever."

From a lack of understanding of or inability to conform to the law,
and a disregard of the rights of the people, this often leads to friction
between those having special care of trees and representatives of the
corporations. The heads of corporations have always been better dis-
posed toward public utilities than their representatives, and some of
them have laid down stringent rules in regard to shade trees which their
representatives are supposed to follow. Most States, however, recognize
that trees located on public highways enhance the value of the abutter's
property, and in case of the destruction of or injury to such trees, the
abutter has the right to claim damages.

In a case decided by the Appellate Division, New York, an owner of
land abutting on a city street, whose ownership did not extend to the
middle of the street but "who had set out ornamental shade trees on the
sidewalk in front of his premises at his own expense and with the sanction
of the municipal authorities, is entitled to have such trees protected
against negligent or willful destruction at the hands of third parties. He
has a right in such trees in the nature of an equitable easement, and when
one is girdled and destroyed by a horse, may recover from the owner of
the horse the damages thus sustained."

In Minnesota an injunction was granted by the judge to restrain the
defendant from cutting, mutilating or in any way damaging trees whose
limbs were threatened by an old house that was being moved through the
streets. Along the route which the building must take in the course of

SHADE TREES. 259

moving were several shade trees which would have to be destroyed in
order to move the building. The court maintained that "there can be
no question of the right of plaintiff to the protection of the court to save
these valuable trees from mutilation and possible destruction. The fact
that these trees are in the street and not within the boundary line of
plaintiff's premises does not alter in the least his right to have them pro-
tected, as they are his property. In the absence of proof to the contrary
he is the owner of the land in front of his premises to the center of the
street, subject only to an easement in the public to use it for the purposes
of travel and the usual and ordinary incidents thereof. His rights of
ownership yield only to the public welfare and convenience, and to the
power of the municipal authorities to appropriately adapt the street and
maintain it to meet the necessities of the travelling public."

From various court decisions it would appear that the value assigned
to trees has sometimes been too high and often too low, and in the main,
the extent of the damages resulting from the destruction of trees is based
upon the deterioration occurring to the adjacent property. In general,
it may be stated that a tree 18 or 20 inches in diameter, in good condition
and in a desirable location, is worth SI 50, and a smaller one is of corre-
sponding value. In private settlements, which are often made, for trees
injured by public-service corporations, amounts ranging from $15 to $150
have been paid for trees of the above size, but in many cases from $40
to SI 00 is considered sufficient compensation for trees ranging from 10
to 18 inches in diameter, depending entirely, of course, upon the many
factors that influence the value of a tree.

Several typical cases of court decisions concerning damages to trees
follow : —

The jury of a circuit court in Missouri once awarded $200 against a
telephone company for cutting out the top of a shade tree without con-
sulting the owner. The tree in question was a 6-inch poplar which inter-
fered with the telephone wires, and the workmen, without consulting the
abutter, chopped out the top and center of the tree. The abutter sued
for $300 and received $200.

A similar instance occurred in North Carolina, when an electric lighting
company was sued for damages for cutting a tree on the edge of a side-
walk, even after being provided with the permission of the superintendent
of streets, approved by the board of aldermen. The jury awarded the
plaintiff a verdict of §499. Of course the case was appealed, but the
judgment of the State Supreme Court was that while the city had the
power under its charter to control streets and sidewalks and to remove
obstructions when necessary, it did not, when it condemned land for
highway purposes, acquire a title to it but merely a right of way over it,
so that the plaintiff was still the owner of the tree.

In another case a resident of Xew York, owning residential property
abutting on the city street, brought suit against a gas company for the de-
struction of trees by gas. The case involved the destruction of some

260 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

maple trees thirty-five years old, all in a thriving condition and furnishing
good shade. Four of these trees were destroyed by the negligence of the
gas company in permitting gas to escape from its pipes into the soil about
the roots of the tree. Action was brought to recover the damages alleged
to have been sustained by the plaintiff by reason of these facts, and the
jury found a verdict in his favor for the sum of $150. Upon appeal to
the Appellate Division, the judgment entered upon the verdict was
unanimously confirmed. The court held, as a matter of law, that the
plaintiff had a property right in these trees, although they were not
planted upon lands to which he had a title.

The question of negligence in the destruction of shade trees is an im-
portant one, and opinions seem to differ as to what constitutes negligence.
There are some cases in which negligence has not been established and
decisions were rendered in favor of the defendants, although it should be
pointed out that an appeal to the higher court often reversed such deci-
sions. The case of Robbins v. the Hartford Gas Company, pertaining to
the destruction by gas of shade trees located on the highway and on
private property, resulted in a decision -for the defendant, but on appeal
to the higher courts the defendant made a satisfactory settlement with the
plaintiff. In the case of Rooney v. the Hyde Park Gas Company, which
involved a number of shade trees on the highway and on private property
which were supposed to have been injured by gas, a decision was given in
favor of the defendant. The gas leak as admitted by defendant occurred
some distance away from the trees, and it was not established that they
had been injured by gas, neither could negligence be established.

These cases concern action brought by property owners against public-
service corporations for the destruction of trees, but in accordance with
our Massachusetts statutes city foresters or tree wardens can bring
action for injury or destruction to shade trees located on the public high-
way. For instance, the city forester of Springfield brought suit against
the Springfield Gas Company for the destruction of sixty shade trees,
and the judge rendered a verdict in favor of the defendant, since negligence
was not established. The gas company, however, made no attempt to
establish any case; moreover, they had previously settled with the owners
of the adjacent property for many of the trees involved, thereby acknowl-
edging in such settlement that the trees had been killed by gas.

In another case the town of Athol brought suit through the tree warden
against the Athol Gas Company for killing public shade trees by gas.
The decision given by the judge of the local court was in favor of the
plaintiff. The gas company appealed, but again lost its case before a
jury in the higher court. In the case of the Superintendent of Parks,
Lowell, v. the Lowell Gas Company, in which some fifty trees were sup-
posedly killed by gas, a fine of $900 was imposed on the company in the
police court, the same being paid to the city treasurer. In addition to the
fine, the gas company settled with many of the abutters.

A few years ago fifteen tupelo trees were cut on private land by an

SHADE TREES. 261

electric railway company. The court awarded triple damages on the
ground that the cutting was willful, and the company was fined $1,200.

A case is recorded of a superintendent of an electric light company

being adjudged guiltjr in a Massachusetts court on a charge of injuring

and destroying shade trees on the highway. The court imposed a fine

. In another case a lineman was fined $15 in the district court on

complaint of a tree warden for climbing trees with spurs.

Innumerable other court cases could be cited similar to those already
given illustrating the laws in regard to public shade trees. In some States,
however, according to decisions of the courts, public shade trees may be
destroyed from almost any cause without any compensation to the ad-
jacent property owner. By far the larger number of cases of injury to
and destruction of shade trees from various causes never reach the courts,
and it is much better to arrive at some satisfactory settlement by arbitra-
tion than to resort to criminal proceedings. One Massachusetts city,
however, has attempted to require a public-service corporation to give a
bond for the payment of damages to trees, but this regulation was not
adopted by the aldermen of the city.

There are only a few instances, to my knowledge, of the courts awarding
damages for trees supposed to be killed by electricity. Most courts
would undoubtedly allow damages for serious burnings brought about by
wires, but there are only a small number of cases in which electricity has
actually killed a tree and in these cases the death of the tree was due to a
reversed polarity in the electric railways.1

CODIFIED SHADE TREE LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS, 1915.
For several years prior to 1899 there was a provision in the Massachu-
setts statutes that towns might elect tree wardens. By the acts of that
year it was provided that every town must elect a tree warden, and the
duties and powers of the office were defined. The tree warden law of
1899, with certain amendments in details, remains in force to-day and
regulates the care of shade trees in every town in the Commonwealth.

CHAPTER 145, GENERAL ACTS OF 1915.

SECTION 1. The powers and duties conferred and imposed upon tree wardens
in towns by this act are hereby conferred and imposed upon the officials now or
hereafter charged with the care of shade trees within the limits of the highway in
cities, by the charters of the said cities, by other legislative enactments, or by the
ordinances of the said cities, and upon such officials as the city governments shall
designate to have charge of said shade trees where it is within their power to trans-
fer such duties, by ordinance or otherwise.

SECTION 2. The tree warden may appoint and remove deputy tree wardens.
He and they shall receive such compensation as the town determines or, in default
thereof, as the selectmen allow. He shall have the care and control of all public
shade trees, shrubs and growths in the town, except those within the limits of a

1 Electrical Injuries to Trees, Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 156, 1914.

262 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

state highway, and except those in public parks or open places under the jurisdiction
of the park commissioners, and of those, if so requested in writing by the park com-
missioners, and shall enforce all the provisions of law for the preservation of such
trees, shrubs and growths. He shall expend all money appropriated for the setting
out and maintenance of such trees, shrubs and growths, but no trees shall be planted
within the limits of a public way without the approval of the tree warden; and in
towns until a .location therefor has been obtained from the selectmen or road com-
missioners, where authority has been vested in said commissioners. Regulations,
other than those made by the terms of this act, for the care and preservation of
public shade trees made by him, and in towns approved by the selectmen, and
posted in two or more public places, imposing fines and forfeitures of not more than
twenty dollars in any one case, shall have the force and effect of town by-laws. All
trees within or on the limits of a public way shall be public shade trees; and when
it appears in any proceeding where the ownership of or rights in the tree are material
to the issue, that, from length of time or otherwise, the boundaries of the highway
cannot be made certain by the records or by monuments, and that for that reason
it is doubtful whether the tree be within or without the limits of the highway, or
is public or private property, it shall be taken to be within the limits of the highway
and to be public property until the contrary is shown.

SECTION 3. Except as provided by section five, public shade trees shall not be
cut, trimmed or removed, in whole or in part, by any person other than the tree
warden or his deputy, whether such person is or is not the owner of the fee in the
land on which such tree is situated, except upon a permit in writing from said tree
warden, nor shall they be cut down or removed by the tree warden or his deputy
or other person without a public hearing at a suitable time and place, after notice
thereof posted in two or more public places in the town or city and upon the tree
at least seven days before such hearing, and after authority granted by the tree
warden therefor: provided, however, that if the tree warden shall refuse to cut or
remove or issue a permit to any such owner to cut or remove any such tree or other
growth, the damages, if any, sustained by him shall be determined in towns by the
selectmen and in cities by the officer or officers in charge of the public shade trees
and shall be paid by the town or city. Any person aggrieved by the action of the
selectmen or said officer or officers in charge of the public shade trees as to the
trimming, cutting, removal or retention of any such tree, or as to the amount
awarded to him for the same may have the damages, if any, which he has sustained,
determined by the superior court for the county in which the said tree is or was
situated, upon a petition filed for the purpose, in the same manner as for the taking
of land for ways; and his damages, so determined, shall be paid by the town or city,

SECTION 4. Tree wardens shall not cut down or remove or grant a permit for
the cutting down or removal of a public shade tree if, at or before a public hearing
as provided in the preceding section, objection in writing is made by one or more
persons, unless such cutting or removal or permit to cut or remove is approved by
the selectmen or by the mayor.

SECTION 5. Tree wardens and their deputies, but 110 other person, may, without
a hearing, trim, cut down or remove trees, under one and one half inches in diameter
one foot from the ground, and bushes, standing in highways; and, if ordered by
the mayor and aldermen, selectmen, road commissioners or highway surveyor,
shall trim or cut down trees and bushes, if the same shall be deemed to obstruct,
endanger, hinder, or incommode persons travelling thereon. Nothing contained in
this act shall prevent the trimming, cutting or removal of any tree which endangers
persons travelling on a highway, nor the removal of any tree, if so ordered by the
proper officials, for the purpose of widening the highway, and nothing herein con-
tained shall interfere with gypsy and brown tail moth suppression, as carried on
under the direction of the state forester and the United States department of
agriculture, except the cutting and removal of trees, shrubs and growths that are
one and one half inches or more in diameter one foot from the ground.

SHADE TREES. 263

:<>N" 6. Whoever violates any of the provisions of the preceding sections
of this act shall forfeit not more than five hundred dollars to the use of the town
or city.

SECTION* 7. Towns and cities may appropriate money to be expended by the
tree warden in planting shade trees in the public ways, or, if he deems it expedient,
upon adjoining land, at a distance not exceeding twenty feet from said public ways
for the purpose of improving, protecting, shading or ornamenting the same: pro-
vided, hoicever, that the written consent of the owner of such adjoining land shall
first be obtained.

SECTION 8. The Massachusetts highway commission shall have the care and
control of all trees, shrubs and growths within the limits of state highways, and
may trim, cut or remove such trees, shrubs and growths, or license the trimming,
cutting or removal thereof. No such tree, shrub or other growth shall be trimmed,
cut or removed by any person other than an agent or employee of the commission,
whether such person is or is not the owner of the fee in the land on which such tree,
shrub or growth is situated, except upon a permit in writing from said commission:
provided, however, that if the commission shall refuse to issue a permit to any such
owner to cut or remove any such tree, shrub, or other growth, the damages, if any,
sustained by him shall be determined by said commission and paid by the com-
monwealth. Any person aggrieved by the action of the commission as to the
trimming, cutting, removal or retention of any such tree, shrub or other growth,
or as to the amount awarded to him for the same by the commission, may have
the damages, if any, which he has sustained, determined by the superior court for
the county in which the said tree, shrub or other growth is or was situated, upon
a petition filed for the purpose, in the same manner as for the taking of land for
highways, and his damages, so determined, shall be paid by the commonwealth.

SECTION 9. Whoever affixes to a tree in a public way or place a play bill, pic-
ture, announcement, notice, sign, advertisement or other thing, whether in writing
or otherwise, or cuts, paints or marks such tree, except for the purpose of protecting
it or the public and under a written permit from the officer having the charge of
such trees in a city or from the tree warden in a town, or from the Massachusetts
highway commission in the case of a state highway, shall be punished by a fine of
not more than fifty dollars for each offence. Tree wardens shall enforce the pro-
visions of this section: provided, hoicerer, that in case of the failure of a tree warden
to act in the case of a state highway within thirty days after the receipt by him of
a complaint in writing from the Massachusetts highway commission, said com-
mission may proceed to enforce the provisions of this section.

SECTION- 10. Whoever without authority trims, cuts down or removes a tree,
shrub or growth, within the limits of a state highway or maliciously injures, defaces
or destroys any such tree, shrub or growth shall be punished by imprisonment for
not more than six months or by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars, to the
use of the commonwealth.

SECTION- 11. Whoever, wilfully, maliciously, or wantonly cuts, destroys or in-
jures a tree, shrub or growth, which is not his own, standing for any useful purpose,
shall Be punished by imprisonment for not more than six months or by a fine of
not more than five hundred dollars.

SECTION 12. Whoever wantonly injures, defaces, or destroys a shrub, plant or
tree, or fixture of ornament or utility, in a public way or place or in any inclosure,
or negligently or wilfully suffers an animal driven by or for him or belonging to
him to injure, deface or destroy, such shrub, plant, tree or fixture, or whoever by any
other means negligently or wilfully injures, defaces, or destroys such shrub, plant
or tree, or fixture, shall forfeit not more than five hundred dollars, one half to the
use of the complainant and one half to the use of the city or town in which the act
was committed; and shall in addition thereto be liable to said city or town or other
person interested in said tree for all damages caused by such act.

264 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 170.

SECTION 13. Section fifteen of chapter twenty-five of the Revised Laws, in
so far as it relates to trees; section ten of chapter fifty-one of the Revised Laws, in
so far as it gives authority over trees and bushes; sections one hundred and one,
one hundred and two and one hundred and four of chapter two hundred and eight
of the Revised Laws, as amended by sections thirty-one and thirty-two of chapter
five hundred and forty-four of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and two ; sec-
tion twelve of chapter fifty- three of the Revised Laws, as amended by section two
of chapter two hundred and ninety-six of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and
eight and by chapter three hundred and twenty-one of the acts of the year nineteen
hundred and ten; section thirteen of chapter fifty-three of the Revised Laws, as
amended by section three of chapter two hundred and ninety-six of the acts of the
year nineteen hundred and eight; section sixteen of chapter twenty-five of the
Revised Laws; section one of chapter three hundred and sixty- three of the acts of
the year nineteen hundred and ten ; and chapter two hundred and seventy-nine of
the acts of the year nineteen hundred and five, as amended by chapter two hundred
and ninety-seven of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and eight, are hereby
repealed.

SECTION 14. The provisions of this act, so far as they are the same as those of
existing statutes, shall be construed as continuations thereof and not as new enact-
ments.

SECTION 15. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved April 7
1916.

R. L., CHAPTER 208, SECTION 115.

LAW REGARDING THE POSTING OF NOTICES, ETC., WITHIN THE LlMITS OF THE

HIGHWAY.

Whoever paints, or puts upon, or in any manner affixes to, any fence, structure,
pole, rock or other object which is the property of another, whether within or
without the limits of the highway, any words, device, trade mark, advertisement
or notice which is not required by law to be posted thereon, without first obtaining
the written consent of the owner or tenant of such property, shall, upon complaint
of such owner, or of his tenant, or of any municipal or public officer, be punished
by a fine of not more than ten dollars. Any word, device, trade mark, advertise-
ment or notice which has been painted, put up or affixed within the limits of a
highway in violation of the provisions of this section shall be considered a public
nuisance, and may be forthwith removed or obliterated and abated by any person.

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OF

BULLETIN

FORESTRY

op :e««eorlA6i«icuLTUi«

The New York State College of Forestry

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

Hugh P. Baker, Dean

Suggestions for Proper Procedure in

Systematic Street Tree Planting

For Towns and Cities of New York

By

HENRY R. FRANCIS
Assistant Professor of Landscape Extension

Published Quarterly by the University
Syracuse, New York

Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class matter

TRUSTEES

OF
THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY.

Ex OFFICIO.

Dr. JAMES R. DAY, Chancellor Syracuse University

Dr. JOHN HUSTON FINLEY, Commissioner of Edu-
cation Albany, N. Y.

Hon. GEORGE E. VAN KENNEN, Chairman Con-
servation Commission Ogdensburg, N. Y.

Senator ELON R. BROWN Watertown, N. Y.

APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR.

Hon. CHARLES ANDREWS Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. ALEXANDER T. BROWN Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. JOHN R. CLANCY Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. HAROLD D. CORNWALL Lowville, N. Y.

Hon. GEORGE W. DRISCOLL Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. FRANCIS HENDRICKS Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. HENDRICK S. HOLDEN Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. Louis MARSHALL New York City.

Mr. EDWARD H. O'HARA Syracuse, N. Y.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

President Hon. Louis MABSHALL.

Vice-President Hon. JOHN R. CLANCY.

Treasurer Hon. HENDRICK S. HOLDEN.

(6)

FACULTY

OF

NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY.

JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL. D.,

Chancellor of the University.

HUGH POTTER BAKER, M. F. (Yale 1904); D. Oec. (Munich 1910),
Dean of the College and Prof, of Silviculture.

FRANK F. MOOX, B. A. (Amherst College 1901) ; M. F. (Yale 1909),
Professor of Forest Engineering.

MAULSBY WILLETT BLACKMAN, A. B. (Univ. of Kansas 1901);

Ph. D. (Harvard Univ. 1905),
Professor of Forest Entomology.

EDWARD F. MCCARTHY, B. S., M. F. (Univ. of Michigan 1911),

Professor of Forest Products; Acting Director "New York State Ranger

School, Wanakena, N. T.

XELSOX COURTLAXDT BROWN, B. A. (Yale College 1906); M. F.

(Yale University 1908),
Professor of Forest Utilization.

J. FRED BAKER, B. S. (Michigan Agricultural College 1902); M. F.

(Yale University 1905),
Director of Forest Investigations.

LEIGH H. PENNINGTOX, A. B., 1907, Ph. D. (Univ. of Mich. 1909),
Professor of Forest Pathology.

JOHX WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A., M. F. (Univ. of Mich. 1907),
Assistant Professor of Silviculture.

REUBEX PARKER PRICHARD, B. S. (Dartmouth College 1907);

M. F. (Yale University 1909),
Assistant Professor of Forest Products.

(7)

8 College of Forestry.

CHARLES CHRISTOPHER ADAMS, B. S. (Illinois Wesleyan 1896) ;

M.S. (Harvard University 1899) ; Ph.D. (Chicago University 1908),

Assistant Professor of Forest Zoology.

I1KXRY R. FRANCIS, B. S. (Massachusetts Agricultural College 1910),
' Assistant Professor of Landscape Extension.

HARRY P. BROWN, B. A. 1909, A. M. 1910, Ph. D. (Cornell

University 1914),
Assistant Professor of Forest Botany.

SHIRLEY W. ALLEN, B. S. A. (Iowa State College 1909),
Assistant Professor of Forest Extension.

LAURIE D. COX, A. B. (Arcadia College 1903) ; B. S. L. A. (Harvard

University 1908),
Assistant Professor of Landscape Engineering.

RUSSELL TAYLOR GHEEN, B. S. F. (Pennsylvania State College
1912); M. F. (The New York State College of Forestry 1914),

Instructor in Forest Extension.

HENRY HARRINGTON TRYON, A. B., M. F. (Harvard Univ. 1913),
Instructor in Forest Utilization.

MILDRED E. WOOD, B. L. E. (Syracuse University 1914),
Librarian.

LILLIAN M. LANG,
Secretary to the Dean.

WALTER W. CHIPMAN, B. S. (Wabash College 1893),
Cashier.

Faculty. 9

Members of University Faculty, Outsids of College of Forestry,
Giving Instruction to Students in Forestry.

FRAXKLIX JAMES HOLZWARTH. Ph. D. (Syracuse University),
Professor of German.

KKXKST NOBLE PATTEE. M. S. (University of Rochester),
Professor of Chemistry.

THOMAS CRAMER HOPKINS, Ph. D. (University of Chicago),
Professor Geology.

FREDERICK W. ROMAN, Ph. D. (University of Berlin),
Professor of Economics.

WARREN GARDNER BULLARD, Ph. D. (Clark University),
Professor of Mathematics.

CHARLES HEXRY RICHARDSON, Ph. D. (Dartmouth College),
Professor of Mineralogy.

CHARLES JULIUS KULLMER. Ph. D. (University of Tubingen),
Professor of German.

MORGAN RICH SAXFORD. M. S. (Syracuse University),
Lecturer on Meteorolgy and Climatology.

WILLIAM CHARLES LOWE, Ph. M. (Syracuse University),
Professor of German.

DAYID L. DUXLAP. D. Sc., M. D. (University of Michigan),
Professor of Physical Instruction and of Hygiene.

FREDERICK WILLIAM REYELS, B. Ar. (Syracuse University),
Professor of Architecture.

PAUL COOK NUGENT, A. M.. C. E. (Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst.),
Professor of Cm/ Engineering.

ADOLPH CHARLES BAEBEXROTH. A. M. (Harvard University),
Professor of English.

JULIAN CHASE SMALL-WOOD, M. E. (Columbia University),
Associate Professor of Experimental Engineering.

HERBERT A. CLARK. Ph. D. (Columbia University),
Associate Professor of Physics.

FLOYD FISKE DECKER, Ph. D. (Syracuse University),
Assistant Professor of Mathematics.

10 College of Forestry.

WILLIAM JOHN GORSE, A. M. (Syracuse University),
Assistant Professor of German.

CHARLES RUGLAS HOOVER, A. M. (Haverford College),
Assistant Professor of Chemistry.

SAMUEL D. SARASON, Ph. B. (Yale University),
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering.

J. HERMAN WHARTON, A. M. (Syracuse University),
Assistant Professor of English.

HENRY F. A. MEIER, A. B. (University of Indiana),
Instructor in Botany.

ARTHUR E. BRAINERD, B. S., M. S. (Syracuse University),
Instructor in Geology.

HARRY ELMER BARNES, A. B., A. M. (Syracuse University),
Instructor in Economics.

RAYMOND T. BIRGE, A. M. (University of Wisconsin),
Instructor in Physics.

HAROLD DOUGLAS BUELL, B. S. (Colgate College),
Instructor in Chemistry.

HARRY J. CARMAN, A. M. (Syracuse University),
Instructor in Economics.

SUGGESTIONS FOR PROPER PROCEDURE IN
SYSTEMATIC STREET TREE PLANTING FOR
TOWNS AND CITIES OF NEW YORK.

Introduction.

Every year there are being planted along the streets of
the towns and cities of Xew York vast numbers of shade
trees. With few exceptions this work is being done through
individual interest and efforts. Individuals who plant
street trees do so as a rule both to increase the attractiveness
of the community in which they live and to make their own
property more attractive and consequently more valuable.
People are usually anxious to plant the right kind of trees
that will have permanent value. To guide the people of
Xew York who wish to plant, in the important steps of tree
planting, is the object of this bulletin. It is designed to
encourage and assist by practical suggestions all who are
interested ; the property owner who desires to plant one tree
or more, or an organization that takes up street planting
along extensive lines. It is hoped that there can be found
in this bulletin information that will enable the planter in
every case to select a specific variety for a special purpose,
to plant that particular sort of tree successfully and withal
to bring about an improvement in shade tree conditions in
every community of the Empire State.

Shade tree commissions with trained aboriculturists for
the executive officers are being appointed in some of the
cities of the State to control the planting as well as the
preservation of shade trees in parks, playgrounds and along
public streets. In this respect, however, New York State
has been backward compared with some of the other states
such as Massachusetts, ^"ew Jersey, and Pennsylvania. In

(13)

14 College of Forestry.

all of these states there are laws which have heen broad
enough to have encouraged the establishment of public shade
tree departments in towns and cities. It is hoped that this
bulletin will be found useful by all who have control of
public shade trees in the towns and cities of !N"ew York
State, whether it is the superintendent of streets, the com-
missioner of public works, the superintendent of parks, or
the shade tree commission.

THE POSSIBILITIES OF SYSTEMATIC STREET
TREE PLANTING.

Area Available for Tree Growth.

The problem of the development of streets in a munici-
pality in such manner as to accommodate traffic has com-
manded the attention of public officials ever since towns,
villages and cities have been built. In fact, civilization is
largely a matter of improved highways.

In solving this great problem of highway development
from 15 per cent, to 40 per cent, of the entire area of the
improved portion of a city has been dedicated to public use
in the form of streets. It is estimated conservatively that
within the cities of the State there are 20,000 miles of
streets capable of sustaining a growth of 5,000,000 shade
trees. The construction of thoroughfares for purely utili-
tarian purposes has been provided for usually in a very
efficient manner. Pavement, curbs, sidewalks, drainage and
street lighting have been considered carefully and expendi-
tures for their provision have been made liberally, but the
planting of shade trees along streets and roadways is a form
of improvement that, while it is of incalculable value, has
received comparatively little attention from a municipal
standpoint. The result is that this great area of public
highways in New York has been planted in a haphazard
manner.

SHADE TREES ON EASTERN PARKWAY, BROOKLYN, N. Y.
On wide parkways and boulevards where there are special sections de-
voted to various kinds of traffic, it is possible to use rows of different species
of shade trees. In this case the trees in each row have been spaced uni-
formly with sufficient distance to develop normally.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

A WIDE PLANTING STRIP BETWEEN CURBING AND SIDEWALK.
In towns and villages the width between property lines should be great
enough to allow ample room for the future widening of the roadway with-
out seriously encroaching on the tree planting area. These wide lawn
strips give a decidedly spacious effect to towns and villages. When the
bilildings are located at considerable distance back of the property line,
the trees should be planted three feet from the sidewalk toward the curb.

10 College of Forestry.

Public Control of Street Planting is Necessary for Best

Results.

Individual choice and effort will differ so widely that no
effective, well-balanced improvement can be secured without
the application of a standard in street tree planting which
will direct and control the choice and effort of every indi-
vidual. Some states, notably those of New Jersey and
Massachusetts, have enacted laws that provide for the estab-
lishment of shade tree commissions in towns and cities and
very commendable results in tree planting have resulted. It
is only a question of time when similar commissions will be
demanded for this sort of public improvement in New York
State.

AVERAGE CONDITION OF STREET TREES IN
TOWNS AND CITIES.

The oldest trees along the streets in many of the cities of
the State were planted when these cities were much smaller
than at the present time and when the conditions were not
so adverse for the growth of trees. With the increase in
size of the cities pavements have gradually encroached on
the open areas around the bases of street trees. Enlarged
street traffic has imposed on city shade trees the burden of a
struggle for existence under conditions much less favorable
for growth than those under which they grew formerly.
The natural results are that many fine old shade trees are
weakening with great rapidity and it is not uncommon to
see the removal of large numbers of trees from the streets
each year with no efforts made to replace them.

Many of the smaller cities which have grown gradually
from villages present a condition of street development that
is fully as adverse for tree growth as that of the larger
municipalities, consequently the quality of street trees in
these places may not be of very high order. In many places
trees were planted along the streets before sidewalks were
paved; usually before the location of the walks had been
determined definitely. In the enthusiasm for immediate

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 17

results the future size of the trees has been overlooked, and
where the distance in spacing should have been 25 feet to 40
feet, it has been usually from 8 feet to 15 feet Sugar
maple saplings being so abundant in the woodlots surround-
ing the villages, the natural procedure has been to bring in
from the woods this variety of tree for planting along the
streets. A surprisingly large proportion of cities, towns and
villages of the State have sugar maples to fully 90 per cent,
of the entire number of street trees. The other 10 per cent,
is made up of miscellaneous species depending on the special
attachment of the planter for some particular kind of tree.
It is unfortunate that the sugar maple along streets does not
prosper and survive for as many years as in the sugar bush
and in the forest.

Silver Maples Have Proven Undesirable for Street Planting.

In many towns and cities there are large quantities of
soft maple varieties. These trees have been planted because
of their rapid growth and their wide adaptiveness to soil
conditions. Aside from the straggly habit of growth which
this kind of maple makes, it litters the streets with broken
branches whenever there is a windstorm. It has many
other objectionable qualities. There are thousands of maple
trees in Xew York that will need to be replaced by other
varieties if the streets of the towns and cities are to be as
well shaded in the future as they have been in the past.

The American Elm Has Many Dangerous Insect Enemies.

The American Elm has been a favorite for street use in
the State, Without doubt this is the ideal American shade
tree. However, the fact that, there are many insect and
fungus enemies of the elm puts it into a class of trees that
should be planted with full consideration of the risk involved
in its general cultivation. It is only a question of time
before the insect pests that have for years preyed on elm
trees in Xew England will invade many parts of New York
State. Already -many towns and cities in the State are
spraying annually in order to save the elms. But even after

SILVER MAPLES ARE QUICK GROWING BUT OTHERWISE ARE UNDESIRABLE

FOR STREET PLANTING.

The straggly habit of growth of the silver maple illustrated here is only
one of the objectionable qualities of the tree. The brittle character of the
wood tends to make the tree untidy, since it is constantly broken by wind-
storms. Boring insects prey upon the silver maple and it is subject to
serious injury by scale insects. Itdoes not deserve the favor that has been
shown it for street planting.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

TYPICAL CONDITION OF CITY STREET TREES IN NEW YORK.
This illustration shows the results that follow tree planting along city
^streets when it is done through individual efforts. The trees have been
placed from ten to fifteen feet apart where there should have been at least
thirty feet between the trees; the selection of species has not been uniform
but a variety of quick growing sorts has been used; the character of growth
of the various trees is widely different; and while the street is well shaded,
it does not present an appearance as attractive as it is possible to have with
fewer trees wisely selected, spaced uniformly, and all trained to grow with
one standard in mind.

NORWAY MAPLES ix NEWBURGH, N. Y., SIXTEEN YEARS AFTER PLANTING.
These Norway Maples were planted in Newburgh by the Public Park
Commission. Throughout the State there is no tree being used so exten-
sively by park commissions for street planting as the Norway Maple. It
is extremely easy to transplant and is reliable in its growth. The uniform
development of these trees, planted by the municipality as a public im-
provement, shows the results that may be obtained through public control
of shade tree planting and preservation.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

YOUNG NORWAY MAPLES IN NEW YORK CITY.

The Norway Maple seems'to have the endurance to withstand the con-
ditions adverse to successful growth in streets such as are found in New
jYork City, where pavements completely cover the soil. With timely at-
tention the -Norway Maple will thrive in surroundings similar to those
shown in the illustration when care is used to prepare the soil preliminary
to planting.

20 College of Forestry.

the expenditure of large sums for the control of insect depre-
dations, New England has suffered a loss that should be
avoided in this State and intelligent planting will go far in
this direction.

Quick Growing Trees are Usually of Short Life.
Quick growing trees such as the Carolina Poplar, Silver
Maple, and Boxelder have been planted too commonly. The
roots of the poplar are rampant in their growth and some-
times go a hundred feet or more to reach moisture. They
will enter sewer and water pipes and in a surprisingly short
time clog them with their fibrous roots. When planted near
sidewalks the roots of the poplar will oftentimes raise the
cement or stone. The Silver Maple and Boxelder are not
so vigorous in their root growth but they do have objection-
able qualities such as a growth of weak wood and a short
life. It has been found that as soon as quick-growing
species attain a desirable size, the trees have made their ulti-
mate growth and will soon decline,

THE NECESSITY FOR PLANTING NEW STREET

TREES.

The value of good shade trees is beyond question. To
provide trees for shade and ornament for the future it is
necessary to plant now the best species along the streets of
the towns and the cities of the State. The constant removal
of street trees which have become weakened by increasingly
abnormal surroundings requires the replanting of these sec-
tions with new varieties that are better adapted to the
changed conditions. The lack of foresight in the past in
the location of trees along streets necessitates the planting
of new specimens spaced with due reference to the propor-
tion of other features in the street if any degree of excellence
in civic art is to be achieved.

An introduction of a larger number of species of trees is
essential both to obtain a variety in the proper landscape
development of the municipality and to prevent the sudden

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

SUGAR MAPLE WITH MANY DEAD BRANCHES.
A surprisingly large proportion of Sugar Maples along
streets in towns and cities exhibit decayed cavities, broken
branches and ugly stubs due to a weakened condition from
growing under circumstances that are not favorable for
normal development. Along village and city streets the
Sugar Maple makes its best growth in twenty-five to
thirty years. Naturally this specie is very beautiful, but
the city street is not conducive to the development of the
beauty of the Sugar Maple. The sugar maple borer and
the cottony maple scale do considerable damage to this
tree. For general street planting the Norway Maple is
superior to the Sugar Maple.

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

NORWAY MAPLE THREE YEARS AFTER PLANTING.
The Norway Maple is by far the best of all maples for
street planting. It is a vigorous tree and grows luxuriantly
with comparatively little attention. After the young tree
has been trained for a few years so that the first branches
appear about ten feet above the ground, it will need very
little additional pruning on account of its open, branching
habit. The crown of the Norway Maple is globular in
shape and the foliage is rather dense. Few insects harm
this specie. The Norway Maple is strongly recommended
f or ,New York State.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 23

loss of enormous quantities of trees through epidemics of
insect attack and fungus disease which are breaking out
from time to time in various sections of the country.

Several Years of Growth are Necessary for Good Sorts of
Trees to Make a Good Display.

Depending upon the variety selected and the existent
growing conditions, from 5 to 15 years are required for the
best sorts of shade trees to develop a size sufficient to be of
noticeable value. Consequently considerable stimulation is
advisable to encourage the planting of street trees early in
the development of streets. Quantities of long-lived
varieties of trees are needed to replace the short-lived,
quick-growing kinds that have been planted very generally
throughout the country. The renewal of plantations is be-
coming necessary in every town and city because street trees
are an unquestioned public asset.

While it is possible to preserve somewhat the life of
decaying street trees by sensible tree repair, it is fully as
good practice to plant new trees especially when the repairs
can bring only temporary results.

THE PROCEDURE FOR SUCCESSFUL RESULTS IN
TREE PLANTING.

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE NORMAL GROWTH OF
STREET TREES.

Trees repay bountifully any amount of intelligent care
exercised at the time of planting in making provisions for
their requirements for growth. No one should expect
healthy and attractive shade trees by simply setting out any
sort of tree into soil just as it is found. In order to insure
a luxuriant growth a street tree must be provided with a
congenial soil condition, favorable surroundings and ade-
quate protection against damage. The soil underneath the
surface of and adjacent to streets is very much different
from that found in gardens and woodlands. The grading
which has been done in establishing useful streets has either

RESIDENTIAL PARKWAY WITH TREES AND SHRUBS.
Ornamental shrubbery in formal shapes and in informal masses may be
used to supplement the shade trees in ornamenting residential parkways.
In this case shrubs of formal shapes and beds of flowering plants have been
planted under the young Norway Maples shown at the right. In the cen-
tral parking strip shown at the left of the illustration masses of flowering
shrubs allowed to grow in their natural forms have been used with success.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

AMERICAN ELMS PLANTED ABOUT FACTORY GROUNDS.
The owner of these factory grounds has shown good business foresight in
planting these fine American elms on his property. With the growth of
the city, it is only a question of short time before these grounds will be
more valuable for residential lots than for factory buildings. The pres-
ence of large trees of a good sort will increase the value of the land and
will attract prospective home builders.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 25

removed or buried the best soil for plant growth. It is
essential to provide good soil before street trees are planted.
Tpoii this provision the success in planting is dependent to
a large extent. Without a good soil in which to develop a
strong root-system, the tree cannot make a growth which will
enable it to withstand successfully the many attacks of
fungus disease and insect enemies to which it may be sub-
jected during its life. When the soil where the tree is to be
located is sterile or impoverished, fertile soil should be pro-
vided to replace that which is poor. It is from the soil that
the tree obtains a large part of its food and moisture, and
when these are lacking the tree soon begins to fail, with
resulting death.

There are few sorts of shade trees that thrive in surround-
ings where there is no supply of direct sunlight or where the
atmosphere is filled with coal smoke, dust and noxious gases.
Where the surface of the immediate surroundings is paved,
special provisions must be made that the trees may be
afforded a fair chance to live. When trees are planted in
paved sidewalks, an opening should be made large enough to
admit a good supply of air and moisture. Usually- 3 feet
wide by 6 feet long is sufficient area for this opening. It is
a wonder that so many of our city street trees survive at all.
Many of them have been planted in poor soil ; little attention
has been given after planting; injuries have been inflicted
by many causes and these injuries have seldom been repaired.
The tree planter may assure himself of success by at least
supplying good soil and affording the tree reasonable protec-
tion after planting.

WHEN TO PLANT STREET TREES.

The deciduous shade trees, with the exception of a few
species, may be planted any time when the soil can be worked
after the leaves begin to drop in the autumn and before
growth has greatly progressed in the spring. Many planters
favor spring as, the proper season for setting new trees. It
is the more natural season for planting, as growth starts at
that time and the tree has a growing season before it so that

26 College of Forestry.

it is firmly established before winter sets in. But every sort
of work comes with a rush with the opening of spring and
many times it is necessary to hasten the planting of trees to
such an extent that many details are neglected. During the
past several years there has been a great deal of successful
tree planting during the autumn weeks before the hard freez-
ing of the ground. Trees set at this time of the year usually
become established so as to make a start as soon as spring
opens. It is safe to expect equally good results with most
planting whether it is done in the autumn or in the spring
but it is advisable to take advantage of autumn planting
whenever it is possible to do so.

SELECTING THE KIND OF TREE FOR STREET

USE.

Nature has endowed the earth with so many varieties of
trees useful for shade and ornament that it is possible to
select some variety that will meet the requirements of each
special place and purpose. In a list at the back of this bul-
letin there is a description of many of the best varieties of
trees for street planting. It must be borne in mind that not
all varieties are adapted to city street conditions. Out of
the entire number of shade trees that are desirable for lawn
or park planting, we can select about twenty that are really
useful for street planting. Trees for street use should pos-
sess special qualities :

First: A tree should be selected that in itself is desirable
from the standpoint of general habit of growth. It should
have a root development the nature of which does not injure
sidewalk pavements nor interfere with water-pipes. Its
stem should be straight, clean, and with a bark covering that
is not broken easily by abrasion. The foliage should be of
an attractive color and it should not be dropping continually.
The entire top of the tree should be as free as possible from
litter which it would cast to the ground.

Second : It should be capable of adapting itself readily to
the soil conditions in which it must grow and be as resistant

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

XEWLY PLANTED ORIENTAL SYCAMORES ALONG A STREET IN

I-'AYETTEVILLE, X._Y.

The photograph was made two months after the Sycamores were
planted. This was one of those side streets, such as one will find in
many villages in New York State, where no one seems to have an in-
terest in planting trees. Early in the spring of 1914 the New York
State College of Forestry at Syracuse cooperated with the welfare
Association of Fayetteville in the'carrying out of a successful village
improvement campaign, during which there were planted, as part of
the results, many shade trees along the village streets. These few
Sycamores shown in'- the illustration serve as an example of the im-
provement due to this campaign.

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

CAROLINA POPLARS BORDERING A FACTORY.
Where a special shade tree department is in operation in
a city it is possible to plant a special kind of tree and 'to
afford the proper attention in pruning and protecting so
that trees may be had even near factory districts where
gases and smoke fill the air. In these locations and under
these circumstances the Carolina Poplar is used with suc-
cess. This is one of the special cases where the Poplar
may be selected for street planting.

CAROLINA POPLARS WRONGLY USED.

The Carolina Poplar is a tree of very rapid growth. It is useful only for planting
along county roadsides and on village and city streets as a temporary tree between others
of a more permanent character. The trees shown in the illustration above have been
planted about six years. In about eight years more these trees will have made their
matured growth and will begin to decay with rapidity. Allowed to grow unchecked for
twelve to fifteen years and the tree then removed, the thrifty root system will send up
shoots throughout the surrounding area. This Poplar should not be allowed to remain
even as a temporary shade tree more than eight to ten years.

Photographs by Henry R. FrancL".

CAROLINA POPLARS BORDERING A SMALL PARK IN A CENTRAL SECTION

OF A CITY.

JP By special yearly pruning of the crown of the poplar the vigorous growth of this'tree
may be controlled for use in a very adverse situation such as is found in the central sec-
tions of cities where there are sometimes email squares or parks. While this method of
handling the poplar is rather expensive, it makes possible the presence of shade trees
where few other varieties would withstand the severe conditions. This is a proper us*.-
of the poplar in city planting.

30 College of Forestry. .

as possible to injury by insect attacks, wind-storms, heat and
drought.

Third : It should be a long-lived variety and one that im-
proves rather than deteriorates with age.

Trees Should be Grown in a Nursery Specially for Street

Use.

After the variety of tree to be used has been decided upon,
a specimen of that particular sort should be selected which
presents the following qualities : a stem not less than 2 inches
in diameter, 4 feet from the ground ; a good, compact, fibrous
root-system confined within a comparatively small distance
from the stem; the branches appearing not less than 6 feet
nor more than 8 feet from the ground, and a top-growth or
crown with an even distribution of branches that have been
trained to grow uniformly and with a distinct leader.

It is rarely possible to obtain from the open fields or the
woodlands a. specimen that satisfies the requirements of these
specifications. Young trees that grow without cultivation
usually develop a root-system that reaches far from the stem
of the tree. When the tree is dug from its natural growing
place most of the small feeding roots are severed, thus chang-
ing the physical condition in such manner as to retard
severely the beginning of new growth. In the nurseries
where trees are grown especially for transplanting, the top
growth is trimmed and the roots pruned in such a way that
the trees may be moved without a severe setback.

THE PROPER PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING
STREET TREES.

All preparations should be made in advance if possible so
that the tree may be planted immediately upon its arrival in
its new location. When trees are to be planted in quantity it
is advisable to prepare the soil during the summer in the case
of autumn planting, or during late .autumn in the case of
spring planting. This allows the soil to become thoroughly
settled by the planting time.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 31

Trees for streets should be planted in what is commonly
called a tree-belt. This is the grass area that should be pro-
vided between the curbing or edge of roadway and the out-
side edge of the sidewalk. This strip should be at least 6
feet in width. When this tree-belt is absent and the value
of the presence of shade trees is such as to warrant planting,
good results may be obtained by planting in individual pits
of specially prepared soil.

To prepare the soil for planting in a tree-belt where there
are no trees for a considerable space, the best method is to
plow the ground the same as for a garden crop. Where each
tree is to be placed, the top soil in a circle the diameter of
which is 6 feet should be dug out and laid aside; then the
subsoil should be spaded to a depth of 30 inches below the
surface of the ground. Allow for as perfect drainage as
possible at the bottom of the soil pit. If the subsoil is of
very sterile nature, it should be removed and the top soil
previously taken out should replace it or a part may be
mixed thoroughly with the top soil. In this event there
should be an addition of bone meal, agricultural lime, pul-
verized sheep manure, or some other equally good tree fer-
tilizer, a proportion of from one to two pounds of lime and
about one pound of bone meal to each cubic yard of soil will
be sufficient for most cases. Garden loam of a good quality
should then be used to completely fill the hole.

A Good Soil Condition is the Foundation for Successful
Tree Growth.

Where only one or two trees are to be planted in vacant
spaces, a hole should be dug about 4 feet square and 21/2 feet
deep. As a rule top soil will be found to be good down to a
depth of 12 inches or more and this may be used to fill in
the bottom of the hole after the more sterile soil is removed
and the subsoil at the bottom of the pit loosened as much as
possible. Fertile soil such as garden loam should be pro-
vided for the planting. When the tree is to be planted along
the street where there is no open space between the sidewalk
and curb, an opening should be made in the concrete 3 feet

Photograph by Courtesy of Shade Tree Commission, Newark, N. J.

PLANTING A TREE IN A PAVED SIDEWALK.

A special soil pit with six cubic yards of good garden loam was prepared before the
tree was planted. In selecting the tree, great care was exercised to obtain a tree that
had a compact, fibrous root development, a good, clean, straight stem, and a well
branched, evenly balanced crown. With these "three qualities the tree is certain of
making a specimen shade tree when properly planted and cared for even in this loca-
tion which is not favorable for tree growth.

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

IRON GRATING FOR THE OPEN AREA AT BASE OF TREE.

This shows a good type of iron grating which may bs used at the base octrees when
planted in paved sidewalks. The grating allows traffic over the open area and at^ the
same time protects the roots of the tree by preventing the hard packing of the soil or )
any other injury. The size of the grating should be 3 ft. by 6 ft. with sufficient open-
ing at the center to allow for expansion of the stem of the tree. The fsurface of the
grating should be of the same elevation as the surrounding pavement and the bottom
should be 2 or 3 inches above the surface of the soil.

Street Tree Planting. 33

wide and <» feet long. The soil should be handled the same
as outlined above for the planting of single trees.

All implements and accessories should be provided to finish
planting immediately after setting the tree. Among the
accessories may be mentioned a stake for bracing the young
nve which should be 21/-> inches square by 8 to 10 feet long,
pointed at one end. A chestnut stake is usually selected.
A tree guard should be provided. The most satisfactory kind
has been found to be one made from gauge 16 galvanized
half-inch mesh wire, 6 feet long with a diameter of from
."> indies to 7 inches, depending on the size of the tree planted.
The guard should have a protection collar at the top. Second-
hand garden hose may be used advantageously for this
purpose.

The Top of a Tree Should be Cut Back at the Time of
Transplanting.

To prepare the tree for planting, all the broken and badly
bruised roots should be pruned with a clean cut so that no
ragged scars are exhibited. This aids the tree in healing the
root-scars readily. The top branches should be pruned to
balance the reduced root-system. The tendency in pruning
the top of the young tree at the time of setting is to leave
entirely too many buds for the roots to nourish after their
mutilation in transplanting. Excepting for the time re-
quired for pruning, the roots should not be left uncovered or
exposed to the drying; air. Use wet bagging or wet straw to
prevent the roots from drying before resetting.

THE DISTANCE FOR SPACING STREET TREES.

There is a great tendency on the part of the tree planter
to place trees along a street so close as to prohibit their
normal development and to prevent the sunlight from reach-
ing the ground beneath them. The trees are small at the
time of planting and when spaced from 30 to 60 feet they
appear to be entirely too far apart to produce good shade.
But when trees are spaced liberally and planted in favorable

34 College of Forestry.

soil, a growth of five years will cause the trees to spread over
considerable space and with a few years of additional growth,
they will not appear too far apart. Many planters have
located trees with a spacing of from 10 to 25 feet expecting
to remove every second tree after the growth had produced a
fairly large crown. Invariably the good intentions of the
planter have never been carried out and the trees and the
street have suffered in consequence of the mistake in spacing
at the beginning or from the neglect in removing one-half of
the trees after a fair amount of growth has been made.

Quick Growing Trees May be Planted with Species for
Permanent Use.

A combination of quick growing trees with those to form
the permanent planting may be used, although this method
is not to be recommended. By planting along the walk a
quick-growing variety on the side toward the houses and
alternating these with a permanent variety planted between
the sidewalk and edge of the roadway, a fair amount of shade
may be secured early from the quick-growing trees. After
the permanent trees have grown large enough to furnish
shade, the temporary trees may be removed. The trees used
for immediate results should never be retained more than
seven or eight years.

Trees for permanent planting should be placed not less
than thirty feet apart and some varieties require sixty feet
for normal expansion. The following table may serve as a
guide for the proper distance to space street trees.

Table Showing the Distance for Spacing Street Trees.

SO-S5 feet apart. S5-40 feet apart. 45-60 feet apart.

Norway Maple Pin Oak Oriental Sycamore

European Linden American White Ash American Elm

European Silver Linden Thornless Honey Locust Red Oak

Crimean Linden Sugar Maple Scarlet Oak

Schwedler's Maple ' White Oak

Red Maple Tulip Tree

Maiden Hair Tree
Hackberry
Sweet Gum
Ailanthus

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

THE ORIENTAL SYCAMOBE PLANTED IN A PAVED SURFACE ON A STREET IN

NEW HAVEN, CONN.

The Oriental Sycamore is one of the best species for planting in business
sections of cities. The illustration above shows that the planting and pro-
tection has been done very intelligently. A good specimen of the byca-
more was selected for planting, a durable iron grating has been used for
covering the open area at the base of the tree, an inexpensive but effective
tree guard has been placed around the stem and a strong stake has been at-
tached to the tree to hold it well in place. When planting and protecting
is done as thoroughly as this, there is every reason to expect success in
street tree planting.

36 College of Forestry.

THE CARE OF THE TREE BEFORE PLANTING.

Success in planting depends in no small degree upon the
care given the trees from the time they are taken from the
ground until they are placed in their new home. If the tree
is shipped from a nursery, it should be handled and packed
in such manner as to insure its arrival at its destination
without damage to any parts and especially in the matter of
the drying of its roots. After receiving the tree, great care
should be exercised that the roots are not uncovered even for
a very few minutes. In case the planting cannot be done
soon after receipt it should be planted temporarily near the
proposed location for the tree.

" Heeling In " will Protect the Roots of Trees from Drying.
When a quantity of trees are to be held prior to planting,
a good method is to " heel in." This is done by digging a
trench so that a bank is formed on one side with a slope of
about 30 degrees with the ground. The trees are then placed
as near together as possible with the stems leaning against
the bank. As soon as the trees have been placed, the roots
together with about one foot up on the stems are covered
with the soil taken from the side of the trench opposite the
trees. The soil is well distributed among the roots so that no
air spaces surround them. If necessary, another row of trees
may be placed leaning on the covering of the first and so on
until all the trees have been heeled in. In this manner the
trees may be held in check for a considerable time. It is
always well to dig the trench east and west and lean the trees
toward the north so as to prevent the buds from direct rays
of the sun. If it is necessary to deliver the trees to the plant-
ing location at some distance from the heeling in ground,
this may be done successfully by loading them onto a hay
rack or some similar truck. The roots should be covered on
all sides so that drying is prevented. The packing material
used in shipping from the nursery or old blankets and burlap
may be used for this purpose. The trees should never be
subjected to any conditions that cause the drying of the roots.
This precaution is necessary for success in transplanting.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 37

PLANTING.

In the soil which has been previously prepared a hole
should be dug large enough to receive the roots of the tree
extended in the same positions and the same depth below the
surface of the ground as when growing in the nursery. After
the roots have been spread out in a natural position, loose,
fine soil should be placed over them in thin layers. Each
layer of soil should be compactly distributed among the
fibrous roots before the succeeding layer is applied. After
several layers of soil have been packed, the tree may be
swayed gently and slightly in all directions and carefully
raised and lowered not more than an inch or two. After all
the roots have been covered with two or three inches of soil,
the planter may more firmly pack the soil by the use of a
blunt pointed stick, working the fine earth into the inter-
stices with care not to tear or break the fine fibrous feeders.
The hole should be nearly filled with loose earth which allows
air and moisture to reach the roots readily. Some sort of
material such as leaves, straw, compost, manure or other
litter may be used for the finishing cover which acts as a
mulch and conserves the moisture in the soil below by pre-
venting rapid evaporation. For the sake of appearance, a
light covering of clean sand or loam may be sprinkled over
the surface of the mulch.

Grating, Guard and Stake will Afford Protection for a
Newly Planted Street Tree.

If the tree has been planted in an opening in the sidewalk
pavement, an iron grating should be used for covering the
opening, thus preventing damage by traffic to the base of the
tree. Several kinds of grating for this protection are on the
market. A guard for the trunk should be placed so that no
part of it rubs against the bark. The stake for supporting
the tree and maintaining it in an upright position should be
driven in the ground two or three feet and the top attached
either to the guard or to the stem of the tree. In attaching
the stake directly to the tree, do so in such a manner as to

38 College of Forestry.

avoid injury in the swaying of the tree by the wind. It is
desirable to dip the pointed end of the stake in creosote to
preserve the wood against decay in the soil and to paint the
remainder of the stake with a dull dark green color.

THE CARE OF STREET TREES AFTER PLANTING.

WATERING AND MULCHING.

After a tree has been planted properly the growth is not
assured unless care is given for the first year or two. The
greatest need of the newly planted tree is a well balanced
supply of moisture. This can be maintained by supplying
water artificially and conserving the soil moisture by mulch-
ing. The first principle to observe in watering is to apply
the water gradually and thoroughly enough to allow it to
reach the soil at least 18 inches below the surface. This
gradual watering is more like Nature's way than a heavy
application for a short period which washes the soil away
from the roots near the surface and reaches only deep enough
to allow the sun to bake a hard crust on the surface. Except
in a very severe drought, it is necessary only to water for the
first year and then only occasionally when the moisture is
conserved by mulching.

Where only a few trees are to be watered, an effective
method is to bring a barrel of water near to the base of the
tree and allow the water to run slowly through a small open-
ing near the bottom of the barrel into the soil which has been
loosened by holes made with a sharp-pointed stick or bar.
About 10 gallons of water should be used for each appli-
cation. When trees in quantity are to be watered, it is best
to have a gang of men especially equipped for the work. The
soil should be formed about the base into a shallow basin
into which 10 gallons of water are poured. This should be
allowed to soak into the soil after which the surface about
the tree should be made smooth. The wet soil should be
covered with dry, fine soil or a mulch of leaves or straw.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

TREES ALOXG CITY STREETS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEVERELY INJURED.
The illustration at the left shows the result of the work of decaying agen-
cies that have gained entrance to the interior of the tree through a wound
in the trunk. An attempt has been made to repair this injury by filling
the cavity with concrete, but the filling has nearly all crumbled away and
the tree is in worse shape than before the filling was inserted. The better
method is to protect the trunks of trees from injury by supplying an ade-
quate tree guard in the beginning. The illustration on the right shows an
American Elm that has been killed by injuries which it has received at the
base. Under many circumstances it is possible to provide protection for
the roots by the use of an iron grating.

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Street Tree Planting. 41

the moisture and prevents the surface of the
soil from baking.

Constant cultivation during the first summer is very help-
ful to the tree in establishing a growth in its new location.
The soil should be broken around the base of the tree as far
u> •') i'e:-r fr.im the stem and to a depth of 4 inches. If the
surface lias been mulched, this should be removed before
cultivating and replaced after the soil has been finely
broken up.

Guarding the Tree Against Damage.

Damage to the newly planted tree may be of two classes:
that resulting from mechanical injuries and that from attacks
by insects and fungi. To prevent the tree from the former
is the function of the grating at the base, the guard for the
trunk, and the stake for support. Where the traffic at the
base of the tree is severe, the grating should be provided.
Allow sufficient area at the center of the grate covering for
expansion in girth. The guard protects the bark from.
abrasions which open places where decay may start. The
stake maintains the tree in good alignment until the roots
have taken hold firmly. Where healthy trees have been
planted, it is comparatively easy to control insect attacks.
The most common insect enemies are held in check by spray-
ing. When their presence is noticed, the kind of insect
attacking the tree* should be learned and proper methods to
eliminate the pest should be pursued.

THE CARE OF STREET TREES FOR THE FIRST

YEAR.

It has been said that it requires no more work the first
season to care for a newly planted shade tree than to grow a
bill of corn; and it might be added that the first growing
>n is the critical one. In transplanting, the tree has
been severely disturbed in its growth, no matter how care-
fully the work has been done. The first thing that the tree
must do is to become established in its new location. After
this has been done, growth will advance rapidly. If the tree

42 College of Forestry.

has been pruned properly at the planting time, there will be
no need of additional care in this matter except the removal
of the branches of the crown of the tree that fail to grow.
The watering and mulching as outlined under that topic, will
supply sufficient moisture for the best growth of the tree.
The stake should be tested occasionally to see that it has not
been broken or become loosened. The tree guard should be
kept repaired and should be replaced in case it has been badly
damaged. If any scars or small wounds have been made,
they should be painted with a good white lead paint or a
special tree paint. Insects and fungi should be constantly
watched for. The time to suppress their work is when they
first make attacks on the tree.

In the late autumn or early winter the soil at the base of
the tree should be prepared for winter by providing a pro-
tective mulching. For this purpose good use can be made
of autumn leaves, straw, shavings, well rotted manure or
soil. A mulch from five to eight inches deep and placed at
the base of the tree as far as the roots have extended, will
afford desirable protection during the winter. If the ma-
terial used for the mulch has fertilizing qualities, this will
prove beneficial to the tree the following growing season.

THE FUTURE CARE OF STREET TREES.

The general poor condition of shade trees found in towns
and cities throughout the State shows the result of neglect in
almost every case. Timely care is less expensive and other-
wise much more effective than spasmodic attention to
neglected injuries. To outline methods to care for trees
would entail a lengthy discussion. It is the purpose here
only to call attention to some of the features of proper care
and to urge constant protection so that serious conditions will
not be often encountered. Some of the most common needs
for care are in matters of pruning and trimming, protection
from damage by overhead wires, the repairing of damage,
fertilizing, spraying and controlling diseases, and the re-
planting in places where the trees have failed to make a satis-
factory growth.

Photograph by Henry R. Francis.

THE TOP OF AN ELM BADLY DISFIGURED TO MAKE ROOM FOR

OVERHEAD WIRES.

One of the great problems in towns and cities is presence of poles, cables
and wires in the same space as that required for the branches of street
trees. In planting, the trees should be located so that as little interference
as possible will follow. When wires are placed either under or through the
branches of trees some method should be devised so that the crown of the
tree will not be mutilated. If it is ever necessary to trim the crown of a
tree to make room for overhead wires the work should be done with the
minimum damage to the tree.

44 College of Forestry.

GOOD SPECIES FOR STREET PLANTING.

The selection of a specie for street planting must be guided
by a few fundamental considerations of such qualities as
hardiness, adaptiveness to soil conditions, ornamental and
shading value, immunity from attacks of insect pests and
tree diseases, general habits of growth, and length of life.
These points will be borne out in the discussion of each
species given. The list is conservative although not ex-
tremely so. The best results will follow adherence to the list
in making selections for street planting.

1. ORIENTAL SYCAMORE (Platanus orientalis).

While the Oriental Sycamore is not so hardy as the native
Sycamore, it is, however, perfectly hardy in the southern
part of the State. In the northern part where it is killed
back slightly in winter, it has been used with success on
account of its rapid growth, which makes up for the loss
from winter killing. The Plane-tree, as it is sometimes
called, is quite adaptive to a wide range of soils and is one
of the few trees that succeeds when planted in an opening
made in paved sidewalks. It makes the most luxuriant
growth in sandy loam soil. The sturdy, bold appearance of
the tree, the greyish white color of the bark, and the pendu-
lous, ball-shape fruit make the tree very imposing in winter.
The coarse texture of the foliage is quite distinctive in sum-
mer when it affords ample shade. It is not attacked seriously
by insects and not subject to the fungus disease that com-
monly injures the foliage of the native Sycamore. The
Oriental Sycamore is a large, broad spreading tree although
quite compact in its habit of branching. It is especially
suitable for planting on wide streets and avenues. However
it may be used on any width of street by proper pruning,
which it withstands without injury. This is one of the few
trees that combines rapid growth with a long life. The ease
with which this tree may be transplanted and its ability to
grow rapidly under many adverse conditions makes it one
of the best for street planting.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 45

'2. X OR WAY MAPLE (Acer platanoides) .

The Xorway Maple is by far the best of all maples for
street planting. Its hardiness is assured. The wide adapt-
iveness to any soil and situation has brought it into favor
with street tree planters throughout the State. The foliage
is a dark green, giving a rich appearance to the tree through-
out the summer. The foliage is quite dense and it remains
on the tree long after the leaves have fallen from the other
maples. The globular shape of the head and the compact
habit of branching obviate the necessity for pruning after
the tree has been trained in its first few years of growth. It
is sometimes difficult to secure young stock of Xorway Maple
that has a perfectly straight stem. It seems to be a char-
acteristic of the tree to grow the least bit crooked for the
first part of its life. This characteristic soon disappears and
the tree develops into an attractive specimen. With the
exception of a few insect enemies, this tree can be said to
be perfect in its freedom from pests and diseases. The few
insects that prey upon the Xorway Maple do not cause much
harm. This tree is of medium size and makes more of a
wide spreading tree than one with considerable height like
the Sugar Maple. The foliage resembles that of the Syca-
more. The length of the season for bearing foliage is longer
for the Xorway Maple than for any other variety of maple.
In the autumn the leaves turn a bright yellow immediately
before falling. The branches are tough and the tree usually
has a long life. The Xorway Maple is strongly recommended
for Xew York State.

3. AMERICAN ELM (Ulmus americana) .

The elm is extremelv hardy. It adapts itself to a great
variety of soils although it prefers a rich, moist soil such as
is found in meadows and along the banks of streams. Some
of the most beautiful specimens of the American Elm are
found in pastures and swamps. The Connecticut Valley is
renowned for its excellent elm trees. There is no tree that
approaches the ideal so nearly as does the American Elm.
Its habit of branching high, its wide spreading crown, and

46 College of Forestry.

the beauty of its general form, give it in all these points the
first place for street planting. But the elm is subject to
serious injury from many insects such as the Leopard Moth,
Elm Leaf Beetle, Elm Bark Louse, Tussock Moth and others.
Where roots of the elm can penetrate readily through soil
that is under lawn areas it may be planted with success near
pavements and sidewalks. But it is not good practice to
plant elms too extensively in any of our cities. The cost of
yearly spraying to preserve them will be great if towns and
cities have elms for a large proportion of the street trees.
The elm is better suited for towns and villages than for the
cities. It is not uncommon to find American Elms that have
grown as shade trees for 200 years or more. However, many
of the grand old specimens are being removed on account of
death due to the work of insects.

4. EUROPEAN LINDEN (Tilia vulgaris).

The European Linden is a hardy, moisture^loving tree
but like the elm it will grow in a variety of soils. The
Lime Tree, as it is sometimes called, is a good symmetrical
tree quite formal in its outline, and produces a fairly dense
shade. Unfortunately this tree is not free from diseases or
the attacks of insect pests. Nevertheless it is a fairly good
city street tree and where it can have good soil, it should be
more generally planted. The blossoms of the tree are
fragrant and showy and are followed by persistent small
nut-like fruits. The linden grows rapidly in a good, moist
soil. Where these conditions for growth are present, the
linden will reach a verv old age.

6. CRIMEAN LINDEN (Tilia dasysiyla).

Of all the lindens the Crimean variety is the best for street
planting. It is extremely hardy and will grow in any soil
that is at all favorable for plant life. The Crimean Linden
is a very ornamental tree and one that supplies a good
quality of shade. The leaves of this tree are thick and
leathery and they seem to withstand the dust from streets
and roadways although the foliage is subject to the attacks
of the same insects and the blight that preys on the other

Systematic Street Tree Planting. -±7

lindens. . None of these, however, are serious troubles. The
Crimean Linden has attractive yellowish twigs and presents
a picturesque and striking appearance.

7. PIN OAK (Quercus palustris).

An excellent hardy tree with tough sturdy branches is the
Pin Oak. It prefers a moist soil in which it will thrive and
produce a luxuriant growth. But it will make a satisfactory
tree in drier soils such as are found in the residential sec-
tions of many cities and the streets of villages and towns.
This tree is highly valuable as an ornamental shade tree. It
is not troubled to any extent by pests. The Pin Oak is an
attractive tree. When young it is very regular in its branch-
ing habit, producing a straight, distinct, main stem from
which the branches grow almost at right angles. Some very
old Pin Oaks may be seen in some of the European cities.
On several streets in Washington, D. C., the Pin Oak has
been grown very successfully and the success in general that
has followed the planting of this sort of street tree in other
cities is a strong inducement for planting it more generally.

8. RED OAK (Quercus rubra).

Like all of the other native oaks, the Red Oak is abso-
lutely hardy. Probably this oak is the best for general street
planting. It grows fast, makes a beautiful tree and is not
exacting as to the kind of soil in which it shall be planted.
In the autumn the foliage of the Red Oak rivals in bril-
liancy that of the Sugar Maple. But the Red Oak does not
wait until the autumn before it makes an attractive showing.
All through the summer the rich, dark green, leathery foliage
gives a fresh appearance and a healthy glow to this tree
which few others possess. The shade furnished by the oak
is always mellow and pleasing. The Red Oak is compara-
tively free from insect enemies. The general habits of growth
of the oak are such as to make it desirable for street plant-
ing. It increases in girth of trunk as rapidly as the Sugar
Maple and it will spread over more space in equal time. It
makes a clean, strong, durable tree and one that requires very
little attention while affording shade and beauty for many
vears.

A SPARSELY PLANTED CITY STREET.

Every city has one or more streets similar to the above where the pres-
ence of shade trees would add materially to the appearance of the streets
on which they are planted as well as to the attractiveness of the entire city.
Usually as no one takes vital interest in planting trees along these streets,
the work should be taken up by the city.

A WELL-PAVED STREET WITH PLANTING STRIPS ON BOTH SIDES BUT WITH

VERY FEW TREES.

Cities in the State appropriate millions of dollars for street pavements
and with few exceptions nothing for street planting. However, there is
nothing that adds so much, at so little expense, as the planting of street
trees.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

PROPER SOIL PREPARATION PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING.
In planting trees along city streets where poor soil conditions are found,
it is necessary to provide special soil preparation in order to insure success-
ful results after planting. A pit like that shown above should be not less
than three feet wide, five feet long and two and one-half feet deep. En-
riched garden loam should replace the sterile soil in this pit.

Systematic Street Tree Planting. 49

9. SCARLET OAK (Quercus coccinea).

The Scarlet Oak, although hardy, has not been so exten-
sively used as either the Pin Oak or the Red Oak. Perhaps
this is because it requires rather a dry, well-drained soil. It
may be that fewer scarlet oaks are used for street trees be-
cause it has not been generally offered by nurseries. The
Scarlet Oak is not as attractive as the other two oaks during
the summer months but in the autumn it surpasses either
with its majestic coloring. It is long-lived, free from serious
pests and should be more commonly planted.

10. WHITE OAK (Quercus alba).

The White Oak is a noble, rugged, impressive tree. In
the fields and the forest it develops grand proportions, but
as a street tree it is not so desirable as the other oaks con-
sidered. It will grow fairly well in any soil, but good loam
furnishes the best condition for its successful growth, which,
at its best, is rather slow. The White Oak retains a large
proportion of its dead leaves during the winter. This is
considered objectionable by many lovers of trees. Insects
or tree diseases do not bother the White Oak to any great
extent.

11. AMERICAN WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana).

The White Ash is the best of our native ash trees for street
planting. It forms a shallow root-system and makes the
be>t growth in low, moist soils. The ash makes a pleasing
tree with its compound leaves which do not appear too early
in the springtime to exclude the sunlight from the soil. Few
insects cause damage to the ash. It develops into a tall tree
with a pyramidal top with glossy light green leaves.

12. RED MAPLE (Acer rubrum).

The Red Maple makes a much more rapid growth than
the Xorway Maple and the Sugar Maple and produces a
softer wood. But it is not so easily injured by windstorms
as the Silver or White Maple to which it is superior for
street planting. It is a hardy tree and grows well in a rich,
moist soil. In other situations it does not make a very satis-
factory growth. The Red Maple is exceptionally attractive

50 College of Forestry.

in early springtime when the clusters of buds burst into red
blossoms. During the summer the bright green foliage
makes a pleasing appearance but in early autumn the tree
is fairly ablaze with its scarlet and orange foliage. In favor-
able soils the tree makes a luxuriant growth and produces a
dense covering of foliage. The Eed Maple is fairly free
from insect attack. The adverse conditions for tree growth
found along most streets and roadways are such as to pro-
hibit as long life for the Red Maple under these conditions
as in meadows and along streams where many fine old trees
may be found.

13. GINGKO (Gingfco biloba).

This interesting tree, sometimes called the Maidenhair
Tree, is in a way an ideal shade tree. In many parts of New
York fairly large specimens may be found. Washington has
a fine avenue of them. Although the Gingko grows slowly
in any kind of soil, the rate of growth does not seem to be
decreased materially by poor soil. This tree when pruned
properly and grown well, makes a very ornamental shade
tree. It does not cast as dense shade as many other trees
until it reaches very large size. The Gingko is absolutely
free from insect attack and tree disease. The general tend-
ency of the tree is to form a rather pyramidal head and with
a few branches that shoot out from the 'main contour of the
tree. The Gingko responds well to intelligent pruning and
any desirable shape may be formed by training. The
Gingko is a very long-lived tree and should be used more
commonly.

14. HACKBERBY (Celtis' occidentals).

The Hackberry is a native tree that will grow well in
almost any soil in the State. The foliage of this tree re-
sembles that of the elm. It is a rather sightly tree, produces
good shade, and is free from very serious diseases. The
tree is often used in the middle west in preference to the elm.
It produces a straight main stem that branches high above
the ground. The Hackberry, with its interesting warty
bark, grows slowly but is vigorous and long-lived.

PIN OAKS. SUGAR MAPLE.

The Pin Oaks at the left show the winter characteristics of the tree. This oak
develops a distinct main stem from which the limbs come out almost at right angles.
This tend> to give the tree a picturesque appearance and one which is rather inter-
esting during the winter months. These trees have been planted about 20 years.

The Sugar Maple shown at the right gives a good idea of the vigor with which this
tree grows when it is found in natural surroundings. Evidently this specimen was
growing for many years among other trees which caused the formal shape which it
now presents. For street planting the Sugar Maple should be used sparingly.

Photographs by Henry R. Francis.

EUROPEAN LIXDEXS ABOUT FIFTEEN YEARS OLD.

Thi.s Linden (Tilia vulgaris), the European form, is somewhat more
desirable for roadside planting than our native linden or Basswood. The
general character of growth is much finer than that of the native tree. Its
adaptability to a wide range of soil conditions and its comparative freedom
from insect attacks combined, with its extreme hardiness, make it one of
the best kinds of trees for country roadsides, village and city streets.

52 College of Forestry.

15. TULIP TREE (Liriodendron tulip f era).

This tree, often called Whitewood, is one of the most mag-
nificent of our large native shade trees. Where there is a
good, deep, rich soil and plenty of space along parkways and
avenues, the Tulip Tree will make an excellent growth. At
maturity it is a splendid tree with large, odd-shaped, glossy
foliage and flowers which have high decorative value. But
the Tulip Tree is quite subject to scale and other insects that
cause the leaves to fall continually during the growing
season. In the springtime the opening of the leaves is fol-
lowed by the development of large tulip-shaped flowers that
are greenish yellow in color. The Tulip Tree is transplanted
with difficulty except when special care is exercised in grow-
ing and transplanting. Rather small trees can be moved
with safety, but large specimens require special methods of
handling. This is one of the best of the magnolias for plant-
ing in the north.

16. THOR^LESS HOXEY LOCUST (Gledifschia triacanthos
inermis) .

The Honey Locust is a vigorous, hardy tree that resists
smoke and gas well. It adapts itself to a wide variety of
soils and is especially suitable for planting in sandy soils
where few other trees will grow. It is quite free from
insects that attack the other locust trees. The Thornless
Honey Locust is somewhat slender and open in its habit of
growth and has a fine, delicate foliage and attractive flowers.
It requires full sunlight for proper development.

17. SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharum) .

The Sugar Maple is a valuable tree for planting in right
soils. Unfortunately it does not succeed in city streets. It
endures cold weather without injury but poor soil and dust
and smoke usually found along streets does not furnish the
Sugar Maple favorable conditions in which to make a
luxuriant growth. Naturally this tree is very beautiful but
the city street is not conducive to the development of the
beauty of the Sugar Maple. The sugar maple borer and the
cottony maple scale are responsible for considerable injury

§ 4emut'n: Street Tree Planting.

to this tree. Along village and city streets the Sugar Maple
makes its best growth in twenty-five to thirty years.

SWEET GUM i Liquidambar styratiflua).

The Sweet Gum is a beautiful tree at all seasons of the
year. It can be found growing naturally in the southern sec-
tion of Xew York State. It makes the best growth in a moist,
rich soil. The Sweet Gum is a very symmetrical tree. Its
foliage is massive and is composed of star-shaped lustrous
leaves which vary from brilliant red to yellow after the first
sin the autumn. In winter the tree is covered with odd,
pendulous seed-balls that add much to the attractiveness of
the tree. The Sweet Gum is comparatively free from insects
and fungus attacks. Care must be used in transplanting and
-I'l-iiigtime is most favorable for this work.

19. AILAXTHUS (Ailanthus glandulosa).

The Tree of Heaven, as the Ailanthus is sometimes called,
D extremely vigorous tree. Its greatest value lies in its
ability to thrive in the most adverse conditions for tree
th. Barren soil, dust-laden and smoke-filled air, paved
surroundings and other unfavorable conditions do not cause
the Ailanthus to perish as almost every other tree would cer-
tainly do under adverse conditions. When young the
Ailanthus is attractive and shapely. However, it becomes
straggly with age and cannot be considered for permanent
-hade. The trees bearing male flowers have a disagreeable
odor at the time of blossoming. There are many who object
to this feature of the tree and they should plant only the
-taminate or infertile form. The foliage of the Ailanthus
is of very coarse texture and presents a tropical effect. Dur-
ing the winter the bare branches are rather scraggly in
appearance. Where one feels that it would be impossible to
have a street tree on account of adverse conditions for growth,
the Ailanthus should be planted and with little care in train-
ing a fair shade tree may be secured.

. KENTUCKY COFFEE-TREE (Gymitocladus dioica).
The Kentucky Coffee-Tree is a beautiful, hardy, orna-
mental shade tree. It is very desirable for planting in rich.

5-i College of Forestry:

moist soil where it will make a picturesque growth. Its
doubly compound leaf adds greatly to its attractiveness. It
should be planted only under most favorable soil conditions.

SOME OBJECTIONABLE SPECIES THAT SHOULD
BE AVOIDED FOR STREET PLANTING.

1. SILVER MAPLE (Acer saccharinum) .

The Silver Maple is a rapid growing shade tree that pro-
duces weak branches, easily broken by storms and injured
seriously by insects and fungi. It does not deserve the favor
that has been given it in the past.

2. Box ELDER (Acer negundo.)

The Box Elder is a medium sized, rapidly growing tree.
It thrives well in rich soils but is short-lived on poor soils.
It is a scraggly tree and is badly infested by insects. It
should never be planted along streets.

3. SYCAMORE MAPLE (Acer pseudoplatanus) .

The Sycamore Maple is similar to the Norway Maple in
general habit of growth but it is very inferior to the Norway
Maple for street planting.

4. HORSE CHESTNUT (Aesculus hippo castanum) .

The Horse Chestnut is beautiful in spring and early sum-
mer but it soon becomes a very untidy tree and one that is
not desirable for street decoration. It is a coarse, stiff tree,
attacked by insects and fungi and soon becomes so weakened
as to prove a source of danger to the public.

5. HARDY CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa).

The Hardy Catalpa is a moderate sized tree that has
ungainly branches and produces foliage and fruit that con-
stantly fall to the ground. It has no deserving place among
trees for street planting.

6. CAROLINA POPLAR (Populus deltoides).

The Carolina Poplar is a very rapid grower. It is useful
as a temporary shade tree and under special handling can be
used where few other trees would grow. But it should be

Photograph by Henry R. Francis

THE PIN OAK USED FOR STREET PLANTING.

The three best oaks for shade tree purposes are the Pin Oak, the Red
Oak and the Scarlet Oak. All are comparatively free from insect attacks.
The Pin Oak will thrive best in a moist soil, although it grows well in dry
situations. The Red Oak is probably the best of all oaks for general street
planting. It grows the fastest and is not exacting as to the kind of soil in
which it shall be planted. The Scarlet Oak, although perfectly hardy and
otherwise desirable has not been used so extensively as either the Pin Oak
or the Red Oak. All of these three oaks are beautiful and have a strong,
durable wood. During the autumn the oaks rival in brilliancy of color the
hard maples The oaks should be more generally planted.

56 College of Forestry.

used only in rare cases and then with great restraint. For
general planting its objectionable features far outweigh its
desirable qualities.

TREES RECOMMENDED FOR SEVERE STREET
CONDITIONS.

Oriental Sycamore Scarlet Oak

Norway Maple Gingko

Ailanthus Crimean Linden

Red Oak Thornless Honey Locust

ADDITIONAL SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR
FAVORABLE CONDITIONS.

American Elm Tulip Tree

European Linden Sugar Maple

Pin Oak Sweet Gum

White Oak White Ash

Red Maple Kentucky Coffee-tree

Hackberry

STREET TREES VERY OBJECTIONABLE FOR
GENERAL USE.

Carolina Poplar Catalpa

Silver Maple Box Elder

Horse Chestnut Black Locust

American Linden Sycamore Maple

These species may be useful under special circumstances.

— r

Series XIV. May, 1914. Number 2 (b).

BULLETIN

OF

The New York State College of Forestry

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY.

RURAL AND CITY SHADE TREE
IMPROVEMENT.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERVICE IN FORESTRY

BY

THE STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY.

Published Quarterly by the
University.

Entered at the Postofflce at Syracuse as second-class matter.

TRUSTEES

OF

THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY.

Ex OFFICIO.

Dr. JAMES R. DAY, Chancellor, Syracuse University.

Dr. JOHN HUSTON FINLEY, Commissioner of Edu-
cation . . . . Albany, N. Y.

Hon. GEORGE E. VAN KEN NAN, Chairman, Con-
servation Commission Ogdensburg, N. Y.

Senator ROBERT F. WAGNER 51 Chambers St., New York City.

APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR.

Hon. CHARLES ANDREWS Syracuse, N. Y.

Mr. ALEXANDER T. BROWN Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. JOHN R. CLANCY Syracuse, N. Y.

Mr. HAROLD D. CORNWALL Lowville, N. Y.

Hon. GEORGE W. DRISCOLL Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. FRANCIS HENDRICKS Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. HENDRICK S. HOLDEN Syracuse, N. Y.

Hon. Louis MARSHALL New York City.

Mr. EDWARD H. O'HARA Syracuse, N. Y.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

President Hon. Louis MARSHALL.

V ice-President Hon. JOHN R. CLANCY.

Treasurer Hon. HENDRICK S. HOLDEN.

FACULTY

OF

THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY.

JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL.D.,

Chancellor of the University.
HUGH POTTER BAKER, M. F. (Yale 1904); D. Oec. (Munich

1910) DEAN; Professor of Silviculture.
FRANK F. MOON, B. A. (Amherst College 1901) ; M. F. (Yale 1909),

Professor of Forest Engineering.
MAULSBY WILLETT BLACKMAN, A. B. (Univ. of Kansas 1901) ;

Ph. D. (Harvard Univ. 1905),

Associate Professor of Forest Entomology.

EDWARD F. MCCARTHY, B. S. (Univ. of Michigan 1911); M. F.

(Univ. of Michigan 1911),

Assistant Professor of Forest Products.

JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A. (Univ. of Michigan) ; M. F.

(Univ. of Michigan 1907),

Assistant Professor of Silviculture.

NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B. A. (Yale 1906); M. F.

(Yale 1908),

Assistant Professor of Forest Utilisation.
REUBEN PARKER PRICHARD, B. S. (Dartmouth 1907) ; M. F.

(Yale 1909),

Assistant Professor of Forestry.
W. A. McDONALD, B. S. F. (Michigan Agricultural College 1913),

Instructor in Forestry.

RUSSELL TAYLOR GHEEN, B. S. F. (Penn State 1912),
Instructor in Forestry.

HENRY RUSSELL FRANCIS, B. S. (Massachusetts Agricultural

College 1910),

Instructor in Landscape Engineering.
EDITH E. HAITH, B. L. E. (Syracuse University 1912),

Librarian.

LILLIAN M. LANG,
Secretary to the Dean.

College of Forestry.

MEMBERS OF UNIVERSITY FACULTY, OUTSIDE OF COL-
LEGE OF FORESTRY, GIVING INSTRUCTION TO
STUDENTS IN FORESTRY.

FRANKLIN JAMES HOLZWARTH, Ph. D. (Syracuse),
Professor of German.

ERNEST NOBLE PATTEE, M. S. (University of Rochester),
Professor of Chemistry.

THOMAS CRAMER HOPKINS, Ph. D. (University of Chicago),
Professor of Geology.

EDSON NEWTON TUCKEY, Ph. D. (Yale University),
Professor of Economics.

WILLIAM L. B'RAY, Ph. D. (University of Chicago),
Pfofessor of Botany.

WARREN GARDNER BULLARD, Ph. D. (Clark University),
Professor of Mathematics.

CHARLES HENRY RICHARDSON, Ph. D. (Dartmouth College),
Professor of Mineralogy.

LEON BRUCE HOWE, B. Ar. (Syracuse),
Professor of Drawing.

CHARLES JULIUS KULLMER, Ph. D. (University of Tubingen),
Professor of German.

ADOLPH CHARLES BAEBENROTH, A. M. (Harvard University),
Professor of English.

MORGAN R. SANFORD, M. S. (Syracuse),
Lecturer on Meteorology.

WILLIAM CHARLES LOWE, Ph. M. (Syracuse),
Associate Professor of German.

HERBERT A. CLARK, Ph. D. (Columbia University),
Associate Professor of Physics.

JULIAN CHASE SMALLWOOD, M. E. (Columbia University),
Associate Professor of Experimental Engineering.

LEIGH H. PENNINGTON, Ph. D. (University of Michigan),
Associate Professor of Botany.

Fa culty. 5

FLOYD FISKE DECKER, Ph. D. (Syracuse),
Assistant Professor of Mathematics.

WILLIAM JOHN GORSE, A. M. (Syracuse),
Assistant Professor of German.

LOUIS MITCHELL, B. S. in C. E. (Purdue University),
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering.

SAMUEL D. SARASON, Ph. B. (Yale University),
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering.

J. HERMAN WHARTOX, M. A. (Syracuse),
Instructor in English.

HAROLD DOUGHLAS BUELL, B. S. (Colgate),
Instructor in Chemistry.

HEXRY F. A. MEIER, A. B. (Indiana University),
Instructor in Botany.

ARTHUR E. BRAIXERD, B. S. (St. Lawrence University) ; M. S.

(Syracuse),

Instructor in Geology.

EDWARD MORTIMER AVERY,

Instructor in Practical Mechanics.

WARD GRISWOLD CAMEROX, A. M. (Harvard University),
Instructor in Romance Languages.

I. L. WALEX STEIN, A. B. (Syracuse).
Instructor in German.

DAVID L. DUXLAP,
Physical Instructor.

RURAL AND CITY SHADE TREE IMPROVEMENT.

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University
as a well equipped State College can render unusual service to the
people of Xew York in all matters pertaining to the planting and
preservation of shade trees as well as those dealing with general
Forestry problems. In carrying out the provisions of its Charter,
The College of Forestry, through its Forest Extension Service, offers
to all communities in the State where no well organized shade tree
departments or commissions have been established, the assistance of
its corps of experts in all questions pertaining to shade trees. The
Departments of Landscape Engineering and of Forest Entomology
are well equipped to give expert advice in all matters connected with
the improvement of public shade tree areas. Some of the most com-
mon problems of this nature are the planting and preservation of
shade trees along country roadsides, village and city streets, town
commons, village greens, city squares, recreation areas, playgrounds,
school grounds, rural cemeteries, etc.

COUNTRY ROADSIDES are nearly always in need of improvement.
The artistic effect produced by the planting of trees and shrubs along
roadsides is supplemented by the value of the large trees as a wind-
break. Rural communities are usually desirous of securing a growth
of good, healthy trees along roadsides but as the manner in which
this can be secured is often a perplexing problem to the people of
the rural communities, the improvement is likely to be abandoned
before any good results have been accomplished. The Forest Ex-
tension Service of the College will come in and help by bringing
before the people the laws governing these operations and by mapping
out the arrangement of trees and advising as to the desirable varieties
of planting material. Further help can be given by suggesting as to
the care of the trees and the shrubs.

VILLAGE STREETS can be greatly improved by the planting of trees.
The trees planted along village streets are commonly of poor varieties
and thousands of them throughout the State are dying. Xew trees
should be planted to take the place of those that cannot be saved by
pruning, spraying, etc. Unplanted areas along the streets need new
trees. The Forest Experts of the College can make suggestions along
lines of tree planting and preservation so that the expenditures of
labor and money shall be most effective.

Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. 9

CITY STREETS present a serious problem in the matter of the growing
of fine shade trees. The trees are planted under abnormal conditions.
The planting in most cases has been left to property owners. Lack
of uniformity in size, variety and space has resulted. The care of
these old trees and the planting of new ones belong naturally to the
Park Department of the City, but the training and experience of the
Foresters of the College can be made a valuable help to the authorities
who have this work in charge.

TOWN COMMONS, and Xew York has all too few of these, need trees.
Questions as to the location of trees, selection of varieties, provision
for future growth so as to obtain the most pleasing effects, are matters
in which the College can be of service. It is sometimes difficult to
get work of this kind started because no one knows exactly what
to do or how to do it. Men with experience and training in solving
problems of this nature can help out by advising as to the proper
course to pursue and the best methods of doing the work. The layout
for future shade tree areas is a special problem which the College
can help the Town solve.

VILLAGE GREENS are needed in every village in Xew York State.
They lose their charm and their value as a community playground
when the trees are allowed to become unsightly and die out. The
matter of preserving these trees and the planting of others as well as
the general development of the vegetation of these places can be
expeditely solved by conferring with the College.

CITY SQUARES are necessary in our cities to give space for light
and air and they offer always great opportunities for city beautifica-
tion. The maintaining of trees in city squares is of vital importance
to the healthfulness of the city. How to care for trees so as to
have them thrive wherever they are needed demands knowledge of
their characteristics and requirements. The experts of The New York
State College of Forestry can be called upon to give their advice in
helping the city authorities to improve the vegetation of the cities of
New York State.

RECREATION AREAS, and many of them, should be provided in every
neighborhood. Some of our cities have these areas in the form of
parks or boulevards. The College Foresters by a brief study of the
requirements of the particular areas, can be of service in helping to
make this Department of the Park Administration more effective.
A few trees and shrubs of the right kind, well kept, will bring more
people to these recreation areas and make them real places for recrea-
tion.

•**

Photo by H. R. Francis

A planting of Sugar Maple as a windbreak and for shade purposes
along a country road in Western Massachusetts. Conditions in this
section are practically the same as conditions in eastern New York.
Again in this view it will be seen that the trees are too close together.
No doubt the owner of these trees is finding the tapping of them for
maple sugar profitable, and if the tapping is properly done, little
injury should result to the trees. Unfortunately, the Sugar or Hard
Maple is being injured very severely by a boring insect which is
common throughout the State of New York. The College does not
advise the general planting of Sugar Maple for street or private grounds
in view of this destroying insect.

College of Forestry. n

PLAYGROUNDS too often lack trees and shrubs. The shade afforded
by the trees is very necessary during the hot summer months when
the playgrounds should be rendering the greatest enjoyment to the
children of the community. Planting trees and maintaining them in a
healthy and vigorous condition upon the playgrounds is something of
a problem. Foresters can outline methods for obtaining good results.

SCHOOL GROUNDS everywhere need trees. It is desirable to surround
the buildings in which the youth of the State spend a large part of
their time with fine trees properly planted and cared for. The im-
pression made by beautiful surroundings is as essential to the proper
development of our children as the providing of comfortable and
sanitary buildings and good text books and teachers. School Boards,
teachers and children as a rule are glad to improve school grounds
if there is some one to suggest how this may be done with reasonable
expenditure. The College of Forestry at Syracuse will be very glad
to assist in helping to lay out school grounds in the city and in the
country so that proper provisions may be made for a good growth
of trees and shrubs.

VILLAGE CEMETERIES are conspicuous usually on account of the col-
lection of a great number of poor trees. The reduction of this col-
lection to an assortment of the desirable varieties and the planting of
additional trees are questions on which the College Foresters can often-
times suggest the proper treatment without great difficulty.

OTHER FORESTRY PROBLEMS may be solved by getting in touch with
the College. Some of the most important are connected with the
improvement or development of municipal water supply, city reserva-
tions, public groves, municipal forest nurseries, etc. As an example
of some of the work being done by the College in cooperation with
villages in the State, the College has recently made a survey of the
shade trees of Fayetteville. This survey included the parks, public
squares, streets, cemeteries and some of the private home grounds.
A plan was made showing definitely what can be done in the way of
preserving the old trees and planting new ones. An inspection was
made by Foresters from the College of land surrounding the town
reservoir and a plan drawn for the reforestation of this area.
Foresters and students from the College will plant some 10,000 trees
on the water shed this spring. During the carrying out of the work
in Fayetteville, the College gave a series of illustrated lectures show-
ing the existing conditions and the proposed improvement.

SHADE TREE SURVEYS of a general nature can sometimes be made
quickly by Foresters in a way that will be valuable to cities and small

&ifyi£l

rt £ > ££ CHH ee

Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. 13

communities in bringing to the attention of the people just where the
city or the community stands in the matter of this desirable asset.
These surveys can sometimes be followed by reports with suggestions
for the future in increasing the value of the shade trees. As an
example of this work the College has recently made a survey of the
street trees in five of the Boroughs of New York City. This work
was done in cooperation with the Tree Planting Association of
Xew York City and a report was submitted to the Association out-
lining the general conditions of the trees and making recommendations
for the organization of a Bureau for the systematic planting and
preservation of future shade trees. This report was submitted to the
Park Commission by the Tree Planting Association.

SHADE TREE COMMISSIONS are being formed in many cities of the
State for the purpose of caring for shade trees of these cities. Many
problems come up as to the organization of these Commissions so as
to make them most effectual and economical. The Forest Exten-
tion Service of the College will always be glad to cooperate with
cities in working out these special problems and in supervising the
beginning of work along the right lines.

OTHER ORGANIZATIONS such as Granges in working out local rural
improvements; village improvement societies in starting shade tree
planting and preservation campaigns, commercial clubs in forwarding
the improvement of City Forestry conditions, need assistance that
can be obtained from the State College of Forestry at Syracuse.

THE PLACE OF THE STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT
SYRACUSE IX THE DEVELOPMEXT OF FORESTRY
THROUGHOUT THE STATE AXD ESPECIALLY IX THE
VILLAGE AXD CITY IMPROVEMEXT WORK IX THE

STATE.

The State of Xew York has no State University other than the
Board of Regents. To make it possible for the people of the State
to have the highest grade of technical education, the Legislature has
from time to time located State Colleges and State Schools at private
institutions. The best known of these is the State College of Agri-
culture at Cornell University. The State College of Forestry at
Syracuse University bears the same relation to the University, a
private institution, as the State College of Agriculture bears to
Cornell University, a private institution. The College of Agriculture
has a great work to do in the State in Agriculture and yet fully a

14 College of Forestry.

half of the State is better suited to the growing of forests than
agricultural crops. The College of Forestry has the problem of
awakening interest in the forest lands of the State and aiding in the
proper development of these lands. Forestry and Agriculture are
widely separated, although in the first years of development Forestry
has been subordinated to Agriculture. Proper logging and lumbering
methods, manufacture of paper pulp, etc., can hardly be called Agri-
culture. The time has arrived in this country when Forestry should
be given a place coordinate in importance with Agriculture, Engineer-
ing and other phases of applied science.

The Charter of the College of Forestry requires it, in so far as
appropriations will allow, to carry on general educational work in
Forestry throughout the State. The College in interpreting this
obligation feels that it is in the State to be of service to the people
and that the more it can do for the development of forest lands in
the State and for the planting of trees in streets and parks in every
community in the State, the more nearly it will fulfill its function
as a State College.

In so far as it can the College is ready to send out its Experts to
give suggestions and advice for the management of forest lands, for
the reforestation of idle lands and for the improvement of shade tree
areas. It will gladly answer written inquiries sent to the College
along any of the above lines and will send such literature as it has
put out which bears in any way upon the written inquiries and
replies.

From the start the policy of the College has been to serve the
people of the State in an advisory capacity only except where the
actual carrying out of the work may be of distinct educational value.
That is, it will prepare plans for forest management, reforestation,
city, street and park improvement but will not actually carry out the
work. With a body of experts it is in unusual position to give service
in an advisory way but beyond that it does not care to go because it
does not feel that it should compete with Consulting Forestry con-
cerns and Landscape Engineers in the actual carrying out of the
work. In a number of instances where plans have been made, the
work has been turned over to professional men who have been very
glad to carry out the plans suggested by the College. Any one con-
versant with conditions in the State will agree that the more the
College can do to stimulate interest in Forestry and in City Improve-
ment the more demand there will be for nursery stock and for the
work of trained Foresters and Landscape Engineers.

Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. 15

When the giving of advisory help involves personal visits of Forest
experts from the College, it will be necessary that the traveling
expenses and sustenance be borne by the agency requesting the help.
Xo charge, however, will be made for the service of the experts as
it is felt that it is the function of a State Institution to give such
service to the people of the State. That is, the College will send
one of its Foresters to any community in the State for the making
of suggestive plans or the giving of verbal advice for the traveling
expenses and sustenance of this . expert. In the making of plans
for the management of forest lands providing the tract is more than
300 acres in extent and that the owner gives assurances of carrying
out the plans made, Foresters will be sent out to prepare written
plans at no expense to the owner. The College does not assume to
do all of the work needed throughout the State but it will be ready
to give service to all in so far as the facilities at the command of the
College will allow.

The College has an unusual body of trained men and is thoroughly
equipped to give illustrated lectures on rural and city shade tree
improvement and to make plans for the development of areas by the
planting of shade trees. The College invites correspondence relative
to any phase of applied Forestry or the giving of illustrated lectures
before Civic Associations, High Schools, Men's and Women's Clubs,
Granges and other organizations.

Address : The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse
University, Syracuse, X. Y.

FORTY- SECOND

ANNUAL REPORT

of the

Board of Park Commissioners

San Francisco, Cal.
1912

Edited by
HUGH M. BURKE

Press of
THE HICKS- JUDD Co.

51-65 First St.
San Francisco Cal.

Office of the
PARK COMMISSIONERS

PARK LODGE
GOLDEN GATE PARK

San Francisco, July, 1912.
To the Honorable Mayor and the

Board of Supervisors of the City

and County of San Francisco.
Gentlemen : —

The Park Commissioners herewith present their report of
the management of the park system under their control for
the year ended June 30, 1912.

W. H. Metson,
M. Earl Cummings,
Curtis H. Lindley,
A. B. Spreckels,
W. H. Bemiss,

Park Commissioners.

James de Succa,

Secretary.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Huntington Falls, Golden Gate Park.

Japanese Tea Garden, Golden Gate Park.

Elk Paddock, Golden Gate Park.

View of Bay, Lincoln Park.

Dracaena, Golden Gate Park.

Tree ferns, Laveaga, Golden Gate Park.

Chain of Lakes, Golden Gate Park.

Buffalo, Golden Gate Park.

Children's Playground, Golden Gate Park.

Temple of Music, Golden Gate Park.

Spreckels Lake, Golden Gate Park.

Cypress, Buena Vista Park.

Metson Lake, Golden Gate Park.

Mission Park, Wading Pool.

Ocean Beach, Golden Gate Park.

Lloyd Lake, Golden Gate Park.

Island No. 1, Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park.

Ball Field, Golden Gate Park.

Dolores Street Parkway.

Salt Water Pond, Brighton Beach.

Peninsula South, Sharp's Park.

Strawberry Hill, Golden Gate Park.

Museum Interior, Golden Gate Park.

Lodge, Golden Gate Park.

CONTENTS

Page

Fame of Golden Gate Park - - - 7

Park Maintenance — Land Values -------- 8

Lincoln and Mission Parks ---------- 8

Appeal to Supervisors ------------ 9

Budget for 1913-14 - 11

Ocean Boulevard - ___--------- 14

Governing Body of the Parks 17

Cost Per Acre 17

Financial Statement ------------- 18

Children's Playground ------------25

Water Development -------------26

Park Concessions - ------------27

Music Free in the Park -----------28

Population and Park Extension ---------29

Data of Recent Work --- 30

Memorial Museum -------------32

Academy of Sciences ------------33

Lakes, Stadium and Parkway ----------34

Elk, Deer, and Bison -- -----.----35

Inventory of Birds -------------36

Small Parks and Plazas 37

New Park — Peninsula South ----------43

Trees, Plants and Shrubs 45-85

Conservatory Catalogue ---------- 85-87

Forty-Second Annual Report

GOLDEN GATE PARK of San Francisco still holds
its world-wide fame in the field of Park creations,
and continues to engage the admiring attention of
tourists of this country and other lands. Apart from the sense
of delight that views of foliage, meadow, woodland, lake, ocean
and mountain range confer, the fact is still obvious and sig-
nificant in this age of progress materially, that the investment
is the best that San Francisco ever made. All that the city
appropriates annually for the maintenance of the Park is but
a small proportion of the taxes laid on lots and tracts of land
that have become immensely valuable by reason of the Park
development. Moreover, the value of adjacent property will
continue to increase until the ocean frontage near Golden Gate
Park will really be the front door of San Francisco.

The increase in value of land is not limited to the terri-
tory which may be designated as the Park zone, but extends
to all sections of San Francisco and the Bay region. Golden
Gate Park is a field of recreation, and a source of delight for
all Californians, and every dollar expended to enhance the
beauty of the reservation is more than a dollar added to the
wealth of the city.

As early as 1888, Frederick Law Olmsted, whose
worth as a landscape architect and park builder was appre-
ciated in every leading city of the United States, predicted
that "Golden Gate Park was to have a unique and incom-
parable character." He counseled the Commissioners to re-
member that the Park is not today but for all time. He re-
garded its development as an interesting problem to be studied
in a careful and sustained manner. It is the judgment of the
Park Commissioners, and of John McLaren, Superintendent,
that the time has now arrived for a serious study of the prob-
lem. Since 1906, much of the money allowed by the Super-
visors for the parks has been expended to restore Golden Gate

8 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Park and the small squares and plazas of the city to some-
thing like the standards of beauty and convenience which
were noted prior to April of that year. The damage to Golden
Gate Park by reason of refugee occupancy after the fire was
estimated at $174,000, and it was then understood that the
Relief and Red Cross Corporation would pay that amount
to the city for the benefit of the Park fund, but no payment on
this account has been made.

The annual cost of maintaining Golden Gate Park is
steadily increasing. Extension of the cultivated area to the
ocean on the west and to the limits of the reservation north
and south, renders the employment of more help absolutely
essential. There is likewise an unceasing demand for more
water, more loam and for more material and labor to keep
the driveways in first class condition.

SEWERS HAVE CUT OFF OUR WATER SUPPLY

The storm waters flowing from a large water shed south
of the Park are now carried away by the extended sewer
system, hence the supply of water for purposes of irrigation
is diminishing at the Ocean Beach wells and at the pumping
plant at the base of Strawberry Hill.

In recent years Lincoln, Mission and Balboa Parks, and the
Parkway connecting Golden Gate Park with the Presidio
Military Reservation, have been placed under the control of
the Commissioners. There is an ever-growing public senti-
ment in favor of bringing the magnificent views afforded
from the crest of Buena Vista Park to the attention of resi-
dents and tourists. Desire for the up-keep of Lafayette, Alamo
and Union Squares, Alta Plaza, Hamilton, Mission and other
interior reservations never relaxes. The amount of money
allowed by the Board of Supervisors for the maintenance of
the parks for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1912, was hardly
enough to keep the reservations up to the ordinary standard

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 9

of excellence. The amount allowed for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1913, is sufficient only to keep in good condition the
grounds and roadways.

APPEAL TO SUPERVISORS

Under date of May 20, 1912, the Superintendent presented
these facts to the Board of Supervisors:

San Francisco, May 20th, 1912.
To the Honorable,

The Board of Supervisors,

City and County of San Francisco, California.

Gentlemen : —

Relative to your request for information in detail regarding the
needs of the Park Commission for the fiscal year, 1912-13, I beg to
submit the following, viz :

Additional sum of $60,000, asked for the construction of the break-
water at the Ocean Beach, is required for the purpose of continuing
the building of the concrete wall from the Beach Chalet to the foot of
the Cliff House hill.

The $35,000, asked for the construction of a salt water bathing
pond, is required for the construction of a pond to be used by the
people who cannot afford to go to Santa Cruz and other bathing
beaches. It is intended to build the pond immediately inside of the
railroad track, at the westerly end of Golden Gate Park.

The $25,000, asked for the improvement of grounds of H street,
west of Nineteenth avenue, is intended for the grading and planting
of all cuts made by contractors grading Lincoln Way, at these points.

The $15,000, requested for the improvement of the slopes of Fulton
street, west of Thirty-sixth avenue is necessary to put in good con-
dition the slopes of Fulton street where cuts have been made by con-
tractors grading Fulton street.

The $20,000, required for the re-building of the Sweeney Pano-
rama, is necessary, owing to its destruction by the earthquake of 1906.

The $20,000, asked for the construction of an electric light plant,
is for the purpose of taking up the old underground electric wiring
installed in 1903 and which is entirely rotted.

The extension of the driveway from the Great Highway to L
street south, for which $12,000 is requested, is necessary to protect
the land reclaimed from the Ocean by the Park Commission during
the last twelve years, and which is a strip from 300 to 400 feet wide by
two miles long and unless this work is carried out during the coming

10 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

fiscal year, the sand dunes on the Ocean will pile up so high that it will
make the construction work more expensive if left one year longer.

The $12,000, asked for the construction of a parkway from Lake
street to the Presidio line, is necessary in order to connect the re-
cently built parkway extending from Golden Gate Park to Lake street,
which was completed a year ago, with the Presidio.

The $10,000, asked for the extension of the water pipe system, is
very necessary to keep in good condition the recent improvements
made in Lincoln, Balboa and other squares.

The demand for additional recreation grounds in Golden Gate,
Lincoln and Balboa Parks, and also the City squares, is so emphatic
that in order to meet the demands of the people, $6,000 is necessary.

The $5,000, asked for the construction of convenience stations will
be used principally in Golden Gate Park.

The $5,000 asked for the construction of handball courts, is very
necessary on account of the demand of the people enjoying this sport.

The same may be said regarding tennis courts. The tennis courts
are all crowded and more space is demanded by those enjoying this
healthful exercise.

The $30,000 asked for loam and fertilizers, is much needed on
account of the poor sterile sand that composes the soil of Golden
Gate Park and other parks.

The $25,000, asked for the construction of grounds of Buena Vista
Park, is very much needed on account of the deep cut made by grad-
ing Buena Vista avenue, leaving the Park grounds from ten to thirty
feet above the level of the sidewalk, and which necessitates heavy
grading before the Park can be put in' good condition.

The $15,000, requested for McKinley Square, which is situated on
a steep hill, is needed for grading, the hauling of soil and laying of
water pipe.

The $25,000, asked for improving of grounds of Balboa Park, is
very much needed in order to carry on the work of improving these
grounds according to the plans adopted by the Park Commissioners
and endorsed by the people living in that neighborhood.

The $6,000, asked for laying the water pipe system in Balboa
Park, is required for the installation of an irrigating system in these
grounds.

The $5,000, asked for the building of a reservoir in Balboa Park,
is necessary for the building of a reservoir on top of the hill immedi-
ately west of the County Jail.

The $25,000, requested for the construction of grounds in Lincoln
Park, is very much needed as that Park was recently the City Cemetery,

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 11

and is composed of very poor soil, and before the many improvements
can be carried out, it will be necessary to haul in many thousands of
cubic yards of soil. This soil can be acquired from the owners of
lands immediately adjoining Point Lobos road; another reason for
urging your Honorable Board to grant us this amount is that grad-
ing operations in that neighborhood have been carried on very exten-
sively and unless this soil, which may now be acquired for the haul-
ing, is secured within the next year, the grading of these roads and
blocks will be completed and it will be necessary in order to get suitable
soil for this park, to go at least ten miles to the right kind of soil.

The $7,500, asked for the convenience station at Mission Park, is
something the people of that district have been asking for for many
years, and is very much needed.

The $6,000, asked for the completion of the wall surrounding
Holly Park, is required in order to finish the building of this wall,
commenced a year ago.

Convenience stations are much needed in the neighborhoods of
Duboce, Lafayette, Alamo, and other down-town squares, for which
the several sums listed in the estimate are requested.

The $2,000, asked for the building of tennis courts in the squares
of San Francisco, is necessary owing to the great demand for tennis
courts in the down-town squares and small parks in all parts of the
city.

Very truly yours,

(signed) John McLaren,

Superintendent of Parks and Squares.

FUTURE ALLOWANCES

It is the opinion of the Park Commissioners that allowances
of public money for park extension and adornment should
not be considered as an appropriation, but regarded rather
as an investment, because it can be shown clearly and con-
clusively that every dollar expended in this direction is quickly
returned by the increased value of taxable property, hence
the Commissioners contend that San Francisco could, if the
charter permitted, make no better investment than an allow-
ance of one million dollars annually for the next three years
to meet the adequate expense of park features worthy of the
city.

12 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

It is believed that the Supervisors in preparing the budget
for the fiscal year 1913-1914 will give special attention to the
important truth that the increase of revenue for the mainte-
nance of the park system has not corresponded with the added
obligations placed on the Park Board, and neither has it cor-
responded with the increased allowance to the School, Fire
and Police Departments. If Golden Gate Park stood alone
for consideration the augmented assessment roll on the basis
of seven cents on the $100 would yield an ample sum for
park maintenance, but it must be taken into reckoning that
many new features, such as the Presidio Parkway, Lincoln
Park and public grounds throughout the city have been placed
under the control of the Park Commission since the adoption
of the new charter. For example, the Supervisors on May 23,
1912, placed in the keeping of the Park Commission the
parked portions of Dolores street between Twenty-first and
Twenty-second streets, Twenty-fifth to Twenty-sixth streets,
and between Twenty-seventh and Thirtieth streets. The tri-
angular piece of ground near Coso, Precita and Bernal avenues
has recently been placed under the control of the Park Com-
mission.

During the past year Minneapolis has expended very
nearly one million dollars in connecting lakes, grading and
macadamizing roadways and adding to the park areas of the
city. The money is well invested and will be speedily returned
with interest in the form of taxes laid on adjacent property.
Boston and Cincinnati are spending vast sums of money to
buy new parks and to adorn existing pleasure grounds. New
York, Chicago, Rochester, Detroit and Buffalo are going
ahead in this direction in a manner that meets the approval
of enlightened citizenship. San Francisco in fact is not keep-
ing in line with other leading cities of the United States in
the matter of park features and park extension. It is true that
Golden Gate Park is a gem. In respect to natural location —
scenic advantages, such as views of ocean, mountain and vale

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 13

that one may get from Strawberry Hill, Lincoln Park or
Buena Vista summit — Golden Gate Park is matchless. It is
the best park site in the United States, but will not be the
best park in 1915, if other cities keep up the pace of progress
now perceptible and San Francisco continues to be content
with natural scenery and exhilarating climate.

GOLDEN GATE PARK

The problem now presented to the Commission is whether
Golden Gate Park shall be maintained in the manner which
has done so much to give it renown in the world of alluring
parks, or to divert funds which are needed for the main reser-
vation in order to improve and adorn Lincoln Park, Balboa
Park, and perform the work needed to preserve Buena Vista
Park and the smaller squares, plazas and school lots. There
is not sufficient money available to improve and keep up the
smaller reservations, without neglecting some of the features
which are essential to the eminence of Golden Gate Park.

Civic patriotism, exemplified in individual gifts, may supply
in a measure some of the features which render parks attrac-
tive. The gifts of James Lick, Claus Spreckels, Charles
Crocker, C. P. Huntington, William Sharon, Samuel G.
Murphy and others are appreciated today by all who visit the
Music Concourse, Huntington Falls, Conservatory Valley, the
Children's Playground and the Wind Mills on the Ocean
Beach. Since 1906 our leading men of wealth have been so
actively engaged in rebuilding the city and providing for the
Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915, that Golden
Gate Park has not received the attention in the line of contri-
bution to permanent features that was so marked in the ten
years immediately preceding the fire. The fortieth annual
report of the Park Commission, for the year ended June 30,
1910, gave a history of Golden Gate Park from its original
reservation of 1013 acres in 1866 until that time. The lands
reserved for public use under Ordinance No. 800 of the
Board of Supervisors were appraised at a value of $1,297,027.

14 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

The value of the 1013 acres of Golden Gate Park was $801,593 ;
of Buena Vista Park, 36 acres, $88,250; City Cemetery, 200
acres, $127,455; (new Lincoln Park of 150 acres, the Govern-
ment having purchased some of the land) ; Mountain Lake 19
acres, $19,330; public squares, 15 acres, $12,025; school lots,
68 acres, $115,077. The Great Highway reservation consists
of all that portion of the lands within the limits of San Fran-
cisco above the ordinary high water mark of the Pacific Ocean
(as the same existed July 7, 1846), which lies south of a line
drawn due south eighty-one degrees and thirty-five minutes
east magnetic through Seal Rocks, and west of a line easterly
not less than two hundred feet from ordinary high water mark.
Every section of the extension of the Ocean Boulevard on
the Great Highway or every rod of work on the breakwater
adds to the area of land owned by the city. Already much
land has been reclaimed from the ocean by reason of the sand
lodged against the embankment of the Boulevard.

OCEAN BOULEVARD

The Boulevard along the shore of the Pacific from the
Cliff House south to the County line is the dream of the land-
scape architect. It will be recognized and advertised as a
park feature unique, wonderfully beautiful, and readily ac-
cessible to a vast population. It is the desire of the Commis-
sioners to make the boulevard 250 feet wide. Reinforced con-
crete piers 30 feet in length are to be sunk a distance of 18 feet
in the sand. At the base of the closely placed piers there will
be lodged rough rubble stone to prevent erosion by the waves
of the ocean. The plans approved, or under construction, pro-
vide for building a balustrade on top of the concrete piers.
Immediately east of the balustrade railing a curb will desig-
nate the line of the pedestrian promenade, twenty feet wide.
Clusters of electric globes will light the pathway at night,
and lend beauty to the promenade in day. East of the foot
path there will be a magnificent driveway 150 feet wide, to

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 15

be reserved for the exclusive use of sight-seeing or outing
vehicles. For the use of delivery wagons and teams of such
description, a roadway forty feet in width is planned. Between
the outing and business avenues there will be a strip 40 feet
wide with grassy borders.

It is not expected that private enterprise will ever carry
out this projected improvement, but a public spirit may be
awakened that will provide means adequate for the great
design. If the supremacy of Golden Gate Park is to be
maintained in the contest with parks adjacent to other leading
cities of this continent, the construction of the Boulevard
must be put forward with some degree of activity. The con-
templated roadway, with balustrades immediately above the
waves, will comprise an exposition in itself that will bring to
California every year a legion of tourists and travelers, and
encourage them to remain.

The proposed boulevard will add at once to the value of
property along the entire range of hills and valleys south of
the Park. A study of the increase of values, from lessons
found in the maps and diagrams of the Assessor's Department
will convince the public that every dominant feature of the
park system that opens a general avenue for an outing adds
instantly to the taxable wealth of the city. As an investment
the Ocean Boulevard would be highly profitable to San Fran-
cisco.

COMPARISON OF EXPENDITURE

Since the adoption of Ordinance 800, reserving Golden
Gate Park for public use, the city has expended on this pleas-
ure ground a sum slightly in excess of seven and a half
million dollars. This covers a period of forty-two years.
In comparison with park expenditures in Boston, Chicago,
New York, Cincinnati and Minneapolis, the amount disbursed
is not large. As an example, comment on park management
in Chicago is cited. The South Side Park Board (one of
the three leading boards in the city) has had one million dol-

16 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

lars of money to its credit in bank for ten years. The monthly
average of deposits during the period of ten years was ap-
proximately $1,800,000. A volume entitled "The Park Gov-
ernments of Chicago," issued by the Chicago Bureau of Public
Efficiency, in December, 1911, gives the figure of bonded in-
debtedness of Chicago Parks as $10,550,666. In 1910 the sum
of five million dollars for parks was collected from the tax
payers. Lincoln Park, which corresponds in the line of beauty
and fame with Golden Gate Park, was maintained for the year
at an expense of $990,239.

The Boston system of parks was devised by Frederick
Law Olmsted, and the plans are being carried out now
by James B. Shea, Superintendent of the Boston Parks.
In recent comment on work proposed, Mr. Shea said: "The
roads and driveways in our parks were paved for far different
conditions than those which obtain now. When our parks,
boulevards and roads were made the automobile was just be-
ginning to be popular. Now there are hundreds where a few
years ago there was none. Treatment with the best possible
bitumen macadam for the re-surfacing of all these roads is
something that must be done as soon as the money can be
provided. I have calculated that it will cost all of $500,000 to
complete this work properly and for lasting and practical
benefit."

Conditions applying to Boston in relation to roads in the
park apply also to San Francisco. A large sum of money is
needed to build new boulevards and keep existing roadways
in good condition.

The following is a summary of the amount of money ap-
propriated for Golden Gate Park from the time the first work
was done on the Panhandle up to and including the sum
allowed for the current fiscal year of 1912-13 :

£> w C

"^ S "«

3 .2 "o

U CX, U

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 17

EXPENDITURES GOLDEN GATE PARK FROM

1870 to 1912
1870 to 1875, Including Money Derived from Sale of Bonds. .$447,705.62

1875 to December 31, 1879 203,118.03

1880 $ 60,021.02

1881 67,484.92

1882 72,718.49

1883 38,006.75

1884 36,807.45

1885 73,180.67

1886 55,953.47

1887 51,212.11

1888 68,758.80

1889 94,607.84

1890 125,864.17

1891 140,896.94

1892 188,117.84

1893 211,605.49

1894 212,586.07

1895 229,051.14

1896 302,725.55

1897 249,660.65

1898 205,862.65

1899 222,178.48

1900 237,152.47

1901 253,451.22

1902 311,332.22

1903 325,534.67

1904 335,502.48

1905 367,703.81

1906 391,263.33

1907 259,018.91

1908 319,899.09

1909 318,199.25

1910 357,000.00

1911 341,000.00

1912 351,000.00 $6,875,357.95

$7,526,181.60

The highly cultivated parks of the eastern cities are main-
tained at an annual cost per acre of $800. The cost in San
Francisco is $190 per acre. The work required to make
Lincoln Park of San Francisco presentable to Exposition visi-
tors in 1915 will involve an outlay of at least $200,000.

GOVERNING BODY OF THE PARKS

Mr. James Rolph, who was elected Mayor of San Fran-
cisco, in November, 1911, assumed official duties the first
Monday of January, 1912.

18 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

January 8, 1912, Mr. Curtis H. Lindley was appointed
Park Commissioner for a term of four years, to succeed
William Gutzkow.

Mr. A. B. Spreckels, on January 8, 1912, was appointed
Park Commissioner for four years to succeed A. G. McCarthy.

The new Commissioners assumed their duties February
16, 1912. At a meeting of the Board of Commissioners, March
12, 1912, there were present William H. Metson, President,
M. Earl Cummings, W. H. Bemiss, A. B. Spreckels and Curtis
H. Lindley. At this meeting James de Succa, who had in
former years rendered the Commission excellent service as
Secretary from April 15, 1903 to April 15, 1905, was elected
to that position, succeeding E. H. Lomasney, resigned on
January, 1912. John McLaren was re-elected to the position
of Superintendent, a place he has filled continuously since 1887.

At a meeting of the Commission in July, a financial state-
ment, as follows, was read, approved and a copy transmitted
to the Honorable Board of Supervisors :

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Office of

The Park Commissioners.
To His Honor the Mayor, and Board of Supervisors,

City and County of San Francisco.

The Board of Park Commissioners herewith submit a report of
receipts and disbursements for the maintenance of Parks, Plazas and
Public Squares, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1912.

San Francisco, July, 1912. JAMES de

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
RECEIPTS

By balance brought forward from 1911 $ 5,287.76

Special Appropriation from Board of Super-
visors— Resolution 8795 6,000.00

By Revenue from Children's Quarters 38,770.15

By Revenue from Beach Chalet 2,583.00

By Rent of Japanese Tea Garden 600.00

By Cement Sacks Returned 649.60

By S. F. Gas & Electric Co 365.25

By Riding and Driving Clubs ; . . 350.00

By Motor Cycle Permits 329.00

By Rent of Boat House 300.00

By Sale of Sand 300.00

By Sale of Two Elk 300.00

By United Railroad 116.00

By Condemned Horses 108.80

By Park Program Privilege 108.00

By Miscellaneous 332.28

By Taxes 341,400.00 $397,899.84

- 5

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

19

DISBURSEMENTS
GOLDEN GATE PARK

To Construction Account $42,917.75

To Maintenance Account 229,723.76 $272,641.51

SMALL, PARKS AND SQUARES

To Construction $ 18,024.49

To Maintenance 74,033.06 $92,057.55

ADMINISTRATIVE

To Salaries — Superintendent and Clerk $ 5,400.00

Secretary — Accountant and Stenographer 4,320.00

Surveyor and Draughtsman 1,594.75

Chauffeur 1,500.00 $12,814.75

Office Expenses — Stationery, typewriting ma-
terials and repairs, printing ordinances, etc. 760.74 $760.74

SUNDRIES

Music $10,733.96

Automobile 3,450.00

Auto Fittings — Repairs — Supplies 1,148.53

Advertising for Bids 852.80

General Expense — Freight and Express 553.17

Park Programs — Music 153.25

Surveying Materials and Repairs to Instruments 26.75

Motorcycle Shields 50.00

Mounting Buffalo Heads 80.00

Sundries 195.26 $16,743.72

To Balance Forwarded to Next Fiscal Tear

1912-1913 2,881.57 $2,881.57

Total $397,899.84

CONSTRUCTION ACCOUNT

STRUCTURES
LABOR AND MATERIAL

Pioneer Log Cabin (cont'd) $ 1,939.62

Convenience Station, Sloat Boulevard and

Great Highway 1,297.85

Rustic Benches 760.65

Music Stand — Sounding Board and Floor 615.00

Fences 420.08

Tennis Courts 680.05

Slides Great Highway (cont'd) 250.25

Rustic House (uncompleted) 201.90

Lavatory Children's Quarters (cont'd) 104.13

Lavatory Pioneer Log Cabin (uncompleted).. 55.00 $6,324.53

SEA WALL
Labor and Material (cont'd) $ 3,038.69 $3,038.69

WATER WORKS

Sump at Water Works — Labor and material.. $ 5,699.60
Water Pipe Extension — Labor, Pipe and Ft'gs. 1,512.49 $7,212.09

20

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

ROADS AND WALKS

Walk South Drive $ 2,070.50

Great Highway 2,950.50

Upper Drive — Great Highway 487.00

Bridle Path 376.50 $5,884.50

GROUNDS

Labor, Grass, Seed, Loam, etc $ 2,110.96

Fulton Street Slope (cont'd) 4,359.15

South Drive West of 14th Avenue 2,001.50

Lincoln Way West of 40th Avenue 691.75

Grounds Surrounding Pioneer Log Cabin 148.00 $9,311.36

SEAL POND— SLOOP GJOA
Labor and Material (cont'd) $1,241.01 $1,241.01

DRAINS
Labor and Material $3,144.28 $3,144.28

STOCK AND IMPLEMENTS
Auto Lawn Mower $1,745.00 $1,745.00

CHILDREN'S QUARTERS

Donkey and Goat Stable $333.15

Fire Hydrants 75.65 $408.80

LIVE STOCK
Pigeons, Larks, Thrushes, Finches, Robins $109.00 $109.00

STADIUM
Cinder Path— Labor and Material $ 2,470.19 $2,470.19

PRESIDIO PARKWAY
Labor and Material $ 1,039.30 $1,039.30

CONSERVATORY
Orchids $ 989.00 $989.00

SMALL PARKS AND SQUARES

Alta Plaza $3,414.46

Bernal 42.00

Dolores 1,820.44

Franklin 102.91

Garfield 94.10

Holly 6,058.92

Lafayette 110.95

Portsmouth 10.25

Union 40.31

Balboa 2,669.67

St. Mary's 13.00

Lincoln 3,647,48 $18,024.49

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

21

MAINTENANCE ACCOUNT

STRUCTURES

To labor, lumber, paints, oils, hardware, cement, fencing, lavatory
supplies, and supplies used in the maintenance of structures.

Labor $6,062.92

Paints, oils, lights 695.61

Cement 287.65

Wire cloth, Aviary 284.88

Lumber 259.11

Lavatory Supplies 224.56

Fencing 342.38

Repairing benches 169.60

Hardware 170.25

Boats, paints and oils 64.45

Brooms, brushes, mops 91.50

Supplies 29.15

Lime 27.20

Sundries 362.09 $9,071.35

TENNIS COURTS AND CLUB HOUSE
Labor and fittings $1,809.26 $1,809.26

WATER WORKS

Labor $8,385.71

Fuel oil 2,327.45

Labor — chopping wood 931.00

Electric power furnished windmills.. 724.32

Repairs to machinery Dutch Windmill 337.54

Boiler compound 256.88

Machine oil 208.10

Machine fittings 175.93

Hardware 125.43

Coal — oil— gasoline 109.23

Hydrants 95.00

Repairs to windmill 73.60

Sheet packing — supplies 118.59

Sundries 68.68 $13,937.46

ROADS AND WALKS
Labor, cleaning, repairing, dress-
ing, oiling $12,377.90

Great Highway, labor 2,397.50

Oil 488.91

Powder and fuse 129.23

Rock 96.00 $15,489.54

GROUNDS

Labor $63,454.85

Hose 1,153.93

Seed — plants and bulbs 969.42

Grass seed 505.86

Hardware 539.69

22 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

GROUNDS— Continued

Garbage cans 293.40

Bitumen 200.00

Sulphate of copper 191.84

Spray 139.00

Lumber 65.08

Poison 46.00

Drinking cups 24.35

Cartridges 28.25

Sundries 327.64 $67,939.31

CONSERVATORY

Labor $4,417.63

Cement workers and carpenters. 674.75

Coal 1,216.69

Lumber and millwork 313.05

Flower pots 119.25

Plants 105.25

Hardware 115.32

Sundries 95.81

Muslin 89.87

Cement 34.20

Boiler; fittings for heating apparatus 222.47 $7,404.29

NURSERY

Labor $10,419.99

Plants and trees 321.67

Seed 291.25

Flower pots 232.43

Lumber 144.30

Loam 87.90

Sundries 104.06 $11,601.60

ROLLING STOCK AND IMPLEMENTS

Labor $2,745.50

Smithshop 727.95

Lawn mowers and fittings 502.31

Tools 452,01

Rolling stock 182.93

Plumbing supplies 154.60

Harness 109.40 $4,874.70

STABLES

Labor $3,887.00

Feed and hay 8,636.40

Clipping horses 64.75

Wiring and installing electric system 63.00

Supplies 37.40

Drugs 30.83

Electric supplies 16.75

Sundries 50.00 $12,786.13

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

23

BEACH CHALET

Labor $ 870.00

Supplies 1,887.87

Gas 76.05

Laundry 63.25

Kitchen utensils 30.20

Tablecloths and napkins 23.40

Sundries 14.15 $2,964.92

CHILDREN'S QUARTERS

Labor $11,545.60

Supplies 19,133.79

General expenses and extra help. . . . 2,106.04

Kitchen utensils, crockery 1,228.63

Feed and hay 1,125.00

Gas 608.80

Coal 444.32

Laundry 342.57

Printing bags, tickets, bills of

fare, etc 299.75

Paper napkins, towels, cloths 274.S4

Cash register 190.00

Merry-go-round, steel rope repairs.. 137.05

Turnstiles and fittings 112.17

Post cards 90.00

Harness 82.20

Water 82.20

Awnings and fittings 74.50

Uniforms 55.62

Hardware 33.45

Lumber for spring boards 19.50

Sundries 80.79

Bitumen — donkey cart course 388.70

Free May Day expenses 1,367.88 $39,822,90

MUSEUM

Labor $11,898.30

Insurance on Spooner collection of

paintings 825.00

Gas 377.60

Brooms, mops, twine, supplies 315.32

General expense 279.00

Coal 187.55

Paints, oils, lights 172.72

Chemical fire extinguishers and hose 274.40

"Monarch" — dressed and mounted.. 110.00

Redwood-pine and millwork 88.75

Stationery 73.22

Plate glass for show cases 75.00

Hardware 64.24

Drayage 48.55

Turpentine, cleaning fluids, etc 35.75

Turnstile 33.33

24

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

MUSEUM— Continued

Natural history supplies 37.41

Catalogues 30.35

Sundries 147.51 $15074.00

LIVE STOCK
Buffalo, elk, deer, bears, birds.

Labor $4,418.75

Feed 7,432.20 $11,850.95

FORESTRY

Labor, thinning and replanting $3,891.25 $3,891.25

STADIUM

Labor $5,250.25

Paint, lumber, lavatory supplies, etc 92.64 $5,342.89

PRESIDIO PARKWAY

Labor $5,272.30

Burlap 186.78

Lumber, hardware 83.63 $5542.71

DRAINS
Labor $320.50 $320.50

SMALL PARKS AND SQUARES
Labor — water — hose — lavatory supplies.

Alta Plaza $5,329.01

Alamo 5,783.20

Bernal 1,623.00

Buena Vista 1,594.79

Balboa 3,922.99

Columbia 2,201.25

Duboce 2,759.84

Dolores 1,410.15

Franklin 2,190.65

Garfield 1,746.31

Holly 2,791.74

Hamilton 1,835.33

Jefferson 5,333.33

Lafayette 4,040.40

Lobos 4,675.91

Library 521.00

Mission 7,071.86

City Hall 622.50

Portsmouth 1,505.59

Schools 1,584.50

Home 213.89

South Park 444.00

St. Mary's 1,145.21

Union 2,737.62

Convenience Station — Union 1,451.50

Washington 2,094.75

Convenience Station — Washington . . 1,067.44

Mountain Lake 1,210.50

General Account 1,303.60

Lincoln 3,754.20

Telegraph Hill 30.00

Parkside 37.00 $74,033.06

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 25

No REVENUE FROM CONCESSIONS

One glancing in haste at the financial statement rendered
to the Mayor and Board of Supervisors by the Park Commis-
sion forms the misleading belief that receipts for the main-
tenance of the park system are materially enhanced by revenue
derived from the Children's Quarters. The item "By revenue
from Children's Quarters $38,770.15" leads some of the Super-
visors to remark to the Commissioners: "Apart from the
amount allowed by taxes to support the park system, you have
the revenue of concessions and one source alone — the Chil-
dren's Quarters — pays $38,770.15 per annum." Nothing
could be further from the real facts than this impression gained
from superficial glance. In the list of disbursements em-
braced on another page of the financial statement, expendi-
ture for the maintenance of the Children's Quarters is set
forth, and the aggregate amount expended for the year is
$39,822.90. It is the purpose of the Commissioners to give
to the public in value every dollar derived from the sale of
commodities and amusement facilities. In effect the Chil-
dren's Quarters yields no revenue whatever, but on the con-
trary, a sum for its support slightly in excess of the cash re-
ceipts is annually expended. The items of labor and supplies
alone amount in the year to $30,000. Again, the Beach Chalet,
which is listed as producing revenue amounting to $2,583, is
maintained at an expense per year of $2,964.92.

WATER DEVELOPMENT

A chapter is devoted to the history of water development in
Golden Gate Park, and as water is such an essential element
in the maintenance of cultivated areas of land, it is proper that
the subject should receive consideration in this report. The
initial cost of supplying water for Golden Gate Park by the
Spring Valley Water Works was 40 cents per 1000 gallons,
and that cost was gradually reduced to 23 cents per 1000
gallons, but at the lesser figure the daily use in summer and

26 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

autumn of a sufficient quantity of water to keep the meadows,
lawns and gardens alive was wholly beyond the revenue at
the disposal of the Board. To obtain something like an ade-
quate supply, wells were sunk in the valley at the southeasterly
base of Strawberry Hill, and a supply of five hundred thousand
gallons per day at a cost of six cents per 1000 gallons was
obtained. It should be noted here that the price of six cents
per 1000 gallons was nominated in a contract with W. B.
Bradbury. At the expiration of the contract the Park Superin-
tendent enlarged the wells, securing a much larger flow of
water, and also reduced the cost of pumping so that the water
is now supplied for 1^4 cents per 1000 gallons. The water
is pumped from the valley into a reservoir on Strawberry Hill,
and by gravitation affords the volume which makes Hunting-
ton Falls and Stow Lake such alluring features of the Park,
and which irrigates the park section adjacent thereto.

The development of this source of supply and its enlarge-
ment under the direction of Superintendent John McLaren,
was gratifying to the public, and the Commissioners, but was
only a partial solution of the problem of irrigation. Later on
Commissioners A. B. Spreckels, who was for many years
President of the Board, and the late Reuben H. Lloyd, a mem-
ber of the Commission, resolved to test the capacity of the
subterranean streams flowing from Strawberry Valley into
the Pacific Ocean. An ample supply of water was found,
and a windmill with a capacity of 30,000 gallons per hour
was placed near the Ocean. Through a twelve-inch pipe two
miles in length to a reservoir 200 feet above ocean level the
fresh water was pumped at an expense approximating one
cent per 1000 gallons. The experiment was so highly suc-
cessful that another system of wells and a second windmill at
the southwestern corner of the Park were recommended.
Samuel G. Murphy provided from his own means the sum of
$20,000 to erect the windmill. The Murphy Windmill, the
largest in the world, lifts 40,000 gallons of water per hour.
Hence the central and western divisions of Golden Gate Park

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 27

are irrigated by water which costs about one cent per 1000
gallons. Lloyd Lake, Metson Lake and Spreckels Lake are
supplied from the reservoir. These wells on the Ocean Beach
also comprise the present source of supply for Lincoln Park.
The water is conveyed through a 10-inch iron pipe, one mile
and a half in length, to the crest of Lincoln Park, 360 feet
above sea level. The power for pumping is supplied by an
electric motor. Further development of fresh water sources
to secure an adequate supply for Lincoln Park is proposed
by the Commissioners.

The development of streams near the Ocean where many
experts asserted that fresh water could not be procured, and
the lifting of the water by the power of summer winds from
the sea level 200 feet high and two miles distant, comprise
an achievement that will ever be commended.

Moreover, the present Board faces the problem of lighting
the Park. The old system is obsolete in many places and
generally speaking inadequate, as it was badly shattered by
the earthquake of 1906. As an abundance of electrical energy
is available in the mountains, the Commissioners may deem it
wise to abandon the system of generating electric current
from its own plant and purchase light and power from corpo-
rations that have constructed great plants to supply the needs
of San Francisco. It is noted here that in April, 1911, the
South Park Board of Chicago made a five years contract for
the delivery of electric current at a price of three-quarters of
a cent per kilowatt hour. The cost of generating the cur-
rent by an independent plant constructed by the Chicago Board
was one cent and a half a kilowatt hour.

MAINTAINED AT ACTUAL COST

The Park Commission of San Francisco does not derive
any revenue to speak of from these sources known to park
management in the eastern cities as concessions. The Japanese
Tea Garden, a feature of Golden Gate Park that ministers
at once to the delight and admiration of tourists, is a conces-
sion that pays only $50 per month.

28 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

The Children's Playground, with all of its accessories for
the amusement and safety of the little folk and the comforts
and convenience extended to visitors other than children, is
maintained directly by the Park Board. Everything, as far
as possible, is given to the public free, the charge levied for
refreshment being the actual cost of food. For swings, merry-
go-rounds, donkey and goat rides, the price has been reduced
so that the Playground can hardly be called self-sustaining.
Golden Gate Park is the pioneer in this field of entertainment
for children. Eastern and European cities have sent to San
Francisco for object lessons, and are being guided by the
example in our Park. In 1887, F. W. Sharon and Frank G.
Newlands, Trustees of the estate of William Sharon, in carry-
ing out the provisions of the testator's will, gave the Park
Commissioners $50,000 to establish the Children's Playground.
The boating privileges on Stow Lake yield a small revenue
to the Park, and the rates for the hire of the craft are fixed
by the Board of Commissioners. At the Beach Chalet the
charge for refreshment covers simply cost of the food.

Music is FREE

The music in the Park is free. No charge whatever is
made for attending the band concerts. The Temple of Music,
constructed at a cost of $75,000, was given to the public by
the late Claus Spreckels, and is a monument to his generosity
and a tribute in enduring stone to the genius of the architect.
The cost of providing free concerts for the public approximates
$10,000 per annum, and is paid from the amount allowed by
the Charter for park maintenance.

The tennis and handball courts, the baseball fields and the
speed tracks of the famed stadium are free for all comers.
If a slight charge were made, simply enough to cover the ex-
pense of attendance and cleaning of the grounds, the Commis-
sioners would find it easier to meet the demands for main-
tenance, but this could not be done without departure from
the policy of giving to the public free of cost every opportunity
for normal recreation.

-S c

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 29

Since the report of 1910 was published much important
work has been done in Golden Gate Park, Lincoln, Balboa and
Mission Parks, and in the squares, plazas and school lots under
the jurisdiction of the Commission. The area under the con-
trol of the Commission is 1850 acres.

ORIGINAL RESERVATIONS

The population of San Francisco (computing the number
of inhabitants at 500,000) per acre of park acreage, is 270.
In Detroit the population per acre is 370; in Cleveland, 248;
in Boston, 259 ; in Rochester, 128.

The framers of the Van Ness Ordinance and their succes-
sors who framed Order 800 reserving other tracts of lands for
avenues and places of public recreation had remarkably clear
vision of the future expansion and eminence of San Fran-
cisco. When the main reservations contemplated by the
framers of the Van Ness Ordinance were made, under the
provisions of Order 800, the population of San Francisco did
not exceed 130,000. At that time (1866), the number of acres
reserved for public use, including school lots, small squares
and plazas, Golden Gate Park, the Great Highway and Buena
Vista Park, was 1533, or 85 inhabitants per acre of park reser-
vation. Since that time the population and wealth of the city
have increased three-fold, but the increase in reserved lands
for public use is but 297 acres. This increase embraces the
Presidio Parkway of seven blocks, Balboa Park and Mission
Park. The wisdom of the pioneer citizenship in fixing the
width of Market street at 125 feet from the Bay to Twin
Peaks is now clearly manifest. If the pioneers were not proph-
ets, they had an inspiration of San Francisco's future great-
ness that approached very nearly to the gift of phophecy.

In the light of past events, is it not now the part of wisdom
and true economy to take up the problem of the further ex-
pansion of the city on the peninsula, and to secure at moderate
figures lands for the park system of fifty years hence? New
York, Boston, Chicago and other cities waited and were com-

30 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

pelled to pay immense prices for lands that could have been
had at a reasonable figure twenty years prior to the acquisi-
tion. The lesson ought not to be lost to our people. A half
million in bonds at this time would secure acreage for boule-
vard and park extension on the south side where park reser-
vations are "few and far between," that may cost ten times
that amount in 1932. There never has been in the United
States a municipal mistake in reserving too much land or water
for public use, but there have been many lapses of judgment
in failing to reserve a sufficient quantity for the use of the
people.

DATA OF RECENT WORK

Following is a resume of some of the important work ac-
complished since the last report was made to the Board of
Supervisors :

The driveway 9,000 feet long and 50 feet wide, leading
from the Main Drive to Lake street, has been macadamized,
leveled off and rolled.

A new entrance to the Park was opened at Forty-first
avenue and H street. This entrance is 30 feet in width and
100 feet in length.

After finishing the Presidio Parkway the grading gang
was employed on the park slopes facing Fulton street west
of Seventeenth avenue.

A test was made on the well in Balboa Park by pumping
at the rate of 5,000 gallons per hour continuously for one
week. During that time the pump lowered the water in the
well only a few feet.

Trees have been planted along the sides of the Presidio
Parkway between Fulton street and the Main Drive.

The four old wells in Lincoln Park were tested to ascer-
tain the quantity of water which might be obtained. After
pumping a short time it was found that they were merely sur-
face wells. It was therefore found necessary to find some other
source of water for Lincoln Park.

88

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 31

3,000 trees have been planted in Balboa Park.

concrete coping around Bcrnal Park has been built,
imbia Square has been raised to the level of Folsora
t. 2,500 cubic feet of material was deposited, and new
jg placed around the entire square, 1,700 feet,

9,500 feet of pipe was laid in Lincoln Park, The pipe has
been tested and the trenches refilled,

A concrete wall around Franklin Square has been built
and the terrace slopes have been graded. Six hundred loads
of soil were required. Three entrances and concrete stair-
3e and 4 feet high, are provided.

Wire fencing was built along the line of Fulton street from
Fourteenth to Twentieth avenues, and along the line of Lin-
coln Way from Ninth to Fourteenth avenues,

A Mother's Cottage has been erected near the Children's
House, The sitting room is 16 feet square with six windows.

Considerable work was done in oiling and repairing drives,

especially along the Great Highway, where a vast deal of

y hauling was done incident to the construction of the

'/-eighth avenue sewer,

A Log Cabin, at the request of the Pioneer Women, has
been furnished. It contains an old fashioned fire-place and a
porch in front 50 feet long, 30 feet wide.

The improvement of grounds along the upper portion of
Alta Plaza is finished, 2,500 feet of water pipe was laid.
Trees and shrubs have been planted,

A quarter of a mile cinder path and a one hundred yards
straight away track at the Stadium grounds were constructed,
construction of the new bridle road connecting Ful-
ton street with the Main Drive at Seventh avenue has been
finished.

A convenience station near the junction of the Great High-
way and Sloat Boulevard was put in.

Twenty-five rustic log benches- have been placed in the
Park where most needed.

32 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Along the line of Fulton street and between Eleventh and
Thirteenth avenues, a large quantity of material has been de-
livered for the fill required in that neighborhood. Twelve
thousand cubic yards were needed. The surplus taken from the
Geary Street railroad was delivered free of cost to the Park
Commission.

The annual repairing of roads and drives required a large
quantity of oil and many loads of rock. -The material was
used chiefly on the Main Drive to the Beach, the Great High-
way and the Middle and South Drives.

THE MUSEUM

The Fine Arts Building of the Midwinter Fair was given
to the city in 1894 for a Memorial Museum. The collection of
pictures, relics, statuary, and other articles, is indeed interest-
ing, but the building in which the treasures are stored is in-
adequate in space and not well suited in design. However
the Museum is growing in worth and popular appreciation.
The attendance of visitors is growing larger every year. The
records of the turnstile show that 579,321 visitors entered the
Museum in 1911. The value of the collection, if value of this
character can be measured by a money standard, is more than
one million dollars, but the only insurance carried is that which
covers the collection of paintings and fabrics loaned to San
Francisco by Miss Sarah M. Spooner, of Philadelphia. Owing
to the meagre allowance for park purposes in the Charter,
the Commissioners have not at their disposal means for the
adequate insurance of the entire collection, hence every pre-
caution is taken to guard against loss by fire or theft. It should
be noted again, to the end that the Board of Supervisors may
clearly appreciate the situation, that the cost of maintaining
the Museum comes out of the allowance for the maintenance
of parks. Reference to the financial statement of the Secretary
which is embodied in this report shows that the sum required
for the Museum is not inconsiderable. For salaries, lights, fire
extinguishers, fuel, and general supplies, the Commissioners

Q O ft.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 33

during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1912, disbursed $15,074
on Museum account. When one considers the service rendered
to the public by this outlay, the expense is indeed slight, and
the wonder is that so much could be done with the means
available, by Mr. M. Earl Cummings, the Art Commissioner
of the Board, and Mr. George Haviland Barren, the Curator
of the Museum. The number of articles in the collection
approximate 95,000, and surely many of the relics are rare.
The purpose of the Park Commission to publish a complete
catalogue of the articles collected is unchanged, but this can-
not be done at the present time. The founder of the Museum,
Mr. M. H. DeYoung, who was Director-General of the Mid-
winter Fair, is able and industrious in support of the enter-
prise, and through his efforts further public interest in behalf
of the cause may be stimulated.

Perhaps the Natural History collection of the Museum will
ultimately be transferred to or merged in the Academy of
Sciences. Plans have been prepared and accepted for the
construction in Golden Gate Park on a site near the Temple
of Music, of one section or wing of the proposed permanent
building of the Academy of Sciences. The Directors of the
Academy have resolved to expend at once the sum of $125,000.
Fortunately the building belonging to the Academy on Market
street between Fourth and Fifth streets, which was destroyed
by the great fire of April, 1906, was fairly well insured, and
the Directors of the Academy can now see their way clear
to the erection of a permanent structure where the very valu-
able collection of articles pertaining to natural history may be
preserved for public use.

During the past year Mr. Barren, Curator of the Museum
in Golden Gate Park, has given special attention to the collec-
tion and classification of pictures, maps, photographs, drawings
and publications relating to the period in the development of
California which preceded and immediately followed the dis-
covery of gold. A department, known as the Pioneer Room,

34 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

daily engages the attention of many tourists and resident visi-
tors. Recognition of the public spirit evinced by men and
women of California in donating rare relics to this department
of the Museum is reserved for the publication which may be
made in the near future under the immediate direction of the
Curator.

LAKE, STADIUM AND PRESIDIO PARKWAY
The Chain of Lakes across Golden Gate Park from north-
east to southwest between Fortieth and Forty-second avenues,
is an alluring feature of the reservation. One is impressed with
the idea that Nature bestowed the graceful curves of the inlet.
Seven small islands clad in verdure and teeming in foliage
lend a charm to the view. In creating the lake effect, the ex-
cavation of a vast quantity of sand was required.

The Stadium of Golden Gate Park is a feature that com-
mands the attentive admiration of residents and tourists. It is in
the middle of the Park between Fulton street on the north and
H street on the south, east of Thirty-sixth avenue. The grassy
terrace affords space for sixty thousand spectators. When the
Grand Stand is completed, there will be seating space for one
hundred thousand people.

The Presidio Parkway, the connecting link between Golden
Gate Park and the U. S. Military Reservation known as the
Presidio of San Francisco, consists of seven blocks of land
which were acquired at a cost of $360,000. The length of the
boulevard is nearly one mile. It is between Tenth and Eleventh
avenues extending from Fulton street, the northerly boundary
line of the Park to a point not far from the old U. S. Marine
Hospital. There is gratifying prospect that the War Depart-
ment will obtain from Congress the means for extending and
improving the boulevard system of the Presidio.

Zoo AND AVIARY

San Francisco is making some headway in the zoological
department, but plans for the creation of a zoo such as Chicago

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 35

possesses and Boston contemplates are not advanced. In reply
to inquiry addressed by the Park Commissioners to the Park
Department of Boston, this paragraph is contained in a letter
from C. E. Putnam, Engineer:

"Many features of the Zoo have not been decided upon,
so the cost cannot be figured, but to carry out the schemes
outlined in the preliminary report, whether completed in five
years or more, is likely to cost $1,500,000."

It will interest students of natural history to know that the
herd of bison and the bands of elk and deer in Golden Gate
Park are not surpassed in quality on this continent, and the
number of animals could be materially enlarged if the Com-
missioners deemed it wise to feed and guard an increased herd.
The elk thrive and multiply in this region of the United States.
The elk born and raised in the Park attain full size
and the full measure of vitality. This is not surprising when
it is considered that Colonel J. C. Fremont, Kit Carson, General
Vallejo, Colonel Yount and others who traveled through the
mountains and valleys of California from 1830 until 1850 saw
countless bands of elk and deer.

Many parks in other sections of California and some of
the U. S. Reservations have been supplied with elk from the
band in Golden Gate Park, and the Commissioners are now
taking care of forty-four elk, twelve bucks, twenty-eight does
and four fawns. The herds of bison consist of twelve bulls,
twenty cows and five calves. In 1890 the first of the herd was
brought to the Park from Montana. Of the five animals
originally purchased, two bulls and one heifer survived the
journey by rail from Montana to California.

Of the axis and black tailed deer, there are fourteen bucks,
twenty-two does and seven fawns. The moose family is rep-
resented by four bulls, two cows and one calf. There are six
male and five female kangaroos and one young antelope.

Of the bears in the Park, several are descendants of
"Monarch," the famous grizzly. In the caves or pits there are

36 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

two grizzly, one male and one female; one black bear male
and one cinnamon female, and five Pacific Anona bear, two
male and three female. "Monarch," the head of the family
went to the happy cave of his ancestors in 1911.
INVENTORY OF WATER FOWL

The swan, duck and geese give life to the lake scenery of
Golden Gate Park. The inventory of water fowl contains many
black and white swan, geese, pelicans, mallards, butter balls,
spoonbills, Chinese geese and white Brant. The birds in the
Aviary delight visitors young and old. Sunlight flashes of
gorgeous plumage afford interesting study to the artist in
search of color glimpses. The collection of birds is enriched
by golden, silvern and copper pheasants — by pheasants from
China, England, Central America, embracing the piebald, the
ring neck, the blue neck, the Lady Amherst and the Lady
Reeves. Singing birds of great renown are at home in the
Aviary, dwelling in harmony with companions more celebrated
for wealth and sheen of feathers than for sweetness of song.
A glance at the inventory indicates that the feathered tribe
embraces American and Japanese nightingales, goldfinches,
linnets, mocking birds, sky larks, doves, love birds. Laughing
Jack Ass, owls and eagles, thrush, sparrows, canaries, macaw
birds, mandarin ducks, pigeons, Sing Sing larks, chicken
hawks, mountain quail and guinea fowl. The Aviary was
constructed in 1890, at a cost of $6,247.

The quail in Golden Gate Park are protected, hence the
great number of birds one may see in a single covey on a
morning or early evening in the Park. Many specimens of
mountain and valley quail have been given to the Park, and
the Commissioners from time to time have given birds of this
type to the public parks of other cities on this continent.
AREA OF PARKS AND PLAZAS

Balboa Park. The area of Balboa Park is nine acres.
These park grounds were formerly known as the House of
Correction premises.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 37

Mission Park. The area of Mission Park is fourteen acres.
The Park is bounded by Dolores, Eighteenth, Church and
Twentieth streets. Nineteenth street runs through the middle
section. There are terraces, two tennis courts, a wading pool
and an athletic field. Grassy borders, shade trees, groups of
palms and flowering shrubs, render the grounds attractive.

Lincoln Park. The recently acquired City Cemetery em-
braces 150 acres. The reservation was christened Lincoln
Park by the Board of Commissioners in honor of the immortal
Abraham Lincoln. In awakening public sentiment in support
of this name for the new park, representatives of the Grand
Army of the Republic were active and influential. The Park
is 3,500 feet distant from Golden Gate Park on Thirty-sixth
avenue. The property extends from Thirty-third to Fortieth
avenue on the north side, and from Thirty-eighth to Fortieth
avenue on the south. The Government took fifty acres of the
Cemetery grounds for the fortifications at Fort Miley. The
scheme of improvement in the mind of the Superintendent
contemplates a driveway overlooking Baker's Beach to con-
nect with the Presidio system of roadways. Magnificent views
of the sea, the bay, islands and mountain ranges are here pre-
sented.

Mountain Lake Park, twenty acres in area, lies between
Seventh and Fourteenth avenues north of Lake street. The
Presidio Boulevard brings Mountain Lake into connection with
Golden Gate Park.

Seal Rocks are under the jurisdiction of the Park Com-
missioners. The chief duty devolving upon the Board is to
prevent the killing of seals by fishermen and tourists.

Buena Vista Park, as its name implies, commands from
its crest a superb view of the Coast Range of mountains from
Mt. Hamilton on the south to Alt. Tamalpais on the north
and Mt. Diablo on the east. The area of the Park is thirty-
six acres. Its elevation is 578 feet above tide. It is bounded

38 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

by Haight street and Buena Vista avenue. It is wooded with
pine, acacia, cypress and live oak.

Small squares, parks, plazas and the grounds around public
buildings and school houses are under the jurisdiction of the
Park Commissioners.

Union Square is bounded on the north and south by Post
and Geary streets and on the east and west by Stockton and
Powell streets. Its area comprises 2.60 acres. The parallel
and straight walks were changed to diagonal ones, which lead
to a large elliptical bed in the center. In the center of this
bed is the Dewey Memorial Monument. Each of these
diagonal walks is broken by a smaller ellipse, midway be-
tween the center and its respective corner. A heavy belt of
shrubs was planted on the west or Powell street side, also
several groups at the junction of the walks, while the borders
are planted with flowering shrubs in the natural style.

Portsmouth Square is bounded on the north and south by
Washington and Clay streets and on the east and west by
Kearny and Brenham Place. Its area comprises 1.29 acres.
This is the oldest improved square in the city, and was in
much need of repair. The walks being worn down to the
large rocks, several paralleling the streets were removed
and sown to grass. In the improving of this square it was
necessary to spade the entire area, rearrange the shrubbery
and sow to grass.

Franklin Square is situated at Sixteenth street and Bryant
avenue. Its area comprises 4.40 acres. This square was
considerably above the grade of the streets, some portions
being as high as twenty-nine feet. This was graded down
to fifteen feet and the cut at the southwest corner was raised
to grade at this point. The square is now graded and the
plant groups set out, and a retaining wall has been con-
structed.

There were from two to three feet of good loam covering
a portion of this square, which was used to good advantage

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 39

in the final grading. It will be necessary to build a wall four
to six feet high on three sides to keep up the bank. From
the top of the wall to the proposed grade a slope of two to
one should be made to connect with the finished grade.

Bernal Park is bounded on the north and south by
Precita and Bernal avenues and on the east and west by
Alabama and Folsom streets. Its area comprises 2.20 acres
and was laid out to secure a flat lawn effect, bordered by
avenue trees, consisting of maple, ash, elm and sycamore.
A coping has been placed around the square.

Duboce Park is bounded on the north by private property
and on the south by Duboce avenue and the east and west
by Steiner and Scott streets. Its area approximates 4.36 acres.
Over the site of this square, tons of rock had been dumped,
and in some places mounds six or seven feet above the grade
of the park. These had to be removed, some to fill hollows
and others to build rockeries. These rocks were then covered
with soil and the whole well mulched with manure. This
was plowed and cross plowed, raked and sown to grass and
groups of shrubs planted as indicated by the plan. Years
ago a more uninviting spot for a square could hardly be
imagined ; to-day a green lawn, and flowering shrubs form
a pleasant, inviting picture to the eye.

Alt a Plaza is bounded on the north and south by Jackson
and Clay streets and on the east and west by Steiner and
Scott streets. Its area comprises 11.90 acres. This plaza is
improved with terraces and terrace walks on the south slope,
along Clay street, with a large plat in the center.

Pioneer Park or Telegraph Hill is contained within the
block bounded by the following streets: On the north and
south by Greenwich and Filbert and on the east and west by
Montgomery and Kearny. Its area comprises 1.75 acres. The
improvements here consisted of planting good hardy trees,
such as eucalyptus and pines, these being protected by a strong
wire fence.

40 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Holly Park is bounded on all sides by Holly Park avenue.
It was dedicated as a public park by Harvy S. Brown and
John F. Cobb in the year 1860. Its area comprises 7.56
acres and was graded in 1893 at a cost of $2,400. This park
was plowed, harrowed and planted with strong, hardy varie-
ties of eucalyptus, pine, cypress and acacia.

Alamo Square is bounded on the north and south by Fulton
and Hayes streets and on the east and west by Steiner and
Scott streets. Its area comprises 12.70 acres and is all in a
high state of cultivation.

Washington Square is bounded on the north and south
by Filbert and Union streets, on the east and west by Stock-
ton and Powell streets. Its area is approximately 2.24 acres.
This square has been entirely remodeled. Walks paralleling
the streets were removed and sown to grass and the groups
disposed as called for on the plan.

Sunnyside Park is bounded on the north and south by
Thirty-second and Thirty-third streets, on the east and west
by Twin Peaks avenue and Stanyan street. Its area approxi-
mates 3.46 acres and is unimproved.

South Park is contained in the block bounded by the fol-
lowing streets : On the north and south by Bryant and Bran-
nan, on the east and west by Second and Third. Its area
approximates three-quarters of an acre and it is in good con-
dition.

Garfield Square is bounded on the north and south by
Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth streets, on the east and west
by Harrison street and Treat avenue. Its area comprises 2.86
acres and is an improved square.

Columbia Square is bounded on the northeast by Columbia
street, on the southeast by Harrison street, on the southwest
by Sherman street and on the northwest by Folsom street.
Its area comprises 2.52 acres and is an improved square.
This square has received considerable attention during the
past summer and is in fairly good condition. A few more

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 41

trees might be taken out and a few groups of shrubbery in-
troduced, but otherwise this square will need no extra atten-
tion for another year.

Hamilton Square is bounded on the north and south by
Post and Geary streets and on the east and west by Steiner
and Scott streets. Its area comprises 5.64 acres and is an
improved square.

Lafayette Square is bounded on the north and south by
Washington and Sacramento streets, on the east and west by
Laguna and Gough streets. Its area approximates 9.46 acres
and about half of it is improved. Low walls have been built
on part of the boundaries. The east side of the square has
two rectangular strips 128 feet by 412^ feet, which cut into
the square, leaving a narrow strip opposite and the same
width as Clay street. Those sections of park bordering on
Washington and Sacramento streets have the same dimen-
sions, namely, 127^4 feet by 412^ feet, and are in very rough
condition. Considerable grading and leveling have put this
section of the park in good shape. A low wall, similar to the
wall on Laguna street, has been constructed along the line
of Washington street. The section facing Washington street,
between Laguna and Octavia, has been graded, spaded, loamed
and sown to grass, and is now all improved.

Lobos Square is bounded on the north and south by Bay
and Chestnut streets, on the east and west by Laguna and
Webster streets. Its area comprises 12.69 acres and is im-
proved.

Fairmont Park is a triangular piece of ground bounded
on two sides by Bemis street. Its area 1.30 acres is unim-
proved.

Lot between Rhode Island and De Haro streets. This
square is at present unnamed and is located 133 feet south
of the south line of Army street, in the block bounded on
the north and south by Army and Marin streets, on the east

42 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

and west by De Haro and Rhode Island streets. Its area
comprises 1.50 acres.

Square between Twenty-second and Twenty -fourth avenues.
This square is bounded on the north and south by S and T
streets, on the east and west by Twenty-second and Twenty-
fourth avenues. Its area comprises 7.57 acres and is improved
by planting with ornamental trees and shrubs.

Square between Twenty-sixth and Twenty-eighth avenues.
This square is bounded on the north and south by V and W
streets and on the east and west by Twenty-sixth and Twenty-
eighth avenues. Its area comprises 7.57 acres and is unim-
proved.

Lots on Fillmore street. Ten lots running on either side
of Fillmore street, from the north line of Bay street to the
south line of Lewis street, the dimensions of all the lots being
the same — 200 feet by 275 feet, or 1.26 acres, the whole ag-
gregating 10.26 acres. All of these lots are about twenty feet
below grade.

Lot in Richmond District. This lot is bounded on the north
and south by Clement street and Point Lobos avenue and on
the east and west by Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth avenues. Its
area comprises 3.30 acres and is unimproved.

Block bounded on the north and south by Mendocino street
and First avenue and on the east and west by Massachusetts
and Delaware streets. Its area comprises 1.42 acres and is
unimproved.

McKinley Square is bounded on the north and south by
Twentieth and Twenty-first streets, on the east and west by
Vermont and Utah streets. Its area comprises 4.40 acres.

Jefferson Square is bounded on the north and south by
Eddy street and Golden Gate avenue, on the east and west by
Gough and Laguna streets. Its area approximates 11.29 acres
and all is improved.

Jackson Square, bounded on the north and south by
Seventeenth and Mariposa streets, on the east and west by

""

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 43

Arkansas and Carolina streets, has been included in the play-
grounds. Its area comprises 4.40 acres. This square is about
six feet below grade and before any improvements can be
made must be graded to the level of the street. This will re-
quire the hauling of about 6,000 cubic yards of earth and
would cost $2,000. The jurisdiction over this square has been
given to the Playground Commission.

Seal Rocks. In 1887, February 23rd, Congress granted
Seal Rocks to San Francisco. The Act provides that the Rocks
shall be kept free from encroachment by man and shall be
held inalienable for all time in trust for the people of the
United States. The Board of Supervisors April 4th, 1887,
accepted the trust and placed the Rocks under the control of
the Park Commission.

SKYLINE FEATURES

The growth of San Francisco on the peninsula south — the
line of least resistance — may surpass all estimates of expan-
sion, and it is high time that plans should be made for acquir-
ing and improving areas of land in this direction for public
parks. The land at this time can be purchased at moderate
cost compared with what many cities on the Atlantic seaboard
have been obliged to pay for desirable reservations. Mayor
Rolph has called to the official attention of the Park Commis-
sioners the desirability of maintaining, as it now exists, the
skyline feature of Twin Peaks. In order to preserve this line
of beauty, the city should possess the land on the mountain
crest, and the crown of the ridge connecting the peaks. There
is manifest public sentiment in favor of securing Sutro
Heights, and adding to the park system this superb esplanade.

Peninsula South — New Park

There is a possibility that San Francisco may acquire
a new park in San Mateo county extending from the
ocean beach near Brighton Station on the Ocean Shore
Railroad to the crest of the San Bruno Ridge. From the crest a

44 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

superb view of the Pacific Ocean and the Bay of San Francisco
may be had. Just south of the new park is Point San Pedro, a
picturesque rocky headland of the Pacific Ocean. Two hun-
dred yards from the surf on the park site there is a natural
salt water lake which is replenished by the high tides of the
ocean. By a pipe line through a sandy embankment a con-
stant ebb and flow of water from the Ocean can be maintained.
The contour of the land adjacent will permit an extension
of the lake eastward toward the valley or canyon. Trees and
shrubs may be planted along the western margin to modify
the force of the winds from the ocean. With some dredging
and shore embellishment the lake can be readily used for
boating and bathing purposes.

Photographic views accompanying this report were recently
taken, and convey to the public a clear idea of the new park
reservation. The site is one of exceptional adaptability for
park treatment, and when the work of the landscape architect
is finished, the residents and tourists will find especial delight
in the creation. The extent of level or meadow land, begin-
ning some distance up the valley toward the San Bruno hills
and extending to the eastern margin of the lake is fully one
hundred acres. It is under cultivation and lease at the present
time. The soil is rich and deep.

The canyon itself is a dream of natural beauty, being of
the true California type in its undulations and steep aclivities.
Here herds of deer, bison and elk may find such a home as
few animals in captivity are permitted to enjoy.

The acquisition of this park may be accepted as the first
step towards obtaining ample park area for the ever growing
metropolis of the Pacific Coast. Before the gates of the
Panama-Pacific International Exposition are opened much
important work may be done in the way of improving the pro-
posed new park and extending the Boulevard and electric car
lines to the ocean beach at Point San Pedro.

-c

- s-

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

45

CATALOGUE OF TREES AND SHRUBS IN
GOLDEN GATE PARK

Abelia rupestris.

Acacia diffusa.

Acer palmatum akik azon

Aberia caffra.

" discolor.

" " aureum.

Abies amabilis.

" dodonifolia.

' " atropurpur-

" balsamea.

" dolabiformis.

eum dis-

" bracteata.

" eburnea.

sectum.

" brachyphylla.

" Farnesiana.

" " atro dissec-

" cephalonica.

" flexuosa.

tum var.

" concolor.

" floribunda.

" " matuyukL

" firma.

" fragrans.

" Okushimo.

" Fremontii.

" glauca.

" " pictum au-

" grandis.

" glaucescens.

reum.

" lasiocarpus.

" Greggii.

" " " album.

" magninca,

" hispida.

" " reticulatum.

" nobilis.

" homotophylla.

" " rosa margin-

" Nordmanniana.

" horrida.

atis.

" pectinata.

" implexa.

" platanoides.

" pinsapo.

" latifolia.

" " Schwedleri.

" pumila.

" linearis.

" polymorphum.

" subalpina.

" longifolia.

" pseuda-platanus

" Veitchi.

" lophantha.

purpurem.

Abutilon aurea.

" melanoxylon.

" pseudo var.

" Boule de Neige.

" mollissima.

" rubrum.

" frutescens.

" montana.

" rufinerve.

" rubra.

" myrtifolia.

" saccharinum.

" Savitzii

" paradoxa.

" sanguineum.

" Souv. di Bon.

" pendula.

" scolopendifolium.

" striatum.

" Persiana.

" tartaricum.

" Thompsonii.

" podalarifolia.

" trifldum.

" vexillarium.

" prominens.

" urime nishiki.

Abutilon hybrida maxi-

" pycnantha.

" uriha nishiki.

mum.

" pyramidalis.

" versicolor.

Acacia arabica.

" retinoides.

" Werii laciniata.

" armata.

" Riceana.

Aconthopanax aculea-

" baileyana.

" Reimerii.

tum.

" brachybotrya.

" rubida.

Actinidea chinensis.

" calamifolia.

" saligna.

Adgestis climatidea.

" calamistrata.

" semperflorens.

Aesculus californicus.

" capensis.

" sophorae.

" flava.

" catechu.

" suaveolens.

" gigantea.

" cavenia.

" trovissima.

" glabra.

" citriodora.

" verticillata.

" hippocastanum.

" coccinea.

Acer campestra.

" japonica.

" cultriformis.

" circinatum.

" pavia.

44 cuneata.

" dasycarpum.

" rubicunda.

" cyanophylla.

" japonicum.

" turbinata.

" cyclops.

" macrophyllum.

Albizzia Julibrissin.

" dealbata.

" palmatum.

" lophantha.

" decurrens.

" naskiki.

" montana.

46

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Ailanthus glandulosa.
Alnus glutinosa.

" incana,

" serrulata.
Amelanchier Asiatica.

" canadensis.
Amorpha crocealanata.

44 fragrance nana.

" fruticosa.

44 Lewesii.

" linata.
Amygdalus alba.

" communis.

" communis flore
pleno.

" fruticosa.

" languedoc.

" nonpareil.

" purpurea.
Andromeda japonica.

" var.
Anona cherimolia.

" triloba.

Anthyllis barba-jovis.
Angophora intermedia.
Aphelandria aurantiaca
Aralia Occidentalis.

44 sieboldii.

" sieboldii Moserii.

" spinosa.
Araucaria Bidwellii.

" Cookii.

" Cunninghamii.

" excelsa.

" imbricata.
Arbutus Menziesi.

" unedo.
Arctostaphylos glauca.

" pungens.

" tomentosa.
Armeniaca bergetti.

" montgamet.

44 Moorpark.

" royal.

" St Ambroise.

" Suillins early.

" vulgaris.
Artemisia glauca.
Astragalus bertiagens.

Astragalus Bindodegino.
Aucuba Japonica.

" Japonica vir-

dis latifolia,
Azalia calendulacea.
" indica.
" " akebono.
" " amuraski.

" rinkin.
" " arinkinshi-

bori.
" " azama shi-

bori.

" Bijimanot.
" " var. macran-

thum.
" " " seke-

derii.
" " janimo-no-

yuki.

" " japonica.
" " jebotan.
" " ledifolium

var.
" " " leucan-

thum.

44 " linearifolium.
" " matsurchima.
" " mollis.
44 " occidentalis.
" " sarasa shi-

bori.
44 4< serpyrillifol-

ium.

" <4 shillipenbachi.
" " sinensis.
44 " sinensis hi-

rengei.
" " sublanceola-

tum.

Azara microphylla
Baccharis Douglasii.
Bauhinia purpurea.
Benthamia fragifera.
Berberis aquifolium.
" capitatos.
44 Darwinii.
44 dulcis.
44 Fremontii.
44 integerrinum.

Berberis japonica.
44 Beali.

44 japonica interme-
dia.

44 nervosa.

41 nepalensis.

" stenophylla.

44 Thunbergii.

" trifoliata.

" vulgaris.

44 Wallichiana.
Berchemia racemosa.
Betula alba,

" 44 pendula.

44 44 atro-purpurea.
" fastigiata
laciniata
pendula.

44 " purpurea.

44 lenta.

" lutea.

44 occidentalis.

" papyracea.

44 populifolia pen-
dula.

Boldoa fragrans.
Bouvardia fragrans.

44 Humboldtii corym-
bifolia.

44 President Garfield.
Brachychiton acerifo-
lium.

44 populifolium.
Broussonetia papyri-

fera.
Buddleia globosa.

44 Lindleyana.

44 Madagascarien-
sis.

44 variabilis.
Bupleurum fruticosum.
Bursaria spinosa.
Buxus altissima.

44 argentea.

44 " var.

" chrysophylla.

" coriacea.

" esculenta.

44 lucida.

44 myrtifolia.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 47

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Buxus rotundifolium.

Castanea glabra.

Cerasus padus.

" salicifolia.

" japonica.

" pendula.

" sempervirens.

" tomentosa.

" ranunculiflora.

" sempervirens au-

" vesca.

" serrulata.

rea.

Cassinia aurea.

" Sieboldii flora

" suffruticosa.

" vauvilliersii.

rosea.

Caladium esculentum.

Castanopsis chryso-

" tartarian.

Callicoma serratifolia.

phyllis.

Ceratonia siliqua.

Callistemon brachyan-

Castanospermum aus-

Cercidophyllum japon-

drum.

trale.

ica.

" coccineum.

Casuarina equisetifolia.

Cercis canadensis.

" hybrida.

" glauca.

" Chinensis.

" lanceolata.

" suberosa.

" siliquastrum.

" linearis.

" quadrivalvis.

Cercocarpus betulafolius.

" rugulosis.

Catalpa aurea.

" alba spicta.

" salignus.

" bignonioides.

Cestrum aurantiacum.

" speciosus.

" Kaempferi.

" coccinea.

Callitris cupressifor-

" speciosa.

" elegans.

mis.

Ceanothus africanus

" fasciculatus.

" Gunnii.

" azureus.

" rosea.

Calluna vulgaris.

" californicus.

Chamaecerus alberti.

Calodendron capensis.

" ceres.

Chamaecyparis ericoides.

Calothamnus purpurea.

" glorie d'Versailles.

" decussata.

" quadrifidus.

" integerrimus.

" Lawsoniana,

Calpurnia lasiogyne.

" prostrata.

" " argentea.

Calycanthus floridus.

" sessilifolia.

" " drummondL

" Humboldtii.

" thrysiflorus.

" glauca.

" occidentalis.

Cedrus atlantica.

" " erecta viridis.

Camellia japonica.

" " cinerescens.

14 " " frls»nr»Q

" sasanqua.

" deodara.

glctUCci.

" " lutea.

" sassantora.

" " crassifolia.

" theifera.

" " aurea.

" " lycopodeae.

Camphora officianalis.

" Libani.

" " pendula.

Cantua buxifolia.

" glauca.

" squarrosa Veitchii.

Capparis spinosa.

Cedrela fissiiis.

" " triomph de

Caragana altagana.

Celastrus articulatus.

Booskop.

" aborescens.

Celtis Australis.

" nutkaensis.

Carissa grandiflora.

" cordata.

" abtusa.

Carpinus betulus.

" crassifolia.

" alba picta.

Carya olinaeformis.

" occidentalis.

" compacta.

Caryopteris mastacan-

Centradena grandiflora.

" plumosa.

thus.
Carmichaelia Australis.

" rosea.
Cephalotaxus Fortunei.

" " alba picta.

Carrierea calycima.

Cerasus avium.

' argentea.

Cassia artemisioides.

" alba-

" aurea.

" corymbosa.

plena.

" variegata.

" floribunda.

" ilicifolia.

" obroviensis.

' marylandica.

" japonica pendula.

" pisifera.

" sophera.

" Napoleon Biga-

" argenteo var-

Castanea Americana.

reau.

iegata.

48

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Chamaceyparis pisifera
aurea.

" " filifera.

" squarrosa.
Chimonanthus frag-
rance.

Chionanthus virginica.
Choisya ternata.
Choranthus brachy-

stachys.

Chorizema ilicifolia.
Cinamomum peduncu-
latum.

" sericeum.

" zeylanicum.
Cineraria arborea.
Cistus albidus.

" aurantiaca.

" crispus.

" landaniferus.

" maculatus.

" major.

" rosea.

" salvifolius.
Citharezylon barbin-

erve.

Citriobatus multiflorus.
Citrus chinensis.

" Rangeon.

" trifoliata.
Cladrastis amurensis.
Clerodendron specie-
sum.

" Veitchotomum.
Clethra arborea.

" bervincuis.
Cleyera japonica.

" " var.
Clianthus dampieri.

" puniceus.

" punicens alba.
Coccoloba platyclada.
Colletia ferox.
Colquhonia vistata.
Colutea cruenta.

" paniculata.
Commersonia fraserii.

Coprosma baueriana.

Crataegus oxyacanthus

" " picturata.

elegans.

" " variegata.

" " pendula.

" lucidum.

" " pyramidalis.

" robusta.

" " rubra.

Corchorus japonica.

" " sanguinea.

Coriaria myrtifolia.

" Lelandii.

" ruscifolia.

" pyracantha.

" sarmentosa.

Cryptomeria araucario-

Cornus alternifolia.

ides.

" circinatus.

" elegans.

" floridus.

" japonica.

" macrophylla.

Cunninghamia sinensis.

niascula var.

Cupressus arizonica.

' " elegantissima.

" Braziliensis.

Nuttallii.

" chinensis.

' pubescens.

" fastigiata.

sanguinea.

" funebris.

' siberica folia alba

" Goveniana.

marginata.

" Guadalupensis.

" spathii.

" lusitanica.

" suecica.

" Knightiana.

Coronilla glauca.

" macrocarpa.

" " variegata.

" " aurea.

" juncea.

" " variegata.

" emerus.

" McNabiana.

" viminalis. .

" pyramidalis.

Correa cardinalis.

" sempervirens.

Corylopsis spicata.

" torulosa.

Corylus americana.

Cydonia japonica.

Corynocarpus laeviga-

" " maulii.

tus.

" " rosea.

Cotoneaster angusti-

" " umbellicata.

folia.

" vulgaris.

" frigidus.

Cytisus albus.

" Simonii.

" arizonica.

" Sinensis.

" bullatus.

" buxifolia.

" californicus.

" coccinia.

" canariensis.

" horizontalis.

" capitatus.

" microphylla.

" elaborata.

" nepalensis.

" elongatus.

" pannosa.
" thymifolia.

" glabarata.
" hirsutus.
linearis.

Crataegus crus galli.

nigrans.

" crenulata.

proliferus.

" Douglassii.

proliferus albus.

" monogyna Pauli.

purpurens.

" oxyacanthus.

quercifolius.

" " alba plena.

racemosus.

B Ji

V "Q -fir'

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

49

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Cytisus scoparius.

Echium argenteum.

Eucalyptus coccifera.

" sessilifolius.

" candicans.

" collosea.

" spinosa.

" lindleyana.

" concolor.

" tinctoria.

" strictum.

" cordatus.

" triflorus.

Elacoca cordata.

" cornuta.

Dammara australis.

Elaeagnus hortensis.

" " lehmannii.

" robusta.

44 " angustifolia.

" corymbosa.

Damnacanthus indicus.

" longipes.

" corynocalyx.

Daphne genkwa.

" pungens.

" cosmophylla.

" indica.

" " maculata.

" diversicolor.

" " variegata.

" " variegata.

" eugeneoides.

" laureola.

" umbellata.

" exima.

'• odora.

Elaeocarpus Hookeria-

" exserta.

Daphnephylium glau-

nus.

" ficifolia.

cescens.

Elecesaria excelsa.

" fissilis.

" macrophyllum.

Entelea arborescens.

" florabunda.

Darwinia citriodora.

Enkianthus japonicus.

" globulus.

Dasycridium cupressi-

" " nanus.

" goniocalix.

num.

Eranthemum pictum.

" Gunnii.

Datura arborea.

Erica arborea.

" haemastoma.

" sanguinea.

" blanda.

" hemiphloia.

" suaveolens.

" Gauermanii.

" leptopleba.

Deeringia celesioides.

" hyalina.

" leucoxylon.

" " variegata.

" hyemalis.

" longifolia.

Desmodium p e n d u 1 i-

" Lewesii.

" macrocarpa.

flora.

" mediterranea.

" macroshyncha.

Dendropanax Japonica.

" melanthera.

" maculata.

Dimorphotheca Ecklonis.

" multiflora grandi-

" marginata.

Deutzia crenata flora-

flora.

" melliodora.

plena.

" persoluta alba.

" muelleri.

Diervilla alba.

" purpurea.

" obliqua.

" Othello.

" triumphens.

" occidentalis.

" rosea.

" vagans alba.

" pauciflora.

" variegata.

" " major.

" paniculata.

" rubra.

" " minor.

" pilularis.

" speciosa.

" vilmoreana.

14 piperita.

" venosa var.

Erythrina cristagali.

" polyanthemos.

Diosma alba.

" coralladendron.

" Pressii.

" capitata.

Escallonia berteriana.

" pulverulenta.

" ericoides.

" leucantha.

" resinifera.

" purpurea.

" organensis.

" Riddonii.

" tenuifoiia.

" macrantha.

" Risdonii.

Diospyros virginiana.

" Montevidensis.

" robusta.

Diplopappus c h r y s o-

" Philipiana.

" rostra ta.

phylla.

" rosea.

" rudis.

Distylium racemosum.

" rubra.

" saligna.

Dodonaea trignetra.

Eucalyptus amj-gda-

" stricta.

" viscosa.

lina.

" Stuartiana,

Dombeya natalensis.

" calophylla.

" tereticornis.

Duranta plumierii.

" cineria.

" viminalis.

" alba.

" citriodora.

" vittata.

50

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Eucoinmia Ulmoides.
Eugenia apiculata.

" jambos.

" latifolia.

" Michelli.

" Moorii.

" myrtifolia.

" regni.
Euonymus europeus.

" fimbriatus.

" japonicus.

" argentea var.

" " " m a r g i-
natus.

" " alba.

" " aurea m a r-

ginatus.

" latifolius al-
bus.

" " " aureus.

" Japonica Due d'An-
jou.

" pulchellus var.

" radicans.

" " variegatus.
Eupatorium ageratoi-
des.

" purpureum.

" micranthum.
Euphorbia dendroidas.

" Dishii.

" riparium.

" speciosum.

" weimannianum.
Europeus elatus.
Eurya japonica.
Eurybia australis.
Euscaphis staphyleo-

ides.

Exochordia grandiflora.
Fabiana imbricata,
Fagus ferruginea.

" incisa.
1 sylvatica.

" " purpurea.
Fatsia japonica.

" macrophylla.

" papyrifera.
Flcus australis.

" Bellingerii.

Ficus Carica.

" elastica.

" " var.

" erecta,

" indica.

" macrophyllus.

" paperifera.

" pumila.

" repens.

" scandens.
Fontanesia phillyraeoi-

des.
Forsythia fortu)iea.

" suspensa.

" viridissima.
Fraxinus accuminata.

" americana.

" aucubifolius.

" excelsior.

" " pendula.

" " aurea p e n-
dula,

" integerifolius.

" " lacineatus.

" oregonia.

" ornus.

" platycarpa.

" pubinervis.

" salicifolius.

" - velutinus.
Fremontia californica.
Frenela australis.

" Muellerii.

" rhomboides.

" robusta.
Gardenia radicans.
Garrya elliptica.

" Fremontii.
Gaultheria shallon.
Gaylussacia dumosa.
Genista alba.

" andreana.

" candicars.

" linifolium.

" mantica.

" monosperma.

" Palmerii.

" sinensis.
Geycosum citrifolius.
Gleditschia triacan-
thus.

Globularia longifolia.
Goodenia flava.
Goodia latifolia.

" pubescens.
Grabowskia glauca.
Grevillea Hertii.

" Hilleana.

" robusta.

" Thelemanniana.
Guevina avellana.
Gymnocladus canaden-

sis.
Hakea aricularis.

" elliptica.

" latifolia.

" leucaptera.

" nodosa.

" pugioniformis.

" saligna.

" ulicina.

" vernocosa.
Hamamelis japonica.
Harpephyllum caffrurn.
Harpullea pendula.
Heimea elegans.
Helesia tetraptera.
Hibiscus Californicus.

" cisplatanus.

" macrophylla.

" mutabilis.

" pungens.

" Reevesii.

" rosea.

" splendens.

" syriacus.

" totus albus.
Hilbertia linearis.
Hovenia dulcis.
Hydrangea hortensis.

" " variegata.

" " nigra.

" involucrata.

" paniculata gran-
diflora.

" petiolaris maxime.

" ramulus coccinea.

" stellata rubra.
Hymenosporum flavum.
Hypericum calycinum.

" canariensis.

" elatum.

c c

a
O CX,

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

51

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Hypericum floribun-

Juglans nigra.

Lagunaria Pattersonii.

dum.

" regia.

Lantalium alba.

" chinensis.

" Sieboldii.

Latana camara.

" moserianum.

Juniperus Bermudiana,

" selloviana.

" patulum.

" chinensis.

Larix europea.

Ilex aquifolium.

" " alba varie-

" leptolepsis.

" " alba picta.

gata.

" occidentalis.

" " argentea.

" " aurea.

Laurus nobilis.

" " " m e d i o-

" " " pendula.

Lavendula spica.

picta.

" " japonica.

" stoechas.

" " aurea picta

" communis.

Lavatera arborea.

latifolia.

" " cracovia.

" " variegata.

" " ferox.

" " hibernica.

Leonotis leouurus.

" argentea.

" " suecica.

Leptospermum ericifol-

" " fructuluteo.

" " compacta.

ium.

" Hendersonii.

" cupressiformis.

" flavescens.

" " tortuosa.

" drupacea.

" laevigatuin.

" aurea fiammula.

Juniperus 1 i n e a r i s

" lanigerum.

" cornuta.

platieriana.

" myrtifolium.

" cuneata.

" littoralis.

" scoparium.

" integrifolia.

" occidentalis.

Leucadendron argen-

" " var.

" procumbens.

teum.

" japonica.

" recurva squam-

Leucanthemum nippon-

" latifolia.

ata,

Icum,

" marginata.

" rigida.

Leycesteria formosa.

" robusta.

" sphaerica.

Libocedrus chilensis.

" Sieboldi.

" sabina.

" decurrens.

Illicium parviflorum.

" virginiana.

Ligustrum Californi-

" religiosum.

" elegans.

cum.

Indigofera australis.

" " glauca.

" " aureum.

" tinctoria.

" " pendula.

" ciliatum.

Inga dulcis.

" tripartita.

" ibota.

lochroma coccinea.

" venusta.

" linearis.

" speciosa.

Justicia carnea.

" japonicum.

" tubulosa.

Kadsura japonica.

" " variegatum.

Isomeros arborea.

Kalmia glauca.

" lucidum.

" fruticans.

" latifolia.

" vulgare.

Itea virginica.
Jacaranda cusidiflora,
" mimosifolia.

Kaubra polygana.
Keteleeria Fortune!.

" sinense.
Lindera benzoin.
" sericera.

Jacobinea magnifica.

Kerria japonica.

Lippia citriodora.

Jasminum alba.

" " flora plena.

Liquidambar styraci-

" aurea.

Koebrenteria bipiu-

flua.

" capensis.

nata.

Liiriodendron tulipi-

" fruticosum.

" paniculata.

fera.

" nudiflorum.

Laburnum alpinum.

Lithraea melleoides.

" Sambac.

" vulgare.

Lonicera involucrata.

Juglans californica.

" " aurea.

" tatarica alba.

" cineria.

" " quercifolia.

Logania floribunda.

" cordiformis.

Lagerstromia indica.

Lupinus arboreus.

52

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Laipinus chamissonis.
Lyanothamnus flori-

bundus.

Lycium parviflorum.
Macadamia ternifolia.
Machaerium tipa.
Madura aurantiaca.
Magnolia acuminata.

" conspicua.

" fuscata.

" glauca.

" grandiflora.

" hypoleuca.

" kobus.

" La Gallisoniere.

" Mantais.

" obovata purpurea.

" oxoniensis.

" parviflora.

" " pendula.

" Precoix du maux.

" pupurea.

" Soulangeana.

" " gracilis.

" stellata rubra.
Mahernia odorata.
Malvaviscus aboreus.
Marsdenia macro-

phylla.

Margycarpus setosus.
Maytenus Boaria.

" chilensis.
Michelea compressa.
Melaleuca acuminata.

" Preisseana.

" armillaris.

" decussata.

" genistifolia.

" hypericifolia.

" incana.

" latifolia,

1 leucadendron.

" styphelioides.
Melia Azedarach.

" japonica.
Melianthus major.
Melicope ternata,
Menziesia ferruginea.
Mespilus japonica.

Metrosideros amoena.

" lophantha.

" lugulosa.

" violacea.

" robusta.

" semperflorens.

tomentosa.
Milletia japonica.
Mimulus glutinosus.

" puniceus.
Morus alba.

" japonica.

" multicaulus.

" nigra.

" " pendula.
Murray a exotica.
Myoporum insulare.

" lactum.

" maculata.
Myrica californica,

" rubra.
Myrtus commur.is.

" " flora plena

" " microphylla.

" " variegata.
Nandina domestica.
Negundo aceroides.

" " laciniatum.

" " variegatum.
Nerium album plenum.

" madonna grandi-
flora.

" oleander.

" splendens.
Nertia depressa,
Notelaea longifolia.
Ochrosia elliptica.
Olea aquifolium.

" europea.

" fragrance.

" picolina.

" sativa.

" splendens.
Olearia ilicfolia.
Ononis rotundifolia.
Osmanthus ilicifolia.
" " variegata.
" latifolia.
" ligustifolia.

Otherathyrex h i s p i-

dium.
Oxylobium c a 1 1 i s-

tachys.

Paliurus aculeatus.
Paratropia stelzeriana.
Parkinsonia aculeata.
Parsonia lanceolata.

" latifolia.

" linearis.
Paulownia imperialis.
Pavonia hastata.

" natalis.
Persica .vulgaris alba

plena.
Persica vulgaris rosea

plena.

Phebalium dentatum.
Philadelphus corona-
rius.

" Gordonianus.

" grandiflorus.

" " laxus.

" peckinensis.

" primulae florus.

" salicifolius.
Phillyrea angustifolia.

" ilicifolia.

" latifolia.

" media,
Phlogacanthus thyrsi-

folius.
Photinia arbutifolia

" " fructo-lutea.

" glabra.

" japonica,

" serrulata.
Phytolacca arborea.

" decandra.

" dioica.
Picea alba.

" Alcockiana.

" columbiana.

" Engelmanni.

" excelsa.

" " aurea.

" " macrosperma,

" " nana.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

53

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Picea alba pumilla glau-

Pinus rubra.

Pomaderris apetela.

ca.

" Sabiniana.

" aspera.

" " pendula.

" strobus.

" prunifolia.

" " pyramidalis.

" sylvestris.

" serrignea.

" Jezoensis.

" taeda.

Populus argentea.

" Meiiziesii.

" Torreyana.

" balsamifera.

" nigra.

" tuberculata.

" caroliniensis.

" " DoumettL

Pistacia terebinthus.

" nigra.

" polita.

" vera

" " fastigiata.

" pungens.
" " glauca.

Pittosporum buchan-

- — £

" " pendula.
Prunus lauro cerasus.

" " Kosteriana,
" Smithiana.

am.
" crassifC'Jium.

Pronaya fabura.
Prostanthera lasian-

Pimelia australis.

" erioloma.

thus.

" ligustrina.

" eugeneoides.

" nivea.

" rosea.

" heterophylla.

" sibercii.

Pinus albicaulis.

" nigrum.

" suberosa.

" austriaca.

" phillyreaoides.

Prunus americana.

" Banksiana,

" raphii.

" angustifolia.

" canariensis.

" rhombifolium.

" caroliniana.

" cembra.

" tobira.

" domestic.

" cerabroides.

" " variegata.

" chabot

" patula.

" undulatum.

" chalco.

" contorta.

" vJridiflorum.

" " Columbia.

" Coulteri.

Plagianthus Ijallii.

" " clyman.

" densiflora.

Planera cuspidata.

" " normandy.

" edulis.

" japonica.

" tragedy.

" excelsa.

Platanus occidentalis.

" " Simonii.

" halepensis.

" orientalis.

" cerasifera.

" Hamiltonii.

" " variegata.

" illicifolia.

" inops.

" racemosus.

" integrifolia.

" Jeffreyii.

Pleroma maorantha.

" lustanica.

" koraiensis.

Plumeria Lambertiana

" mume.

" Lambertiana.

Podalyria argentea.

" padus.

" laricio.

" sericea.

" pisardii.

" longifolia.

Podocarpus ferrugin-

" pseuda cerasus hi-

" Massoniana.

eus.

za-kura.

" mitis.

" japonica.

" shiro fu-

" monophylla.

" spinulosa.

gen.

" montezuma.

" totara,

" " " yoshimo.

" montlcola.

Poinciana Gillesi.

" ranunculiflora.

" mughus.

" pulcherrima.

" salicifolia.

" muricata.

" regia.

" Sieboldi.

" Murreyana,

Polygala alternata.

" spinosa.

" Parryarva,

" apopelata.

" subhirtella.

" parviflora.

" dalmaisana,

" tomentosa.

" pinaster.

Populus angustifolia.

" triloba.

" pinea.

" aureus.

Pseudotsuga Douglasii.

" ponderosa.

" grand i flora.

" " glauca.

" radiata.

" virgata speciosa.

" " pendula.

54 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Pseudotsuga Douglasii

Quercus cerris.

Rhododendron barbatum.

taxifolia.

" coccinea.

" blandfordiaeflor-

Psidium aromatica.

" crispula.

um.

" lucidum.

" cuspidata.

" bcule de neige.

" cattleyanum.

" densiflora.

" californicum.

" guara.

" dentata.

" calophyllum.

Psoralea glandulosa.

" Douglasii.

" caractacus.

" pinnata.

" Dumasa bullata.

" catawbierise.

Ptelea trifoliata.

" garryana.

" " grandiflorum.

Pueraria thunbergiana.

" glandulifera.

" Charles Dickens.

Pultenaea flexilis.

" glauca.

" Chevalier Felix de

Punica granatum.

" Humboldtii.

Sauvage.

" " nana.

" Ilex.

" Compte de Jorner.

Pyrus americana.

" laevigata.

" Countess of Clan-

" aria.

" lobata.

carty.

" atro-purpurea.

" macrocarpa,.

" carajia.

" aucubifolia.

" montana.

" Countess of Sef-

" carnea plena.

" obtusiloba.

ton.

" communis anjou.

" olivaeformis.

" Cunningham's

" bosc.

" palmyra.

white.

" " boussock.

" palustris. •

" Duchess of Con-

" " clairgeau.

" pendula.

naught.

" " Colximbia.

" Phellos.

" Duchess of Ed-

" diel.

" phyllineoides.

inburgh.

" " caster beauty.

" pinnatifolia.

" Duchess of Teck.

" Emilie

" Prinus.

" emblem.

d'heyst.

" Robur.

" Everestianum.

" " flemish beauty.

" rubra.

" Falconeri.

" '• onondago.

" sempervirens.

" fragrantissimo.

" •• Prince S t.

" serrata.

" fulgens.

Germain.

" sessiliflora.

" Minnie.

" ccronaria odorata.

" salicifolia.

" Mrs. Fitzgerald.

" domestica.

" stillengia.

" Mrs. John Glut-

" flcrabunda.

" suber.

ton.

" halliana.

" tinctoria.

" nirens.

" japonica.

Quillaja saponaria.

" niveum.

" " variegata.

Rhamnus alpinus.

" nilagericum.

" mallus.

" californicus.

" nobleanum.

" " baccata.

" catharticus.

" Onslorianum.

" " carnea.

" Coulterii.

" Parsons glorios-

" '• odorata.

" frangula.

um.

1 rubra.

" infectorius.

" Prince Albert.

" sambucifolia.

" integrifolius.

" Camille de

" spectabilis.

" Purshiana.

Rohan.

" kaido.

Rhaphiolepsis indica.

" Eugene.

" toringo.

Rhododendron albicans.

" Princess Alexan-

Quercus acuta.

" Andersoiiii.

dra.

" agrifolia.

" athens.

" Queen of Dwarfs.

" alba.

" arboreum.

" Rosaline.

" aquatica.

" aurora.

" roseum norum.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

55

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Rhododendron rugino-
sum.

" sabinian.

" Schiller.

" Sir H. Havelock.

" skidera.

" sultana.

" skirsmirayo.

" The Maroon.

" The Queen.

" thibanbiense.

" Thomsoni.

" WrightiL

" glaucum.

" grande.

" grenadier.

" habbanum bicolor.

" Harry Bartran.

" heimilicuni.

" Helen Waterer.

" Hodgsoni.

" Imperatrice E u-
genie.

" Jenkinsii.

" John Walter.

" John "Waterer.

" J. Marshall
Brooks.

" Kate Waterer.

" ledifolium leuoan-
themum.

" leonidas.

" limbatum.

" Mad. Carvalfo.

1 Mad. Masson.

" Mad. Rosenthal.

" Mad. Wagner.

" Mad. Walter.

" maximum.

" magniflcum.

" Metternichii.

" " obtusum.

" Michael Waterer.

" William Austin.

" William Glad-
stone.

" zealandicum.
Rhodocistus Berthelo-

tianus.
Rhus copallina.

Rhus Corfaria.

" Cotinus.

" diversiloba,

" glabra.

" " laciniata,

" Sylvestris.

" Toxicodendron.

" vernicifera.
Ribes alpinum.

" capensis.

" Grossularia.

" rubrum.

" sanguineum.
Ricinus communis.

" " Gibsoni.

" borboniensis.

" " zanzibarien-

sis.

Rivina humilus.
Robina hispida.

" pseudacacia.

" " bessoniana.

" " decaisneana.
" fastigiata.

* inermis.

" nigra,
Rochea coccinea.
Romneya Coulterii.
Rondeletia speciosa,
Rosa Anna Alexieff.

" Anna Oliver.

" Agrippina,

" Banksia white.

" " yellow.

" Beaute Insonstante.

" Black Prince.

" Bon Silene.

" Bridesmaid.

" " climbing.

" Capt Christy.

" " Hayward.

" Cherokee single.

" Crimson Rambler.

" Dorothy Perkins.

" Duchess of Al-
bany.

" Duchess de Bra-
bant

" Dr. Grill.

" Etiole de Lyon.

Rosa Fisher Holmes.
" Fortunes Yellow.
" Frau Karl

Druschki.

" Gen. Jacquiminot.
" General McAr-

thur.

" Gloire de Dijon,
" Gloire de Magot-

tin.

" Gloire Lyonaisse.
" Gold of Ophir.
" Grace Darling.
" Gruss an Teplitz.
" Helen Gould.
" Her Majesty.
" Hermosa,
" John Hopper.
" Kaiserin Augusta

Victoria.

« « «« «« climb-
ing.

" Kate Moulton.
" Killarney.
" Lamarque.
" Letty Coles.
" Mad. A. Carriere.
" Mad. Caroline

Testout.

" " " climbing.
" Mad. Gabriel Lui-

zet.

" Mad. Hoste.
" Magna Charta,
" Mama Cochet.
" Margaret Dickson.
" Maria Van

Houtte.

" Mildred Grant.
" Mile. Cecile Brun-

ner climbing.
" Mrs. John Mc-
Laren.

" Mrs. John Laing.
" Papa Gontier.
" Paul Xeyron.
" Perle de Jardins.
" Perle von Godes-

burg.

56

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Rosa Prince de Rohan.

" Rainbow.

" Reine Marie Hen-
riette.

" Reve d'Or.

" South Orange
Perfection.

" Ulrich Brunner.

" Veilchenblau.

" Viscountesse
Folkestone.

" Wichuriana.

" William Francis

Bennett.

Rosemarinus officinalis.
Rubus fruticosus.

" occidentalis.

" rosaefolius.
Ruscus aculeatus.
Salisburia adiantifolia,
Salix alba.

" babylonica.

" caprea variegata
pendula.

" fragilis.

" nigra.

" multinervis.

" pendula.

" purpurea.

" rosmarinifolia.

" tricolor.

" vitellina.
Sambucus argenetus.

" nigra.

" " aurea.

" racemosa.

" " purpurea.

" " lacineata.
Sapium sebiferum.
Schinus longifolium.

" molle.

" terebinthifolius.
Sciadopitys verticillata.
Sequoia gigantea,

" " fastigiata.

" " glauca.

" " pendula.

" sempervirens.

" " glauca.
Serissa foetida.

Shizophragma hydran-

geoides.
Sida pulchella,
Skimmia japonica,
Solandra grandifiora.
Solanum ariculare.

" capsicastrum.

" crinitum.

" gayanum.

" glaucaphyllum.

" Hendersonii.

" heterophylla.

" hoemitacarpum.

" laciniatum.

" lanceolatum.

" raacrocarpum.

" niarginatum.

" Rantonetti.

" robustum.

" seai'orthianum.

" Wendlandii.

" Weatherilli.
Sophora japonica.

" " pendula,

" microphylla.

" tetraptera.
Southerlandia frutes-

cens.

Spartinum junceum.
Spiraea argentea,

" ariefolia.

" Aruncus.

" Billardi.

" callosa.

" " atro-sanguin-
ea.

" " sernperflor-
ens.

" Douglasii.

" " Nobleana.

" opulifolia.

" palmatae.

" prunifolia flora
plena.

" Reevesiana.

" robusta.

" Thunbergii.

" Von Houtte.

" Watsrerii.
Stachyurus praecox.

Stenocarpus sinuatus.
Sterculia acerifolia.

" diversifolia.

" platanifolia.
Stevia serrata.
Streptosolen Jamesonii.
Stuartia pentagyna.

" pseudo camellia.
Styphelia pinnata.
Styrax americana.

" Californicus.

" japonica.

" Obassia.

" Stantonii.
Swainsona galegifolia.

" " albiflora.
Syncarpia laurifolia.
Syringa Bertha Dar-
win.

" Countess of Paris.

" Fleur d' Orange.

" gigantea.

" japonica,

" Lemoine flore
pleno.

" Michael Bucliner.

" persica.

" Ranuncus.

" Reitenbachii.

" Rubella plena.

" rubra insignis.

" vulgaris.
Tamarix gallica.

" hispida.

" plumosa.
Taxodium distichum.

" nmcronatum.
Taxus baccata.

" " adpressa.

" " " stricta.

" " argentea.

" " cheshunten-
sis.

" " dovastoni.

" ' " pendula.

«« " " variegata.

" " elegantissima
aurea.

" " ericoides.
" fastigiata.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

57

Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs — Continued

Taxus baccata aurea,
" nana,

" " " varie-
gata.

" " fructa lutea,

" " glauca

" " imperialis.
" pendula gra-
cilis.

" " pyramidalis.

" " tardiva,

" " " aurea.

" " "Washingtonii.

" brevifolia.

" canadensis.

" cuspidata,
Templetonia retusa,
Teucrium fruticans.
Thuya Craiginana.

" gigantea.

" '* aurea.

" occidentalis.

" " plicata.

" orientalis.

" " aurea.

" " filiformis.

" " pendula.
" Sieboldii.

" tartarica.
Thuyopsis dolobrata,

" " variegata,
Tilia americana,

" argentea,

" dasystyla,

" Europea,

" " aurea,
" laciniata.

Tilia Europa pendula.
Torreya Californica.

" nucifera.
Toxicophlaea spectabi-

lis.

Tristania conferta.
Tsuga canadensis.
" carolinianum.
" Hookerinana,
" Mertensiana,
" Pattoniana.
Ulex europaeus.
Ulmus americana.

" variegata.
" campestris.

" aurea.

•" " Clemnierii.
" " cornubiensis.
" " cucullata,
" foliis varie-

gatis.

" " suberosa,
" fulva,
" monumentalis.
" scabra.

" doraei.
" Huntingtonii.
" exoniensis.
" pendula.
" purpurea,
" " pyramidalis.
" sempervirens.
Umbellularia Califor-
nica.

Ungnadia speciosa.
Veronica Andersonii.

" var.
" arborea.

Veronica buxifolia,

" carnea,

" elliptica,

" imp^rialis.

" paniculata,

" parviflora.
" alba,

" repens.

" salicifolia.

" speciosa.
Viburnum lantanum.

" odoratissima.
" var.

" opulus.

" rotundifolia.

" tinus.

" grandiflora,

" tinus var.
Viccinum macrocarpum.

" ovatum.

" vacillans.
Virgilia capensis.

" lutea.

Vitex angus castus.
"Westringea rosmarini-

folia.
Widdringtonia "Whytei.

" cupressoides.
Wigandia caracasaiia.
Xanthoceras sorbifolia.
Xylomelum pyriforme.
Zanthoxylon piperitum.

" spinifex.
Zelkova acuminata,

" carnosula.

" coerulea.

" decussota.

" decumbens.

58 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

FERNS AND LYCOPODS IN THE
CONSERVATORY

Adiantum amabile 8 15"

" bellum 8

" Bausei 2

" cuneatum 6 10"

" " Mundulum 1 6"

" " triumph 12 16"

" Roenbeckii 20

" " deflexum 1

" " variegatum 1

" " grandiceps 2

" Fergusonii 1 10"

" concinnum latum 6 1'

" Weigandii 4 8"

" decorum 1 1'

" hybridum 3 18"

" fragrantissimum 2 20"

" formosum 4 2'

" tenerum 9 V

" Legrandii 2 6"

" macrophyllum 11 16"

" perwianum 20

" cardiochleana 4 16"

" trapexif orlae 14 2'

" Santa Catherinae 2 14"

" Capillus veneris 1 6"

" " " imbricatum 2 4"

" O'Brienii 3 14"

" Williamsii 1 18"

" hispidulum 6 6"

" Glory of Moodrecht 1 2'

Acrostichum scandens 13 2'

" aureum 1 4'

" capensis 1 18"

Angeopteris evicta 3 4'

Asplenium Belangerii 1 8"

" bulbiferum 1 1'

" nidus avis 12 2'

Blechnum corcovadense 1 18"

" braziliense 8 2'

" Occidentalis 6 8"

Chielanthes elegans 4 10"

Cyrtomium falcatum 3 1'

" Fortune! 1 6"

Cybotium Barometz 1 2'

Davallia canariensis 1 6*

" Tyermanii 1 6"

" Mooreana 3 8'

" fijiensis 3 1'

" major 6 1'

ft

-

=

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 59
Ferns and Lycopods — Continued

Davallia pyxidata 1 3'

Gymnogramme crysophylla 11 14"

" decomposita 1 1'

" tartarea 1 14"

" bioureta gigantea 4 1'

Hymenodium crinitum 1 8"

Lastrea aristata 1 6"

" glabella 1 1'

Lomaria gibba 4 1'

Lycopodium Ballardrierii 1 14"

L,ygodium scandens 5 3'

Marattia Douglassii 2 6'

" attenuata 1 3'

Nephrobolis lingua 2 10"

" " corymbifera 2 8"

Nephrodium decompositium 1 4"

" molle 3 16"

" " grandiceps 2 16"

" corymbiferum 2 12"

hispidulum 1 8"

Nephrolepis bulbif erum 100 14"

" Scottii 2 14"

" Whitmanii 2 2'

" Amerpohlii 1 i'

" Scholzelii 4 1'

" Piersonii 2 2'

" Philippiensis 1 8"

" exaltata plumosa 1 2'

' Zollingeriana 2 3'

" davallioides furcans 13 2' 6"

" " cristata 16 2'

" bostoniensis 3 3'

" Anna Foster 1 4'

Platycerium alcicorne 8 1'

" " makus 2 18"

" YTallichii , 1 14"

" grande 3 2'

" Willinckii 1 2'

Polypodium aureum 6 3'

" sporatocarpum 5 2'

" angustatum 1 15"

" venosum 5 2'

" Lowianum 2 3'

Polystichum angulare 6 6"

Pteris argyrea 12 2'

" Drinkwaterii 1 8"

' Ouvrardii 1 4"

" flabellata 6 6"

" cretica albo lineata 6 4"

" serreulata 12 6"

" cristata 6"

60 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Ferns and Lycopods — Continued

Pteris longifolia .......................................... 2 1'

1'

" Alexandrae ,

1

" tremula

3

" grandifolium

1

" Winsettii

2

Selaginella Krausiana

10

" aurea

1000

" macrocarpa

4

" Wildenovii

2

" caesia arborea

6

" Emiliana

6

" densa

1

" Mertensii

6

Todea hymenophyllioides ....

3

" superba

6

Trichomanes flexuosus

2

TREE FERNS

IN CONSERVATORY

Alsophia australis ,

144 4

" "

140

Cybotium regalis ,

1

" glaucum

1

" chamissoi

1

" Menziesii

6

" princeps

1

" Schiedei

1

Cyathea dealbata

1

" Smithii

1

Dicksonia antarctica

3

' squarrosa

1

Hemitelia Smithii

1

Sadleria cyathcoides

3

10"
2"
2"

1'

6"

3'

8"
1"
4"
2"

2' 6
4'
2'
3'

WATER LILIES IN CONSERVATORY

(When no height is designated the growth is level with top of water.)

Limnocharis Humboltii ............................... 1

Nelumbium speciosum ................................ 1 3'

Nymphea Devoniensis ................................. 14

" dentata .......................................... 8

" George Huster ................................... 4

" Zanzabariensis ................................... 4

1 azurea ...................................... 3

ORCHIDS IN CONSERVATORY

Aerides quinquevalnerum ............................. 14 1'

Brassavola glauca ..................................... 6 6

" oculata ........................................ 2 4

" Digbyana ........................................ 1 4

Calanthe Veitchii . 3 4

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 61
Orchids in Conservatory — Continued

Catasetum media 1 6

Cattleya amethystina 1 6

" intermedia 2 5

" Dowiana aurea 60 18

" chocoensis 1 6

" eldorado 1 6

" Gaskelliana 28 1'

" gigas 21 18"

- Mendelii 129 1'

" labiata 264 15"

" Mossiae 137 1'

" Percivaliana 106 8"

" Skinnerii 12 1'

" Schroderae 84 1'

" trianae 530 1'

" alba 6 1'

Chysis aurea 1 1'

Coelogyne cristata 2 3"

" Fostermanii 1 6"

Cymbideum Lowianum 4 18"

" giganteum 8 2'

Cypripedium albo purpureum 1 4"

" barbatum 6 3"

" venustum 4 3"

" Lowii 1 6"

" Stonei 1 7"

" Villosum 4 4"

" Boxallii 4 4"

" insigne 28 5"

" " maculatum 1 5"

" Maulii 2 5"

" Curtisii 1 4"

" Sedenii 26 10"

" Lawrenceanum 1 2"

" Haynaldianum 1 3"

" Spicerianum 4 2"

" Dominianum 1 4"

Epidendron cilare 1 8"

" vitellinum 2 8"

" atro purpureum 2 6"

" aurantiacum 1 4"

" eburneum 1 4"

Laelia acuminata 2 5"

" " rosea 2 5"

" Arnoldiana 2 6"

" anceps 22 6"

" alba 6 6"

" Dawsonii 2 6"

" Hillii 4 6"

" autumnalis 2 6"

" crispa 1 l'

62 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Orchids in Conservatory — Continued

Laelia Dayana 1 4'

" purpurata 1 1'

" superbiens 4 2'

Leptotes bicolor 1 4"

Lycas aromatica 6 4"

" Deppi 2 4"

" lanipes 4 4"

" Skinnerii 3 4"

Masdavallia maculata 1 3"

Odontoglossum citrusmum 2 6"

" Crispum 4 4"

" grande 18 4"

" Rossii 6 3"

Oncidium ampliatum 1

" Cavendishianum 2 8"

" splendens 4 6"

" varicosum Rodgersii 4

" unguculatum 1 4"

" ornithorhynchum 2 3"

Peristerua elata 6 8"

Phaius grandiflorus 4 10"

Phalaenopsis amabilis 80

" casta 8

" Luddemaniana 9

" Schilleriana 102

" rucea 4

" rosea 7

" Stuartiana 4

Renanthera coccinea 5 4'

" Store! 3 S"

Saccolabium guttatum 2 1'

" roseum 1 18"

" violaceum 10 1'

Sobralia macrantha 2 5'

" leucoxantha 4 2' 6"

Stanhopea aurea 16 10"

" tigrida 8 10"

" oculata 6 10"

" Wardiana 2 10"

Trichopilia tortilis 1 3"

Vanda tricolor 19 2' 6"

" " planalabris 2 3'

" " nebulosa 1 2'

" Sanderiana 2 2'

" lamellata 3 1'

" boxallii 1 10"

" coerulea 4 7"

Zygopetalum Mackayii 4 1'

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 63

GENERAL COLLECTION OF PLANTS
IN CONSERVATORY

Abutilon Savitzii

3

18"

Acalypha magnifica

4

V

" Godseffiana

2

6"

" marginata

2

r

" musaica

40

20 r

•• "

20

4"

" Sanderii

1

i'

Aeschynanthus coccineus

1

2"

" grandiflorus

1

V

Adhatoda cydonifolia ,

1

3'

Allamanda Cathcartii

1

2'

" magniflca

, 2

1 10'

" •*

1

6"

" nerifolia

1

2'

" Schottii

3

20'

Alpinia nutans ,

1

2'

1

3'

" Lowii

2

18"

" Kerchoviana

2

r

" Watsonii

1

i'

" Sanderiana

2

r

" Theibrantiana

1

i'

" argyrea

1

i'

Ananassa sativa

14

18"

" " variegata

9

2

18"

" " "

7 1'

Anthurium Andreanum

1

2'

" floribundum

1

8"

" crystallinum

20

2'

" amabile

17

2'

" Veitchii

1

3'

" carneum

20

3'

" cordif olium

5

2'

" Giffordii

1

8"

" giganteum

2

3'

" regale

5

3'

" Scherzerianum

, 60

1'

" maximum

1

1'

" Mad. Dalliere

2

1'

" " Rotheschildianum

2

1'

" Warocoqueanum

4

2'

6"

Aralia Guilf oylei

2

4'

" Veitchianum

1

4'

" gracillinum

1

3'

Aristolochia elegans

1

6'

" gigas Sturtevantii

1

2'

Asparagus deflexus scandens

1

2'

" elongatus

4

3'

" plumosus

15

1'

64 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Asparagus Sprengerii 22 1'

" " variegata 2 1'

" Duchesnii 3 3'

" myriocladus 2 3'

" retrofracis arboreus 1 3'

Azelia indica. in variety 46 1' to 4'

Aspidistra elatior 4 18"

" variegata 2 18"

" lurida 11 1'

" " variegata 2 1'

Banisteria argentea 1 4'

Begonia metallica 8 3'

" Marguerite 1 2'

" heracleifolia 2 18"

" hydrocotylifolia 12 4"

" Vesuvius 1 6"

" Pearl Lorraine 12 6"

" Glorie de Lorraine 22 4"

" Agatha 6 4"

" Glory of Cincinnati 8 4'

" Pres. Taf t 3 4"

" Bowringiana 2 3'

" semperflorens album 18 4'

" " giganteum roseum 8 4'

" Otto Haker 2 3'

" manicata aurea 4 6'

" Lindenii 100 1'

" rubra 2 18'

" Thurstonii 6 3'

" peltata 1 1'

" tuberosa 300 1'

" fl.pl 50 1'

" " cristata 40 1'

" fimbriata 100 1'

Bignonia venusta 1 25'

" Lindleyana . 1 25'

Bougainvillea glabra 1 20'

" " Sanderiana 1 3'

" speciosa 2 20'

" lateritia 5 220'

•• 3 2'

" Harrissii 13 2 2'

" 11 6'

" refulgens 1 4'

" splendens 1 4'

Brunafelsia Lindenii 3 2'

Caladium bicolor 300 bulbs 2'

Calceolaria hybrida 500 18'

Camellia japonica 40 6'

average

Carex japonica 1 6*

-2

o

Q

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 65

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Campylobotris Gheisbrightii

4

1'

Carica papaya

1

4'

Caragyata cardinalis

1

2'

Cineraria hybrida, in variety

500

1'

Cissus discolor

6

1'

Clerodendron Balfourii

6

3'

Cochliostema Jacobiana

2

8"

Caff ea arabica

2

5'

Colocasia odorata

4

4'

Crinum amabile

1

4'

Cocoloba pubescens

1

2'

Croton Andreanus

3

6'

" "

6

3'

"

4 plants,

1'

" Baron A. de Rothschild

6

3'

" interruptum

4

5'

« «

6

3'

" Reidii

4

3'

" variegatum

3 1

4'

" «•

2

1'

" Veitchii

3

3'

" Vanceianum

1

4'

" dayspring ,

, 3

2'

6"

" tortilis

5 1

3'

" " . . ...

4

1'

" Queen Victoria

2

2'

" aureus maculatus

4 2

2'

4'

2/

" " punctatus

1

1'

" Warrenii

2

r

" Earl of Derby ,

1

i'

" albicans

2 1

3'

« «

1

10"

" acubif olium

1

4'

" disraeli

3

4'

" Lady Zetland

2

18"

" Beauty of Winnose

2

2'

6"

" Elegantissima

2

2'

" Count de Castelline

1

18"

" Cheltonii

1

1'

Curculigo recurvata

6

2'

6"

" " variegata

2

2'

Cumeria Wallisii

1

1'

Cyanophyllum magniflcum ,

1

r

Cyperus alternifolius variegatus

2

18"

Dichorisandra coerulea

6

18"

Dieffenbachia Baraquiniana

3

2'

" Bausei

2

V

" Baumanii

1

r

" Nemorea Corsi

8

V

66

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Dieffenbachia picta 2 18"

Dipladenia amabilis 1 3'

" Brearleyana 1 3'

Diploglottis Cunninghamii 1 5'

Dracena amabilis 2 18"

" Lord Wolseley 1 18"

" Victoria 1 1'

" imperialis 3 2'

" terminalis 6 18"

" jaspardsia 15 2'

" De Smethiana 1 4'

" Youngii 2 5'

" 6 2'

" fragrans 2 2'

" Massangeana 12 2 5'

" 10 1'

" Lindenii 6 4"

" Sanderii 3 3'

" Godseffiana 4 6"

" Goldieana 2 6"

" Mandiana 1 3'

" Bronze beauty 2 2'

" Tothiana 12 1'

" canariensis 4 2'

" indivisa 8 2' 6"

" braziliensis 4 2'

" cannaef olia

Eranthemum devonianum . . . . :

" albo marginatura 1'

" atropurpureum 1'

" sanguineum 1'

Eucharis amazonica 8 8"

Eugenia microphylla 2 2'

Ficus elastica 15 18"

" " variegata 2 5'

" 4 2'

" Parcellii 1 2'

" pandurata 7 2 4"

" 5 18"

" Agzelii 2 4'

1 comosa 1 2'

" infectoria 2 2 4'

" 5 18"

" sycamorensis 2 2'

" princeps 1 4-

" altissimus 2 10'

" Chauwierii 2 $'

" nymphaefolia 1 4'

Fittonia argyroneura 100 4"

" Pearcei . 100 4"

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 67

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Fittonia Verschaff eltii

10

6"

Fourcroya Lindenii

1

2'

Gardenia camelliaflora.

1

18"

" florida

2

6"

Hedychium Gardnerianum ,

4

2'

Heliconia Sanderiana

1

18"

Heliconia Edwardus Rex

1

18"

" aurea striata

1

18"

" illustris rubricaulis

1

18"

Hibiscus rosa sinesis

2

5'

" fl. pi

2

3'

" callerii

3

6'

" vivicans

1

3'

1

2'

" peach blow

6

2 4'

« «

4

6"

Hoffmania regalis

10

6"

" refulgens

6

4"

Hoya carnosa

1

r

" " variegata

1

6"

Imantophyllum mineatum hybridum

32

18"

Impatiens Sultanii

1

v

Magnifera indica

1

5'

Maranta ambilis

1

3"

" Legrelliana

1

8"

" virginalis vittata

1

6"

" rosea picta ,

, 1

r

" Kerchoviana

2

4"

" Massangeana

10

4"

" sanguinea

3

4'

" Leitzei

, 15

18"

" bella

1

10"

" princeps

8

4'

" undulata

6

3"

" zebrina

16

4'

" smaragdina

1

6"

" Kegeljanii

1

4"

" Van Den Heckii

1

6"

" tubispatha

1

4"

" eximia

1

3"

" Lindenii

1

3"

" Veitchii

1

4"

1

6"

" Portiana

1

8"

" Binotii

1

4"

1

3"

" illustris

1

4

" Louisiae

1

4"

" Kummeriana

1

5"

" Sanderiana

1

3"

68

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Maranta Luciana 1 5*

" vittata 1 4"

" Mossellii 1 6"

Minosa pudica 1 8"

Moschosma raparium 1 18"

Musa spaienta 1 6'

" cavendishii 8 2 6'

" 6 2'

Nepenthes Henryana 1 3'

" hybrida 8 2 3'

" 6 1'

" Hookerii elegans 1 8"

" Sedenii 1 2'

" Dominii 2 18"

" Masters!! 213'

" 1 18"

" Court!! 10"

" Morgana superba 8"

" mixta superba 10"

" Edinensis 12"

" Amesiana 8"

" Patersonii 7"

Nephytis picturata 2 2'

Nidularium Innocent!! 1 6"

Oreopanax Sanderiana 2 11'

Pancratium f ragrans 2 6"

Pandanus Baptist!! 3 1 3'

" 2 18"

" graminifolius 3 8"

" Javanicus variegatus 3 2' 6"

" Sanderii 4 3'

" Veitchii 18 6 3'

•« 12 1'

" utilis 4 110'

« 3 3'

" pacificus 1

Panicum variegatum 4 6"

Passiflora racemosa 7 1 2'

" 6 1'

" trifaciata 8 1'

Papyrus antiquorum 2

Pellionia Daveauana 4

" pulchra 1

Peperomea Saundersii

Pereskia Bleo 3

Persea gratissima 4

Philodendron Seemanii 2

" pinnatifidum 1 2'

" bipinnatifidum 1 2'

" Selloum . 1 3'

o

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

General Collection of Plants — Continued

Philodendron radiatum 2 3'

" Sodiroi 1 6'

" pertusum 3 7'

" verrucosum 2 4'

" gloriosum 1 18"

" Wallisii 1 18"

" Devanseyanum 18"

" Mamei 12"

" argyrea Sanderiana 20"

Panax Victoria 6"

Phyllanthus albus pictus 5'

Phyllotaenium Lindenii 1 16"

" magnificum 20"

Phrynium Lindenii 1 14"

Piper argenteus 1 6"

" nigrum 4 2'

Pitcairnia bromiliafolia 4 20"

Poinsettia pulcherrima 300 3'

" plenissima 25 2' 6"

" alba 15 2' 6"

Pothos argyrea 1 5'

" aurea 1 6'

Primula obconica, in variety 200 8"

" sinensis, in variety 50 6"

" malacoides 100 6"

" Veitchii 14 8"

" Kewiensis 60 6"

Quisqualis indica 3 l 10'

" 2 1'

Ravenala madagascariensis 2 1 6'

" 1 4'

Sanchezia nobilis glaucophylla 9 18"

Sanservieria Zelandica 3 2'

Schismatoglottis picta 1 2"

" decora 1 4"

" arispatha 1 4"

" Roebelinii 1 6"

Solandra grandiflora 1 10'

Sphaerogyne latifolia 1 18"

Stenanthera Lindenii 8 6"

Stephanotis floribunda 4 8'

Stigmaphyllon ciliatum 1 20'

Strelitzia Nicolai 2 5'

" regina 11 3'

Streptocarpus hybrida 2 8"

Tillandsia grandis 1 1'

Vreisia splendens 1 18"

Xanthosoma violaceum 2 4'

Xynophylla catilalia 1 3'

Zingiber officinalis 20 18"

70

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, BEDDING PLANTS,

ETC., PLANTED ON SQUARES AND

SMALL PARKS DURING FISCAL

YEAR JULY 1st, 1911, TO

JULY 1st, 1912

Alta Plaza

Trees
40

100

100
50
25
50
90
50

175
50

760
25
50

and shrubs:
Acacia Baileyana.

" mollissima.
Acacia latifolia.
Arbutus unedo.
Berberis Wallichiana.
Callistemon lanceolata.
Choisya ternata.
Coprosma Baueriana.
Olea picholine.
Crataegus crenulata.
Cupressus macrocarpa.
Diosma alba.
Elaeagnus Japonicus.

100 Erica persoluta alba.
50 Erica mediterranean.
25 Laurus nobilis.
40 Ligustrum ciliatum.

4 Liriodendron tulipifera.
50 Maytenus boaria.
25 Melalenca decussata.
25 Myrtus communis micro-

phylla.

50 Pittosporum erioloma.
75 Prunus lusitanicus.

4 Platanus Orientalis.

4 Tilia Europea,

Balboa Park

Trees and shrubs:

23 Abutilon Savitzii.
110 Acacia decurrens.
130 " latifolia.
175 " mollissima.
100 Acacia Baileyana.
250 " fragrans.
110 " melanozylon.

8 Aesculus hippocastanum.
4 Aucuba Japonica.

22 Azara microphylla,

40 Berberis Wallichiana,

10 Carpinus betulus.

S5 Cestrum fasciculatus.
125 Choisya ternata.

40 Coronilla glanca variegata.

40 Coronilla glanca.

12 Cotoneaster angustifolia.

25 Cupressus macrocarpa.

45 Darwinia citriodora.

80 Erica persoluta alba.

95 Escallonia rosea.
110 Erica melanthera.

40 Escallonia Berteriana,
150 Eucalyptus corynocalyx.

150 Lycium parvifolium.

65 Maytenus Chilensis.

25 Myrtus communis.

25 Picea Menziesii.

38 Pinus halapensis.
120 " muricata.

88 Pinus Jeffreyii.
120 " sylvestris.

45 Pittosporum eugenoides.
4 Platenus Europeus.

3 Plumbago Capensis.

6 Polygala Dalmaisiana.

4 Prunus Pissardii.
2 Quercus palustris.

20 Schimis molle.

40 Taxodium mucronatum.

6 Ulmus scabra Huntingtonii.
65 Viburnum tinus grandiflora.

4 Zelkova acuminata.
Bedding plants:

200 Ageratum Mexicanum.
1,100 Antirrhinum, in variety.

50 Chrysanthemum frutescens.
100 Cheranthis Cherii.
50 Dahlia, in variety.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

71

Balboa Park — Continued

2CO Dianthus barbatus.

100 " saligna.

100 " rudis.

100 Eucalyptus Stuartiana.

35 Euonymus due d'Anjou.

95 Euonymus Japonicus.

10 Fuchsia, in variety.
170 Geranium, in variety.
4,350 Leptospermum laevigatum.

600 Leucanthemum Triumph.
35 Ligustrum sinense.

4 Liquidambar styraciflua,

5 Liriodendron tulipifera.
100 Malcolmia littaraea.
200 Pyrethrum selaginoides.
600 Santolina chamaecyparissus.

Vines and Climbers:

50 Ampelopsis Veitchii.

Buena Vista Park

Trees and shrubs:

2 Cordyline Australis.
6 Juniperus Sabina.
Bedding plants:

200 Antirrhinum, in variety.

200 Asters, in variety.

40 Dahlia, in variety.
500 Geranium, in variety.
600 Godetia, hybrida.

50 Petunia, in variety.

Columbia Square

Bedding plants:
1,000 Asters, in variety.

300 Godetia, in variety.
1,200 Mathiola hybrida.

Jefferson Square

Trees and shrubs:

6 Abelia rupestris.
6 Choisya ternata.
6 Cydonia Japonica,
25 Escallonia rosea.
6 Euonymus Jap. aureus mar-
ginatus.

50 Ligustrum sinense.

30 Ligustrum Californica.

24 Lycium parviflorum.

12 Pittosporum nigram.

15 Pittosporum crassifolium.

24 Veronica imperialis.

12 Viburnum tinus.

Lincoln Park

Trees and shrubs:

12 Cupressus macrocarpa.
10 Melaleuca hypericifolia.

10 Pittosporum Eugenoides.
10 Pittosporum nigram.

Marshall Square

Bedding plants:

600 Viola tricolor.

St. Mary's Square

Bedding plants:
1,500 Vicla tricolor.

Portsmouth Square

Trees and shrubs:

12 Aucuba Japonica,

12 Cestrum fasciculatum.
4 Escallonia Berberiana.

72

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Portsmouth Square — Continued

4 Escallonia rubra.

4 Escallonia rosea.
12 Euonymus argentea

ginata.
24 Lyceum parviflorum.

8 Veronica elliptica.

8 Veronica decussata.

8 " imperialis.
Bedding plants:

50 Dahlia, in variety.

200 Eschscholtzia Carmine

King.

200 Eschscholtzia California*.
70 Geranium General Grant.
400 Heuchera sanguinea.
200 Leucanthemum King Ed-
ward.

400 Petunia hybrida.
100 Pentstemon gentianoides.
200 Schizanthus Grahamii.

Union Square

Trees and shrubs: 500

12 Camphora offlcinalis. 600

6 Eugenia latifolia. 1,000

90 Tibouchina semi decandra. 1,000

(Lasiandra macranthra.) 500

Bedding plants: 450

600 Ageratum Mexicanum. 1,000

5,600 Althernanthera, in variety. 400

600 Antirrhinum, in variety. 2,500

600 Asters, in variety. 500

500 Cineraria hybrida.

Gypsophylla paniculata.
Leucophyton Brownuu.
Lobelia, Emp. William.
Mathiola hybrida.
Nemesia strumosa Suttonil.
Petunia, in variety.
Papaver, in variety.
Pyretheum selaginoides.
Viola tricolor.
Verbena, in variety.

VINES AND CLIMBERS IN NURSERY

150 Acaena microphylla. 2

100 Akebia quinata. 50

6 Ampelopsis Lowii. 250

250 " Veitchii. 1,500
150 " quinquifolia.

6 Bignonia venusta, 1,000

120 " chererre. 1,200

12 Bougainvillea Harrisii. 360

20 " refulgens. 250

100 Bougainvillea glabra San- 350

deriana. 350

150 " spectabilis. 450

12 Clematis Montana. 6

32 " tanguticus. 120

110 "Jackmanii hybrida. 50

12 " Montana Rubens. 250

6 Ficus pumila. 30

100 Fuchsia procumbens. 24

12 Hydrangea petiolaris. 120

12 Hardenbergia monophylla. 12

2 Jasminum azoricum.

250 " primulaeflora. 20

100 Jasminum nudiflorum. 3

Jasminum ligustifolia.
Kennedya llmbata
Lotus Bertholetii.
Lonicera Japonica aurea

reticulata.
Lonicera Japonica halliana.

" periclymenum.
Muehlenbeckia complexa.
Passiflora Constance Elliot.

" Colbillii.
Plumbago capensis.
Solanum jasminoides.
Sollya heterophylla.
Tacsonia magnicata ignia.

" Pfordtii.

" Mollissima.

" exoniensis.
Tecoma radicals.
Tecoma capensis.
Trachelospermum jasmin-
oides.

Wistaria chinensis.
Vitis inconstans.

"5 .2

8 M

CQ U

u o
O 0

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

73

FERNS IN NURSERY

S6 Alsophylla Australe.
60 Cyrtomia falcatum.

3 Cyathea dealbata.
10 Dicksonia squarrosa,
12 Nephrodium Hertiges.
12 Onoclea Struthiopteris.
12 " Sensebelis.

12 Osmunda Claytonia.
12 " Cinnemonia.
12 " regale cristata.
24 Pteris serrulata.
12 tremula cristata.
20 " tremula.

PALMS, ALOES, YUCCAS, GRASSES, ETC.,
IN NURSERY

5 Agave Americana,

2 Agave Americana variegata.

600 Aloe frutescens.

100 Arundo donar.

40 Asparagus plumosa nana.

150 Bambusa, in variety.

24 Chamaerops excelsa.

2 Chamaerops humilis.

12 Corypha Australia.

50 Cordyline Banksii.

12 Dasylirion gracile.

6 Doryanthus Palmerii.
50 Glynerium argenteum.

75 Isolepsis gracilis.
3 Latania borbonica.
40 Musa ensete.
50 Nolina Paryii.
12 Phoenix reclinata.

2 " Roebelanii.
200 Phoenix canariensis.
24 Phormium tenax.
20 Sabal Palmetto.
120 Washingtonia filifera

busta.

100 Yucca Whipplei.
120 Yucca fllamentosa.

BEDDING PLANTS IN NURSERY

700 Adenophora Potanini. 2,000

1,800 Ageratum Mexicanum. 700

10,000 Alternanthera, in variety. 1,600

1,200 Althea rosea, 4,000

1,000 Alyssum argenteum. 2,000

600 Alyssum rostratum.

500 Anchusa Parrelieri. 600

1,900 Anemone Chinensis. 600

5,000 Aquilegia, in variety. 1,200

1,400 Arabis alpina. 1,300

1,000 " rosea. 400

400 Arnebia cornuta, 1,800

100 Asters Alpinus. 200

300 Astilbe Davidi. 200

2,000 Aubrietia, in variety. 12

350 Begonia gracilis Gloire de 12

Louesciennes.

300 Begonia Erfordii. 6

300 " graciles Fireball. 6

300 " " prima Donna. 6

150 " " rosea, 2,300

4,000 Bellis monstrosa. 50

5 000 Cineraria hybrida. 1,900

Cheiranthus cheirii.
Coreopsis lanceolata.
Delphimium Sibericum.
Dianthus barbatus.
Dianthus caryophyllus

pi. (Carnations).
FJxacum affine.
Heuchera hybrida.
Leucanthemin Triumph.
Mathiola hybrida,
Montbretia hybrida,
Papaver Orientalis.
Rochea coccinea.
Rudbeckia Newmani.
Sedum spurium.

" Japonicum macro-

phylla.
Spiraea aruncus.

" Filipenduliana.

" Venusta.
Verbena hybrida.
Zauchneria californica.
Penstemon hybrida.

fl.

74

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Bedding Plants in Nursery — Continued

300 Primula malacoides.
12 Sedum spectabilis Brilliant.
12 " spurium coccineum.
12 " sexangulare.
6 Spiraea chimensis.

6 Spiraea gigantea.
6 " palmata.
1,500 Viola cornuta, in variety.
75,000 " tricolor, in variety.

TREES AND SHRUBS IN NURSERY

850 Abelia rupestris.

250 Abies concolor.

350 Abutilon Souv. du Bonn.

300 Aberia caffra,

4 Abies firma,
150 Abutilon Savitzii.

60 Acacia armata.
350 " Bailey ana.
12 " cavenia.
30 " cyanophylla.
300 " decurrens.
200 " dolabiformis.
85 " glauca.
75 " glaucescens.
20 " longifolia.
250 " mollissima.
40 " podalyrifolia.
24 " pendula,
16 Acer negunda.
60 " Japonica.
150 Acacia arabica.
185 " Capensis.
12 " catechii.
100 " cyclops.
100 " dodonifolia.
600 " eburnea.
3,000 " floribunda.
5,000 " latifolia.
1,800 " cuspida.
1,700 " melanoxylon.

200 " pycnantha.
2,500 " Riceana.
1,400 " semperflorens.
10 Aexrisraphylos pungens.

2 Alectryon excelsa.
110 Albizzia julibrissin.
2 Anthyllis barba jovis.
2 Anona cherimolia.
100 Aralia sieboldii.
10 Araucaria Cunningham!.
45 " imbricata.
100 Aralia sieboldi moseri.
10 Araucaria excelsa.
50 Arbutus unedo.

200 Artemesia glauca.
67 Aucuba Jap. viridis lati-
folia.

120 Aucuba Japonica,
250 Azara microphyllo.

1 Bauhinia purpurea.
500 Berberis vulgaris.
350 Berberis Darwinii.
125 Boldoa fragrans.
220 " Wallichiana.
120 Bouvardia fragans.

2 Brachychiton acerifolia.
100 Buddleia variabilis.

1,500 Buxus sempervirens.

1,000 " Calearica.

1,800 " " argentes margin-

ata.
2,000 Buxus sempervirens aurea

marginata.
50 Buddleia globosa.
200 Bupleurum fruticosum.
1,200 Callistemon lanceolata.

300 " hybrida.
1,200 Calluna vulgaris.
2 Cassimiroa edulis.
2 Castanospermum australe.
2 Carissa grandiflora.
50 Castanea vesca.
54 Calycanthus occidentalis.
10 Camellia japonica.
30 Camphora officinarum.
50 Cantua buxifolia.
10 Capparis spinosa.
50 Caryopteris mastacanthus.

1 Cassia artemisioides.
10 " corymbosa.
10 " floribunda.
25 " sophera.
220 Casuarina quadrivalvis.
280 Ceanothus gloire de Ver-
sailles.

25 Cedrus atlantica.
50 Ceanothus divalicatus.
6 Cedrela fissilis.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

75

Trees and Shrubs in Nursery — Continued

75 Cedrus deodara.

50 Celtis occidentalis.
150 Cestrum aurantiacum.
350 Cestrum elegans.
250 " fasciculatus.
120 Chamaecyparis decussata.
150 Chamaecyparis ericoides.
200 " Lawsoniansu

50 " " argentea var.
150 " obtusa plumosa aurea.

50 " squarrosa.
100 " squarrosa Veitchi.
1,000 Choisya ternata.

25 Chorizima ilicifolium.
500 Cistus crispus.
800 " ladaniferus maccula-

tus.

1,000 " salvifolius.
2 Citrus Rangoon.

50 Clethra arborea.
450 Clianthus puniceus.

75 Clianthus puniceus alba.
350 Colletia ferox.
3,500 Coprosma Baueri.

25 Coprosma Baueri var.
150 " robusta.
150 " gla.nca var.

50 " lucidum.
100 Coronilla emerus.
120 Corynocarpus lavigaetus.
150 Cotoneaster angustifolia.
100 Cotoneaster buxifolia.

5 " frigida.
200 " nepalensis.
2 " simoni.

12 " Oxydanthus floraplena,

35 " horizontalis.
200 " pannosa,
2 " sinensis.
200 Crataegus crenulata,
100 " olycanthus.

50 " monogyria Pauli.
230 Crytomeria Jap. elegans.
700 Crytomeria Japonica.
100 Cupressus Arizonica.
5,200 " macrocarpa.
625 " pyramidalis.
200 " guadalupensis.

25 Cupressus Funebris.

10 Cydonia Jap. mauli.
220 Cydonia Jap. rosea.

10 Cydonia Jap. umbellicatus.
2,280 Cytisus albus.

50 Cytisus proliferus albus.
3,660 " scoparius.

50 Darwinia citriodora.
50 Datura arborea.
40 Datura sanguinea.
300 Deutzia crenata fl. pi.
100 Diervilla alba.
250 Diervilla rosea,
450 Diosma ericoides.
200 Diosma purpurea.
30 Dodonaea viscosa.
5 Dombeya natalensis.
60 Duranta plumieri alba.
550 Elaeagnus pungens macu-

lata.

1,575 Erica mediterranea.
300 Erica melanthera.

10 " Lewesi.

500 " multiflora grandiflora.
1,600 " persoluta alba.

50 " triumphens.
200 " vagans minor.
100 " vagans.

2 Erythrina corallodendron.
1,450 Escallonia Berteriana.

450 Escallonia Montevidensis.
1,750 " rosea.
1,850 " rubra.

100 Eucalyptus amygdalina.
1,200 " corynocalyx.
1,700 " globulus.
1,000 " Gunni.
1,000 " leucoxylon.

500 " piperita.
1,400 " robusta.
1,500 " rostrata.

800 " rudis.

600 " Stuartiana.

500 " tereticornis.

800 Eucalyptus viminalis.

3 Eucommia ulmoides.
2 Eugenia jambolana.

450 " ugni.

150 Euonymus Due d'Anjou.
1,950 Euonymus Japonicus.
500 " " aurea mar-

ginatus.

100 " radicans variegatus.
50 Eupatorium ruparium.

5 Eurya Japonica.
800 Eugenia apiculata.
250 " latifolia.

5 Euonymus fimbriatus.

76

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Trees and Shrubs in Nursery — Continued

400 Euonymus jap. alba margi-

natus.

850 ' argentea var.

300 " " pulchellus.
300 Eupatorium purpureum.
30 " Weimanianum.

1 Eurybia Australis.
250 Fabiana imbricata,
1 Ficus carica.
10 " macrophylla.

3 Fremontia Californica.
40 Ficus Australis.
3 " elastica.
5 " pumila.
150 Fuchsia, in variety.

5 Genista Andreana,
10 " Palmeri.
25 Genista Monosperma pen-

dula.

1 Graroboskia glanca.
65 Grevillea robusta.

1 Grevillea Hilliana.
200 " Thelemaniana.

25 Hakea pugioniformis.

2 Harpephyllum cafCrum.
2 Hakea elliptica.

20 " Galigna.
2 Helesea tetraptera.
1 Hovenia dulcis.
100 Hydrangea hortensis nigra.
250 Hypericum calycinum.
800 Hydrangea hortensis.
125 " " variegata.

1,000 Hypericum moserianum.

20 Illicium religiosum.
112 lochroma tubulosa.

35 " coccinea.
200 Juniperus Bermudiana.
400 " Chinensis a r g e n t ea,
var.

4,000 Juniperus Chinensis pro-

cumbens.

4,200 " Sabina.
120 Juglans Californica.
300 Juniperus Chinensis.
250 Juniperus Chinensis aurea

variegata.

1,500 Juniperus communis.
200 " " suecica.

50 Kerria Jap. flora plena.
300 Keteleeria Fortune!.

2 Laburnum vulgare aurea.
2 Lagerstormia Indica.
125 Laburnum vulgare.

2 • " " aurea querci-

folia.

650 Laurus nobilis.
100 Leptospermum flavescens.
9,200 Leptospermum lavigaetum.
25 " lanigerum.

3 Leucadendron argenteum.
90 Leptospermum scoparium.

1,250 Ligustrum ciliatum.
100 " Japonica.
564 " ovalifolium.
150 Lippia citriodora.

5 Liguidambar Styraciflua.
265 Libocedrus decurrens.
348 Ligustrum ibota.
10 " Japonica variegatum.
1,650 " Sinense.

25 Logania floribunda.

10 Liriodendron tulipifera.

250 Lyceum parviflorum.

120 Malvaviscus arborea.

350 Maytenus Chilensis.

18 Magnolia grandiflora.
850 Maytenus boaria.
700 Melalenca acuminata.
320 " hypericifolia.
25 Melianthus major.
140 Melalenca decussata.
100 " Styphelioides.
220 Metrosideros lophantha.
900 " robusta.
200 Metrosideros amoena.
800 " lugulosa.
500 " violacea.
1,500 Myrtus communis.

25 " variegata.

1,520 Myrtus communis micro-

phylla.

5 Nerium oleander.
360 Olea picoline.
100 Osmanthus ligustifolia.
120 " ilicifolia.
50 " " argentea.

2 Parkinsonia aculeata.
2 Paritropia Steltzneriana.
25 Paulownia imperialis.
175 Philadelphus laxus.

0 .«

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

77

Trees and Shrubs in Nursery — Continued

25 Photinia arbutifolia.

850

450 Philadelphia grandiflorus.

10

150 Phillyrea latifolia.

660

15 Photinia arbutifolia fructo-

2

lutea.

520 Picea Menziesii.

2

50 Pimelia rosea.

150

800 Pinus Austriaca.

6

600 " contorta.

6

700 ' halapensis.

6

350 ' muricata.

6

600 ' pinaster.

6

(500 ' Strobus.

50

200 ' tuberculaUu

60

150 Picea excelsa.

6

125 " pungens.

6

10 Pinus albicaulis.

6

400 " canariensis.

6

150 " Coulteri.

6

400 " massoniana.

1,000

SO " Parryana.

40

750 Pittosporum crassifolium.

10

800 " erioloma.

27

1,820 " nigrum.

24

630 Prataegus crenulata.

6

500 " GunnL

14

50 " piperita.

25

700 * rudis.

10

100 ' Stuartiana.

16

900 ' tereticornis.

5

200 ' Oxycanthus.

110

10 ' Monogyna Pauli.

120 ' pinea.

nf

100 " Torreyana.

to

25 Pinus pinea.

100

50 " Torreyana.

3

25 Pittosporum BuchananL

2,250 " eugenioides.

20

100 " heterophylla.

75 " phillyreoides.

75

25 " rhombifolium.

10

150 " undulatum.

65

250 Pittosporum tobira.

250 Plagianthus lyalli.

10

65 Pomaderris prunifolia.

10

10 Populus aurea.

50

25 " caroliniana.

2

1,200 Polygala Dalmaisiana.

3

10 Populus angustifolia.

24

350 " balsamifera.

110

10 " Italica fastigiata.

35

52 Prunus angustifolia.

25

5 " integrifolia.

10

Prunus lusitanica.

" caroliniana.

" lauro cerasus.
Psidium aromatica.
Psidium lucidum.
Raphiolepis Indica.
Rhododendron arboreum.

" camphylocarpum.

" glaucum.

" nobleanum.

" ThompsoniL
Ricinus Gibsoni.

" Zanzabariensis.

Rhododendron Auckland!,
barbatum.

" cinnabarium.

" niveum.

" pink pearl.

" catawbiense.
Ricinus Borbonica.
Robinia bessoniana.
Romneya Coulterii.
Rosa Black Prince.

" Coerulea.

" Dr. Grill.

" Fran Kark Druschkia.

" Gloire de Dijon.

" Gloire de Polyanthus.

" Killarney.

" Mad. A. Carrier e.

" Mad. "Wagram.

" Marie Van Houtte,

" Mrs. John McLaren.

" Papa Gontier, climb-
Ing.

" Polyanthus g r a n d i-
florus.

" Reve d' Or.

" Sunburst.

" Vlscountesse Folke-
stone.

Rosemarinus officinalis.
Robinia semperflorens.
Rosa Anna Alexieff.
Rosa Belle Siebrecht.

" Catti Mermet

" Duchess de Brabant.

" Genl. Jacqueminot

" Gloire Lyonaisse.

" John Hopper.

" Lamarque.

78

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Trees and Shrubs in Nursery — Continued

10 Rosa Mad. Caroline Testout.
200 " Magna Charta.
35 " Mile. Cecils Bruner,

climbing.

50 " Papa Gontier.
10 " Paul Neyron.
50 " Renne Maria H e n-

riette.

5 " Salamander.
100 " Ulrich Bruner.
10 " Wichuriana.

2 Rubus elliptica.
110 Salisburia adiantifolia.
10 Salix multinervis.
10 Sambucus argentea.

2 Sapium sabiferum.
10 Sambucus laciniata.
75 Sequoia sempervirens.
50 Sequoia gigantea.
120 Sida pulchella,

15 Solanum capsicastrum.
200 " Henderson!!.
120 " Weatherilli.
10 Solanum aviculare.
50 " gayanum.

2 " Wendlandi.
120 Sophora tetraptera.
2,000 Spartium junceum.
220 Spirea atro sanguinea.
150 " robusta.

50 " Anthony Waterer.
250 Spirea Reevesi.
100 Spirea Van Houttii.
300 Streptosolen Jameson!.

2 Sty rax Japonica.
150 Swainsonia galegifolia albi-
flora.

12 Syringa Reitenbachi.

50 " vulgaris.

10 Styrax Californica.
450 Swainsonia galegifolia.
6 Syringa Michael Brichner.

20 Tamarix hispida.
300 Taxus baccata fastigiata.
450 " " Washington!.

200 Taxus baccata.
100 " baccara pyramidalis.

12 Taxodium mucronatum.
150 Teucrium fruticans.

25 Templetonia retusa.

20 Tilia argentea.
630 Thuya gigantea aurea.
232 Thuya gigantea.

24 " occidentalis plicata.

1 Tristania conferta.

2 Tupidanthus calyptrata.
2 Ulmus campestris aurea.

4 Ulmus sempervirens.

10 Umbellularia californica.
2 Ulmus campestris monu-

mentalis.

1,500 Veronica elliptica.
1,200 " Traversii.
2,000 Veronica decussata.
1,250 " imperialis.

650 " carnea.

140 Viburnum opulus.
1,250 " tinus.

120 " " variegata.
1,350 Viburnum odoratissima.

250 " rigidum.
1,050 " tinus grandiflorum.

150 Wigandia caracasana.

5 Zelkova acuminata.

TREES AND SHRUBS PLANTED IN GOLDEN

GATE PARK DURING FISCAL YEAR

JULY 1st, 1911— July 1st, 1912

393 Abelia rupestris.

236 Abutilon Souv. di Bon.
1,280 Acacia Baileyana.
1,012 " floribunda.

212 " lophantha.
3,920 Acacia fragrans.
3,498 " latifolia.

527 " melanoxylon.

6 Aralia sieboldil.
219 Azara microphylla.
140 Berberis Wallichiana.
180 Buddleia variabilis.
240 Callistemon hybrlda.
450 Callistemon lanceolata.
218 Cestrum aurantiacum.

6 Chamaecyparis decussata.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

79

Trees and Shrubs in Golden Gate Park — Cont'd

208 Choisya ternata.
1,300 Cistus ladaniferus.
1,765 " salvifolius.

720 Cistus rosea.
50 Coprosma lucidum.
15 Cotoneaster buxifolia.

186 Coprosma Baueriana.

240 Coronilla glauca.

325 Cupressus Goveniana.

150 Cupressus Arizonica,
1,233 " macrocarpa.
3,650 Cytisus scoparius.

2 Cryptomeria Japonica.
2,500 Cytisus albus.

9 " monospermus.
249 Erica Mediterranean.
112 " persoluta alba.

12 Erica capitata.
124 " melanthera.

157 " vagans.

224 Escallonia rosea.

150 Escallonia Montevidensis.
215 " rubra.
200 Eucalyptus robusta.
150 Eugenia apiculata.

124 " latifolia.

22 Eucalyptus ficifolia.
400 " rostrata.

125 Euonymus Due d' Anjou.
340 " Japonicus.

3 Fraxinus velotina,

3 Heliotropium Peruvianum.
1,430 Hypericum Moserianum.
212 Hydrangea hortensis.

225 Juniperus Chinensis.
360 " prostrata.

225 Juniperis communis.
140 " Japonicus.
165 " Sabina.
5,490 Leptospermum laevigatum.

6 Liquidambar styraciflua.
135 Lycium parviflorum.

8 Lavendula spica,
225 Ligustrum Californicum.

1 Liriodendron tulipifera,
217 Maytenus Boaria.

158 Melaleuca hypericifolia.
12 Melianthus major.

120 Myrtus communis.

220 Myrtus communis micro-

phylla.
12 Picea menziesii.

1 Picea Orientalis.
70 Pinus coulteriL

705 " muricata.

24 " ponderosa.
235 " Torreyana.

218 Pittosporum nigrum.

2 Platanus Orientalis.
242 Polygala Dalmaisiana.

70 Pinus contorta.
125 " Jeffreyii.

70 " Massoniana.
139 " sylvestris.
127 Pittosporum Eugenoides.

10 Plagianthus lyalliL

40 Plumbago capensis.

16 Prunus lusitanica.
6 Quercus palustris.
425 Rhododendron hybrida.
108 Rosa Bourbon.

50 " Climb. C. Bruner.
260 " Magna Charta.
142 " Maria Van Houtte.
160 " Mrs. John McLaren.
130 " Reve d' Or.

15 " Cherokee.
120 " Gloire Lyonaisse.
148 " Mad. A. Carriere.

12 " Mad. I. Perriere.

22 " Olga de Wurt.
150 " Viscount Folkstone.
110 Sida pulchella.

56 Solanum Rantonetti.

219 Spartium junceum.

112 Streptosolen Jamesonii.

25 Syringa rosea,
6 Tilia Europea.

212 Veronica Andersonii.
896 " decussata.

66 Viburnum tinus grandiflora.
117 Tibouchina semidecandra,
(Lasiandra macrantha.)
625 Veronica elliptica.
415 " imperialis.
6 Zelkova acuminata.

80

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

BEDDING PLANTS PLANTED IN GOLDEN

GATE PARK DURING THE FISCAL YEAR

JULY 1st, 1911— July 1st, 1912

400 Ageratum Mexicanum. 5,230

4,200 Alyssum Carpet of Snow. 1,600

64,425 Alternanthera, in variety. 500

64,425 " in variety. 2,500

200 Amberboa muricata rosea. 7,718

4,600 Antirrhinum, in variety. 2,300

7 Anchusa opal.

200 Arabis alpina. 356

18,500 Asters, in variety. 46,000

5,900 Aquilegia, in variety. 400

600 Aubretia deltoides. 24,800

3,000 Begonia vernom. 300

900 Bidens atropurpurea. 700

5,500 Calendula Orange King. 3,400

1,200 Cannas, in var. 250

750 Campanula, in variety. 8,600

1,000 Oenothera hybrida. 1,400

5,400 Cheranthus cheirii. 24,500

1,300 Chrysanthemum, in variety. 1,100

1,200 Coryopsis lanceolata. 6

896 Dahlia, in variety. 250

590 Delphinium formosum. 1,474

1,500 Dianthus caryophillus Mar- 800

guerite (Carnation). 6,100

4,400 Dianthus barbatus. 2,400

200 Diascia barbata. 4 QOO

1,350 Eschscholtzia hybrida, in

var. 4)UU

1,624 Frutescens (Marguerite). 54,000

Geranium, in var.

Godetia hybrida.

Heuchera sanguinea.

Leucanthemum Triumph.

Leucophyton Brownii.

Leucanthemum King Ed-
ward.

Linaria cymbolaria.

Lobelia, in variety.

Malcolmia littaerea.

Mathiola hybrida.

Nemesia Suttonii.

Nierembergia fruiticans.

Petunia hybrida, in var.

Papaver Orientalis.

Papaver, in variety.

Phlox Drummondii.

Pyrethrum selaginoides.

Phlox sublata.

Rhemania angulata hybrida.

Rochea coccinea.

Salvia, in variety.

Scabiosa atropurpurea.

Thymus vulgaris variegata.

Viscaria occulata.
" cardinalis.

Viola cornuta.

Viola tricolor.

VINES AND CLIMBERS PLANTED IN

GOLDEN GATE PARK DURING

FISCAL YEAR JULY 1st,

1911— JULY 1st, 1912

112 Aceana microphylla.
124 Ampelopsis Veitchii.
24 Clianthus puniceus.
156 Fuchsia procumbens.
2,705 Lonicera aurea reticulata.
2,380 " periclymenum.
56 Lotus Bertholetti.

4,121 Lonicera Halliana.

10 " sylvestris.
236 Muehlenbeckia complexa.
56 Plumbago capensis.
25 Passiflora coerulea.
36 Solanum Jasminoides.

PALMS AND FERNS PLANTED IN PARK

3 Alsophylla excelsa.
120 Cyathea medularis.
5 Dicksonia Antartica,

26 Dicksonia squarosa.
2 Fourcroya elegans.
4 Phoenix Canariensis.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

81

TREES AND SHRUBS PLANTED ON SCHOOL
GROUNDS DURING YEAR

3 Choisya ternata.
12 Cupressus macrocarpa.
12 Cytisus scoparius.

6 Diosma ericoides.

2 Dracaena Australia.

6 Erica persoluta alba.

6 Erica Mediterranean.

6 Escallonia berteriana.

6 Escallonia rubra.

6 Euonymus argentea.

6 Escallonia rosea.

6 Eugenia apiculata.

6 Euonymus Japonica.
12 Hypericum Moserianum.
122 Hydrangea hortensis.

6 Myrtus communis.

6 Maytenus chilensis.
80 Pittosporum nigrum.

BEDDING PLANTS PLANTED ON SCHOOL
GROUNDS DURING YEAR

4,000 Alyssum, carpet of snow.
1,200 Asters, in variety.
1,500 Calendula, Orange King.
1,500 Coreopsis lanceolata.
2,000 Cineraria hybrida.
4,000 Dianthus barbatus.
1,000 Geraniums, in variety.

1,000 Lobelia, crystal palace.

3,600 Malcolmia littaraea.

4,000 Mathiola hybrida.

2,200 Pyrethrum selaginoides.

1,500 Schizanthus Grahami.

2,400 Viola tricolor.

3,000 Viscaria cardinalis.

TREES AND SHRUBS PLANTED IN
JACKSON PLAYGROUNDS

25 Coprosma Baueriana.
50 Euonymus Japonicus.
12 Escallonia rubra,
12 Olea picoline.

50 Pittosporum nigrum.
50 Pittosporum eugenioides.
18 Veronica decussata.
20 Viburnum tinus.

TREES AND SHRUBS PLANTED IN NORTH
BEACH PLAYGROUNDS

200 Leptospermum laevigatum. 200 Pittosporum nigrum.

VINES AND CLIMBERS

40 Passifloras, in variety.

DONATIONS
City Hall

5 Cordyline Australis.
2 Fourcroya elegans.
4 Laurus nobilis.

3 Pittosporum crassifolium.
2 Phormium tenax.

82

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Donations — Continued
City and County Hospital

6 Abutilon Savitzii.
12 Abutilon Souv. di Bon.
50 Alyssum Benthami.
50 Antirrhinum, in var.

3 Aucuba Japonica.
174 Begonia Vernon.
6 Clianthus puniceus.
6 Cyetomium falcatum.
3 Datura suaveolens.
15 Fuchsia, in variety.
250 Geranium, in variety.

5 Heliotropium Peruvianum.
24 Linaria cymbalaria.

48 Lonicera, in variety.
12 Passiflora, in variety.

2 Polygala Dalmaisiana.
50 Pyretheum selaginoid.es.
15 Ricinus, in variety.
100 Santolina Chamaecyparis-
sus.

6 Swainsonia galegifolia.
100 Verbena hybrida, in var.

Central Emergency Hospital

2 Buxus sempervirens.
2 Cordyline Australia.

2 Fourcroya elegans.

2 Taxus baccata pyramidalis.

County Jail

2 Choisya ternata.
2 Erica Mediterranea.

2 Erica triumphens.
2 Viburnum tinus.

Fire Department, Drill Tower

1,000 Alternanthera, in variety.

224 Viola tricolor.

Street Department

100 Campanula, in variety.
100 Coreopsis lanceolata.

3 Escallonia rosea.

3 Eugenia apiculata.

170 Geranium, in variety.
3 Myrtus communis.
3 Veronica decussata.
3 Viburnum tinus grandiflora.

Relief Home

350 Acacia fragrans.
150 Acacia melanoxylon.
150 Acacia lophantha.

3 Azara microphylla.

3 Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana.
70 Cupressus pyramidalis.
100 Cupressus macrocarpa.

3 Cydonia Japonica.

3 Deutzia crenata.

3 Escallonia Berteriana.

3 Eugenia apiculata.
3 Euonymus Due d' Anjou.
250 Leptospermum laevigatum.
3 Prunus lauro-cerasus.
3 Philadelphus grandiflora.
3 Syringa vulgaris.
3 Viburnum opulus.
3 Viburnum odoratissima.
3 " tinus.

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

83

Donations — Continued
Ingleside Police Station

50 Campanula, in variety.

3 Choisya ternata.
100 Coreopsis lanceolata.
3 Euonymus Due d' Anjou.
6 Erica Mediterranea.

500 Pyretheum selaginoides.
18 Veronica, in variety.

3 Viburnum tinus.
600 Viola tricolor.

Marine Hospital

1 Agave Americana.
70 Begonia Erfordi.

70 Dianthus caryophyllus,

variety.
4 Passiflora, in variety.

2 Phoenix Canariensis.

200 Verbena hybrida.

100 Aquilegia, in variety,

in 100 Commelina coelestis.

200 Nemesia Suttonii.

100 Papaver, Orientalis.

6 Polygaia Dalmaisiana.

Little Sisters of the Poor

6 Acacia latifolia.
50 Cupressus macrocarpa.
6 Leptospermum laevigatum.

2 Polygaia Dalmaisiana.
6 Pittosporum Eugenoides.

Gough and Geary Sisters

12 Ampelopsis quinquifolia.
12 Ampelopsis Veitchii.
50 Hedera helix.
6 Lonicera, in variety.

6 Passiflora, in variety.
6 Solanum Jasminoides.
6 Swainsonia galegifolia.

Angel Island

50 Acacia fragrans.
50 " Melanoxylon.

6 " pycnantha.
50 Acacia latifolia.
6 " mollissima.
6 Ceanothus asureus.
6 Cotoneaster buxifolia.
170 Chrysanthemum frutescens.

6 Crataegus crenulata.
300 Cupressus macrocarpa.
10 Cytisus albus.
10 Cytisus scoparius.
10 Euonymus Jap. argentea.
10 " " Due d' Anjou.
10 Euonymus Jap. argentea

aurea.

20 Fuchsia, in variety.
200 Ligustrum Californicum.

6 Lippia citriodora.
10 Philadelphus grandiflora.
100 Pinus muricata.
10 Pittosporum nigrum.
10 Pittosporum eugenoides.
10 Polygaia Dalmaisiana.
12 Prunus lauro-cerasus.

6 Prunus lusitanica.
10 Spiraea Von Houtte.
10 Spirea Anton Watererii.
10 Veronica elliptica.
10 " imperialis.
10 Veronica Andersonii, var.
10 " decussata.
10 Viburnum lucidum.
10 " tinus.
10 Viburnum odoratissima.
10 " tinus variegata.

84

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Donations — Continued
German Hospital

300 Acacia, in variety.

3 Choisya ternata.

6 Cydonia Japonica.

2 Cryptomeria elegans.
24 Dahlia, in variety.

3 Deutzia crenata.

12 Erica Mediterranea.

6 Kerria Jap. fl. pi.
100 Leptospermum laevigatum.

6 Ligustrum sinense.
100 Pinus halepensis.

3 Polygala Dalmaisiana.

6 Prunus lauro-cerasus.

3 Thuja gigantea aurea.

Fort Mason

36 Abutilon, in variety.
24 Ampelopsis Veitchii.
18 Azara microphylla.
24 Buxus argentea.

2 Casuarina quadrivalvus.

3 Cryptomeria Japonica.
2 Dicksonia squarosa.

12 Euonymus Jap. Due d'An-

jou.
20 Euonymus Japonicus.

2 Grevillea Thelemaniana.

2 Jasminum primulaeflorum.

6 Melaleuca hypericifolia.

12 Myrtus communis micro-
phylla.

12 Myrtus communis.
78 Passiflora, in variety.
20 Pittosporum nigrum.
20 Pittosporum eugenoides.
12 Rhododendron hybrida.

2 Solanum Jasminoides.

2 Swainsonia galegifolia.
36 Veronica, in variety.
24 Viburnum tinus grandi-
florus.

Columbia Park Boys

12 Abutilon Savitzii.
4 Abutilon Souv. di Bon.
4 Acaena microphylla.
24 Ampelopsis Veitchii.
150 Begonia vernon.

3 Buxus sempervirens.

4 Chamaecyparis, in variety.
4 Coronilla glauca variegata. '
6 Cryptomeria Japonica.

7 Erica Mediterranea.

3 Euonymus Japonicus au-

reus.
3 Fourcroya elegans.

56 Fuchsia, in variety.
290 Geranium, in variety.
100 Linaria cymbalaria.
120 Lonicera, in variety.
200 Lobelia Barnard's perpetual.

50 Passiflora, in variety.

3 Pittosporum eugenoides.

4 Polygala Dalmaisiana.
18 Streptosolen Jamesonii.

3 Veronica parviflora.
3 Veronica decussata.
3 Viburnum tinus.

Outdoor Art League

100 Cineraria hybrida.
100 Coreopsis lanceolata.
100 Dianthus barbatus.

70 Erica Mediterranea.
300 Geranium, in variety.

150 Lonicera, in variety.
500 Montbretia hybrida.
200 Pyrethrum selaginoides au-
rea.
200 Viola tricolor.

•52 <u

"^ "a

"7 °

3 c

| ^ *

§ o c?

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

85

Donations — Continued

Girls' Home

3 Azara microphylla.
2 Eugenia apiculata.

2 Jasminum fruticosum.

3 Metrosideros robustus.

2 Myrtus microphylla,

3 Olea picoline.

Acaena microphylla
Ampelopsis Lowii.
Bougainvillea Harisii.

" refulgens.
Clematis cirrhosa.

" grata.

" montana rubens.

" tanguticus.

VINES

3 Pittosporum eugenoldes.
3 Pittosporum nigrum.
2 Prunus lusitanica.

1 Spartium junceum.

2 Tacsonia egnea.

3 Veronica decussata.

Convolvulus cantaori-

cus.

Hydrangea petiolaris.
Passiflora Colvillii.

" Hertonensis.
Tacsonia Pfordtii.
Vitis Baudiana.

ALOES, PALMS, GRASSES, ETC.

Agave angustifolia
variegata.

" Franzosini.

" recurvata.

" Verschafelti.
Aloe Chinensis.

" cilliaris.

" Nandburyana.

" macrocarpa.

Aloe Missionis.
Dendrocalamus latifol-

ius.
Fourcroya selloa mar-

ginata.
Phoenix Canariensis

glaucus.
Trachycarpus martian-

us.

PALMS AND CYCADS IN THE
CONSERVATORY

Areca Bauerii 4

Monostachya
rnbra .

triandra ....

sapida

lutescens .

verschaffeltii .

Astrocaryum mexicanum .

Attalia cohune

Arenga saccarifera

4 2 15
2 4
2

14 2
12
1
1
12 6

14'

86 REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Palms and Cycads in Conservatory — Continued

Cargota urens 4 3'

" sobolifera 1 4'

Chamaedorea elegans 2 6'

" oblongata 2 6'

" elatior 8 2 6'

" 6 2'

" geonomaeformis 28 18"

" desmoncoides 4 18"

" tepajilote 3 2' 6"

" unnamed kinds 80 18"

Cocos australis 21 1 4'

" 20 18"

" Alphonze 2 18"

" Bonnettii 12 18"

" nucifera 1 4'

" plumosa 8 10'

" Weddelliana 11 2 3'

" 9 6"

" comosa 3 12"

" lapida 2 14"

" flexuosus 2 75'

" braziliensis 2 18"

" Romanzoffiana 314'

" 2 50'

" Yatay 3 14"

" odorata 2 14"

Cycas circinalis 3 1 15'

" 210'

" Normanbyana 1 5'

" revoluta 5 3' 6"

Dioon edule 2 1 3'

" 1 18"

" spinulosum 4 2'

" unnamed variety of edule 4 1'

Dypsis madagascariensis 2 6"

Elaeis guineensis 1 15"

Encephalartos regalis 2 1 5'

" 1 2'

Kentia balmoreana (in bed) 5 1 12'

45'

" 22 10 4'

" 12 2'

" Forsteriana (in bed) 2 1 25'

1 15'

14 4 6'

10 2'

" Canterburyana 5 1 8'

" 4 3'

" McArthurii 2 3'

" Sanderii 2 8'

REPORT OF PARK COMMISSIONERS 87

Palms and Cycads in Conservatory — Continued

Latania bourbonica

6

1 8'

« ««

5 4'

" Commersonii

1

2'

" glaucophylla

2

Licuala grandis

1

2'

Livistonia australis

3

3'

" rotundifolia

1

2'

Oreodoxa regia

20

4'

Phoenix Roebelinii

3

1 3'

"

2 2'

Pinanga Kuhlii

1

4'

Pritchardia Guadichaudii

2

1 3'

" "

1

" Martii

9

2 8'

" "

7 4'

" pacifica

3

1 40'

" " ,

2 4'

Ptycosperma Alexandra!

5

1 7'

" "

4 3'

Rhapis humilis ,

2

4'

" flabelliformis

8

8'

Sabal Adansonii

1

" Blackburniana

11

1 3'

" "

10 V

Seaforthia elegans

15

2 12'

"

13 4'

" "

100

Thrinax argentea

3

2'

" elegans

2

1 12'

"

1 4'

Zamia Lehmanii

1

6'

IS'

IB-

3

25

O r-

~

o

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY