SRS aera

arid cha a ibe SACD ENR Sa ee ee eae “4, r
Fe eee as Nonna EDN

Se
ee
Perey

ee

Se
Ronee

LIBRARY OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
AI URBANA*‘CHAMPAIGN

5905
AG

NOTICE: Return or renew all Library Materials! The Minimum Fee for
each Lost Book is $50.00.

The person charging this material is responsible for
its return to the library from which it was withdrawn
on or before the Latest Date stamped below.

Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli-
nary action and may result in dismissal from the University.
To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

L161—O-1096

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of Illinois Uroana-Champaign

http://www.archive.org/details/oanamericangeolo11888desm

THE

_ AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
AND

ALLIED SCIENCES

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS

ProFr. SAMUEL CALyin, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

PROF. EDWARD W. CLAYPOLE, Buchtel College, Akron, O.

Dr, PERSIFOR FRAZER, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Penn.

Dr. LEwis E. Hicks, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

Mr. EDWARD O. ULRIcH, Geol. Survey of Illinois, Newport, Ky.

Dr. ALEXANDER WINCHELL, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Pror. NEWTON H. WINCHELL, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

VOLUME I

JANUARY TO JUNE, 1888

MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.
1888

PRINTED BY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, STATE UNIVERSITY

BAITOGUCEORY 4.6511)... ¢% 6 0s - - +
A short history of the origin and acts of the International

gst Be a

Bigs

Vv. | Geology
CONTENTS.

JANUARY NUMBER.

Congress” of Geologists, and of the American com-
mittee delegates to it. [1]. PrRsiror FRAZER,.... 3

The Animike black slates and quartzytes, and the Ogishke

conglomerate of Minnesota, tne equivalent of the
COriomal Huronian.”: N.i. WINCHELL,...0).0685 (°° 11

The unconformities of the Animike in Minnesota. | Ilus-

trated.] A. WINCHELL,.............22+-200 eee 14

A new species and new genus of tubicolar Annelida. S.
Prema ten Bile Nersta Mitte eS she wala own te blace Shy SAECO 24

—. Notes on the formations passed through in boring the
a deep well at Washington, Iowa. S. CALVIN,..... 28
= The'future of natural gas. E. W.CuayPpoLe,......... 31

Editorial Comment.— Geology in the educational struggle for existence,

lo

4 . ‘
P 14 ok Bost. Buus Ve.

a5 A

b
J

36.— Irving and Chamberlin on the lake Superior sandstones, 44.

a 5 : = °
oe Review of recent literature Geological Survey of New York; vol. vi;

paleontology, 58.—Monticuliporoid corals of the Cincinnati group,
U. P. and Jos. F. JAMEs, 59.—Spiral bivalve shell from the Waverly
of Pennsylvania, C. E, BEECHER, 60.—Morphology of the summit
plates in blastoids, crinoids, and cystids, W ACHSMUTH and SPRINGER,
61.—Morphology ‘of the carine upon the septa of rugose corals
Mary E. HoimeEs, 61.—Primordial fossils from the N. W. territory
of Canada, C. RoMINGER, 61.—Untersuch, u. Gest. u Min. aus W.
Indien, J. H. Kioos, 61 —- Preliminary report on petroleum and in-
flammable gas, E. OrTON, 62.—The lake-age in Ohio, E. W. Ciay-
POLE, 63.—The West American Scientist, 64.— Bulletin No. 39, U.S.
Geol, Survey, WARREN UPHAM, 64.— Preliminary gc eer on the
S. E. Kentucky coal fields, Annual
report on the geological survey ae Arkansas, Joun C. "BRANN VER, 65.
—The American Magazine; natural gas at Findlay, Z. L. Wuire, 65

Personal and Scientific News, 66

FEBRUARY NUMBER.

—
«The Niobrara river considered with reference to its cap-

activ for irtig ation. tis. : Bye FLICKS). vidicie Sis e dt aowne 69

< The flora of the Coast islands of California in relation to

Y

w

recent changes of physical geography. Josrpru L.
CRESS GLS eae Sigs RY 5a) ROUEN Se RRP naar A ine es at ee Vk,

pr Is OC) ALD)

iv Contents.

Observations on the vertical range of certain species of
fossils of the Hamilton period in western Ontario.
Sea AVANT aie & dk eeattons ee eews Spare atau seca ioe tale Sekee ls 81

A short history of the origin and acts of the International
Congress of Geologists, and of the American com-
mittee delegates toit. [1]. PrERstrorR FRAzER... 86

- A correlation of the Lower Silurian horizons of Tennessee,

on and of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys with those of
New York and Canada. [1.] E. O, ULRicH..... 100
F. V. Hayden, M. D. LL.D.) E. D. Cops... [Portrait.] ~ 110

Editorial Comment.—Murray’s theory of the formation of barrier reefs
and coral island, 113.—On the chert of the Upper Coal Measures in
Montgomery county, Iowa, 117.— The new geological map of Europe,
117. Bulletin of Denison University, 117.

Review of recent literature Is there a Huronian group? IRVING, 119.—
Sand-boulders in the drift or subaqueous origin ofthe driftfin cent-

On the organic origin of chert in
the Carboniferous limestone series of Ireland, G. J. H1npE, 121.—
Annual report of the department of mines, New South Wales,
HARRIE Woop, 122.—Geology of the Vegetable creek tin-mining field,
New South Wales. T. W. EpGEWorTH Davin, 122.— Preliminary
paper on the driftless area of the upper Mississippi valley, CHAMm-
BERLIN and SALISBURY, 122.—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Peri-
dotyte from Kentucky. Notes on the geology and the latest vol-
canic eruption in N. California, J. 5. DILLER,125. Ovibos cavifrons,
W. J. McGEg, 126.—Report of the state geologist of N. Y. HALt,
127. ;

New publications, 128.

Correspondence, 129.

Personal and Scientific News, 132.

MARCH NUMBER.

Some effects of pressure of a continental glacier. ALEx-

A INMDIECID OWN N@CETENGL: (cre total tjonnje sell a 3etatay aleve: eres 139
The river-lake system of western Michigan. C. Ww.
WViGOI: DRUG ENE 2) tee tleie ese apetnie l= SECO are

A new post pleiocene firanecich R. ELtswortu CALL Bete bo)
Notes on the fossils of the loess at lowa City. B SHIMEK. 149
Darwin and geology. [1]. E.W.CLAYPOLE......... 152
Some objections to the term Taconic considered. N, H.
WHINCHERD Sot hice s Se mater ees iaics (hey brie Blaha danaane 162
Anthracite coal in the valley of the Bow river, Northwest
Territory of Canada. JamMEs A. DoDGE.......... 172
A great primordial quartzyte. N.H. WINCHELL....... 173
Pe ean correlation of the Lower Silurian horizons of Tennessee
and of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys with those of
New York and Canada. [11]. E. OOWULRICHSjcn) 1 7O
Singular subterranean commotion near Akron, Ohio. E.
TIN CLAY POR S300 oo Ace es Oe ee ea 190

7 V=S.~«—i‘(‘w®

_?

Contents. Vv

Editorial comment.— Prof. Judd on the lavas of Krakatoa, 192.—Preglacial
man, 193.

Review of recent {iterature—— Geology and mining industry of Leadville,
S. F. Emmons, 194.—Note on fossil wood and other plant remains from
the Cretaceous and Lamarie formations of the western territories of
Canada, Sir WILLIAM Dawson, 195.

New publications, 197.

Personal and Scientific News, 198.

APRIL NUMBER.

Diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. [ Illustrated ]
ANDREW C. Lawsown....... Seah ay RE ee 199
Darwin and geology. [11]. E. "W. CLAYPOLE....:. 211
On the occurrence of later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa.
pulbustrated | C+ Ac WHITE) 130/601 ald hip oss megan: 221
On Sceptropora, a new genus of bryozoa, with remarks
on Helopora //a//, ‘and other genera of that type.
[ Illustrated ] E. Goliumrema ret ee 228
The Taconic system as established by Emmons, and the
laws of nomenclature applicable to it. S.A. MILLER. 235

Editorial Comment.— 'The rights of intelligence under paid service, 245 —
The use of the termination yte for names of rock, 249.

To all American Geologists. PPERSIFOR FRAZER, 250.

Review of recent literature On the structure and affinities of the genus
Parkeria Carp., H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, 255.— A brief narrative of
the journeys of David Thompson, J. B. TYRRELL, 256.—Contributions
to the paleontology of Brazil, comprising descriptions of Cretaceous
invertebrate fossils, CHARLES A. WHITE, 257—Preliminary report on
seacoast swamps of the eastern United States, N.S. SHALER, 258.—
On nepheline rocks in Brazil. with special reference to phonolite and
foyaite, ORVILLE A. DERBY, 259.— New notes on Eozoén, Dawson,
260.— Solubility of shells of Aragonite, CoRNISH and KENDALL, 260.
Experiments on the rounding of pebbles, PRor, BONNEY, 260.

Personal and Scientific News, 261.

MAY NUMBER.

A new genus of crinoids from the Niagara group. S. A.
300} 815 a ae Ee ad ARG Shs Seka hay ce oe AIM nD she. 263
The Niagara shales of western New York; astudy of the
origin of their sub-divisions and their fauna. EUGENE

NGS. RINGUEBERG,) Mis Dia jatiige' dienes H+ Haiti 264
Notes on the Pittsburg coal bed and its disturbances.

Henry A. Wasmu' Hy gE, Va peiliustrated. p. at 2's. 242
Geyserite in Nebraska. Dr. Ewes. FIcks:.). di... 277

A contribution to the Archzean geology of Missouri,
1. | Erasmus HawormTu. [ Illustrated. fecu\ halen 2aO
The reef-builders. Dr. Lewis E. Hicks. [ Iilustr ated.] 297

vi Contents.

ees. correlation of the Lower Silurian horizons of Tennes-

see, and of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys with
those of New York and Canada. [111]. E. O.

| io <3 Rens eA Gea ene ea ARIE OeLAD shat ss ale mi Stel Gistpaa aide! Rene means
Geology in our preparatory schools. W. EpGAr Tay-

Sy pre} y

TSGIRRY teegaicn Conentec Peseta einem Beye oe 2 wiv aie-aye s Hee eee meee

Editorial Comment—Some new contributions to the discussion of coral
formations, 321.—The paleontologic labors of Prof. Jos. F. James, 323.

Review of recent literature——The position of the spirals in brachiopoda.
NorRMAN GLASS, 327.—The Taconic of Georgia, and the report on the
geology of Vermont, JULES Marcou, 328,

fFeecent publications, 329.

Correspondence.—On the Cascade anthracite basin, GzEo. M. DAwson, 332.
—Nomenclature of some Cincinnati group fossils, JosepH F. JAMES
and E, O. ULRICH, 333.

Personal and Scientific News.—The Murchison medal, 335.—Mining statis-
tics of the U.S., 336.—Dr. Reusch on meteorites, 336.—The new map
of Europe, 337.—Later Cretaceous in Iowa, 337._Effect of continen-
tal masses on the level of oceanic waters, 338.—Dr. Lyddeker on the
naming of reptilian bones, 338.

JUNE NUMBER.

Some American norytes and gabpros. (Geological notes
from the laboratory of Denison University.) [1]. C.
L. Herrick, E. S$. Clarke, and J. L. DEMING... 339

The Taconic question, ALEXANDER WINCHELL ...... 347
A contribution to the Archean geology of Missouri. [11 ].
Erasmus HAWORTH ..... SRE Routes srciteaore een 363

On some investigations regarding the condition of the in-
terior of the earth: [1]. Rror. Ho Wi Craypores. i382

Monticulipora, a coral and not a polyzoon. JosEpu F.
AMES, MS. joie oe ale - per Natk) ste Mrencrats scgyaPer Susteren 386

Recent Publications, 393.

Correspondence.— Hayden memorial fund, 394.— The proposcd geological
society, 394.

Personal and Scientific News.— Laboratory of Buchtel college, 395.— Dr.
Alleyne Nicholson on mural pores in favositoid corals, 396.—Fossil
bones of Iguana and other reptiles in the Eocene of England, Dr.
Lyddeker, 396.

Index, 397.

ERRATA.
On page 40, 14th line from bottom, for hopeful read helpful.
uM 56, 8th ce cu for illusion read allusion.
ee 64, 2nd ee top, for when read then,
‘ 176, 15th ay bottom, for thickens read thickness.

ne 219, last line, for northwest read newest,

TELE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

NOL. 1; JANUARY, 1888. No. 1.

INTRODUCTORY.

The starting of a new scientific journal is a step which should
be accompanied by a statement of the reasons and purposes
which have actuated its originators. These reasons and pur-
poses should form the platform of principles, and the arena of
action which should characterize the publication.

The science of geology is comprehensive, and depends for
its progress on the special researches of laborers in all the
natural sciences. The editors of THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST
have lamented from time to time the lack of a distinctively
geological journal in the United States, whose purpose should
be to codrdinate and express the results of these special labors
on the general science of geology, and which should serve as a
repository of the progressive steps which the science, as such,
makes from year to year. They have lamented the absence of
a journal which should take cognizance of the various labora-
tories of the world, and of the publications that emanate from.
the various scientific centers, and, culling from them all such.
facts and discussions as throw light on the history and consti=
tutton of the globe, should authentically eliminate for its sub-.
scribers the essential grand results, freed from the distractions.
of too much detail. These results, mingled with a confusion:
of unsystematized details, are now scattered through journals
and special publications which are devoted to the special
sciences, and are inaccessible and unavailable to the geologist
without the expenditure of much time and money.

The promoters of THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST have wit-
nessed a growing popular appreciation of the grand truths of

to

Introductory.

geology, and of the utility of a knowledge of its methods and
results. In all the colleges of the country, which deserve the
name, nay, in many of the high-schools and academies as well
as in schools of lower grade, will now be found frequently a
curriculum of study which specially provides for the teaching
of geology in some form or another. Even in the primary
schools, the pupil is told to bring pebbles from the roadside to
the school-room to serve as texts for object lessons by the
teacher. At the same time there is a demand for a knowledge
of the ways and means of geological information. Qualified
teachers and enthusiastic professors of natural science are not
the only necessity. There should be a reservoir of observations
and of information contributed by the expert workers of the
world from which teachers may draw new facts and new ways
of combining them. The ways and means of scientific instruc-
tion need to be made known to ten-thousand earnest teachers
who have only the recollection of their own college training to
guide them, if indeed they have had any training at all, and
who are shut off from access to the technical publications of the
specialist.

More than all a thoroughly non-partisan publication is needed
which shall be open to the properly worded opinions of all from
the most powerful to the most obscure, and which is distine-
tively committed to no theory whether of construction or of ob-
struction. It will be the aim of this journal to reflect the faint-
est whispers as well as the loudest thunder of American geolo-
gical thought.

The promoters of THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST have been
satisfied for several years past that the interests of the science of
geology in America have been jeopardized, and sometimes have
suffered, because of the lack of coéperation among American
geologists, and of a ready means of expression through a sym-
pathetic medium of communication.

Many of them have had serious misgivings as to the result of the
influence of the national geological survey in extending its opera-
tions into the settled states of the Union, and especially into states
in which official geological surveys are in progress, fearing that
by the concentration of all authority and control at the national
capital, and by the extensive accumulation at one centre of all

Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 3

the material illustrating the state and local geology of the coun-
try, the local interest and effort may die out, and that ultimately
the weight of public sentiment favorable to geologic investiga-
tion may suffer diminution. Such a result, besides retarding
the general advance of geologic interests, would inevitably react
on the national survey itself. It is hoped by the promoters of
Tue AMERICAN GEOLOGIST that its influence may serve to per-
petuate the general interest in geological investigation, and that
with this view, the numerous workers on the national survey
may lend the enterprise their countenance and support. The
editors of this journal pledge to them and to all geologists of
whatever school or party, that THe AMERICAN GEOLOGIST
shall be conducted on a plane of judicial impartiality, above the
influence of factions and of personal or local controversy. The
existence of an avenue through which the local interests of geol-
ogy throughout the country may find expression, and through
which the contributions to science that emanate from the labo-
ratories and libraries of numerous students, may be laid before
their fellow workers, will serve as a stimulus to local investiga-
tion, promote the interests of general intelligence and strengthen
that basis of popular appreciation on which every public scien-
tific enterprise — state or national —ultimately rests.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND ACTS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS, AND
OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE DELEGATES TO IT.

BY PERSIFOR FRAZER.

ORIGIN OF THE COMMITTEE.

At the Buffalo meeting of the A. A. A. S. (of 1876) the
Standing Committee of the association offered to the genera.
session the following:

RESOLVED, that a committee of the association be appointed to consider
the propriety of holding an international congress of geologists at Paris
during the international exhibition of 1878, for the purpose of getting
together comparative collections, maps, and sections and for the settling

4 Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

of many obscure points relating to geological classification and nomen-
clature. etc., etc.

The other clauses relate to the appointment of TYorrell and
Baumhauer, and others, to assist the committee, which latter was
composed of W. B, Rogers, James Hall, J. W. Dawson, J. S-
Newberry, T. S. Hunt, C. H. Hitchcock and R. Pumpelly, [ Ex-
ecutive proceedings, A. A. A.S. Buffalo meeting, 1876 ].

PREPARATIONS FOR THE CONGRESS.

At the Nashville meeting, in 1877, the Standing Committee
recommended that Prof. J. P. Lesley and And. C. Ramsay be
added to the international geological committee. Dr. Hunt pre-
sented a report of the committee in executive session, andon
recommendation of the Standing Committee, in addition to the
above two names, the presidents of the Geological Societies of
France, London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Berlin, Belgium, Italy,
Spain, Portugal, and of the Imperial Geological Institute of
Vienna, were added [ Nashville volume, A. A. A.S., Exec. Proc. ]

At the Saratoga meeting, August, 1879, Prof. James Hall,
chairman of the American committee, made a report of the pro-
ceedings of the first International Geological Congress in Paris,
held August 29, 1878, from which the following is extracted:

There were present at the Congress Profs. Lesley, Hunt, Hall, Cook,
Blake, Cope, Chamberlin and Selwyn.

At the Congress at Bologna, to be held Aug. 29th 1851, there are two
principal subjects comprised under two groups, and for each of these an
international committee was named at Paris. 1st, Unification of geologi-
cal cartography. 2nd, Unification of geological nomenclature, under
which head will be considered all matters relating to classification as
well as to the value and significance of mineralogical, lithological and
paleontological characters, thus embracing many of the most important
problems of geology. In naming these, as far as possible one member
from each country was appointed, whose duty it is to organize therein
separate local committee for each group, and to communicate to the
secretary of the Council of the Paris Congress, and with the local com-
mittees at Bologna. For the committee on the map the American members
were Lesley (U.S.), Selwyn (Can.). On geological nomenclature, Hall,
(U. S.), and Hunt (Can.). In view of the fact that the work of the Interna-
tional Geological Congress was initiated by the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, and that it promises to become one of
permanent and increasing importance, it is believed that it will be for the
best interests of geological science that the committee be continued ete.,

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 5

and further that its scope may, with advantage, be extended to include
the consideration of such questions relating to state and national geologi-
cal surveys as may from time to time arise.

On motion of major Powell the report was accepted and the
recommendation adopted.

The foreign members were dropped from the American com-
mittee.

At a subsequent meeting of the committee, held at Saratoga,
Sept. 1, 1879, the names of Geo. H. Cook, James D. Dana and
Clarence King, were added to the committee; the other mem-
bers being James Hall, W. B. Rogers, J. W. Dawson, J. S.
Newberry, C. H. Hitchcock, R. Pumpelly, J. P. Lesley and T.
Sterry Hunt.

At the Boston meeting in 1880, in the executive proceedings,
the committee on the International Congress of Geologists was
discharged. [See the report in the proceedings. ]

In the proceedings of the American Association for 1880 and
1881 no mention of the committee is made, and it does not ap-
pear among the standing committees of the association in the
reports of the Boston and Cincinnati meetings for those years.

At the Montreal meeting, in 1882, Dr. Hunt stated, in behalf
of the International Geological Committee, of which Hall, Sel-
wyn, Lesley and himself had been appointed representatives of
North America by the Congress at Paris, that a report had
been prepared some months ago, and asked that the committee
be continued, which was done, Prof. Hall seconding the mo-
tion. No mention is made in the volume of the proceedings of
the Bologna Congress.

At the Minneapolis meeting, 1883, the committee on the In-
ternational Congress of Geologists was continued. At this time,
and the year before, when it was resuscitated, it consisted of
Hall, Dawson, Newberry, Hunt, Hitchcock, Pumpelly, Lesley.

In 1884 Powell, Cook, Stevenson, Cope, and Smith were
added by the General Session on recommendation of the Coun-
cil, and the committee was continued.

In 1884, Frazer, H. S. Williams and N. H. Winchell were
added. In this year there were present at the Berlin Congress,
of the above as delegates, Hall, Newberry, Williams and Frazer.
Prof. Brush, being in Berlin at the time, and amember of the

6 Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

Congress already, was invited to act with the American com-
mittee during the session.

The secretary of the American committee took notes of the
proceedings of the Congress and prepared an account which ap-
peared in the American Journal of Science for December, 1885.
This account was forwarded to all the principal participants in
the debates, and with a few corrections furnished by these, and
on the expressed opinion of M. Fontannes, the official secretary
of the Congress, who had all the notes and edited the proceed-
ings of the Congress, that it was “rigorously exact,” a pamphlet
was issued at the expense of the committee, 300 copies of the
provisional color scale printed at Berlin having been imported
and added to it.

Meetings of the American committee have been held twice in
New York city, once in Philadelphia, once in Albany, once at
Spring Lake, New Jersey, and again in New York city, at
Columbia College, during the session of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. Reference will be made
to the proceedings of these meetings in another place.

Snort History OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE VARIOUS
CoNGRESSES—THE PARIS CONGRESS.

The program of the Congress, as given in the front of the
volume of its proceedings [ Paris session, 1878 ], is seen to be:

1. Unification of geological works in respect of nomenclature
and symbolic representation.

2. Discussion of various questions concerning the limitations
and characteristics of certain terranes.

3. Representation and co-ordination of the facts of alignment
(faults and veins).

4. Respective value of faunas and floras, from the point of
view of the boundaries of terranes.

5. Value of mineralogical composition and texture of the
rocks, from the point of view of their origin and their age.

On Thursday, August 29th 1878, at 3:15 Pp. M., in the palace
of the Trocadero, in Paris, the first Congress was opened under
the presidency of the Minister of public instruction. M. He-
bert, the president of the committee of organization, made the
opening address, and almost immediately stated the principles

Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists. Fd

which must govern a Congress of this kind, and which have
faithfully been‘carried out in all subsequent meetings. If the
gentlemen whi noisily and quasi-officially apply the worldly
definition of orthodoxy and heterodoxy to their plans and other
people’s plans of reforming the science, would but read what
has been done, they would be spared the labor of killing a great
many corpses, and of inventing a great many old proverbs, The
first Congress was hardly five minutes old when M. Hébert
remarked: “Pour atteindre notre but, nous aurons certainement
a surmonter des grands obstacles, de nombreuses difficultés, et
ces difficultés ne sont pas toutes de. nature a étre levées par
un Congrés. On ne saurait ici invoquer la loi du nombre;
nulle majorité ne saurait imposer des convictions que le senti-
ment du yrai peut seul amener. Cependant, de ’échange des
idées, de la discussion des faits et des opinions, résultera neces-
sairement, pour les amis de la verité, une salutaire influence; et
des réformes spontanées pourront étre la conséquence de nos
réunions.” etc.

This wise and just langauge has been the key-note of all fu-
ture acts of the Congress; and until one can point to some act
which has the appearance of abandoning the policy here indi-
cated, the implication of the members of any particular session
in the attempt to usurp authority is most unjust.

The position of the American committee toward the Con-
gress is somewhat peculiar, and was alluded to in the remarks
of M. Janettaz on the occasion just mentioned. After sketching
the birth and progress of the idea of an international congress in
accordance with the facts given above, he says (speaking of the
savants of all nations who were assembled in Philadelphia)
“T]s créerent, en conséquence, un comité auquel nous avons donné
en France la dénomination de Comité fondateur de Philadelphie,
pour rapeller a la fois son initiative et exposition de la noble
cité Americaine, qui en avait eté le point de départ.”

The story of the creation of the Congress then, as told by its
official publications, is this: A number of savants representing
the larger number of civilized countries, who were in the United
States in 1876 for the purpose of visiting the Centennial Exposi-
tion, named a committee to inaugurate the project. Of this
committee professor James Hall was president and Dr. T. Sterry

8 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

Hunt was secretary. The committee announced to all scientific
societies of the world the proposed inception of the plan during
the French Exposition of 1878, and appealed to M. Tournouér,
then the president of the Geological Society of France, for as-
sistance. The Council of the society was made.a committee of
organization, in conjunction with the members of the Institute
of France in the section devoted to matters akin to those about
to engage the attention of the Congress,—including in these
zoology and botany, and the professors of natural history chairs
in Paris. [ See vol. i, Proceedings of the International Congress,
p- 27- |

The first question submitted by the committee on organization
for discussion by the Congress, was the unification of the no-
menclature and the conventional symbols used in geology. The
second was the boundaries between the terranes. The third re-
lates to the works published on the alignment of dykes, and in
part to experimental geology. The fourth (the respective value
of faunas and floras in the determination of the boundaries of
terranes ) comprised the actual problems of paleontology.” The
fifth (the value of the mineralogical composition and of the tex-
ture of rocks, from the point of view of their origin and their
age) was suggested by the success of the application of the mi-
croscope, and of the principles of optical science, to lithological
questions.

A provisional bureau was named by the Council of the Con-
gress which issued a series of rules applicable to the Paris
session.

These rules comprise the following parts: Article I. The
first Congress, assembled by the committee of founders of Phila
delphia and the committee of organization of Paris, will meet
in Paris from August 29 to September 4, 1878. (Art. II,) in
the Palace of the Trocadero at 3 p.m. Art. III]. The payment
of 12 francs entitles the delegate to attend the sittings, to take
part in the discussions and votes, and to receive the volume of
the Proceedings of the Congress. Art. 1V. The direction of its
labors confided to a Bureau anda Council. Art. V. The Coun-
cil shall be composed of, 1st, the members of the committee of
founders; 2nd, the members of the committee of organization;
3rd, the members of the Bureau of the Congress; 4th, the exis-

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 9

ting presidents of the French or foreign geological societies,
and the directors of large geological surveys; 5th, the members
of the Congress that the Council may call to sit with it. It
will assemble in the halls of the Geological Society of France.
Art. VI. The Bureau will be elected at the first session of the
Congress from a list of proposals made by the Council. It will
be charged with the duty of arranging the program for each
day.

Art. VII. On account of the number of communications an-
nounced none shall be longer than a quarter of an hour except
by permisssion of the Bureau.

Art. VIII. Communications which shall be made in English
or German, but of which the authors shall have handed in a
written copy in advance, will be immediately analyzed in French
by the Bureau.

Art, IX, X, XI, refer to privileges which were secured for
the members of the Congress on presentation of their tickets at
various institutions and museums in Paris during and after the
session of the Congress. On August 30, Prof. Lesley was
elected vice president of the Congress, representing the United
States.

The Bureau of the Paris Congress consisted of Hébert
(France), president; Davidson (England); Liversidge ( Austra-
lia); de Koninck (Belgium); T. Sterry Hunt (Canada); John-
strupp (Denmark); Vilanova (Spain); Jas. Hall, J. P. Lesley
( United States ) ; Daubrée ( France) ;Szabo( Hungary ) ; Capellini
(Italy); de Baumhauer (Holland); Ribeiro (Portugal); Stéf-
anescu (Roumania); de Moeller (Russia); Torrell (Sweden
and Norway); Favre (Switzerland); Janettaz (France), gen-
eral secretary.

A large part of the time at the Congress was taken up with
lectures on various subjects of science by Daubrée, Michel,
Levy, Favre, Lory, Chancourtois, de Lapparent, Chas. Barrois,
James Hall, Renevier, Stéfanescu, Rutot, Vilanova, T. 5.
Hunt, Barrande, Hébert, de Moeller, Gosselet, Lesley, Velain,
Malaise, Cope, Rouault, Mortillet, Winkler, Vanden Broeck,
Blake, Choffat, Ribeiro, des Cloizeaux, Selwyn, Virlet d’Aoust,
Delesse, Chamberlin, and some others. When it is stated that
many of them lectured two and three and even four times, and

10 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

that the session of Congress only lasted one week, some idex
may be formed of the rapidity with which the true business of
the Congress was disposed of. This very natural license was
followed at Bologna, and in less degree in Berlin, but still, even
in this last session enough to cause a great many matters of de-
tail which might have been finally disposed of, to go over three
years for settlement. Itis very natural that the eminent apostles
of research who attend these Congresses should wish to bring
before their fellows the latest results at which they have arrived
and that the great body of members should wish to hear them,
but then excursions to the boundaries of the picket lines of sci-
ence should first be relegated to extra hours, and secondly they
should be few enough to enable all possible business which can-
not be settled through the media of scientific publications, to
occupy every precious minute of the time when the members
are together, for the reunion is costly and difficult.

On the last day of the session it was decided, 1st, to hold the
next Congress in 1881; 2nd, at Bologna, 3rd, about the beginning
of October, 4th, with Sellaas honorary president, and 5th, with
a committee of organization of Capellini president, Gastaldi,
Gemmellaro, Giordano, Guiscardi, Meneghini, Omboni, de
Pirona, Ponzi, Taramelli.

Two international committees were appointed. That on uni-
fication of geological cartography —figurés géologiques— con-
sisted of Liversidge, Dupont, Selwyn, Ribeiro, Lesley, de Chan-
courtois, de Hantken, Giordano, de Moeller, Torrell, Renevier;
that on unification of geological nonenclature, of Liversidge,
Dewalque, T. Sterry Hunt, Vilanova, James Hall, Hébert,
Szabo, Capellini, Stéfanescu, Inostranzeff, Lundgreen, Favre.

It was decided that the committees should complete their num-
bers in the cases of countries not represented, death, or resigna-
tion, by a two-thirds vote. Also that each member of the in-
ternational committee should institute a local committee of which
he should communicate the constitution to the corresponding in-
ternational committee

The wish of the Congress was expressed that in the forma-
tion of the local committees the principal geological societies of
each country should be consulted.

The committees were to organize as soon as possible and to

N.H. Winchell on the “Original Huronian.” II

communicate their organization to the present (Paris) Congress.
and to the committee of organization of the next (Bologna).

Their reports were to be sent before the 1st of Jan., 1881, to
the committee of organization of the Bologna Congress which
should be responsible for having them printed before the open-
ing of that Congress.

Committees were appointed to study the questions of rules to
be followed in establishing the nomenclature of species. These
committees were to consist, for paleontology, of Cotteau, Don-
villé, Gaudry, Gosselet, Pomel, de Saporta, and for mineralogy
of Des Cloizeaux, and Janettaz. After the usual amount of the
commodity designated by the English A. A. S. “butter,” the

Congress adjouned.
(To be concluded.)

THE ANIMIKE BLACK SLATES AND QUARTZYTES, AND
THE OGISHKE CONGLOMERATE OF MINNESOTA, THE
EQUIVALENT OF THE ‘“‘ORIGINAL HURONIAN.”

BY N. H. WINCHELL.

The existence or not of a stratigraphic rock-horizon which
could be denominated Huronian has been debated by geologists.
The true character of the rocks of which the Huronian is com-
posed has been misunderstood. They have been described as
“oreenstones,” in general terms, and no designation could be
further from the truth. So long as this idea of the composition
of the Huronian prevails, doubt and disagreement will con-
tinue. The confusion that has arisen respecting the Huronian
is due, to a large extent, to the contradictory and variant descrip-
tions published by the authors of that name, ‘hai is, the geolo-
gists of the Canadian geological survey. Mr. Murray referred
to the rocks on thenorth shore of lake Huron in some of the
earlier reports of that survey, and so far as I have observed he
had definite and correct ideas of their nature. The name, and
the first announcement of it, were accredited to Messrs Logan
and Hunt jointly. Mr. Hunt, who has written largely of the
Huronian, took his conception of its nature from samples which
had been gathered by others, never having visited the locality

12 N.H. Winchell on the “Original Huronian.”

himself, so far as I have been able to learn; while Mr. Logan,
who studied it lateron the shores of lake Superior where the
rocks that Mr. Murray described on the north shore of lake
Huron appear on the lake Superior shore, amplified the forma-
tion by adding some strata, or some phases of the strata, that are
not mentioned by Mr. Murray. Later still, following the defini-
tion of the orizon which it was supposed the Huronian occupies,
Mr. Bell and Mr. Dawson, as well as nearly all American geol-
ogists, have swept under the same designation several lower,
and quite distinct, stratigraphic terranes. This confusion was
intensified by the application of another name to a group of rocks
in northern Minnesota and the adjacent parts of Canada, by Dr.
Hunt, which it isthe object of this paper to show is the same as
the principal member of the Huronian in the original area of
Murray, on the north shore of lake Huron. This new name, the
«“Animike slates and quartzytes,” was thought by Dr. Hunt, to
cover aseries of strata much later than the Huronian; and even
later than the copper-bearing rocks of lake Superior. They
have been found, however, to run below the copper-bearing
rocks, and to constitute a great formation whose extent in
Minnesota has been found to be at least a hundred and twenty-
five miles, and whose equivalents in Michigan and Wisconsin
are gradually being identified.

Mr. Irving, who has examined the area of the original Huron-
ian within the last two years, has called attention to the nature
of the strata of which it is composed. His general description
is the same that I should give, with the exception that I should
not apply the term graywacke, to any of the rocks there found.
The graywackes, so far as I am acquainted with them, appear
in the Marquette and Vermilion iron regions, and probably in a
lower formation; the strata to which Mr. Irving seems to have
applied this term are quite different from the graywackes seen
in the iron-bearing rocks at Vermilion. Instead of being
coarsely granular, largely made up of feldspathic material and
of a gray color, the beds of the Huronian are mainly siliceous,
fine-grained and of a rather firm texture. They are inter-
bedded with, and pass into, fine-grained carbonaceous slates,
They are better described taken altogether, as black slates and

quartzytes.

N.H. Winchell on the “Original Huronian.” 13

But the original Huronian embraces, not only these black
slates and quartzytes, which in their lower portions become the
“slate conglomerate” of the region, but also, overlying the
slates and quartzytes, a great quartzyte of a different kind.
This overlying quartzyte constitutes perhaps the most conspic-
uous member of the original Huronian. Its thickness is very
great, reaching perhaps ten thousand feet. It is red in its lower
half, and nearly white inits upper. Both parts become pebbly,
and even coarsely conglomeritic in limited and local areas.
There is probably no stratigraphic or physical break between
these parts, but while on the ground during the month of July,
1887, it became convenient to distinguish these parts by differ-
ent names. The lower red portion was named Thessalon
quartzyte, and the upper white, was named Ofter Tail quarizyte.
These quartzytes are composed almost entirely of silica. The
original rounded grains are everywhere distinct as individual,
fragmental ingredients, but the rock 1s so compacted together,
and perhaps cemented by “interstitial silica,’ that no inter-
granular spaces are empty.

No one who has seen this quartzyte, and the quartzytes of
central Wisconsin and Minnesota which have been distinguished
by local geographic names,—Barraboo quartzyte, Sioux quartz-
yte, and Barron County quartzyte,—could fail to note at once
the similarity of lithologic and all outward characters which this ~
Huronian quartzyte bears to them. This is so great that the
observer begins at once to seek for other parallels. He finds
these in the tilted condition of the strata, in the associated red
felsytes, in the eruptive intrusions of diabasic rock and the ap-
parent general parallelism of geological horizon. It is true the
red quartzytes of central Wisconsin and Minnesota have not
been proven yet to overlie a series of black slates and quartzytes,
but in the northern Minnesota the Animike black slates and
quartzytes are known to underlie a great thickness of reddish
and gray quartzytes which have been considered the northern
equivalent of the quartzytes of central and southern Minnesota.

Indeed the identity of this Huronian quartzyte with these
more southern quartzytes is so strongly impressed on the ob-
server that he is compelled at once to assume an identity of age,
regardless of the late dogma that lithologic characters are of lit-

>

14 A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota.

tle or no value in determining rock horizons; and it becomes
almost a matter of surprise to him that this identity has not be-
fore been shown by those familiar with the original Huronian,

The parallelisms which I consider established, or highly prob-
able, can be tabulated as follows:

Minnesota.

Sioux Quartzyte and

Catlinite beds.
New Ulm

Quartzyte.
Wauswaugoning

bay Quartzytes.

Wisconsin.

Barraboo Quartzyte.
Barron Co. Quartzyte.

(Felsytes of central
Wisconsin ?)

Original Huronian,
Otter Tail Quartzyte.

Thessalon Quartzyte.

(The upper quartzytes
of the region.)

Rocks of the Gogebic

Quartzytes. range.
The Gunflint Beds.

~Animike slates and
4 The Upper black slate.

The modified con-
Ogishke Conglom- glomerate southofthe The Lower slate con-
erate. Gogebic range, (the glomerate.

granite.)

No attempt will be made here to find parallels of these for-
mations in other parts of the country. It is suffcient to call at-
tention to the discovery of fossils of primordial character, or
perhaps pre-primordial, in the Catlinite beds of south-western
Minnesota, and hence to the necessity of removing the Huronian

from the Archean.

THE UNCONFORMITIES OF THE ANIMIKE
IN MINNESOTA.|!

BY A. WINCHELL.

“ Animike” is a term employed to designate an assemblage
of strata occupying a position between the Copper-bearing,
Nipigon, or Kewenian series of lake Superior and the great
gneissic and granitic base commonly designated Laurentian.
The precise stratigraphical position and equivalences of the as-
semblage are not yet settled by common consent; and it is the

1The observations here recorded were made during a connection with
the work of the Minnesota geological survey, and are published with the
sanction of the state geologist. Full details will be given in the sixteenth
annual report of the survey.

A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota. 15

purpose of this paper to contribute a few facts suited to throw
light on the question.

‘The Animike formation covers an extensive area stretching
from Thunder bay of the north shore of lake Superior, south-
westward as far as Duluth, and still beyond to the Mississippi
river. The lake-shore belt, however, from Grand Portage, for
an average width of about twenty miles, is occupied by rocks of
the Kewenian series. The Animike rocks for the greater part,
are evenly and thinly laminated, and have a southerly dip along
the international boundary of about five to ten degrees. They
embrace a great thickness of black carbonaceous argillytes,
varying to pure slaty argillytes, black magnetitic slates, often
rich in iron, and siliceous schists sometimes quite purely siliceous
and ranging in color to chalcedonic, flinty, cherty and red-
jaspery. The magnetitic horizon presents, over an extensive
area west of Gunflint lake, on the boundary, remarkable de-
posits of valuable ore ranging from lean to nearly pure magne-
tite. At a lower horizon are beds of ferruginous (perhaps
sideritic) dolomite, and compact sandstone holding a considera-
ble percentage of fine granular orthoclase. The territory of
the formation is characterized by high precipitous bluffs facing
northward, but sometimes westward, and generally capped by a
thick table of gabbro, which, on the eroded side, presents rude
columnar aspects.’

Sir William Logan regarded the formation as the ‘“ Lower
Group” of the copper-bearing series. Mr. Bell in his reports
of 1866-9 and 1872-3, expresses the same view. Macfarlane,”
on the contrary, described it as newer than the copper-bearing
series. Dr. T. S. Hunt, also, who was the first to propose the
name “ Animike,” (from the Chippewa for “thunder” )’ at first
considered the formation as lying above the copper-bearing

1Full descriptions of the formation may be found in Logan’s Geology
of Canada, 1863, pp. 66-70, and more extended, in Irving’s Copper-bearing
Rocks of lake Superior. Monographs of the United States geological
survey, vol. v, pp. 367-386; also Third annual report of U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey, pp. 157-163. The reader may consult also, Bell, in Geol. Sury. of
Canada, Report for 1866-1869, pp. 318-19, and Rep. 1872-3, pp. 92-3.

2Canadian Naturalist, New Series, iii, 252; iv, 38.

3Hunt, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, vol. i, p. 339.

16 A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota.

rocks; but in 1883 he announced the opinion that their place is
below.’ N. H. Winchell, in 1880, considered the Animike “to
be only a downward extension of the Cupriferous Series.”?
The inferior position of the Animike has also been maintained
by Irving* in various publications. But he does not regard it
as the lower part of the Kewenian.* He holds it to be an older
system of series separated from the Kewenian by a long inter-
val of erosion,if not by an unconformity. He holds it to be the
equivalent of the typical Huronian of Canada, north of lake
Huron. But he also parallelizes it with the iron-bearing schists
of the Marquette, Menominee, Gogebic and Vermilion regions.
After a general survey of the rocks of the various regions, he
concludes: “It thus appears that the Marquette and Menominee
iron-bearing schists are essentially the same lithologically, with
those of the Animike group of the north shore.”’ And again:
“The original Huronian, the Animike slates, the Penokee iron-
rocks and the iron-bearing rocks of the Marquette and Me-
nominee regions, appear to me, then, in all probability, to belong
together, and I may hence properly call them all Huronian.””
Again, speaking of the rocks in northeastern Minnesota assem-
bled by Bell in the Huronian, professor Irving expresses a
doubt whether the mica-schists and hornblende-schists are not
rather dependencies of the older gneisses; but in reference to
the whole Huronian assemblage of Bell, he concludes: ‘In
the present state of our knowledge, it seems probable enough
that a large part of them should be so referred.”’ He recog-
nizes the difficulty presented in the attempt to make the flat-

1Hunt, The Taconic System in Geology, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,
vol. I, sec. Iv, p. 250.

2N.H. Winchell, Ninth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Minn., p. 7o.

3 Irving, Third Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 157-163; Monographs
U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. v, (1883,) pp. 367-386, 395; Preliminary Paper on
an investigation of the Archean formations of the Northwestern States,
March, 1886, extracted from sixth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Sury., 203-205.

4This form of the term is preferred to “‘Kewenawan,” both because
more euphonious and of earlier introduction. We are indebted to Hunt
also, for this designation. It is, however, a synonym of “ Nipigon.”

5 Monographs, vol. v, p. 394.

6 Monographs, vol. v, p. 395.

7 Monographs, vol. v, p. 206.

A. Winchell ou the Animike in Minnesota. 17

lying Animike rocks the equivalent of the perpendicular clastic
slates of the Vermilion lake iron-bearing schists; but he at-
tempts to remove the difficulty by stating that broad gneissic
and granitic masses everywhere intervene between the areas of
the two sorts of schists, and reminding us of the possibility that
the upheaval of them might leave the strata on one side at no
great distance from the upheaval, still in a horizontal position,
while those on the opposite side may have been tilted to verti-
cality. It is useless to discuss the correctness of the principle,
since it now appears that the Animike slates and the Vermilion
slates are not always separated as supposed. I cannot occupy
the space in the present article requisite to prove this position;
since, after explaining to the general reader what the Animike
series is, it is my sole object to point out some interesting ex-
amples of its unconformity with older rocks.

The vertical earthy schists which embrace the vast hematitic
deposits of Vermilion lake, in northern Minnesota, are tracea-
ble, without any important discontinuity, northeastward to Oak
lake, which lies on the boundary immediately west of Saganaga,
and eastward to West Seagull and Frogrock lakes. At this
limit a coarse syenite, with scattered, large angular individuals
of quartz, intervenes for a distance of about twenty miles along
the national boundary and south of it. This syenitic belt is the
crossing of the Giant’s Range, which trends from the east- north-
east toward the west-southwest. At Gunflint lake occur the
first conspicuous exposures of the Animike. The norhwestern
swell of the lake stretches easterly and westerly into a couple of
bays bordered on the north by the Saganaga syenite and on the
south by hills of Animike slate. On the southern side of the
eastern, or Black Fly bay, the two formations are traceable al-
most to the eastern extremity, where a breadth of not over
twenty rods separates the two shores. The hill on the south
side is crowned with gabbro.

The lake is bordered on all sides by dark shales of the Animike
gently dipping southward, except about a mile near the middle
of the north shore. Here (Halt 1353, see map) a very differ-
ent formation comes into view. It consists of slates, mostly
argillaceous and parophitic, standing vertically and _ striking
N.72°E. An excursion of half a mile into the interior shows

18 A. Winchell on the Animtike in Minnesota.

this formation continuous. The surface rises in a succession of
parallel, interlocking high ridges, all having the same aspect as
the cliffs on the shore. At about half a mile, the slate begins to
be interstratified with layers more or less inclining to a micaceous
slate. Continuing northward in the expectation or finding mica-
schist fully developed, gabbro suddenly appears in a thin bed
covering the crest of the hill, and concealing the formation un-
derneath.

T, 65 N. R. 3 W. MINN.

| | RANGE
| re | |
sp art) 2 | Syénite Gneigs
ce ND vel 8 9 0 sl 12° j 498
rr tb Tiacl |
: call® az it er Hlormbl. sch. 1421
Ba te USES AN pete de a) eee AGEN EWS ee
Gut) igs do, Wey oe 420)
\ rer A Mica sth. | ge ae al
ay oy I | yy Gi
Seni, 16 15 14a dys 18 TF
We? io] mS 35 ‘
g Kewatin
= MICO R ee
~, ae ie i ;
ee
mimikié 4S
J) 1282
30

Fig. 1. Outline of Gunflint lake, with the exclusion of the eastern ex-
tremity.

The American territory covered is from the government plats. The
section lines of the American survey are extended over the Canadian
territory, and the principal features of the Canadian shore have been
located by means of bearings taken from points fixed by the American
survey.

Westward from 1353, the vertical schists can be traced nearly
to the head of the little bay, where the Animike-covered oppo-
site shore is not over one eighth of a mile distant. Eastward from
1353, the vertical slates rise in high cliffs for half a mile, and
the formation is traceable, sometimes capped with gabbro, to
near 1355, where it strikes inland, leaving the shore occupied
by Animike. In this distance of a mile and a half from the
head of the bay, the iron-bearing shales of the Animike rise

A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota. 19

above the water-level in two or three places, and at 1362, they
come within seven feet of contact with the vertical slates.!

Subsequently, I made with my brother, a traverse from an-
other point of the shore, Halt 1297, due north for over a mile,
along a line previously measured by surveyors employed by
Sedgwick & Brotherton of Chicago. The gabbro at this
point, comes down to the shore, but Animike slates are seen
rising from beneath it at the distance of a third of a mile (1418).
At half a mile inland, vertical slates are found rising in a hill
slope. These are lithologically identical with those at 1353, and
lie in their strike at the point of disappearance near 1355. A
few rods beyond, across the strike, the slates become a porphy-
ritic, sericitic argillyte, weathering much like the porphyritic
porodyte of Vermilion lake,’ but with feldspar individuals along
with the quartzitic. Still beyond, the porphyritic slate becomes
interbanded with thin layers of uralitic hornblende schist —five
hundred alternations of which I estimated in the space of three
rods. This condition is soon succeeded by well established
uralitic hornblende schist, in a belt eighteen rods wide. This
if much contorted, showing proximity to the ancient seat of
some powerful dynamic action. The next ridge has the weath-
ered aspect of syenite, and consists of quartz, white orthoclase
and uralitic hornblende, aggregated in a gneissic condition.
Well characterized Saganaga gneiss is reached at the distance of
a mile and a quarter from the lake shore. Fuller details of the
interesting lithological transitions observed will be given here-
after. The stratigraphical relations noticed on this trip are il-
lustrated in the subjoined figure.

Another traverse was made by Mr. Stacy from near Halt 1355,
a mile west from the last mentioned. The vertical schists were
found to continue from the shore for a distance of three quar
ters of a mile, when the usual transition to micaceous strata oc
curred, and at a mile from the lake, gneiss was fully established.
Not far beyond this, the rock seemed to be well marked syenite

1These observations were made in August, 1887. As no record had
been published of any observed superposition of Animike on the Ver-
milion slates, I forwarded an announcement to the AMERICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE, which appeared in the October number.

2 See the fifteenth Ann. Rep. Geol. Sury. Minn. p. 20, etc.

20 A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota.

The belt of crystalline schist was found a quarter of a mile
wide.

This range of slates was visited by N. H. Winchell, in 1880.
and he reported it as “underlying the quartzyte and gunflint

KEWATIN
oe=e=== wo
o +2
= &
2 S =
& 3
3 Sry 5 s
= Seis i
= =
= 3&8
S Eas

>
oats
3

Fig. 2. Junction of Animike and Kewatin.! Vertical dimension exagger-
ated. Section observed on the north shore of Gunflint lake.

beds [ Animike ] apparently unconformably. At least, it is an-
other and distinct formation from the slates at Grand Portage.” *
“The close proximity of this flint and jasper locality to the
next great underlying formation (syenites and slates) makes it
one of great interest to the geologist, but so far as scrutinized,
as yet, the true relations of the two formations are not revealed
by anything here seen, [just east of the Narrows—see fig. 1 ]
though there seems to be an unconformability between them.”*

In the October (1587) number of the American Journal of
Science, appears the second part of a very important discussion
from the pen of professor R. D. Irving, in which his figure 9
presents a fundamental resemblance to my figure 2; but his in-
terpretation of the facts is quite different from mine. Professor

1 The vertical schists are here designated Kewatin because supposed to
be included in the original “Keewatin” of Lawson. The spelling is simpli-
fied; but if this term is to be adopted, it ought to be conformed to the es-
tablished orthography of Chippewa terms. This is properly pronounced
Ke-way’-tin—not Ke-wah-tin, and ought to be spelled Ke-wa-tin or Ki-
we-tin. (See “Instruction for research relative to the etymology and
philology of America,” by George Gibbs, in Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections, No. 160; also, Contributions to American Ethnology, vol. 1,
Pp. 249-51; vol. 3, pp. 443-5.)

2.N. H. Winchell, Ninth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Minn. (1880) p. 82.

3. N. H. Winchell, Tenth Ann. Rep. Geol. Serv. Minn. (1881), p. 88.

A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota. 21

Irving appears to regard the vertical schist as part of the assem-
blage of crystalline schists and gneisses holding a position be-
neath the iron-bearing schists of Vermilion lake while I consider
them without a doubt, to be the equivalent of the iron-bearing
and iron-enclosing schists themselves. In my view, conse-
quently, the Animike slates of his figure 7 are quite another
thing from the “Vermilion Iron Series” of the same figure.
The grounds of my divergent interpretation of the approximated
formations will be fully stated in another place.

The junction between the Animike slates and the underlying
vertical or Kewatin slates is interestingly shown at other local-
ities. At the southeastern point of Epsilon lake, at the end of
the portage from Zeta lake,—both in T. 64, R. 6 W.—occurs a
high cliff of dark argillyte cleaved by smooth planes running
N.30° E, and having a southward dip of 75°. But the faces of
the sheets are marked by a fibrous striation dipping westerly at
an angle of 54°. This, if a sedimentary dip, is such that the
Ogishke conglomerate, which disappears northerly not far from
this spot, would be found underlying.

A third of a mile north from here, on the east side of Epsilon
lake, dark argillyte of character similar to the last, forms a high
bluff in which the usual cleavage planes strike N. 35° E, and
dip southward 67°. Here, however, are colored bands running
across the faces of the laminz, and dipping westward at an angle
of 14°; but further examination shows these bands to be lines
of bedding which dip southward at an angle of 60°. Here then,
appear to be two localities in which the usual vertical slatiness
exists, while the bedding is quite unconformable. But these
features belong to the whole exposure, and the slate presents
lithologically the characters of the argillytes of the Animike.

Half a mile beyond the last locality, and on the north side of
the lake, is an outcrop of bluish, somewhat irregular, argillyte,
which rises in a hill a hundred feet high, separating Epsilon
lake from the southern bifurcation of Arm IV of Knife lake.
The formation here posesses the usual schistic structure of the
vertical schists of the Vermilion iron-bearing schists, but dis-
closes no diagonal ribboning on the lateral surfaces of the sheets.
The schistosity is evidently coincident with the sedimentation
planes.

Ww
iS)

A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota.

Finding characteristic Kewatin slates within half a mile of
characteristic (but rather steeply dipping) Animike slates, it
became very important to find their junction, which must occur
at some intermediate point. Happily, a careful search brought
the junction to light. At this point is a low projecting bluff of
slate, in which the usual vertical cleavage is conspicuous at all
points, and careless observation would pronounce the whole ex-
posure one in character and age. Careful inspection, however,

ae)
pean

Tee ele tenet Say '
nae er mn meen cee come a ee

ANIMIKIE

KEWATIN

\
|
i}
‘
}
\

|
|
|

|
|
|

=
=
za

i
es jie}

(
|
t
{
1
!
1

\
!
fast
1
|
|

Fig. 3. Junction of Animike and Kewatin. South side of Epsilon lake,
T 64, R 6 W, Minnesota.

shows the boss of slate on one side to possess a ribboned charac-
ter dipping $.43°, adark complexion and very smooth cleavage;
while that on the north is a rough and older looking slate, with
no graining or ribboning unconformable with the schistosity.
On the contrary, due research discloses the existence of bedding
planes conformable with the schistosity, and also giving evidence
of their sedimentary origin. In short, we have here Animike
slates on one side resting uncomformably on the Kewatin slates
of the other side. The precise junction is not exposed, that
being, as usual, more eroded than the masses on either hand,
with the depression covered by detritus.

Similar but less conclusive observations at many other points
led me to the conclusion that many of the depressions in the old
eroded surface of the Kewatin, in the region from Gunflint lake
to Knife and Sucker lakes, have been filled with Animike sedi-
ment, and both formations subsequently subjected to the com-
mon influences which have imparted to both that wonderfully
persistent and uniform vertical schistosity which is so striking a
feature. The most eastern discordance known is in sec. 1, T.

Gastine 27 Ei

A. Winchell on the Animike in Minnesota. 23

I wish to cite one more instance of the local relation of the
Animike to the gneissic rocks of the region of Gunflint lake.
From the western extremity of the northern swell of the lake,
a distance of two miles west along the northern section line of
sections 24 and 23 of T. 65, R. 4 W, and then a quarter of a
mile south along the western line of section 23, brings us to an
outcrop of the Animike which incloses a heavy deposit of mag-
netic iron ore. The outcrop is less than a quarter of a mile
south of a ridge of gneiss which marks the southern boundary of
the Giant’s Range. We find exposed here in a bluff, a bed of
magnetite about six feet thick, underlaid by eight feet of thick-
bedded rock of which the upper part is composed of fine grains
of quartz and orthoclase, with argillaceous matter, and the lower
part is bluish, finer and more compact; but neither of these
rocks has been particularly studied. The dip here is 13°. In
the immediate vicinity a test pit has been sunk (fig. 4.) which

Fig. 4. Junction of Animike and gneiss. Two miles west of Gun-
flint lake.
G, Vertically schistose gneiss. a, The principal iron beds.
K, Vertical Kewatin (not seen here). e, Layer of gravelly earth.
A!, Nearly horizontal Animike, upper beds.
A?, Animike, lower beds of the vicinity.
passes through all the Animike beds present and terminates on
the gneiss. The magnetite here is from three to four feet thick,
but varies in quality both horizontally and vertically, ending
downward in a broken, cherty zone. At the plane of contact
between the Animike and the gneiss is a layer of brown earthy
matter about four to six inches thick. In places, this appears a
sheet of Animike rusted and decayed, but the greater part of
the bed plainly comes from the decay of the gneiss; for it

24 Calvin on a new Tubicolar Annelida.

abounds in gravel which apparently represents the quartz.
This bed probably continues southward until the Kewatin be-
comes the subjacent formation; and the latter, according to
uniform observation, must stand in vertical conformity with the
gneiss.

It is noticeable here that the lowest beds of the bluff are
wanting inthe pit. The higher beds appear to extend farther
northward, as if the gneiss had been subsiding during the deposit
of the Animike. The iron, too, is located in these beds, though
generally the iron horizon is considered to belong in the lower
part of the formation.

Similar unconformities of the Animike as described, on the
iron-bearing series as described, are repeated, apparently, in the
Marquette region. But in this place I must restrict my remarks
to Minnesota.

If the magnetitic, Huronian Animike reposes unconformably
on the hematitic, uncrystalline, super-Laurentian series of the
lake Superior basin, we have a wide-extended system of slates
which invites serious taxonomic consideration.

ON A NEW GENUS AND NEW SPECIES OF TUBICOLAR
ANNELIDA.

BY PROFESSOR: S. CALVIN.

T am indebted to professor B. Shimek of the lowa City High
School for a number of fragments of Acervularia davidsoni
Ed. and H., which contain as enclosures the shells of a very
peculiar and very interesting tubicolar worm. The specimens
were procured at Robert’s Ferry in Johnson county,lowa. So
far as I now know the tubes of this worm are only found em-
bedded vertically in the solid coralla of Acervularia. Further-
more the species, except at the locality mentioned, must be ex-
ceedingly rare. Of the many hundreds of specimens of Acer=
vuiaria that I have collected, or seen exposed at the quarries or
along the natural exposures near Lowa City, at Littleton, or at
numerous other places where this coral abounds, none have
shown any indications of the tubes in question. If the tubes

: Calvin on a new Tubicolar Anneiid. 25

were small and inconspicuous, we might suppose that they had
been overlooked, and that further examination would show
them to be more generally distributed than we are at first in-
clined to believe; but in place of being inconspicuous the tubes
are not unfrequently a quarter of an inch in diameter and two
inches in length. Moreover, unlike all other worm tubes of
the group known to me, these are uniformly coiled in a long,
loose, somewhat irregular spiral, and the successive brownish
volutions stand out conspicuously on the freshly fractured sur-
faces when the coral is broken in the right direction. It would
probably be a better description of the actual state of affairs to
speak of the tubes as twisted rather than coiled. The volutions
while for the most part in contact, lack the regularity of the
volutions of Loxonema, Murchisonia or any of the long spired
gasteropods, resemblance to which a first glance is likely to sug-
gest. The irregularities about the sutures remind one of the ef-
fect of torsion, and the tube diameter is not unfrequently di-
minished between two contiguous volutions. All the irregular-
ities and appearance of twisting, however, are due to peculiar-
ities in the mode of growth and not to any agencies that have
affected the tubes since they were formed.

In all the specimens before me the spiral is sinistral. A sec-
tion across the axis is circular or sub-circular. The surface is
marked by transverse lines of growth that are approximately
parallel and horizontal throughout the whole length of the tube,
any change in the direction of the successive parts of a given
volution producing no change in the general parallelism of the
lines of growth. It would seem as if the mouth of the tube had
been always horizontal, quite regardless of the fact that the as-
cending spiral axis during the growth of any simple volution
was directed successively to every point of the compass. The
upward growth of the tube was effected by the addition of
equal vertical increments all around the margin of the aperture,
and yet, notwithstanding all this, the creature managed to coil
around an imaginary vertical axis with surprising regularity.
There are no longitudinal markings of any kind, except that
very rarely there are faint grooves and ridges, evidently due to
contact of the edges of the septa of the coral with the outer sur-
face of the tube. The tube tapers very gradually, and the

26 Calvin on a uew Tubicolar Annelid.

spiral axis never departs horizontally as much as a half tube-
diameter from the imaginary vertical axis.

While the worms here referred to were not social, yet a large
number may be found embedded in asingle corallum. Their
occurrence in the midst of the coral substance, closely and firmly
embraced by it on all sides, reminds one of the Serpula tubes in
the Meandrinas, from the modern reefs of Florida and the West
Indies. The Serpulas that are found associated with Mean-
drina, however, are attached first to the side of the corallum,
usually to the surface of a dead portion near the base, and, ex-
tending upward until they reach the living part, are by the
lateral growth of the colony enveloped in the stony secretion.
From the point of earliest attachment, all along up the side,
the Serpula tube is soldered fast to the corallum. The tube
may be variously flexed; but the one condition that it must ad-
here to the surface of some solid body throughout its whole
length, precludes the possibility of spiral growth. The mouth
of the Serpula tube, after it is fairly enclosed in the stony se-
cretion of Meandrina, does not usually advance beyond the sur-
face of the coral. The growth of the tube and the growth of
the coral seem to progress with equal step.

Now it seems to me that the worms that became associated
with Acervularia at Robert’s Ferry could not have been first
attached to the sides of the corallum, but must have settled down
among the living polyps on its surface. The embryonic shell
was attached by its tip or apex, not by its side. The upward
growth of the coral clasped and held it firmly as fast as it was
formed. Probably the tube always projected a little beyond the
surface of the corallum. This would indeed seem to be neces-
sary in order to afford perfect freedom for the swinging of the
worm around a vertical axis; aswinging which was necessitated
by the conditions of spiral growth.

The worms that infested Acervularia were related in some
respects to Serpula or Serpulites. The tube is simple, without
vesiculose walls or internal annulations. It differs therefore
from the complex tubes that characterize the genus Cormnudlites
of Schlotheim, as well as from the small tubes, found in colonies
on which Nicholson (American Journal of Science, third series,
vol. iii, p. 204,) founded his genus Conchicolites. Nor is there

Calvin on a new Tubicolar Annelida. a7

anything to snggest generic relationship between these worm
tubes of Acervularia and the Salierella of Billings, ( Pal. Fossils,
vol. i, p. 17.) This last genus comprises “small, slender, elon-
gate-conical tubes, consisting of several hollow cones placed one
within another.” The pretty spiral worm tubes of the genus
Spirorbis are coiled in a plane and attached by one side only.
The tubes that constitute the subject of this paper differ from all
others known to me in being more or less regularly coiled around
an elongated axis, and in being from the beginning of their
growth supported on all sides. I therefore, provisionlly at least,
propose to make them the type of a new genus as follows:

Streptindytes, n. g. Worm solitary, inhabiting a simple cal-
careous tube spirally coiled around an elongated imaginary axis.
Diameter of tube increasing very gradually from the apex,
sometimes constricted between the volutions. Tube walls thin,
marked externally by parallel lines or annulations of growth.
Mode of growth apparently requiring that the tube be supported
equally on all sides. The typical species growing vertically in
corals.

Streptindytes acervularie, n. s. Tubes with the spiral sinis-
tral, growing in greater or less numbers in coralla of Acervula=
via davidsoni. ‘Tubes varying from one-eighth to nearly one
fourth of an inch in diameter, and from one to two inches in
length. Surface marked by fine parallel lines of growth. No
longitudinal striz. Spiral somewhat irregular. In a typical
example, where the tube is about one eighth of an inch in diame-
ter, the distance from middle to middle of two contiguous volu-
tions is one fourth of an inch.

Found in strata of the Hamilton period, Devonian age, at
Robert’s Ferry, Iowa.

Species of Streptindytes may have lived in other corals than
Acervularia. They may have lived indeed embedded, tip
downward, in soft mud, or in any other situation where the
growing tube would be subjeet to similar conditions on all sides.
They could never have had the habit of Serpula or Serpulites,
the genera to which Streptindytes, in the matter of shell struc-
ture, stands most closely related.

Finally it is highly probable that at least specific modification
was necessary to enable our Robert’s Ferry species to establish

28 Calvin on the Deep Well ai Washington, Iowa.

itself and live successfully in the midst of a growing colony of
Acervularia. Tohave lived in other genera of corals or in soft
sediment would have required still different adaptive modifica-
tions, There is therefore little impropriety I hope in calling the
worms of our new species Twisted in=dwellers of Acervularia.

Iowa City, lowa, Dec. 7th, 1887.

NOTES ON THE FORMATIONS PASSED THROUGH IN
BORING THE DEEP WELL AT WASHINGTON, IOWA.

BY PROFESSOR S. CALVIN.

The deep well at Washington, Iowa, is located in the eastern
edge of the city. From the surface to a depth of 350 feet the
boring passed through superficial deposits of drift and modified
drift. There were beds of gravel, sand, and clay, presenting
the usual characteristics observed in the regions of modified
drift in lowa. The blue clay, so widely distributed in all the
drift-covered portions of the Northwest, occurs conspicuously
in the deeper borings from the superficial deposits.

The “forest bed” was reached at a depth of 115 feet. Peaty
matter with the usual accompaniment of pieces of wood and
twigs of trees were brought up from this depth. By all means,
however, the most interesting specimens obtained from the
««forest bed” were ten small cones, evidently cones of the black
spruce, Abies nigra. ‘This, so far as I now recall, is the first
tim®e the fruit of the old interglacial forest trees has been ob-
tained in this state. The species indicated by the cones is sug-
gestive of climatic conditions somewhat more rigorous than
those which now obtain in the latitude of Washington, Iowa.

A dark shale, more or less calcareous in some of its layers,
was encountered from 350 to 432 feetin depth. This probably
represents the lower part of the Kinderhook beds, as this forma-
tion is defined by White, Geol. of Jowa, 1870. About three
miles west of the point where the boring in question is made,
rocks of the age of the Upper Burlington limestone occur
near the surface and are quarried somewhat extensively for
building purposes. At the well the Burlington and part of the
Kinderhook slates had been removed prior to the deposit of the

Calvin on the Deep Weil at Washingion, Icwa. 29.

‘earlier drift, and 350 feet of superficial detritus scarcely suffice
to bring the surface up to the level of the limestone at the
‘quarries west of the city.

At a depth of 458 feet the samples show a light colored
magnesian limestone of rather fine texture. The borings from
‘this depth contain the only recognizable fossils found below
the “forest bed.” Fragments of Airypa reticularis Lin. and
of Athyris vitiata Hall, indicate very clearly the horizon of
the Hamilton limestone and shales as these are developed at
Iowa City, Davenport, or Independence, Iowa.

With some alternations of shale and limestone the Devonian
deposits extend to a depth of 500 feet. At this depth the last
of the borings referable to the Devonian were obtained.

The next samples are marked 532 feet and consist of calcif-
erous sandstone, which at 585 feet passes into a purer sand-
stone and as such is continued toa depth of 632 feet. As,
however, the ‘next sample is marked 702 feet, we may infer
that the sandstone extends almost to that depth. This 170 feet
of sandstone evidently represents the deposits of the Niagara
period.

At 702 feet we find a fine bluish or greenish shale, identical
in all respects with shales of the Hudson River group, as seen
in the bluffs at and below Bellevue, Iowa. » Clay shales, some-
times with an admixture of sand, and again with some calcare-
ous matter, are continued down to a depth of 793 feet. This
group of shales are plainly referable to the Hudson River
shales of Hall or the Maquoketa shales of White.

Grayish limestones, not dolomytes however, from 803 to 963
feet are probably the equivalents of the Galena limestone of
eastern Iowa.

At 1020 feet the borings consist of dark, fine-grained lime-
stone mixed with considerable carbonaceous shale. There is
little difficulty in recognizing in this limestone and shale the
Trenton of Iowa and Wisconsin. The bits of carbonaceous
shale are quite rich in bituminous matter and burn with flame
and smoke when ignited. Similar shales, that one may light
with a match, constitute partings between the beds of Trenton
limestone at Boat-Yard Hollow, opposite Dubuque, at the
mouth of the Turkey river, and at many other places in Iowa.

30 Calvin on the Deep Well at Washington, Iowa.

The Trenton limestone with its ordinary lithological charac-
ters in the Northwest continues down, as shown by the borings,
to a depth of 1059 feet. At 1082 feet is a bed of sandstone,
and from 1084 to 1095 feet is an arenaceous shale, both of which
probably belong to the Trenton series.

From 1100 to 1200 feet the borings show the usual charac-
teristics of the St. Peter’s sandstone. Some of the specimens
are pure white, granular, resembling refined sugar. Others are
brownish or reddish, stained with metallic oxides. At 1145
feet, the sand when taken out was pure white, but owing to the
combined action of the atmosphere and moisture it has since
changed to a bright red. The change is most marked at the
sides of the bottle, the sand in the middle retaining nearly its
original color.

At 1228 feet is a thin bed of bluish shale that I am inclined
to think represents the Lower Magnesian limestone. This can
be better determined after the boring has progressed somewhat
farther. If the conclusion is correct, then a grayish sand
marked 1230 feet represents the upper part of the Potsdam
series.’

The geological horizons that may be determined with a great
degree of certainty are the Hamilton, Hudson River, Trenton
and St. Peter. A, noticeable fact and one of great interest is
the absence of dolomytes. In place of the dolomytes of the Ni-
agra period we seem to have too feet of sandstones. The place
of the buff or cream-colored, coarse, granular Galena limestone
seems to be filled with a grayish limestone not dolomitic, Fi-
nally, if my conclusion regarding the shale at 1228 feet be cor-
rect, we have the Lower Magnesian limestone represented by a
bed of clay. While the deposits of the Lower Magnesian
limestones were going forward in northeastern Iowa, the place
now occupied by Washington, Iowa, was more remote from
the then-existing shore line, and was more deeply submerged
than any point at which we now find these limestones exposed.
The same may be said with reference to the other dolomitic
formations. Can it be that dolomyte is only formed near the
shore? The Hudson River shales, the Trenton limestone and

' Prof. Calvin here probably means to indicate the upper part of the
St. Croix formation of the Mississippi valley.—N. H. W.

Claypole on Natural Gas. 31

the St. Peter’s sandstone pass away out under Washington
practically unchanged, but dolomitic deposits seem not to have
extended very far seaward.

THE, FUTURE OF NATURAL GAS.
BYE. W. CLAYPOLE.

The excitement over the wonderful supply of gaseous fuel
which began about four years ago and has since risen to fever-
heat will form one of the most remarkable events in the history
of economic geology in North America—second only, if second,
to the great oil-craze of twenty-five years ago. The narrative
stripped of all exaggeration is sufficiently striking to sound more
like a chapter from the Arabian Nights, than a plain unvarn-
ished story from actual history. Both may be fairly entered
among the “fairy tales of science.” The wild speculation—the
mania which marked the years from 1860 to 1865—was repeated
on a somewhat smaller scale in 1885 and 1886. As a forest of
derricks arose in the few favored spots in Pennsylvania to bore
for oil so has a similar forest arisen in almost every state in the
Union to pierce and probe the strata in order to discover
whether or not they contain any store of natural gas. The re-
sult as we all know has been that a few places have found a rich
supply of fuel ready to spring forth and do their bidding at a
merely nominal cost, while the greater part of the country has
proved to be barren territory, yielding only “dry holes.”

Foremost among these favored spots is Pittsburgh near which
have been developed surprising quantities of this clean and cheap
fuel, the effect of which has been to render the once dirtiest city
of the Union comparatively smokeless, and its air comparatively
clear.

Second to Pittsburg, but second only at an enormous interval,
comes Findlay, O., which town has also found large stores of
gas. Many other places in different parts of the country have
- had more or less success in their search and are enjoying pro-
portional advantage.

The new fuel has naturally attracted manufacturers to the
places where it can be obtained, and the towns that possess large

32 Claypole on Natural Gas.

gas-wells have exerted their utmost endeavors to encourage this
immigration by offering free sites and other privileges to firms
that would consent to remove.

Other towns felt that they were placed at a disadvantage, and
seeing no reason why they also should not obtain gas began to
sink wells in quest of it, in almost all cases without success.
Many of these explorations were undertaken and carried out
against the advice of geologists, who saw no prospect of any
thing but failure and whose prophecies have in nearly all cases
been literally fulfilled.

A review of the whole subject so far as it has been yet de-
veloped, suggests to every observing mind the query, “ What
is to be the future of natural gas? Is it going to be a per-

an addition
that can be relied on for ages to come—or will it prove a pass-

manent addition to our natural working resources

ing, fitful supply, likely to run out almost before we have
learned how to use it? Will it be a star or a meteor, a lamp or
a will-’o-the-wisp?”

Whatever may be the opinion of the dealer and the specula-
tor whose interests are bound up in the gas-supply, the geolo-
gist has but one answer to this question. He feels confident
that however great and surprising may be the present exhibition
of natural gas it will infallibly ere long run out. It may not
be easy to convince people generally of the truth of this opinion,
because it is contrary to their wishes. But there can be no
doubt of its essential truth, and that acomparatively short time
will witness the exhaustion of all the roaring gas-wells that are
now vomiting forth their vast supplies of natural fuel. Their
roar will grow less and less until it dies into silence and their
glowing flame will grow dimmer and dimmer until it fades into
darkness.

What ground, we shall be asked, is there for this melancholy
foreboding? Why prophesy evil things in this our day of
prosperity and abundance? Why play the croaker amid gen-
eral exultation? We reply that it is better to know the truth
even if unwelcome than to nurse a falsehood till it bursts as a
bubble, and leaves us with nothing instead of our fancied pos-
session.

Though the exhaustion of our supply of natural gas has been

Claypole on Natural Gas. 33

an unwelcome prediction yet a calm and unprejudiced review
of the evidence points strongly to it. Look at the present con-
dition and read the past history of the once famous oil-fields of
Pennsylvania and see what they can teach us. Read the story of
the great Pennsylvanian gushers and note their present state. It
is almost mournful to walk through those scenes of fabulous
wealth and waste only twenty years old. It is saddening to
visit the great Franklin oil-field of Venango county and see the
hill-side dotted with derricks standing over wells from which
within a decade or two flowed forth dark green streams of oil
at the rate of one, two or even three thousand barrels per day.
There they still stand thick together like giant skeletons in the
forest. On each one seems to be written “Ichabod,” “the glory
is departed.” Only by extreme care and economy can these
fabulous monsters of the past be made to yield enough to pay
their costs. A small solitary steam-engine stands amid a group
of wells and by means of long swaying rods works a pump in
each. Slowly the piston rises and falls and the long rods_ creak
and groan alone among the trees. No man is near. Night
and day they toil unwatched and untended save for an occa-
sional visit from the engineer when anything gives way. And
as the result of all these labors a small trickling stream of oil
flows down the hillside through an iron pipe into a_ barrel
placed below. Even of this small stream the greater part is
only brine, worthless and troublesome, and the net results from
some of these giants of old is but one, two or three barrels of
oil daily.

Substantially the same story may be told of all the oil-
regions. Exhaustion stares the visitor in the face everywhere.
Their day is past. The quiet old towns that sprang into sudden
energy and activity during the oil-craze have sunk back to their
former quietness and lethargy. The new oil towns that leaped
into sudden being at the touch of the enchanter’s wand have
sunk as quickly as they rose and the grass is now growing in
their once busy streets. Corner lots are at a discount, and often
the ruins of derrick and engine house alone mark the spots
where once a “city” stood. Goldsmith’s deserted village has
been enacted more than once in northern and western Pennsyl-
vania.

34 Claypole on Natural Gas.

And as it has been with the oil-fields of the past so will it be
with the gas-fields of the present. They too will run out and
fail and the tradition of their greatness will alone remain. The
great Karg well at Findlay will cease to blow, and the greater
roarers of Murraysville, Grapeville and Washington will also be-
come silent. Findlay will have no more gas, and Pittsburg
must find some substitute for its present supply of this clean
natural fuel.

Nor are the reasons far to seek. The geological connection
of oil, gas, and salt water is very close. Where the strata are
arched upward and the conditions for producing oil and gas are
present there they accumulate, and the gas being the lightest
rises to the top and is confined beneath the crown of the arch.
Next comes the oil and forms a stratum below the gas. Low-
est of all is the salt water. In such places then we have at
three difierent levels three stores of gas, oil and brine respec-
tively. Hence the uncertainty in the yield of a well until the
territory has been explored. A hole sunk near the crown of
the arch will penetrate the upper reservoir and gas will issue.
One sunk farther down the slope of the arch will enter the oil
layer and yield oil which is forced out by the pressure of the
overlying gas. And a third sunk yet further from the crown
of the arch will yield salt water.

This, so far as we have been able to discover, is the usual
structure of the ground where oil and gas are found in quanti-
ties. There may be and no doubt there are exceptions, but they
do not invalidate the general rule.

Now if we consider the subject a little farther, we shall see
that as a necessary consequence of this structure, when the wells
have drawn off a certain part of the store of gas the oil will
rise under the crown of the arch and eventually will reach the
bottom of the well, when it will begin first to spurt, then to
spray, and lastly to yield oil, the supply of gas at the same time
proportionately diminishing. Later still, the continual draught
on the oil reservoir will so far exhaust it that the brine will in
turn rise and reach the bottom of the well. The flow of oil
will then slowly cease and salt water will take its place, as is
now happening in the old wells of Franklin, Pa. The last

Claypole on Natural Gas. 35

chapter in the history is then written. The well is dying and
its extinction is near at hand.

- The analogy of the past enables us to develop the future.
The history of hundreds of wells has been as above given—
gas in their early days, oil later, and lastly brine. Nor is there
any reason to suppose that the existing wells will, in spite of
their vast present production be any exception to the general
rule. They too will fail and cease to flow. The cities that
now so complacently regard their store of gaseous fuel as prac-
tically inexhaustible will be disappointed and will rue too
late the enormous waste of the past. The preéminence which
they now enjoy from this cause will pass away and they will
be as they were before natural gas was discovered.

The evil day may in some cases be staved off by sinking
new wells and by the discovery of new territory adjacent to
the old, but this can be only a temporary expedient, and as the
petroleous glory of Franklin has passed away so will also pass
away the gaseous glory of Findlay and Pittsburg.

Some of our readers may ask how long it will be before
these sayings are fulfilled. A definite answer to this question
is impossible. We know not the extent of the reservoirs in the
strata below us, nor the rate at which the gas is now coming off.
But it will not be very long. The golden harvest will be of
short duration, and those who are gathering it will do well to
keep this truth constantly before them.

It does not follow that a year or two will see the exhaustion
of the supply, though our own opinion is that before that time
comes signs of the end will not be lacking. Already rumors,
in most cases soon contradicted, have been afloat that the great
Karg well at Findlay is beginning to spurt oil. It is very diffi-
cult to learn the exact truth about the Pittsburg supply, especi-
ally as new wells are constantly drilled and their supplies
turned into the mains. But time will show, and when the
yield seriously falls off concealment will be impossible.

Some will object and say, “Is not gas being continually
formed in the earth?” Possibly so. We do not suppose the
processes of nature in the past are suspended in the present.
But granting this uncertainty, the rate of formation must be far
inferior to the rate of exhaustion. Indeed it is probably so

36 Editorial Comment.

slow as to be perfectly inappreciable by the side of the enor-
mous consumption. Our store of natural gas is a capital stock
on which our draughts are growing greater from year to year,
and the end is obvious. By and by they will be returned with
the words written across them “No effects.”

And what then? Shall we go back to coal and coal smoke,
or shall we devise some way of making gas that will be less
costly than the present, and can be used for manufacturing pur-
poses. It is as yet impossible to say what the ingenuity of man
can do when stimulated by the prospect of advantage. But
this time, and no long time, will show.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

GEOLOGY IN THE EDUCATIONAL STRUGGLE FOR

EXISTENCE.

In the pressure of subjects for recognition in the educational
curriculum, geology is one which has had to struggle under
great disadvantages. Generally, geology is a study among
the least and last appreciated by the framers of educational
opinion, and the controllers of educational practice. It is the
last of the natural sciences to be admitted into courses of
study ; when admitted, it is generally assigned to a stage in the
course at which the student’s tastes are already bent in other
directions; when the time at his disposal has been largely pre-
occupied, and he is looking with some degree of impatience
for the conclusion of his academic career and his entrance upon
the arena of business life. Under such circumstances, geology
is apt to be a subject held in low esteem by the educational pub-
lic and the student community. The controlling authorities
partake of the general impression; and from this results a dis-
advantage greater than all the others—one which prevents a
study of capital importance and transcendent interest, from con-
quering, as on its merits it would, all the disadvantages of rela-
tive position in the curriculum.

Editorial Comment. 347

To present the subject under a concrete aspect, let us consid-
er the educational work in the average university. The student
of law feels that he is preparing himself for the acquisition of a.
respectable livelihood. He is thinking of fees and fame and
the prizes of the political arena. These ends, either immediate
or more remotely prospective, are ever before him. They are
living motives; they centralize his thoughts and his efforts. He
works with zeal; his fellow-students actuated by the same mo-
tives, are numerous; the department of law, so respectable in
numbers, must be made respectable in outfit; the controlling
powers feel that it is a department of the university to be specially
fostered, and it is so fostered. The student of medicine, in like
manner, feels that he too is acquiring the means of material ad-
vancement. He is thinking of fees, honorariums, comfortable,
and then luxurious,establishments. He is looking to rapidly
made fortune, and middle life repose. The student of pharmacy
is a student of the means of lucrative business. The practical and
profitable aims before him command his steady attention and
sustain his unflagging energies. The dental college is a scene
of similar assiduity and expectation. All work, all hope, all
desire centre in the generous income which educated and com-
petent practice is sure to bring. Here, as in other professional
schools, an external motive sustains industry, unites numbers in
acommon interest and pushes it to a conspicuous position and
commands the respect and care of the ruling authorities.

If we turn to the schools of civil and mechanical engineering,
we discover similar stimuli acting on minds perhaps more cul-
tured, but therefore more susceptible to motives drawn from the
possible succeeses of a future career. The young engineer will
acquire fame for his skill. He will come into profitable request;
he will plan great and novel bridges; he will carry railway lines
in seemingly impossible places; great undertakings will demand
his services, and great rewards will requite them. Else if his
ambition is moderate, he will superintend some workshop or
some great industrial establishment, and earn in salary two or
three dollars in the same time as his late professor earns one. It
is understood without saying, that the school, in its diversified
adaptation to the needs of various seekers for means of livelihood
is thronged with devotees. There is no interest so moving as a

38 Editoriai Comment.

material interest. It is self-sustaining, unremitting, and demon-
strative. It commands admiration for its assiduity and earn-
estness. It commands respects for the numbers which it unites
in acommon aim, and for the revenue which numbers bring
to the university. The outside world appreciates an education
which it can call “practical.” It understands the value of a
department in the university which qualifies young men to ac-
cumulate money. That, it thinks the chief end of all educa-
tion. So the outside public unites with the inside authorities in
expressing their satisfaction with the popularity of the school
and the abundance of fees which it brings. They also unite in
tendering it all the support and fostering care which it needs.
They supply it with requisite equipment and an adequate corps
of instructors and assistants. In the abstract, these things are all
exactly as they should be. Great good results from bringing
all these professional and industrial schools to as perfect a state
as possible.

If we turn to the academic department of the university, we
obtain a further comprehension of the nature of the environment
of the geological interest. Here, concisely stated, we find pur-
sued linguistic studies, mathematical studies, philosophical studies,
literary studies, and studies in physical and natural science. By
immemorial prescription, the linguistic, mathematic and philoso-
phic studies have enjoyed the first place in position and in gen-
eral esteem. The ¢rivinm took possession of the university by
right of discovery, and, in its modern guise, has asserted with
haughty and militant exclusiveness, the righteousness of its ap-
propriation. As the trivium supplied the means of a liberal ed-
ucation in an age when the sum of non-professional human
knowledge was a trivium, so it has always asserted that the old
trivium, with a seasoning of mathematics, is the chief essential
of a liberal education, even’since the field of human knowledge
has become so enlarged that the trivium covers but a small
fraction of it. The representatives and devotees of the tradi-
tional culture proclaim that there is no other real culture;
and since, in scholastic circles, they constitute a large ma-
jority, they succeed in creating a public sentiment accordant
with their pretension. Though this public sentiment is not
the popular one, it is imbibed largely by young men seeking a

Editorial Comment. 39

liberal education, and they are induced to devote four formative
and determinative years of their education to the same studies as
occupied the youths of the dark ages. The high educational
authorities do not inform them that real culture would result
also from the devotion of four preparatory years to the modern
languages and the natural sciences, and the faithful prosecution
of a collegiate quadrennium inaugurated by such a preparation.
_In all sincereity and earnestness, therefore, the candidate for a
diploma of culture places himself in a position where the old
trivium appropriates the lion’s share of his efforts during a
period of six or eight years. The classical department of the
university is thronged, consequently, with those who have been
taught, and honestly believe, that no liberal education is possi-
ble without such offerings of time, labor and money as it exacts.
Of classical learning in the abstract we have nothing adverse to
offer. We wish only to make clear the nature of the conflict
for educational existence which geology is compelled to wage.

Among the more modern subjects which have gained recog-
nition in the collegiate curriculum, the class which may be
called “literary” possesses marked advantages over the scientific
—especially those studies in natural science which are not re-
garded as leading directly to some money-making profession.
Chemistry, in its accessory relations to medicine, pharmacy and
metallurgy, falls into the fortunate category of “practical” and
“productive” studies, and has little fight to make in securing
appreciation and support. But the literary group of studies
obtain appreciation and support through the relation of their
subject matter to popular literature. They present no array of
technical terms or conceptions. Their language is that of the
intelligent public, and their themes are those which beforehand
occupy the thoughts of the masses of intelligent readers. Lit-
erature and history, in their educational pursuit, make compara-
tively light demands on the powers of abstraction, induction
and reflection. Their themes also lie close to the personal ex-
periences and interests of the reader. They are narratives of
social life, dressed in pleasing style, or of biographical adven-
ture, or of national happenings in which a few heroic personali-
ties constantly appeal to the personal interest of the reader.
The subject-matter is easily comprehended, at the same time

40 Editorial Comment.

that it moves the sensibilities and warms the imagination. We
do not affirm that literature is properly restricfed to compositions
of a nature so nearly on the level of popular sentiment, but we
take our literary critics at their word, and speak from the liter-
ary standard which they set up, and contemplate that public
estimate of “literature” which their verdicts create and sanction.
The undoubted facts being such as we have indicated, the predis-
position to studies called literary, exerts upon the choice of
students a controlling influence next to that of the fashionable
affectations of classical culture. Literary studies, therefore,
possess the adventitious power of pushing their own way, and
guaranteeing their own prosperity. Because they awaken a
wide interest in the scholastic community, they feel free to
make large demands on the sources of financial nurture; and
the almoners of such nurture feel justified in graduating their
generosity to the standard of the popular sentiment.

Even within the circuit of the academic curriculum, there is
often present a professional motive which predisposes toward
certain lines of study. Not unfrequently the academic course
is pursued with ultimate reference to a course in law or medi-
cine. With legal aims, linguistics and lterature—including as

before, history and civics—are conceived to be more germane
than the natural sciences. With medical aims, Latin and chem-
istry are thought to be more ancillary than the natural sciences.
And among the latter, botany and zodlogy are thought to sus-
tain more hopeful relations than geology. More frequently,
the academic course is pursued with the purpose of engaging
temporarily, or sometimes permanently, in the profession of
teaching. The foremost question before the mind in such case
is, for what department of teaching is the demand most active?
The statement of the question suggests the answer. The chief
demand is in those studies which the university pronounces pre-
requisites for entrance upon collegiate courses, and which by
implication are the fundamentals of a good secondary or sub-
collegiate education. In other words, the student who is aim-
ing at a position as teacher, will seek to familiarize himself
with linguistics, mathematics or literature. Where natural his-
tory and geology are not demanded by the university as pre-
paratory for college, the schools will not offer preparation in

Editorial Comment. 41

them. If they are demanded to a feeble or partial extent, the
schools will make feeble or partial provision for them. In the
schools, therefore, the central effort is made to supply a prepar-
atory education which does not embrace natural history and
geology. The student in the university aiming at service in
the schools, prompted by self-interest, shapes his studies to the
nature of the demands existing. We do not wish to leave the
suspicion that we think it just for the schools to provide only, or
chiefly, such sub-collegiate education as opens the way to col-
lege; but our purpose is simply to point out the facts, however
deplorable or however commendable, which place the study of
geology at a disadvantage.

When now, after such a survey of the relation of the differ-
ent fields of university study to the means of earning a liveli-
hood, we grasp the whole situation at one view, it quickly
appears that geology, if pursued in college or lower school,
must be studied from motives more purely unprofessional than
in the case of nearly all other studies. But the simple search
for knowledge possesses with most minds a less controlling in-
fluence than the search for means of support. Even in the
collegiate or academic departments of the university, the profes-
sional motives find room for such activity that geology and
natural history stand at a marked disadvantage. When we look
more closely, we learn that the disadvantage does not really con-
sist chiefly in numbers in attendance upon instruction, but in
the lack of adequate and equal material sustenance afforded by
the government of the university. The discrimination against
these studies is prompted by three motives: 1st. The scholastic
authorities entertain the traditional conceptions of the require-
ments for a liberal education, and are not sufficiently informed in
the sciences to admit that they are equal means of culture; and, as
the outcome of their prepossesions and their ignorance, succeed
in turning the revenues of the university into the channels which
they approve. 2d. The financial control of the university de-
termines its policy partly by the recommendations of the scho-
lastic authorities, and partly by the amount which a department
of study is able to return in the shape of fees which students
with professional aims feel willing to pay. 3d. The supreme
government of the university participates in the popular opin-

42 Ediioriai Comment.

ion that those departments and those studies are most worthy of
support which sustain the most immediate relations to the pro-
duction of wealth.

The final outcome of the conflict waged by geclogy for
standing in the university, assumes form somewhat as follows :.
The smallest possible allowance of means is granted for carry-.
ing on the work of instruction and investigation. Other de-
partments of instruction fmay be allowed numerous assistants,.
while that of geology, with similar necessities, has none or al-.
most none—even for simple manual work. Other departments
secure supplies of the means of illustration and investigation,.
while geology may plead for years in vain for some small pur-
chase indispensible for work according to modern methods.
Even in the ostensibly, and it might be added ostentatiously,.
equal distribution of appropriations for books, geology is placed
at a double disadvantage. First, scientific works if illustrated,
as they are apt to be, belong to a relatively costly class; so that
a given allowance to geology secures less literature on the sub-.
ject than the same allowance to history, English or Greek..
The same may of course be said of zodlogy and botany. Sec-
ond, of the relatively large allowance usually assigned for
miscellaneous books, a very large proportion of those purchased
might well fall to the charge of the literary and philosophic
departments. They are largely accessory to those departments,,.
while the taint of natural history or geology is enough usually,
to consign a book to the catalogue of those chargeable to the
special funds for those subjects.

We have drawn a picture of one of the most strongly colored
cases. It is a case where scientific interests have no indepen-
dent or exclusive endowmeut, or school, or standing; where
every provision and regulation is at the dictation of the literary
interests; where the executive and consultative authorities are
identified with those interests; and the highest external control
seeks only the recommendations which emanate from a single
source. These various conditions may not be found united in
one institution. There may exist, assuredly, collegiate and
university institutions in which geology enjoys a better standing.
There are institutions whose founding and expansion are as re-
cent as the very modern expansions of the natural sciences,

Editorial Comment. 43

and where these sciences were from the beginning granted a
relative position worthy of their claims. There are institutions
where the executive and advisory influences are in sympathy
with the natural sciences and with the spirit of the age. We
have no doubt that the number of such institutions will steadily
increase.

Our object in offering these statements for record is twofold.
We desire to call the attention of geologists and other scientific
gentlemen to the actual state of the facts. The geological in-
structor and investigator is apt be so deeply absorbed in his ef-
forts to advance and diffuse the knowledge of natural truth that
he is scarcely conscious of the enormous inequalities of position
in which he is placed. A general consensus of demands for
rights will be more likely to improve the situation than a sweet-
tempered and silent acquiescence in wrongs. Our second object
is to arrest the attention of all those whose common influence
or authority has imposed upon geology the disabilities under
which it suffers in some of our collegiate institutions. In doing
this, we desire to protest not only against the unjust estimate
which traditional opinion places on the natural sciences, and in
particular on biology and geology, but also and emphatically
against the principle that those departments are to be most fos=
tered which bring most revenue to the college or univeysity,and
are held in hightest popular esteem. For the very reason that
some studies and disciplines look toward professional and money
getting ends, they are the better able to take care of themselves.
If any study or department has the right to expect special favor
and special sustenance, it is a study or department which is
purely cultural, occupying a place quite above the level of com-
mon appreciation.

We have written thus far as if acquiescing in the arrogant
estimate which consigns geology to an inferior and unessential
place ina liberal education, and fails to recognize it as potent
factor in modern civilization. That it is such a factor, however,
is known to the intelligent public, and it is not our purpose to
demonstrate it. Geology, in truth, if placed on the basis of use-
fulness to man, would hold a position in educational processes
not inferior to that of literature and languages. In the esteem
of the intelligent public it is making rapid and constant advance.

44 Editorial Comment.

The dissatisfaction of this public with the position of biology
and geology in the schools is plainly expressed in such move-
ments as that of the “Agassiz Association” with its seven thou-
sand members, and “Chatauqua Scientific Circle” with its thirty
or forty thousand readers and students. We feel sure that public
opinion will ultimately compel our moss-grown, conservative
educators to admit geology in some of its aspects into the sec-
ondary, and even the primary schools, and will revolutionize
the collegiate control which persists in consigning geology to
an insignificant position. ‘T'his result, however will be reached
through instrumentalities; and we have hoped such an undis-
guised statement as here made may contribute something to
the much needed reform.

We beg to disclaim all hostility to the true interests of any
department of learning; for there is no learning in which we do
not feel deep concern. We desire only to rebuke the assumption
of some forms of traditional learning, and protest against a policy
in university control which sanctions their arrogance and helps
them to rob certain other departments of their equitable stand-
ing and material support.

IRVING AND CHAMBERLIN ON THE LAKE SUPERIOR

SANDSTONES.

That perennial source of discussion, the age of the lake
Superior sandstones and trap-rocks, has recently been revived by
the contributions of Profs. Chamberlin and Irving to the litera-
ture of the United States geological survey. In bulletin No. 23?
they have given an elaborate description and discussion of the
geology of points that are considered by them as crucial, situated
on Keweenaw point, Michigan. They describe the contact of
the trap and sandstone formation with the “eastern sandstones”
at Béte Grise bay, at Wall ravine, at St. Louis ravine, at
Douglass Houghton ravine, at the Torch lake quarry, at Hun-
garian ravine, and at other points. They also review and dis-
cuss, sometimes with ideal representations of the stratigraphic

1QObservations on the junction between the eastern sandstone and
the Keweenaw series, on Keweenaw point, lake Superior, By R. D.
Irving and T. C. Chamberlin.

Editorial Comment. 45

situation, the various views that have been expressed by geolo-
gists since the examination and report of Dr. C. T. Jackson in
1848. They arrive at the final result and state their conclusion
thus: ‘ That the Keweenaw series is much older than the east-
ern (Potsdam) sandstone; that it was upturned, faulted along
the escarpment, and much eroded before the deposition of the
eastern sandstone; that the latter was laid down unconformably
- against and upon the former, and that subsequently minor fault-
ing along the old line ensued, disturbing the contact edge of the
sandstone.”

The description of the shore line of the Béte Grise bay ac-
cords with that given by former observers, in all the essential
particulars, The eastern sandstone contains some bands of red
shale and red pebbly conglomerate, The chief point to note
here in discriminating the evidence for and against the greater age
of the trap and conglomerate series, is the fact that J. W. Foster
in 1849 makes the brick-red pebbly conglomerate identical with
some see1 on the northern slope of Keweenaw point, and hence
of the age of the copper-bearing series. He distinctly states
that the eastern sandstone “abuts against a bed of brick-red
conglomerate;” this fact goes to show, if a fact, that the sandstone
interbedded and conformable with this pebbly conglomerate,
is not a part of the eastern sandstone of the region; and that no
conclusions, touching that sandstone, can be based upon its rela-
tions to the trap and melaphyr. Mr. Foster also states that the
high southern dip along the shore of this bay is due to an anti-
clinal formed by the forcible ejection of the trap rock through
a fissure of the earlier sandstone.

However, Messrs. Irving and Chamberlin seem to show sat-
isfactorily, by the pebbles of melaphyr contained in the pebbly
conglomerate, both that the conglomerate is unconformable on
the trap rock, and that all the light-colored sandstone seen here
is of the same age as the red and pebbly beds. The prevailing
dip being to the south, and away from the melaphyr and diabase
hills lying further north, the natural conclusion is that the sand-
stone is of later date than the melaphyr and diabase.

At the Wall ravine however, is a series of facts, as illus-
trated by Messrs. Irving and Chamberlin, which require on
their face, exactly the reverse interpretation. This locality is

46 Editorial Comment.

not far from the Calumet and Hecla mines. Here the horizon-
tal eastern sandstones are represented as turned curvingly up-
ward, and on their approach to the rocks of the Keweenaw
series, to assume verticality, and in that position to be unconform-
ably overlain by porphyry conglomerate and diabase belonging
to the Keweenawan rocks, the latter dipping northwestwardly
at an angle of about 42°. They are separated by a mass of
breccia and decayed rock, which has a thickness of about twelve
feet.

About a mile south from the Wall ravine is the St. Louis
ravine. The same structural features are here repeated. The
dip of the Keweenawan rocks, consisting of felsitic conglomer-
ate, amygdaloid and diabase, is 47° toward the northwest.
«The sandstone at the junction, and its included bed of con-
glomerate, dip toward, or beneath, the Keweenawan rocks, at
an angle of about 70°, striking with the face of the hill, or
N. 40° to 42° E. These measurements were made on the
junction between the sandstone and an included conglomerate
layer, so that no room is made for doubt as to their correctness.”
{p. 28.) Tnis plunging of the sandstones beneath the trap
rocks, is said by the authors to be due, however, to an overturn
dip in the sandstones, by which they conceive them to turn back
beneath the surface at a great depth, passing through verticality
to a high dip in the opposite direction, then to a low dip, and
then to near horizontality. This rather remarkable interpreta-
tion is said to be substantiated by exposures of vertical beds of
sandrock in the bluffs of the ravine at several points below the
place of contact.

Again in the Douglass Houghton ravine the same combin-
ation of stratigraphic phenomena appears. This ravine has
been examined by J. W. Foster at different times. He regarded
the eastern sandstone as more recent than the diabase and amyg-
daloid and conformable upon them, upheaved by the igneous
force that produced the outflow of eruptive rock. Mr. Alex-
ander Agassiz in 1867 discredited the view of Foster and Whit-
ney and showed that the eastern sandstone is unconformable up-
on the trap rock of the Keweenaw range. Prof R. Pumpelly
in 1870-72 adopts the view of Prof Agassiz, but rejects especial-
ly the idea of a fault or dislocation which some earlier geologists

Editorial Comment. 47

had suggested running along the south side of the range, coinci-
-dent with the line of contact. He regarded the eastern sand-
-stones as quite distinct from and more recent than those that are
-conformable above the Cupriferous series on the west slope of
Keweenaw point. Dr. M. E. Wadsworth, in 1579, made inde-
pendent and thorough observations in the gorge below the falls
-of the Douglass Houghton ravine from whieh he came to the con-
clusion that the beds of the eastern sandstone seen in this ravine
pass below the trap and melaphyr beds of the Cupriferous series,
_although they also embrace beds of conglomerate and of diabase
which are identical with some of the beds below which they run.
He therefore announced that the “eastern sandstones” are of the
same age as the Cupriferous series, and that at this point there is
no unconformable position of one series of beds over the other.
At the time of Mr. Irving’s first examination (1880) he seems
to have been in doubt whether the eastern sandstones, seen in
the Douglass Houghton ravine were a part of the Keweenaw
series or part of the eastern sandstone; yet in his published
opinion! of the same year he vigorously attacks the conclusions
of Mr. Wadsworth, and claims that the sandstone outcrops ex-
amined by Wadsworth were a part of the Keweenaw series, and
that a considerable interval which Wadsworth must have
-“bridged over in his imagination,” entervenes between these
beds and the true eastern sandstone strata further east which lie
nearly horizontal. Dr. C.Rominger in 1883, considers the beds
-described by Wadsworth “as making a part of the copper-rock
_group, although, considering their lithological character alone I
would have united them with the eastern sandstone.” He says
that they “dip in conformity with the overlying diabase belts.”
This criticism Mr. Wadsworth answers by reaffirming his for-
mer statement, and that by digging in the banks of the stream
he actually traced the relations of this sandstone all the way
from where it dipped in conformity with the Cupriferous series
. down the ravine continuously to where the dip had subsided to
five degrees. The pebbles and boulders that are referable to the
Keweenaw eruptive rocks, seen in the sandstones and their asso-
-ciated conglomerates, appealed to by Irving to prove the prior

Monographs of the United States geological survey; vol. v, p. 355.

~

48 Editorial Comment.

existence of the eruptives, Mr. Wadsworth supposes to have
been obtained, not from the beds of diabase and amygdaloid
seen now in the upper part of the cliff, which has been imagined
to have been an ancient shore line which precipitated its debris
along the shore and incorporated the fragments from the bluff
into the forming sediments of the water, but from some older
trap outflows, not seen now in outcrop at this place, but which
once were uncovered and perhaps extended over large areas of
that region—trap beds which extend, presumably, intact under-
neath the bed of Douglass Houghton ravine and also underneath
the whole of the Keweenaw peninsula. In bulletin No. 23,
however, Messrs. Irving and Chamberlin have abandoned the
view of Irving in 1880 and have adopted that of Wadsworth so
far as relates to the identiy of the north dipping sandstones that
pass below the Keweenaw beds, and the horizontal sandstones
that appear further down the ravine. They affirm however,
contrary to the testimony of Mr. Wadsworth, that these beds at
no place are intercalated with beds of trap, and afford no evidence,
except that of passing below the trap, of being older than it,
which evidence, they say, is illusory.

About a mile southeast from the Douglass Houghton ravine
is the Torch lake quarry, where the quarried beds are only 28
feet lower than the top of the Douglass Houghton fall, thus
lying high enough to be embraced in the Keweenaw rocks, and
if not so embraced then necessarily unconformable upon those
rocks. The evidence is not conclusive, No trap rock is des-
cribed as in contact with the beds. Mr. Wadsworth has inferred,
from the dip of the layers of coarser material, and the direction
of clay masses, that the ‘dip is toward the northwest about 45°,
and that the apparent horizontal bedding is caused by a second-
ary system of horizontal joints. He therefore considers this
rock as a conformable constituent portion of the Keweenaw rocks,
Messrs. Irving and Chamberlin reéxamined the quarry together,
and they concluded that the rock is essentially horizontal. The
lines of sedimentation seen by Wadsworth they regard as a false
bedding such as is common in the eastern sandstone. The evi-
dence of the facts, whatever they may be, touching this quarry
has only ar. indirect bearing on the subject of the investigation.
If the rock dips northwest it is in conformity with the idea of the

ine.

Editorial Comment. 49

uniformity and entirety in one formation, of all the sandstones,
traps, and amygdaloids of the Keweenaw peninsula. If it be
horizontal it may be a part of the eastern sandstones, unconform-
able on the trap rocks, and would be almost confirmatory of the
idea of the younger date of the eastern sandstones.

Nearly two miles still further southeast is Hungarian river.
At this place, again, the same combination of circumstances con-
spires with the evident interpretation, and gives a very strong
impression that the eastern sandstones run conformably below
the tilted beds of the Cupriferous series. This is the natural and
most ready interpretation of the facts, if the interpretation be
based solely on the evidences here apparent, Messrs. Irving
and Chamberlin again claim that the appearances are illusory.
They made thorough examination, with the aid of a force of
miners, digging several trenches which uncovered the beds that
were supposed to form the contact plane of the two formations.
In every case they found the eastern sandstone passing north.
westwardly below the trap and amygdaloid of the copper-bear-
ing series; but they found evidence that convinced them that it
was not conformable to the overlying rocks, Following is the
section exposed by the trenches, in descending order.

Section on the Hungarian river.

Pe bLOKenytrapyessentially imi places) 26 ones Sac tve ede ccs cine 10 ft.
Trap debris: This follows the other without any definite
demarkation or discernible amygdaloid. It seems to be
formed of disintegrated trap rubbed into a lumpy clay and
roughly laminated. Jt inclines northwesterly at an angle
Elk AID OV UNE ey ee OBR Gon to Ae eas COE Ce Ce ee aE en t ft. 6 in
3. Red shaly clay: This is a fine textured clay, much re-

sembling what is known as joint clay. It is marked with

light grayish-green spots, and has some sandy seams, with

iS

occasional lumps of trap. It is only in these latter partic-

ulars that it differs from a true joint clay.............3.. 6 in
4. Trap debris, similar to that above described, except that it

is more mingled with non-trappean (shaly) material. It is

dark colored, and so contrasts with the adjoining red clay, 6 in
5. Mixed shaly trap debris and red clay, with a minor ele-

ment of sand; the whole of a reddish cast................ 8 in
6. Light reddish-tinted quartzose sandstone, exposed about.. 2 ft.

“On the immediate face of this sandstone (No.6) at its
junction with the trap debris above it, the structure planes—

50 Editorial Comment.

which may or may not be the deposition planes, so far as we
were able to determine—correspond in the main to the oblique
contact face.” Away from this immediate face, however, they
found the same rock dipping northeast, and also lying horizontal.
In the general section which is given to illustrate the situation
on this stream the sandstones are represented as having an un-
dulating nearly horizontal position, and near the contact as being
suddenly bent downward toward the northwest and so passing
under the trap beds, which are shown to dip toward the north-
west at an angle of about 35°.

Mr. Wadsworth has again visited this place and made further
examination, the result of which he has given in S'czezce for
Sept. 30,1857. He says “we were able to trace continuously
the unchanged eastern sandstone into the sandstone which has
been baked and indurated by the old lava-flow, and this baked
sandstone into the lava-flow or melaphyr itself, all forming a
continuous exposed surface. ‘There is no fault, or plane of sep-
aration between the sandstone and the trap, but the two are
welded together into one mass. * * * * ‘Thecontact is
that made by a lava-flow with an underlying sandstone, and is
the same as the contacts so often seen within the copper-bearing
series, while the sandstone is observed 27 s¢tu to pass underneath
the melaphyr.”

The authors review all previous opinions, and give their ob-
jections to them.

The Fackson view, so named from C. T. Jackson its author,
is stated in four propositions. (1). The eastern sandstones and
the conglomerates and sandstones of the copper-bearing series
are one and the same formation, and were once spread out con-
tinuously in a horizontal position. (2). The traps of the cop-
per-bearing series are all of them intrusive, having invaded the
supposed sandstone formation in part as irregular intersecting
masses, and in part in the shape of sheets which forced their way
between the sandstone layers. (3). The conglomerates of the
copper-bearing series derived their material by the ordinary
aqueous agencies from some subjacent formation, which possibly
may have formed an old shore line in the immediate vicinity of
Keweenaw point. More probably, however, the pebbles of the
conglomerate have been sorted out, as it were, from the pre-

Editorial Comment. 51

viously existing sand beds, by the violent currents set in motion
at tue time of the trappean intrusions. (4). The inclin-
ation southeastward in the eastern sandstone at the junction
with the traps, and that to the zorthwestward of the sandstones
and conglomerates of the copper-bearing series, are due to the
intruding trap. This view is discarded because the contempor-
aneous, or lava-flow origin of the traps has been repeatedly and
abundantly demonstrated.

The Foster and Whitney view, as summarized, contains six
propositions. (1). The eastern sandstones and the Kewee-
naw detrital rocks are one and the same formation. (2).
The associated igneous rocks are of two classes: (a) Traps
that are interleaved with the detrital rocks, of lava-flow
origin, (b) the traps of the Bohemian range, which are held
to not be bedded but massive and intrusive, and of later origin
than the detrital rocks and their interbedded traps. (3). This
later eruption of trap was the cause of the tilting of the bedded
traps on the north side toward the northwest, and the sandstones
on the southerly side toward the southeast, and of the produc-
tion of “jasper” masses by a change of the detrital rocks. (4)
The conglomerates of the trappean series are mainly of igneous
origin, the rounding of the pebbles being due, not to water
action, but to friction of the elevated rock against the walls of
the fissures. To the production 6f these conglomerates, by
eruptive agencies is to be attributed the immensely increased
thickness of the detrital portions of the formation in the region
of Keweenaw point. (5). The various bedded eruptives of
Keweenaw point reached the surface through aseries of fissures
along the course of the point. (6). The massive trap of the
Bohemian range was extruded through an immense fissure which
extended as far west as Gogebic lake; running along the south-
ern edge of what is now the trappean formation; but along
its western extension this fissure was not accompanied by any
igneous outflow, thus allowing the sandstones of the northwest to
come immediately against the eastern sandstones.

The first of these propositions the authors think is not sus-
tained by results of microscopic examinations they have made of
thin sections of these two sandstones. They find the eastern
sandstone always much more quartzose and the grains much

52 Editorial Comment.

more rounded, and more likely to be destitute of detritus from
eruptive rocks.

The division of the eruptives into two classes they think is
not warranted. The so-called massive trap of the Bohemian
range is itself bedded, and even contains interstratified conglom-
erates.

The dip of the eastern sandstones toward the southeast is not
due, in the opinion of the authors, to the extrusion of the Bohe-
mian range; for this dip is found not only at the contact but at
points beyond the possible reach of such extrusion.

The so-called jaspers are of the same nature as the quartz
porphyries and felsytes of the Keweenaw rocks, and these are
regarded as acid eruptives within the rocks of that series.
They could not hence have been caused by any metamorphism
of the sedimentary beds produced by the eruptive rocks of the
Bohemian range. They were, further, the source of the peb-
bles of the Keweenaw conglomerates, and must, therefore, on
the hypothesis of Messrs. Foster and Whitney, have antedated
the Bohemian disturbance.

The series of fissures which gave vent to the trap of the
Keweenaw rocks are supposed not to have been along the course
of Kewenaw point, but quite to the southward, and they are
now probably buried by the newer sandstones,

They accept, however, number 6 of the propositions of the
Foster and Whitney view, but they qualify it by two exceptions;
(a), that the fissure was not formed subsequent to the produc-
tion of the eastern sandstone, and (b), when formed it did not
give vent to any eruptive material. These exceptions are neces-
sary because the sandstones on the opposite sides of the Bohe-
mian range do not seem to have been faulted away from each
other. and if they had been the enormous downthrow of 35,000
feet would be required to explain their present relative positions;
also because at points east of lake Gogebic the lowermost
members of the Keweenaw series, dipping northward, are found
to be overlapped in unconformable position by the eastern.sand-
stone.

The Agassiz view regards the south face of thethe trap range
of Keweenaw point as an ancient shore cliff, having been pro-
duced entirely by the erosion of the waves of that sea in which the

Editoriac Comment. 53
eastern sandstone was laid down. It also supposes that the Ke-
weenaw series extends unconformably continuously beneath the

eastern sandstone to the “south range,”

the entire trough in
which this sandstone lies having been produced by erosion. To
this view the authors object because it necessitates an inconceiy-
ably great thickness for the Keweenaw series, and an enormous-
ly great erosion prior to the deposition of the sandstone. With
modifications, however, this view is adopted by the authors.
They remove both of the difficulties by supposing the south face
of the trap range to have been in the first place the result of
faulting.

The Rominger view. According to Dr. C. Rominger the
eastern sandstone was once extended conformakly over Kewee-
naw point, and the sandstones that now are seen at the mouth of
the Portage canal near the lake shore, while belonging to the cop-
per-bearing series, approach the eastern sandstone so closely in
character that they may be considered as the lower portions of
that formation. According to this view the Keweenaw rocks
are older than the eastern sandstones, but on the western slope,
and perhaps at other places, pass upwardly into the eastern sand-
stone conformably; while on the eastern side, owing to the pro-
duction of a fault during the accumulation of the sediments of
the eastern sandstone, running along the east side of the trap
range, the later sediments of this sandstone are locally unconform-
able on the trap rocks.

In rejecting this view the authors cite specifically several
places where tbe horizontal sandstones lie unconformably on the
upturned edges of the Keweenaw series, viz.: in the St. Croix
region, in the Gogebic region and in the region north of the
Montreal. Further, they do not admit the similarity between
the sandstone at the mouth of the Portage canal and the eastern
sandstone, Still they do not state wherein the unconformabil-
ities to which they refer differ from that which Dr Rominger
admits on Kewenaw point, and to which he refers for proof of
the correctness of his view. The authors also refer loosely to the
«Potsdam sandstone,” and they confound the beds that lie on
the trap at St. Croix falls with the eastern horizontal sandstone
which they are discussing. They also assume that the trap seen
at the St. Croix falls is the equivalent of that embraced in the

54 Editorial Comment.

Keweenaw rocks, and of this presumed equivalence there are
good reasons for entertaining much doubt.

The Credner view conceives of the eastern sandstones, the
traps and conglomerates of Keweenaw point, and the sand-
stones on the west side of the point, as constituting one con-
formable series of strata, the sandstones on the east passing
below the principal mass of the trappean rocks, and those on the
west lying conformably above them. In this view the sandstones
are not of the same age, and the eastern sandstone is the older,
This view is substantially that which is held by Dr. M. E.
Wadsworth.

This requires in the opinion of Messrs. Irving and Cham-
berlin, an incredibly great amount of denudation to account for
the non-extension of the trappean beds toward the south and
east of Keweenaw point. They show, by a diagram drawn toa
scale, that when these beds were intact, on this hypothesis, they
must have had a thickness on Keweenaw point, in addition to
their present perpendicular altitude, of about four miles. They
may have stopped there in an imagined perpendicular cliff, or
they may have been extended conformably eastward over the
lower strata of the eastern sandstone. The latter alternative is
accepted by the authors as the only reasonable one, and then
they find insuperable difficulties in the way of the Credner view,
These consist in the entire absence of these strata toward the
southeastward where this alternative would require them, and
the existence of the “ singularly abrupt linear, often cliffy, south-
ern limit of the trappean series.” Another difficulty is the fact
that the eastern sandstone graduates upward, a few miles away
from Keweenaw point, not into the Keweenaw rocks, but into
the Calciferous sandstone, and that the Trenton limestone, even,
is seen probably in its true stratigraphic position (above the Cal-
ciferous) in the same region; “it is a heavy strain on our cred-
dulity to ask us to place the great Keweenaw series in this inter-
val.” The evidence which Mr. Wadsworth has presented to
show the correctness of this view consists of four postulates.
(1) The eastern sandstone passes conformably beneath the
trappean series, (2) as it approaches the Keweenaw range it is
interstatified with rocks identical with those that make the bulk
of that range, (3) it shows an induration due to heat from trap

Editorial Comment. 55

overflows, similar to what is common in the Keweenaw rocks,
and, (4) it does not contain, except sparingly, fragments derived
from the trappean series, and no more than can be referred to
the slow accumulating action of waters in the production ofa
conglomerate from distant sources. These are severally set aside
as invalid because based on incorrect observation. ‘There is a
surprising contrariety between the observations and conclusions
of Mr. Wadsworth and those of Messrs. Irving and Chamber-
lin. “In the Wall ravine, the eastern sandstone, instead of dip-
ping beneath the Keweenaw beds as demanded by this hypothe-
sis, shoots upward toward the zenithh * * * Inthe St.
Louis ravine the beds are likewise turned skyward near the con-
tact, and at a short distance away they dip at lower inclinations,
away from the Keweenaw series; * * * in the region back
from Ontonagon the eastern sandstone likewise dips away from
the Keweenaw series near the contact. * * * and in none
of these localities is there any approach to a conformity with the
hypothesis of Credner and Wadsworth.” Even at the points
which specifically were examined and described by Dr. Wads-
worth, viz.: in the Douglass Houghton and the Hungarian
ravines, “the eastern sandstone, instead of passing conformably
beneath the trappean series with a like steady dip, is warped and
angulated in a manner altogether inconsistent with the character
of the Keweenaw series * * * and is discordant with the
beds of the Keweenaw series.” The bending downward of the
eastern sandstone at the point of contact, in approximate con-
formity with the overhanging Keweenaw beds, they regard as
one of “the several phases of distortion that accompanies the
coutact of these diverse formations.” The supposed interstratifi-
cation of the two formations is denied in toto, and the induration of
the sandstone by heat is “‘no greater than at points distant from
tne contact;” and ‘if such induration were present it would be
no proof of heat action.” As to the presence of pebbles in the
eastern sandstones, referable to the rocks of the Keweenaw se-
ries, the authors affirm that they find both acid and basic eruptives
in that form, and that there is no other group of rocks known
in the entire lake Superior region from which these pebbles
could have been derived. It seems to us, however, that the ex-
istence of these pebbles in the eastern sandstone allies it with the

56 . Lditorial Comment.

recognized Keweenaw sandstones and conglomerates, so far as
similarity of composition constitutes a link of alliance between
formations, and here it is a strong link, because it is as easy to
explain the presence of those in the eastern sandstone, without
invoking the presenee of a sea-cliff, as it is those in the Kewee-
naw sandstone itself,

The concluding opinion of the authors, one which satisfies
all the conditions of the case, of which they enumerate those of
stratigraphic position and composition, and of general topo-
eraphic relations as brought forward by their discussion, is ex-
pressed thus: “That the Keweenaw series is much older than
the eastern (Potsdam) sandstone: that it was upturned, faulted
along the escarpment, and much eroded before the deposition of
the eastern sandstone; that the latter was laid down unconform-
ably against and upon the former, and that subsequently minor
faulting along the old line ensued, disturbing the contact edge
of the sandstone.”

The document is undoubtedly one of the ablest discussions
of stratigraphic problems that has ever been produced in America,
and it will long remain a monument to the scientific skill and the
genius of the authors, ere perennius, although it cannot be said
to,close the discussion by that convincing array of evidence that
the importance of the issue demands.

One or two reflections, in conclusion, derived from the fore-
going examination of the work, will be warranted at this place.

1. It is a remarkable fact, admitted by the authors, and
shown by their diagrams, that the eastern sandstones pass be-
neath the Keweenaw rocks at places along the south side of the
range. Whatever be the true explanation of this fact, first in-
sisted on with detailed description by Dr. M. E. Wadsworth, it
brings prominently to mind another “view” to which the
document makes no illusion, viz.: that of Houghton, which main-
tains that the trap-rocks of Keweenaw point, and of the copper-
bearing series in general, are not of paleozoic age, but mesozoic,
being the equivalent probably of the trap and brown sandstones
of Connecticut. In consonance with this view are those facts
appealed to by the authors that seem at variance with the
Credner view, 7. e., the contact of the two formations is not al-
ways at the same stratigraphic horizon. There is an oblique over-

Editorial Comment. 57

lapping which brings different beds into contact at different places.

‘2. The “joint clay,” included in the contact phenomena,
embracing some trap and some sandstone debris, can easily be
explained by referring it to other source than that of faulting.
There would be nothing more likely than that, in case of an over-
flow of molten rock on sedimentary rocks, with a subsequent
tilting of both, there would be, in places, a more rapid decay at
the contact plane, owing to the mechanical mingling and conse-
quent difference of grain and texture of the fragments that were
caught between the two rocks. This progressive decay will not
only account for the confused “clay,” but also for the non-dif-
ferentiated face of the two formations along the contact as de-
scribed by the authors.

3. The authors assume that the “trap rock,”

where it is
found in the south range, and at Taylor’s Falls in the St, Croix
valley, is of the same age as that seen on Keweenaw point, This
is a weak pout in their argument, for it is not only not proven,
but it is, in our opinion, open to serious doubt. There is much
reason to regard the Taylor’s Falls trap of a much earlier date
than that of the copper-bearing rocks on Keweenaw point.

4. The authors assume that the horizontal sandstones that
lie unconformably on, or run over or below the Keweenaw trap,
whether found on Keweenaw point or in the St. Croix valley,
are everywhere of the same age. This is not only questionable,
but it is demonstrably incorrect. Two different sandstones are
here confounded

sandstones which have been distinguished be-
fore by both of the authors as separate and distinct.

2. The strained interpretation of the facts, given by the
authors, throws a shadaw over the credibility of their results.
When it is remembered that this explanation was adopted by
them several years ago, before the adverse facts which Dr.
Wadsworth announced were known, and that they have written
extensively, on this hypothesis, the shadow is deepened, and there
remains in the mind of the scrutinizing reader, a suspicion that
the authors are not disinterested and perhaps not impartial judges
of the facts. This is saying nothing more than might be said of
any geologist.

6. The question is open still, and wider open than ever be-
fore, as to the age of the copper-bearing rocks of lake Superior.

58 — Review of Recent. Literature.

REVIEW OF RECENT LITERATURE.

Geological Survey of the State of New York, Paleontology, vol.vi. Corals
and Bryozoa: Text and Plates, containing Descriptions and Figures of Species
From the Lower Helderberg, Upper Helderberg and Hamilton Groups. By
Fames Hall, State Geologist and Paleontologist, assisted by George B. Simp-
son. Albany, 1887.

Of the many valuable, recent contributions to the literature of paleon-
tology, none probably will occupy a higher place in the regard of pale-
ontologists, or receive from them a warmer welcome, than the volume
above cited. This volume deals with the corals and brvozoa of the Lower
Helderberg, and the bryozoa of the upper Helderberg and Hamilton
groups. The dedicatory letter of the author to Goy. Hill of New York
bears date, August, 1887. The text includes pages xxvi—298, and the
volume is illustrated by plates 1—lxvi.

Only asmall space in the volume before us is devoted to corals. By
far the larger portion is given to the bryozoa—a group that though rep-
resented abundantly in the fossil faunas, has hitherto been confessedly
among the most difficult of all that fall within the province of the work-
ing paleontologist. The meagerness of the literature on the subject has
caused the bryozoa generally to be neglected by the amateur student and
collector. Both to the amateur and the professional paleontologist there-
fore, this volume will be particularly welcome.

The volume, in the preparation of the text as wellas in the generic and
specific determinations of the great number of forms therein described |
bears evidence of the painstaking care and scientific skill that have given
value and character to the preceding volumes of this magnificent series.
Indeed the eminent name that appears on the title-page will be, to
paleontologists at home and abroad, a sufficient guaranty that the scien-
tific part of the work has been skilfully and conscientiously performed
When it is said that nearly all the drawings were made by Mr. G. B.
Simpson, nothing more will be needed to commend the plates for beauty
and faithfulness of delineation to persons familiar with the work of this
artist.

Pages xi—xxvi are occupied by a synopsis of the genera included in
the volume. This synopsis has been prepared by Mr. Charles E. Beecher,
and will add greatly to the value of the work to the experienced palzxon-
tologist as well as to the amateur student.

Zoblogists generally will probably regret that the term folyzoa had
not been used in this volume instead of dryozoa. The term, bryozoa,
certainly has no standing in modern zodlogical literature. Huxley, Allman,
E. Rey Lankester, Gegenbaum, Packard, and all the list of zodlogical
writers recognize the priority of the name given by Thompson in 1830
over that applied by Ehrenberg in 1834. Geologists and palxontologists
or some unaccountable reason adhere to the name proposed by Ehren-

Review of Recent Literature. 59

berg. Probably Nicholson may be cited as an exception, but Nicholson
is also a zodlogist in the modern sense, and this may be accepted as a
sufficient explanation of his position respecting the use of these conflict-
ing terms.

There are a few errors that have been overlooked in compiling the
list of “errata.” By some jugglery of the engraver and printer the fam-
ily names at the head of plates i and vi have exchanged places. It is
something of a surprise to find on plate 1 Streptelasma and Zaphrentis
ranged under the head of Favositide —a form of surprise that is repeated
when we find, on plate iv, a number of specimens of our old acquaintance,
Favosites helderbergie Wall, masquerading under the family name of
Cyathophyllide. In the description of plate xvi, the generic name
Ceramofpora has lost an o, and becomes, through another bit of crooked-
ness on the part of the printer, Cerampora. On the whole, however,
mistakes of proof-reading, or of any other sort, are exceptionally few,
Paleontologists will have occasion chiefly to regret the limitations as to
size under which the volume was prepared, making it impossible to in-
clude all the forms now known from American strata of the age of the
Upper Helderberg and Hamilton periods.

On the monticuliporoid corals of the Cincinnati group, with a critical re-
vision of the species. By U. P. and Josepnu F.JAmes. (From the pro-
ceedings of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, October, 1887.)
“The group of fossils known under the general name of monticuliporoids
represents a wonderfully diversified series of forms. Not many years
ago they were considered too obscure and too difficult for the ordinary
student, and collectors, as a rule, paid little attention to them. One of us
was among the first to call attention to them, and in 1871 issued a cata-
logue ofthe fossils of the Cincinnati group, the first of its kind, in which
were named provisionally a few new species. A second edition of the
catalogue was published in 1875, and here two of the previously named
species, and two new ones were described. Inthe same year the second
volume of the Ohio Paleontology was issued, and in this professor H,
Alleyne Nicholson described and figured a number of species under the
generic name Chetetes, adopting some of the names proposed in the
catalogue of 1871. Between 1875 and 1881 were issued various papers or
volumes containing descriptions of other new species, and in the latter
year was published a monograph on the genus Monticulipora by Prof-
Nicholson. In this volume, by far the most valuable account of these
fossils that has yet appeared, we have chapters giving the general history
of Monticulipora and its allies, an account of the general structure of the
genus and its development, a division of the genus into five sub-genera,
with the characters of each, and detailed descriptions, with figures, of
forty-three species, thirty-three of which are found in the immediate
vicinity of Cincinnati. Finally Mr. E. O. Ulrich, began in 1882, in the
fifth volume of the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History,
aseries ofarticles entitled ‘American Palzozoic Bryozoa,’ which was con-
tinued through the sixth and into the seventh volume, 1884. Mr. Ulrich

60 Review of ‘Recent Literature.

considered the monticuliporoids as bryozoa, instead of corals, and in the
course of his investigations divided and sub-divided the old genus Mon-
ticulipora into a multitude, no less than eighteen different genera. At
the same time a host of species were described, most of them from inter-
nal characters, and they were illustrated by a profusion of drawings of
the internal microscopic structure. Our opinion of this vast array of
genera and species, and of microscopic work of this sort in general, will
be given in detail later on in the present paper, but we cannot forbear
saying that it is our belief that this work has resulted disastrously to the
study of a confessedly difficult class of fossils; making it more difficult
and confusing than ever before, and loading it with a mass of synonyms
which of themselves are enough to deter one who should so desire, en-
tering upon the study. The cause of this we believe to be an erroneous
method of study, and we ascribe the vast number of species and genera
made to the almost exclusive attention given to microscopic characters.”

The authors discard all the genera that have been described by Nich-
olson and Ulrich, and place known forms under two genera, Monticuli-
pora D’Orb, and Ceramopfora Hall. Under the former they allow the
sub-genera Dekayia Ed. and H., Constellaria Dana, and Fistulipora Mc-
Coy. ‘These distinctions are based on external characters of form and
habit. They object to the use of internal characters in determining
species and genera, “because they entail an immense amount of work
which in the end seems to amount to very little.” They also consider
the internal characters more variable and unsatisfactory than the exter-
nal. They allow, however, that “there is, in fact, no criterion by which
to judge fossil species, except individual opinion.’ We should be sorry
lo see any minute research with the aid of the microscope, into the in-
ternal structure of fossils, discountenanced and retarded because of the
difficulty of the work. There may be, and doubtless have been, more
species created on paper than actually existin nature. As to the value
of the differences that any investigator may discover, he is likely to
over-estimate it. But it is very doubtful whether such differences would
be searched out and recorded if the investigator did not himself feel sat-
isfied of their importance, be they external or internal. His record of
them, while it multiplies species, is the most effective record, and is, of
itself, no detriment to the progress of science —butratheranaid. There
is, as yet, no accepted limit nor limitation to an organic species, and
there is no restriction to the use of individual opinion. Ultimately per-
haps some biological principles may be established by which species
may be defined. When such is the case they may be applied to the
elimination of some of the specific names, or to the recognition of much
finer and more numerous distinctions.

A spiral bivalve shell from the Waverly group of Pennsylvania. By
CHARLES E. BEECHER. (From the thirty-ninth annual report of the New
York State Museum.) Mr. Beecher describes and figures a new genus
and species, Sfrrodomus insignis, of boring molluscs, from what he con-

Review of Recent Literature. 61

siders the marginal shore-line strata of the Waverly, found in Warren
county, Pennsylvania.

The summit plates in blastoids, crinoids, and cystids, and their morph-
ological relations. By CHARLES WACHSMUTH, and FRANK SPRINGER.
(From the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
March, 1887.) The authors take issue with Etheridge and Carpenter, of
the British Museum, in their catalogue of the blastoidea, in their state-
ment that these plates do not, as a rule, present any very definite ar-
rangement, though they exhibit a series of variations in number and posi-
tion in some degree corresponding to similar variations in the paleocrin-
oidea, and that they vary from five closely united plates, fully covering the
summit, to a set of six proximal plates surrounding a central one. Such
a variation. from five closely fitting plates to six or more around another
the authors do not consider established by the evidence that is adduced.

The morphology of the carine upon the septa of rugose corals; sixteen
plates. By Mary E. Hormes, A. M. (Presented as athesis for the degree
of doctor of philosophy in the University of Michigan, June, 1887.) This
article, which reveals ina lucid manner the minute, discriminating
though quiet work done in the paleontological department of the Uni.
versity of Michigan, comes to the conclusion that the carine are not ag-
gregations of crystals,—mineralized surface decorations—but, in substance
and structure, are homogeneous with the coral itself, are normal out-
growths from the septa, and not homologous with any of the usually
recognized structures; also that they had functional value in the animals
themselves, even where the vesicular tissue is almost wholly wanting.

Description of primordial fossils from Mt. Stephens, N. W. T: erritory
of Canada. By Dr. C. RoMINGER. (From the proceedings of the Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1887.) This new locality of
primordial fossils furnishes the following species: Ogygia Klotzi and O.
serrata, both new forms; also Embolimus spinosa, and E. rotundata, new
forms; also Menocephalus salteri Billings, Conocephalites cordillere (new),
Bathyurus, Agnostus, Obolella and a Theca resembling 7. primordialis Hall.

Untersuchungen ‘ueber Gesteine und Mineralien aus West Indien. Von
Dr. J. H. Kroos(Sammlungen des geologischen reichs Museums in
Leiden, December, 1886). Dr. Kloos describes a new calcium-phos-
phate which he names martinite, obtained by Prof. Martin on the island
of Curacoa. It was found as a pseudomorph after gypsum. From the
island of Aruba he describes among the massive diorytes, quartz-dioryte,
augite-dioryte and gabbro, porphyritic dioryte and dioryte-porphyry, and
mikrocline-granite. From the region schists he describes some sub-
crystalline sedimentaries and diabase, porphyritic rocks, and some
schistose amphibole-bearing rocks. These rocks are entirely different,
according to Dr. Kloos, from any that have before been brought from
the islands of Aruba and Curacoa, constituting in the western part of
Bonaire, mountain ranges. He considers it likely, though not proven by
any certain evidence, that the eruptive rocks are younger than the sedi-
mentary strata of the island of Curacoa, which are of Cretaceous age

62 Review of Recent Literature.

Preliminary report upon petroleum and inflammable gas. By EDWARD
OrTON, State geologist of Ohio. (A publication of the Ohio geological
survey.) This is a valuable compend of the principal facts relating
to the gas and oil supply of Ohio. In November, 1884, high-presure
gas was discovered at the depth of about r1oo feet at Findlay, in Han-
cock county. The surface signs of gas had been very well known for
many years, and some enterprising gentlemen had devised plans for mak-
ing use of it by collecting it and lighting their residences, but its source
had not been discovered, nor even conjectured. It wasacomplete geolo-
gical surprise to find the Trenton limestone which nowhere rises to the
surface in Ohio, a source of gas, and later of oil, in large amount and
great value. The success at Findlay produced a widespread expectation
that the Trenton limestone was gas-bearing everywhere throughout the
state, and a great many wells were drilled to it, and into it, without suc-
cess, the most of them being about 1200 feet deep. This expectation has
not been verified. But a small proportion of the wells that have been
drilled have proved productive. Findlay, Bowling Green, and Lima,
respectively in Hancock, Wood and Allen counties in the N. W. part of
the state were the fortunate points where success had been met with-
Prof. Orton describes other geological horizons at which gas has been
found in Ohio, viz. the Ohio shale, the Berea grit, the Clinton, Medina,
Hudson river and Utica shales and the glacial drift, and concludes with
the statement that natural gas is one of the common and widely distri-
buted substances in nature, and a little of it at least can be found any-
where. This brochure is filled with important practical statements of facts
and principles that bear directly on the origin, consumption, nature and
discovery of gas in Ohio; and its value to the State, if it be properly dis-
tributed and heeded, will be more than the entire cost, great as it is, which
the survey has been to the State from its inception to the present time.
It is one of the most practical exemplifications of the value of a geologi-
cal survey in such emergences as the late fever on gas and oil which
spread over northwestern Ohio. This preliminary report is to be fol-
lowed by a complete exposition of the whole subject, in the light of later
developments.

Some of the general principles stated by Prof. Orton are as follows:

Petroleum, which is the necessary preliminary to the existence of gas,
is derived from vegetable, or vegetable and animal substances that were
deposited in, or associated with, the forming rocks.

Petroleum is not in any sense a product of destructive distillation, but
is the result of a peculiar chemical decomposition by which organic mat-
ter passes at once into this or allied products. It is the result of the
primary decomposition of organic matter.

The organic matter still contained in the rocks can be converted into
gas and oil by destructive distillation, but so far as we know in no other
way. It is not capable of furnishing any new supply of petroleum under
normal conditions.

Petroleum is in the main contemporaneous with the rocks that con-

Review. of ‘Recent Literature. 63

tain it. It was formed at or about the time that these strata were de-
posited.

In order that there may be a supply of gas or oil from any drilled
well it is necessary that three geological facts must co-exist at that place.
(1) A producing source of oil or gas in the form of a stratum charged
with organic matter. (2) An overlying reservoir in the form of a
porous sandstone or limestone, and (3) an impervious, fine-grained rock
or cover. A fourth element seems also necessary, at least in the high-
pressure wells; viz., an anticlinal fold in the underlying strata, as pointed
out by Prof. I. C. White.

At Findlay the gas is essentially light carburetted hydrogen, or marsh
gas, but with small quantities of hydrogen and nitrogen, and its heating
quality greatly exceeds that of the present Pittsburg supply. Its natural
pressure is about 375 lbs. to the square inch. In the spring of 1886 there
was a daily waste, for several months, of at least 16,000,000 cubic feet of
gas at the Findlay wells. The flow of gas sometimes diminishes and is
then accompanied, especially at Lima, by petroleum, or by petroleum
and brine.

The lake-age in Ohio; or some episodes during the retreat of the
North American ice-sheet. By PRror. E. W. CLAYPOLE,of Buchtel Col-
lege, Akron, O. (Mc Lachlan & Co., Edinburgh; Robert Clark & Co.,
Cincinnati.) The former existence of a great ice-sheet over the midland
region of North America has now passed beyond the domain of specula-
tion and is one of the admitted facts in American geology. The above
named paper is an attempt to trace the series of changes which must
have followed the retreating ice. It is divided into three parts, the first
of which considers the condition of the Ohio and the adjacent country
at the time of the greatest extension of the glacier. The various lines
of evidence brought forward during recent years are considered and the
inferential geographical changes are detailed. In the author’s opinion
the valley of the Ohio was occupied for many years by a great body of
water, “lake Ohio,” the approximate outline of which is traced and its
probable history sketched. The causes and the mode of its disappear-
ance are touched upon and tbe traces which it left upon the country are
stated.

The second stage in the story commences when the retreat of the ice
had carried it so far north that the whole southern portion of Ohio was
uncovered and the ice-front had receded to the northern slope of the
water-shed of the state. When it occupied this position it completely
blocked the outflow of all the rivers flowing in that direction. There
were consequently formed a multitude of little glacial lakes or ponds
held in by the ice until they overflowed to the southward, forming as
many streams whose waters ultimately found their way into the Ohio
river. The life history of one of these lakelets is traced in full as an ex-
ample of what the others must have been. This is “lake Cuyahoga,”
formed in the valley of that river between Akron and Cleveland. The
overflow of this was through the gap in which Summit lake and the

64 Review of Recent Literature.

Ohio canal now lie, and the water passing by thischannel reached the
Tuscarawas and when the Muskingum, on its way to the Ohio. Evidence
of the existence of this lake is found in the deposits left in the valley of
the river which are described in detail.

The third stage in this story commenced when the ice-sheet had so
far retreated as to cause the confluence of all these glacial lakelets and
the formation of a single, but much more extensive, sheet of water in
their place —the forerunner of the present lake Erie. At this time the
edge of the ice was to the north of the lakes and the St. Lawrence, in
Canada. The altitude of the surface of this lake and its place of over-
flow are discussed and its great extent is pointed out. The gradual
changes produced by the slow but steady withdrawal of the ice from the
face of the country are explained and the results are traced in some de-
tail. The influence of the high and cold area of the Adirondacks in
preventing the outflow of the water of this compound “lake Erie-On-
tario” and the successive stages whereby the drainage was gradually
developed in its present direction along the St. Lawrence valley, are
shown.

All these various stages in the evolution of the existing physical geog-
raphy of the country are illustrated with four colored maps, showing, in
as many colors, the extent of the water, the ice and the land, at each suc-
cessive stage. Of course such representations are and must be only
approximate in the present imperfect state of our knowledge of the
subject. Full details can only be supplied hereafter.

The work aims merely at being a summary of the present state of our
knowledge of this interesting geological study. It groups in a syste-
matic scheme many of the wide-spread evidences that are legible
from the drift itself, of the local superficial action of water on the
till deposits. It seems to be one of the final steps in the demolition
of the oceanic-iceberg-theory as to the origin of the drift; since it
explains on the hypothesis of the continental glacier nearly all the
anomalous facts that have been advanced in favor of the ice-berg
theory. It is one of those reservoirs from which the amateur and teach-
ing geologist can draw important information, which will be needed in
the class-room. :

The West American Scientist, a popular review and record for America,
official organ of the San Diego (California) Society of Natural History.
This publication, which is well edited, is in its third volume. Mr. C. R.
Orcutt, the editor, is preparing an international scientist’s directory for
the year 1888.

Bulletin No. 39 of the publications of the United States geological sur-
vey, is by Mr. Warren Upham. It gives a preliminary account of the
upper beaches and deltas of the glacial lake Agassiz, embracing a pro-
fusion of details respecting the position, altitude, and external appear-
ances of these breaches, so far as they exist in Minnesota and Dakota.
The beaches that are described are the Herman, the Norcross, the
Campbell and the Mc Cauleyville beaches, the highest being the Her-

Review of Recent Literature. 65

man beach. When lake Agassiz had this level its outlet was 75 feet
above the present level of lake Traverse, in western Minnesota, or 1045
feet above the sea, and its waters followed the present course of the
Minnesota and united with the Mississippi river at Fort Snelling. The
Norcross beach is 20 feet lower; the Campbell beach so feet still lower,
and the Mc Cauleyville beach 15 feet still lower. These beaches ascend
toward the north, the highest one at much greater rate than the lowest.
They also ascend from west to east, since they are traceable continu-
ously from Minnesota into Dakota: but this ascent is low in amount,
though diminishing in a similar ratio between the successive stages of
the lake. Mr. Upham estimates that when this lake had its greatest ex-
tent it was larger than lake Superior, and its depth at the international
boundary line, at St. Vincent, Minnesota, was about 450 feet.

Preliminary reports on the Southeastern Kentucky coal field. By A.R.
CRANDALL and G. M. Hopcr. (One of the publications of the New
Geological Survey of Kentucky. Robert Clarke & Co., Cincinnati,
authorized agents for the sale of the publications.) This is one of the
valuable economic reports of the Kentucky survey. It is illustrated by
topographic maps by J. B. Hoeing, and by page-plates showing the sur-
face contours and vegetation at numerous places. It also has 31 page-
plates showing rock-sections covering the strata that are coal-bearing.
The geological description gives a general account of the Pound Gap
region, of the counties of Letcher, Harlan, Leslie, Perry and Breathitt, of
the Lower North Fork, the Middle and the South Forks of Kentucky
river, with notes on Wolfe and Clay counties. It gives the analysis of
numerous Kentucky coals by Dr. R. Peter.

Annual report of the geological survey of Arhansas for 1887. By JOHN C.
BRANNER, State geologist. This is purely an administrative report of
15 pages, but it lays out the ground-work from which in the future may
be expected very valuable scientific results.

In the American Magazine for December is an illustrated popular
article by Mr. Z. L, White. on “natural gas at Findlay.” This article is
a curiosity of its kind. It illustrates the greed with which reporters and
professional writers seize on half-truths, and by the aid ofillustration and
a lively imagination, construct magizine articles which read well and
entertain the subscriber, who may not be able, or who may not care to
take the trouble, to verify the statements made. This light entertain-
ment is harmless so long as the writer adheres to the truth, but so soon
as his poetic imagination transgresses the requirements of known his-
toric and scientific verity, the diversion becomes nauseating and harmful.
To illustrate these remarks it is only necessary to call attention to the
fact that many citizens of Findlay, besides Dr. Oesterlin, the “expert
geologist and mineralogist,’ knew of the gas escaping from the crevices
of the rocks in the valley of Blanchard creek and through the soil about
Findlay, and some of them devised methods of using it for economic
purposes; that the gas that escapes from the wells at Findlay is not sul-
phureted, but carbureted hydrogen; that when the report on Hancock

66 Personal and Scientific News.

county, by the Ohio geological survey, was printed it contained an ac-
count of this gas, and of successful efforts that had been made to use it,
as early as 1838; that although Prof. Orton admits that it was a complete
surprise to find the Trenton limestone a source of gas; he also makes the
following statement, (which Mr. White,could have quoted, and probably
would if it had not been likely to spoil a sensational paragraph,) “It has
been utilized here in a small way for more than forty years. | Prof.
Winchell in his report on the geology of the county, in 1872, made men-
tion of the interesting fact that Mr, Jacob Carr had, for a number of
years, lighted his home on Main street with gas collected from wells on
his premises. * * * Other facts bearing on the gas supply were given
by Prof. Winchell. The composition of ‘the gas had been determined
for Mr. Carr by Dr. Chilton, of New York, who pronounced it light car-
bureted hydrogen and derived from petroleum. The first statement
gave the result of an approximate analysis, and the second was a sagaci-
ous inference.” These facts, according to Prof. Orton, are published in
the same volume which, according to Mr. White and. Dr. Oesterlin, the
“expert geologist and mineralogist ” of Findlay, contained nota word
about the gas at Findlay. Geological surveys are generally not supplied
with funds for experimenting in practical tests in advance of expert
manufacturers and large consumers. They announce the facts of obser-
vation, the probable extent of economic products, and point out possi-
bilities. It seems that the Ohio geological survey did all this, not only
announcing the existence of gas in great quantities, but sagaciously tnfer-
red that it came from petroleum.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

On NovEMBER ISTH THE REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION elected Prof. S. P. Langley, now president of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, secre-
tary of the institution to succeed the late Prof. S. F. Baird.
The scientific predilections of professor Langley are more in
keeping with the researches conducted by the lamented Prof.
Henry than with those of Prof. Baird, and it is very likely that
astronomical and physical research by the institution will be
revived with its wonted vigor.

THE UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY has
been engaged during the summer, through the services of Maj.
C. O. Boutelle, assistant in charge of state surveys, in making
triangulation in Minnesota. One of the immediate objects of the
summer’s work, as requested by Prof. Winchell, the state geol-
ogist, was the determination of the exact length) width and po-
sition of the gorge of the Mississippi river between the falls of
St. Anthony and Fort Snelling, to find reliable data for the
discussion of the recession of the falls. The work is left in
charge of Prof. W. R. Hoag, of the University of Minnesota.

AccorDING TO PRoF. J. S. "NEw BERRY, who read a paper on

Personal and Scientific News. 64

the subject of gold and silver production at the late meeting of
the National Academy of Sciences, the annual production of
gold in the United States is already past its maximum. It is
now about thirty millions of dollars, that of Europe being
about the same.

Dr. A. E. Foore of PHILADELPHIA, who has spent the
summer in London in attendance at the American Exhibition,
will shortly return with a varied and extensive collection of
minerals and fossils obtained in different parts of Europe.

Extinct PrEccary IN MicHi1GANn. In the spring of 1887,
the University of Michigan received a quantity of bones of the
extinct Plaitygonus compressus, discovered in Ionia county.
Examination showed that they represented five individuals, and
that of one skeleton nearly all the parts had been preserved.
The cranium was complete; there were teeth, 31; vertebre,
complete series, 29; sacrum, second caudal and two innominata,
4; ribs, 27; parts of anterior extremities, 8: of posterior, 26;
total, 126 bones. Of a second skeleton, there were 70 bones;
of a third, 57; of a fourth, 37; and ofa fifth, 4. Grand total,
294. The remains were crowded together in a deposit resem-
bling loess—but whether loess or not, it was not peat, but quite
an upland formation, and associated with modified drift. The
first skeleton is probably the completest known; and will be
fully described and illustrated by professor Alexander Winchell.
The four skeletons have been arranged, and are on exhibition
in the museum of the University of Michigan.

Mr. WarRREN UPHAM OF SOMERVILLE, Mass. has com-
pleted, for the United States geological survey, the field-work
of. his examination of lake Agassiz, an ancient body of water
that occupied portions of Minnesota, Dakota and Manitoba as
one of the incidents of the retreat of the continental glacier.
Mr. Upham began this examination for the Minnesota state
survey, and has completed it under the auspices of the U.S.
and the Canadian surveys.

THE SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE Of the In-
ternational Congress of Geologists issued a call for a meeting
of the committee at New Haven, Conn., Dec. zgth, for the
purpose of receiving the reports of the various sub-committees,
preparatory to their submission at the London Congress next
summer.

THE “SWINDLING GEOLOGIST.” We hear again of the
scientific swindler who has imposed upon the credulity of so
many geologists and others in Minnesota, Iowa, Lllinois, Ohio
and other states. His personal appearance and methods were
fairly described in Science this year in the numbers for Jan. 14
and June 17 and 24. But for all this, he appears to have been
operating very successfully among the colleges of New York

68 Personal and Scientific News.

and New England. He stole from one professor two bound
volumes of Chenu’s Conchyliologie; two unbound numbers of
the colored edition of Tryon’s Manual of Ccnchology; a $20
microscopic objective (Geo. Wales’ No. 50) and some fossils.
From another college he stole lately a $150 Hartnack micro-
scope. He is said to be well informed and ready. He has
been passing lately under the name of L. P. Gratacap, of the
“Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist;” also, in different places as “Ellison”
and “ Vasile” and “ Vasilieff.” He pretends sometimes to be
a Russian savant, and at other times assumes the réle of a deaf
mute. American geologists will be secure against such imposi-
tions if they adopt the old and good English rule of requiring
credentials as a basis of confidence and trust.

Pror. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT delivered a course of eight
lectures in December before the Lowell Institute at Boston, on
“The ice-age in North America.” They were presented with
plentiful stereopticon illustrations and a large map of North
America. Prof. Wright is not satisfied with the evidence that
has been adduced to prove that there have been two glacial
epochs, and is inclined to believe that man existed in America
before the close of the ice-age, which he thinks may be as re-
cent as ten thousand years ago.

AT THE CONCLUSION of the report of Mr. J. M. Hodge, as-
sistant on the geological survey of Kentucky, on the coal fields
of the upper Kentucky river, is the following description of a
“pounding mill,” now in use on Lick branch, Red river, Clay
county, Kentucky. ‘This grist mill is probably the last of its
kind in the state, the hand mills, and home-made four-bladed
turbines cut from solid wooden blocks, and now in common use,
having generally superseded them. The mill consists essen-
tially of a mortar and a pestle; the mortar ashort section of a
tree in one end of which a hole is scooped out for the reception
of the grain; the pestle a straight stick about four feet long, at-
tached to one end of alever supported in the middle. A weight
is hung with the pestle in order to balance the opposite end of
the lever, which end has cut in it a hollow place with a capacity
of about half a barrel. Water is lead to this trough from the
rapidly falling stream by a conduit some 100 feet long, made of
the bark of trees, five or six inches in diameter. When the
trough is filled with water the added weight causes it to descend,
until its inclination is sufficient for most of the water to run out.
The greatest weight being then on the other end the pestle falls
and lifts the trough into position to be refilled. This see-saw
motion continued, it is said, will crush into very nice meal a
half bushel of corn left over night in the mortar; and also any
stray field mice, or other hungry small animals which may ven-
ture into the mortar, left open and unprotected in the forest.”

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

THE NIOBRARA RIVER, CONSIDERED WITH REFER-
ENCE TO -ITS :CAPACITY FOR IRRIGATION.

BY DR. L. E. HICKS.

The modern scientist is not a recluse. He has, indeed, his
hours of seclusion, his days and weeks of patient labor in labo-
ratory or cabinet, but he does not bury himself there like the
alchemist or astrologer of the middle ages. He walks abroad
and is conversant with nature and with men, both in the gath-
ering of material for study and in the communication of the
results of study. For it isthe crowning glory of modern science
that its results are not for the private gratification of the inves-
tigator, but for the benefit of mankind. Science is a teacher of
men but also a servant of men. If, upon the one hand, it fur-
nishes forth for the instruction of mankind crystal truths from
deepest mines, eternal laws and principles from starry hights,
on the other hand it helps to lift heavy burdens, helps to guide

the farmer’s plow, the carpenter’s plane, the mariner’s ship,

lends a hand even for the most common drudgeries of life. A
principle discovered is soon transmuted into a process for the
production of wealth. All industrial progress is due to the ap-
plication of scientific principles to the problems encountered in
each line of effort.

Geology, no less than other sciences, touches at many points
the practical life of the millions. The problems of economic
geology are numerous, and some of them are so far-reaching
that a single one underlies the whole fabric of modern industries.
The occurrence of iron ores, for instance, and the production
from them of iron and steel, is a problem of economic geology,

70 Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley.

and it is so interwoven with all human industries that if the
geologist should announce the speedy exhaustion of the supply
of iron ore it would produce greater consternation than war or
plague. Agriculture, the most ancient and the most important
of all industries, is especially benefitted by the labors of the
geologist. The very soil which the farmer cultivates depends
for its fertility upon the rocks which have produced it by their
disintegration. In arid regions the problem of water supply
for domestic purposes, for power, and for irrigation, falls to the
geologist for investigation.

While Tur American GeEo.Locist will be for the most
part devoted to pure science, yet it will not slight or ignore the
problems of economic geology. An earnest of the disposition
of its editors to do full justice to the claims of applied science
may be found in the following discussion of the Niobrara river
as an irrigation stream. Many other Nebraska rivers are well
adapted for irrigation and I may perhaps report upon them in
subsequent papers.

Although such a discussion is primarily of greatest interest to
citizens of the localities mentioned, it is not purely local. Irri-
gation has been practiced from the remotest ages. It is hon-
orable on account of its antiquity, if for no other reason.
Incidentally the geclogy of western Nebraska will be involved
in the discussion; also the topography, the scenery, the general
physical features and conditions of that region. These topics,
it is hoped, will interest all readers however indifferent they
may be to the practicability of irrigation,

The early French voyageurs in North America had a quick
eye for topographical features and striking natural phenomena
of any kind. The names they conferred upon natural objects.
are often as significant as they are beautiful and appropriate.
“Za Belle riviere,’ the beautiful river, as they called the Ohio,
is an example of their good taste and felicity of diction. So
they called the Niobrara river “L’eau gui court,” or Rapid
river, from the swiftness of its current. It does indeed glide
down its narrow bed with arrowy speed, stretching a silvery
thread along the bottom of its valley as it descends from the
high plateau of Wyoming, 5,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Its mouth is about 1300 feet above tide, so that in the course of

Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley. 71

300 miles it falls 3,700 feet, or 121%4 feet to the mile. This is
the average slope, but in some places it descends much more
rapidly.

The upper portion of its valley is excavated in the loose fria-
ble strata of the newer Tertiary. It is accordingly a broad
shallow trough with gentle slopes rising to the adjacent table-
lands which are some 300 feet above the river. The serpentine
course, the grassy slopes, and the clear swift water, all contrib-
ute to impart a peculiar charm to this region, in marked contrast
to the rugged features of its lower course. In the vicinity of
Valentine, in Cherry county, it is still flowing between walls
of Tertiary age, but the rock is more compact and stands up in
bold cliffs to the hight of 400 or 450 feet. The broad valley is
reduced to a gorge or canon which continues to a point some-
what eastward of the rooth meridian, where the softer Cretaceous
rocks yield more readily to aqueous and atmospheric erosion.
From this point to its confluence with the Missouri river, the
valley is of considerable breadth, and is bounded by moderate
slopes.

The Niobrara is an interesting stream throughout its whole
course. For the first hundred miles from its mouth the geolo-
gist finds the peculiar chalky rocks of the Cretaceous period,
with their numerous and very interesting fossils. The Tertiary
rocks along its middle and upper course contain the relics of a
mammalian fauna unsurpassed in richness and variety. Gen-
eral Warren has stated that the Niobrara flows lengthwise upon
the back of an anticlinal fold. This statement I have not per-
sonally verified, but, whether true or not, certainly enough is
true of this river to make its exploration unusually fascinating
to the geologist.

The botanist finds in the valley of the Niobrara a flora quite
unique for Nebraska. Great pines wave their branches where,
according to any published map of the distribution of pines,
none of them ought to be found. A remarkable eastward ex-
tension of the Rocky mountain pine (Pixus ponderosa) clothes
the banks of the Niobrara and its tributaries with an evergreen
fringe.

The lover of the picturesque is delighted with the wild and
varied scenery of the canons along the middle course of the

72 Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley.

Niobrara, as well as the broad green meadows above and the
pretty islands below. A waterfall just below Fort Niobrara is
worth taking a long journey to see.

3ut the practical value of the Niobrara for irrigation is of
greater consequence than its picturesque scenery. In determin-
ing this value the first question is whether the volume of water
is sufficient to irrigate much land. On the 4th day of Septem-
ber, 1887, I measured it in the southern part of Dawes county
with the following result: breadth, 21 ft., depth, 2 ft., velocity
per second, 2% ft. The Niobrara at this point was therefore
‘discharging 98 cubic feet of water in each second of time.
This measurement was taken on its upper course and in one of
the driest months of a dry year. Lower down, after it has
received its large tributaries, the volume of water is far greater,
but its use for irrigation is impracticable by reason of the high
and steep banks. Just in proportion as the scenery becomes
more picturesque, the utility of the stream becomes less. But
in the counties Sioux, Box Butte, Dawes, Sheridan, and the
western part of Cherry county, the valley is from one to five
miles broad, and within it there is an abundance of good irriga-
ble land. The rapid descent of this stream makes it possible
to raise its waters to a considerable hight (relatively to its bed)
by means of a ditch of no great length. Counting two feet per
mile for the slope of the ditch, which is rather more than ex-
perience has shown to be necessary, we gain 10% feet per
mile. Most of those beautiful stretches of land which the geol-
ogist calls terraces, while the farmer calls them second bottoms,
and which offer the greatest facilities for irrigation, lie from
fifteen to twenty-five feet above the stream. Along the Nio-
brara these could be watered from a ditch no more than two
miles long on the average, since that would give an elevation
of 202% feet.

How much land can be irrigated from a stream of the size of
the upper Niobrara? If we knew just how many acres can be
watered by a flow of one foot per second the answer would be
‘easy. But different soils, different sub-soils, and different crops
make such vast differences in the conditions of the problem that
its solution is by no means easy. Even when we take into con- ~
sideration the differences of soils and crops we are hardly pre-

Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley. ves

pared for the enormous differences in the practice of irrigators
in different parts of the same country. In England one cubic
foot of water per second is sometimes applied to a single acre,,
and in other places that amount is made to serve ninety acres..
The usual “water-right” in Colorado is one and a half cubic
feet for eighty acres, or 53% acres to the cubic foot per second.

“In California a cubic foot of water is said to be capable
of irrigating more than roo acres, in India 200, and in Spain
and Italy a much larger area.”! “A continuous flow of one
cubic foot of water per second will, in most of the lands of Utah,
serve about 100 acres for the general average of crops cultivated
in that country.”

In the absence of direct experiments in the valley of the

Niobrara, I shall assume that 100 acres may be irrigated by one

unit of water. This will give 9,800 acres for the total amount
of land which may be irrigated from the upper course of the
Niobrara, if the measurement given above is a fair index of the
capacity of that stream. But cannot its waters be used over
and over, thus multiplying by a score or more this 9,800 acres?
This is a question of great practical interest and importance.
Suppose the irrigable land lying in a section of this valley ten
miles long amounts to 9,800 acres, and will absorb all the water,
will not this water return to the bed of the stream and be ready
to irrigate the next section of ten miles? Probably 175 or 200
miles of the Niobrara valley in Nebraska is available for irriga-
tion, and if the river can be used every ten miles then it can be
used, say nineteen times, and made to supply 186,200 acres.
But in this computation we are reckoning without our host.
A very small portion of the water used in irrigation ever re-
turns to the bed of the stream from which it was taken. It
disappears by evaporation, by percolation, and by absorption in
the tissues of plants. Evaporation occurs all along the ditches
and trenches, all over the surface of the fields, and from the
leaves and stems of the growing plants. Vegetation is so largely
composed of water taken from the soil (no less than 75 per
cent. of ordinary terrestrial plants is water, according to Prof C.
E. Bessey) that the vapor of water is constantly escaping from

1J. W. Powell, Lands of the Arid Region, p. 143.
? Ibid., p. 84.

74 Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley.

them, and their stems and leaves expose surfaces which, in the
ageregate, are so enormous that the loss of water by this chan-
nel probably exceeds all other losses. It has been found indeed,
that a plant loses water one-third as fast as a body of water
whose exposed surface is equal to that of the plant. A field of
growing crops presents surfaces in the form of succulent stems
and leaves many times as great as its own superficial area, and
all these surfaces are exhaling the vapor of water, the loss of
which must be supplied from the soil. We may safely assume
that these surfaces are at least three times the area of the field,
and since evaporation from them is one-third as fast as from
water, the loss will therefore be equal to that from a pond of
the same size as the field. In a dry climate this would be very
great, but supposing it to be barely one foot over the whole
surface during the irrigating season, the loss by evaporation
from plants alone would be 426,888,000 cubic feet of water on
9,800 acres. ‘To supply this loss would require the whole capac-
ity of the Niobrara river for fifty days. '

The water absorbed and remaining in the tissues of plants
must also be considered. If meadow land were irrigated and
should produce four tons of hay per acre, the grass when cut
would weigh nine tons, of which seventy per cent. would be
water. For each acre of land 6.3 tons of water would be taken
up in vegetable tissues an remain until harvest. On 9,800 acres
61,740 tons would be used up in this way to supply which
would require the whole capacity of the Niobrara river for six
hours.

It will readily be seen that the demands of vegetation alone
will consume the greater part of the water of irrigation. But
this precisely is what irrigation is for, namely, to supply the
demands of vegetation. If I have spoken of the water so used
as Jost, it is only with reference to its further use upon other
sections of the same valley. It is not by any means wasfed,
though it be “lost” in that sense.

Some water is also lost by percolation. I refer not so much
to that which enters the carth along the course of the main
ditches as to that which has reached the irrigated fields, and
never returns to the stream because it penetrates to depths below
its level. That which remains in the earth above the level of

Hicks on Irrigation of the Niobrara Valley. 75

the stream is not lost because it fills interstices which must other-
wise be supplied by rains, thus raising the water table, and
leaving the rain water to flow off and swell the volume of water
available for the next section of the valley. Even the water
which sinks below the level of the river contributes to the same
result of raising the water table and freeing the rains for surface
flow. The loss by percolation would therefore be insignificant
if the whole valley were irrigated. In fact, however, only a
few fields here and there will be watered, and the dry lands
adjacent will drink up much water which might otherwise re-
turn to the river.

The farmer who irrigates thus benefits his neighbors directly,
as well as indirectly by influencing the rainfall. Those enor-
mous loads of moisture which I have shown to be constantly
escaping from growing crops must have an appreciable influence
upon precipitation. This should be taken into the account in
estimating the amount of land which may be irrigated from the
Niobrara river. The increased’ rainfall resulting from irriga-
tion may double or treble the capacity of the river. This has
been almost uniformly the experience of irrigators in Utah.
“In many places the service of a stream was doubled, and in a
few it was increased ten fold, or even fifty fold.”

No direct observations have been made, so far as I know, to
determine how much of the water of irrigation returns to the
stream from which it was drawn. Fair consideration being
given to all the sources of loss by percolation, by evaporation,
and by absorption in vegetable tissues, we may state as a proba-
ble inference that it is not more than one-tenth. Granting this
and. then recalling our division of the valley into ten-mile sec-
tions, we have in the second section water enough for only 980
acres instead of 9,800 acres; in the third section 98 acres only
can be watered, and so on in a diminishing series,

But as a matter of fact the water never is, and cannot easily
be, completely used up in any section of the valley. Perhaps
by drawing out no more than one-third of it in any section of
the valley, much more could be made of it along its whole
course than if it were completely exhausted at one point.

It is certain that irrigation does use up a river; else the com-

1 Gilbert— Lands of the Arid Region, p. 57.

76 Le Conte on the Coast Islands of California.

plaints of Nebraskans in respect to the use of the South Platte
by citizens of Colorado, are groundless. Within our own boun-
daries at least, the rights of landed proprietors on the lower
courses of rivers may be protected by statute, and no time should
be lost in doing this.

Several considerable tributaries of the Niobrara enter it
within the irrigable portion of its valley. These may be used
for irrigation, each in its own valley, or, if not so used, they go
to swell the volume of the river and add largely to the aggre-
gate of acres irrigable from it. My measurement was taken in
the dry season and should be raised somewhat to obtain the
average capacity of the river.

Summing up all these considerations I am of the opinion that
20,000 acres of land in the Niobrara valley may be irrigated
now, and that this may be doubled by the increased rainfall
which will probably result from irrigation.

THE FLORA OF THE COAST ISLANDS OF CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO RECENT CHANGES OF PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY.

BY JOSEPH LE CONTE.

Some of the results reached by Mr. ‘E. L. Greene in his
studies of the flora of the islands off the coast of southern Cali-
fornia’ have deeply interested me, because I believe their ex-
‘planation may be found in geologically recent changes in the
physical geography of California.

These remarkable islands, eight or ten in number, are strung
along the coast from point Concepcion southward, and separa-
ted from the mainland by a sound 20-30 miles wide. They
are of considerable size (the largest being about 200 square
miles in extent), and vary in hight from 1,000 to 3,coo feet.
They have all the characteristics of continental islands, and are
undoubtedly outliers of the mainland, at one time connected

1 Studies in the Botany of California and parts adjacent, VI. E. L
Greene. 1—Notesonthe botany of Santa Cruzisland. Bull.7, Cal. Acad.
Sci.

-

Le Conte on the Coast Isiands of California. 77

with it, but now separated by subsidence of the continental
margin. They may be regarded as the highest points of an old
coast range outside of the present coast range, the broad valley
between the two being now covered with water. Moreover,
the date of the separation may be determined with certainty.
That they were connected with the mainland during the later
Pliocene and early Quaternary is proved by the fact that re-
mains of the mammoth have been found on Santa Rosa, the
largest and one of the farthest off of them.' Zhey were, there-
fore, undoubtedly separated during the Quaternary period.

The main poiuts in Mr. Greene’s paper with which we are
here concerned are the following:

1. Out of 296 species of plants collected by him on the island
of Santa Cruz, no less than 48 are entirely peculiar to these
islands, and 28 peculiar to Santa Cruz itself.

2. Of the remaining 248 species nearly all are distenctively
Californian —that is, species peculiar to California are very
abundant, while common American species, z. ¢e., those common
to California and other parts of North America, are very few
and rare. The flora as a whole, therefore, may be regarded as
distinctively Californian, with the addition of a large number of
species wholly peculiar to the islands.

3. A number of rare species found in isolated patches, and;
as it were, struggling for existence, in the southern counties —

San Diego and San Bernardino—are found in great abundance
and very thriving condition on the islands.

4. Lavatera, a remarkable malvaceous genus of which 18
species are known in the Mediterranean region, and one from
Australia, but zot a single species on the American continent,
ts represented on these islands by four species. ‘This is certainly
a most remarkable and significant fact.

Such are the facts. I account for them as follows:

California, especially the region west of the Sierra Nevada,
is geologically very recent. The Sierra region was reclaimed
from the sea at the beginning of the Cretaceous, and the coast
region as late as the beginning of the Pliocene. When first
emerged the coast region was of course colonized from adjacent

1 Proc. Cal. Acad. of Sci., vol. v., 152.

78 _ Le Conte on the Coast Islands of California.

parts. This colonization was probably mainly from Mexico,
either directly or through the Sierra region; for the distinct-
ively Californian plants, though peculiar, are more like those of
Mexico than any other. Whencesoever it may have been col-
onized, however, the environment was sufficiently peculiar, the
isolation sufficiently complete, and the time has been sufficiently
long to make a very distinct flora. According to Wallace, it is
‘one of the primary divisions of the nearctic region.

During the late Pliocene and early Quaternary, as already
‘seen, the islands were still a part of the mainland, and the whole
was occupied by the same flora, viz: the distinctively Califor-
nian (with some differences doubtless), now found in both,
together with the peculiar island-species.

During the oscillations of the Quaternary the then western-
most coast range was separated by subsidence, and has remained
ever since as islands. Simultaneously with, or after, this sepa-
ration, came the invasion of northern species, driven southward
by glacial cold. Then followed the mingling of invaders with
the natives, the struggle for mastery, the extermination of many
(viz: the peculiar island species), and perhaps the slight modi-
fication of all, and the final result is the California flora of
to-day. But the island flora was saved from this invasion by
isolation, and therefore far less changed than the flora of the
mainland, z. e., the invading species are mostly wanting, and
many species survived there which were destroyed, or else
modified into other species on the mainland, and the remainder
probably less modified than on the mainland. The flora of
these islands, therefore, represents somewhat nearly the charac-
ter of the flora of the whole country during the Pliocene times.
Some modification they have doubtless suffered, but the time
has been too short for any great change in the absence of severe
competition.

The question naturally arises, “ How is it that with a separa-
tion of only 20-30 miles the two floras —insular and mainland
—have not become entirely similar by mutual colonization?”
The prevailing winds being landward would, I suppose, largely
prevent the colonization of common American forms on the
islands, although some such colonization has in fact taken place.
But with the prevailing winds in this direction, why have not

Le Conte on the Coast Islands of California. 79

all the peculiar island species been long ago colonized on the
mainland? According to the view above presented the answer
is evident. These peculiar species did once inhabit the main-
land and have been either destroyed or transformed in the
struggle with invaders. They are, therefore, weaker species.
The same unfitness which made them succumb then, still for-
bids their successful colonization. This brings me to the next
point.

There are quite a number of rare and peculiar forms found
struggling for existence in the southern counties which are
found very abundant on the islands. This certainly looks like
the beginnings of colonization. This is indeed Mr. Greene’s
view, and is rendered all the more probable by the fact that the
ocean currents probably drift in that direction. But there is at
least another explanation suggested by the view above pre-
sented. These may be, and probably are, remnants of Pliocene
indigenes still undestroyed, but ready to perish. From this
point of view their place far south is just what we might ex-
pect, for the main invasion was from the north.

But there is still a last point to be explained. Lavateras are
unknown in the New World, except on these islands, where
there are four species. But they are found in the Old World,
in the Mediterranean region and in Australia. Mr. Greene
‘suggests, as a possible explanation, a former connection of these
islands with some other continent. J think not. The substan-
tial permanence of continental land masses and oceanic basins,
with only marginal changes, at least during later geological
taken together with the comparative recency of the
renders this explanation extremely improb-

times
flora of California
able. The above presented view suggests another and far

more probable explanation.

The existence of Lavaferas in such widely separated localities
as Australia, the Mediterranean region and the coast islands of
California, shows unmistakably that existing species are but
remnants of an old, once very abundant and widely spread
genus, with numerous species. They are now dying out.
They have been mostly destroyed and replaced by newer and
stronger forms. I conclude, therefore, that in Pliocene times
several species of Lavatera existed all over the coast region of

80 Le Conte on the Coast Islands of California.

California, but probably mostly in the then coast range, viz:
the islands; for they love the sea coast. They have all been
destroyed by change of environment, physical and organic, ex-
cept those isolated on the islands and thus saved from the effects
of invasion.

Readers of Mr. Wallace’s “Island Life” will at once see the
analogy between this explanation of the flora of our coast islands
and Mr. Wallace’s explanation of the mammalian fauna of
Madagascar. The mammalian fauna of Africa, south of Sahara,
consists of two very distinct groups—the one zzdigenous or de-

scendants of Tertiary indigenes, and remotely resembling that-

of Madagascar, the other evidently fore/gz, and resembling
that of Lurasia in Miocene and Pliocene times. During Ter-
tiary times Africa was isolated from Eurasia, but united with
Madagascar, and the whole inhabited by a peculiar fauna,
characterized by lemurs, insectivores, etc., which we have called
indigenes. About middle Tertiary times, Madagascar was sep-
arated, and immediately divergence between the two faunas
commenced. In later Tertiary and early Quaternary, the bar-
rier which separated Africa from Eurasia was removed, and
the great Eurasian animals invaded Africa, and immediately
became the dominant type. In the struggle which ensued,
many species, especially of the weaker indigenes, were destroyed,
and all on both sides modified. The result is the African fauna
of to-day. Madagascar was saved from this invasion by isola-
tion. The fauna there consists of the greatly modified descen-
dants of the African Tertiary indigenes, but far less modified

than their congeners in Africa. In the fauna of Madagascar,.

therefore, we have the nearest approach to the Tertiary indi-
genes of both.

The difference between the two cases is this: In the case of
Madagascar the separation has been very long. The extreme
peculiarity of its fauna is the result partly of progressive dver-
gence and partly of many forms saved by tsolation. Inthe case
of the coast islands of California, the separation is comparatively
recent —there has not been time enough for very great diver-
gence by modification. The peculiarity of its flora is due
almost wholly to species saved by isolation.

In conclusion I would say, that this short paper is intended

“Calvin on the Hamilton in Ontario. 81

merely as an incentive to future investigation and pointing in
the direction which it ought to take. Before the views above
presented can be definitely established, there must be further
investigations, first, on the relation of the island flora to that of
the mainland; second, on the relation of the flora of California
to that of adjacent parts from which it may have been origi-
nally colonized; third, and especially, must we have fuller
knowledge of the indigenous flora of California in Pliocene
times. [ Bulletin No. 8, California Academy of Sciences. |

OBSERVATIONS ON THE VERTICAL RANGE OF CER-
TAIN. SPECIES OF FOSSILS OF THE HAMILTON
PERIOD, IN WESTERN ONTARIO.

BY PROFESSOR S. CALVIN.

The region about Widder, Arkona and Bartlett’s Mills in
Lambton county, Ontario, has long been classic ground to pale-
ontologists. Clay shales of the Hamilton period are found in
natural exposures along the bluffs bordering the Aux Sables
river and its tributary creeks near Arkona and Bartlett’s Mills.
A portion of the same shales has been exposed by the railroad
cutting, three quarters of a mile east of Widder. The profu-
sion of fossils of the period occurring in these shales is something
remarkable; and the perfect state of preservation in which the
fossils are found renders them exceedingly attractive to students
of paleontology.

The geological section accessible to observation in the region
referred to is probably not more than 200 or 250 feet in thick-
ness altogether. Nevertheless the section is naturally divided
into three distinct portions, each sharply set off from the others,
not by lithological, but by paleontological characteristics. So
marked and so distinct are the groups of species characterizing
the three separate portions of the section that it is scarcely an
exaggeration to say that not a single species is common to any
two of them.

No attempt will be made in the present paper to enumerate
all the species belonging to the three distinct assemblages of

82 Calvin on the Hamilton in Ontario.’

fossils on which the tri-partite division of the shales is based,
nor will any particular zodlogical order be followed. All that
can be done will be to refer to the more obvious and more
characteristic forms of each separate group.

We find the lower division of one section exposed, just above
the level of the water in the river, below Bartlett’s Mills. It
may be traced down the river for a number of miles. Near
Arkona a little stream flowing toward the Aux Sables has cut
a gorge in the shales, known as Rock Glen; anda short distance
above the mouth of the stream the lower division is again finely
exposed.

One of the most characteristic forms of the lower division is
the long-winged variety of Sfirifera mucronata Conrad.’ Itis
true that Spirifera mucronata is the most abundant and most
characteristic species of the third or upper division, but the
varieties from the two horizons show much greater differences
than are often observed between two well-established species.
This long-winged variety —the variety d. of Nicholson, (Pal,
of Ontario, 1874,)—has the hinge line greatly extended so that
the width is not unfrequently five or even six times the length;
the valves are flat, giving the shell a compressed appearance;
the plications on each side of the mesial fold and sinus are small
and numerous; the mesial fold is divided by a groove and the
sinus by a median angular ridge.

Along with the characteristic long-winged Spirifer are asso-

1 The name, Sfirifera mucronata, is here used with full knowledge of
the fact that there is a name twenty-one years older than it, applied to
this same species. In 1878 S. A. Miller (Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol.
ii, p. 220,) called attention to a neglected article by Mr. Caleb Atwater, in
Am. Journal of Science for 1820 (vol. ii, p. 244). In that article Mr.
Atwater describes and figures a fossil species under the name of Tere-
bratula pennata; and, as Mr. Miller says, a reference to the description
and figures leaves no doubt that the author had before him the species
that Conrad, twenty-one years later, named Delthyris mucronata. The
species, therefore, in strict justice should be Spirifera pennata, Atwater,
but I find it difficult to overcome a natural aversion to disturbing a name
as well established in usage and literature as that of Conrad.

The revival of Atwater’s name for the species, so long associated with
the name of Conrad, would compel a change in the Sfirifera pennata of
Owen, and for this latter species Miller proposes the name S#irifera
atwaterana.

Calvin on the Hamilton in Ontario. 83:

ciated Chonetes lineata Hall, Tentaculites attenuatus Hall, a
small, very pretty spine-bearing Platyceras referred, with some
doubt, by Nicholson (Pal. Ontario, 1874,) to P. dumosum
Conrad, the interesting crinoid with movable spines —/7/ystrzt-
crinus carpentert Hinde (Ann. and Mag. of Nat. History,,
March, 1885), and Phacops rana Green.

It is possible that Phacops is an exception to the rule I have
stated regarding the limitation of species, and that it ranges
through all three of the divisions into which the Hamilton sec-
tion is palzontologically divided. Some of the specimens found
associated with the species named above may have come from
overlying beds of the second division. Nicholson reports it.
from near Widder where the exposure is wholly confined to the
upper division, though my own observations are negative as to
its occurence at that horizon.

It may be said, by the way, that the generic name /ystri-
crinus was proposed by Hinde ( Mag. and date above cited) as
a substitute for Axthroacantha of Williams (Proc. Am. Phil.
Soc. April, 1883), on account of the fact that Williams’ name
was practically preoccupied, the name Arthracanthus having
been employed by Schmarda for a genus of Rotatoria in 1854.
(See papers cited and also the paper of Hinde in Ann. and.
Mag. of Nat. Hist. for March, 1886). Furthermore Wachsmuth
and Springer (Revision of the Palzocrinoidea, Pt. III, p. 117),
are inclined to regard Hystricrinus carpentert Hinde as proba-
bly identical with Arthroacantha punctobrachiata Williams.

The small Platyceras referred to is probably a new species,
or at least an unnamed variety.

The middle division of the Hamilton section along the Aux
Sables is characterized by the great abundance of corals. None
of the species already named, excepting Phacofs rana, pass up
into it. The list of species would be a very long one, but we
may take Heliophyllum hallt Ed. and H. as the typical form..
With #7. halli we find associated Cystiphyllum americanum Ed..
and H., and Heliophyllum juvene Rominger. Diphyphyllum
archiaci Billings is a rare species found in the same association.
~The favositoid corals are represented by Favosites billing si
Rom., Favosites placenta Rom., Favosites arbuscula Hall,
Alveolites goldfusst Billings Alveolites frondosa Nicholson, to-

y

84 Calvin on the Hamilton in Ontario.

gether with a number of other species. One of the most
interesting corals is the very pretty, but unfortunately rare,
Microcyclus discus Meek and Worthen. Of this species the
writer obtained quite a number of specimens and is able to con-
firm Nicholson’s determination of the identity of this form with
that described by Meek and. Worthen in the Geology of Illi-
nois, vol, iii.

There is practically nothing else but corals in the coral zone.
Polyzoa of various genera and species are, however, not un-
common. Dwarfed forms of Sfzrifera fimbriata Conrad, are
found occasionally. About two miles southeast from Widder
there is an outcrop of the coral zone in which Vacleocrinus sp.,
and Pextremites lycorias Wall, were found, but these species
must be very rare. That most ubiquitous and usually most
abundant of all the Hamilton species, Atrypa reticularis Lin.
is represented in my collections from Ontario by only two or
three specimens, and these were found loose near the base of
the coral-bearing beds.

The coral bearing stratum is well developed above the beds
containing the long-winged Spirifer at Bartlett’s Mill; and along
the river below the mills it may be seen at intervals for a num-
ber of miles. At Rock Glen, near Arkona, it extends from the
bottom of the gorge up almost to the summit. Near the sum-
mit, however, the corals stop abruptly. The bluffs are crowned
by beds of the third division, and into these beds not a single
one of the prominent corals of the middle division, so far as we
can see, was able to pass.

The third or upper division is the one exposed in the railway
cut near Widder. As we have said it occurs at the summit of
the bluffs at Rock Glen. It may be seen occupying the same
relation to the beds already described at a number of points
between Rock Glen and Bartlett’s Mills.

In the third division we have an entirely new fauna, so far
at least as the prominent forms are concerned. Most abundant
of all the species is Spzriéfera mucronata Conrad, but so differ-
ent from the variety of the lower beds that, were it not for
intermediate forms found elsewhere, we should be compelled to
regard the varieties of the two zones as very distinct species.

The S. macronata of the upper beds is a thick shell with few

Calvin on the Hamilton in Ontario. 85

and coarse plications on each side of the mesial fold and sinus;
the hinge line is relatively short, in some rare instances it is not
greater than the length, though on the average it varies from
two to three times the length; the mesial fold and sinus are not
divided, and the imbricating concentric striae are much more
pronounced. Altogether the expression and characteristics of
the shell are as different from those of the variety occurring in
the lower beds as could well be imagined.

With the short-winged spirifers are associated Cyrtia ham-
zltonensis Hall, a small form of Athyris spiriferoides Eaton,
Letorhynchus laura Billings or L. multicostus Hall, Chonetes
scitula Hall, Strophodonta nacrea Hall, and Callopora incras-
sata Nicholson. These are all more or less abundant and con-
spicuous, though it must be admitted that in numbers and
consequent prominence, S. macronata overshadows all the rest.

The only crinoid found in the upper division was a Taxo-
crinus, probably 7. (forbesiocrinus ) lobatus Hall. Two entire
specimens of Dalmanites boothii Green, were found in the cut
near Widder, and three other specimens were collected at the
corresponding horizon a mile or so below Bartlett’s Mills.
Pygilia of Dalmanites are more or less common, and seem to
have been the only parts of this trilobite seen at these localities,
by Dr. Nicholson.

Here then we have three distinct faunas, or at least, if we
may not use the term fauna in such restricted sense, we have
three distinct assemblages of species in a section of about 250
feet. There is nothing to indicate any break in the continuous
and orderly process of sedimentation from the beginning to the
end of the time represented by all three of the divisions.
Neither do the sediments, so far as lithological characters are
concerned, change materially so as to indicate any change in the
direction of the currents that carried the material to the place
it now occupies. Bluish argillaceous shales, with here and there
thin layers more or less calcareous, characterize all three of the
divisions, It is true that the upper part of the third division
is yellowish, and contains more than the usual proportion of
calcareous matter, but the change indicated seems not to have
affected the fauna, since the species of the latest beds range
down into beds that are lithologically identical with beds of the

a

86 Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

middle and lower palzontological divisions. One of two con-
clusions seems inevitable. Either sediments do not always re-
cord changes in physical conditions, or a whole fauna may be
blotted out and be succeeded by a totally different fauna with-
out any change in the physical environment. One great factor
in the extinction of species, as all biologists admit, is competi-
tion with other species. It may be, therefore, that the long-
winged spirifers, through some defect in organization and under
the conditions existing in that particular locality, were unable
to hold their own against an invasion of their territory by corals.
While, however, the corals of the middle division of our section
were flourishing in undisputed possession of the region, the
descendants of the long-winged spirifers that had been forced
to migrate and establish themselves elsewhere, were undergoing
modifications which fitted them better for the “irrepressible
conflict; and so, when the time is ripe, a hardier and more
prolific variety, with shorter hinge and more robust form, de-
scends upon the same region and occupies it, to the complete
exclusion of the enemies of their long-winged ancestors. All
this at least is conceivable; and notwithstanding the absence of
any record to that effect, it is also conceivable that the organic
changes so plainly recorded in the Hamilton section of Ontario,
may have been aided by mutations in the physical environment.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND ACTS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS, AND
OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE DELEGATES TO IT.

BY PERSIFOR FRAZER.
(Continued from the January number.)

The report of the proceedings of the first Congress was pub-
lished by the Imprimerié Nationale in 1880 under the direction
of M. Thirion, secretary of the Central Committee. It formsa
volume of 313 pages and is illustrated by seven cuts in all. It
probably can be obtained still through any large firm of book
sellers but will doubtless be soon out of print.

Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 87

THE SECOND SESSION, OR THE BOLOGNA CONGRESS.

The committee to prepare for the second session of the Con-
gress in Bologna having received the promise of active aid from
that city, and a grant from king Humbert of six thousand francs
in addition to his acceptance of the title of “High Protector”
of its work, organized a competition for the best solution of the
problem of unification of systems of coloration, and other con-
ventional symbols in geological maps, and opened it to all the
geologists of the world. It was thought that the propositions
of private persons which this competition would provoke added
to the labors of the national sub-committees and of the interna-
tional committee on the same subject would greatly facilitate
the ends which the Paris Congress declared were to be attained
by the deliberations of the Congress of Bologna; 7. e. 1, uni-
fication of cartographic representation, and 2, unification of
nomenclature.

The regulations of the competition were as follows:

1. The prize is for the best proposition for an international
color scale and conventional symbols.

2. The color scale should be applicable at least to general
maps on a small scale, and must be accompanied by an explan-
atory essay and by a sufficient number of specimens of maps
and sections of regions of different geological characters. The
French language is recommended for the essays.

3. The name of the competitor shall be enclosed in an en-
velope on which a motto or word shall be written which shall
be repeated on the manuscript.

4. The essays shall reach Prof. Capellini before May, 1881.

5. The decision shall be made by a committee of five mem-
bers chosen from among the presidents of the international sub-
committees.

6. 5,000 francs shall be paid to the author of a proposition
which shall be deemed practicable.

In case none of the propositions be deemed to fulfill the con-
ditions necessary for the award of the first prize, a prize of
1,000 francs shall be given to the most meritorious, together
with a gold medal.

Medals of silver and of bronze respectively will be awarded
to the essays of the second and third order of merit.

88 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

7. The sealed envelopes containing the names of the authors
of the best treatises shall be opened during a general session of
the Congress, and the names proclaimed.

8. A diploma of honor will be given by the Committee of
© ganization to each of the authors of the three best treatises.

There were six essays received in time prescribed; four in
French, one in German and French, and one in English.

The committee of five to examine these essays was composed
of MM. A. Selwyn, A. Ramsay, F. Giordano, V. de Moeller,
E. B. de Chancourtois, E. de Mojsisovics, and E. Renevier: °
Selwyn and Ramsay, however, did not attend, so that the jury
consisted of five members only as had been intended. De
Chancourtois was elected President,

None of the essays were adjudged to have fulfilled the con-
ditions required of presenting a practicable plan. The three
best works were found to have been presented by (1) M. A.
Heim, of Zurich; (2) M. A. Karpinsky, of St. Petersburg; (3)
M. Maillard, of Lausanne.

These essays are printed in the volume of the proceedings
of the Bologna session.

These awards were made public at the opening session of
the Congress, September 26th, 1881, and together with the for-
mal speeches constituted all the business which was transacted.

On September 27th various reports of committees, etc., (in-
cluding one by major Powell from the U.S. Geol. Surv. on
nomenclature and cartographic representation, ) were handed in.
The word “series” was adopted as a term of division interme-
diate between system and étage by a vote of 52 to 35.

De Chancourtois presented a memoir accompanied by a table
on lithologic classification; de Cortazar on geological nomencla-
ture; Mr. Gruner on the geological signification of the word
“ assise.””

September 28th, 1881. The report of the international com-
mittee on nomenclature was read and discussed. September
29th. Vilanova’s dictionary of geological synonyms was rec-
ommended to the attention of the Congress by M. Fischer on
behalf of a committee appointed to consider this question. M.
Renevier presented the report of the international committee
on geological representation in maps. Berlin was decided upon

Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologisis. 89

as the seat of the next Congress. M. Daubrée gave the reso-
lutions of the committee on the geological maps of Europe,
adopting the scale at 1—1,500,000 and determining upon the
places of meeting of this committee for the two succeeding:
years. The details of the report of this committee were
thoroughly discussed. An able paper by de Chancourtois on
the unification of coloration was read, introducing the scale of
the spectrum; etc. M. Uzielli added a note on the nature of
the colors to be employed for coloring maps.

September 30th was devoted still farther to the discussion of
the colors to be employed in geological map making.

October 1st, 1881. The question of the rules to be observed
in naming species was brought up. M. Fischer gave an histor-
ical sketch of the steps taken in this direction. Hébert, Fon-
tannes, Gillieron, Van den Broeck, Meneghini, Zittel, Dewalque,
Emery, Renevier, Blanford, and de Moeller, took part.

Finally the following motion was unanimously adopted.
“The nomenclature adopted is that in which every being is desig-
nated by a generic and aspecific name.” This clause was added
to paragraph No. 2 of Douvillé which was thereupon adopted.
The following important resolution was also unanimously
adopted. “In future for specific names the right of priority
shall not be irrevocably acquired until the species shall have
been not only described but figured.”

October 2d, 1881. The Bologna session of the Congress
was closed. The next session was fixed for Berlin in 1884 ;
Prof. Beyrich was made President of the Committee of Or-
ganization, and Prof. Hughes offered the hospitality of Eng-
land for the next following session.

In summing up what this session of the Congress had accom-
plished, president Capellini says : Two laborious sessions have
been devoted to the discussion of plans for the unification of
nomenclature; two other sessions have been accorded to the
question of symbols. There seemed to be great difficulties im
our way; nevertheless we have voted several important reso-
lutions and decided upon the execution of a map of Europe.
Our last session has been taken up with the consideration of
the rules to be adopted in the nomenclature of species, and we
are justified in hoping that what we have begun here for palex-

90 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

ontology will be continued usefully with the aid of the zodlo-
gists and botanists. “y * ig

The council proposed the following resolution which was
accepted without dissent. “The Congress decides that an ap-
peal shall be made to the zodlogical and botanical societies, and
especially to the former, asking them to unite in the formation
of a committee, or of an international congress, which shall
have for its object the determination of the laws of biologic
nomenclature and the establishment of similar rules in botany
and zoélogy, comprising in these palzontology,.

Categorically stated the results reached by vote were as fol-
lows:

1. LVomenclature. (a) Pock-masses.

1. Group (Secondary, etc.) 2. Systems (Jurassic, etc.)
3. Series, (or section, or Abtheilung—Lower Oolitic, etc.)
4. Etages (piano, piso, stage, Stufe-——Bajocian, etc.) 5. As-
sise (the equivalents in other languages than French not being
stated.—Assise A. Humphresianus, etc.) Couche can be em-
ployed in French for assise. 7 A certain number of assises
constitute a sub-étage. The first element of stratified masses
is the couche, Schicht, stratum, strato, Retek (Hungarian).

(2) Chronologic divisions.

g. Era, applies to the time of groups. 10. Period, to that of
systems. 11. Epoch, to that of series. 12. Age, to that of
étage.

11. Colors and symbols.

1. Crystalline schists, rose-carmine (preferably); deep rose
for the rocks of undoubted pre-cambrian age, and pale rose for
those of undetermined age. 2. Primary group; decision left
to the committee on the map of Europe. 3. Secondary group
(Mesozoic); Triassic, violet; Jurassic, biue; Lias, deep blue;
Cretaceous, green. 4. Tertiary group (Cenozoic) yellow;
light in proportion to the recent age of the rocks. 5. Quater-
nary deposits; decision left to the European map committee,
6. Resolution of details relating to shades, hachures, and letter

notations.

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. g!

111. ules for establishing a nomenclature of species.

t. The nomenclature adopted is that in which every being
is designated by a generic and a specific name.

2. Each name is composed of a single Latin or latinized
word, written according to the rules of Latin orthography.

3. Species may present a certain number of modifications
related to each other in time or in space, and designated respec-
tively under the name of “mutations” or “varieties; the mod-
ifications of which the original is doubtful are simply called
«‘forms.”

The modifications shall be indicated, when there is occasion,
by a third term, preceded (according to the case) by the words
variety, mutation, or form, or by the corresponding abbrevia-
tions.

4. The specific name should always be accompanied by
the indication of the name of the author who has established it;
that of the author placed in parentheses when the primitive
generic name is not preserved, and in this case it is useful to
add the name of the author who has attributed it to a new
genus. This same disposition is applicable to varieties erected
into species.

5: The name attributed to each genus or to each species is
that under which they have been longest designated, provided
that the characters of the genus and of the species have been
published and clearly defined. Precedence shall not go back
further than the 12th edition of Linnzus, 1766.

6. In future, for specific names, priority shall not be irrevo-
cably acquired until the species shall have been not only de-
scribed but figured.

Following the account of the proceedings of the second Con-
gress is a description of the collections and models offered to the
inspection of its members, and the lectures and communications
presented during the Bologna meeting.

There are “ Macrographic classification of the trachytes of
Hungary,” by Szabo; “Classification of the old stratified for-
mations of the island of Sardinia,” by J. S. Bornemann; with
two plates and three figures. “On the Cretaceous terrane of
the great dunes of sand of northern Sahara,” by M. J. Rolland;
“The geology of New South Wales,” by G. S. Wilkinson;

92 Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

“Descriptions of excursions to Florence, to Pisa, to Carrara,
Ravin de la Morra, Gabbro, and Orciano Pisano. Next fol-
lows the essay on a project of unification of graphic methods in
geological maps, by Albert Heim, professor of geology at Zu-
rich.

This essay occupies 57 pages, is illustrated by four colored
plates, and won the first prize.

Following this is the essay which won the second prize, by
A. Karpinsky, professor at the School of Mines in St. Peters-
burg. It fills nineteen pages and has six colored plates. The
essay of M. Maillard which received the third prize occupies
53 pages and is illustrated by two colored plates.

A catalogue of the various works offered to the Congress
completes the third part of this volume.

The fourth part contains the report of the national committees
forwarded to the international committees. These came from
Austria, Belgium, Spain and Portugal, France, Great Britain
and Ireland, Hungary, Italy, Russia, and Switzerland.

Following these are reports presented by their secretaries
from the three international committees, to wit: by Dewalque
on geological nomenclature, ete.; by Renevier on graphic
methods of geologic representation; and by Douvillé on the rules
for establishing a nomenclature of species. The reports from
individuals are added; “On nomenclature and coloring,” by
Selwyn; “On coloring and notation of geological maps,” by
de Cortazar; letter of Mr. Hilgard; “ Modifications proposed in
geological nomenclature,” by W. J. McGee; “Unification of
nomenclature,” by R. Owen; “ General nomenclature and con-
ventional symbols,” by J. W. Powell; “ Résumé of acommuni-
cation on geological nomenclature and a stratigraphic scale,” by
N. H. Winchell; “Résumé of the Cambrian rocks of New
Brunswick,” by Matthew and Bailey; “On coloration and the
use of conventional signs,” by de Hantken; ‘On the coloration
of geological maps,” by Medlicott; and *“ A system of colora-
tion of geological maps,” by Avanzi.

The volume of the Bologna session contains 661 pages and
might well serve as a model of the most perfect typographical
art which our age can produce. The color printing, from the
seal of the Congress on the first page to the color plate facing

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 93

page 526, is simply unsurpassable at the present time, and speaks
volumes for the vigor, liberality and alertness of Italian science.

Tue Tuirp SEssion, oR BERLIN CONGRESS.

The subsequent history of the Congress down to the end of
the Berlin meeting has been given to the public both through
the pamphlet of the writer on “ The work of the International
Congress of Geologists and its committees,” published by the
American committee, and in numerous communications to the
scientific press.

A brief résumé of these will here be given for the better en-
lightenment of those who have formed their opinions of the Con-
gress from vice president Gilbert’s address before Section E at
the last meeting of the A. A. A. S. in New York.

M. Renevier on behalf of the international committee on the
geological map of Europe, reported that it had assembled in
1882 at Foix, and in 1883 at Zurich. He announced the ar-
rangements made with the firm of D. Reimer and Co., of
Berlin, for the publication of the map, and that Prof. Kiepert
would provide a base which should include all new data both
published and unpublished.

Each of the great European States (viz: France, Spain, Italy,
Austro-Hungary, Russia, Scandinavia, Germany, and Great
Britain,) had agreed to take 100 copies of the map, when com-
pleted, at a cost of 100 francs each.'

1 The secretary of the American committee was authorized to state to
the international committee on the map that the United States would
take 100 copies under the same conditions as the above named countries.

Inasmuch as the United States government cannot be counted upon to
subscribe by an appropration of money, he was orderd to send out circu-
lars and to procure subscriptions of institutions and individuals. This he
has done, no less than three circulars having been addressed by him dur-
ing the last two years to the persons mentioned in the catalogue of the
members of Section E, A. A. A. S., in his own and the scientific ex-
change list of the United States geological survey., and to the individuals
and institutions mentioned in Cassino’s Scientist's Directory. Besides this,
every institution of learning recorded in the report of the “Educational
Bureau” was addressed. Yet notwithstanding these expensive and
laborious efforts to reach all classes of the American public likely to be
interested in either the best map of Europe, or the science of geology
but 75 copies of the 100 have been subscribed for. It is true that all the

“94 Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geclogists.

The international committee adopted the suggestions of the
Bologna Congress as to the colors to be employed, and decided
in the cases left to its judgment, (a) to represent the Carbonic
system (or Permo-Carboniferous) by a gray color in three dis-
tinct shades; (6) to assign to the Devonic system shades of
brown; (c) to assign greenish gray to the Siluric; (d@) to rep-
resent the eruptive rocks by seven tints of red. Subsequently
to the Berlin session this committee decided, as recommended
at Bologna, to employ lower case Roman letters to distinguish
the terranes of sedimentary, and small Greek letters those
‘of eruptive origin. The lesser divisions were to be made
by small figures used as indices, thus: a’, a’, a*, were lower,
middle, and upper Archean, m,m, m,m, for the Ter-
tiary, etc.

In the Greek letters y stands for lavas of modern volcanoes,
and y’ for tufas and out-throws from said volcanoes, etc.

The international committee on the unification of nomencla-
ture made a careful report based upon the sentiments expressed
at the Congress of Bologna, and proposing solutions for many
of the difficult problems of the subject. It added to its report
in the same spirit the scheme of Prof. Lossen for the classifica-
tion of the eruptive rocks.

This scheme, as well as the final arrangement of the Cam-
brian, the division of the Archean, the decision as to the place
of the Permian, etc., were simply offered in order that some
project might be formulated and the way prepared for intelli-
gent discussion.

great universities and many of the libraries of the United States and the
government institutions are already on the list, but the complete number
should have been disposed of long ago. When it is considered that this
map consists of 49 sheets, seven in breadth and seven in length, which
when put together will cover an area of 12x11 feet more or less; that it
will be a far more accurate topographical and geographical map than
exists at present; and that the newest determinations of the government
geological surveys of Europe will be placed upon it, its cost ($26.00 to
individuals and $21.00 to public institutions, everything paid) seems tri-
fling. Will not the readers of this forward to Dr. Persifor Frazer, 20%
South Fifth street, Philadelphia, the names of enough subscribers to take
up the remaining 25 copies, and thus relieve the committee from the ne-
cessity of withdrawing the name of the United States from the list of
“great states” subscribers? 1 eae] Oe

Fraser on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 95

The charge which has been occasionally made by those who
-do not sympathize with the aims of the Congress, that the
latter or its committees forced decisions upon these points upon
the general body of geologists, is distinctly without foundation
in fact. This will become evident when it is considered that
the only votes taken at Berlin were:

ist. That the map committee should select for experiment
onthe map of Europe, gray tint for the Carbonic and Permian.

2d. That this committee “A/ight adopt provisionally accord-
ing to its choice a scheme of colors for its convenicnce, and that
this choice should not decide the scientific questions concerned
therewith at all.”

3d. For the map experiment the eruptive rocks should be
represented by seven tints of red.

4th. The solution of other questions which might arise in
the construction of the map were left to the decision of the
committee.

5th. The word “group” was decided upon for the most
comprehensive division.

6th. “Archean” was decided upon for the name of the low-
-est division.

7th. “Protogine” was abandoned as a division.

Sth. The divisions in the Archean group were left to each
‘geologist without assigning to such divisions any chronological
value.

gth. The upper limit of the Devonic system is to be placed
at the base of the Carbonic limestone, that is to say, the system
‘comprises the psammites of Condroz and the upper Old Red.

Many of the most difficult questions were left speciflcally to
the investigation of the international committee and the decision
of future Congresses, and all others were so relegated by tacit
consent.

It must be conceded, therefore, that the Congress has been
very chary of assuming responsibility, and most anxious to
leave the settlement of vexed questions to the labors of original
investigators.

First meeting of the American committee.

A few months after the adjournment of the Congress and
the return of the American delegates to this country, the presi-

96 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

dent of the American committee instructed the acting secretary
of the committee during the Berlin Congress, Dr. Frazer, to:
call a meeting of the committee at the Windsor hotel, New
York, on Friday, January 8th, 1886.

There were present Hall, Hunt, Newberry, Hitchcock, Ste-
venson, Cook and Frazer.

Mr. McGee having been sent by major Powell to represent
him was by vote of the committee authorized to take part iu
the proceedings. Dr. Newberry moved that the report of the
proceedings of the Congress be prepared by the secretary, Dr..
Frazer, from the notes he took at Berlin, and that a translation
by him of the reports of the two international committees be
added to the report of the proceedings. He was also directed
to write an address to American geologists as a preface to the
report.

It was decided to secure the codperation of the scientific so-
cieties of the country to secure a meeting of the Congress in the:
United States, next after its meeting in London.

Second meeting of the American committee.

A second meeting of the American committee was held in the
Murray Hill hotel, New York, May 22d, 1886, at which were
present Hall, Williams, Cook, Stevenson, Cope, Newberry, and
Erazer:

After routine business, the committee of five which had been
appointed at the first meeting “to discuss the attitude of Amer-
ican geologists toward the decisions of the next Congress”
etc., was enlarged into, practically, a committee of the whole,
divided into seven sub-committees, each of which was charged
with the duty of formulating American opinion on its own par-
ticular subject.

(These sub-committees, as finally arranged, will be given in
the proceedings of the next meeting.) Committees were ap-
pointed to provide for the distribution of the 100 copies of the
European map which the American committee had decided to
order in the name of the United States. The secretary was
instructed to prepare a report of the work of the committee,
for presentation at a general session of the A. A. A.S. A copy
of the Procés Verbaux of the three sessions of the committee.

.

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 97

on the European map, held in Berlin, were presented to the
American committee by Dr. Frazer, secretary.

Prof. Williams was elected treasurer of the American com-
mittee.

Third meeting of the American committee.

A third meeting of the American committee was held in
Philadelphia at the University Club, December, 28th, 1886.
There were present: Hitchcock, Williams, Stevenson, Frazer.
Dr. Hunt’s resignation as secretary of the American committee
was accepted. The following list of sub-committees, with
their chairmen, was received from the president and read:
Archean—Hunt, Hitchcock, Winchell, Pumpelly, Frazer.
Lower Paleozoic—Hall, Winchell, Lesley. Upper Paleozoic—
Hall, Lesley, Dawson, Newberry, Stevenson, Williams. AZeso-
zoic—Newberry, Cook, Cope, Powell. Cenozoic ( Marine )—
Eugene A. Smith, Newberry. Cenozoic (Interior )—Cope.
Quaternary, Recent, and Archeology.— Powell, Winchell,
Cook.

Sir J. W. Dawson’s resignation from the American commit-
tee was accepted.

fourth meeting of the American committee.

A fourth meeting of the American committee was held in
Albany (State Hall), on April 6th, 1887; present: Hall, Hitch-
cock, Cope, Stevenson, Williams, Winchell, Cook, and Frazer.

Prof. Winchell moved that the decisions of the International
Congress be accepted by this committee, and that their accept-
ance be recommended to American geologists. This motion,
with the modification “that we will be prepared to ask the next
Congress for a few changes,” was finally adopted.

Preliminary reports on the subjects referred to sub-commit-
tees were then read and discussed. Reporters were appointed
for the various sub-committees and charged to get ready reports
for presentation to the American committee at its next meeting,
just before the next meeting of the A. A. A.S. in New York,
in August. These reporters were: Archean—Frazer; Lower
Paleozoic—Winchell; Upper Paleozoic—Stevenson and Wil-
liams; AZesozotc—Cook; Interior Cenozoic-—Cope; Marine

98 Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists.

Cenozotc—Smith; Quaternary, Recent, and Archeology—
Powell.

The secretary sent out a circular, which was also printed in
“Science” and in the “Am. Jour. of Science,” announcing the
names of the reporters and asking all geologists to communicate
their views. This circular was signed by all the reporters but
major Powell, who took no notice of the letter addressed to.
him.

fifth meeting of the American committee.

The fifth meeting of the committee was held at Spring Lake,
New Jersey; present: Powell, Smith, Cook, Williams, Winchell,
Hitchcock, Cope, Frazer.

Reports were read on the Archean, Lower Paleozoic, Upper
Paleozoic (Devonic), Upper Paleozoic (Carbonic), Mesozoic,
Interior Cenozoic, Marine Cenozoic. All the reporters were
present except Prof. Stevenson, but major Powell stated that
he had prepared no report, and gave a verbal statement instead
on the Quaternary.

Major Powell opposed any vote of acceptance of these re-
ports by the committee, and in deference to his wish no vote
was taken. The committee was ordered to report its prelimi-
nary recommendations to Section E, on the assembling of the
A. A. A. S. the following week.

The week following this meeting of the American committee
and during the A. A. A. S. meeting, August 12th was set
apart by Section E. for hearing the reports of the American
committee which the secretary accordingly read in abstract.
Vice president G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geol. Survey, the
president of the Section, whose address had been an unfavorable
criticism of the Congress, decided at the outset that ‘no vote in
relation to the reports was in order inasmuch as these reports
had not been adopted by the committee but were merely the
individual opinions of the reporters making them.” Neverthe-
less by unanimous consent, president Gilbert permitted a resolu-
tion of approval of the work of the committee (to which major
Powell had added an amendment increasing the number of
members of the committee to seventy-five ), to be brought before
the Section, but, there being apparently much opposition to the:
amendment, declared the Section adjourned. to. go upon an ex--

Frazer on Int. Cong. of Geologists. 99.

cursion. On the reassembling of the Section in the evening
major Powell withdrew his amendment and the resolution was_
unanimously carried.

Sixth meeting of the American committee.

After the adjournment of the Section a sixth meeting of the
American committee was held on August 15th, 1887, in
Columbia College, at which routine business was transacted.

Before this is put into type a seventh meeting of the Ameri-
can Committee will have been held in New Haven.

The question which most concerns American geologists is,
what attitude they propose to assume toward the body of their.
own creation. A Congress of experts from every country on
the globe assembled to clear away the confusion arising from
misuse of terms, synonymy, and local prejudices, and thus to.
facilitate the progress of science, is a distinctively nineteenth
century idea. Not that it originated with the gentlemen who.
called this geological Congress into being; for the experiment
had been tried on numerous occasions before; but no science
needed such assistance more than geology, which is peculiarly
liable to death by drowning at the hands of any one who is.
provided with a few terms, the physical power to walk overthe
country in his own neighborhood, and an ambition to be seen
in print. Unlike astronomy, and physics, and mechanics and
chemistry, which are removed from the touch of the idly pro-
fane by the expensive tools required to prosecute them (the
first three being also additionally guarded behind the strong
wall of mathematics) geology requires a properly trained imag-
ination if its disciple would rise above the level of a mere col-
lector. Instead of this it is but too frequently treated to an
imagination without safeguards, a commodity which not only
invalidates conclusions made in its name but even vitiates its
supposed facts. A single statement distorted, whether acci-
dental through ignorance, or purposed through a desire of
notoriety, concerning a phenomenon which cannot be again ob-
served, may act for years as a bar to a consistent theory of a
group of facts in which it ought to be one component. How
vitally important then that the individual errors of work in,
such a science, the parallax of national or bureau vanity, the

100 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

acidity of personal biliousness, and the depreciation of the com-
petency of workers whose language and customs we do not
understand, should be eliminated. No one man or class of men
from one or two countries knows enough to propose the best
plan for thorough mutual assistance.

If the older sciences had been able to avail themselves of this
plan of mutual help, it is not doubtful that they would be far
more advanced now than they are. The plain moral is that
every true scientific geologist the world over should enter into
hearty sympathy with the work of the Congress, knowing that
by the codperation which it secures, the advance of the science
must be immeasurably greater than it could be from the divided
energies of a handful of leaders, each using the resources of his
government to enable him to show that all the rest are hope-
lessly wrong and himself phenomenally and wholly right.

A CORRELATION OF THE LOWER SILURIAN HORIZONS
OF TENNESSEE AND OF THE OHIO AND MISSISSIPPI
VALLEYS WITH THOSE OF NEW YORK AND CANADA.

BY E. O. ULRICH.

As expressed in the above title, the chief purpose of this
paper is to determine the equivalence of the various beds com-
prised in the Trenton and Nashville series of Tennessee, those
of the Trenton limestones of Kentucky, the Cincinnati and
Hudson horizons of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, and all of
the beds of Illinois, lowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, included
between the St. Peter’s sandstone and the Niagara limestones,
with the typical rock sections in Canada and New York.

Since 1879 I have been gathering data bearing upon questions
involved in this study, yet I cannot say that I am fully prepared
to solve any beyond doubt. Whenever possible, I have per-
sonally visited the typical localities, to either corroborate or
correct the observations of others. These explorations, how-
ever, have not been so extensive as was desirable, but when
combined with the facts gathered by the geological surveys of

Ulrich on Ccrrelation of the Lower Silurian. 101

the various states in which the rocks under consideration are
exposed, a nearly conclusive correlation seems possible. Being
especially interested in paleontological problems, it follows that
stratigraphy and the lithological peculiarities of the various
beds to be discussed, though not by any means ignored, have,
nevertheless, been subordinated to evidence furnished by their
fossil contents.

In late years a disposition to undervalue palzontological evi-
dence, as determinative of the position and inter-relation of
strata, has been making itself felt. That stratigraphists and
lithologists have some excuse for abandoning their confidence
in determinations based upon fossil evidence, I am willing to
admit. Still, ] am confident the fault lies not so much with
the fossils as with their identifiers. What possible value can a
determination of any of the Lower Silurian divisions have,
which, among a total of five or six doubtful species, mentions
several of such long-lived forms as Strophomena alternata,
Zygospira modesta, Orthis lynx, O. testudinaria, Murchisonia
bicincta, Pleurotomaria (Raphistona) lenticularis, and Pleu-
rotomaria subconica? Besides these we almost invariably find
that the lists contain Monticulipora or Chetetes petropolitana,
lycoperdon and fibrosa, three names that together have been ap-
plied to no less than fifty distinct species. I ask again, what
value can an identification resting upon such
Practically none.

grounds have?

The determination of particular stratigraphical horizons by
means of their characteristic organic remains is sufficiently diff-
cult even under the most favorable circumstances. Still geolo-
gists have little or no excuse for faulty determinations, since, if
correctly identified, the fossils furnish very reliable data. In
my opinion, at any rate, it is by far the most reliable and ready
evidence obtainable. Species known to have great vertical range
are of course not available for the identification of the minor
geological divisions, except to expert paleontologists. They
are of great use to the skilled, because he is capable of noting
every change in the development of the species, and I believe
I can claim without fear of contradiction, that scarcely a single
form passes from one recognizable division of rocks to another
without sustaining a more or less marked change. Sometimes

102 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

the change is very slight indeed, but in most cases the practiced
eye has little difficulty in recognizing it. We have men, nat-
uralists too, who are capable of appreciating very minute dis-
tinctions, but when called upon to separate a lot of fossils, they
cannot see the differences, and because they cannot see them,
they reason that they do not exist. Such reasoning is, however,
not good, as their inability to see is simply due to a lack of
education and training in this particular department. Many
minute and seemingly trivial variations exist, which are ordi-
narily (especially by the stratigraphist) not at all taken into
account. Yet they are of the utmost importance in stratigraph-
ical determinations. Their value as markers of particular
horizons must be manifest to all who can see that, if, (all things
being equal,) large variations required a long time in their pro-
duction, smaller deviations needed a correspondingly shorter
time; hence, that the equivalences indicated by them are neces-
sarily closer and more trustworthy.

We can not, of course, demand that the geologist who has
made lithology and economic geology his principal studies,
should also make himself familiar with the minute details of
palzontological subjects. No, geology has advanced too far
to be mastered in detail by any single mind. We may, how-
ever, reasonably expect that he will join forces with special
students of paleontology, for thus only are uniformly success-
ful results possible.

‘The subject of the study here contemplated, embraces three
basins or large areas of exposures, besides several small patches
along the Mississippi river in Illinois.

In order that the reader may follow the evidence presented
and form his own conclusions with the progress of the paper,
| shall first consider each of the several series separately and
without comment upon their equivalences, reserving the conclu-
sions until after all the facts relating to the questions at issue
have been presented.

As the series is more complete and the exposures more exten-
sive in the Ohio valley than in either Tennessee or the north-
west, they are taken up first, leaving the consideration of those
af central Tennessee, northern Illinois, lowa, Wisconsin, Minn-
eseta, Canada and New York to follow in the order named.

“

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 103

The lowest rocks of this series are exposed in the gorge of
the Kentucky river near Camp Nelson. From this point,
which is at the summit of what the Kentucky geologists have
called the “Kentucky anticlinal,” all the superposed strata dip
rapidly to the south-east, and more slowly to the north-west,
while in a due northerly direction, a very gentle dip, averaging
nearly six feet to the mile, prevails far into south-eastern Ohio.

Fine natural sections of the lower rock are presented in the
almost vertical cliffs that border the Kentucky river along its
course between Jessamine and Woodford counties on the north,
and Mercer, Garrard and Anderson counties on the south. To
the north and south of the river the topography of the country
gradually rises, bringing to the surface the succeeding layers of
the series. On the southern side of the river, the rate at which
they are brought up is moderately rapid for the first four miles,
along the Cincinnati Southern R. R., slower for the next three
miles, and scarcely appreciable during the following six or seven
miles. At this point, which is situated a short distance south of
Danville, the summit of the Kentucky anticlinal crosses the line
of the R. R. in a north-east and south-westerly direction. A
fault in this region brings up the sixth member of the series,
which had already been passed at a point three and a half miles
south of High Bridge. The dip of the rocks beyond the sum-
mit of the anticlinal, which in this region has a more easterly
and westerly direction than usual, is rapid, causing the rest of
the Lower Silurian strata, here about 7oo feet in thickness, to
pass under the overlying Corniferous limestones and_ black
shales at a point near McKinney’s station, twenty-nine miles
south of High Bridge. Between Danville and McKinney’s
station small patches of black shales are frequent, but I have
not met with any exposure of Lower Silurian strata south of
the last locality named.

To the north from the river the country rises at first more
rapidly than on the southern side, but beyond Nicholasville the
strata are nearly parallel with the surface as far as Georgetown,
thirty-three miles north of the river at High Bridge. From
Georgetown to Roger’s Gap, slightly higher strata make their
appearance in the railroad cuts. At the last locality a large cut
exposes the dark drab shales and thin, sandy layers of lime-
stone, which do not again come to the surface until we reach

104 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

the Ohio river at Cincinnati. From Roger’s Gap to Cincinnati
the road bed gradually passes over all the strata exposed in the
hills skirting the south bank of the Ohio river, the highest beds
exposed in the cuts being equivalent to those met with in the Cin-
cinnati hills at a hight of about 375 feet above low water mark.

As is well known, the lowest beds exposed in Ohio are seen
in the bank of the Ohio river near Point Pleasant. These I
regard as representing a horizon between forty and fifty feet
lower than those seen at low water mark at Cincinnati. From
the base of the Point Pleasant beds to the top of the Cincinnatt
series, there are nearly 800 feet of shales and thin layers of
argillaceous to crystalline limestone. To the southeast and
northeast of Point Pleasant the beds dip more rapidly than to the
westward, so that while the upper layers pass under the river bed
about eighty miles west of the Point, they already disappear at
about forty-five miles eastward. ‘To the north, northeast and
northwest of Cincinnati they pass under the Upper Silurian de-
posits, at distances varying from twenty-seven to seventy miles.

In a general way the above briefly describes the distribution
of the members of the series as they are met with along a north
and south line passing nearly through the center of the area of
which they form the surface rocks. I now propose to take up
successively each division, giving in moderate detail its litholog-
ical characters, thickness, localities of outcrop, and other features
of interest, and, more particularly, the characteristic fossils. Of
the latter the names of only such species as are known to occur
in two or more of the four distinct areas will be mentioned.
At the close of the paper some remarks relating to the distribu-
tion and extent of the fauna will be in order.

To prevent anticipation, I shall designate each bed that shows
peculiarities of either a lithological or faunal character with its
respective numerals as it occurs in the section from below up-
ward. This plan will be followed with all excepting the New
York and Canadian sections.

In the Kentucky section,’ beds No. I, show a thickness of

1 The Lower Silurian rocks of central Kentucky have been ably re-
ported upon by the lately deceased Mr. W. M. Linney, assistant on the
Kentucky geological survey. I bear willing testimony to his zeal and
the unusual accuracy with which he has worked out the various beds.

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silwrian. 105

about 350 feet in the gorge of the Kentucky river near the
mouth of Cooper’s branch. Following the outcrop in a south-
easterly direction up the river, it will be found to dip rapidly,
passing out of sight within three and a half miles. Going down
the river the dip is much less abrupt, the top being nearly 200
feet above the water at High Bridge, and not reaching the
water’s level until near Tyrone in Anderson county.

These rocks are usually fine-grained, hard and tough, and
generally of a dark drab or dove color. Some are slightly
crystallized and grayish, and many have a faintly mottled ap-
pearance. Almost throughout they are heavy bedded, some
of the layers being twenty feet or more in thickness, but the
majority vary between one and two feet. Fossils are few, yet
at several horizons there are a few thin layers with shaly part-
ings, that are largely made up of organic remains. Such a
horizon was noticed near High Bridge at about 150 feet below
the top layer. Here the following species were collected:

Orthis subequata Conrad. Dalmanites sp.

The shell named Afryfa dubia, by H. Bathyurus (two species.)
Maclurea magna "Hall. Leperditia canadensts Jones.
Raphistoma planistriata, var.parvall. Leperditia? tumida n. sp.
Orthoceras explorator Billings. Beyrichia? bicurvata n. sp.
Orthoceras furtivum Billings. Beyrichia persculpta n. sp.
Pterotheca (a small species.) Stictopora fenestrata Hall.
Cypricardites sp. Mitoclema cinctosum Ulrich.

Conchicolites (a very small species.) Several undet. species of Bryozoa.

Some of the species were abundant, particularly the Ostracoda.
Between the top layers and sixty-five feet below there are
several intermittent horizons that have furnished a few fossils.

Here Strophomena incrassata Hall, Rhynchonella plena Hall,
Orthis costalis Hall, and Maclurea magna, are sometimes nu-
merously represented, while an occasional specimen of Asaphus ?
marginalis Hall, may be found.

Beds Il. This is a regularly bedded, dolomitic limestone,
about ten feet in thickness, of a gray color, with greenish, blu-
ish, or brown blotches. The whole, when weathered, assumes
a color approaching buff. These rocks have received the name
“Kentucky marble.” Being unfossiliferous their principal in-
terest, in this connection, consists in the fact that they are very
persistent both in their thickness and lithological characters, hav-
ing been met with in deep well-borings as far north as Cincinnati.

4

106 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

Beds III. The lower layers of this division, which com-
prises about 100 feet of mainly gray to light drab limestones,
closely resemble the heavy, tough beds of division I. Some
are rather brittle and break with a conchoidal fracture. The
gray layers are commonly thin-bedded and slightly crystalline.
The middle layers are of drab color, variously bedded, very fine
grained, rather soft, with frequent crystals of calcite and occa-
Toward the top the beds become
The top
is marked by a gray crystalline layer two or three feet thick,
plated on the upper side with several thin layers of red chert,
almost made up of the valves of Leperditia fabulites.

In the lower heavy bedded layers, fossils are very few, but

sional specks of iron pyrites.
shaly, of a light dove color, and highly fossiliferous.

near High Bridge several good fragments of undetermined

trilobites were found. They belong to four species, one an
Asaphus, the others apparently referable to Bathyurus. One
of the latter is identical with a form found 150 feet or more
below the top of beds I, while another recurs high up in the
present beds. The middle layers are almost destitute of fossils,
but the peculiar markings which Hall has described under the
Higher up, Phytop-

which is clearly a lax-growing form of

name Phytopsis tubulosum are abundant.
sts cellulosum Fall,
Tetradium, is met with. The upper twenty feet or shaly por-
tion of the beds, are highly interesting to the palzontologist,
as they contain thin plates of limestone literally filled with
organic remains. The fossils, too, are in an exceptionally good
state of preservation. The following should be mentioned:

Tetradium cellulosum Wall sp.
Ptilodictya ramosa Ulrich.

Pleurotomaria subconica Hall.
Flelicotoma n. sp.

us libana Safford. Trochonema umbilicatum Wall
Stictopora labyrinthica Hall Ormoceras tenuifilum Hall.

ee nicholsont Ulrich. Orthoceras multicameratum Hall.
Phyllodictya frondosa Ulrich. e amplicameratum Hall.
Flelopora spiniformis Ulrich. as four undet. species, one

Phylloporina (a species near or with strong annulations

identical with P. ¢trentonensis.)
Nicholson.
Monticulipora wetherbyi Ulrich.
Flomotrypa ramulosa Ulrich.
Orthis subequata Conrad.
“ tricenaria Conrad.
“ deflecta &
Streptorhynchus filitextus Hall.
(The typical form.)
Streptorhynchus filitextus ? var.
(A thinner form.)
Subulites elongatus Conrad.

Cyrtoceras planodor. satum Whitfield.
if bondi Safford.

Endoceras sp.

Conularia quadrata Walcott.

Pterotheca attenuata Hall.

Cypricardites ventricosus Hall.

ee subtruncata Hall.
as subcarinatus Bill.
Leperditia fabulites Conrad.
ue ? tumidan. spe

NOEL persculpta n. sp.
? bicurvata n. sp-

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 107

The Ostracoda and some of the Bryozoa are exceedingly
abundant. Where these beds come to the surface red cedar is
the prevailing tree. |

Beds IV. Resting upon the rocks just described, I find from
twenty to twenty-five feet of decidedly cherty layers, the blocks
of hornstone giving them a rugged aspect when worn. The
soil formed by them is of a light red color. I have met with
these layers only in Mercer county, about two miles south of
High Bridge, where they are shown in several small cuts along
the Cincinnati Southern R. R. Here they consist of unequal
but never thick layers, made more or less irregular by the horn-
stone, which of itself may form irregular layers. Near the
middle of the beds there is a very soft clay layer, about two
feet in thickness, nearly white, with often a greenish tinge.
Some fragments were seen in which the green color is decided.
It has a peculiar unctuous feel, is readily cut with a knife, and
when exposed a short time to the atmosphere breaks up into
small flakes.

Fossils are moderately abundant in these beds, but, so far as
observed, occur only in or on the surface of the blocks of horn-
stone. All are silicified, and the most of them very difficult to
obtain in good condition. A species of /elicotoma, which
seems identical with Pleurotomaria numeria Billings, is very
common. The other fossils are:

Helicotoma n. sp.(a)(also in division Orthis bellarugosa Conrad.
Columnaria halli Nich.

Murchisonta tricarinata Hall. —=C. alveolata, American authors.
Orthoceras (4 or 5 undet. species.) non Goldfuss,

Cyrtoceras planodorsatum Whitfield. Stromatocerium rugosum Hall.
Camerella panderi Bill. Calathium formosum Bill.

Beds V. Succeeding beds IV we find a series of heavy bed-
ded, coarse, sub-crystalline, gray rocks, about thirty feet thick.
They are siliceous and argillaceous, decompose rapidly, are
overlaid by heavy beds of dark red clay, containing large num-
bers of silicified fossils and some nodules of chert. The best
section seen of these rocks occurs along the line of the Cincin-
nati Southern R. R., where they are exposed in a cut nearly
three miles south of High Bridge. Just beyond the cut, on the
east side of the track, the overlying clay has been scraped away
to use in filling. The rugged rocks are here exposed in places

108 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

and the rains have served to wash out many interesting fossils
from the clay, which still partly covers them. They are rather
coarsely silicified, causing all the finer details of structure to be

destroyed.

Still they are usually in a sufficiently good condi-
tion to render their identification comparatively easy.

Among

others the following should be mentioned:

feeceptaculites occidentalis Salter.
Streptelasma corniculum Hall.
os profundum Hall.

Columnaria goldfusst ? Bill (—C.

carterensis Safford.
Glyptocrinus priscus Bill.
Blastoidocrinus carcharidens Bill.
Flybocrinus tumidus Bill.
ue conicus Bill.
Porocrinus conicus Bill.
Carabocrinus radiatus Bill.
Palaeocrinus angulatus Bill.
Dendrocrinus acutidactylus Bill.
us Jewetti Bill,
Cletocrinus regius ? Bill.
Amygdalocystites florealis Bill.

x radiatus Bill.
Anomalocystites sp.
Pleurocystites (species

sguamosus Bill.

Edrioaster bigsbyi Bill.
Phyllodictya frondosa Ulrich.
Orthis tricenaria Conrad.

ou pectinella Hall (abundant)

c deflecta ? Conrad.
Platystrophia lynx var a.
Streptorhynchus filitexus Hall.

Beds VI.

near. 2

Zygospira recurvivostris Hall.
Rhynchonella subtrigonalis Hall.
Bellerophon bilobatus Sowerby.

i (Cyrtolites) macer Bill.
Bucania punctifrons Emmons.

ss bidorsata Hall.

cs buelli Whitfield.
Pleurotomaria progne Bill.

of hyale Bill.

Trochonema umbilicatum Hall.
Cyclonema percarinatum Hall.
Murchisonia alexandra Bill.

Gs millert Hall (typical.)
a hermione ? Bill.

Ormoceras tenuifilum Hall.
Orthoceras arcuoliratum Hall.

as amplicameratum Hall.

ib planoconvexum Hall.

te (seven undet. species.)
E-ndoceras multitubulatum ? Hall.

ac sp. undet.

Phragmoceras sp. undet.
Cyrtoceras (five undet. species.)
Colpoceras gracile Wetherby.
Pterotheca sp. undet.

Tellinomya astartiformis Salter.
Cypricardites hayniana > Saf.

These beds seem to vary somewhat in thickness,

but on an average may be said to be about thirty feet thick.
At the base there are generally a few light drab layers that are
slightly siliceous and charged with a large form of Orthis testu-
dinaria. The remainder is made up of hydraulic limestones,
which weather to a dark grey or drab color. They form rather
even layers of from one to eight inches in thickness, with often
shaly partings of like color.

These beds are seen in a cut about three and one-half miles
south of High Bridge, again in the bank of a creek a half mile
south of Danville, where a fault brings them to the surface, at
Frankfort and other localities in central Kentucky.

The fossils in these beds are not evenly distributed, being

abundant in some of the layers and rare in others. Near the

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 109

middle there is one which holds many specimens of a new
species of A/odiolopsis. It usually occurs in the shape of casts
of the interior, but examples retaining the shell are not uncom-
mon. Some feet higher there are several thin layers holding
an abundance of a small hemispheric species of Prasopora, one
inch or less in diameter, while at the top I have met with a
layer about one foot in thickness in which the fossils ( Tetradt-
um and several Gasteropoda are silicified. The Lingule are
almost restricted to the shaly layers. Following is a list of the
principal species:

Tetradium minus Safford. Lingula eldert Whit.
Prasopora lycoperdon Vanuxem (rare) Lellerophon bilobatus Sow.
hemispherica n. sp. Reaphistoma lapicida Salter.
Zygospira recurvirostris Hall. Murchtsonia milleri Hall (typical)
Lingula riciniformis Hall. Modiolopsis oviformis (n. sp.)
ue curta Fall. Tentaculites obliquus (n. sp.)!

Beds VII. These beds are usually darker than the preced-
ing, being often dark blue, with the shales sometimes even
black. The latter are commonly brownish, weathering to a
dark drab or gray. The whole is about sixty feet thick and
composed of thin, irregularly bedded, highly fossiliferous lime-
stones, with thin, shaly partings. After an exposure of several
years the slabs are nearly always small, and characterized by
their rough nodular surface. They decompose rather rapidly
and give rise to the best soils in the state, for it is upon them
mainly that the famous blue-grass attains its most luxuriant
growth.

These beds are well exposed in the cuts along the C. 5. R.
R. between four miles south of High Bridge and Burgin, two
miles farther south. Also in several cuts between two and a
half and five miles south of Burgin, where they again form
the surface rock, after having been covered by succeeding lay-
ers for perhaps a mile and half. Natural exposures are not
common, because of the level lands that have resulted from
their uniform disintegration. Some fairly good exposures are
seen at Frankfort.

Fossils are very abundant, particularly so the Bryozoa, many

1This species is abundant in certain layers. It is about 10 mm. long,
1.0 mm. in diameter, slightly curved, and marked with rounded annula-
tions about 15 to § mm., which pass obliquely around the shell.

“110 Cope—Skeich of Dr. Hayden.

of which are as yet undescribed. They are generally in a good
state of preservation, and so far as observed, never silicified.
Those of interest in this connection are:

Stictopora mutabilis Ul. Lingula riciniformis Hall.

se paupera Ul, us cobourgensis Bill.
Pachydictya acuta Hall. Bellerophon bilobatus Sowerby.
Eurydictya multipora Hall's sp. Cyrtolites compressus Conrad.
Ceramofporella sp. (a) Fusispira terebriformis Hall.
Atactoporella sp. (a) Raphistoma lenticularis Hall.
Prasopora lycoperdon Van. Murchisonia millert Hall. (typical)

(typical and very abundant. Flolopea ventricosa Vall.
Dekayia trentonensis. Ul. . letosoma Bill.
Petigopora petechialis Nich. Tellinomya levata Hall.
Monotrypella multitabulata Ul. Lyrodesma planum Conrad.
Batostomella ? trentonensis Nich.sp. Conchicolites flexuosum Vall.
Camerella n. sp. (a) Dalmanites callicephalus Green..

(To be continued.)

F. V. HAYDEN, M.D., LL.D.

BY E. D. COPE.

Ferdinand V. Hayden, M. D., Ph. D., the well-known geolo-
gist, died December 22 at his residence in Philadelphia, after an
illness which confined him to his room for over a year and a
half.

He was born in Westfield, Mass., September 7, 1829, and at
an early age emigrated to Ohio, and was graduated from Ober-
lin College in 1850. He afterward studied medicine at the AlI-
bany Medical College, taking his degree in 1853. He did not
practice medicine, but in the spring of the year of his graduation
visited the “bad lands” of Dakota’ on White river in the in-
terest of Prof. James Hall, explored one of the remarkable an-
cient deposits of extinct animals, and returned with a large and
valuable collection of fossil vertebrates. He spent the three fol-
lowing years in exploring the upper Missouri, and his large
collection of fossils was partly given to the Academy of Sci-
ences in St. Louis and a part to the Academy in Philadelphia.
These collections attracted the attention of the officers of the
Smithsonian Institution, and he was appointed, at the sugges-
tion of general J. A. Logan, geologist on the staff of lieuten-
ant G. K. Warren, of the U.S. topographical engineers, who was
then making a reconnoissance of the Northwest, and continued

HAYDEN.

a Ve

F

Didks ve

her

Cope—Sketch of Dr. Hayden. 111

on duty till 1861, when he entered the war as a surgeon of vol-
unteers. He was brevetted lieutenant-colonel for meritorious
services at its close.

In 1863 he was elected professor of geology and mineralogy
in the University of Pennsylvania, and held that post until 1872,
when he resigned on account of the increased labor of manag-
ing the survey. In the summer 1866 he made another expedi-
tion to the upper Missouri.

The United States geological survey of the territories, un-
der charge of professor Hayden, was commenced in the spring
of 1867 and continued until 1879. Ten annual reports of the sur-
vey have been published in 8vo, and eight volumes of the quarto
final report. Three volumes of the 4to series are not yet pub-
lished. This survey was the first of those which have been cre-
ated by Congress for the purpose of determining and recording
scientifically the characteristics of the national domain. It was
the work of Dr. Hayden, and all other national surveys have
been of later origin and more or less similar in character. Those
acquainted with the history of this great work, know the _ per-
severing energy necessary for its successful establishment and
conduct. Dr. Hayden’s scientific investigations formed a
nucleus from which sprung the noble series of reports and mon-
ographs of the survey. He is the founder of our knowledge of
the geographical geology of North American from the eastern
border of the plains to the Wasatch mountains, inclusive of the
latter, thus covering the Rocky mountains from near the
Canadian boundary to southern New Mexico. Subsequent ex-
plorers have modified his work in details only, and have given
itin some respects greater precision, but the grand outlines were
first laid down by Hayden. Among his numerous discoveries,
that of the Laramie formation is regarded as the s-ost impor-
tant, since it is of great extent in North America, and scarcely
known in any other continent.

At the time of his earlier explorations the aboriginal popula-
tion of the west was greater than it is now. Dr. Hayden had
many adventures with the red men, but none resulted in bodily
harm to himself. His occupation as a geologist excited their
curiosity, which was generally, satisfied by the conclusion that
he was not entirely sane. The Sioux gave him the name of

i12 Cope—Sketch of Dr. Hayden.

«* The-man-who-picks-up-stones-running.” On one occasion,
while he was engaged in an exploration of the beds of the Lara-
mie formation of the upper Missouri, he was chased by Indians
for many miles. When at last they overtook him, they were
surprised to find him armed only with the geologist’s pick and
hammer, and proceeded to search him. They examined the
bags which he carried, and turned the fossil bones and shells
which they contained out upon the ground. Finding nothing
of value to them, they concluded that he was crazy, and left him
without harm.

His reports of the exploration of the famous Yellowstone re-
gion in 1870 and 1871 induced Congress to set apart by law as
a national park three thousand five hundred and seventy-five
square miles of the public domain, containing within its limits
most of the geysers, hot springs, and other wonders of that
region.

Dr. Hayden’s views were broad, and he possessed the true
scientific instinct. This was perhaps mingled with more restless-
ness and less patience than is desirable for the closet investi-
gator, but this character admirably adapted him for pioneer
work, and for the organization of investigation. As a collector
he was unsurpassed, and the material he obtained was the basis
of the work of many men, among whom may be especially
mentioned, Meek, Leidy and Baird. Hayden’s influence was
second only to that of Baird’s in securing for science the aid and
recognition which it has received from the government of the
United States.

At the period of his greatest success Hayden was always the
same unpretentious and enthusiastic seeker for knowledge. He
was singularly free from sordid motives, and he left the service
of the government a poor man. The most prominent features
of his character were; restless activity, ambition to accomplish
a useful career, love of scientific truth, sympathy for unpreten-
tious merit, and a certain flexibility of character which enabled
him to adapt himself to his environment more readily than is
possible to many men. His charity was lavish, and his affability
was unbounded. These characteristics sometimes led persons
but superficially acquainted with him to undervalue his merits;
but those who knew the place he filled in the economy of Amer-

Editorial Comment. rn

ican science found these traits more attractive than official for-
mality or self-conscious importance.

He married Miss Emma Woodruff, of Philadelphia, who sur-
vives him. He left no children.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

MURRAY’S THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF BARRIER REEFS

AND CORAL ISLANDS.

- The Duke of Argyll’s paper, A Great Lesson, published in
the Minetecnth Century for September, and in the Popular
Science Monthly for December, 1887, brings once more into
prominence Mr. Murray’s explanation of the phenomena of
barrier reefs and coral islands. For fifty years the explanation
of the phenomena, offered by Charles Darwin, has held its place
in the scientific world. Darwin’s theory postulates a sudsidence
in the Pacific region equal, or approximately equal, to the
soundings just outside the reefs, the rate of subsidence being
not greater than the vertical rate of reef accumulation. It is on
all hands admitted to be a fact that reef-making corals cannot
grow at depths greater than twenty or thirty fathoms. Some
of the reefs of the Pacific seem to come up from depths of more
than two hundred fathoms, and hence it was assumed that,
when the corals established themselves in the region, the depth
of the floor on which the reef foundations are laid must have
been very much less than at present. Even on the land side of
barrier reefs the depth of the water is often so great as to be
far beyond the limits at which reef-building corals grow. The
distance of barrier reefs from the shore varies within wide
limits; fifteen, twenty, and even in some instances, seventy
miles of open channel intervening. According to Darwin the
growth of corals is vertical and the reef-foundations are neces-
sarily laid in shallow water near shore; hence all this space
between shore and reef, whatever its width, stretching away
along the coast sometimes for hundreds of miles,— often com-

114 Editorial Comment.

pletely encircling small islands,—represents so much land that
has been carried by subsidence beneath the level of the sea.
Out in mid Pacific again are smaller reefs similar in all respects
to reefs that encircle the smaller islands, but in place of an
island each reef surrounds a lagoon or basin of clear, quiet sea-
water. These are the atolls or coral islands proper. Darwin’s
explanation is familiar to all. The corals laid the foundations
of the reef around the skirts of an island, but the island has
disappeared as a result of subsidence, and its place is now occu-
pied by the enclosed lagoon. Moreover, the lagoon would
represent approximately the area of the lost island. Such, in
brief, are the explanations proposed by Darwin, and such have
been the teachings of geology for nearly fifty years.

The theory of Murray that, according to Argyll, must now
supplant the teachings of Darwin, is based on observations
made during the voyage of the Challenger. It requires no
subsidence. The phenomena, according to Murray, would be
the same whether the area were stationary or even slowly ris-
ing. Without going into every detail, the explanation would
be something like this: Other conditions being favorable,
corals will establish themselves over the sea bottom, along
shores, out to the twenty or thirty fathom limit. The outer-
most colonies, however, have an advantage in respect to the
food and oxygen brought by the waves. Along the outer limit
colonies are therefore more numerous, and at the same time
more vigorous, and the reef rises more rapidly than elsewhere.
The animals on the outer zone exhaust the sea water of its sup-
plies and the colonies on the inside of the upward growing rim
necessarily perish. During the upward growth of the reef
fragments, through the action of waves, driftwood and other
agencies are continually breaking off from the fragile, branch-
ing colonies, and falling down on the seaward side. A talus is
thus formed, which, as soon as it reaches the proper hight,
is seized as a foundation on which new colonies establish them-
selves. The new foundation affords special advantages in the
matter of nourishment; the seaward colonies thrive while
those situated on the inner margin being placed at increasing
disadvantage, languish and finally perish. In this way, accord-
ing to Murray, coral reefs are continually advancing seaward.

Editorial Comment. 115

The dead coral on the inner portion of the reef is attacked by
the solvent action of the sea water and slowly removed.

Deep-sea corals, mollusks, sea-urchins or other agents may
assist in building up the foundations on which the reef pro-
gresses outward, but the principal source of the material must
be fragments broken from the reef itself.

Atolls are explained by the fact that shoals often exist in
mid-ocean at depths not incompatible with the growth of reef-
building corals. Corals taking possession of such shoals must
of necessity construct annular reefs, and the reef once estab-
lished will grow outward so as to embrace an ever widening
area. Solvent action, working upon the dead corals in the
rear, causes the dimensions of the old lagoon to keep pace with
the widening circle of growing coral.

There is nothing incompatible with known phenomena in
the theory either of Darwin or of Murray. Scientists, not-
withstanding the absurd charge of the Duke of Argyll, will
concern themselves only with ascertaining which corresponds
most nearly to the facts. Dana, who has traversed the Pacific
region and made personal observations of all the phenomena,
presents in his work on Corals and Coral Islands, numerous
evidences of subsidence, strongly corroborative of Darwin’s ex-
planations. Geike, in his recently prepared text book on ge-
ology, states Murray’s theory fairly, yet seems to place
unshaken confidence in the theory of Darwin.

The magnitude of the operations involved and the length of
time demanded by Murray’s theory are certainly startling. Im-
agine a barrier reef seventy miles from shore and coming up
from a depth of 1200 or 1500 feet. The reef began near shore.
Little by little it has crept seaward on a foundation of its own
fragments. Every inch of progress required the growth and
destruction of enough coral to build up a foundation from the
bottom to within twenty or thirty fathoms of the surface. At
first the depth was not great and the foundations could be easily
laid, but during the later history of the reef seaward progress
must have been inconceivably slow. The amount of calcareous
matter actually secreted by living coils, according to Murray’s
view, was sufficient to solidly fill all the space between the shore
and the reef. Remember too that corals were not working

116 Ediorial Comment.
v

over all the area at once; that only a comparatively narrow belt
is occupied by living corals at any given time, and hence suc-
cessive, narrow, parallel areas of the entire region had to be
conquered and filled up one after another. The amount of
calcareous matter dissolved and carried away falls but little short
of the amount secreted. The operations, furthermore, are not
only of stupendous magnitude, but they certainly increase im-
measurably our conceptions of the length of the modern geolog-
ical period. Here are species and here also are conditions that
must have remained practically unchanged since the operations
began.

As we said before, geologists and scientists generally will
content themselves with one question. Is the theory in accord
with demonstrable facts?

ON THE CHERT OR THE) UPPER (COALS MEASURES INP MON T=
GOMERY COUNTY, IOWA.

The discussion of the organic origin of chert, by Dr. G. J-
Hinde, in the Geological Magazine for October, 1887, suggest-
ed the propriety of re-examining the chert in the Upper Coal
Measures of Iowa. The chert is particularly abundant in the
Upper Carboniferous limestones of Montgomery county, the
geological horizon being about the same as that at which Dr.
Hinde procured his specimens in Ireland, North Wales and
Yorkshire. The chert from the Carboniferous limestones of
Great Britain and Ireland proves to be composed largely of
sponge spicules, practically unchanged, and Dr. Hinde con-
cludes that it is not a pseudomorph that has taken the place of
calcareous matter. Occasionally fragments of crinoids, chang-
ed to silica, are found in the British Carboniferous chert, but no
foraminifera were observed.

The Iowa Carboniferous chert differs from that examined by
Dr. Hinde in being often crowded full of shells of foraminifers
belonging to the species /Ywsulina cylindrica. These shells
are all completely silicified, and, at least to the extent that they
make up the mass, the Iowa chert is pseudomorphic. Micro-
scopic sections were prepared and carefully examined, but no
indications of sponge spicules were detected. Examination

| Editoriai Comment. 114

with the polariscope shows the structure to be non-crystalline.
Prof. Hitchcock, to whom specimens were referred by Dr.
Andrews director of the chemical labaratory of the University
of Iowa, finds a considerable portion of the chert to consist of
“soluble silica.” All silica, however, is soluble under certain
conditions; and all the facts at present in our possession, point
to the conclusion that the chert in the Upper Coal Measures of
Iowa was deposited from the solution in sea-water after the
limestone beds, with their multitudes of Fzszalina shells, had
been laid down. The process was one of pseudomorphism.
Something, we cannot tell what, determined that at certain
points in the limestone beds the percolating waters, charged
with silica, took into solution the more soluble calcic carbonate
and deposited an equivalent amount of silica in its place. Each
such point became a center around which the process of ex-
change proceeded, until masses of chert varying in shape and
in dimensions from a fraction of an inch to more than a foot in
diameter were formed. The sedimentary particles of the lime-
stone and the calcareous shells of Fusudina were involved in a
common process.

THE NEW GEOLOGICAL MAP OF EUROPE.

We would like to emphasize the request of Dr. Frazer, sec-
retary of the American committee of the International Congress
of Geologists, that American geologists should enable him to
report the entire subscription of too copies of the geological
map of Europe now being constructed by the International
Congress. All institutions in which geology is taught in the
progressive methods and spirit of the day will subscribe for it,
and all others are earnestly advised to.

BULLETIN OF DENISON UNIVERSITY.

We have received the bulletin of the scientific laboratories
of Denison University at Granville, Ohio. This is the sec-
ond volume, and is brought out under the joint superinten-
dence of Profs. Herrick and Cole. It opens with a sketch of
the geological history of Licking county, Ohio. This is fol-

118 Editorial Comment.

lowed by a long list of fossils, with descriptions, from Flint
Ridge, and amply illustrated. An appendix consists of a sum-
mary of the Carboniferous trilobites and the description of a
species which is identified with Proetus missouriensis of
Shumard, but which the author of the paper has removed to
the genus Phillipsia, and has re-named P. Shumardi. Another
appendix treats of the bryozoans of Flint Ridge and contains
reprinted descriptions of the species hitherto found at that
locality with several original ones by August Foerste.

Next follows the second part of a monograph on the Clinton
group of Ohio, with descriptions, reprinted and original, of the
fossils thus far identified by the writer. Mr. Foerste’s contri-
bution to the paleontology of the state in this monograph bids
fair to be of great value to those who desire to see some progress
made in the study of Ohio fossils.

In a different direction is the paper on the determination of
the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic force by L.
E. Akins. This is a repetition of the method in use in the
University of Glasgow and makes no pretension to originality.
Such work is however near enough to geology to be included
in this notice.

Part II contains an account of the investigations carried on
by Prof. Herrick and two members of his class on the shores of
lake Superior during the past summer (1886). They are
chiefly lithological and give details of the examination of the
azoic rocks in the neighbourhood of Michipicoten bay. This
work involves the preparation of numerous thin sections of the
rocks in question and of the slides thus obtained many good
figures are given.

The rest of this part is made up of an additional contribution
to the geology of Licking county and a third installment of Mr.
Foerste’s monograph on the Clinton group.

Our limits do not permit alonger notice. It is only fair to
say in conclusion that the volume is exceedingly creditable to
its authors and that it will be well for the cause of true scientific
education in Ohio when our colleges produce more of such work.
True mental development comes from this and not from ever
so thorough and tedious an acquisition of the results of the labors

of others, .

Review of Receni Geological Literature. 119

We regret to learn that the expense of this work has been so
largely borne by at least one of the authors, and hope the day
will come when original investigation will be regarded as part
of the duty of every professor of science and that he will be
enabled to do it by the possession of leisure and the necessary
instruments.

We must add in conclusion that the work is amply, we may
say profusely, illustrated and that the illustrations are good. . It
may be obtained from the authors at Granville, Ohio.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Is there a Huronian Group? By R.D.IRvinc. (Am. Jour. of Sci.,
vol. xxxiv, Sept., Oct., Nov., 1887). In this well written paper we
have evidently the fruits of careful and laborious study. All the
statements and inferences are based on an extensive series of patient and
painstaking observations made in the field.

The author uses the term group in accordance with the system of
nomenclature proposed by the director of the United States geological
survey. According to this system the term group would include all the
sedimentary deposits of such a division of geological time as has, by
common consent of geologists, been called an age. Thus we havea
Carboniferous age, a Devonian age, a Silurian age, etc., and the stratified
sediments that accumulated during the three ages give us the correspond-
ing Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian groups.

Using the term group as thus defined, and limiting the observations
first of all to the original or typical Huronian as “mapped by Logan on
plate three of the atlas to the Geology of Canada, 1863,” the author pro-
ceeds to answer the inquiry whether “there can be carved off of the
upper portion of the great complex which has been called Archzan,
a series of H/uronian rocks; a series entitled—by structural and
genetic separateness, by clastic origin, by largeness of volume, and by
the being made up by subordinate divisions of the formation rank—to
the rank of a group, i.e., to a rank equal in classificatory value to the
Cambrian, Silurian, etc.” The results of the author’s observations lead
him to return an affirmative answer to the inquiry, and he therefore pro-
poses to establish a Huronian group that shall have the same rank as the
Cambrian, Silurian, Devonin or Carboniferous.

Some of the facts presented and conclusions arrived at in the paper
are best expressed in the words of the author’s synopsis of its contents.

“Throughout the region stretching from the north shore of lake Huron

120 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

westward to the Mississippi river, in central Minnesota, there is recog-
nizable the following order of succession, beginning below:

‘“(1) The great basement or Laurentian complex of gneiss, granite
and crystalline schists; as to whose further divisibility no opinion is now
offered. This is separated by a great discordance from

“(2) The Huronian, a detrital iron-bearing series. A further discord-
ance severs this from

“(3) The Keweenawan series of interleaved detrital and eruptive
beds. This series again is entitled to the group rank. Above the Ke-
weenaw series, and separated from it by yet a third great discordance,

“(4) The Potsdam, or Upper Cambrian sandstone.”

Professor Irving proposes to limit the term Archean to the crystal-
line rocks below the Huronian. The Huronian and Keweenawan
groups, together with any other groups now known, or hereafter discoy-
ered, to lie between Archzan and lower Paleozoic, or Cambrian, he
would erect into a sysfem, equivalent in rank to the Paleozoic or Meso-
zoic systems; and to this new system he proposes to apply the appropri-
ate non-committal Agzofozorc, a term first proposed by president T. C.
Chamberlin.

Sand-boulders in the drift, or sub-aqueous origin of the drift in central
Missourt. By J. W. SPENCER. (American Naturalist, vol. xxi, October,
1887.) This is the paper read by professor Spencer before the New
York meeting of the American Association. The sand-boulders describ-
ed were found in the surface deposits at Columbia, Missouri, within a
few miles of the 39th parallel of latitude. Columbia is the seat of the
state university of Missouri, and it was in making excavations for
foundations of new buildings at the university that sand-boulders were
exposed.

The sand-boulders are masses of coarse sand, varying greatly in size,
the largest one mentioned being thirty feet long and six feet thick. As
in ordinary rock-boulders, the angles of the sand-boulders are rounded
as if by attrition. They lie in fine clay containing but little sand, and
are sharply defined from the surrounding matrix. Planes of stratifica-
tion show that the masses of sand were derived from some sub-aqueous
deposit; and the stratification of the clay in which they are imbedded,
leads the author to conclude that it too is subaqueous. Professor Spen-
cer suggests that “these deposits were probably made in a shallow arm
of the sea, cut off by the Ozark ridge rising a few hundred feet higher;
yet the waters may have been either brackish or even fresher—as the
gulf of Obi today, owing to the amount of fresh water pouring into it;
and not to a glacial lake.”

We are to conceive of a condition of things in central Missouri similar
to what now obtains along sandy shores, particularly in shallow bays
north of the arctic circle. During the cold winters floe-ice formed
around the margins of this “arm of the sea,” and into the lower surface
of the floe, the stratified sand was frozen to a depth of several feet. In
the spring the sand and ice, incorporated into one mass by the agency of
frost, was broken up and floated away; the frozen sand, losing its angles
and overcoming the buoyancy of the ice, as the latter was diminished

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 121
by melting, settled to the bottom to be covered up by layers of fine clay.
Torrents from melting glaciers, coming down from the land areas to the
north, were the bearers of the material composing the stratified clay.

Usually the sand-boulders lie horizontally, but occasionally they are
found thrown upon their edges. Sometimes they show signs of having
been jammed and broken as if in an ice-pack.

The facts are significant and reveal a state of things that we have
every reason to believe was repeated whenever there were bodies of
water contiguous to the southern limits of the great glacier.

On the organic origin of the chert in the Carboniferous limestone series of
Treland and its similarity to that in the corresponding strata in North Wales
and Yorkshire. By Dr. GrorGE J. HINDE. (Geological Magazine, De-
cade III, vol. iv, October, 1887). This paper was read before the British
Association at its Manchester meeting last summer. It is a continua-
tion of the discussion relating to the Carboniferous chert, begun by
Messrs. Hull and Hardman, in a joint paper published in the scientific
transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 1878.

Messrs. Hull and Hardman, after chemical and microscopic examina-
tion of the chert from the Carboniferous rocks of Ireland, reached the
conclusion that the chert was of inorganic origin, that the silica, held in
solution in percolating water, replaced portions of the limestone by a
process of pseudomorphism, and that there was absolutely no evidence
that the chert originated directly or indirectly in such organic products
as sponge spicules, diatoms or polycistines.

Prof. Sollas in 1881 re-examined some of the microscopic sections pre-
pared by Prof, Hull in the course of his investigation, and pronounced
certain rod-like or tube-like structures that Prof. Hull seems to have
taken for minute crinoid stems, to be nothing but spicules of sponges.
Dr. Hinde visited numerous localities in Ireland for the purpose of exam-
ining and collecting Carboniferous chert. Among others the typical
localities from which Prof. Hull’s material had been derived, were ex-
amined and specimens secured. Microscopic sections were prepared
from specimens from every locality visited, with the result that sponge
spicules were more or less conspicuous in every section. Ordinarily the
rock is crowded full of spicules. Fragments of brachiopod and entomos-
tracan shells and a few crinoid plates were detected, but no foraminifera.

Respecting the chert from the Carboniferous strata of North Wales
and Yorkshire Dr. Hinde points out that in all essential features, litho-
logically and chemically, it is identical with the Irish Carboniferous
chert, and then adds: “The organic nature of the English and Welsh
Carboniferous chert, as produced from sponge-remains, is far more
distinctly shown than in the case of the Irish beds, for the spicules are
much better preserved, and the beds have been less altered by fossil-
ization.”

The profusion of sponges during the later Carboniferous, in the area
now occupied by Great Britain and Ireland may be inferred in the
statement that ‘‘In some of the Yorkshire areas there are beds of chert

122 Review of ‘Kecent Geological Literature.

18 feet in thickness, without a break, and in North Wales there is a con-
tinuous series 350 feet in thickness, without the intervention of lime-
stones.

[See editorial note on the Carboniferous chert of Iowa on another
page of the present number of the GEOLoGIsT.]

Annual report of the department of mines, New South Wales. By HARRIE
Woop, Under Secretary of Mines. (A Government document of New
South Wales, Sydney, 1887.) This volume contains the administration
and progress reports of the department, including those of the geological
survey, and statistics of all mining operations in the colony. Mr. C. S.
Wilkinson, the geologist in charge, announces the discovery of fossils of
the Triassic (thoracic plates of A/astodonsaurus) and of a large fossil
shell, from the Hawksbury sandstone. The latter is figured and named
by Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., Zvemanotus maideni. It has a resem-
blance to 7vremanotus alpheus Hall, from the Niagara group.

Geology of the Vegetable creck tin-mining field, New England dis-
trict, New South Wales; quarto, with maps and sections. By T. W. EpGE-
worTH Davin. (A publication of the geological survey of New South
Wales, Sydney; C. S. Wilkinson, geological surveyor in charge.) The
discovery of tin in New South Wales was first announced by Rev. W.
B. Clarke, in 1849.- In 1885 the output of tin amounted to 2,505 tons.
Continued prospecting of surface tin gravels led on by degrees to the
discovery of the tin veins. The shallow workings produced their largest
yield in 1881, since which time their productiveness has constantly de.
clined. The “deep leads” which were first worked in 1883, now yield far
more ore than the shallow gravels, and will probably continue to form a
valuable source of stream tin for many years to come. The tin veins
have not yet been fairly tested, and it would be premature to predict
their value and permanence. The age of the “deep leads” is regarded
as early Tertiary, determined by fossil plants identified by Baron von
Ettingshausen. The age of the intrusive tin-bearing granites is thought
to be Permian. No granites in the colony have appreciably disturbed
the Triassic rocks, whereas there are intrusive granites newer than
the Carboniferous. The age of the granites is, however, not regarded
as well established. Laterite is classed with basalt. It is found to be
most largely developed near the highest points of the sheets of lava, but
it varies in structure and composition, some specimens being more allied
to a sedimentary formation than to a volcanic. The paleozoic rocks are
considered Upper Silurian.

Preliminary paper on the driftless area of the upper Mississippi valley.
By T. C. CHAMBERLIN and R. D. SALispury. Pages 190-322; plates
xxlii-xxix. (Accompanying the sixth annual report of the director of
the United States geological survey.)

Under the thorough and fruitful discussions of this paper, the driftless
area and its environs contribute much to our knowledge of the ice age,
especially in regard to the preglacial topography and surface deposits,
glacial planation and the average thickness of the drift, relative age of

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 123

its different portions adjoining the driftless area, conditions attending
the deposition of the loess, the influence of gravitation toward the ice-
sheet to change the levels of lakes and the rate of descent of streams,
and the elevation of the district during the chief interglacial epoch. No
brief review can even mention the many directions in which important
researches have been made by the authors in this work.

The driftless area, lying chiefly in southwestern Wisconsin, but in-
cluding also the northwest corner of Illinois, and reaching 10 to 40 miles
west of the Mississippi into northeastern Iowa and southwestern Minne-
sota, has an extent of 200 miles from north to south and a width of
about 100 miles. Thence east to the Atlantic, north to the Arctic ocean,
and northwest to the Pacific, the continent is overspread by the glacial
drift, which also covers a width of 340 miles on the west and about 225
miles in its narrowest portion on the south. Cambrian and Silurian
formations of sandstone, limestone and shale extend from the driftless
to the adjoining drift-covered country, which also are nearly alike in
their average hight. The driftless area therefore, with no till, boulders,
nor effects of glaciation, such as are found on all sides of it, must be
nearly the same in its contour and superficial deposits as the surrounding
region was before the glacial period.

The most noteworthy element in the contour of the driftless area is its
isolated cliffs of the nearly horizontal limestone and sandstone strata,
spared in the process of subaérial erosion, and standing forth like castles,
towers, and pillars. In many places the valleys of streams are bordered
by similarly precipitous walls of rock. The Mississippi has cut a valley
300 to 600 feet deep and from one to seven miles wide; and the valley of
the Wisconsin river averages 375 feet in depth and three miles in width.
Concerning the time when this sculpturing of the surface was effected,
the authors conclude that the driftless area was a low lying tract until
the Tertiary age, and hence was subject to but slow and slight erosion,
and that much of it was accomplished so late as the closing stages of the
Tertiary age and the transition period to the glacial epoch.

On the greater part of the driftless area east of the Mississippi the sur-
face deposit is residuary earth, mostly very fine clay, left from the
erosion of the overlying strata. Its average depth is about seven feet,
being far less than the average thickness of the drift upon the surround-
ing region. On the part of the driftless area west of the Mississippi and
that closely bordering this river on its east side, the residuary earth is
overspread by loess, a fine silt of glacial origin, deposited in a lake or
broad river with very slow current, which was continuous southward, as
shown by the extension of the loess, to the lower part of the Mississippi
valley. The authors find no reason to believe that a lake, such as might
be attributable to the barrier of the ice-sheet confluent on the south,
covered the whole of the driftless area during any considerable time.

The drift immediately adjoining the driftless area presents three
phases, similar to those which characterize the southern border of the
great drift sheet of the continent. On the east the Kettle moraine, ris-

124 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

ing in conspicuous hills and ridges, forms the boundary along a distance
of about eighty miles; on the northeastern and northern sides of the
driftless area its boundary is a drift sheet gradually attenuated and
terminating in a thin edge instead of a ridged moraine; and on the west
border there is a tract over which there are only scattered drift pebbles,
succeeded westward by such an attenuated drift sheet. The morainic
border belongs to the later part of the glacial period, when the streams
of the driftless area had slopes similar to those of the present time, so
that beds of gravel and sand, washed from the melting ice-sheet, were
deposited along their valleys. The glacial flood-plains have been mostly
removed by post-glacial erosion; and their remnants form terraces at
hights from 50 to roo feet above the Mississippi, Wisconsin and Chip-
pewa rivers.

Grand topographic features of the region north and east of the drift-
less area, where the Keweenawan range of highland rises between the
deep basins of lakes Superior and Michigan, are considered the chief
cause of the exemption of this region from glaciation, as had been
pointed out by Prof. N. H. Winchell and Prof. Irving,

From their study of the driftless area and the bordering drift, the
authors deduce the following sequence of events in the glacial period. 4

1. The ice-sheet in its maximum extent reached from the north
around both sides of the driftless area and coalesced south of it. To
this stage is referred the attenuated drift sheet which forms the border
on the southeastern and northern sides of the area, and also the pebbly
border on its west side, which reaches beyond the attenuated drift there
and seems to be due to floating ice in a marginal lake.

2. Recession of the ice-sheet permitted the growth of trees and the
formation of peat-bogs.

3. By a re-advance of the ice, a mantle of till deeper than the earlier
one was deposited, burying trees and peat beneath it; and the loess was
washed down from the melting ice-fields into a lake-like river upon
their border.

4. A long period of freedom from glaciation appears to have followed
the epoch of the deposition of the second till and loess, involving ex-
tensive crosion and the lifting of the upper portion of the Mississippi
basin to the extent of S00 to 1,000 feet. ‘The evidence of this is found in
the low altitude and gentle slopes which must have prevailed when the
loess was deposited along the great streams from Nebraska to Indiana
and southward to the Gulf; and in the higher elevation which made it
possible for the later glacial streams to flow with rapid, pebble-carrying
currents at altitudes 700 feet below the summit of the loess.

5. Following this chief interglacial epoch came the incursion of ice
which pushed up at its edge the Kettle moraine and sent coursing down
through the valleys its gravel-bearing streams, filling them and spread-
ing out broad flood-plains.

6. There closely followed a succession of stages of retreat of the ice-
sheet, interrupted by times of halt and partial re-advance,

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 125

7. Subsequent to the cessation of the glacial floods, the streams
carved the flood-plains into terraces.

(1) Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon By J.S. DILLER. (From the
American Journal of Science, Oct. 1884.)

(2) Peridotyte of Elliot county, Kentucky. By J. S. DILLER. (Bulletin
No. 38 of the U. S. geological survey.)

(3) Wotes on the geology of northern California. By J.S.DiLLeR. (Bul-
letin No. 33 of the U.S. geological survey.)

(4) The latest volcanic eruption in northern California, and its peculiar lava.
By J. S. Ditter. (From the American Journal of Science, Jan., 1887.)

In (1) the peculiar product of lightning on a mountain peak of hyper-
sthene-basalt is analyzed both chemically and microscopically. The ful-
gurite is formed by the fusion of the groundmass of the rock. A trans-
verse section through the wall of the glassy tube revealed under the
microscope three bands of varying effect of fusion. The inner band, the
most perfect fulgurite, a light coffee-brown glass, was cooled so suddenly
that it exhibits an entire absence of all crystallites and microlites, a char-
acter which the author thinks may serve to distinguish it from other
natural glasses such as hyalomelane and obsidian. In the central belt a
fluidal banding parallel to the length of the tube is apparent, in which
are preserved more or less evident remnants of the original crystals of
the basalt. The third belt consists of the unaltered rock.

In the description of the Kentucky peridotyte Mr. Diller gives the
mineral composition and structure, its relations and origin, its chemical
composition and its age. He concludes that it is closely related to
dunyte, such as occurs in North Carolina. It contains olivine in well
defined crystals, pyrope and ilmenite, the former with a fibrous border of
secondary biotite. The olivine is much changed to serpentine. The
dike occurs in rocks of Carboniferous age, of which it includes frag-
ments, and from which it has received endomorphic effects in the form
of a spherolitic structure. Mr. Diller’s first account of this peridotyte
appeared in the Am. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1886.

In bulletin No. 33 are brought out some important generalizations re-
specting the Coast and Sierra Nevada ranges in northern California, viz:
(a) The limestone among the metamorphic rocks of the Coast and Sierra
Nevada ranges is of Carboniferous age. (b) The northern portion of the
Sierra Nevada range, like that of the great basin, is composed of tilted
orographic blocks separated from one another by great faults. (c) The
greater portion of the range is formed by one of these blocks, with a
short abrupt slope toward the great basin, and a long gentle slope in the
opposite direction. (d) The displacements by which the Sierra Nevada
range was separated from the great basin probably began about the close
of the Tertiary, and may be yet in progress. (e) A large portion of the
auriferous slate series is apparently older than the Carboniferous lime-
stone. (f) During the Chico epoch a large part of the region now occu-
pied by the Coast range was an island, separated by a wide strait from

126 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

the continental mass to which the Sierra Nevada range belonged, which
strait has since been filled by the lavas of the Lassen’s peak volcanic
ridge. (g) As far as is definitely known the Cascade range was not rep-
resented by a ridge of metamorphic rocks corresponding to the Sierra
and Coast ranges, but belongs rather to the great volcanic field which
now occupies the area once depressed between the Cretacean island and
the continent. These conclusions are based on the field-work of three
seasons under the general supervision of Capt. C. E. Dutton, who states.
that he is entirely in accord with Mr. Diller’s results.

The great “cinder cone,” near Snag lake, about ten miles northeast
of Lassen’s peak in northern California is the seat of the latest volcanic
eruption in that region. It rises 620 feet above the lowest portion of its
base, rising at an angle of 30° to 35° and consists of small scoria and
lapilli. The lava field surrounding it extends over about three square
miles and consists of rough blocks of quartz-basalt in which Mr. Diller
considers the quartz to have originated in the magma itself. The field
of volcanic ashes extends beyond the lava field from ten to twelve miles
in all directions and sustains the heaviest pine forests. Ata quarter of
a mile from the “cinder cone” the layer of ashes was found seven feet
thick. This gradually thins out to the border of the field. There are
numerous dead trunks of pine that rise from the underlying original
soil through the ash layer, evidently killed at the time of the eruption.
The ash and the cinder cone are considered products of the same erup-
tion and somewhat older than the quartz-basalt with which they are
associated.

Ovibos cavifrons from the Loess of Iowa. By W. J. McGee. (Am.
Journal of Science, vol. xxxiv, Sept., 1887). Mr. McGee’s paper relates
to a specimen of the extinct musk-ox of North America, which was
found during the summer of 1887, in loess deposits at Council Bluffs,
Iowa. The “find” consisted of a very perfect cranium with horn-cores
complete, and a portion of the superior molars still in place, half the
lower jaw, the atlas and portions of other vertebre, one femur, and a
number of other bones more or less fragmentary, All these specimens
are now in the cabinet of the State University of Iowa.

Specimens of Ovibos cavifrons were previously known from Fort Gib-
son, Ind. Ter., St. Louis, New Madrid and Benton Co., Missouri, Trum-
bull Co., Ohio, Big Bone Lick, Ky., and (probably) “the frozen cliffs of
Eschscholtz bay.”

The Ovtbos cavifrons resembles structurally its northern congener, Ovibos
moschatus, and its habits were undoubtedly very similar. Leidy expresses
the opinion that it was clothed with a long fleece. The Council Bluffs
discovery is therefore significant for two reasons. First, “it adds an
important link to the already strong chain of evidence as to to the cli-
mate of the loess period;” and second, “it greatly extends the applica-
bility of cavifrons as a criterion for correlating deposits of widely diverse
genesis in widely separated localities.”

Review of ‘Recent Geological Literature. 127

The author enumerates the palzontologic evidence of refrigeration
during the loess period, and regards the Council Bluffs specimens as
affording the strongest possible support to the evidence previously accu-
mulated. The New Madrid specimen of cavifrons was from the Port
Hudson beds of Hilgard, a peculiar deposit found below the mouth of
the Ohio and indicative of submergence of the lower Mississippi valley.
The Fort Gibson specimen comes from “a puzzling superficial deposit
found in Missouri, Kansas, Indian territory, eastern Texas, and Arkan-
sas, which seems to be a slack-water deposit laid down in the water
ways of the region during the Port Hudson submergence,” The Ken-
tuckv specimen comes from just beyond the margin of the drift region,
while the specimens from Council Bluffs are found well within the gla-
ciated area.

During the culmination of the glacial conditions of the drift period it
would seem that an arctic fauna, embracing the musk-ox, reindeer, hairy
elephant and other northern species, was forced as far south as the lati-
tude of Arkansas and the Indian territory.

Sixth annual report of the state geologist, for the year 1886. Transmitted
to the Legislature March 1, 1887. By Prof. JAMES HAL. This is 2
pamphlet of 70 pages, illustrated by eight plates and two maps. There
are two papers by S. G. Williams—one on ¢he Lower Helderberg rocks of
Cayuga lake, and the other on the Tully limestone, its distribution and its
known fossils. M map illustrating the distribution of the Tully limestone
in central New York, accompanies the second paper.

A paper on Annelid teeth from the lower portion of the Hamilton group
and from the Naples shales of Ontario county, N. Y., is by J. M. CLARKE,
and constitutes a valuable supplement to the work done by Dr. Hinde
in the determination of the oral armature of the so-called Conodonts.
The difficulties attendlng the specific determination of these minute
fossils are fully recognized; and timely warning is given to the effect
that “only in the correlated teeth of the opposite sides of a given jaw is
there any marked similarity, while the different pairs and the unpaired
or radular teeth, constituting the masticatory apparatus, widely vary,’—
a warning that we trust will be heeded by our altogether too industri-
ous species makers. The paper is illustrated by a plate containing twenty-
nine figures of those curious and interesting forms.

There is a notice of the discovery of a fossil tusk belonging, probably,
to the skeleton of a young elephant; a note and map on the distribution
of the Dictyospongide, and a note on the discovery of an elk in the town
of Farmington, Ontario county,

The longest paper in the report, by Prof. JAMES HALL, embraces des~
criptions of Fenestellide of the Hamilton group, of New York. The paper
is accompanied by seven plates, and describes and illustrates a number
of species of the genus Fenestella. The recently issued sixth volume
of the Paleontology of New York, on account of the limitations placed
upon the number of plates it could contain, does not embrace the Fen-

128 New Publications.

estellide of the Hamilton, and hence the species described in this report
are not included among the species contained in that volume.

It would seem as if the stock of specific names was running low when
an author as fertile in invention as professor Hall is compelled to use
names for two distinct species, so similar in sound as Fenestella guadran-
gularis, an Upper Helderberg form, and F. guadrangula, a species from
the Hamilton. Fenestella perundata and F. perundulata, are two others
that are likely to be confusingly similar.

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

z. State and Government reports.

Mineral resources of the United States. Calendar year 1886. David
T. Day, 8vo., 813 pp., price soc. U.S. Geol. Sur., Washington.

Report on the progress of the Kentucky geological survey for the
years 1886 and 1887. John R. Proctor. Royal octavo, 28 pp. /rankfort,
Ky. Robert Clarke and Co., Cincinnati.

Annual report of the geological survey of Arkansas for 1887. JohnC.
Branner. 8vo.,15 pp. Little Fock.

Annual report of the geological survey of Pennsylvania for 1886. J.
P. Lesley, state geologist. Part II. Report on the oil and gas regions,
by John F. Carll. Report on the composition and fuel value of natural
gas, by Francis C. Phillips. S8vo., 918 pp. Harrisburg.

Geology and mining industry of Leadville, Colorado, with an atlas.
Samuel Franklin Emmons. 4to., pp. 770; numerous plates and text il-
lustrations. Monograph xii of the U.S. Geol. Sur., Washington.

Sixth annual report of the state geologist, for the year 1886. James
Hall. 8vo., pp. 70,and seven plates of fossils. Albany.

Geological and Natural History survey of Minnesota; 15th annual re-
port. N.H. Winchell. 8vo., pp. 496. Two colored geological maps and
numerous text illustrations of the structure of the crystalline rocks. Sé.
Paul and Minneapolis,

2. Proceedings of Scientific Societies.

Transactions of the 18th and 19th sessions of the Kansas Academy of

Science, 1885 and 1886. Vol. x. 8vo., pp. 154; illustrated. Topeka.
3. Papers in scientific journals

In the Fanuary No. of the American Fournal of Science. ‘The speed of
propagation of the Charleston earthquake. Mewcomb and Dutton. His-
tory of changes in the Mt. Loa craters. Pt. I. Kilauea, Dana. The
analysis and composition of tourmaline, Riggs. On the different types
of the Devonian system in North America, Willams. On the law of
double refraction in Iceland spar, Hastings. New genus of Sauropoda
and other new dinosaurs from the Potomac formation, Afarsh. Notice
of a new fossil Sirenian from California, Marsh.

Correspondence. 129

In the Fanuary No. of the Canadian Record of Science. The distribution
and physical and past geological relations of British North American
plants, Drummond. On the basal series of Cambrian rocks in Acadia,
Matthew. The prairies of Manitoba, Drummond.

4g. Excerpts and individual publications.

Note on fossil woods and other plant remains from the Cretaceous and
Laramie formations of the western territories of Canada. Sir William
Dawson. Read May 25, 1887. Trans. of the Roy. Soc., Canada.

Irrigation in Nebraska. Lewis E. Hicks. Bulletin of the Agr. Exper.
Sta. of Nebraska.

Preglacial man in Ohio. G. Frederick Wright. Fort Hill, Ohio, H.
W. Overman. Reprints from the Ohio Archeological and Historical quar-
terly, Dec., 1887.

Section of the lower Devonian and upper Silurian strata in central
New York, as shown by a deep well at Morrisville, Charles S. Prosser.
Proceedings of the A. A. A. S., 1887.

The upper Hamilton of Chenango and Otsego counties, N. Y. Charles
S. Prosser. From the proceedings of the A. A. A. S., 1887.

The construction of maps in relief; illustrated. John H. and Ed. B.
Harden. Trans. Am. Inst. mining engineers, Fuly, 1887.

On the discovery of a fossil bird-track in the Dakota sandstone. Prof.
F.H. Snow. Tvrans. Kans. Acad. of Science, vol. x.

5 Foreign publications.

Geology and Petrology of St. Abb’s Head. Prof. J. Geike. Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Annual report of the department of mines, New South Wales, for the
year 1886, Harrie Wood. Small folio; pp 206: geological maps and
plates; reports of the geological surveyor, aud numerous subordinates.

Sydney.

Geology of the Vegetable creek tin-mining field, New England dis-
trict, New South Wales, with maps and sections. T. W. Edgeworth Da-
vid, under C. S. Wilkinson, geological surveyor in charge. 4to, pp, 169.
Sydney.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Brown Hematite in Allamakee county, Iowa. J have several times this
fall visited the “iron mine” of Allamakee Co., and thinking that a brief
description might be of interest to you, I write you this letter.

This deposit of iron ore is located on secs. 17 and 20, township 98 north,
range 5 west, 5th P. M., about two anda half miles north of Waukon,
the county seat of Allamakee Co. It lies on the divide between the
Upper Iowa river on the north, and a small creek called Village creek on

130 | Correspondence.
,*&

the south. The larger part of the body of ore underlies a rounded hill

or spur of the divide lying between two ravines tributary to the Village
creek. The top of this hill at its highest point is slightly higher than
the general level of the divide. As far as can be ascertained, the deposit
has an area of about 300 acres and an average depth of thirty feet. The
ore is a mass of concretionary brown hematite boulders, packed so closely
as to form an almost solid ledge, the interstices and cavities being filled
with a red ferruginous clay.

This ore lies upon the undisturbed blue limestone which farts the
lowest and oldest deposit of the Trenton epoch. I say undisturbed, for
wherever a shaft has been sunk through the oré to the underlying lime-
stone, it has invariably been found in its normal position of an almost
dead level. I might remark here, that, although I have traveled over
every part of this country, I have never seen any fault or tilting of strata
or any other indication in any of the formations exposed of an upheaval
or disturbance of any kind.

As the Trenton limestone thins out and disappears (in Allamakee Co.,)
on the upper part of the north slope of the divide between the Upper
Towa river and Village creek, it can not have a thickness under the ore
bed of more than sixty feet. This limestone lies conformably upon the
St. Peter sandstone, which outcrops on the tops of all the higher ridges
in the north part of the county. It is worthy of notice that this sand-
stone is everywhere, as exposed in this section, much colored by oxide
of iron, and, in a few places, a thin layer of very good ore is found in the
upper part of it.

Immediately overlying the ore is a thin stratum of small drift gravel,
such as is found in most parts of this county overlying the Trenton, then
the usual yellow clay subsoil found in this section. This subsoil, the
gravel, and the black surface soil are the only deposits overlying the iron.
In no place do they exceed a thickness of ten feet, and should the deposit
ever be worked this will make the operation of stripping very easy and
cheap.

Some of the upper boulders of ore are composed of very small drift
gravel cemented together into a solid mass by the iron; others again are
thickly encrusted with these small pebbles. On the occasion of one of
my visits there, last fall, I picked up several piecés of ore in which were
imbedded well-preserved specimens of Trenton fossils.

A number of assays of the ore have been made and none of them
showed less than fifty per cent. of iron, the highest being sixty-four per cent.

ELLISON ORR.

Postville, Iowa, Dec. 15, 1887.

A crystalline rock near the surface in Pawnee Co, Neb. During the
past summer a rock of no little interest was brought to light in a boring
by the Rock Island & Pacific railroad company in Pawnee Co., Neb.
‘The surface formation is Carboniferous. For 532 feet there is an alter-

Correspondence. 131

nation of shales, red and black, and magnesian limestone. At this depth
however, a change begins and at 552 feet a distinctly crystalline rock is
encountered. Much of it is flesh red but this color is not uniform. It is
quite hard, being about six in the scale of hardness. The chief ingredi-
ent is feldspar with moreover macroscopic and microscopic particles of
hornblende or pyroxene and hematite. The nature of the supericum-
bent rocks, together with the slight depth at which this rock was found
make it quite an interesting subject for further study.

F. W. RUSSELL.
Lincoln, Neb.

The salt well at Lincoln, Neb. The 19th session of the Nebraska Legis-
lature, in 1885, passed a law providing for the sinking of an experimental
well near Lincoln. Owing to divers causes the work was not begun
until March, 1886. The main object in view was to obtain either rock
salt or strong brine, the boring being made on one of the salt marshes of
the state. For 205 feet the material was an alternation of sand and
gravel. One or two flows of brine were encountered, but of low
strength. At 205 feet the best brine was found, testing 35 degrees
strength, and inexhaustible. Rock was found immediately under this.
From this point downward until about 1100 feet there were slates, shales
limestones and sandstones, each stratum of no very great thickness. Red
shales and sandstones were quite abundant. Some of the limestone was
quite cherty, At 600 feet a fine flow of artesian water was reached
which rose over 45 feet above the surface when piped. It was brine
of low quality. At 828 feet another flow was encountered, which was
a little stronger in quality and made a visible increase in quantity.
Nothing now was found until the depth of 942 feet was reached when
four inches of coal were passed through. At the time of the sinking
strong hopes were entertained of finding a profitable seam after this one
was found, but they were not realized. At 1100 feet, or thereabouts, the
first magnesian limestone was met, and it was the chief rock onward to
nearly 2000 feet. Here was found a sandstone very fine in grain and
even in texture. Passing onward one finds magnesian limestone and
red sandstone; this last very hard in some places. The work was stop-
ped in this same red sandstone, at the depth of 2463 feet. The boring
ceased only on account of a technicality in the law, which made the
funds for the purpose unavailable after a certain time. The drill hole
was left in excellent condition, however, and there is every reason to
believe that the coming Legislature will make arrangements for the con-

tinuance of the work 500 or 1000 feet further.!
F. W. RUSSELL.

1 We are assured that the final report of Mr. B. P. Russell, upon this well,
will soon appear. Mr. Russell was appointed by the board of Public
Lands and Buildings, to superintend the boring, and his report will be

rae Personal and Scientific News.

Additions to the minerals of Minnesota. While engaged in making in-
vestigations in northern Minnesota for the state geological survey
during the past season two or three minerals were observed that, I think,
have not been hitherto reported from that state.

Aragonite in rectangular masses composed of many parallel ortho-
rhombic prisms, all the prisms in the same mass having an equal length,
was found in Cretaceous shale on the Little Fork river near the Bois
Fort Indian reservation.

Long, thin-bladed crystals of cyanite of a grayish-blue color were found
penetrating mica schist in Twp. 70-21, on Rainy lake.

Quartz in fine grains and mica in minute shining scales occur in close
intermixture; the whole having a feathery radiated structure and existing
in masses of various sizes and shapes in the coarse granite at the east

‘end of Rainy lake. Tourmaline crystals were also noticed.
H. V. WINCHELL.

Ann Arbor, Fan. ro, 1888.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Messrs. CHARLES WACHSMUTH AND FRANK SPRINGER
are engaged in the preparation of a work on Crinoids more
elaborate than anything they have yet attempted. Their Pe-
viston of the Paleocrinoidea, a work recently completed, has
given these authors an enviable place among palzontologists at
home and abroad. The new work, which will bring them even
greater honor, will be a complete monograph of the paleocri-
noidea of the United States and Canada. All known species
will be amply illustrated, redescribed, and properly classified.
The principal museums and collectors, with the most gratifying
liberality, have sent their type specimens of species and genera
for examination and use in the preparation of the monograph.
With even greater liberality museums and collectors are placing
their undescribed species at the disposal of the authors. The
drawings and descriptions will therefore be made almost ex-
clusively from the specimens, and not from published figures.
There will be at least one hundred new species described in the
work, and several new genera. The crinoids will be arranged,
not by formations, but by genera and families, so that the

received with great interest on account of the depth of the well and its
remoteness from any similar boring. The fact that no crystalline rocks
were encountered in descending 2463 feet makes the discovery of such
rocks in Pawnee county at the depth of 550 feet the more remarkable.
Ed.

Personal and Scientific News. 133

species of each genus and the genera of each family will be
placed side by side. Tables of the families and genera will be
given with the descriptions. The.work is well under way.
The preparation of the manuscript is well advanced, and eleven
large quarto plates that are certainly unsurpassed by anything
heretofore published, are already finished.

Tue Keoxuk (lowA) SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, lately organized,
will be occupied in developing the ‘“ Keokuk beds.” It includes
among its members some whose researches have already received
national recognition. The president is professor C. H. Gordon
and the secretary is E. J. Unger.

DuPLICATES OF THE FLORA OF THE DAKOTA GROUP. Weare
informed by the chancellor of the University of Kansas that the
new “Snow Hall of Natural History” is possessed of numerous
duplicates of the flora of the Dakota group, which are offered
for sale with the view of obtaining funds for further collections.
We understand that the specimens are in an admirable state of
preservation. The entire series consists of seventy-five species,
of which thirty-five are new to science. All have been deter-
mined by Lesquereux, and they are mostly his species. In-
formation may be obtained of Dr. F. H. Snow, Lawrence,
Kansas.

A NEW jouRNAL. THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST is
announced to be begun as a quarterly by the anthropological
society of Washington. The committee of the society under
whose direction the work will appear, are Prof. J. Howard
Gore, Thomas Hampson, W. H. Henshaw, Prof, O. T. Mason,
Dr. Washington Mathews, S. V. Proudfit and Col. F. A. Seely.

THE TRENTON LIMESTONE AS AN OIL FORMATION. A re-
cent letter from professor Edward Orton, of Columbus, Ohio,
makes known the important point which he has lately made,
that the Trenton limestone is an oil or gasrock only when it is
a dolomyte; that this phase of the rock is superficial; that it
extends through northwestern Ohio, northern Indiana and prob-
ably through Michigan; that it is in the main filled with salt
water, but that in favored portions oil and gas are found. The
Trenton limestone in its normal or ordinary constitution is in no
sense a gas rock.

AT THE ANNUAL MEETING of the American Society of
Naturalists, held at New Haven Dec. 27th-z9th, the following
geological papers were read. The volcanoes of Kilauea, by
Prof. J. D. Dana; A simple method of measuring the thickness
of inclined strata,by Mr. C. D. Walcott; Zmproved machinery
and appliances for cutting sections of rocks and fossils in any
desired planes, by professor William B. Dwight; Zhe educa-
tional value of micropetrography, by professor Geo. H. Wil-

134 Personal and Scientific News.

liams; Jzstrauction tn mineralogy and structural geology in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by professor W. O.
Crosby.

IN ScrENCE FoR Dec. 30, 1887, we find a description of
Snow Hall of Natural History, at Lawrence, Kansas, accompa-
nied by an extra sheet giving a perspective view of the building
and floor plans of the four stories including the basement.
Snow Hall was erected to serve as a Natural History building
for the University of Kansas. The state Legislature appropriated
fifty thousand dollars for the purpose in 1885; and the building
was completed, formally named and dedicated on Nov. 16th,
1886. The name is given in honor of the venerable professor
F. H. Snow whose connection with the University dates from
its foundation in 1866.

The building seems particularly well adapted to the purpose
for which it was designed. In the basement is a large labora-
tory for elementary botany, a taxidermist’s workshop, a biolog-
ical laboratory, and rooms for storage and other purposes.

The geological collections are displayed in a large museum
on the first floor, and on the same floor conveniently situated
with reference to the museum are the geological laboratory,
and a workroom for the curator of geology. The general lec-
ture room is on the same floor.

The second floor contains separate rooms for the entomologi-
cal, general zodlogical and botanical collections, together with
appropriate zodlogical and botanical laboratories ‘and work-
rooms. On the third floor there are anatomical and photograph-
ical laboratories, an anatomical museum, store rooms and an
osteological workroom for the preparation of material. Kansas
University is to be congratulated on her splendid equipment for
carrying on work in geology and natural history.

THREE OR FOUR YEARS AGO the quarrymen at Le Grand,
Marshall Co., Iowa, exposed a thin layer that in places is
crowded full of interesting and most beautiful crinoids. The
quarries are opened in the ‘Kinderhook limestone, the lower
part of the Subcarboniferous formation, and have heen worked
for a great many years. The crinoids occur in a bed of calca-
reous shale and are in a most perfect state of preservation.
The locality has furnished eighteen new species of crinoids and
two of blastoids. These have all been described by Wachsmuth
and Springer, and the descriptions and illustrations will be
published in the forthcoming eighth volume of the Illinois
geological reports.

Tuk AMERICAN NATURALIST, A MONTHLY JOURNAL de-
voted to Natural History and travel, and an old favorite with
working naturalists everywhere, will be published during 1888

Personal and Scientific News.

by the Leonard Scott Publication Co., of Philadelphia.
and Kingsley still hold the position of leading editors, an
department editors remain as last year.

THE “SCIENTIFIC” THIEF AND SWINDLER was dete
lately at Franklin, Ind., by Prof. D. A. Owen, through the
of the description published in the January Groocist. Pr
Owen confronted him in his private room with the descriptic
in his hand. He was not known to have stolen anything, bu
he left the town on the first express train. He was moving
under the name of Otto L. Zyrski, as a deaf. and mute Russian
savant. pan a

FRANK SPRINGER, now traveling in Europe, has recently
procured a large lot of crinoids from the Carboniferous of
England and the Eifel of Germany. The lot will afford valu-
able material for comparison with American forms, and will be
so used in the preparation of the forthcoming monograph by
Wachsmuth and Springer.

Mr. CuHarLeEs KEYES, A RECENT GRADUATE OF THE STATE
University oF Iowa, is doing splendid work in preparing
the drawings for Wachsmuth and Springer’s new monograph
of the Paleocrinoidea. Mr. Keyes devoted much attention to
geology and paleontology during his undergraduate course.
His graduating thesis is an elaborate treatise on the geology
and paleontology of Polk county, Iowa. li is a thick, royal
octavo, manuscript volume, illustrated by a number of plates
giving sections, profiles and numerous figures of fossils.

Tue Iowa ASSOCIATION FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH was
organized on 27th December, 1887, at Des Moines. The ofh-
cers of the Association are, president, Prof. Herbert Osborn,
Ames; first vice-Pres. Prof. J. E. Todd, Tabor; second vice-
Pres. Prof. T. H. McBride, Iowa City; secretary-treasurer,
Prof. R. E. Call, Des Moines. The following papers were .
read by members:

By Prof. J. E. Todd, of Tabor College—1. “The origin of the extra-
morainic till.” 2. “Terraces of the Missouri.” 3. “Decorative colora-
tion in animals.”

By Prof. B. D. Halstead, Iowa Agricultural College—4. “ Artificial
propagation of pollen of certain grapes.”

By Prof. F. M. Witter, of Muscatine—s5. “Shell hunting and shells
in Decatur county, Iowa, and Lyon county, Kansas.”

By Prof. Launcelot W. Andrews, State University—6. “On a new
astatic galvanometer with a spiral needle.” 7. “On the volumetric de-
termination of lead, barium and sulphuric acid.”

By Prof. H. W. Parker, of Grinnell College—8. “Animal intelligence.”

By Prof. R. Ellsworth Call, of Des Moines—g. “Some forms of the
Ozarks.” 10. “Notes on the anatomy of Campeloma.” 11. “On anew
fossil from the Post-Pleiocene of California.”

We wish the new association abundant success.

Personal and Scientific News.

IE “ WESTERN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS” was organ-
at Indianapolis, December 29, 1887. This is an association
otanists, zodlogists and geologists, the objects of which are
discussion of methods of instruction and of research, as well
details of museum administration. The constitution ‘adopted
essentially the same as that of the eastern “American Society
¢ Naturalists.’ The officers for the following year are,
president, Dr. S. A. Forbes of Champaign, IIl.; vice-presidents,
Prof. W. J. Beal of Agricultural College, Mich., Pres. T, C.
Chamberlin of Madison, Wis., and Prof. Henry L. Osborn of
Hamline, Minn.; secretary, Dr. J. S. Kingsley of Bloomington,
Ind.; and treasurer, Dr. John M. Coulter of Crawfordsville,
Ind. It was voted to hold the annual meetings in October, the
next one at Champaign, Ill. About forty naturalists have been
enrolled as members.

ProFressor L. E. Hicks reports the occurrence of diatoma-
ceous earth near the base of a bluff seventy-five feet in hight on
the North Loup river in Nebraska. The bed is twenty feet in
thickness; and while the diatoms are numerous, they make up
after all only a small proportion of the whole mass.

Proressor O. C. Marsu describes some interesting Mesozoic
and Tertiary fossils in the January number of the American
Fournal of Science. For some time geologists have been puz-
zling over certain clays of undetermined age, outcropping
between Baltimore and Washington. By direction of professor
Marsh, Mr. J. B. Hatcher instituted a search in the clays for
vertebrate fossils, and he was rewarded beyond all expectation
by finding a rich fauna belonging to types characteristic of the
Upper Jurassic. The forms brought to light by Mr. Hatcher
and described by Marsh, consist almost wholly of the remains
of Dinosaurs. The clays in question have been called by mem-
bers of the United States geological survey, the Potomac
formation. The formation evidently ov erlies the Triassic

sandstones and seems to pass into clays which underlie the Cre-

taceous marls of New Jersey.. It will be seen therefore, that
the paleontological evidence and stratigraphical inferences are
in harmony.

The Ter tiary fossils described by Marsh in the same Journal
consist of a series of teeth belonging to a peculiar Sirenian whose
nearest living relatives are found among the dugongs,— belated
creatures that seem ver y much out of place in our modern
faunas. The teeth were found in California associated with a
mastodon, camel, extinct horse and other species indicating the
horizon of the Pliocene.

Tue Universiry oF NEBRASKA is doing good work in
geology and mineralogy. One of the recent accessions to the

Personal and Scientific News. 137

geological laboratory is a complete machine for preparing rock
specimens for the microscope; also a fine petrographical micro-
scope with all the modern accessories.

Mr. G. B. Frankforter has chosen for his thesis for the Mas-
ter’s degree, “ The Limestones of Nebraska.” His skill as an
analytical chemist, added to experience in the field, gives assur-
ance of valuable results.

AND NOW COMES THE REPORT that diamonds have been
found in meteorites. At least small granules, said to have all
characteristics of the diamond, have been found ina meteoric
stone that fell in Russia on Sep. 4, 1886.

Mr. F. W. RussELt. REPORTS A PEAT BED in the Loup
country, in central Nebraska, six miles long, three miles wide,
and from one to four feet thick. In some places it is deeply
covered, but for the most part exposed and still forming. The
peat rests on river sand and is hence siliceous at the base. It
contains many diatoms, chiefly of the genus Wavicula. It
burns well, leaving no great amount of ash. In a region desti-
tute of other fuel this deposit promises to be of economic im-
portance.

Pror. L. E. Hicks LEcTURED to the State Horticultural
Society, of Nebraska, at its winter meeting on the “Relation
of soils to geological structure,” and to the State Agricultural
Society on “Irrigation in Nebraska.” He used for illustration
an unpublished geological map of Nebraska, and a topographi-
cal map enlarged from Gannett, by C. G. McMillan, under the
direction of Prof. C. E. Bessey.

A VERY FINE COLLECTION of gold and silver ores has been
presented to the University of Nebraska by Gen. Victor Vif-
quain, U.S. consul at Barranquilla, South America.

A STRATUM QUARTZYTE NEAR VALENTINE, Nebraska, con-
tains free gold, but not in paying quantities.

A bed of black marl, with numerous shells of fresh water
mollusca, in the valley of Pumpkin creek, Cheyenne county,
Nebraska, will sometime prove useful as a fertilizer.

A fine kaolin-like clay from Pine creek, in Cherry county,
has been received from Rev. G. W. Reed. The clays of Ne-
braaska are excellent, and will form the basis of important
industries, at no distant lay.

Dr. Metz, or MADISONVILLE, NEAR CINCINNATI, is re-
ported to have recently found two paleoliths in undisturbed
glacial ground at that place. This, if confirmed, will be an-
other argument for the great antiquity of man on this conti-
nent, and will be in line with the discoveries of Dr. Charles C.
Abbott, in New Jersey, and of Miss Babbitt, in Minnesota..

All these, if they should ultimately prove genuine, will also

138 Personal and Scientific News.

confirm the work of Dr. Hicks, in England, who has recently
published the details of the exploration of a cave which he

maintains is of preglacial age, and the evidence for the claim
seems unusually good.

In all these cases, however, the word “preglacial” is rather
loosly employed, and should be held to mean possibly ‘“inter-
glacial.” The fact that these relics were found beneath undis-
turbed glacial deposits does not prove preglacial age, but only
that the objects are not postglacial. Unless the proof is clear
that these beds belong to the earlier portion of the ice-age,
they should not be called preglacial. There is apparently good
evidence that there have been two distinct advances of the ice,
and the term “preglacial” ought to be kept strictly for use in
reference to events that preceded the earlier of the two.

We have as yet no evidence at all of preglacial man on Earth,
but the evidence for the existence of interglacial man is yearly
becoming stronger, and at the present rate will soon be con-
clusive. But it must be borne in mind that the earlier the date
at which we seek to establish man’s existence, the stronger
must be the evidence that is adduced in support of the claim.

AT THE LAST ANNUAL MEETING of the Indiana Academy of
Sciences, held at Indianapolis, Dec. 28th and 29th, the follow-
ing geological papers were read:

The east-west diameter of the Silurian island about Cincinnati. D. W.
Dennis.

Erosion in Indiana. J.T. Scovell.

A geological section of Johnson county, Indiana, D. A. Owen.

Notes on some fossil bones found in Indiana. O. P. Hay.

The officers for 1885 are J. P. D. John, president ; Johnge;
Brunner, T. C. Mendenhall, and O. P. Hay, vice-presidents;
Amos W. Butler, secretary; O. P. Jenkins, treasurer.

ACCORDING TO Pror. CHas. W. RotrFeE, of Urbana, IIl.,
the gas wells at Litchfield in that state, which are the only high-
pressure wells which have been obtained in Illinois, and which
a year ago were supplying 800 stoves, have so diminished in
pressure that they now furnish but eighty. The supply of lu-
bricating oil in that vicinity does not seem to have sensibly
diminished.

THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

1888. No. 3.

Won. 1. MARCH,

~

SOME EFFECT OF PRESSURE OF A CONTINENTAL
GLACIER.!

BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL.

The terrestrial globe in some of its behavior, may be com-
pared to an India rubber ball filled with water. Ifindented by
- pressure in one place, there must be a protuberance equal in
volume in another place. In a ball of uniform composition, the
protuberance would be spread over the entire surface beyond
_the region indented, and the effect in one particular spot might
be insignificant. Should a small area of the caoutchouc be
thinner than the rest, that part would be protruded to a greater
extent than other parts of the surface. Should there be small
holes or fissures through it, the water would escape and flow
over the surface. That is, the protuberance resulting from
local pressure would be chiefly on the outside of the shell.
As we ordinarily conceive it the water would be squeezed out
like the juice of a squeezed orange.

The analogy of the earth does not depend on the theory of a
molten interior beneath a solid crust. Whatever weight or
force is adquate to indent the world’s exterior develops, by
crushing mechanical action, heat enough to fuse the rocks and
supply liquid material. The amount supplied is proportioned
to the magnitude of the action. It is generally admitted that
ocean sediments accumulated on a large scale, have in many
eases, produced a subsidence of the bottom on which they rest.
In some cases, we can point out the regions elevated as the
counterpart to the subsidence. J think in some cases, we may

1 The views here enunciated were published in the University Argo-
naut in March, 1886.

140 A. Winchell on Pressure of a Continental Glacier.

point out escapes of molten lava as sequences to sedimental
pressure; but geologists have not done this in any articulate
way; and the principle involved is one of the points at which
Tl aim in this memorandum.

One of the great doctrines of geological science which have
found their way into common knowledge and acceptance, is the
doctrine of former general glaciation of the north temperate
lands. North America, east of the Rocky Mountains, and as
far south as Cincinnati, was covered by a sheet of glacier ice,
which perhaps averaged a mile in thickness. Its pressure upon
the earth’s exterior will readily be understood as enormous, and
the reader can easily reach a numerical result. It wili be borne
in mind that the whole weight of the ice assumed the form of a
pressure; while in the case of ocean-sediments, whose effects
are generally admitted, the buoyant action of the sea-water
prevents about half the weight of the sediments from assuming *
the form of a pressurein excess of that already exerted by the
water.

Now where was the region subjected to protrusion in re-
sponse to the enormous pressure of the great ice-mass? The
view which I wish to enunciate is, that some of the region west
of the Rocky mountains was the theatre of actions responsive
to the great eastern and northern pressure. It is established
that those regions were not generally glaciated. They must
consequently, have experienced a tendency to become protu-
berant. Some regions may have been bodily uplifted. If
fractures were thus caused, an escape of molten matter may have
permitted such regions to subside. There are evidences of
simple vertical actions and movements such as would thus result.
If, however, fissures existed, or were produced, through which
outflows of lavacould take plaee, then instead of a vertical eleva-
tion of the crust, a flood of lava would cover the country.

Such floods of lava have occurred. Vast sheets of frozen
lava are the most conspicuous feature of a region embracing
large parts of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, California,
Arizona and New Mexico. In Oregon and Washington there
was an almost universal flood of molton material, which covered
and buried the whole original face of the country—hills and
dales, mountains and valleys. Its extent is estimated by Le

A. Winchell on Pressure of a Continental Glacier. 141

Conte at not less than 150,000 square miles, with a thickness of
three to four thousand feet. The Columbia river at the Cascade
Range, has cut through 2,500 to 3,800 feet of lava.

Heretofore the epoch of the outflows has been placed late in
the Pliocene—éefore the Glacial epoch. On this assumption,
American man has been located in the Pliocene, since his re-
mains have been found in California beneath the great sheet of
lava which caps the celebrate] Table mountain of Calaveras
county. The relation here suggested, but hitherto overlooked
between western lava outflows and eastern ice-pressure has
therefore, the ulterior effect of reducing the supposed antiquity
of man in America, and thus of harmonizing his chronology
with that of European man.

This conclusion is indicated on other grounds. Remains of
man have been found associated with Aguas occidentalis and
E. excelsus Leidy,in Oregon,in beds held by Cope and Marsh,
it is true, to be Pliocene; and a similar association is reported
from Colorado by Dr. Gilbert. The account of these observa-
tions has not yet been published; but from personal informa-
tion from Dr. Gilbert, I learn that he and Mr. Mc Gee connect
the Equus fauna of Oregon with the Glacial epoch rather than
the Pliocene; and this result is in accord with what I anticipated
on theory, may be found to be the truth in California, in re-
spect to the gravel beds holding human remains underneath
tables of lava.

This method of viewing the subject of continental glaciation
leads to another suggestion. If the terrestrial crust, to the east
of the Rocky mountains and north of the Ohio river, was
deeply indented by the weight of asheet of ice say five thousand
feet thick, a change must have resulted in relative levels of land
and sea in the regions contiguous to the ice-boundary. The
crustal depression would not be limited strictly to the ice-covered
area. The crust’s partial rigidity would cause the depression to
be experienced along a bordering belt many miles in width.
That is, the original Atlantic border of Labrador and New
England would be depressed, and so would a belt through New
Jersey, Maryland, Kentucky and Illinois lying along the south-
-ern limits of the glacier.

Along shores reached by the glacier, the ocean would bathe

142. A. Wincheli on Pressure of a Continental Glacier.

the glacier and dissolve it more or less rapidly. On coasts
where the glacier’s motion was inconsiderable, the action of the
sea maintained a bare shore line; and beach history was re-
corded as if the interior had not been ice-covered. The most
important records would consist of beaches. - The gulf of St.
Lawrence, along the south shore, would have been kept free
from ice, and a succession of beaches would record the succes-
sive stages of sea-level. Thus genereally, on shores trending
meridionally, and more especially on southern shores, a_ series
of beaches would be formed, while probably northern shores,
through the constant encroachment of the glacier, might be
kept completely concealed. The beaches formed during the
progressive relative rise of the water would probably be oblit-
erated, but, as usual, the beaches formed during the receding
phase, would remain as records and evidences of the former
submergence,

The theory implies that the greatest crustal depression would
be experienced northward; the depression would gradually di-
minish southward. That is, the beaches northward would attain
the highest elevations in relation to the preglacial level of the
land. On the final dissolution of the continental glacier, and
the restoration of the land to its former level, these beach-
records would be found attaining progressively higher levels
toward the north. The theory implies also that elevated
beaches would be formed along all shores bordering glaciated
lands—whether American, European or Asiatic.

Now witness the facts. Inland beaches whose geological re-
lations connect them with the last great events of the world’s
history are actually found along the Atlantic coast from New
York to Labrador, and even to arctic latitudes. Onthe south-
ern coast of New England ancient beaches are found from ten
to twenty-five feet above present sea-level; on Nantucket, 85
feet; on the coast of Maine, 27 feet; on the borders of lake
Champlain,—then a part of the gulf of St. Lawrence—350 feet;
at Montreal, 500 feet; on the Labrador coast, 500 to 800 feet;
on the arctic shores, 1000 feet. Commander De Long found
elevated beaches on Bennett island, at the altitude of feet.

This theory further implies that the formation of the beaches
was synchronous with the prevalence of wide glaciation. The

Wooldridge on the River=Lake Syetem of W. Mich. 143

common opinion has been that the subsidence followed glacia-
tion, and was a phenomenon of the Champlain epoch rather than
the glaciation. Under the views here set forth the beaches
which remain date from the commencement of the decline of
the glacier.

Croll, who has so ably speculated on the causes of contin-
ental glaciation, conceived the icy load as heaped above the
former level of the continent.. He viewed the crust as too
rigid to bé depressed by the weight. A polar ice-protuberance
of 5,000 feet, and covering all the north temperate lands, would
shift the earth’s centre of gravity northward to a certain extent.
The oceans would as a consequence, flow northward to restore
the proper figure of the earth, and all northern lands would
suffer inundation, This reasoning becomes nugatory in the
face of much evidence that the earth’s crust has many times
yielded to the pressure of accumulated sea-sediments, and would
much more yield to the weight of a continental glacier.

THE RIVER-LAKE SYSTEM OF WESTERN MICHIGAN.

BY C, W. WOOLDRIDGE, B.S., M. D,

The attention of geologists does not seem to have been di-
rected to the peculiar system of river-lakes found along the
eastern border of lake Michigan, to the degree which their im-
portance merits.’

The map accompanying this article represents a portion of
the lake Michigan border, along the northern part of Muske-
gon county, Mich. <A glance at any good map of the state will
show that the system of lakes occupying the lower valleys of
streams flowing into lake Michigan, which the region depicted
in this sketch so well illustrates, continues throughout the whole
length of the east shore of lake Michigan, from Grand Traverse
bay on the north to the St. Joseph river on the south.

A careful study of the vicinity of White lake, shown in the

! These features were pointed out and mapped by Alexander Winchel
in an article in Harper’s Magazine for July, 1871, p. 284. [Ed.]

144 Wooldridge on the River=Lake Syetem of W. Mich.

accompanying map, together with more cursory observations at
various points from Grand Traverse bay to the mouth of the
Grand river at Grand Haven, enables me to state the following
facts regarding this system of lakes and the region where they
are found.

ist. These lakes assume the same form that would be pro-
duced if they were covered by dams across the river valleys at

fa Sandy plain

Higk Glay Land
: ye,

i

\ j

\e (Sandy plain —-
\ \ with clay subsoil
Uy -
Old mouth % :
lof While River \:

Ge
mx’ Sandy pla m

ey Drifting Dunes
Bae Trmbered Dunts

ea?

POSED Chiff escarpment
See Marsh

fn order To include all the features shown, Muskegon Lake
Gnolits vicinity are placed about one mile too far north on this map.
,

there outlets. They are elongated in the same general direction

as the valleys of the streams which flow into them. They are
deepest toward lake Michigan, they terminate, or begin, in
marshes at their inland extremity, and they usually extend some
distance into the valleys of tributary streams flowing into them.

znd. Their beds are excavated in the drift clay, and not in

Wooldridge on the ‘River=Lake System of W. Mich. 145

surface sand which over spreads the lower levels in their vicin-
ity. The region bordering White lake on all sides is composed
of clay, over spread with a stratum of sand varying, usually,
_from one foot to four feet in depth, though in places it is
deeper. The clay surface reaches a hight of 15 to 30 feet above
the level of the lakes, and a portion of the strip ofland which
separates it from lake Michigan, even, consists of a hill of drift
material, mostly clay, partly covered with a timbered dune.

I have also made observations which go to show a_ similar
structure in the case of other lakes of this class, especially Duck
lake, shown on the map, Pentwater lake, and Manistee lake.
All these lakes seem to be submerged portions of the river-
valleys in which they lie, and such I believe they are in fact.

3rd. The present bottoms of these lakes are the product of
sedimentation and not of erosion, and that to such an extent as
to obliterate any features due to erosion which may originally
have existed in them. Of this fact I have convinced myself by
sounding through the ice on White lake and Duck lake, though
I had anticipated a contrary result.

4th. The original slope of the bottoms of these lakes in the
direction of drainage must have been much greater than of the
country farther inland. I have myself sounded a depth of 84
feet in White lake at the point indicated thus* on the ac-
commpanying map. Itis about seven miles from this point to the
head of the marsh where the original lake bottom coincides
with the present water level, from which it appears that a fall
of least 84 feet existed in the original river bed between. these
points. From the head of the marsh up stream it is necessary to
go at least twenty miles in order to find an equal change of level.

5th. The valleys occupied by these lakes appear to have
extended across the present border line of lake Michigan into
deep water. At the foot of such river-lakes as these, in every
instance known to the writer drifting sand-dunes now exist.
At some time not very remote a much more extensive system
of drifting dunes existed in this region than is now found, but
long reaches of these dunes have become timbered and fixed.
In such places the dunes are separated from the present beach
sand by an escarpment cut in the clay that underlies them.
This clay is what remains of the denuded surface of the older

146 Call on a new Limneid.

country upon which the present surface sands-dunes and plains,
have been deposited. Where that surface lies higher than the
present level of lake Michigan, that lake has cut into it and
the bank thus formed has separated the dunes formerly de-
deposited on this clay from the beach sand which the waves
are constantly shifting. In some places the old chain of dunes
seems to have been entirely cut away; in others, they remain
fixed and timbered as described. Where the clay surface does
not rise to the present level of the lake, the beach sand formed
an uninterrupted slope up the dune, and in such places the
sand continues to drift, while the waves on the beach continue
to furnish a new supply.

When examined, the presence of such drifting dunes will
probably be found in every instance, to coincide with a depres-
sion of the clay surface underlying the west Michigan sands
below the present level of the great lake.

6th. This clay surface, wherever overspread by sand, a con-
dition co-extensive with the lower levels of the country to a
hight estimated at 75 feet above the lake, bears the marks of
denudation by waves, and has evidently been submerged beneath
the waters of the great lake. Above that level the character
of the land is that usually found in drift-clay regions. The
surface is not generally overspread with sand, the denudation
which has taken place upon it seemsto be the effect of weather-
ing, and the eastern borders, especially, of such elevated tracts
are plainly traceable along a continuous level, showing them
to have been islands at the time when the surrounding plaim

was submerged and denuded.

ON A NEW POST-PLEIOCENE LIMNEID.

BY PROFESSOR R. ELLSWORTH CALL.

Des Moines, lowa, 28th November, 1887.
In 1883, while the writer was engaged in the preparation of
a report on the mollusca of the Great Basin, Dr. R. E. C,
Stearns kindly submitted for study certain specimens of a fossil
shell supposed to belong to Pompholyx. The specimens had
been collected by the California geological survey and were

Cail on a new Limneid. ay

placed in the cabinet of the state university, at Berkeley, where
they may now be seen.

At the time the shells were received a careful study was
made of them, and figures'drawn of the largest and best pre-
served specimen. They were recognized as not belonging to
Pompholyx. Reference to them was not made in the report
cited for the reason that they were extra-limital. It is now
proposed to describe these specimens as the type of a sub-genus,
not hitherto recognized, its sole species being dedicated to Dr,
Charles A. White, of Washington, the veteran palxontologist.

PompuHoLopsis' WHITE, subg. ef sp. nov.

i

Shell dextral, globose, rather solid, deeply umblicated; whorls
3—3%4, convex, body whorl very large; spire short, apex ob-
tuse; aperture roundly ovate; peritreme continuous, forming a
heavy callous on the parietal wall of the body-whor!. Growth
lines inconspicuous, surface of the shell smooth; sutures rather
irregularly impressed.

Length 7.26 mm.; diameter 8.13 m7. ‘his is the size of the
jargest of four or five specimens. Post-Pleiocene, Tassajara
Hills, California. Prof. Gabb.

The resemblance between this form and Pompholyx effusa is
marked, but not less so are the differences. It is an umblicated
shell, is heavier and larger, and comes from strata older than
any in which Pompholyx has yet been recognized. The aper-
tural characters are decidedly different, not at all effuse, and
very regularly rounded ovate. Generic and specific characters
are necessarily combined, but the umbilicus will distinguish it at
once from any other similar Limnzid.

There are now two fossil and two recent, (if Ameria be ex-
cepted) subgenera of limnzid mollusca which resemble each
other in important particulars — perhaps sufficiently to give the
whole number rank as a subfamily. To facilitate comparisoa

1 Etymology-—Pompholyx, a sub-genus of mollusca, efsis, aspect of.

148

Call on a new Limneid.

of these forms copies of the figures are given below — figs. 4, 5.
and 6; and the following table of generic characters.

CARINIFEX (1863) 1

POMPHOLYX
(1856)

Shelldextral,
spiral, inflated, an-
gular, horn-color-
ed, spire terraced,
whorls numerous,
angular, visible
above, last whorl
very large, broad
above, very rapid-
ly attenuated be-
low: umbblicus fun-
nel-shaped; aper-
ture triangular,
broad above, nar-
row below; inner
lip slightly thick-
ened;outer lip thin,
acute, angular
above, fiexuose.

Figure 5.
Species two.2
Recent.

a

Shell dextral, de-
pressed, globose,
translucent, horn-
colored; spire
short, obtuse, last
whorl very wide,
ventricose; aper-
ture very large;
wide, subcircular,
expanded; inner lip

_thickened, outer

lip acute.
Figure 4.
Species two.3
Recent.

|

|

}

VORTICIFEX

POMPHOLOPSIS

(1870)4 (1887)
Shell dextral, de- Shell dextral,.
pressed sub- globose, rather

globose, umblicat-
ed; volutions rap-
idly increasing in
size, last oneequal-
ing nine-tenths
bulk of shell, pro-
duced below so as
to form a promi-
nent ridge around
the widely exca-
vated umbilical re-
gion; aperture
large, subovate,
widest above, sub-
angular below; lip
oblique; lines of
growth oblique,
sometimes forming
little regular
cost.
Figure 6.
Species two.

Fossil.

thick, deeply um-
bilicated; body
whorl very large;
spire very short,
2-2% whorls; aper-
ture roundly
ovate, peritreme
continuous, outer
lip acute.

Figures 1—3.
Species one.
Fossil.

Megasystropha, proposed by Mr. Lea (Proc. Phila. Acad. Jan., 1864, but
not described.) Carintfex, described by Binney, Am. Jour. Couch., vol.
i, p. 50, 1865.

2One of these two described species, namely C. ponsonbyi E. A. Smith,
may prove to be a local variety of C. newberryi Lea, the type of the
genus. In connection with this name a curious interchange of figures
and descriptions occurs— noticed by Mr. Smith but uncorreeted in print
so faras I know. C. ponsondbyi was described in Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don, 2 Nov., 1875, pp. 536 538. The figure illustrating it is Diala leithit E.
A. Smith. This last named form is described at thesame time, also from
California, on pp. 539-540, but the fgwre there given-is the C. ponsonbyt
E. A. Smith. C. drewert Newcomb, has never been described.

® One of these described species, P. solide Dall, is possibly
sufficiently distinct from the typical form to take rank as a species —
nor indeed as a well-marked variety.

*The type of this genus—Vortictfex binneyi—was described by Mr.
Meek under the name of Cartnifex binneyt, Vide Proc. Phila. \ead. Sci.,

not

Shimer on the fossils of the Loess at lowa City,]a. 49

NOTES ON THE FOSSILS OF THE LOESS AT
IOWA CITY, IOWA.

BY PROFESSOR B. SHIMEK.

The typical Loess deposits of the vicinity of Iowa City con-
tain an abundance of specimens of mollusk remains, the careful
study of which will no doubt cast much new light on the evo-
lution of some modern species, as well as on the climatic condi-
tions under which these forms existed.

In the following brief notes I will merely make a compari-
son of our Loess fossils with the same species now living here,
as I desire to reserve the results of more extended observations
for a future paper.

All of the species noted in the following list were collected
by myself in the immediate vicinity of Iowa City, and the
greatest care was exercised to admit no old, bleached recent
shells as Loess fossils. The rarer species were all obtained by
digging in hitherto undisturbed Loess.

1. Zonites arboreus (Say.) Binn. Only three imperfect
specimens very much like our recent forms were found.

2. Zonites viridulus (Menke.) Binn, Two fine specimens.
were taken which were rather smaller than average recent ones.

3. Zonites minusculus (Binn.) Fisch. and Cr. Three fossil
specimens were found. My largest recent specimen measures
24% mm. in greater diameter, whereas the three fossils measure
each three mm.

4. Zonites limatulus (Ward.) Binn. The fossil forms are of
frequent occurrence. The species does not live here at present,
but our fossils are much larger than any recent specimens which
have come to my notice.

5. Zonites fulvus(Drap.) Binn. Abundant. Average greater

1870, p. 59. But in a foot-note on same page he writes, “I propose the
subgeneric name Vortifex for these shells, which differ from the typical
forms of Carinifex.” Attention was elsewhere called to the orthography
of the subgeneric name, which should have been Vorticifex. No diagno-
sis of the subgenus was ever given, and the one herein offered is based
on Meek’s specific description of V. Binneyt, which he has designated as
the typical species.

350 = - Shimek on the fossils of the Loess at Iowa City, Ia.

diameter 3% mm. This is somewhat greater than in our recent
forms.

6. Patula strigosa(Gould.) Binn. The variety known as P.
cooperi occurs in one of ourexposures. The species is extinct in
this locality.

9. Patula striatella (Anth.) Morse. This is one of the most
«ommon species of the Loess. The average measurement of the
fossils is about equal to that of the recent specimens. The fossil
eggs of this species are frequently found.

8. Helicodiscus lineatus (Say.) Morse. But four specimens
were found, which do not differ from the average recent forms.

6. Ferussacia subcylindrica (1...) Binn. Five fossils were
found which are in all respects like the only two recent speci-
mens which were collected here.

10. Pupa armifera Say. But few specimens occur, and
these are scarcely distinguishable from recent specimens, ex-
cept by the unmistakable bleached character so peculiar to Loess
fossils. >

11. Pupa muscorum \.. Rather common. Now extinct
in this locality.”

12, Pupa blandi (Morse) Binn. Many hundred specimens
were taken. The recent form is not found here.

13. Vertigosimplex (Gould) Stimp. Several hundred spec-
fens which have been referred rather doubtfully to this species,
were taken. ‘The species is now extinct in this locality, but the
dimensions of recent types are given as: length, ee mm., diam.,
= mm., and the number of whorls as five; whereas the best
specimens of our fossil form measure 34 mm. in length and %
mm. in diameter, and the number of whorls is sever. In all
respects, excepting length and number of whorls, our specimens
are certainly V. simplex, though a number of conchologists
have returned them to me as Papa muscorum L.! P. mus-
corum has twice the diameter of this Vertzgo, and its aperture
with the slightly expanded lip differs very much from that of
the Vertigo, which is regularly rounded, with a simple lip.

14. Mesodon multilineata (Say) Try. The fossils are of fre-
quent occurence, but they are much smaller than our recent
specimens. The smallest fossil specimen which was found
measures 1244 mm. in greater diameter, and the largest 16 mm.,

Shimek on the fossils of the Loess at lowa City,Ja. 158

whereas recent specimens from this locality vary from 22 mm.
to 26mm. I have, however, collected recent specimens in Har-
din county, the smallest of which equals the largest fossils, ¢. ¢.
16 mm. in greater diameter. 5

15. Vadllonia pulchella (Muell) Binn. The fossils are quite
abundant. Their average greater diameter is three mm. The
recent forms average only two and a half mm.

16. Szuccinea avara Say. The form which has beer re-
ferred to this species gecurs in great abundance in our Loess..
{t' certainly is not typical S. avara, but coincides more nearly
with Binney’s description and figure of S. verzd/i Bland, a
boreal species. Our specimens average a trifle more than seven
mm. in length. Our low-land form of living S. avara is very
much larger and has a proportionally larger body-whorl, while
the form which lives in dry rocky places is more corpulent.
Both are unlike the fossil form.

17. Swuccinea vermeta Say. A form identical with the
large S. avara known commonly as var. vermeta occurs im
great abundance in our deposits. It seems to change how-
ever so gradually into the narrow, depauperate forms of
S. obligua that in a set of several hundred specimens I find it
impossible to satisfactorily separate the two forms. Many of
the fossil specimens are identical in form and size with the re-
cent ones, but the average is rather larger.

18. Szuccinea obligqua Say. The fossils referable to this
species are somewhat smaller, narrower and have a more ele-
vated spire than our local recent specimens.

19. Limnaea caperata Say. Common. The fossils are
smaller than our recent local form, but are equal to specimens
from Marshall county, lowa.

20. Limnea humilis Say. Two forms of this variable
species occur locally in considerable abundance. The broader
form with longer aperture and shorter spire finds its exact
counterpart in our local living form, but the other does not oc-
cur here now.

The latter form has been erroneously called Z. desidiosa. It
may prove to be distinct.

21. Limnea desidiosa Say. Specimens which may be
referred to this species are occasionally found. They are muck
smaller than the recent local form.

152 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

a2. Leptolimnaa One perfect specimen of a Leffo-
dimnea unlike any local living species was found.

23. PRyse . ‘One young specimen was found. The
species could not be determined.

24. ffelictna occulta Say. Abundant. The fossils aver-

age smaller than the several thousand recent specimens taken

near Iowa City, but are nearly equal to the specimens from’

Eldora, Iowa.
25. Pisidium

ments of others were found. The species could not be satisfac-

. Two perfect yalves and several frag-

torily determined.

It will be observed that with the exception of lelicina oc-
cxulta Say and Pisidium all of these mollusks are Pud-
monates. Of this list numbers 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, and 22 are now
extinct in this locality. Numbers 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 20 (the
first form) have remained unchanged. Numbers 2, 14, 16, 18,
19, 21, and 24 are now better developed than formerly, and

~numbers 3, 5, 15, and 17 have degenerated. Numbers 14, 19,
and 24, are placed in the list of forms which, in this locality are
better developed than formerly, but specimens from other parts
of the state approach our fossils very closely. The probable

causes of these variations will be discussed in the future.

DARWIN AND GEOLOGY.

BY PROF. KE. W. CLAYPOLE.

The publication of the Life of Charles Darwin by his son
has afforded a suitable opportunity to review the labors of this
yreatest of recent naturalists. Charles Darwin was not a biolo-
gist on the model of those who limit the field of biology to the
study of structure with the aid of the microscope and the micro-
tome. Invaluable as are these engines of research they had
little or no place in hislaboratory. But in the wide field of ob-
servation and experiment, not with the dead but with the living
organism, he was a biologist of the first rank. With this de-
partment of his work, however, we have little direct concern.
But a man of the first rank in one department of nature is_al-
most sure to cross-the limit and enter on the ground of other

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 158

ddepartments. His greatness is often shown by the extent and
the direction of his footprints. .A master workman in one art
will often show his masterhood when he touches another.
Agassiz was a naturalist, but to him geology is indebted for the
“‘olacial theory.” Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, but geology
in her early days, not to mention othersciences, was not,a little
aided by him. Huxley is a biologist, strictly speaking, but
palzontology, and, we might add theology, have both reaped |
advantage from his labors. Of such men it has been said and
may be saidagain, *

“Nihil fuit quod non tetigit, nihil tetigit quod non ornavit.”

In like manner the great master who has so recently passed
away, thougha biologist so far his great discovery was concerned,
was a naturalist in the widest sense of the term, and if biology
has reaped the greatest results from his labors yet geology has
picked up the crumbs that fell from that richly laden table, and
these crumbs have been of no slight value.

We propose therefore to devote a few pages to a review of
the important step which geology has made during the lifetime
of this remarkable man. Such asketch will include the work
-of other men more or less closely connected with him. It may
be of interest to many of the younger geologists of the present
day to look through the eyes of their elders and view the pro-
gress of their science during the past sixty or seventy years.
To us all it may not be unprofitable to see that “Other men
labored and” we “have entered into their labors.”

For our purpose it will not be necessary to dwell on the de-
tails of Darwin’s long and busy life. At the age of sixteen he
went to the University of Edinburgh. This was in 1825. At
the beginning of the present century the geological world
had just passed through one of the most violent and bitter of
the controversies that have marked its by no means peaceful his-
tory. The conflict between the two schools, the Vulcanists and
the Neptunists, was then at its hight. The eloquent Werner,
professor of mineralogy at Freyberg, in Saxony, had adopted
the view, derived from the study of the rocks near that town,
that all the strata composing the crust of the earth had been
formed under water. He freely introduced catastrophe to ex-

154 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

plain or remove difficulties in hissystem. The genius of the
man threw a halo around the theory that he propounded, and
eontributed in no small degree to give currency to views that in
themselves were untrue because based on a too narrow induction.

Hutton, on the other hand, the great apostle of the Plutonists,
was maintaining at Edinburgh, that many of the rocks compos-
ing the crust of the earth had been poured forth in a molten
_ state from the interior. In support of this opinion he appealed
to facts that could not be gainsaid, such as dikes and veins of
granite, &c. As Werner may be classed among catastrophic
geologists, so Hutton may be called a uniformitarian. He advo-
cated the view that the present state of things was the outcome
of a former one and that the facts of geology require for their
explanation a vast series of years. “I can find,” said he, “no
traces of a beginning, no prospect of an end.” The teachings
of Hutton were the first to bring distinctly before geologists
this now fundamental article of their faith —the immense length
of geologic time. Many recoiled, appalled at the spectre that
was slowly taking shape before them. The new doctrine
served as a touchstone to sever the courageous and unflinching
followers of reasou from the crowd that could not or would not
see the force of the evidence. The disciples of Hutton were
few; those of Werner were many. Neptunism was fashiona-
ble. Above all, the aqueous doctrine was orthodox while the
igneous doctrine was heterodox. With the multitude this de-
termined the choice.

We are ready to laugh in these days at the wide prevalence
ef a doctrine that had absolutely no foundation save the elo-
quence of its founder, but a little thought will show us that the
same state of things has occurred many times over in the history
ef science. It was, however, no laughable matter in those days.
So high did the feeling run that Lyell in writing on the sub-
ject says, “ The heretical Vulcanists were soon after assailed in
England by imputations of the most illiberal kind. It was per-
haps better for a man’s good reception in society that his moral
eharacter should have been traduced than that he should become
a mark for these poisoned weapons —charges of infidelity and
atheism.””

? Principles, p. 55, 1853.

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. WES

The echoes of this acrimonious controversy had not died
away when Darwin went to Edinburgh. Butatemporary calm
“was then prevailing, due to the suppression of the heretical
Vulcanists by the strong arm of public opinion. Their total
and final suppression was, however, impossible because truth
was on their side. The result was of course to take the life out
of geological teaching and interest out of geological study. No
power can permanently galvanize into the semblance of life
that which is surely and finally dead. Without therefore at-
tributing to young Darwin any other virtue in this respect
(which he did not apparently possess) than the power of seeing
when the evidence supported the teaching, we are not surprised
to read (p. 36):

“T attended
ibly dull. The sole effect they produced on me was the deter-

’s lectures on geology, but they were incred- .

mination never, so long as I lived, to read a book on geology,
or in any way to study the science. . Yet I feel sure that I was
prepared for a philosophical treatment of the subject.” What
kind of teaching he “enjoyed” may be gathered from the fol-
lowing sentence: “It is the fact that I, though now only sixty-
seven years old, heard the professor ina field lecture at Salisbury
Craigs, discoursing on a trap rock with amygdaloidal margins
and the strata indurated on each side, and with volcanic rocks
all around us, say that it was a fissure filled from above, adding
with a sneer, that there were men who maintained that it had
been injected from beneath in a molten condition. When |
think of this lecture I do not wonder that I determined never
again to attend to geology.”

The biographer has judiciously concealed the name of the
professor, but those who are familiar with Edinburgh of that
day will find no difficulty in filling the blank if they recall a
well known teacher of a theory even then well nigh antiquated.

Times have changed, and now from the same chair are
heard the once denounced doctrines of Hutton and Playfair,
while the peculiar tenet of Werner has sunk into well deserved
oblivion.

The dislike to geology aroused at Edinburgh prevented, so
he says, his attending the eloquent and interesting lectures of
Sedgwick at Cambridge. But he was strongly attracted by

156 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

the varied learning and genial disposition of the professor of
Botany, and became a constant attendant and later a compan-
ion of Henslow, whose influence was great and lasting. To
this accomplished teacher and good man biology is largely in-
debted for enticing into the paths of science his equally good
and more gifted pupil. His wisdom and kindness undid the
mischief that the bigoted Edinburgh professor had done, and
won over again to geology the mind that had been estranged.
Darwin never became a geologist, but in the hands of Henslow
he soon lost all dislike of the science; it received a due share of
his attention and has reaped a large harvest from: his labors.

He was not long in making the acquaintance of Sedgwick,
and accompanied him in some of his geological excursions. Of
one of these an account is given in the memoir, and from it we
gain another glimpse no less striking of the state of our science
in 1830, or about sixty years ago.

“Next morning we started for Llangollen, Conway, Bangor
and Capel Curig,” all situated around the central peak of
Snowdon. ‘ Here,” he says, “I had a striking instance of how
easy itis to overlook phenomena, however conspicuous, before
they have been observed by any one. We spent many hours
in Gwm Idwal, examining all the rocks with extreme care, as
Sedgwick was anxious to find fossils in them, but neither of us
saw a trace of the wonderful phenomena all around us. We
did not notice the plainly scored rocks, the perched boulders,
the lateral and terminal moraines. Yet these phenomena are
so conspicuous that, as I declared in a paper published many
years later in the “Philosophical Magazine,” a house burnt
down by fire did not tell its story more plainly than this val-
ley.” It seems almost incredible, familiar as we are with the
Glacial Theory of Agassiz, that the professor of geology at
Cambridge could be so absorbed in the search for fossils as to
pass through the central domain of south British icedom and see
nothing and ask himself nothing of the marvellous ice sculpture
that covers the rocks around Snowdon. But soit was. Sedg-
wick went through a region where almost every stone and
rock was covered with inscriptions cut by the ice-chisel, but
they failed to excite his curiosity or to attract his attention.
Agassiz had not yet found the Rosetta stone.

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 157

The following remarks of Darwin on Carlyle in this con-
nection -are amusing, keen, and most will admit true. “It is
astonishing to me that Kingsley should have spoken of him as
a man well fitted toadvance science. He laughed to scorn the
idea that a mathematician, suchas Whewell, could judge, as
I maintained he could, of Géthe’s views on light. He thought
jt a most ridiculous thing thatany one should care whether a
glacier moved a little quicker or slower, or moved at all. As
far as I can judge I never met a man with a mind so ill adapted
for scientific research.” —p. 64.

There has come in the life probably of every great man a
turning-point, marked by some perhaps insignificant circum-
stance, which was the means of directing his thought and energy
into the channel in which they afterward remained. So it was
with Darwin. It was in the year 1831 when he was _ twenty-
two years of age that two events occurred almost simultaneously
that tended to confirm him in his devotion to science, and at
the same time to attract him very powerfully to biology, and
geology. These were, his appointment as naturalist on the
“Beagle” during her voyage of discovery, and the publication
of Lyell’s “Principles of Geology,” a copy of which he bought
at the suggestion of his friend Henslow, who however cautioned
him “on no account to adopt the views therein advocated.”

To realize the significance of these words we must recall the
state of geology in 1831. Tee theological fetters which at
Edinburgh had obstructed the sagacious Hutton and hisdisciples
in the promotion of his doctrine of the igneous origin of certain
rocks, and the great length of geological time, were equal ob-
stacles in the path of Lyell and his then new school of Uni-
formitarians. The advisability, in the minds of the old or con-
servative school of geologists (ifindeed they deserved the name, )
the absolute necessity, in the opinion of theologians, and un-
reasoning prejudice on the part of the multitude who caught
up their ideas at second-hand but for that reason clung to them

all the more doggedly—all these combined to suppress indepen-
dent thought along certain suspected lines, and to foster attempts
to close or to bridge the chasm that was. beginning to yawn
between the two parties. Apprehension on both sides produced
opposite results. The geologists of the new school kept silence

155 laypole on Darwin and Geology.

while their opponents took and held possession of the public
ear, It is amusing and at the sametime instructive now to read
the works that were thenissued—many of them in perfect hon-
esty but some we fear by mere special pleaders—to show that
there is no inconsistency between the narrative in the Hebrew
Scripture, literally interpreted, and the story of the rocks. The
bed of Procrustes was a trifle compared with the extraordinary
torture which was applied to both in order to bring them into
accord. The treatment of the geologic record involved, often
through ignorance, the suppression of the most awkard difficul-
ties and the most obvious facts, so that the version gave buta
garbled report of the story of the rocks; while on the other side
we are reminded of the acute remark of professor Huxley that
a “layman can only stand aside and marvel at the wondrous
flexibility of a language which admits of so different and even
opposite interpretations.”

To this class of books belong Granville Penn’s Comparative
Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies, Pye Smith’s
Scripture and Geology, and last, though by no means least,
The Testimony of the Rocks, which may truly be said to have
‘been purchased with the life of Scotland’s great geologist, Hugh
Miller. To these we refer such of our readers as desire more
detail concerning the state of the geological world on this point
during the past half century.

Such a condition of thought nftturally associated orthodoxy
with one school and heterodoxy with the other. Those who
essayed to maintain against heavy odds the literal accuracy of
the Mosaic poem of creation, direct and special, formed the
party of the Catastrophists, and were in the majority. Their
opponents, few in number and weak in position, who supported
the view that the present fauna and flora of the earth are, in
some as yet not fully explained way, the direct and lineal de-
scendants of others previously existing through a vast lapse of
time, were later known as Uniformitarians. The leading
scientific apostle of the former was the French geologist, Elie
de Beaumont. From an examination of the mountain-systems
of the earth this distinguished savant had deduced the theory
that all parallel ranges were coéval. By a refinement on his
theory, which the data were quite incapable of justifying, he

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 159

announced the occurrence of twenty-nine separate catastrophes,
each produced and immortalized by one or more mountain-sys-
tems. To each of these he gave a name derived from the ridge
that best exemplified its direction. Thus he enumerated the
System of the Longmynd, of the Pyrenees, of the Western
Alps, &c. All these were laid down on his maps and their rel-
ative. dates determined. E. de Beaumont further maintained
that each of these mountain-systems had been violently and
suddenly upheaved with great commotion, and that each up-
heaval had been accompanied with catastrophe so wide-spread
and disastrous as to utterly destroy all living beings on the face
of the globe. Asa writer of the time has expressed it,

In the interval following each such deluge creative power was again
brought into operation and the earth was repeopled with animated creat-
ures and reclothed with vegetation. But in all cases the animals and
plants composing the new kingdom of nature, though agreeing with
those destroyed in their classes and genera, differed from them altogether
in their species—Lardner, The Pre-Adamite Earth.

These views of course rendered great compression of geolog-
ical time possible, and by attributing creation to direct act of
the Creator averted from their advocates the dangerous odzam
theologicum.

It is not necessary to follow into any further detail this once
famous theory of Mon. E. de Beaumont. Suffice it to say that
it was the popular theory when Darwin left England in 1831.
He says, (p. 60) “When I was starting on the voyage of the
Beagle the sagacious Henslow who, like all other geologists,
believed at that time in successive cataclysms, advised me to get
and study the first volume of the “ Principles,” which had just
then been published, but on no account to accept the views
therein advocated.” But the crop that grew from Henslow’s
grain of seed was other than what the good man wished and
expected. His pupil remarks, “The very first place in which
I geologized convinced me of the infinite superiority of Lyell’s
views over those advocated in any other work then known to
me.”

The views of this great apostle of wz7formity, were, in brief,
that the earth since its first formation, with which he did not
deal, has been continuously developing into its present condition
under the influence of forces still in action aided by almost un-

160 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

limited time, and that no world-wide catastrophe has ever oc-
cured to break the chain. After contrasting at considerable
length his own views with those of his predecessors he re-
marks:

It appears clear that the earlier geologists had not only a scanty
acquaintance with existing changes, but were singularly unconscious of
the amount of theirignorance. With the presumption naturally inspired
by this unconsciousness they had no hesitation in deciding at once that
time could never enable the existing forces of nature to work out changes
of great magnitude, still less so important revolutions as are those
brought to light by geology. They therefore thought themselves justified
inindulging their imagination in guessing what might be rather than in
inquiring what ¢s. The course directly opposed to this method of philos-
ophizing consists of an earnest and patient study how far geological ap-
pearances are reconcilable with the effect of changes now in progress.
It also endeavours to estimate the aggregate result of ordinary operations
multiplied by time. For this reason all theories are rejected which in-
volve the assumption of sudden and violent catastrophes and revolutions
ofthe earth and its inhabitants. -Princtples, 1853, p. 196.

This was the school of geology on which no longer than
thirty years ago, theology had laid its ban, and which it de-
nounced for heterodoxy.

It is exceedingly interesting and instructive at this point to
observe the attitude of the great master of the uniformitarian
school. While boldly maintaining in the face of strong and form-
idable opponents his theory of the slow and regular development
of *the earth’s geography, he hesitates over the application of
the same principle to the organic world. The outspoken advo-
cate here becomes a feeble and insinuating apologist. On the
question of geography Lyell gives no uncertain sound, but
in the case of biology his notes are shaky. After ranging
freely over whole continents of inorganic change he halts sud-
denly, irresolute and staggering, on the brink of the chaotic
abyss that opened before him when he began to treat of chang-
es organic. It is almost amusing to contrast the confident tone
of the great teacher on the former with his uncertain utterances
on the latter. In.his ‘Principles,’ (Ed. 1653) "the greater
part of which is given to a discussion in maintenance of his views
on inorganic development, he passes on, toward the close, to con-
sideration of the fixity or mutability of species. After a long

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 161

and elaborate review of the whole subject he sums up in the
following words (p. 611).
From the above consideration it appears that species have a real exis-

tence in nature, and that each was endowed at the time of its creation
with the attributes and organization with which it is now distinguished.

In other words he rejects the doctrine of the transmutation

ofspecies, infavor of that of special creation, and in order to meet
the objection that no such event had ever been reported, he
later (p. 705) enters on an elaborate calculation of the chance
of such an event having been seen by man. “If one species
only of the animal kingdom died out in forty years in a region
of the dimensions of Europe, no more than one mammifer
might disappear in 40,000 years.
' The extreme caution that was the strongest feature in the
character of Lyell isnowhere more distinctly shown than here.
Could he have extended his principle of uniformity over the
whole realm of creation, organic as well as inorganic, it would
have given a completeness to his work which it lacked when
in 1830-53 he published the earlier editions of the “Principles.”
But after a careful examination of Lamarck’s theory of the trans-
mutation of species, it was rejected as baseless, and, no other being
then in sight, the conscientious geologist preferred letting his
book go forth without what would have been to many minds
its strongest attraction. He was deficient in anticipation -- that
prophetic insight of science—which enables those who pos-
sess it to look ahead over dificulties and see them all clearing
away before the principle, in the truth of which they firmly be-
lieve. This is one of the sublime faculties of the human mind —
it develops’a faith that overcomes every difficulty, silences every
objection, holds its own in spite of neglect, opposition and ridi-
cule, and at length enjoys its reward in full fruition. Such faith
was not Lyell’s, but it was Darwin’s, and he lived to see it end
in the realization of his predictions.’

1 We have a parallel case at the present day. A certain school of
evolutionists adopt the views of Darwin in every point but one. They
admit the development by variation and selection, of all animals ex-
cept man. For various reasons they hesitate to acknowledge their
own descent from a lower form. In a similar condition are those
who insist on the introduction of the “Deus ex machina” at the be-
ginning of life. Their faith is not the faith of Darwin.

162 N.H. Winchell on the Taconic.

Such was the seed and such the field in which it was sown.
The copy of the “Principles” that went on board the Beagle
bore perhaps more and richer fruit than all the rest of the edition.
We shall see its effects and the reaction of his greater pupil on
the great master.

(To be continued.) ‘e

SOME OBJECTIONS TO THE TERM TACONIC
CONSIDERED.

BY N. H. WINCHELL.

There is a just rule of nomenclature requiring only to be
mentioned to be approved, which is applicable in considering
the term Taconic. It is recognized by paleontologists, by
unanimous practice, its justice being so apparent that there has
never been any need to formulate it in words; vzz. an author’s
own definition and description of his new species must be ac-
cepted, instead of that of other investigators, and, especially, in-
stead of that of those who have described species nearly allied,
or that might come into competition with itin any way. A
corollary to this, equally self-evident, is the right that the author
has to add to or modify his original description in any manner,
even to abolish his species or to erect two or more from the
original, unless prior to his changing it another investigator had
discovered and published the necessary corrections, and had
erected specific names of his own. One other well-known law
of nomenclature, lately re-affirmed by the International Con-
gress of Geologists, is that known as the law of priority; but
priority that goes into pre-Linnzan literature (the 12th edition
of Linnaeus, 1766) is considered as having no claims, as priority,
and if aspecies from before that date be recognized it must be for
other reasons. These rules of paleontologists are based on the
broader right of the owzership of the discoverer, a right which
is recognized in all science and in all law whether domestic or
international, so broad and so fundamental that to generally ig-
nore it would bring civilized countries again into barbarism,
where the possession of property is dependent on the possession
of brawn sufficient to defend it. It is to these rules, therefore,

N.H. Winchell on the Taconic. 1 LOB

that the term Taconic makes appeal, and in the light of them a
few objections are here considered.

WHAT IS THE TP ACONIC?

Dr. Emmons officially announced it in 1842,’ but called at-
tention to the fact that it had been studied, and written about
in the American Journal of Science many years before, the
earliest mention being in 1819, by Prof. Dewey.” “The Taconic
System, as its name is intended to indicate, lies along both sides
of the Taconic range of mountains, whose direction is nearly
north and south, or for a great distance parallel with the bound-
ary line between the states of New York, Connecticut, Massa-
chusetts and Vermont. * * * after passing out ofthe state
they are found stretching through the whole length of Ver-
mont, and into Canada, as far north asQuebec, * * * They
are not a part of the former group[ 7e Champlain group |ina
metamorphic state. * * * We find no fossils in the rocks.
of which I am speaking, * * * they can be regarded in no’
other light than as inferior to the Potsdam sandstone. * * *
the equivalent of the Lower Cambrian of Sedgwick.”* His
diagrams exhibit an unconformity at the passage of his Taconic
into the rocks of the Champlain division.

In 1844, Dr. Emmons issued a pamphlet containing a revision
of his Taconic system. This was subsequently included as a
portion of his Report on the Agriculture of New York, pub-
lished in 1846. In the mean time his “system” had been antag-
onized and severely criticised not only by his colleagues on the
New York survey but by numerous other prominent geologists,
who, without exception, insisted that the Taconic was the equiva-
lent of some portions of the New York system in a metamorphic
state. This objection is the same that had been urged from the
first, and it was on this point of divergence that Emmons had
created his system. Nothing new had been discovered by his

1 Geology of New York; second district, Emmons, 1842, p..135.

American Journal of Science [1] i, 337; and ii, 246. Prof. Dewey de-
scribed a section from Williamstown to Troy. This was the first section
across the Taconic system. At Troy however he notes a change in the
slates.

3 Geology of New York; second district, pp. 138-163.

164 N.H. Winchell on the Taconic.

opponents; they simply adhered to and repeated their arguments,
based on old data.’ He, however, was not idle, but had re-ex-
amined all the facts and arguments upon which the Taconic was
supposed to rest, revisiting many of the localities in the field
where his earlier investigations had been made, and extending his
researches to Rhode Island and Maine, and secondarily to Michi-
gan. In this revision he greatly modified and amplified the
Taconic system. He availed himself of the law which allows
a paleontologist to revise his original description. He does not
change in the least the original idea, the pre-Potsdam age of the
system, but he introduces important internal re-arrangements,
limits the different members, gives them different mutual rela-
tions, and describes them all more fully. He now claimsthat the
Taconic occupies “the true paleozoic base,”— that it, and “the

> notwithstanding the announcement of

slates of the Cambrian,’
Mr. Murchison that the whole of the Cambrian is covered by the
Silurian, are marked by “the existence of peculiar fossils on both
sides of the Atlantic.” He gives diagrams of the strata that
exhibit the unconformity of the Taconic with the Calciferous
sandrock, the great difference in age between the Taconic and
the Hudson River slates, mentioning fossils of the latter and of
the Trenton within the general area of the Taconic, and calls
attention to this anomalous fact. These sections run eastwardly
from Whitehall, and Greenbush, N. Y. In this revision he de-
scribes and figures two new trilobites as characteristic of the
Taconic —Afops trilineatus and FElliptocephala asaphoides, in
which he preceded, both in the generic and the specific names,
all other designations of these fossils, though the generic names
have since been removed by Mr. Walcott and replaced respect-
ively by Ptychoparia and Olencllus described several years later.’
These are now well-known as primordial trilobites, belonging in
the “Georgia formation” of Vermont. They were found by
Dr. Fitch in Washington county N. Y. near the base of Bald
mountain.

1 Among his opponents, some of whose opinions he quotes at length,
Dr. Emmons mentions Mather, Hitchcock, Dana, H. D. and W. B. Rogers
and Murchison.

2 Bulletin No. 30, U.S. Geol. Surv.

N.H. Winchell on the. Taconic. 165

Objection No. 1.

The old objection which was at the first urged against the
Taconic still survives, and is urged principally by Prof. Dana.
It ts the equivalent of strata above the Potsdam, and only that,
and comes tnto conflict with the term Silurian. Anyone who
examines Prof. Dana’s papers, extended through the volumes
of the American Journal of Science, from 1870 to this date, will
quickly learn that the basis of all his opposition to the Taconic,
and the mainspring of all his able investigations in the rocks
lying in Vermont and western Massachusetts, is that conception
of the Taconic which he acquired in 1842, on the publication of
the geological report of Emmons on the second district. This
he distinctly affirms in his letter to Mr. Billings in 1872,’ where
he defines his idea of “the true Taconic.” In thus restricting
Mr. Emmons to his first published description of the Taconic,
he violates one of the above mentioned canons of nomenclature.
This is a sufficient answer to this objection, but, it appears that
even with that restriction, if exact justice be done to Dr.
Emmons, he may be allowed to include the primordial strata
along with those which are post-Potsdam, in the Taconic of
1842. He defines its geographic area to extend from the Hoosic
hills on the east to the limits of “the New York transition sys-
tem on the west.” He did not attempt to give exact geographic
definition to his system in that report. It was impossible. He
relied on the fundamental idea of his system, and stated that
there were “great perplexities as regards the true limits of
either system,” (/p.- 137).

But Dr. Emmons had a perfect right to remodel his strati-
graphic scheme, and to extend or restrict it,? and o one objected
to zt till 1872. It was found that at the same time with the
change, he actually demonstrated, by the aid of Billings and
Barrande, that his system embraced strata that were pre-Pots-
dam. The question whether the details of his scheme were
right, or whether he “blundered” in interpreting the complex

1 Am. Journ. Sci. (3) iii, 468.

2 Mr. Sedgwick found similar difficulties in the stratigraphy of the
Cambrian, and introduced some changes subsequent to his first descrip-
tion.

166 N. H. Winchell on the Taconic.

stratigraphy (so complex that to this day it has not been entirely
unraveled,) has no bearing on the merits of this controversy.
This was the view that was at once adopted by nearly all the
geologists of America and Europe. It was unfortunate that in
this country, at that time (1859-60), geological literature and
the ways and means of expressing geological opinion were not
in the control of his friends. Dr. Emmons went to North Car-
olina and died there during the war of the Rebellion.
Objection No. 2.

Lt includes strata that lie both above and below the Potsdam,
and owing to the uncertainty, how much of each, the term bet-
ter be abandoned. In answer to this it should be sufficient to
say that if Dr. Emmons be granted the privilege of the first
rule of nomenclature above-mentioned, there can be no uncer-
tainty as to whether the Taconic embraces post- Potsdam
strata. He expressly exempts all post-Potsdam strata. He
calls attention to the existence of post-Potsdam’ fossils in the
general area described as Taconic. The stratigraphic uncer-
tainty which is here alleged is that which has been created by
his opponents, and principally by those who insist that his origi-
nal definition of the Taconic is the only valid one. Further-
more the geographic uncertainty is rapidly disappearing. It
began to decline when Logan admitted that “there must be a
break,” and finally disclosed the “great Appalachian fault.”
It has rapidly diminished, and has now almost disappeared, under
the enlightening researches of Dana, Ford, Dwight, W alcott
and others.

Objection No. 3.

It is the equivalent of the “Lower Potsdam,’ recognized
by Billings, which ts the older designation. Adimitted; but
the term Lower Potsdam had no right to exist. It was a go-
between, intended to avoid taking sides, and was abandoned by
Billings. The great Georgiaformation or the “Lower Potsdam,”
according to Mr. Walcott contains the fauna of the upper Ta-
conic of Emmons and this fauna includes in America no less
than forty-three genera and one hundred and seven species of

primordial fossils.

1 Bulletin No. 30, U. S. Geol. Survey.

N.H. Winchell on the Taconic.

Objection No. 4.
s Itis partly Archean and partly primordial and cannot be
ussigned to any definite horizon. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has in-
sisted on a “Taconian” formation, lower than the primordial
zone. He has steadfastly sustained the Taconic system, but has
livided it between the “Taconian” and the primordial. This
lownward extension of the Taconic into an Archean terrane
eems, however, to have been negatived by the recent researches
f Mr. C. D. Walcott, who has stated that the lowest portion
yf the Taconic of Emmons contains primordial] fossils,! and be-
ongs to the “Georgia” formation.

Objection No. 45.

The term better be abandoned because it has caused trouble
nough already. It would be an analogous reply to insist on
ts adoption, because its rejection has caused trouble enough
ilready. But whether rejection or adoption be the result, the
rouble that may be caused in reaching a settlement,should play
10 part in the process. The arbitrary suppression of an unset-
led problem in science, is not the best step to insure quiet, and
ybyiate “trouble.” The scientific spirit scorns “trouble,” and
ittacks the most mountainous obstacles. The “trouble” must
ye suppressed by a correct solution and a just settlement.

Objection No. 6.

It 1s an inheritance of the dim and distant past, and cannot
e understood with any unanimity by the present generation. Tt
s pre-Linnean and mythical, It is to be admitted that the term
s a trifle older than the terms Cambrian and Hudson River, as
. semi-geological designation,’ but it was officially published
irst in 1842, and many American geologists now living were
resent at its birth. The literature is all extant. Every fact
‘an be avouched or disproved. It is mythical, moreover, only
0 those who are opposed to its recognition.

Objection No. 7.

The Taconic tis primordial, and later in use than the Cam-

1 Am. Journal of Science. (3), xxxiii, 153.
? Notes on classification and nomenclature. N.H. Winchell, Am. N at-
iralist, August, 1887.

168 * N.H. Winchell on the Taconic.

trian, and was so admitted by Dr. Emmons. Hence Cambrian
should beused instead. It is true that Dr. Emmons employed
the following words in his first publication of the Taconic sys-
tem: ‘The Taconic rocks appear to be equivalent to the Lower
Cambrian of Prof. Sedgwick, and are alone entitled to the
consideration of belonging to this system, the upper portion
being the lower part of the Silurian system.”! Prof. Dana has
interpreted this to mean* that Emmons would divide his system
between the Cambrian and the Silurian, By “upper portion”
Prof. Dana would have Dr. Emmons imply the upper portion
of the Taconic, at a time when he had not yet introduced any
division into upper and lower Taconic. But that is not what
Mr. Emmons intended to say. He intended to express his sym-
pathy with Mr. Murchison by saying that the upper portion of
the Cambrian was the same as the lower part of the Silurian,
and that the Lower Cambrian rocks of Wales were the only
ones entitled to the consideration of belonging to the Taconic
system. The expression is ambiguous, but its true meaning
would be made evident if instead of and” Dr. Emmons had
used the relative word which, so that the clause would read
which are alone entitled to the consideration of belonging to this
system. This statement of Dr. Emmons has been taken to
mean that he recognized, and intended to express, the priority
of the term Cambrian. But this is a forced, and not a legitimate
inference. Two collaborators on a subject may refer back and
forth to each other’s work without involving the question of
priority. Mr. Sedgwick in 1855 could have referred in the same
terms to the Taconic without implicating himself in the ques-
tion of priority. He could have said with perfect propriety
“The Lower Cambrian rocks appear to be equivalent to the

> and he would not thereby necessarily

Taconic of Dr. Emmons,’
have given assent to the priority of the Taconic. On the con-
trary, Dr. Emmons simply desired to exemplify by a compari-
son with a formation which Prof. Sedgwick was working on,
his own Taconic system. He had known the Taconic rocks
for twenty years. He had read the treatises of Dewey, Hitch-
cock and Eaton in the American Journal of Science since 1819,

1 Geol. of New York, 2nd district, p. 163.
2 Am. Journ. Sci. (3) ili, 469.

N.H. Winchell on the Taconic. 169

all dwelling at length on the “rocks of the Taconic range,”
grouped as a distinct terrane, and it is not probable that, with
that exact knowledge he had of current literature, American
and European, he would have fallen into such an anachronism.
The most that can be claimed adverse to the Taconic, based on
this expression, is that Dr. Emmons admitted that at the date
of the writing of his official report he knew that the Cambrian
had been announced by Sedgwick. But the “rocks of the Taconic
range” had been well known under that designation, long be-
fore they were specifically erected into the Taconic system.
That designation had the same force, and as much right to rec-
ognition as a geological entity, as a similar use of the term
“rocks of the Longmynd hills,” or “rocks of the Helderberg
mountains.” One became, by an easy change in terminology.
the Loxgmyud rocks, and the wpper and lower Helderberg
rocks, and the other was changed to Zaconic system.

This objection could be answered further by saying that the
Cambrian as defined by Sedgwick did not include a primordial
fauna, and was not intended to, and has no right therefore to. it.
Its place is the Horizon of the second fauna.’ Its stratigraphic
scheme included rocks both of the first and of the second faunas,
but Sedgwick would not admit that his Cambrian included any of
the primordial rocks. A similar mistake was made by Dr.
Emmons. His stratigraphic scheme included rocks both of
the first and second faunas, but he carefuily exempts from it all
strata known by him to contain the second fauna. Emmons
aimed to erect the primordial rocks into the Taconic system.
Sedgwick aimed to erect the second fauna rocks into the Cam-
brian system. After eliminating like mistakes from the lab-
ors of these pioneers there is aresiduum of fact and correct his-
toric interpretation which assigns the Taconic to the first
fauna aud the Cambrian to the second.

Objection No. &.
The primordial strata to which the name may be applied do
not exist in the Taconic range of mountains and the name is

1 British paleozoic fossils, Sedgwick and McCoy, 1855.
2 Notes on classfication and nomenclature. N.H. Winchell. Ameri-
can Naturalist, August, 1887, p. 693.

170 N.H. Winchell on the Taconic.

inappropriate for that reason. It is legitimate here to enquire
what constitutes the Taconic mountains. Fortunately some old
maps and definitions of the ‘Taconic mountains exist. Dr.
Emmons constructed a geological map of the state of New York
in 1844, intended to accompany his report on the Agriculture of
New York, but it was never distributed with that volume, and al-
though printed and delivered by the contractors it had been
lost.!. In the recent removal of some of the effects of the New
York State Museum into the old capitol at Albany the edition
was found stored away in a neglected room, and the most of it
is now in the possession of professor James Hall, who in April,
1887, distributed copies to the American committee of the Inter-
national Congress of Geologists. This map shows the distribu-
tion of the Taconic rocks according to the ideas of Dr. Emmons.
It is a reprint, in the main, of the map which accompanied the
first reports, but is changed in the eastern part, to represent the
Taconic system. ‘This extends in a belt from the south cover-
ing Columbia, Rensselaer, and Washington counties, and, pass-
ing into. Vermont, forms a belt along the east side of lake
Champlain and runs into Canada. Topography is a subor-
dinate feature of this map, but the main mass of the Taconic
mountains is shown on the boundary line between New York
and Massachusetts. His description in 1842 (Geology of the

cond district, p. 136) is in these words: “Lies along both
sides of the Taconic range of mountains, whose direction is
nearly north and south or for a great distance parallel with
the boundary line between the states of New York, Connecti-
cut, Massachusetts and Vermont.” His description in 1844 contains
these words: ‘In Massachusetts and Vermont,as in New York,
what has usually been denominated the primary range skirts
the Taconic system upon the east, and forms with it, parallel
belts of low mountain ranges.” Nothing farther is needed
to show that Dr. Emmons regarded the Taconic hills as ex-
tending in subordinate spurs and ridges, from the typical region
many miles further north, passing into Rensselaer and Washing-

1 Dr. Emmons in some later correspondence referred to the disap-
pearance of this map, and intimated that it has been surreptitiouslyde-
stroyed.

N.H. Wincheil on the Taconic. 173

ton counties; and if it were needed it would only be necessary
to refer to his having placed Bald Mountain,’ and Mt. To-
by, which are in Washington county, the former the locality
noted for the first primordial fossil ever discovered and identi-
fied, within the range ofthe Taconic. Further, Dr. Emmons
in refermmg to the Magnesian slate member of the Taconic,
says a “range of mountains composed of this slate extends
along the western border df Massachusetts and through Ver.
mont. It often rises to the hight of 1500 feet. This range
is known as the Zaconic range, and has furnshed the name
to the system of rocks I am describing.”’ Comparing this state-
ment with the geological map designed to acompany the vol-
ume, it will be seen at once that in order to follow the Taconic
range from the place they are represented into western Ver-
mont, it must pass through Rensselaer and Washington counties,
and hence must include Bald mountain. Therefore the objection
is baseless, because the primordial rocks do occur in at least one
point in the Taconic range.

Again, it would be premature to exclude the primordial strata

from the principal part of the Taconic range—v7z. those hills
situated on the boundary line between New York and Massa-
chusetts. The trend of the discoveries of Mr. Dana and Mr.
Dwight, it should be admitted, is toward such exclusion; but
until those hills have been subjected to a searching inspection
of their structure, no geologist can affirm with safety that no
primordial rocks occur there. The very fact that here the hills
rise to greater hight and embrace far more bulk than elsewhere

indicates some intefruption or irregularity in the strata, and if the

?The map of Dr. Asa Fitch, accompanying his treatise on Washington
county in 1849, shows two “Bald” mountains, one in Greenwich and one
at the N. W. corner of Hebron, but the former is the primordial local-
ity. This map shows the country mountainous, with low spurs of the
northern extension of the Taconic hills.

In the final report on the the Geology of Vermont, vol. ii, p. 873, is
a description of the Taconic mountains in Vermont in which they are
said to run parallel with the Green mountains, and in the southern part
of the state to be separated into several series that are apparently wholly
independent of each other, similar to their appearance in Washington
county, New York.

2 Agriculture of New York, p. 77.

172 Dodge on Bow ‘River Valley Anthracite Coal.

lower hills immediately to the N. E. and 8. W. from this main
mass embrace only strata of the second fauna, there is the more
reason to expect other terranes involved in the mountains them-
selves.

These objections to the term Taconic being thus obviated we
may at least fairly adopt the conclusion arrived at by Mr.
Walcott after careful field examination and study of the fossils.

1. After deducting all the errors. the upper Taconic remains
as a distinct formation beneath the horizon of the Potsdam sand-
stone.'

2. Theterm Taconic is applicable to American strata carrying
the first or primordial fauna, unless Cambrian has a clear pri-

ority of usage.”

ANTHRACITE COAL IN THE VALLEY OF THE BOW
RIVER, NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF CANADA.

BY (PRON. JAMES, A. DODGE.

I have recently made an analysis of a sample of coal received
from “The Canadian Anthracite Company,” for Mr. A. Pugh,
Gen’! Manager, St. Paul, Minn. I have Mr. Pugh’s consent
to make the matter public, and at my request he has given me
some facts as to the locality from which this sample of coal was
obtained.

The coal has all the appearance of anthracite. The analysis
made by me was not a complete elementary analysis, but such
as I have usually made to determine the character of samples

of coal.
ANALYSIS.
Volatile mvattene enters societies 2.64 per cent.
Hixe dy Carbomicjnersieane volcncvelcoberstroueleptrerstele ot: $6.28 ce
ANSINE HSS Oo HC BANU GsbiOee mace ok pn 0b 0 bEc ooo sol 11.07 tb

The pulverized coal was dried at 100° C. before analysis.
The loss by drying was scarcely appreciable.

Taking out the ash from the preceding results, and calculating
to ash-free substance, we have the following figures:

Nolatileimiattenii i acyncmialyocieers sel ier rsiskeraicy 2.97 per cent.
Bixed carbom is ao metenttececroocss on less storeielars 97-93 Ss

1 Bulletin No. 30, U. S. Geol. Sur., p. 7o.
2 American Journal of Science, (3) xxxiii, 153.

N.H..Winchell on a great Primordial Quarisyte. 173

_ The analysis thus shows that the coal is veritable anthracite.

From the letter of Mr. Pugh, I take the following state-
ments.

“This coal basin lies in the valley of the Bow river, in the
Province of Alberta, Northwest Territory of Canada. We
have prospected the croppings on the north edge of the basin for
something like twenty miles. There are a number of seams,”
perhaps twenty or more, in the basin, varying in thickness from
Beamen to nity fect. .*, *. “ ‘These veins all dip: to
the south from thirty-two to forty-five degrees, and have a
sandstone bottom and slate roof.” * * * “We have made
an opening above water level and driven a tunnel 209 ft. at
right angles with the coal seams, and have driven 3,500 ft.
of gangways and the same number of feet of headings and air-
ways.” “We have machinery for breaking and preparing the
coal on the ground.” ‘We have mined, perhaps, 5,000 tons,
most of which has been sent to the Pacific coast.”

I understand that the Canadian Pacific Railway runs through

the basin above referred to.
Minneapolis, Feb. 20, 1888.

A GREAT PRIMORDIAL QUARTZYTE.

Bia Nelle iWalN CREE.

The recent announcement by Mr. Walcott that the “Granular
quartz” of the Taconic system contains the fauna of the Georgia
slates of Vermont, provokes a series of reflections that lead to
interesting and probable generalizations respecting the equiva-
lents of the Granular Quartz in other parts of the country.

The Granular quartz of Dr. Emmons’ Taconic forms a moun-
tain range extending northward, through Pownal, Wallingford,
and Bristolto Starksboro, Vermont, where, according to the geo-
logists of the Vermont survey, it terminates abruptly, and the
name is changed without any intervening strata, to “Red sand-
rock,” and as a red sandrock it constitutes, in their opinion, an
independent series of mountains, but really unites with another
spur of the same coming from the southwest. The combined
series then extends northward constituting the “Red sandrock”

144 N.H. Winchell on a great Primordial Ouarizyte.

mountains. Prof. Emmons regarded these quartzose rocks as
distinct, and the Red sandsrock as the Potsdam sandstone. But
there never has been given any good reason for separating them,
and it seems now thatthe work of Mr. Walcott has indissolubly
united them as one and the same formation. Barrande and
Billings called attention first to the primordial character of the
fossils contained in the Red sandstone at Georgia, Vermont, and
from that time to this there has been a steady increase in that
fauna, until now it is regarded asthe chief member of the prim-
ordial in America.

If the “red sandrock,” and the granular quartz,’
a mass of hard quartzyte which has a thickness of over a
thousand feet, be fellowed westwardly, it is found to rise on the

’ constituting

west side of lake Champlain, and, with a short spur extending
into Canada, sweeps along the northern and northwestern borders
of the Adirondack mountains, affording large outcrops on the
Racket river, and important quarries at Potsdam, in St. Law-
rence county. Here it has been described by Dr. Emmons and
named “Potsdam sandstone.” His description is so exact and so
important that it should be given wide publication.’

I shall not enter upon its geological relations, any further than to state
that in Potsdam, and other towns in which it appears, it uniformly rests
on the primary strata; and in no part of the country is there any rock
which interposes itself between it and the primary, so that it appears here
as the oldest representative of the transition series. The identification of
this rock with the sandstones along the south border of lake Ontario
will be a matter of some difficulty. It is geologically below the transition
limestone, and never in the northern district alternates with it, but always
holds the relation of an inferior rock. So much is known of its position,
but still some doubt remains as to its general relation and to its name and
place in the series of rocks. Some call it the old red sandstone; others
regard it as equivalent to the new, or saliferous rock of Eaton. But our
business is to describe the rock as it is, and speak of its economical ap-
plications, leaving some doubtful points to be cleared up by future ob-
servations.

This rock is a true sandstone, of ared, yellowish-red, gray and grayish
white colors. It is made up of grains of sand and held together without
cement [sic]. Intermixed with the siliceous grains are finer particles of
yellowish feldspar, which do not essentially change the character of the
sandstone, but they show the probable source from which the materials
forming it were originally derived, viz. some of the varieties of granite.

1 Annual report of the geological survey of New York for 1837, p. 214.

NV. H. Winchell on a Great Primordial Quartsyte. 195

Unlike, however, most of the sandstones, it is destitute of scales of mica.
The coloring matter of the rock is evidently oxide of iron, but unequally
diffused through it, giving it intensity or deepness of color in proportion
to its quantity. In some places it is almost wanting, which makes it,
when pulverized, a good material for glass, The grains and particles in
its composition are generally angular, but where it takes the character
of a conglomerate, as it doesin the inferior layers, they are frequently
rounded. The thicker strata exhibit an obscurely striped appearance,
owing to prevalence of certain colors in different layers.

Two properties possessed by this sandstone increase essentially its value
for all purposes to which it can be applied—its durability which is owing
to its siliceous character, its evenness of grain and strata which facilitates
and lessons the labor of quarrying and afterwards saves the expense of
dressing preparatory to its employment as a building material. Both of
these characters fit it admirably for every kind of use to which stone is
ever required. As a firestone nothing can be found better, and if it is
required for durable public works, as the locks of canals, etc., no material
can be found better suited for the purpose.

The strata of Racket river, where the principal quarries are opened,
rise about 65 or 70 feet above the river. The quarries extend some ten
miles along this river, which has apparently cut through the rock and
exposed the strata on each side, dipping to the northwest at an angle of
about 30 degrees. I have not ascertained the whole thickness of the
beds. The layers vary in thickness from half an inch to four feet, so
that every variety may be obtained; and the thicker strata may be split to
any required thickness for which they may be wanted. Slabs having any
superficial area which can be used, and of the given thickness, may be
quarried with ease. The waters from which this sedimentary rock were
formed, most have been ina perfectly tranquil state to have preserved
such a regularity and evenness of surface and freedom from contortion.
Such a state did not prevail everywhere, even in the immediate vicinity
of Potsdam, for at DeKalb, in the same formation, there are some very
remarkable contortions and disturbances. * * * * It appears that
when the strata were elevated they were frequently fractured for miles
in a north and south direction, and along the line of the greatest uplift
they were in one sense comminuted, or broken into small pieces. Sub-
sequently currents of water passing over the whole region further broke
up and carried away all the loose materials. The result of the combined
effects of the uplift and of the currents has been the production of long
narrow valleys, bounded on both sides by perpendicular walls of sand-
stone, which still stand, in many instances like regular mason work.
The fractures usually extend down to the primary strata, and the whole
stratum of sandstone has been sometimes removed to the gneiss and
granite. '

That the above is not hypothetical is evident from the rounded corners
of those portions of the strata which lie along these valleys and also from
the scratches they received, and which still remain as perfect and fresh

176 = N.H. Winchell on a great Primordial Quartzyte.

as if they were made yesterday.! Fig. 12 [not re-produced] is a transverse
section of one of the valleys described above. The walls on either side
are rounded and scratched. Their depth varies from 10 to 100 feet.

The sandstone of Potsdam bears a land transportation of from 15 to 20
miles; and at these distances from the quarries it is considered as cheap
a material for building as brick, and I venture to say there is no stone in
the state, or anywhere else, equal to it for durability. As regards beauty
individuals may differ, but there is no stone superior to it in this respect,
unless itis marble. All the sandstones and freestones which are brought
to the New York and Albany markets, crumble more or less, and suffer
eventually from the weather, but this will resist attacks of all the natural
agents to which it may be exposed. * * * Asa firestone the Potsdam
sandstone is held in the highest repute. Composed as it is of siliceous
grains, compacted together by compression, it is calculated to resist the
highest degree of heat; and as it is uncrystallized it is not liable to crack
by this exposure. All the furnaces of St. Lawrence and Jefferson counties
have their hearths of this sandstone. Another use to which I conceive
this stone may be applied, is for grinding hard bodies, and perhaps it may
answer for coarse grindstones, and for some particular offices where a
certain degree of hardness is required it may be superior to the ordinary
stones.

From this place this formation strikes across the St. Lawrence
river toward the northwest, and is represented as far west as
Bedford in the county of Frontenac, on the geological map
of Canada, 1863.

Thence westward it is lost, and the country is represented as
occupied by the Laurentian. A formation of its persistency of
character and thickens however can hardly be expected to dis-
appear so soon, and it is the purpose of this paper to call atten-
tion to the great probability that the great primordial quartzyte
of Minnesota and Wisconsin is the same as that described by
Dr. Emmons at Potsdam.

In the first’ place all the physical characters that are men-
tioned by Dr. Emmons, and those that are given by Prof. Hitch-
cock inthe Vermont reports, as belonging to and characterizing
the “sandstone of Potsdam,” are perfectly applicable to the
quartzyte seen at Pipestone, Minnesota, and the same in Bar-
ron county, Wisconsin. One might take the description of Dr.
Emmons in his hand, and, standing on the quartzyte ranges of

1 Dr. Emmons is here evidently describing the well known glacial
strie which are every where beautifully preserved on this rock through-
out the Northwest.

N.H. Winchell on a Great Primordial Ouarizyie. 177
xX a /

southwestern Minnesota, he could read a perfect account of
the rock he was standing on. I would refer the reader to
the first annual report of the Minnesota geological survey for a
somewhat detailed comparison of these widely separate areas
of this great formation. This similarity was forcibly brought
to the attention of the writer again in 1884 when at New Or-
leans. The State of New York had on exhibition there, with
other things, a set of rock samples. The Potsdam sandstone
was represented by a block a foot square and abont eighti nches
thick. Struck with the great resemblance it bore to the Pipestone
quartzyte of Minnesota I solicited of Mr. C. E Hall who had
the specimens in charge, and received from him the donation
of this block to the muesum of the University of Minnesota.
On being placed alongside of similar blocks of quartzyte from
Minnesota, it cannot bg said to differ in any particular. It is
red, with some interrupted stripings of light red, but it is a com-
pact though granular quartzyte, and hardly worthy of the name
sandstone. When subsequently the discovery of a primordial
fauna was made,in the red quartzyte at Pipestone’ there seemed to
be lacking no important evidence to parallelize these outcrops.*

In July, 1887,the writer visited and examined the rocks of the
“original Huronian.” He was at once convinced of the per-
fect parallelism of the great quartzyte there displayed with the
quartzyte of Wisconsin and Minnesota, as claimed by the geolo-
gists of Wisconsin. Some of the details of this similarity will
be given ina subsequent paper; and in so far as that identity goes
he was convinced that the Minnesota quartzytes also are Huro-
nian. But what then is this Huronian quartzyte other than the
Potsdam sandstone of New York, the red sandrock of Vermont,
and the granular quartz of the Tacnoic? Things that are equal
to the same thing an equal to each other. The Huronian, so
far as this quartzyte is concerned, is a part of the Taconic; and
the Potsdam itself is the same, notwithstanding the contrary
protestation of Emmons, and in harmony with the conclusions
of the geologists of the Vermont survey.

of Minnesota.
2 The Potsdam sandstone is used in the new part of Columbia college
in New York City.

178 N.H. Winchell on a great Primordiat Quarisyte.

What do we have then?—a great primordial quartzyte,
which under different names extends from New England,
through Canada, into Wisconsin, Minnesota and to the Black
Hills of Dakota. It has also been identified further west, mak-

ing it in American geology truly a continental formation,
whose simple, persistent and uniform characters not only ren-
der it readily recognizable but impart to it that feature which
all continental formations possess,

Many important and interesting corollaries spring from this
generalization.

1. The Potsdam, as claimed by Profs. Hitchcock and Jules
Marcou, is a part of the Taconic.

2. The Huronian is the equivalent of the Taconic, at least
so far as the common possession of this quartzyte makes them
identical. fs pane
3. The Barraboo quartzyte, the Barron county quartzyte,
the Wauswaugoning quartzyte, the Sioux quartzyte and the
Black Hills quartzyte are identical parts of the Taconic.

4. This would leave the “black slate” of Bald moun-
tain and the “Taconic slate” as the. only portions of the
Taconic not proven to be equivalents of some parts of the New
York series; and if Mr. Walcott’s inference that these slates are
the deep-water equivalents of the off-shore deposits of the
“oranular quartz” be correct, no part of the Taconic would
remain as an independent formation.

5. If, however, the succession of strata east of the Adiron-
dack mountains is the same as in the area of the original Huro-
nian and in northeastern Minnesota, this great quartzyte im-
mediately overlies, in some places, a black slate and in others
it lies unconformably on granite; hence the granular quartz of
Emmons probably belongs above his black slate.

6. The Potsdam quartzyte-sandstone should be sought for
not only in that part of Canada where it has been represented
as wanting, but also in northern Michigan where it has been

supposed to be represented by the “eastern sandstones.”

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 179

A CORRELATION OF THE LOWER SILURIAN HORIZONS
OF TENNESEE AND OF THE OHIO AND MISSISSIPPI
VALLEYS WITH THOSE OF NEW YORK AND CANADA.

BY 2. 0; ULRICH.
(Continued from the February number.)

Beds VIII. These beds, though in both features somewhat
variable, are easily distinguished from the preceding by their
composition and color. Their maximum thickness in central
Kentucky where they have been studied in Mercer, Henry,
and Fayette counties, is apparently not over twenty feet, and
seems sometimes to be considerably less. The upper half, con-
sisting of heavy bedded, gray, granular limestone, is the variable
member. Its fossils also are few and badly preserved. The
lower half seems more constant in its thickness, and consists of
less coarsely granular, thin and evenly bedded layers.

_ Some of the layers of this division are readily decomposed
by carbonated waters, causing subterranean cavities to be formed,
which in turn give rise to large springs. The latter sometimes
open at the bottom of deep holes; at other times they pour in
greater or less volume from the sides of small cliffs.

The fossils, as already stated, are few and usually unfit for
fine discrimination, being in most cases either roughly silicified
or largely destroyed by granulation. Still,in the lower portion,
the surfaces of some of the thinnest layers are nearly filled with
the shells of a thin and nearly flat form of Strophomena, and
other fossils. Of those that conld be determined the following

are of interest in this connection:

Buthotrephis? succulens Yall. Glyptocrinus ramulosus 7 Bill.
Girvawglla sp. a. ASzospira recurvirostris Hall.
Flindia sp. «. Orthtsina sp. a

Beds IX. This division in its lithological characters some-
what resembles the upper half of bed IV, and like it seems to
be rather local in its distribution. Its thickness in Mercer and
Boyle counties where it is more distinct than elsewhere, is pro-
bably not greater than tifteen feet. The layers are massive, sub-
crystalline or granular, of a grayish color, and charged with
cellulose chert and silicitied fossils. The rock disintegrates rap-

dly and is covered with a thick layer of light red soil, from which

180 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

the rains wash out the chert and fossils. The latter are in a
beautiful state of preservation and belong to numerous species,
the Gasteropoda being the best represented.

The best exposure of this horizon seen was found in a cut
along the Cincinnati Southern R. R. at a point about one mile
and a half south of Burgin, Ky. Several good exposures were
also met with in the vicinity of Lexington, Ky.

The following is a list of the principal fossils:

Buthotrephis? succulens Hall. Murchisonia pulchra McCoy.
Stromatocerium pustulosum Safford. ee sumnerensts Safford.
Phylloporina granistriata Ul. Flolopea obliqua Hall.
Orthis testudinarta (very thin form) Cyclora depressa? Ulrich.
Zygospira recurvirostris Hall. “ minuta Hall.
Fehynchonella tncrebescens Hall. “ parvula Hall.
Bellerophon troosti Safford (Rare.) Ambonychia intermedia M. and W.

e socialis N. sp. Tellinomya sp. closely .related to 7.

a lindsleyi Safford. nasuta Hall, but larger and

iy acuta Sowerby. higher.
Cyrtolites ornatus Conrad. Cypricardites worthent n. sp)
Metoptoma ungula n. sp. us haynina Safford.
Pileurotomaria (Raphistoma) subtili- Matheria tener Bill.

stvtata Vall. Modtolopsis nats Bill.

Pleurotomarta n. sp. a. Conocardium itmmaturum Bill.
Murchisonia gyrogonta McCoy. Dalmanites callicephalus Green.

Beds X. To these Mr. Linney has applied the provisional
name “Upper Birds-eye beds.” They have a maximum thick-
ness in Mercer and Boyle counties of about twenty-five feet,
and consist mainly of firm, light or dark dove-colored limestones,
in from one to two feet layers, with some of them separated by
thin seams of shale. Toward the top the layers are lumpy and
change in color into gray and then bluish, showing also signs
of slight disturbances. The uppermost layer is generally dis-
tinguished by the large masses of Stromatocerium ( ?Labechia)
pustulosum Safford, which abound in it, while the two or three
feet below it contain numerous compressed valves and com-
plete shells of Orthis borealis Billings, and Rhynchonella in-
crebescens Hall. The dove-colored layers, in their compact
texture and “Birdseye” structure, closely resemble those de-
scribed in this paper as beds III.« Some of them, the darker
ones in particular, hold large numbers of Leperditia and Tsoch-

1 This name is proposed for the shell of which an internal cast is figured
and described in vol. iii. of the Ill. Geol. Surv. p. 311, plate 3, figs ga-

gd. Several fine specimens have been obtained from these beds.

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Siiurian. 18F
zlina, but other fossils are rare. Near the bottom there is a
massive subcrystalline layer, holding an abundance of Cyrta-
danta, Tellinomya Bellerophon troosti, Safford, and AZurch-
isonia gracilis Salter (?Hall).
icified and well preserved.
another layer in which the fossils are siliceous, and in which

The fossils in this layer are sil-
Near the top, again, there is often

several of those found in lower layers reappear associated with
fine examples of Zetradium fibratum.
Of the thirty or more species of fossils that have been col

lected from these beds the following should be mentioned:

Buthotrephis ? succulens Hall.
Tetradium fibratum Safford.
minor ? Safford.
ss columnare Hall.
Stictopora paupera Ulrich.
Zygospira recurvirostris Hall.

Bellerophon troosti, Safford.
Carinaropsts cunulae Hall.
Pleurotomaria eugenia Billings.
Murchisonia bilicincta Hall
a gracilis Salter (? Hall).
ue sumnerensis Safford,

modesta Say, (seems to Tellinomya hartsvillensis Safford.
have modified from the preced- Cyfrtcardites trentonensis n. sp.
ing). Leperditia armata Walcott.
thynchonella increbescens Hall. b Josephana Jones.
“ proctert, n. sp. (Like = /sochilina jonesi Wetherby.

FR. dentata Hall, but narrower
and with much more promi-
nent and less incurved beak.) .

The beds designated as VIII, IX, X, probably constitute local
divisions of a single series of strata, As, however, south of the
Kentucky river in central Kentucky each is marked by its own
lithological peculiarities as well as by a largely different fauna,
it seems desirable to treat them separately. In tracing them to
the north they decrease in thickness and seem to loose their
identity, or one or two of the members run out.

Thus, at Lexington, though still distinguishable, they are
nevertheless more intimately connected and thinner than in
Mercer and Boyle counties. At Cincinnati, as shown by deep
well borings, they are represented by only twenty feet of ex-
tough, bluish-drab, limestone, indicating that the
In northern Indiana they

ceedingly
upper division is the most persistent.
appear to be still further reduced, the hard cap of the Trenton
being, according to the reports of the drillers, often less than
five feet thick.

Some beds exposed in the bank of the Ohio river at Point
Pleasant, about twenty-one miles south east of the mouth of the

Licking river opposite Cincinnati O., are referred to this horizon.

182 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

They have been but little studied and so far as known, contain
but few fossils, still, enongh has been learned to prove them
older than any exposed at Cincinnati.

In central Kentucky the beds under consideration, (particu-
larly the upper member) are known to contain deposits of bary-
tes, lead, and zinc, while some of the layers are occasionally
porous, and hold small cavities filled with petroleum. <A thin
layer of sandstone is also present. Whether the recent flow of
gas and oil in Ohio and Indiana is derived from them or from
the equivalent of the “Blue Grass” beds immediately below
them, is an interesting point that remains as yet undetermined.

The ten beds or divisions so far treated, with the exception
of VI and VII, consist mainly of more or less heavy bedded
limestones. On the other hand, in the succeeding beds of the
Lower Silurian series of this area, soft, bluish shales or marls pre-
dominate, and layers of limestone over a foot in thickness are
very rare. This lithological change is accompanied by an
equally marked change in the fauna, since but a few species,
comparatively, are common to beds X and succeeding deposits.

The series intervening between beds X and the overlying
Upper Silurian rocks have been the subject of much discussion.
In the Ohio geological reports, Prof. Orton divides them into
two sections, which he calls the Cincinnati and Lebanon beds.
The first he again subdivides into three portions named, in as-
cending order, River Quarry beds, Eden shales, aud Hill Quarry
beds.

In the later Kentucky reports Mr. Linney and others divide
the series into three sections which they call the lower, middle
and upper Hudson beds.

Contrary to the plan usually pursued, several reasons induced
me to begin their discussion with a tabulated list of the fossils
whose range in them has been approximately determined. The
list embraces but a few more than half of the number of species
known to me, but asthe unnoticed forms are in most cases new,
doubtfully identified, or not fully understood, they could not
properly be included. Many of them, the undescribed forms
especially, are characteristic of one or the other of the divisions,
and they doubtlessly more than off-set the number which future

Ulv¥ich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 183

research may show to be less restricted in their range than
given.

First, however, it is necessary to state that I divide the series
into four principal divisions, which in part agree with those
adopted by both the Ohio and Kentucky geologists. They are
based upon recognizable though not sharply distinguished lith-
ological peculiarities, and upon more pronounced faunal differ-
ences. The lower two divisions are each again subdivided into
two minor sections, distinguished as a and 4. All of these divis-
ions will be considered in detail later on.

TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAI. FOSSILS OF Beps XI, XII, XIII
AND XIV, SHOWING THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND RANGE.

ul saraedsy
]

‘Spag LaMO'T

1 Buthotrephis LACUS Lae wes eck. cones seslners sete ee % *
RaniMlosais. Ae Miller asc sf ooiee ese sees ron BP ooesbe, Godse ober tide

3 ae 17 (e520 b VO}>E yd s (fs HH See enn pe Sree oe oeeeetes ze *

4 pce bahaa PUROSHM aL teeta wee ateeste sue, sales *

5 ? paeaiue Hall.

12 Bycloptiseus laterale Disich IMS eee eae ica eabeeese
13|Sphenophyllum primaevum Lesq.....
14|Calathium sp |
15|Discophycus ty picalis. Walcott. ............2..-ecesccesecene[eccede|cceeselesenes fee | |
16|Dystactospongia insolens Miller ...............ceeeeee Vertes | eas
M7Patersonia Giuneiis: Miller: stecvei.c..cvvereees cossctnce sees
18|Heterspongia subramosa Ulrich..........00. cece
19/Stromatocerium pustulosum Safford...................
20|Beatricea nodulosa Billings..................cecsseceeeeee ene leeciees

21 ce tindulata Billingssis Yee e ek etki *
22|Labechia ohioensis Nicholson . | *

3 we montifera Ulvich.......

25!Solenopora compacta Billings.............ccecseseeeeee ees
26/Palaeophyllum divaricans Nicholson................2.02|eseee: Hires atettee altrosce| ccaces *
27|Zaphrentis canadensis Billings ............cccceceseceeeeeeefeeeeee (Ss terre Hecate |asees's *
28|/Columnaria alveolata GOldfUSS .....cc.ceececcesseeceeeeee[eeeees Reseed [eecen| osteanl|saecea|eamsee
29|Columnaria halli Nicholson................s::ssseeseeeeeeeees bead ea leaceeal eae alsgeees *
30 m calicina NiCHOISON. c2...ie.cscccs.sescsesceeees tia fexasea|i Wate [aecsealezeneallecacet
Si wolumnopora: Cribriiormis Nich) seis: .e....<g0e0--24-ns)ecacetlebseee focidaae scoot *
32) Protorea vetusta ?Hall.............0c..cseewscssecsesescsecsees tescaee Npe'al eae lesscoulanse es is
33 Tetradium APPLO MIMI UIPIGH esc... eet serecoeae| estrus |enseas Weeeets taseact I imeents ¥
34 fibratum Safford ..........:0..00...000 Sela ae Gs | | |
35 Graptolithus eracilis Elall) ..2c.tssteshesteheesk ocess ee ollieteeel! * j
36 CENwis? POrtlock: were kiki. ccsesosvenccslecnscs * |
37 Dendrograptus SM ACHTIMIUIS ESO Ree Aes eves sews cossedee on] ences |osees’ %,
38 tenuiramosus, WlCOtb....:...6..0cc002|s0--0eleecese * | }
39|Dicranograptus ramosus Hall .............ccceeeeeeeeeeeees | * |
40 Diplograptus Whittheldd, a siii3.5irctecesc0.esosecoecass leeesad : |
41 | bg

| *

HADDHDHHeH *

SPHIULGRUS AVAL (i bcs..eeteskcccccsdeececotetes
42 |Climacograptus ae MUA escttstecceduccssesdanstoeen|wevecs | ae

50) oL sculptilis Miller

‘sgl es ? parvus Haill..............

52 ss miamiensis Miller

53) Reteocrinus oncalli Hall ...................

54) ss magnificus Miller

55 Canistrocrinus pattersoni Miller

56) te richardsoni Wetherby
57|Mariacrinus harrisi Miller

58/Xenocrinus baeri Meek.........

59 ss pencillus Miller...

60 Heterocrinus simplex Hall

61! us grandis Meek..................

62) as canadensis Billings

63 Stenocrinus heterodactylus Hall

64, > propinquus WIIG) 9 cea aadesacs: cospecesaaraoNcOe
65) ee ? geniculatus Ulrich

66 “ pentagonus Ulrich

‘67\Ohiocrinus constrictus Hall

68) uA Vea S HEV ay eee ee Si nseueccuaseccn cnneasseunaes is

69|Iocrinus subcrassus M, and W,.........::::c0+ sseeeereees a
70, Anomalocrinus caponiformis LYON................e0cs8e
71/\Dendrocrinus cincinnatiensis Meek

72| Sf COSED (si ecccosecaceescecssoaoeSosdcasecsasucesscsecss
73 ss Gy eri eek ve inGi ce sumdscnwensdumsceacscasnsasee
TA Me polydactylus Shumard ..

7 (MerOCEINUS CUNRbISMUIIGhbyccssesessesccsecesconecesceeesssncsoces

76 Lepocrinites moorei Meek
77 Agelacrinites cincinnatiensis Roemer.
qT8 “ee
79 “
80 Hemicystites granulatus Hall

82)Lichenocrinus dubius Miller ..................cecceeeeeeeeeee

83) ‘ pattersonw Milllervi..s2c1.ccssccseosccees
84 ss tuberculatus Miller

85 os Qiimis Maller esses cee- ts ccnes'es es
86|Cyclocystoides mundulus M. and D. ..............
87(Palacaster timed Ulrich jc. ce pacccseccscsssenoccsscosuses eee
88;Taeniaster fimbriata Ulrich .....................cceeeceeeees
89 Ob MExNOSsSa Ms ANGND) teccnescecovececcesceveronses
90|Rhopalonaria venosa Ulrich

91|/Stomatopora inflata Hall ...............ccsesseeerneeeereeees
‘92 arachnoides Halli vu icscscccscte-reefocosae
93 ss PLoubanal Miller... cscesccessssessnusescoess
94 Ae SPONGOSAINICH ie achertcseseenccsesses saanccseses
95) Berenicia vesiculosa Ulrich .................ecceecceeesceeeeees
96 as PLM Give OMICh yess. .ecescetcce'-ssowscoserscestacns
97 Monticulipora cincinnatiensis James.............ceeee
98 mammulata d’Orb .......

99 es molesta Nich.................

100 cM parasitica Ulrich .............cceeceseceeee

101 ce NSS WASHUIT Che erent uemaelcvcnse tea culscnvene

102 Atactoporella muUndwla: Wlich)..:..3....c.0c0.s0sces

103 multigranosa Ulrich..

104 ud ortoni Nicholson ......

105 a tenella Ulrich ............

106 Oi schucherti Ulrich ..............

107 s typicalis Ulrich ..0.)..c2c.5...6.

108 es newportensis Ulrich

109 Peronopora compressa Ulrich .................

110 decipiens Rominger

ila tak Ot MELA MULCH cece eenee tee taaaerneunececienmatst

112 Homotrypa curvata/Ulrich.........

113 dawsoni Nicholson

PUES Ea eee acca neees
Vorticellatus Eales tecesescscsssece stl

1 Stellatuselall 000. ale ee

184 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.
Sie
i ~
Gy) fee
b 2 fe EE Ee
43|\Inocaulis arbuscula Ulrich ..................-ces«eossseosesers
44|Megalograptus welchi Miller........ .........
45 Glyptocrinus decadactylus Hall
46 var. with long basals| *| *| #
47 ag Gyeri! Meee see eee ehaeccessecss| Patel eecce| aeeeee teats
48 a SUDZIODOSUB MeeKie i e.:..tie cst pcnsceccea|tereralnccsss|ecncoe| Une
49) & ShaferiU Millers cy sedssacuecescseersonsuessce

*
+e HE

*

* % 8%

+4 HH

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silyrian. 185

a0 bd oa ee
~ ~ ~
Sef |e aS
fey a BD} a-) BD =o oS
114'Homotrypa obliqua Ulrich ..........0....cccccccessesseereeee bd albany PA a see 2 |
115; MUloipmbercwalatamWhibhel dco. s.c.. Mati a| © Sealers es beccesbeecedle sees. *
116 Heterotrypa frondosa = OUD iiiecciescescsss Pree Peery teva
117) Denetiiccntncnunsweressrcactinsduecesossl<uicrtlenssnatccsaec] va-en *
118, “ taflends U eich AF 6 ENS FRIS O9 8 EO Eitan Dead *
119 Ma DLOMMCAVUITICHIG 2 o.. be seeecoee se tehvereucnl * | #
120 6s BOLGbATIAUMCICH Se) snoeicescdsc cues sreacet anes lattes [sae (Pind a |
121) Us TSCM PUlCHEU BG INIC .sac+.c. conc seas eks verancees|oeomtae |
122|Dekayia aspera Ed. and Haime.................:..cs0ssc00|cosees
123 ae MP PLESSATUITICH 35 f.235 520s suse -cseshetta'sapseatasese Uses
124|Dekayia patipera Ulich .............ccccssessceseeevevevseees ees |
125|Dekayella Obscura Wiech °...2..2-:....-0scdoosesohenresesoesae Saree: eee
126) a ili GHINICH OW ON: Ayo sees es ceca cee beer case eteese cl eens ere
127|Batostoma erraticum Ulrich.............ccccceeet eles | # |
128) ss implicatum Nicholson eel
129} ss HAMS L INICMOIS Os ..; c-c-.s ecseseessesecsysscuesste ties an
130) us REVIT UIA Chisees a.cscese sone etsederesse opensce os |sSoses ecore iene
131; « pee rein re arn MEAL ker ea Als Ges le
132 cs WarlaOuesUITIChs....s2c. vesesessscsecsersseyaationl oie Hdest desoers Hicenes|Sovecs * *
133 Callopora Gale Hd; ANG MELAMINE: ssc .sseseereeerteeenerelnes ek seen) epece *
1384 Gx pall baUIRICD eee. oe .cetstwesesepadaccess teases (RRC Seem (Ra Pte nee Ho fa Be *
135 s TOGILOSA NICH tren eeseseec coon creas csden es eceeclee es eases :* |
136 Ue Sipillaroideds MICH ser. scsc.ceosesneseeee se eeaweeee > |
137 US BuUbplanaiWLrichis- gece te.ce<cesse-s-ameareseeses
188) of MAM OSA GAOL eaet-Svacsseersenastssanesoaascresesbes |
139 es rugosa Ed. and Haime.................esteses0|
140 Cailoporella harvisi: UIC) -..5.......0..c00csvesecenecacacees *
141) 2 POIGTIS WIRICHOLG No 50, cocanascenesatsesensetce *
142 Aspidopora ALCOA BIC De ccc asecas cosseeesesaueedseaee al
143! CALVCILANINIGHy jets ee eece ae. sone cee |e * |
144 st MGW DELLE VAUNICH 02.57). sscctbecstocse: ern a * |
145|Constellaria florida Ulrich ...........000...c:cccsseeeneceeeee| |
146) ie HIBCHOLISUrIC Hes! cos crc tortie cas eeotecdee * |
147} os inabeyreisy Taher ees sck ee csscceeed)cssnass *
148) iG polystomella Nich po Le
149} Batostomella gracilis Ni. 20). 05....20:.10.scccsessesecceveee| vcses|ecovse|oveane *
150 ue MICS kal eV AMES ce srcsswepoceceesecsseasaceee op eas *
151} o simulatrix Ulrich PA | | a] o#
pa Bythoporaarctipora NICH.) 42.)..1.ccccdsess.ceseseanetaseseclocaree * | * } |
153|Bythopora delicatula Nich. ..0........c0..ccscccseecceereeeeee| ocece, Peel te alene Peed ik
154 ee TEUGIGOS Ae AMG Whee sntsecsnesaces seas coe en oe leeeasc|wcaeas ms
155 Amplexopora Cingulata Ulrich bi soissc resi cacteies ieee eae ete *
156) PUstilosa WUriCh cess catesseeeeosbostecss ie Ne a HS celle Bie Recae *
157 se SEPLOSAUNTIGM sss. a coerce stees-soutesededs |hecees =| —s = |
158 fe TOWUSUANU ICH eisai cceiesectxtcscse-steosspevecl ceecleehe rel sokeelssenes fe hapa
159|Atactopora hirsuta Ulrich ................0c0.s-.-csecceeereeelocess. | * | #
160 e TMAH AiAN WO MEICH case ssa sccnseWierssansseesseoayosesed) secace AL eal oe |
16] Leptotrypa clavis Ulrich . *
162) cortex Ulrich . * |
163) af Calcaolaphin nGeD) seen cs ee Eee Me eet os | #
164 ¢ Clavacoldear NIC sso concrete eels Leped fiepssse|csse | *
165 of Mine wie NIGD es esses. oeeivct gree vestenvacca liars -| aevoeoledecds = 2+
166 as PUTT VO ACh eee tacoscy doees sdusesarcsssseeelevceos ieate eee cece: | *
167 ce OLD MLA UEIGE cescy: eee tea pce scepsaraseesebired Shcsne |accuee lexcoeal Sacco *
168 Monotrypella quadrata Rominger......... AST crete Ol 5s Peeeee Eee eee jase Hy Ve
169 GUAATANEULAEIS WiNICHCIG: see-2.derea. teal oetee | Gaerce| euokae|etdeeelocceecllcauece *
170 “ Subquadracan Ulrich’, <5. vescb-t0 ssaasseselocen cu lascees Ieeere) Peaaee Rere TANS
a t7 sa i BEOUALMANOIEICM cass. eerese ec seoesiyeccasevanel econ ae |
Ge o: TIATCHSMNIC Me steed. cee ion d a ritsacrsosssssl ese = |
173 Monotrypa HULASANOROLD ieerer cre tant rst ore sow icone ccoalizeeoel emcee eee 1 halle %
174 : ALTOS LATIG ICM pececensscrene.veceereussse ae Women seteeleniee * *
175 “ DELASILORMIBUNTCH eee hic nesecckss novel scents | # | # |
176 a PECHIIMUEAIIS AU ITICH ssc ss-cee4 osssece eestsates eee ieeauea * |) #
aly ars ss SUDZIODOSaA WITCH ee tice sees en detkoe ol ecnees Whee [lah
1/78|Discotry pa elegans. UITICD...........2....0.sscecccensosnsseveeo|ecaees LS ee |) acm
179 Ceramoporella GIBSbINCTS LD Miche tee uis esses ener testers Vine Gebel IS tad pee |,
180} OHLOCMSISINIGH: \.c2erses fevers ossdeacsseenee Isseus atl (es Fe
181) Diamesopora COMMMUNMIS OINICH 5,22). veacccsvess-cossetadas loveess ine 2
182, VaUIpeli UITICM stesso eos yeeelss eet eael eae * |
183 eaanieers impressa Ulrich Pe ea coed ee = |
184 “ Binrelatie Ulrich erie he Anca. GCS le Bee et | #| # oe

186 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

SHS kc

tt Ue

Abe : . aul yb: k ane ae
| } ro

VSS Crepi pana) SOlGanWiriGhte.+...-c.s.0::seuerecoesasereust anachean lessee baler Pes
186 Gt VETMISFAMUITICMeiesresesterctrasdeesecnemsamersecsa lumens *
187|Cheiloporella flabellata Ulrich .. .. ........ecccceeeeeecees lessees [eoeeee len. soalieeaeee .
188 Spatiopora ASPOL Ap OMAGH... cesceeesssresshcs ccscseceosessrieelaeteanleimcee setesaleceees * *
189 yibaterh its PON bale | ceapesneeed ae rnecacesrpe aad soe fae | mre ea era | Nana | es *
190 Ge TNACULON AUT CH wes seewetae sca seaee cee eeaec en eee * * * * *
191 ae MIOMbIferaWLLICM A Hesssses: aeseontetes ctoseRes eel Neceee | saaserlllesean| Ceseeel teeaae | #
192 “ tuberculata Ed. and Haime ...........-..-|.cc.c.|eseeee I eeeea| boo eae *
193 Dicranopora emacerata Nich. .. He +
194 fragilis Billings... | *
195 We internodia Maller
196/|Pachydictya fenestelliformis Nich..................cccccee [esenee[eoweee gain RE a vfs *
197 Ptilodictya FAlGUORMMIBINICHY yescesssccsckcacesne ates saeco cell eee tckaw el eeee se * |
198 iM Tannies Mises. ee ehasecace. sedestocessoones seve: . |
199 oh maculata, Ulrich
200 ee IMAen i CayMaller Leese sesaeatdansesee ste ee sores Saies 7
201 ag pavonia d’Orb.............. t
202 ue ponderosa Ulrich
203 of variabilis Ulrich *
204, Graptodictya perelegans Ulrich Ea eae A len Hes
DOT PAPOULOP OLAS Diresentsere eece rose contsestepercesecsecorscesdeescec * * * |
206 é ERPS EA Me NT ce sep AD GU Shui trek Weos MR Oo aL eM ene Jeoea oat |
207 Ubi EVA Hey IW Kea) SM eet AD ee tie ie lpr scat MN | f eee,
208 uN Set seseararcamncey tenons uccesee dasenntsccesmene sa hiaee.
209|Stiectoporella interstincta Ulrich 3 :
210) Fenestella oxfordensis Ulich ............:c00cccceceeeeeeees [eee | Coe iccie ll aeteiee *
211 Phylloporina clathrate Me andes even. wesecs.nae verona sesh Secere leecten| : |
212 Warlolata Ula chates ote cos. ev acenses see es faecal lleg eet cA 2
913|Arthrostylus Curtus Ulrich........5...cccccccesscccensscceeee|eteens | RARE ees i |
214 es ETNA LS UNI TT OHIO ea eu eee eas tia URE LIE a | =| # Ni) Peter We
bys iPaleschana bean iaimesicr-ss-cecesse ese seey ee cceenessce elect eseaecea fa es WN. et ean | |
1G OLthisibellulamiannes were essere we ee merenec nen raenamealnerans | |,
OT CGS w elie io READE A Rear hie Sartre cseconeeccocodidg boodoodcapncochcuc ere *
218 GOs Bren VOS ae Cry B UPN can et celshio UN cenAatennecadier es! oon |
219 fe INGE KAP NDING ee oss: eceessaence eo anccecctoecnsesetcee =
220 (Gy MISSICOStamelalll yercsscecoessemce sess
221 ‘Oo IMSGU lp ta Pall rekon ee eee eens ae * |
222 CC ea QUIMEOSIMEL A seesees suereven cos scomeacee |
223 CS SYOUTEISCCLA TAMER aces sesanecseceeces {
224 2 ue VAL GY GUIS! SAME s.cerceces) vassecoull es nee : |
225 KMVGCELU EM OAL ISwEN ail tenance stemenence dure ease seatereetanarel neers | sfal
226) sc USM baal ese sane muete ee carbone ccter eet sces ace anal NEOs aera ea * | ae |e
227 {OV TGA Tell anELen IMopee ed fens aes u ae ewan s Hate all aT [ere %
228 CCOAPEETOLSAY OLIGO RU ase seek coerce senecas tered ceases eeeseors [Pee eee (ae a *
229 “ subquadrata Hall... ceeeecsseeeeeeseeesneeees Ie tercaleceelete ose Welemeal acres = *
230 “ seetostriata Ulrich | *
231) (CSCONVMUIEIMMUNLER eae nccreenentenqeccnnensss=ne ses estas [Davee
232 Platystrophia erassa James.....
233) acutilinatal Diamies’....les.2\.2sceceues *
234 ef laticostate: SaMesi2 22. lc ccccvicccessestesecss
235) “ IsyIEXNVOUMBU CH vce. ccvetacnccssccseserernec| seers }
236) ne a small form
237) Rhyne honella Capax CONTAC Wiss. cicccssecascoesores> ee zi
238 Gentaital Haile. case ee sie, cose eeseeel Perce =
239 * perlamellosa Whitfield ................. lBseoke
240 ih Feinisiltan BUN St cercseastceescere
241,/Zygospira cincinnatiensis James ................... :
242 as CONGEMGLIGA PI Ini Chtescevenceec e-em ecseesecesaeel|iaes 2
243 Ke kentnek-yenSis Jamies wie.c..cec-sse-ssccenescce|seeees | |
244 ue WI OCMES CASA esc seer rosea ledec na teeketaeberecest * : Wet
245, {@lagsia) Schuchertian di Ulich ee eee aecesuiecsecslesssse feces fee eel

1 ibis name is proposed for the een pane ne duccuped by Meek in
vol. i, Ohio Pal., p. 127, pl. xi, figs. 1¢@-1d, under the name Zyg vospira
Headi Billings (sp.). Recent investigations of excellent material, belong-
ing to Mr, Charles Schuchert’s extensive collection of palaeozoic brachi-
opoda, show that our shell is distinct from the Canadian form, and that
it possesses internal spires arranged precisely as in Davidson’s new genus

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 187

246 Strophomena BIST Dita) COMLAG vite ceveccavense es --=sers |
247 PT ACUA NICK ce esuseat specs tacsetocerscenenes
248 aes rhomboidalis Wilekens
249 sf gibbosa James.............
250 sf squamula James .....
251 gf PAB NOOIE DO ccctatrnt apeseches ec ranscesens
252 ue jevounvel Suveysfen LeU RS 8 Cee onharereed none
253 Streptorhynchus hallianus Miller

254 neglectus James
255 os nutans James (Meek) i
256 oe planoconvexus Halll ..............06+ en
257 at BINUALUS BMIMONES -.....-cncecoseccenes 3 |
258 ce subtentus Conrad..............-.-s:20.- | | =
259 Mu suleatus Verneuil...:...............--9 eo * ri
260 me vetustus James......... ¥
261 ef thick form (?filitextus) Es sete eee ee 8 ease leeAnec * cs
262|Leptaena plicatella Ulrich ............-.cseceecerenreeeesee|eceeee es 1 | |
263 Be RETHCC ree cc tee ca te atcaeooades deo toseetncsnsedes cs * | El SLOP AN Val eel an Wet
264 “ a VAT. BSPera JAMES ........-..0004e.000- Than be oe | * |
265|Crania dyeri Miller eee ees
266) ‘“ RON ere temenestcateas pees ars dretaaNasacs<carenestanscariens Bel) baat
ois, tf BMD TOR AN EMA eee stencccnes chee teen eer omeee coeas ‘ ; cle Ea Pants ert sel =
268) ‘“ BOCAS ULMGM: socrcpcrcsccuesecsccescetovucseecdvwascesis ? |
269 | Schizocrania LON APELAM i tetscscos ccc scancsosedervasests spans | * #i) = 3 *
270) Pholidops cincinnatiensis Hall : bs ‘ |
971)|Discina snblamellosa Ulrich ........ ae 2
272 “ tenuistriata Ulrich....... aie rece Veg |
273|Trematis punctostriata Hall ............. cc ceceeee eee eee : |
274 ce MPP MNChAatavall ee ccas.ccccsscdsececsscs conse 2 can RS 2 : =
275 Oi CIV ELI eines deese ei ssee nessa reeccacouccarvsstosevall teecdlOtes colleges. * '
276) Lingula CODOUTLEMSIS Billings. 0.2.2. .cc0s.-orccescoscensonns Se Sh |
277 MAP UTICME WIM S.cenet tesa. cscwnerstcerancsoevissecennes * * H
20S 6 PLOW. OOM NIMES 208s. ccrcgracssaschssussvascssecavesss| sans be |
PAS) Va quadrata Hichwald .................ccscccsccseceees sd Pa | \
2x80) “« riciniformis Hall F | # | \
Yt RG ES | |
21S? | ne * |
gga) & Nn. sp. ; |
284 Lingulella CMCIIAPIONSISHEL. ANG Wiese. ccecsscascscapcns|cecccencaacef'seonee |
285|Leptobolus insignis Hall .............cseccsscseccescosscesncsce|eceecs * |
286 a NEWS cee evesessreccaseassveatensccesessrocterecsas ateee ze
287)|Fusispira subfusiformis Hall ...............ccsseeeeeeeeenes lasses. = |
288 Ks REPEDCIKOLIDIS sere etait ee ees ee oti cece * | * |
289) Bellerophon bilobatus Sowerby ............cceseceeeeeeee * * * Fane * 2
290 0| ac PRAMS pMAUUS UIC srccet cet terystery veer erall eetene Ls pes ator |
291 we IAM EMOIGESUIITICI .sccescsvestecstcsstcsscserks«|iecect losevas|estbeu] (acess iNactee *
292 % planodorsatus Ulrich . * |
293|Bucania ARE TE IGT acl be Seetecs: ee a ILE ti geo nr RE Tne Mal a eee ee *
294) SE RCORUAL ANS PUIDOS ccsccrnsarasadvesseccutrencessddstecsea|uacace lacseee |raseec|eeaske *
295 |Cyrtolites Cat ALB MIU wecocesrestancssente coer sun end
296 Cyrtolites CUVCr igh aL lee eel te eae ee id el 2
297 GlERAMISUMALLeT te ots eco Met anscereccsnearedss|eoduds
298 OO TUNA IANIS UNI eters: <osnessccrorseccecducseevaes ed *
299 es MUGIGU IS CN cot e-csebessccsconeaeceters ces
800 a OTMALNS COMME Hrssscaccveasssicvocscesshsecsstees
801|Microceras inornaturmm Halll... iioi.c....scececeesecsconeee La ee
802 OS minutissimum Ulrich
803|Pleurotomaria ohioensis Hall ....
304 “ subconica Hall
305 of subtilistriata Hall
806 ue trophidophora Meek ...............:cc0[ee eee [ereeee *
B07 Murchisonia MULUSUINA PUN OS oy ere ccssetac een ceten. case ecescellparesoliness ce Hi
308 GW OEMIENAMOLG ar cctesspe co sence steno re ehe aan Aze aan lavenee| artes: ca tal
809 “ PRACHIG alleen encun en een ree eitulace |

Glassia. Some of the specimens show further that the radiating strie
which usually mark the surface are often very obscure and in rare cases

entirely absent. Such smooth examples were collected near Versailles,,
Ind.

188 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

aE
Sates

310 co millerin Pally. .ccccesss
311 “ multigruma Miller *
312 cs perangulata Hall .............-...sssseeeeeeeee
$93) Pelicotomsa helena Billingsso... .c.ccccacovesecenscuaccaseosensl esseus|asscen)ecsese
814 Trochonema ambigua Hall ............... cessecesereeeseeees
815 Cyclora depressa Ulrich ...........c.ccececseseeesrecteceseeseee
316 ee otimaamigMll eRe sesstas hater ceveast sss saneeateneateclloncpesliccnnts
817 Mes WeAITNILLER CAVED pes ccasestaveccckescsseecenanccseteneccanenes F ‘ e)
318 66 parvulla Halll ............cccecessecessseosaenecesseerers : : *|} *
319|)Holopea obliqua? Halll ............ cece eeseeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees
32U0 ge paludina formis Hall ........0...--ssseeeseseeeeees
B21\Cyclonema bilix CONTA? © ........cececceeceesereeasersssersfeseece|ecsere|eeeers
322 ue cincinnatiensis Miller ............cessercsereeee|evenee
323 Ke COMICTIMN MULLER t-eecesecetetccrestecacecncancees|ceeues| avens|iccess |esenente sess *
324 oe AMUch aL UNA Td IMMER el ccrccesanccasccctcmmsstecal| erect |secean|ereceelaorsacl anenes *
325 Co TPAMS VERS UIICH TAs. c.sccssescsccsoseccroeeenl|csiseos
326 as PyramidatumM JAaAMes .........cceecceeereseees|eccees *
327 UY UWS Doyceosadssiesccecte-ssseossecssccheresnanasrssasexeballacente
B28|Metoptoma fissicosta Ulrich ........6. ceeseeseceseeeceeeee|eceeee|eceeee|eoeeee|cecere|eeeeee|anaaas bg
329 Se TSS Pac deecae taseceseeertsscencenoscrecaasiessatsna anes Sacer MBEEAG Sade ss |Seorac|omescn|sccoee *
-330\Conularia formosa M. and D...............secer caceessecnes|cscoce| casero) cscs €
331 oc HLENCONENSIS) Elalllicscscsceeecekevcceansseecrescenscs * * *
-832|Hyolithes americanus Billings ...... Laila Sal eee pat I

333)|Orthoceras amplicameratum Hall..

e| oe] # Q*
384 36 GyeriMilie re eres rcencnecsseocscocccsvenscnpens|Cccnes| succes |eonnta

335 WG FOSHELIO MIS eseseecccceses sadaccteseswabescecsensenlaerteal aeimcien|acneal|ianmaes

336 He CLEDTISEPtUM Hall ............covececcovsensvanes| sone cel eonsealeanes

337 of ELAUSVEFSU MN MALE! cis c05accccoecectcvcacseso¥el was oss

338\Endoceras proteiforme Hall........... cececcseeeeee eres

339|Gomphoceras COS H. ANd W .....ccceeeereecsserseesreeceee|eceees[eeeee|ereeee|eneens|aceese|ertne =
340 GG Cincinnatieneis, Milleri-::,ccccss-s-ce-e-seosceceeeee|cavaea|tarees]ocvar=lacosen
841|Trocholites ammonius Conrad...........ccceseceeeeeeeeeees

842)Trochoceras baeri M. and W .... =
343|Cyrtoceras conoidale Wetherby

344 ee lysander Billings................+ =
845 LG valandinghami Miller..................ss.ssseseee-

846) Ambonichiacarinata Gold fUSS .......ccceeceeeeeeeennen ees

B47 on CASCLUM aE Winiceccescseccccececaccecnttesscascceess *
848 a3 intermedia M. ANG W........-..cceccesecscersseees

3849 6 2 jamesi Meek.............ssecccccccccccceerssenescccesee|sennes|oovseeloeceee|eennes

350 a“ TOUS er esecser cence een astececersseesees Gacreomel Gines | ceereh| encore, eee =
3851 Oh Th. SPi-ccscocscevceescenscoe coccocceoncnaccosrserccosccecsss |uscons

352) Anomalodonta alata MEeK..........c.ccesescoccsccocceccernee|sccnce|covsoefocaene|ensene

B53 oy gigantea Miller...............sssccsesesesesncssrteeneelesesve|oceree|aceeae|oveees +
854|Tellinomya alta M. amd W...........-seccssserarerereertenees

355 ee PDN Mallere eee mec ccocceccceccesecetrctccscescewecsatens| serene )eccces| werescllove=s|omcteelenecad bs
356 me Ob]igua; Halll. v.52. 1... cccsscsecescensy t
357 es pectunculoides Hall.........--...eseesesecsereeeere |eseeee[eceees

858|Lyrodesma cincinnatiensis Hall..........c:.-seseeeee|eseee|ereeee

359 ae postriatum Emmons

360 ae PlANUM CONTAG........ccceeeereeeeeeeseseeeeeeseenaee leeanee

861} Lyrodesma major UIC... cesses eee eeene ss *
362)\Cycloconcha mediocardinalis Miller..............-s0.0+

863 os (Anodontopsis) milleri Meek................:. *
864|\Cypricardites hainesi Miller.............cccceceescseeseeetes|ccssee|eceees|ecneee| eeeene|eneeee lenge *
865 ec guadrangularis Whitfield............-...---.0:+- *
366 cs ?sterlingensis M. and W.. = 4/8
367|Cleidophorus ellipticus Ulrich........ 3

468 vs FAVS WELANI. c csscescccsveceerevscesccnssiareesssebene= *| #
469 OG planulatus COnrad..........ccseeesseeeeeeeeeeeeeees

870|\Cuneamya curta Whitfield...........eceseeecesreeseereeeees *
371 ce @lliptica Miller...........cccceseeseeeeesseeseeeeereeees

372 4 miamiensis HL. ANG W..........ccesccsesscoecssesees *
373 as Meglecta& MEeeK..........ceeecce cecnceseccesesseersrenes *

® The genus Cyclonema is represented by numerous species in the Cin-
cinnati rocks which are usually thrown together under Conrad’s name
C. bilix. The form here indicated by the name is figured by Meek in vol.
1 of the Ohio Pal., pl. 13, figs. 5a-5d.

& A
| © /e(k
nf lee AN, = BS
3&3!) bi aib
37a ie SC UPN AL VAN W? cece. cee -cossestseevavencdeseesee|oreres|ereenalecesea\esoes| ceeret =
Soe terinesd pellilineata Billings: ..:.5.c..0csccacssecssseacscnes|ocsccs|esces loccectloccsccloscacs ¥
376 cl demissa Conrad # Ce |e
377 oe ADSUehA (CONTAG 5.0545 wetdvtsevcese, csssecaeesastvese|soscce
378 pe PEGG ALUM Sys occ szdeaxeacsuntcae=adesascect-se4|candealeecdes| ccs sci ad
B79 ue THUCEOR ADA ETI CI O02 ss sseccevessvecdedesccssseecr[escose Ula tes
880}Anodontopsis ?unionOides MEEK ............ccccesccessceee|sssvecfecscee |evcees *
381 Modiolopsis BVICTNOMGCS EVAN ccs sacccasgescetorealsssoee|ccnece *
382 ?cancellata Walcott .. *
3883 “ cincinnatiensis H. and Ww Biel Ee
384 ss COMCEIPLIGR HE, ING: Wiresssast.tcacecncacacee=|eseees| cosces|hereeastcsenfeseses *
885 ss BZA e EVAL. 7. <2 fvapbee sesscestseccneedeccsees |wocaes *
386 os Repbyey RU? ssc cutee cccdececacs secanecs to cocencasece | sonate ray
387 C1 Pholadiionmis Hi.) ANG Woke cswessceccsevcc| ccosselescdeclsecccdloascedloeewen *
388 ae MOGI OIALIN CONTAG) ve.c.ccc-ceeucsesssenesstenoneee pl AE ale faba fore] ba
889 us MAS UGA) CONAN: vice <ccssocsusvereoctosstonrcses I ae eee a
390 m rectifornus, WOrthen......<.ssccccsccsssesceas * *
B91 Wd Lfegereeu Up R21 bY=t g Wes Hb De pene a ns Poona ne A (ee
392 a truncata alls oe. ccs csceesssccssoateeeces teed vases
393 a versaillensis Miller....... *
BIL Orthodesma curvatum H. and W.. *
B95 ?subovale Ulrich.......... :
396 4 TECCUME. ANG Wreesccctvsccscssoscsssccsesstscclecasas *
eae Protoscolex covingtonensis UIrich...............ceceeeeee lessees :
398 ae OENAGUSIUINICH oric.ccspsevotsecsessescostascencee eacwae
399 a ?simplex Ulrich 2
400) Eotrophonia setigera Ulrich Scce\fuhes
ZOMArabellites Lunabus HINGE) ..ii:30...2.cs.dssescssdetoocssveses laces a) (a roe
402 ae EWIS Ge HS PAOTIG 2 onal cect narieswa sos swecledassan Kectielocseca acess oli A loosens =
403 oe CEL VICONMIS WHIMS sc cscclececcekcset cecotecesceclectees Shs Ee
404 a BVICAUNS HAAN MS e.c.2e ceo neee cosa cactodecouscetant | coces uieeesea| sowses |B cows *
405 Lambriconerites FANCH ORISHA: sseececcrcccvessts eee closets devece] | PL Bilseet +
406 obliquus Eichwald.. ‘ sear
407 Gonehicolites HE XUOSUSHELAM LE. Se ststa. teepccseeesscenvestes “5 * %
408 ¥ COLTME AUS INICH ci eccccsscdcsepecasescosacescuel veces:
409!Serpulites dissolutus Billings...............c.ccsscsecceceeeee[eceees
410 Tentaculites? sterlingensis? M. and W * *
411 OSWEZOCNIBISUME ATMA W.owccvssesrassecsccatces|caccse|eccasel scvesefostcestvsctanlsearee =
412 Acidaspis CLASSOTAPUOCKE s 0.0) setsucsssocescnsenessseosecees|chu sks Boal acc
413 GIG ATMUMTN Geese sack sronmtesanaes Bocnceaste andere |onence| cutecs|aaoecsleocatel Bouse *
PVA ICETANTUSNCAPUS, BUINGS 4.0 a vccacsdocssdecevebesucowocseedtcloecees *
415 Bs pleurexanthemus Green aa (tetas
416) Triarthrus becki Green............. :
41 7 \Calymene eallicephala Green . ai
4.18) Proetus parviusculus Halll ................c0scscceseecceseeees
419) Dalmanites callicephalus Hall ........ tee cece eee
420 a DrevaGepis tel alls. : Are. Mic teen noreanacctestseessact [sctccst| deawoe|tateet twa snce|seeeee *
421|Lichas trentonensis? Conrad ..............-.ccceccececeeeees figs Bakcan Weed acces ¥
22 MU Giles Delmas) ULTICH 22. doseo.ccc-sesuscevaseesecencccoan|ocotes|t<vexs *
4.253 We CONCeNtTICUS HAtON.....c5)..ccscccccscoeceseees Hell ee Ake
AZAVASAPDUS LISAS) DOK GY on ..cs.ca6onss.s0sseedcostestsesvevsgeestes * * = = 7*
425 @ IMPEPISFOBULIOCK Es Nei oncssieccecvectes isateceacscuete Soles AL EA he
426 Beyrichia chambersi Miller.................ccccscssscssescece Gallaes ‘cial aes
427 ie ciliata Emmons .. EF a ba?
428 ae occulifera Hall.. *
429 a persuleata ‘floss SaaS Sie, FS Oe
430 te POSUMATIS PIATILOUS 5 i; ons Sec iercas dawssouwss wanes Ulsee oval cas octllowacss eceuctlossuee *
431 oe PICMALASOML WNGIiA ep sancs e.dtce css sane eenecresed|seccoe cobescl Caseecltee css attese *
432 US ? striatomarginata ESSER BR SE ie TNF BARE ee BPE AT Ge UI f *
Beaey ELEC, DV CUES WIC .na2sasinevsesaaa Felccedesesvavenecceasloucces *
434 os DIVER LOR NUUTICH cas ccavstescasecccssuenstacnsoenesteedd|cetee: * |
435 Ot Gincinnabiensis Miller) kc oc skecccdedoccscved|ceecee|oPeveclootecs tee cra vctens * *
436 Ss crepiformis Ulrich
437 Leperditia caecigena Miller *
438 radiata Ulrich ..
439/\Isochilina sp ................s00-. *
440 Cytheropsis cylindrica Hal ®
441 TUMCOLMISAUILICI ascudertcctasecetecoueck sdeenvenlecdess *
442 Cythere? cincinnatiensis' MeeK.......0.s0....ccsserescesacessa}ocscee|sosces| evaseeloneice|enseee *
4435 ne APLC UMCISO MUCK suc sdvecescrcarenaetsctratactrcuresealeccrce|uscoed|aesten] tayecel votes *

444|Anomaloides reticulatus Ulrich

Heer eeneeracensnecneneerensemlsaswetlaneaeslanseeelaseeee

1gO Claypole on the gas explosion near Akron, O,

os err ie fi
8 ih aN A aos RY ORC ee ee : ! ay! pale b | a|b
445|Lepidolités dickhauti Ulrich............c:cc:ccscceseeeeeee | She leeks ok
446 xe ClONLAUUSKWIMICHY 2icc. ce ucceveeeaescascatetoseedl Meee Eee betas
447|Plumulites? jamesi H. and W.............cccccessseeseeees ease €{ #) #] el oe] #
448|Pasceolus globosus Billings ................:cssseeeeeeeeeseees [ecance| abun. s| Susses|tecsodltetees |epeeee [ema ~
449|Depranodus, two undescribed gpecies.................... lec 3 NIE re os ¥ |

(To be continued.)

SINGULAR SUBTERRANEAN COMMOTION NEAR
AKRON, OHIO.

BY E.W. CLAYVPOLE.

The hamlet of Sandy Hill about four miles south of Akron, O.,
was somewhat violently shaken during the night of February gth.
Several residents were awakened by a loud explosion which shook
the houses as if an earthquake had occured. Plaster fell from the
ceilings and the walls quivered. People sprang from their beds
and rushed out to find the cause of the disturbance. Few in
the immediate neighborhood slept any more that night. The
district over which the shock was severe was not extensive and is
thinly inhabited, but several houses stand close to the focus,
and consequently felt its full force. At Mr. Snyder’s several
fissures in the ground were to be seen extending across the
road. At Mr. Thornton’s the family were awakened by the noise
but the house did not sway. Mr. Shwartz who has lived all
his life on the spot likened the noise to the report of a cannon.
That this is not an exaggeration may be inferred from the fact
that the explosion was heard by two persons in the house of Mr.
John R. Buchtel, in Akron, more than five miles distant in a
straight line, and that the register grating was heard to shake.
The shock was double, the first happening about g o’clock on
Thursday evening and the second between two and three
o’clock on Friday morning.

This is not the only event of the kind that has occurred at
Sandy Hill. In 1882 and 1883 similar explosions took place,
an account of: which the writer received from the lips of resi-
dents when visiting the spot in the summer of 1857. On that
occasion the cracks in the ground radiated from a centre in a

Claypole on the gas expiosion near Akron, O. 1gI

field. Some of them extended for a distance of 200 or 300
feet from the focus. The largest was described as resembling
the furrow left by a plough with the sod thrown back. It
passed under Mr. Thornton’s house and reached his barn, about
100 feet distant, where it ended. Some of the houses—especi-
ally Mr. Porter’s—still show the cracks in the walls and ceiling

made at that time. The noise, judging from the account, was as
loud as that made by the recent explosion.

Another similar case was reported to the writer i Mr.
Thornton. It happened when he wasa boy or about twenty-five
years ago, but his memory could not supply any details. Nor
was the writer able to ascertain the exact date of the explosion
of 1882 and 1883.

Sandy Hill lies near the North bank of the Tuscarawas river,
and at an elevation of probably a hundred feet above that
stream. It is in the region of the terminal glacial moraine
which extends for several miles north and south of it- The pre-
glacial valley now occupied by the Tuscarawas is here deeply
buried with drift, which, judging from the tokens on the surface,
cannot be less than one hundred feet deep. There is conse-
quently no rock very near the surface.

Of course this phenomenon, though singular, is not of the na-
ture of a true earthquake. Its limited extent and purely local
violence exclude it from that category. It more resembles an
explosion of gas, and to this cause it has been generally attribu-
ted. During the summer of 1887, acting on this belief, Mr. W.
Buckmaster of Akron leased several farms with the intention
of boring for gas, and at his request the writer then visited the
ground and made a report upon it in which, notwithstanding the
evident violence of the action, he hesitated to recommend drill-
ing. Prof. M. C. Read of Hudson, O., also examined the spot
at the request of Mr. Buckmaster and made another report. The
two were in close agreement in all important points. No at-
tempt has yet been made to drill for gas, the result of several
holes sunk in 1887 failing to justify the hope that had been lo-
cally excited by reports from other places. Out of four wells
near Akron only one yields a supply of any value, and that one
does not probably give more than 50,000 feet a day.

The true explanation appears to be that there is a small sup-

192 Editorial Comment.

ply of natural gas accumalating underground at this point. In
ordinary times it leaks away into the air unnoticed. But in win-
ter when the ground is frozen and its escape is prevented, it accu-
mulates beneath the crust until its pressure rises high enough to
burst it with explosive violence. In this way the cracks in the
ground, the shock and the loud noise may be fully accounted for.
In considering this explanation it must be borne in mind that
gas wells of very moderate yield will, when closed, develop
an enormous pressure which, however, rapidly subsides on open-
ing the mouth of the bore-hole. There is also the possibility
that the gas does not come from the black shale—the usual
source of Ohio gas——but from some local bed of vegetable mat-
ter contained in the thick drift of the Tuscarawas valley. Ly-
ing also at a distance of several miles from any place where the
product could be used the heavy cost of piping must be encoun-
tered. These and other similar considerations render it doubtful
if commercial success would attend any efforts to win gas. Yet
geologically it would be very interesting to find out the exact con-
ditions which lead to results so singular, and which have seldom
if ever been reported elsewhere so far as the writer is aware.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

PROF. JUDD ON THE LAVAS OF KRAKATOA.

In the London Geological Magazine for January 1888 Prof.
J. W. Judd discusses the lavas of Krakatoa and compares them
with those of Santorin in the Mediterranean sea, of Buffalo
peaks, Col. and of the Cheviot hills in the north of England.
All these consist, he states, of a porphyritic mass composed of a
colloidal glassy base with crystals of felspar, enstatite, augite
and magnetite. The chemical composition of the base and that
of the crystals differ but slightly in all these lavas but their rela-
tive quantity varies from go per cent to 10 per cent. The na-
ture of the rock as a whole therefore varies from a distinctly
acid to a distinctly basic magma.

Prof. Judd next shows that all the lavas from Krakatoa

Editorial Commeni. 193.

though agreeing in chemical composition present three distinct
mineralogical types due to the different conditions of the glassy
matrix. In the first devitrification has proceeded so far that the
matrix is a stony dull reddish-gray mass crowded with micro-
lites. In the second the matrix consists of black pitchstone and
in the third it is an almost perfect amber-brown glass, or
obsidian. The last of these on treatment before the blowpipe
melts and swells up, evidently containing some volatile ingredi-
ent, the presence of which has changed most of the obsidian
into pumice in the field. Prof. Judd next discusses the effect of
the presence of water in lowering the fusing point of rocks and
quotes from the late F. Guthrie a table showing how the fusing
point of nitre was reduced from 320° C. to 97° C. by the addition
of about 40 per cent of water. A legitimate inference from
this experiment seems to be that aqeuous and igneous fusion
merge into one another so that no line can be drawn between
them.

Prof. Judd concludes with the remark that if to a mass of
nitre lying in the crust of the earth at a temperature of 290° C.
water should find access, its fusion would certainly follow, and
that the same result might be looked for in the case of a mass
of mixed silicates without any rise of temperature.

PREGLACIAL MAN.

The controversy over the so called preglacial man between
Dr. Hicks on the one side and Prof. Hughes on the other, which
has been going on for some months, is continued in the same
number. For the clear comprehension of the argument Dr.
Hicks should define exactly what he means by the term pre-
glacial? It may imply “altogether anterior to the ice-age,”
“anterior to the last ice-age,” or “anterior to the last stage of the
last ice-age,” and it is impossible to form an opinion from
the published evidence, without knowing in which sense the
term is used. Prof. Hughes appears to be unnecessarily scep-
tical on the subject of preglacial man (using the term in the
second of the senses given above) or interglacial man as he
should be called. There is little doubt that we shall soon be
justified in recognizing such a stage in human history as a reality.

194 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

judging from the evidence slowly coming to light in different
parts of the world.

So far as it is possible to decide from the printed testimony
Dr. Hicks has made out a good case in the Cae-Gwyn cave for
inter-glacial man but it does not appear to us that his evidence
proves human existence in pre-glacial time. |

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Geology and mining industry of Leadville, Colorado, with atlas. By
SAMUEL FRANKLIN Emmons, (Monographs of the United States geolog-
ical survey; volume xii). The work which is here reported on was begun
in 1879, under the direction of Clarence King, the first director of the
United States geological survey. The letter of transmittal is dated Oct.
1, 1885, although the report was essentially completed four years ear-
lier, when a full “abstract” of it was published in the second annual
report of the director of the survey. The volume is very largely from
the hand of Mr. Emmons, including the general and descriptive geo
logy, and the discussion of geological phenomena. ‘The entire descrip-
tion of the mining industry is also by Mr. Emmons. ‘The petrography is
by Whitman Cross, the chemistry by W. fF. Hillebrand and the met-
allurgy by Anthony Guyard. The atlas was prepared under the di-
rection of A. D. Wilson, chief topographer, and the paleontological de-
terminations were madeby Mr. R. P. Whitfield. It is useless to attempt
here an adequate account of this admirable volume and the atlas
which accompanies it. It compares most fayorably with other volumes
of the series which have been issued by the survey. The author gives
the following brief outline of results of the study.

The mosquito Range, the study of whose geological structure formed
a necessary basis for that of the ore deposits of the Leadville region, is
the western boundary of the South Park, and has thus been considered
from a topographical standpoint to form part of the Park Range. Geol-
ogy shows, however, that in Paleozoic times the boundaries of the de- °
pressions now known as the parks were formed by the Archean land
masses of the Colorado Range on the east and of the Wasatch and its
continuation to the north, the Park Range on the-west, and that the uplift
of the Mosquito Range did not occur until the close of the Cretaceous.

Prior to this uplift the various porphyry bodies, which now form a
prominent feature among the rock formations of the region, were intru-
dedinto the sedimentary beds deposited during Paleozoic and Mesozoic
times, spreading out between the beds and sometimes crossing them,
but being most uniformly distributed at the top of the Lower Carbon-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 195

iferous or Blue Limestone. It was in this limestone that the greater
part of the ores were deposited, and the original deposition must have
taken place after the intrusion of the porphyry and before the uplift of the
range.

In the uplift of the range both eruptive sheets and sedimentary beds,
with the included ore deposits, were plicated and faulted, and by sub-
sequent erosion an immense thickness of rocks has been carried
away laying bare the very lowest rocks in the conformable series; the
outcrops are, however, frequently buried beneath what is locally called
“wash,” a detrital formation of glacial origin. In the Leadville region,
owing to the reduplication caused by faulting, a series of outcrops of
easterly dipping beds of the Blue Limestone are exposed beneath the
wash, of which all are metalliferous and a considerable proportion carry
pay ore.

The principal ore deposits of Leadville occur, as above indicated, in
the Blue Limestone and at or near its contact with the overlying bodies
of porphyry. The ores consist mainly of carbonate of lead, chloride
of silver and argentiferous galena, in a gangue of silica and clay, with
oxides of iron and manganese and some barite.. These materials are
mainly of secondary origin, and result from the alteration by surface
waters of metallic sulphides.

The study of these deposits has shown: 1, that they were originally
deposited as sulphides, and probably as a mixture, in varying proportions,
-of galena, pyrite, and blende; 2, that they were deposited from aqueous so-
lutions: 3, that the process of deposition was a metasomatic interchange
between the materials broughtin by the solutions and those forming the
country rocks, consequently that they do not fill pre-existing cavities;
4, that the ore currents from which they were deposited did not come di-
rectly from below, but were more probably descending currents; and 5,
that these currents probably derived the material of which the ore de-
posits are formed mainly from the porphyry bodies which occur at hori-
zons above the Blue Limestone.

Inasmuch as the ore currents did not come directly from below, it is
not advisable to search for ore below the Blue Limestone horizon.
This horizon, however, should be thoroughly prospected, and the maps
and sections show its probable position in the as yet unexplored areas;
the explorations, moreover, should not be confined to the upper surface of
this limestone, but carried into its mass wherever there are indications of
ore, and especially along the contact of tranverse bodies of gray porphyry.
The probabilities are that very considerable bodies of ore remain as yet
undiscovered, and the most promising areas for prospecting are indica-
ted. It is also probable that as the distance from the surface increases
the ores will be found less altered, and that they will therefore be less
easily reduced by the smelting processes now employed.

Note on fossil wood and other plant remains, from the Cretaceous and Lar-
vimie formations of the western territories of Canada. By Str WILLIAM

196 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

Dawson. (From the Transactions of the Royal-Society of Canada; read
May, 1887).

About sixty distinct trees, most of them found 7» situ, from the Belly
River, Fort Pierre and Laramie groups, have been examined in thin
slices by the author. He forbears to add any specific names, but remarks
that they probably have all been described before from specimens of
their leaves and fruit. He refers them all to their generic names only.

In the Belly River and Fort Pierre series he identifies Seguota, the “ big
tree” of California, and the “redwood” of California; Taxites, yew;
Ginkgo, similar to the Chinese ginkgo; Thuja, arbor vite; a Pinus or
Abies ?), pine or spruce; Betula, Populus, Carya, Ulmus, Platanus( ?).

From the Laramie he identifies the same two types of Seguota, the
same Taxites, the same Gznkgo, Thuja, and Pinus (?). He also here finds.
Fuglans, Betula, Populus, Acer.

Other plants are as follows, from the Laramie, Oxoclea sensibilis Lin,
Sequoia couttste Heer, Podocarpites tyrrellit n. sp., Populus arctica Heer,
_and P. genetrix Newb., and nervosa, Salix laramiana Dn., Carya antiquorum
Newb., Welumbium saskatchuense n. sp.. Trapa borealis Heer, Viburnum
saskatchuense n. sp., Vibernum asperum Newb., and a Safpindus which is
near S. obtusifolia Lesq.

The author remarks in conclusion:

An important geological consequence arising from this is, that the
period of warm climate, which enabled a temperate flora to exist in Green-
land, was that of the later Cretaceous and early Eocene, rather than, as
usually stated, the Miocene. It is also a question admitting of discussion
whether the Eocene species of latitudes so different as those of Greenland,.
Mackenzie river, N. W. Canada and the western states, were strictly
contemporaneous, or successive within along geological peorid in which
climatal changes were gradually proceeding. The latter statement must
apply at least to the beginning and close of the period; but the plants
themselves have something to say in favour of contemporaneity- The
flora of the Laramie is not a tropical but a temperate flora, showing no
doubt that a much more equable climate prevailed in the more northern
parts of America than at present. But this equability of climate implies
the possibility of a great geographical range on the part of plants. Thus,
it is quite possible, and indeed highly probable that, in the Laramie age,
a somewhat uniform flora extended from the arctic seas through the
great central plateau of America, far to the south, and in like manner
along the western coast of Europe. It is also to be observed that, as
Gardener points out, there are some differences indicating a diversity of
elimate between Greenland and England, and even between Scotland
and Ireland and South of England, and we have similar differences,
though not strongly marked, between the Laramie of northern Canada
and that of the United States. When all our beds of this age, from the
Arctic sea to the 49th parallel, have been ransacked for plants, and when
the palzobotanists of the United States shall have succeeded in com-
pletely unravelling the confusion which now exists between their Lara-
mie and the Middle Tertiary, the geologist of the future will be able to
restore with much certainty the distribution of the vast forests which, in
the early Eocene, covered the now bare plains of interior America. Fur-
ther, since the break which, in western Europe, separates the flora of
the Cretaceous from that of the Eocene, does noi exist in America, it
will then be possible to trace the succession of plants all the way from

New Publications. (QT

the Mesozoic flora of the Queen Charlotte islands and the Kootanie
series, described in previous papers in these Transactions, up to the close
of the Eocene, and to determine, for America at least, the manner and
conditions under which the angiospermous flora of the later Cretaceous
succeeded to the pines and cycads which characterzied the beginning of
the Cretaceous period.

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

z. State and Government reports.

Preliminary description of the peridotytes, gabbros, diabases and
andesytes of Minnesota. Svo., pp. 158, 12 plates. M. E. Wadsworth.
Bulletin No. 2, of the Minnesota geological survey, Minneapolis.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, pp. 151-236.
One plate of Monticuliporoids. C7acinnatt.

3. Papersin sctentific journals.

in the February number of the American Fournal of Sctence. On a new
petrographical microscope of American manufacture. G. 7. Williams,
A new Ammonite which throws additional light upon the geological
position of the Alpine Rhetic. W.£&. Clark. Three formations of the
middle Atlantic slope. W. $. McGee. With one plate. Are there deep-
sea Meduse? FF. W. Fewkes.

¢. Excerpts and individual publications.

On the monticuliporoid corals of the Cincinnati group, with a critical
revision of the species. By U. P. and Joseph F. James. Part II.
Fournal ot the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, January, 1888.

Notes on the precise geological horizon of Siphonotreta scotica David-
son. By Henry M. Ami. Oftawa Naturalist, December, 1887.

Notes on some diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. By Andrew
C. Lawson. Proceedings of the Canadiau Institute, 1887.

Supplement I. To the bibliography of the foraminifera, recent and
fossil, including Eozoon and Receptaculites. (Printed in the Fourteenth
Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minne-
sota, pp’ 167-311, 1885.) By Anthony Woodward. ‘Yournal of the New
York Microscopical Soctety, January, 1888.

5. Foreign publications.

Memorias de la Sociedad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate.” Tome 1, Cua-
dernos numeros 6 y 7; Diciembre de 1887 y Ennero de 1888. Afextca.

Ueber Gebirgsruppierung. Vortrag, gehalten auf dem _ stebemtew
deutschen Geographentag zu Karlsruhe; von Dr. August Bbhm, Berlin,

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

HAMLINE UNIVERSITY AT HAMLINE MINNESOTA has re-
cently erected and occupied a “Science Hall.” The building is ,
of red brick with brown stone trimmings and consists of a main
portion in front about fifty feet by thirty, three stories high, and
a rear extension one story high. “The main or front building is
divided into two parts by a central hall and each of these divided
furnishes four large rooms on the first and second floors. The
east side of the second floor and the entire third floor are devoted
to the department of biology and geology. The rooms thus
furnished are a large lecture room, a large well-lighted labora-
tory, a small preparation, room on the second floor, and a large
museum room on the third floor for present occupation, with
additional space on the west half of the second floor when re-
quired. The extension, one story high, completely shut off
from the main part by solid brick w Allie and sheet iron doors,
is entirely given up to the departments of physics and chemis-
try. It is divided into lecture room, preparation room and
private laboratory, apparatus room, general laboratory and bal-
ance room. Beneath the first floor, under the extension, there
isa high basement finished in a number of small rooms for the
use of the physical department as required; and under the front
part a large gymnasium.

Pror. J. W. SPENCER, LATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MIs-
SOUR, iS ‘engaged i in an independent i investigation of the beaches
and basins of the great lakes. His address is Ann Arbor, Mich.

1 RO Ges OF LINDLEY, DAVENPORT, Iowa, whose valuable
cabinet of natural history was destroyed by fire Nov. gth, last,
is trying to renew it, and solicits duplicates from such geologists
and naturalists as have them tospare. The great collection was
deposited in the state orphan’s home at Davenport, and the
building was fired by a stroke of lightening.

Pror. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON DESCRIBES in the London Geol.
Mag. certain indistinct forms not at present referable to any geol-
ogical group, but contributing largely to the building up of some
of the palzeozoic limestones. They belong to the genera AZztch-
eldeania of Wethered Solexopora ‘of Dy bowski, and Girvanella
of Etheridge and Salter. To each of the first and third a single
new species is allotted, and under the second are described two.
But as the figures are necessay for a full comprehension of the
paper, the reader is referred for further detail to the original.
Mr. ‘I’. M. Reade also calls attention to the permanent elonga-
tion of terra cotta, under changes of temperature. This elon-
gation has the effect he says of raising a coping into a long, low
anticline if the ends are secured, or of thrusting out and cracking
the piers, if their stability is unequal to the pressure. He sug-
gests its practical bearing on the subject of mountain building.

RAE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

W.0L. I. APRIL, 1888. No. 4.

NOTES ON SOME DIABASE DYKES OF THE RAINY
LAKE REGION.

BY ANDREW C. LAWSON, M.A.,
Geologist to the Geological Survey of Canada:

The most recent of the crystalline rocks of the Rainy lake
region are comprised ina series of strong dykes of comparatively
fresh diabase which are observed to cut, at different localities,
the various members of the Archean,complex of formations.
These dykes are not infrequent throughout the country lying
between the eastern confines of the first prairie steppe, which
forms the basin of the Red river of the North, and the western
border of the area of Animikie and later formations of the lake
Superior basin. Their occurence and some of their characters
are briefly referred to in my report on the Lake of the Woods
region.’ As there observed, the occurence of these dykes cut-
ting the older folded rocks, which in their eastward geograph-
ical continuation, pass under the flat-lying Animikie and Ke-
weenawan formations, is suggestive of their possible connection
with the bedded traps that form so large a part of the two lat-
ter geological series. With the question of the possible identity
of character and age of these dvkes with the traps of the An-
imikie or Keweenawan, or of both, is associated the equally in-
teresting one of the extent of the earth’s surface, over which, in
early geological times, were in simultaneous operation, those
particular volcanic forces which appear to have had their focus
in the lake Superior basin.

The more notable field characters of these dykes are: their

1 Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada; annual report,
£095, p41. CC; p.a7 CC.

200 Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region.

common strike throughout the region from N. W. and S. E. to
N.N. W and 8. 8S. E.; the sharp, well defined nature of the
gash or fissure which they fill, no matter what may be the char-
acter of the country rock; the absence of inclusions of the country
rock, or of apophyses of the dyke running into it, except in very
occasional instances; their generally uniform width under dif-
ferent conditions of occurrence in different localities, the limits
being as a rule 60 and 150 feet; their continuity for one or several
miles where exposures permit them to be traced; their passage
from a very compact, aphanitic, black rock at the immediate
contact with the dyke walls, by insensible gradations to a very
coarse-grained, mottled, dark gray rock in thee middle of the
dyke; an occasionally observed peculiar pitting of the weathered
surface, arranged in straight, more or less uniformly spaced lines
transverse to the strike of the dyke; their prominent, steeply
rounded, or domed, glaciated surfaces in contrast to the more
gently inclined roches moutonnees of the schists and gneisses;
their assumption of brownish tints on surfaces aerially weath-
ered; (surfaces beneath high water mark of the lakes are gener-
ally quite fresh and black.)

These dykes have as yet received only a preliminary study,
and it will require a much more extended examination of the
country in which they occur and a much more elaborate inves-
tigation of their petrographical characters before a comprehensive
statement of their geological relations can be formulated. A
few notes regarding the microscopic features of these dykes,
taken together with what has been said of their field occurrence,
may however, be of interest, and will serve as a report of progress
of what is being done in this line of investigation in the field
west of lake Superior.’

One of the most characteristic of these dykes is one that tray-
erses the coarse granitoid gneiss of the west arm of Jackfish
lake, which lies to the north-west of Rainy lake. Its width
is 135 feet and its contact with the country rock is well exposed
as a sharp line. From a macroscopic examination the gneiss

1 These rocks were studied microscopically in the laboratory of the
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, under the guidance of Prof. G. H.
Williams, for whose kind advice and assistance the writer desires to ex-
press his grateful acknowledgments.

Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. 201

does not appear to have been altered perceptibly towards the
contact. Specimens for microscopic examination were taken
from different parts of the dyke, viz., at 60 feet, 20 feet, and 6
feet from the contact, and at the contact. At 60 feet from the
contact, the rock is a coarse-grained mottled gray rock in which
dirty white feldspar and black pyroxene are the prominent con-
stituents. Under the microscope it presents the characters of a
coarse-grained, comparatively fresh diabase. Augite of a pale
mauve tinted gray colour is abundant and often occurs in masses
that fill the field of the microscope when low powers are used:
Sometimes these plates of augite are individual crystals. For
the most part however, they are not single individuals. When
examined between crossed nicols the plate of augite is seen at
once to be resolved into an intimately interlocking mosaic of ir-
regularly shaped grains of diverse optical orientation. In or-
dinary light the boundaries between the different members of
these “‘polysomatic”! masses of augite are traceable only with
difficulty and uncertainty. There is no interstitial matter what-
ever, the different grains being as intimately associated as in the
case of interpenetration twins of feldspar. That they are not
twins is shown by the fact that there are often as many as
half-a-dozen grains all of different orientation thus combined
in the same mass. The cleavage, by its lack of continuity
over the field, of course indicates a difference of orientation
in different parts of it, but the cleavage traces are not strongly
marked, and attention is only directed to the discordance
of the cleavage after the polysomatic character of the mass
has been rendered prominent by the analyzer of the mi-
croscope. This polysomatic structure of augite does not ap-
pear to be common. Rosenbusch does not mention it in his
last comprehensive summary of the present state of petrograph-
ical knowledge.’ The nearest approach to this structure that is
at all well known is the polysomatic character of some chondri of
olivine in certain meteorites such as are figured by Tschermak*

1 Adapted from Tschermak’s use of this word as applied to a similar
structure in the olivine of certain meteorites.—V. Die Mikr. Beschaff. der
Meteor. Stuttgart, 1885.

2 Mikr. Phys, der Mineralien und Gesteine; Stuttgart, 1886.

* Die Mikr. Beschaff. der Meteor. Stuttgart, 1885, Taf. xv., Figs. rand 2,

202 Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region.

and Wadsworth.’ Olivine in a similar condition in terrestrial
‘rocks has recently been described and> figured by Rénard in
specimens from Kerguelen island in the Indian ocean. The
polysomatic structure in augite is not so well known. Rénard
notes that the augites of the feldspathic basalt of Heard island,
Indian ocean, are grouped together at certain points,® and again
in the same rocks in Marion island that the augite is characterized
by atendency to form groups of individuals having their vertical
axes parallel.‘ Teall mentions “granular aggregates” of augite
in the Hett and the High Green dykes in the north of England.®
Some of these appear from the figures given to be aggregates
of grains of augite not in close juxtaposition with an interstitial
base, although that figured in plate x11, fig. 5, would seem to
be a polysomatic augite, and if so is the only strictly parallel
instance that I can find of this structure so common in this dyke
and in others of the region.

, The augite is generally altered to hornblende at its periphery
and occasionally the latter mineral entirely replaces the former.
The process of alteration does not appear to proceed along the
almost or quite imperceptible lines of demarkation between the
different individuals of the polysomatic augite, but extends from
the periphery of the mass as a whole in towards its centre.

The plagioclase appears in two general forms, a rather stout
or tabular form which is the larger,and usually the more cloudy
with decomposition products, and asmall long lath-shaped feld-
spar which appears quite fresh and in which the polysynthetic
lamellae are much more distinct than in the former.

Maegnetite occurs in irregularly bounded masses or is dissem-
inated, often quite thickly, through the augite as inclusions of
dusty or finely granular aspect. Pyrite also occurs and is dis-
cernible macroscopically. Apatite is seen in occasionally color-

1 Lithological Studies, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. x. pl. 1.
2 Notice sur la geologie de l ile de Kerguelen, Bul. Mus. Roy. Hist.
Nat. Belgique, tome iv. No. 4., p. 233, fig. 1, pl. v.
3 Notice sur les roches de l ile Heard. Bul. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Bel-
ique, 1886, 8 p. 260.
4 Notice sur les roches de V ile Marion. Ibid. p. 250.

or
>

5 Petrographical Notes on some north of England Dykes, Q. J.G.S.,
1884, 158. p. 229 and 242.

Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. 203

less hexagonal sections and in slender prisms with rounded termi-
nations. Water-clear quartz, with inclusions of apatite microlites
and liquid inclusions with dancing bubbles, forms a considerable
proportion of the mineral constituents of the rock and is charac-
terized by having a common orientation for isolated sections
over a wide area of the microscopic field, as in the micropeg-
matite structure. A few colorless garnets are also present. The
rock, such being its characters, may be classed as a uralitic
quartz diabase.

At 20 feet from the Contact the rock is very similar to that
at 60 feet but is much less coarse in texture. It differs from the
latter in mineralogical composition in that fact that there is
present an abundance of white or colorless garnets, all perfectly
isotropic. They have a well defined border indicative of a high
index of refraction and a perceptibly rough surface. Their
shape is for the most part rounded, or, when rectilinear outlines
are observable, they are hexagonal sections of the rhombic do-
decahedron, The larger grains have a curved parting which
may be demarkation lines between different individuals. The
treatment of the slide with hydrochloric acid cold or hot, leaves
them unaffected. The occurrence of garnets in basic dykes is
by no means unique. They are however regarded as a product
of contact metamorphism within the dyke. Speaking of the
“Tron District of Lake Superior,” Wadsworth says, “ Most of
the “diorites ” (uralitic diabases) here (at Republic Mt.) contain
garnets, this mineral being found principally along the edge of
the intrusion while the centre was nearly if not entirely free
from it. The schist in like manner near the “diorite” frequently
contains garnets, both rocks appearing to have mutually reacted
upon each other.”’ The garnets in the Jack Fish lake dyke
do not appear to be a product of contact metamorphism since
they are found in the middle of the dyke and very much more
abundantly at 20 feet from the contact than at 6 feet from it, or
immediately at the contact, where their presence has not been
detected. Beyond the abundance of garnets, the dyke at 20 feet
has the same characters as at 60 feet. The polysomatic structure
of the augite is pronounced.

1 Notes on the Geology of the Iron and Copper Districts of Lake
Superior. Bul. Mus. Comp. Zo6l. Harvard, 1880, pp. 45, 46, 47.

204 Lawson on diabase dykes cf the Rainy lake region.

At 6 feet from the contact the rock is fine grained and the
ophitic structure of typical diabase is much more characteristic-
ally developed than in the coarser grained parts of the dyke.
In this part of the dyke there is first observed a differentiation of
the rock into constituents of different periods of crystallization,
the order being first plagioclase in more or less idiomorphic!
lath-shaped individuals lying in all positions, then augite gen-
erally allotriomorphic,' sometimes hypidiomorphic! and finally
a base or matrix of both these minerals i in a very much more
finely crystalline state together with magnetite. The structure
of the base is rather obscure, the chloritic substance usually
present in diabase rocks being more prominent here than in the
coarser grained part of the dyke where it is almost or perhaps
entirely wanting. Quartz is present but in smaller quantities
than in the coarser grained portions of the dyke. The augite
occurs both in simple individuals and in polysomatic masses. The
uralitization of the augite, which is generally observable, is much
more pronounced in the irregularly bounded polysomatic masses
than in the simple allotriomorphic development of the same min-
eral. A few garnets are present as inclusions in the feldspar
but were not identified with certainty. In this respect this por-
tion of the dyke differs markedly from the more central portions
examined. The most interesting constituent of this portion of
the dyke remains, however, to be mentioned. It is the non-
pleochroic colorless rhombic pyroxene enstatite; it occurs in id-
iomorphic development showing the characteristic obtuse domes
in some of the sections. It shows regular cleavage parallel to
co P (110), upon which the angle of extinction is zero, and
characteristic cross parting along which partial alteration of the
mineral to bastite or serpentine is apparent. This enstatite is
not abundant and plays the role of an accessory mineral. Its
occurrence in a rock of well marked diabase structure is inter-
esting. Rosenbusch remarks that it is present in only a few
diabases which have a gabbro-like structure,? and Teall has re-
corded the occurrence of the allied rhombic pyroxene bronzite
in the Whin-Sill of the north of England as an accessory.2. En-

1 Terms introduced by Rosenbusch. Cf. op. cit. p. 11.
* Mik. Phys. der Massigen Gesteine, 2nd Ed., 1886, p. 188.
3 Q. J. G.S., 1884, p. 652.

Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. 205

statite also occurs in variety of the allied rock diabase porphyrite
from Schaumberge, which has been described by Laspeyres and
Streng under the name Palatinite. This enstatite was not ob-
served in the coarser parts of the dyke but occurs, as will be
noted, in the still finer grained diabase at the contact.

At the immediate contact the dyke assumes microscopically
the characters of a very compact grayish black aphanitic rock
in which can be occasionally detected minute glistening facets
of porphyritic crystals. With low -powers of the microscope
the matrix is not resolvable but appears as a uniformly yellow-
ish to greenish gray ground thickly dotted with grains of mag-
netite. Under the higher powers this is seen to be made up, in
addition to magnetite, of a fine felt-work of minute lath-shaped
crystals of plagioclase imbedded in a hazy, somewhat yellowish
green flocculent chlorite substance derived presumably from the
alteration of the augite, since that mineral cannot with certainty
be identified in the base. The porphyritic character of this part
of the dyke is well marked, though the imbedded crystals are
small. These are augite in small irregular polysomatic masses,
with a hazy margin or fringe of greenish decomposition prod-
uct, and long lath-shaped plagioclase and occasionally stouter
broken fragments. Besides these there are porphyritic crystals
of enstatite much more altered and less plentiful than at 6 feet
from the contact. Neither quartz nor garnets are observable in
the contact.

Considering then the dyke with reference to its variation in
structure and mineral composition the points of interest to be
noted are: The passage of the coarse grained central portions
of the dyke to compact aphanitic rock at the contact; the absence
of porphyritic structure in the middle of the dyke as contrasted
with the well marked development of the same as the rock
becomes finer grained towards the dyke walls; the absence of
the characteristic chloritic substance of diabase in the centre of
the dyke and its abundance towards the contact; the presence of
quartz in greater quantity in the coarse grained middle portions
than at the sides; the presence of garnets in the coarsest parts
of the dyke, their abundance in the medium grained parts and
their rarity or total absence in the neighborhood of the contact;
the presence of the rhombic pyroxene enstatite in typical idio-

206. Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region.

morphic porphyritic crystals in the fine grained parts near the
contact and its absence in the coarser central parts; the diminu-
tion in size of the porphyritic crystals near the contact in co-ex-
tension with the increasing fineness of the ground mass; and
finally the “polysomatic” structure common to the augite
throughout the dyke.

Three quarters of a mile from the exposure where the speci-
mens whose characters have just been given were collected,
there occurs, on the opposite side of the bay in the line of the
strike of the dyke, another exposure of the same dyke. On the
islands of the bay which lie intermediate between these two lo-
calities the outcrop of the dyke is observable, so that there is
no doubt of their both being exposures of the same dyke. The
rock here was not studied in so great detail as at the last expos-
ure. The specimens taken were of the same grade of coarseness
as those taken at 20 feet from the contact on the north side of
the bay. The feldspars are more decomposed and the twinning
lamella often obscure, and the small quantity of quartz which
is associated with them appears to be of secondary origin;
whereas the origin of the quartz noted in the same dyke on the
north side of the bay seemed much more problematic. In the
latter case the common micropegmatitic character of the quartz
and the occurrence in it of needles of apatite, which in no way
differ from those in the feldspar, together with the not infre-
quent occurrence of one individual of apatite partially included
in quartz and partially in adjacent feldspar, would argue for the
primary character of the quartz. The augite in the dyke on
the south side of the bay resembles that already described occur-
ring both in simple individuals and in polysomatic masses. It
is largely altered to uralite. Titanic iron with its alteration
product leucoxene shows characteristic barred structure of the
cleavage traces parallel to the planes of the rhombohedron. The
leucoxene is frequently accompanied by a margin more or less
extensive, of secondary brown mica. Apatite is present in com-
parative abundance. Chlorite occurs in vaguely defined masses
and the garnets which, as before, are present, are associated
with it.

On the south-east shore of Pipestone lake about a mile west
of Stone-dam Portage occurs another of these dykes cutting

Lawson on diabase dykes of the ‘Rainy lake region. 207

transversely schists which have a strike of N. E. to E. N. E.
The specimen taken from the middle of the dyke has the char-
acters of a uralitic quartz diabase. The feldspar as a rule is
remarkably fresh and occurs in the usual lath-shaped twinned
crystals of plagioclase. The crystals are commonly observed to
be cracked transversely and the cracks filled with*a brownish
yellow material which shows aggregate polarization. The
augite occurs more commonly in polysomatic masses than
in simple individuals. The
magnetite is often surround-
ed by rims of secondary
brown mica. The quartz
is apparently original and

has numerous inclusions of

an opaque granular charac-

ter together with fluid inclu-

sions with dancing bubbles,

gas pores with black borders
and glass inclusions oval and

circular.
On the south shore of the
: ‘ Ls North-west bay of Rainy
Section of diabase, from Pipestone lake ali ¥
dyke, showing large polysomatie grain of lake, a similar dyke cuts
augite in three granules of diverse orienta- ~- this os
fon a Des d uralitic hornblende; e magne- both the biotite gneiss of the
ite, xX ‘ . .
region and the red granite
which is intrusive through it. It is a uralitic quartz diabase.
The feldspar is in rather stout crystals in the coarser grained
part of the dyke, though usually lath-shaped. It is much de-
composed and is partially replaced by quartz and chlorite. The
polysomatic character of the augite is not prominent but this may
be due to the fact that it is about half altered to hornblende and
to chlorite. The augite individuals are often twinned and the

cleavage traces are unusually well defined. The magnetite

shows a tendency to peripheral arrangement around the altered
augite indicative of its secondary origin. Quartz is present
which is probably original besides that which is clearly second-
ary. Apatite in long slender needles and leucoxene in irregular
masses, are the accessory constituents.

In the same dyke, nearer the contact where the texture is fine

208 Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region.

grained, the rock is much uralitized, traces of augite being ob-
servable only in cores of the compact green hornblende, which
has almost entirely replaced it. Apatite appears more abun-
dant, as do also the secondary quartz and chlorite. Garnet of a
pale yellowish color occurs sparingly.

At the contact the dyke rock is a compact
aphanitic base in which can be detected minute
porphyritic crystals. Under the microscope the
base is seen to be made up of minute lath-shaped
crystals of fresh plagioclase,augite
grains, magnetite and chlorite sub-

Fig, 2. stance. The porphyritic crystals
Plagioclase from are lath-shaped feldspars occasion-
diabase dyke, °
Northwest bay, ally broken and showing the lam-
Rainy 1., showing C a
effect of pressure €llae in some instances bent, as the
of one crystal a- sy. gle ts
gainst another. Yesult of pressure of one individ-

ual against an angular part of an-
other,and augite generally surrounded with an ir- sAtigive: Seoradier
regular border of secondary hornblende, which, —>28¢, dyke, North-

west bay, Rainy L.,

i t Fo 5 showing marginal
in turn, has an outer girdle or wreath of granules S}OWINB marginal

j av H . compact horn-
of magnetite that have separated outin the pro- compact horn-

cess of uralitization as in fig. 3. ita Ree
In the south part of the Rainy lake and on _ ite.
the Rainy river a number of these dykes have been observed.
One cuts the coarse granitoid gneiss of the river between
Couchiching and Fort Frances on the south side of the river,
and another crosses the river at the Manitou rapids. Neither of
these has yet been examined microscopically. On the lake
near the extremity of Gash point one of these dykes cuts the
schists with a strike of N. W.andS. E. across the whole breadth
of the point and traverses the islands on both sides of it. Here
it is traceable on the point and on the islands for a distance of a
mile. Three miles to the south east in the line of the strike of
the dyke, a dyke occurs cutting the schists on the islands off the
south shore of the lake which is probably a continuation of that
of Gash point. From this point it is traceable for two miles
across the islands to the main shore on the south side of Grassy

Fig 3.

narrows. Thus, this dyke has a length of at least six miles
and has an extension to the north-west and south-east of the

Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region. 209

points observed, for a distance that is probably very much greater.
A specimen from the central part of this dyke, proved on ex-
amination to have the characters of a uralitic quartz diabase. The
plagioclase occurs in long, rather stout, lath-shaped crystals,
which are generally so cloudy as to obliterate the twinning in
most cases. The augite occurs both in simple individuals and in

polysomatic masses. It exhibits the usual
aS marginal alteration to hornblende and

Ha Ze there is besides a certain amount of chlo-
Wal } ot

i

a

Hany
era

mi

MN rite. Original magnetite is frequently sur-
VA rounded by a margin of secondary biotite.
perms

S
Art

Micropegmatitic quartzis abundant. It is
often intimately intergrown with the feld-
spar, and as the latter is much decomposed,
would seem to replace it as a partial pseu-

ey “narrows domorph, but apatite needles of the same

dyke, Rainy tare aang” aspect as those which occur as inclusions

Bee ene optical in feldspar, augite, and quartz, are often

seen to be inclosed partly in a feldspar
and partly in a quartz grain. The primary origin of the quartz
in spite of its micropegmatitic character, is however, not beyond
doubt. It is to be noted that were the quartz original we should
hardly expect to find it in such close association with the feld-
spar. The plagioclase of these rocks affords unmistakable evi-
dence in its idiomorphic character of its having first crystallized
from the magma. The augite crystallized next, enclosing the
Jath-shaped plagioclase; and the quartz, which would be the last
to crystallize, we should expect to find separated from the plagi-
oclase by the augite, 7. ¢., to fill in the interstices between the
augite. Again although single apatites are often found extend-
ing from a quartz grain to a feldspar grain, a condition of things
favoring the notion of acommon primary origin of both the lat-
ter minerals, yet such a phenomenon is not incompatible with
a secondary origin for the quartz, since the replacement of feld-
spar by quartz must necessarily be a slow operation and proceed
particle by particle. Further, if the quartz were original we
should hardly expect to find in it inclusions of crystals of the
first generation like apatite, which would be liable to be enclosed
for the most part in the earlier secretions like feldspar and augite,

210 Lawson on diabase dykes of the Rainy iakewegion.

rather than in the residual silica of the magma. The non-exis-
tence, however, of quartz in some diabases which are very much
decomposed, and its presence in fresh ones, militates against the
theory of the secondary origin of the quartz in these rocks, so
that the question of how much of the quartz is primary and how
much secondary in an old diabase is a question that as yet does
not appear susceptible of definite settlement.

About a mile to the west of this dyke where it crosses Grassy
Narrows island is another nearly parallel dyke converging on the
former at a small angle towards the south. The rock is a ural-
itic quartz diabase and in its coarser portions, near the middle,
the texture is more granular than that of typical diabase. The
plagioclase is cloudy with decomposition products and quartz is
abundant. The augite is entirely replaced by compact green
hornblende, the only indication of the augite that remains being
the light colored character of the central portion of the hornblende
and the abundance of magnetite granules that have separated
out in the process of alteration. Apatite occurs in slender hex-
agonal needles mostly in the quartz but also in the feldspar and
hornblende; and a number were obseved which were common
to both feldspar and quartz. A few zircons showing. par-
allel extinction, deep black border and_ brilliant polarization
colors also occur. A few colorless, rounded, isotropic grains,
probably garnets were observed. Nearer the contact where
the rock is much finer grained the typical diabase structure is
much better developed, the feldspar having its usual lath-shaped
character with augite in allotriomorphic structure around it,
although the character of the latter is obscured by its extensive
alteration into hornblende. The augite so far as it is revealed
in the cores of the hornblende occurs both in simple individuals
and in polysomatic masses, and it is interesting to note that the
hornblende derived from a polysomatic aggregate of augite is of
uniform orientation throughout. Magnetite or titanic iron with
associated leucoxene is generally distributed. The quartz is in
small grains proportioned to the finer grained texture of the
rock. In the central part of the dyke the quartz is in large
grains commensurate with the increased size of the feldspar and
augite. In neither case does it occur in the mosaics which are
so characteristic of the secondary or vein quartz. In addition to

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 211

the minerals enumerated in this part of the dyke, there is in
prominent porphyritic development an altered rhombic pyrox-
ene. The alteration has proceeded very far and the mineral is
now represented only by a mass of yellowish green serpentine
with perhaps some of the intermediate alteration product bastite.
The cleavage is, however, well defined and the extinction in the
several cases noted is sharply parallel to it. These characters
together with the traces\of the obtuse dome so characteristic of
sections of enstatite are sufficient to identify it as that mineral
in an altered state. The occurrence of the enstatite in this dyke
in its finer grained parts towards the contact is analogous to, and
an interesting confirmation of the similar occurrence of the min-
eral noted in the Jack Fish lake dyke also in the vicinity of its
contact.

To summarize, the main points of interest are, briefly: 1.
Post Archean age of dykes. 2. Their problematic relation-
ship to traps of the Animikie and Keeweenawan. 3. Their uni-
form strike and width. 4. Sharp contact. 5. Passage from
coarse texture at centre to aphanitic at sides. 6. Granular
character towards centre, porphyritic at sides. 7. Prevalence
of quartz and garnets towards centre, and absence near con-
tact. 8. Presence of enstatite at sides, absence towards centre.
g- “Chloritic substance” abundant at sides, absent towards
centre. 10. Polysomatic character of augite throughout. 11.
Uralitization of augite. 12. Very marked contrast of texture of
two different parts of a rock mass which solidified under practic-
ally the same pressure but at different rates of cooling.

[ Proc. Can. Inst. Toronto, 1887. |

DARWIN AND GEOLOGY.
BY PROF. E. W. CLAYPOLE.
(Continued from p. 162.)

In the comparative seclusion afforded by his five years on the
“Beagle” the mind of Darwin gradually drifted toward the

1 In connection with the immense amount of work performed in later
years we may note that his health was never good after this voyage.
The cause does not seem to have been evident. Speaking of a little tour

212 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

ground on which at last it came to rest. It is not our duty here
to follow the story. Its results were mainly biological, though
the indirect results to geology were important.

The earliest of these was his theory of coral-reefs on which,
in view of some recent discussions a few words will be in
place. .

The formation of coral-reefs and coral-islands had long been
an unsolved problem. The opinion entertained by most writ-
ers on the subject had been that these islands and reefs incrust-
ed the tops of submarine mountains, and this was adopted and
advocated by Lyell in the earlier editions of his “ Principles.”
Their great number and size however, militated strongly
against the theory; but it held its ground in default of anything
more Satisfactory.

From some observations made during his voyage Mr. Dar-
win was led to propose another hypothesis. He suggested that
coral-islets of all kinds were based on the tops of slowly subsid-
ing mountains which formerly reached or rose above the sur-
face. On this view the polyps began their work when the peak
was not more than 120 feet under water, and by the constant
secretion of limestone maintained it at that level, subsidence
notwithstanding. As the growth of coral is most rapid in the
open sea so the outer edge of the encircling reef grew fastest
and rose, while the inner parts, being shut off from the free
food and abundant calcareous supply of the open water, flour-
ished less and ultimately died. In this way as the land sank
and became smaller the reef became more distant and all the
various stages between the circling line of coral and the per-
fect atoll were developed, or in the case of a large tract of land
such as Australia, the great barrier reef that borders its north-
eastern coast for about a thousand miles, was the result.

Such was the simple and beautiful solution proposed by Dar-
win for a problem which had been previously unsolved. Its
simplicity and beauty won for it immediate popularity and it
remained for many years almost undisputed.

The vastness of the main postulate on which Beas based

whlch he made in 1842 at the age of 33 he says: ‘This was the last time
I was ever strong enough to climb mountains or take long walks such as
are necessary for geological work.’

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 213

his theory was however in the minds of not a few geologists a
serious difficulty. The subsidence of so large an area of the
surface of the earth as was required could not be admitted with-
out serious misgiving. There wag no evidence sufficient to
prove it, nor was there at that time any weighty objection
against it. The difficulty was not unfelt, though for many
years it was unexpressed. It lay dormant, so to speak.

Within recent years however there has grown up a school of
geologists or geological physicists who are disposed to carry the
uniformitarian theory into the continental history of the earth.
They maintain that the division into land and water is one of
the original lines of geographical development which, with
minor changes especially around the borders, has remained unal-
tered tothe present time. To geologists of this school—Stabil-
itarians, as they may well be called—the fundamental postulate
of Darwin was especially obnoxious, as it involved the practical
disappearance of a continent and the formation of an ocean
within quite geological times.’ Yet as nothing better was sug-
gested the theory held its ground, strengthened as it had been
by the powerful influence of Lyell, who adopted and defended
it in the edition of the “ Principles” published in 1853.

After the return of the “Challenger” from her voyage of
discovery in the southern seas, Mr. John Murray, one of the
naturalists who went out in her brought forward in 1880 a dif-
ferent theory, free from the fundamental objection above point-
_ ed out, which seems to be gaining favor among geologists. It
has recently been the subject of a somewhat acrimonious skir-
mish in the columns of “ Nature.’

Mr. Murray after an examination of coral islands in the East
Indies and Indian ocean, fails, as others before him had done,
to find any evidence of the subsidence required by the theory of
Darwin. On the contrary both he and they find in many cases
abundant evidence of elevation, Recollecting also that in no

1 It istrue that Darwin carefully guarded against being supposed to
favor the previous existence of a continent in the Pacific area (see Life,
p- 435) but the amount of subsidence required by his theory is so great
that it would actually exceed that needed for some of the creations of
the school of geologists here alluded to.

* Nature, 1887. “A conspiracy of silence.”

214 Ciaypole on Darwin and Geology.

single instance has any trace been found of a sunken mountain
peak as the base of a coral islet, (for oceanic islands are uni-
formly volcanic,) Mr. Murray proposes as the foundation of his
theory, the elevation of the*higher portions of the sea-bottom by
deposition of organic material or by volcanic action, until they
come within the limit of reef-forming polyps. Then the \prin-
ciples already mentioned, of faster growth on the margin and of
death and erosion in the center, will do all the rest and produce
in time the fringing reef and the atoll.

Though it is obvious that Mr. Murray’s theory gains enor-
mously by being free from the fundamental objection to that of
Darwin, and is strong just where the latter is weak, yet it
would be premature to say that it has yet found general accept-
ance. The geological world is divided, as is conclusively
shown by the controversy above alluded to, and this is not the
place for the expression of individual opinion. Both may be
true in different places.!

It should however be mentioned that in another point the
later theory enjoys a considerable advantage over the earlier.
The unfathomable depth of water so often reported close to
the edge of a reef was evidently a natural and necessary con-
sequence of its mode of formation according to Darwin. But
this depth seems from recent soundings to be fictitious or at
least non-existent. The edge of the reef, it is true, falls off to
seaward very steeply for a short distance, after which there fol-
lows a gradual slope not exceeding six degrees of inclination,
and just’ such as might be looked for on a submarine bank.
This bank at no very great distance from the reef ceases to be
composed of coral and yields to the dredge nothing but vol-
canic dust, apparently the comminuted ejecta of some subma-

rine vent.

Passing from this topic of coral formation where we find
Darwin invoking the most extensive subsidence, in time com-
paratively recent, that has perhaps ever been suggested, it is
not a little interesting and certainly amusing to note the indig-

1A good summary of the two theories and much other interesting
material of a kindred nature may be found in “ Nature” for November,
1883, from the pen of Dr. Archibald Geikie.

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 215

nation with which in later and more mature years he met the
appeal of other geologists to.similar means of escape from diffi-
culty. Edward Forbes was the most daring member of this
school, which, in order to explain certain facts in the distribu-
tion of animals and plants, did not scruple to conjure up conti-
nents in several parts of the globe now occupied by deep sea,
and where the soundings afford no base whatever for such crea-
tions. Thus “Lemuria” was imagined to extend across the In-
dian ocean from the East Indies to Madagascar, while another
continent built by the same “pontifex” Forbes, extended from
Europe to North America, and yet a third to the “ Sargasso
bank.” Hooker in like manner called into being a long bridge
from New Zealand to South America and thence on to Kergue-
len Land almost girdling the earth in that latitude. These
were constructed for the convenience of species whose resem-
blance to others at distant points could not be explained without
some means of migration. Instability with these geologists be-
came the law of continental evolution, and the geography of
the earth in their hands changed so rapidly and so frequently
as to remind the spectator of a kaleidoscopic exhibition. Even
Lyell fell under the spell of these views for awhile in spite of
his strong uniformitarian proclivity. But Darwin’s work had
led him in a different direction. His observations had shown
him that the distribution of animals and plants was not so de-
pendent on continuous land surfaces as these naturalists sup-
posed. He had found that the chapter of accidents could be
depended on for a vast number of exceptions to the general
rules, and he had learned to trust it firmly when no clear con-
nection could be found. His belief in orderly sequence and
regular developement even of geographical outlines was un-
shaken, and the balance of his judgment went against cata-
strophe even here. Hence his indignation at the “ feats” of
Forbes, Hooker and others of the same school, and at last with
his old master Lyell himself. In 1856 he wrote to the latter:
“«My blood gets hot with passion and turns cold alternately
at the geological strides which many of your disciples are tak-
ing.”
two or three hundred miles of ocean depths (as if that were
nothing) why not extend a continent to every island in the Pa-

“Woodward writes that if you grant a continent over

216 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

cific and Atlantic oceans? All this within the existence of re-
cent species! If you do not stop this, if there be a lower re-
gion for the punishment of geologists, I believe you, my great
master, will go there. Why, your disciples in a slow and
creeping manner beat all the old Catastrophists who ever lived.
You will live to be the great chief of the Catastrophists.”

In a subsequent letter he adopts a different tone, and dissect-
ing mercilessly the evidence adduced by these continent-mon-
gers, he shows its insufficiency to prove their point and avows his
adhesion to the party that asserts the stability of the great main
lines of the earth’s geography, adding that he would much like
to be convinced by the arguments of his “‘master” but finds it
impossible. Here again Darwin’s sagacious “anticipation” was
ahead of Lyell’s caution.

It is scarcely necessary to add that all these vast continental
extensions have again sunk below the sea level leaving not a
solitary oceanic islet or reef of secondary or palwozoic rock to
mark the place of their supposed existence. The theory that
made possible the “Lemuria” and the gulf-weed continent of
Forbes, and Antarctic bridge of Hooker is as dead as — —’s

Atlantis.

We now approach the great event of Darwin’s life, but as it
only concerns us indirectly we shall not dwell on the circum-
stances attending it. They are moreover by this time so well
known that to detail them would repeat an oft told tale. In
1859 appeared the “Origin of Species,” in biology the most
epoch-making book of the passing century. Its importance lies in
the fact that in it was shown to the world for the first time, and
shown with a wealth of fact and argument that defied refuta-
tion, a real and active cause for the transmutation of species.
The struggle for existence, a factor which, strange to say, had
hitherto escaped due notice, supplied the long lacking key to
this hitherto tantalizing problem. The flash of anticipation
that lighted the mind of -Darwin on reading Malthus’s “ Essay
on Population” was like the flash that went through the mind
of Newton when the apple fell. The “Law of Variation” de-
duced by the former has been as momentous and as wide-reach-
ing in the world of life as the “ Law of Gravitation” announced

Ciaypole on Darwin and Geology. 217

‘by the latter has proved in the world of matter. Here at least
was a clue to the maze of species and varieties among which
a beacon-

the student of nature was rapidly losing his way
light to guide him through the darkness, a leading principle
that could bring order out of all this chaos. Evolution pro-
pelled by variation and guided by natural selection seemed
capable of accounting for most of the difficulties in the existence |
and distribution of organic forms far better than any other
cause, even than special creation. It was therefore the one which
biologist in all fields were logically bound to adopt. Into the
story of its struggle and final victory it is not our purpose here
to enter. With one more point our sketch can come to a close.

During the prosecution of his work Darwin of course con-
templated the acceptance with which a theory so new and
‘so opposed to existing beliefs and prejudices would be received.
He knew enough of the conservative tendency of the human mind
even among men of science to look forward with no little anx-
iety to the day of publication. He had seenin Edinburgh the
effect of prepossession and prejudice. When at length the
“Origin” appeared nothing surprised him less than the fierce
denunciation and sullen displeasure that greeted it from the
conservative “Many” or than the timid and guarded approval
of the liberal “Few.” Foreseeing it, he had mentally chosen
three men whose support, if he could win it beforehand, would
in his opinion, outweigh the condemnation of all the rest of the
world. These were his old master in geology, Sir Charles
Lyell, then rising to the full hight of his great fame and with
a reputation of no mean value to stake on the result, Sir J. D.
Hooker, late director of the royal gardens at Kew, the botanist
with perhaps the widest experience of all then living in Eng-
land, and a young man just coming into note as a zodlogist but
of whose power Darwin entertained a very high estimate, an
estimate fully justified by the result for he has been the fight-
ing apostle of the new faith—Thomas H. Huxley. To pro-
duce conviction in the minds of these three men Darwin labored
hard and eventually succeeded, so that when the first outlines
of the Theory were read to the Linnzan Society, and the
whole force of the conservatives prepared to assail it with

218 Claypole on Darwin and Geology.

every available weapon, they were somewhat daunted to find’
that they must measure swords not with a man comparatively un-
known to fame and of whose opinions and observations they
could as they believed, make light work, but with Lyell,
Hooker and Huxley, who like the three brave Romans of old
stood forward to defend the narrow way until the new
truth could make itself felt and win its ownadherents. Of this
famous meeting of the Linnwan Society, on July 1st. 1858,,
when the subject was first broached, Sir J. Hooker writes
(p- 482):

“The interest excited was intense but the subject was too novel and
too ominous for the old school to enter the lists before armouring..
After the meeting it was talked over with bated breath; Lyell’s approval
and perhaps in a small way mine as his lieutenant in the affair rather
overshadowed the Fellows who would otherwise have flown out
against the doctrine.”

With only one of these three have we any concern now and
that is Lyell. The intimacy between him and Darwin had
been long and close, and Lyell was familiar with every step of
the way along which his friend was traveling. Every new
fact was told to Lyell. Lyell’s opinion was asked on every
topic—not always agreed with however. In Lyell’s mind
there slowly grew up as firm a conviction that Darwin was.
right as was entertained by Darwin himself, and when the
“Origin” appeared Lyell was fully prepared to go the utmost
length that the doctrine of “Evolution by Natural Selection”
would warrant. He gladly welcomed the new light from bi--
ology and saw at once its power of illuminating certain dark
spots in his own favorite science. He had halted at the evolu-
tion of organic species because Lamarck could show no good
reason for the necessary changes. But he now halted no
longer. Natural Selection supplied the missing cause, and he
at once connected it with the effect. He had no further use for
the doctrine of “Special Creation” and it disappeared from the
pages of his “Principles,” its place being supplied by Varia-
tion. Here was the harvest that grew from the seed sown by
Henslow. The reaction of the pupil on the master was now
seen and Darwin amply repaid the debt which he owed to-
Lyell.

It is interesting to note the difference of expression in the

Claypole on Darwin and Geology. 219

editions of Lyell’s “ Principles” published after the appearance
of the “ Origin.” While fully adopting the new views therein
propounded, the caution of his character is manifest in his mode
of writing of them. Thus in the edition of 1872 he says, in
-striking contrast to the extract given above from that of 1853:—

“In former editions of this work I did not venture to differ
from the opinion of Linnezus that each species had remained
from its origin such as we now see it, being variable but only
within certain limits.” “But I undertook to show that the
‘gradual extinction of species one after another was part of the
-constant and regular course of nature.” “I suggested also that
the coming in of new species was also probably successive.”

“In truth there are as yet only two rival hypotheses between
which we have to make our choice in regard to the origin of
-species—namely, that of special creation and, that of creation by
variation and natural selection.”

Again, speaking of the facts of geographical distribution, he
says: “They accord well with the theory of variation and of
natural selection, but with no other hypothesis yet proposed for
-explaining the origin of species.”

But the crowning proof of the influence of Darwin over Lyell
was given when the “Antiquity of Man” appeared in 1863. It
41s easy to see from the general tenor of this work that Darwin’s
doctrine had sunk deep into the mind of the great but formerly
half-way-halting Uniformitarian teacher. Though here, as
everywhere else, writing with caution it is manifest that he was
then prepared to go to the full length required by the theory
-of variation as expounded in the “Origin.” He had even risen
superior to the great difficulty, partly arising from prejudice
-and partly from tradition—the difficulty of admitting that man
himself was held in the toils of the evolutionary net and that he
was himself a link in the long chain of organic beings—the last
and greatest but still only a link.

He says in some memorable words, more memorable still
‘when we remember the date of their publication.

“A theory that establishes a connection between the absence ofall relics

-of vertebrata in the oldest fossiliferous rocks and the presence of man’s
_wemains in the northwest; which affords an explanation of the successive

220 Claypole on Darwin and Geology

appearance in intermediate strata of fishes, reptiles, birds, and mamunifers,.
has no ordinary claim to our favor, comprehending as it does the largest
number of facts that science has perhaps ever attempted to embrace in
one grand generalization.”

“ But will not transmutation if adopted, require us to include the human
race in the same continuous series of developments so that we must hold
that man himself has been derived by an unbroken line of descent from
some one of the inferior animals? We certainly cannot escape from
such'a conclusion without abandoning many of the weightiest arguments
which have been urged in support of variation and of natural selection
considered as the subordinate causes by which new types have been
gradually introduced into the earth.” !

These are most remarkable words coming as they did from
the leading geologist in England, with a high reputation to risk
by taking up a new, and in the minds of most a transcendental
and irreligious, theory; and the man who at that day dared thus.
to speak deserves the gratitude of not only every geologist but
of every lover of truth to whatever science he devotes his atten--
tion. Even those who follow no science owe not less a debt of
gratitude to him who faced the obloquy and the odium that then
awaited all who ventured to acknowledge connection with the
new school of Evolutionists. It is dificult now to realize the
fact, but it is within the memory and experience of men not be-
yond mid-life—when the “Antiquity” and the “Descent of Man”
were spoken of with bated breath as forbidden subjects, and
when those who thought or spoke on those topics were viewed
askance as “suspects” with whom it was not well to be associated.
But so it was, as many can testify from experience. Such days
can never return. No more questions so momentous remain to:
be solved in geology. ‘he battle has been fought and the vic-
tory won. Evolution is now the keyword to nature and we of
these days can only look back to that time and live it over again
in memory, while of the later generation we can say, as we
said at the beginning of this paper, ‘Other men labored and ye™
have entered into their labors.”

Nore. Though it is a little off the main line of this paper yet it is timely
and pleasant at the present moment when America is mourning the loss of
her great botanist, to allude to the share which Dr. Gray contributed to
the “Origin of Species.” Darwin began a correspondence with him

through Hooker which afterwards became constant and intimate. The:

1 Antiguity of Man, 1S6o.

White on later Cretaceeus deposits in Iowa. 221

philosophie mind of Gray was strongly attracted by the breadth and
scope of the views of Darwin, and came rapidly under the spell of their
influence. To him Darwin was indebted for many facts both in favor of
and in opposition to his theory of natural selection. Both were equally
welcome. The attachment of the two men was mutual. In one of his.
early letters Darwin writes: “You are more than anyone else the
thorough master of the subject. You know my book as well as I do
myself and you bring to the question new lines of illustration and argu-
ment in a manner which excites my astonishment and also my envy.
Every word seems weighed carefully and tells like a 32-Ib. shot.” It fell
to the lot of Asa Gray to fight the battle of evolution in America almost
single-handed against the immense influence of Agassiz, who while op-
posing the doctrine to the last contributed by his embryological studies
some of the most powerful arguments in its support. Dr. Gray entered
the field alone but from the first he gave no uncertain sound. Though
he never went to the full length with his friend, always maintaining that
the stream of variation had been, as he phrased it, “ beneficially directed,”
yet in 1860, or the year after the appearance of the “Origin,” he wrote
three articles in the Atlantic Monthly which now form the third chapter
in his “ Darwiniana,” under the heading, “ Natural Selection not incon-
sistent with Natural Theology.” With this limitation Dr. Gray continued
among the foremost and most consistent advocates of Natural Selection
in this country to the time of his recent death;! but as his application of
the doctrine was almost entirely to the science of botany to dwell longer
on it here would scarcely be in place.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LATER CRETACEOUS
DEPOSITS IN IOWA.

BY CHARLES A. WHITE.

The existence of Cretaceous strata in western Iowa has long
been known; and they have been discussed and referred to by
various authors. Those which are exposed in the neighbor-
hood of Sioux City were first recognized as of Cretaceous age
by Owen;? and for several years thereafter no other exposures
were known to exist within that state. In the course of my
official work upon the geology of Iowa other exposures of
Cretaceous strata in situ were discovered at localities farther
eastward from the Missouri river. The more southerly of
these exposures, as well as a part of those in the vicinity of

_1 January 30th, 1888.
2 See maps of Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota.

222 White on later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa.

Sioux City, were recognized as belonging to the Dakota
group; while the more northerly exposures were referred to
the next higher portion of the earlier Cretaceous.

Besides these exposures of strata in situ numerous fragments
and scattered fossils were from time to time found at different
localities in the drift, some of which localities are much farther
to the eastward than are any of the exposed strata referred to.
These latter traces are so numerous and so widely distributed,
and the known dips and trends of the older formations are such
that, in my official report, I deemed it proper to represent a
large part of western Iowa as o¢cupied by Cretaceous strata,!
though mostly covered from sight by the abundant glacial drift
which prevails there.

Subsequent discoveries have tended to confirm the correct-
ness of this view; and even to extend the limits of the area in
Towa which may be properly regarded as now, or as having
formerly been, occupied by Cretaceous strata.” These later dis-
coveries have been mainly, not of strata in situ, but of such
fragments of fossiliferous strata, and of separate fossils, in the
drift of that region, as have just been referred to. Many of
these specimens are so soft or so fragile; or they have suffered
so little attrition, as compared with that which the transported
material associated with them in the drift has suffered, that it
seems necessary to assume that those specimens were not trans-
ported to any considerable distance from the place of their
original deposition. An account of one of these discoveries was
published by me several years ago,’ and the primary object of
this article is the announcement of another.

A short time ago Prof. Erasmus Haworth of Penn College,
Oskaloosa, Lowa, informed me of the discovery of a mass of fos-
sil-bearing rock in the digging of a well in the drift of Hardin
county, Iowa.’ He recognized these fossils as of Cretaceous

1 See White, C. A., Geology of Iowa, vol. i, p. 287; geological map in
vol. ii, and geological map-model, vol. i, facing page 32.

2 See also accounts of the discovery of Cretaceous deposits at numer-
ous localities in southern Minnesota in Winchell’s Minnesota reports.

3 See White, C. A., on the eastern limit of Cretaceous deposits in lowa.
Proc. AV AGA. S., vOlescxijsp) 187-192.

* The locality given by Prof. Haworth is, Sec. 17, township 86 N., range
20 west of the sth, P. M.; which is not far from the center of the state.

White on later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa. 223

age; and at my request he kindly sent them to me for examina-
tion, The fossils consist of molluscan remains, which are im-
bedded in fragments of firm ferruginous sandstone; and these
fragments indicate that they are portions of highly fossiliferous
strata. The specimens are all more or less imperfect; but the
generic character of the greater part of them is satisfactorily
recognizable, and a part of them have been specifically identified
with published forms. The following is a list of the forms so
far as they have been generically determined. Besides those
mentioned in the list, two or three other forms are indicated by
small fragments of shells.

List oF SPECIEs.
Inoceramus ?
Pinna lakesi White?
Syncyclonema rigida Meek and Hayden?

Nucula sacs!
Callista? te
Corbulainornata M. and H.
Pentaith. <<<

Chemnitzia cerithiformis M.and H.
Pseudobuccinum nebrascene M. and H.
Lispodesthes? haworthi sp. nov.

The specimens representing Zzoceramus are mere fragments,
giving no indication of the form of the shell, and therefore none
of its specific identity; but they show the characteristic shell-
structure of that genus. The Pina is represented by a number
of fragments which I have little doubt represent P. lakest
White, from the Fox Hills group of northern Colorado.!. The
single specimen referred to Syxcyclonema rigida® is imperfect,
but the identification is probably correct. The specimen re-
ferred to Vucula shows little or nothing of the external form of
the shell, but the characteristic dentition is discernible. Some
small separate valves, evidently belonging to the Veneriida, are
referred doubtfully to Cad/ista. Corbulainornata’ is somewhat
satisfactorily identified. The Deztaliwm is one of those com-

1 See 12th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p. 17, pl. 11, fig. 1.

2U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. ix, p. 27, pl. 16, figs.5,ab. This form was
originally found in the Fort Pierre group, but it has since been found in
strata of the Fox [Hills group.

*U.S: Geol. Surv. Terr. vol. ix, p. 245, pl. 30, figs. 4 a-d.

224 White on later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa.

mon plain forms which occur in various formations, and whick
have few salient specific characters. The identification of Chem-
nitzia cerithiformis' and Pseudobuccenum nebrascense* has been —
quite satisfactorily made. The remaining species is regarded as.
new, and is described in a following paragraph.

The general character of this little collection of fossils is alone
sufficient to suggest their afhinity with the fauna of the Fox
Hills group, the uppermost member of the marine Cretaceous
series of the interior region of the continent. The specific
identification of a part of the species of this collection, with
formerly published characteristic forms of that group however,
leaves no room for reasonable doubt upon that question.

Genus [LisPpoDESTHES White.

Lispodesthes? haworthti sp. nov.

Shell of medium size; body subfusiform, wing large and
prominent; spire prominent; the small apex usually made some-
what obtuse by the deposition of callus; the whole surface of
the shell covered by a greater or less thickness of callus; but
which is a little thinner upon the back of the body volution than
elsewhere. Where the callus is removed from the volutions of
the spire they are seen to be moderately convex, about six in
number, and marked by numerous revolving raised lines, which.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of Lispodesthes? haworthi; natural size.

are continued upon the body volution beneath the callus there.
No revolving ridge appears upon the volutions of the spire, but
one is developed upon the back of the body volution and is con-
tinued out upon the falciform process of the wing; beak moder-

1 Ib. p. 339, pl. 32, figs. 10, a, b.
2 Ne peishOs Dba Sls ikos.)55) Ay, Dy Cu ids

White on later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa, 225,

ately prominent; posterior canal absent, but there is instead, a
moderately broad notch at the junction of the posterior margin
of the wing with the spire. The lower lobe of the wing is
prominent, thickened, and rounded at the outer end; the falci-.
form process long, pointed and curved outward and backward.
The general shape and size of the shell is indicated by the ac-
companying figure.

The shell, in general aspect and in many of its details, is closely
like Lispodesthes nuptialis White,from the Cretaceous of Ari-
zona. It has all the characteristics upon which the genus Lis-
podesthes' was proposed except the posterior canal, which in
the type species is grooved out of the callus covering the spire,
and which extends nearly to its apex. In this species however
there is no such groove, but its other characteristics agree so
closely with those of Lispodesthes that I refer this form to
that genus, at least provisionally. The specific name is given
in honor of Prof, Haworth who brought these fossils to my
notice.

In my former discussions of the Cretaceous deposits within
the state of Iowa I have been disposed to treat them all as_be-
longing to the “ Earlier Cretaceous” of Meek and Hayden; that
is, as being older than the Fort Pierre and Fox Hills groups.
It is true that Mr. St. John regarded certain of the fish remains
which were found associated with Cretaceous mollusca in the
drift of Howard county as indicating a very late epoch of the
Cretaceous, although he was not able to identify any of them
with published species.’

While the value of the evidence furnished by the type char-
acters of those fish remains was not overlooked, the lack of
specific identification of any of them with forms whose strati-
graphical position was known left the question as to whether
they were of earlier or later Cretaceous age open to at least
reasonable doubt. Because of this, and of the fact that the fos-
sil mollusca which were associated with those fish remains
seemed to be, in part at least, specifically identical with forms
which characterize certain of the earlier Cretaceous strata in

1 For the original generic diagnosis see U. S.Geog. Surv. (Wheeler’s)
West of the rooth Meridian, vol. iv, p. 191.
2See article before cited, Proc. A. A. A. S. vol. xxi, p. 188.

226 White on later Cretaceous deposits in Iowa.

the region adjacent to western Iowa, I adhered to my previous
opinion that they were all of earlier Cretaceous age.

I was influenced by those impressions while discussing in a
late publication,' the shifting position of the eastern shore line
of the mesozoic seas which prevailed in what is now the inter-
ior of North America. I there expressed the belief that the
Cretaceous shore line finally receded to the westward of west-
ern Iowa at the close of the Colorado epoch of the earlier Cre-
taceous. Now, however, the fossils found in Hardin county
seem to warrant the opinion that the final recedence to the
westward of Iowa of the Cretaceous shore line occurred as late
as the closing epoch of the later Cretaceous. That is, not
only is the general character of all those Hardin county fossils
suggestive of their affinity with the molluscan fauna of the Fox
Hills group, but two of them have been specifically identified
with characteristic fossils of that gronp; and of the specific
identity of three others there is apparently little room for doubt.

It is not to be denied that if the fossils discovered in Hardin
and Howard counties had been obtained from strata undeniably
in situ, the evidence furnished by them would be more satisfac-
tory. It would also be more satisfactory if it were supported
by. a large number of similar discoveries; and in the estimate
which I put upon the value of these, the anticipation of future
discoveries, even of strata in situ, is taken into account. Even
in view only of the discoveries already made in Iowa and .in
Minnesota, a portion of which have been mentioned in previous
paragraphs, one can hardly entertain a reasonable doubt that
considerable deposits of later,as well as earlier Cretaceous strata
were made far within the present limits of the state of Iowa.

Although the meridian position of this Hardin county locality
is more westerly than that of Howard county, it is much more
easterly than is any other known Cretaceous locality in Iowa
south of the northern tier of its counties. If, therefore, we re-
gard the Hardin county fossils as having been originally depos-
ited where they were found, this discovery materially extends
the known eastern limit of Cretaceous deposits in that state. It
is fully believed that those fossils were originally deposited at,

1 See White, C. A., On the Fresh Water Invertebrates of the North
American Jurassic. Bul. U.S. Geol. Survey No. 29, p. 14.

White on later Cretaceous deposits tn Iowa. 227

or very near the place where they were found; but even if they
have been transported by drift agency, their original position
must have been fully as far to the eastward as that in which
they were discovered.

The known position of the older lowa formations, considered
with reference to the land surface, seems to indicate that the
maximum thickness of all the Cretaceous deposits which oc-
curred within that state was much less than that which was
reached by those formations further westward. But if we take
into consideration the probable fact that those deposits were
exposed to the usual process of subaérial degradation during the
whole of the Tertiary period; and that they were afterward
exposed to glacial action, we readily perceive that a large part
of the material originally deposited within the boundaries of
Iowa may have been carried away. Still, the presence there of
the later Cretaceous strata, indicates that the earlier ones have
always had a comparatively small maximum thickness."

After all the erosion which those strata have suffered, it is
probable that at least in the northwestern counties of Iowa,
there is still sufficient space between the drift deposit above and
the paleozoic formations beneath, to allow of the presence there
of several hundred feet in thickness of Cretaceous strata. We
may therefore reasonably expect that the numerous excavations
that will yet be made in that great drift-covered region, will
result in the discovery. there of some strata in situ. We may
also expect to learn of many other discoveries similar to those
of Hardin and Howard counties, in districts where small patches
of Cretaceous strata have escaped destruction.

1 Just as this article is going to press I have received a note from the
veteran paleobotanist, Prof. Lesquereux, concerning a leaf impression
submitted to him, which was included in Prof. Haworth’s coliection. This
form is unhesitatingly referred by Prof. Lesquereux to Andromeda
parlatorii Heer, a characteristic species of the Dakota group. This may
be taken as an indication that the earlier, as well as the later Cretaceous
reached as far eastward as central Iowa.

228 Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa.

ON SCEPTROPORA, A NEW GENUS OF BRYOZOA, WITH
REMARKS ON HELOPORA Hatt, AND OTHER GENERA
OF, THAT: TYPE.

BY E. O. ULRICH.

Nearly a year ago Prof. J. F. Whiteaves the palzontologist
to the Canadian geological survey, kindly sent me for examin-
ation and description a box of fossil bryozoa which had been
collected from Lower Silurian rocks in Manitoba.

Among other interesting forms, I have found the surface of
some of the slabs strewn with the separated segments of an un-
described species and genus of jointed bryozoa.

On my return from Minnesota last October, I stopped over
for two weeks in IIlinois to study the Lower Silurian outcrops
in the northern part of that state, and at two localities, Savan-
nah and Wilmington, was so fortunate as to find a number of
isolated segments of the same form. The Lower Silurian
rocks at these two localities are doubtlessly equivalent to the
upper half of the Cincinnati group (Hudson River) of Ohio,
many of the fossils found in the western localities being iden-
tical with well known species known to be confined to the
upper beds of the group in Ohio.

The equivalence of the rocks at Stony mountain, the locality
in Manitoba which furnished the first specimens of the bryozoa
in question, is as little doubtful as that of the Wilmington or
Savannah strata, many of the fossils being identical with those
collected by me at the [llinois localities.

The genus and species may be described, briefly, as follows:

SCEPTROPORA Nn. gen.

Zoarium articulated; segments numerous, short, sceptre or
club-shaped, the lower half striated, non celluliferous, its ex-
tremity bulbous; upper half more or less expanded, celluliferous,
and with a large socket at the center of the top; occasionally
with two sockets when the segment had articulated with two
succeeding joints. Zocecia sub-tubular, radially arranged about
a central axis, their apertures subovate, and arranged between
vertical lines.

Segments club-shaped, varying in length from less than

Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa. 229

1 mm. to nearly 2 mm.; lower half sub-cylindrical, about 0.23
mm. in diameter, non-celluliferous, covered with fine, granulose,
vertical strie; lower extremity bulbous, smooth; upper half
celluliferous, expanding more or less rapidly, the depressed-con-
ical top varying in diameter from 0.7 to2mm. The zowcia

SCEPTROPORA FACULA Ni. Sp.

Fig.1. Sceptropora facuéa,n.sp., a, segment of the average size and ap-
pearance; 4, vertical section of a segment, showing tubular zocwcia and
central axis; c, transverse section of the cylindrical lower half of a seg-
ment; d, transverse section of expanded portion of the largest segment
seen. All magnified to 18 diameters,

apertures on the top are sub-circular, about 0.09 mm. in diam-
eter and arranged in radial series between raised lines about the
large central socket. As the zoarium expands the series in-
crease in number by interpolation. The zoccia apertures on
the sides are ovate and a little larger, having an average length
of 0.11 mm. Like those on the top, they are arranged between
elevated granulose ridges.

Remarks: The detached segments of this very pretty little
bryozoan are abundantly strewn over the surface of some of
the slabs from Stony mountain, Manitoba, and I do not doubt
that if searched for, specimens preserving a number of them
joined together would be found there. Such must be looked
for in shaly layers only. Among the Savannah specimens
there is one consisting of two segments still joined together.
Those from Wilmington consist of isolated segments. Here
they are neither abundant nor easily detected, being, because of
their small size and the peculiar character of the rock, readily
overlooked.

230 Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa.

The systematic position of Sceptropora is clearly near Helo-
pora in the family Arthrostylidae.. This family especially in
its most typical members, reminds us of the Cedllartide, yet,
beyond the jointed zoarium and a general external resemblance,
but little can be brought showing true relationship. On the
contrary, in the form and minute structure of the zoccia, they
agree closely with the St¢ctoporidae.” One of the most marked
peculiarities of that family is the presence of exceedingly
minute tubes between the median lamine. In the Arthro-
stylidae the zoccia are nearly always arranged in a radial
manner about a central axis. Here a minute vertical tube
has been detected in exceptionally preserved examples of
several species, and in at least one species, two such tubes.
In Arthrostylus tenuis, in which the zocecia open on only
three sides of the subquadrangular segment, the fourth and
widest side being simply striated longitudinally, the minute axial
tube is situated at the point of union between the proxinal ends
of the three rows of zocecia. This axial tube, or tubes, I regard
as homologous with the “median tubuli” of the Stictoporidae.
Another feature common to members of that family, and many
of Arthrostylidae, is a row of minute vertical tubuli, which oc-
cur, particularly in the outer portion of the zoarium, between
the rows of zomcia, and appear at the surface as minute granu-
les on the dividing ridges between the rows of superficial aper-
tures. Precisely the same kind of structures are shown in Scef-
tropora facula (see fig. 1,a) and less well in section of Helopora
fragilis (fig. 2. c). The primitive or deeper portion of the
zoccia is, of course, different in the two families, it being wedge
shaped and generally longer in the Arthrostylidae than in the
Stictoporidae. These differences, however, are accounted for
by the different form of zoarium characterizing them. Thus,

1The name Arthrostylus is proposed instead of my Arthronema (“Am.
Pal. Bry.” Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. v, p. 160) which was preoccupied
by Eschscholtz for a genus of Colfodea. The genus being the type of the
family Arthronemidae, it seems best to change the family name as well,

2 This family as now understood and defined by me in the forthcoming
vol. viii of the Illinois geological survey, comprises the following genera:
Stictopora Hall, 1847 not 1887, (based on S. fenestrata Hall) Dicranopora
Ul., Pachydictya Ul., Phyllodictya Ul., Eurydictya,n. gen: and Euspilopora

n. gen.

Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa. 231

while in the latter the zocecia form two leaves grown together
back to back, in the former they are arranged radially so as to
form subcylindrical or club-shaped stems. This mode of ar-
rangement of itself would cause the primitive portion of the
zoecia of the larger forms of the first family to incline to be-
come tubular. The reason is obvious, since nearly all the zocecia
originate at or near the center of the zoarium and being forced
to adapt themselves to the distance between the axis and the
outer surface, are necessarily longer than in such flat forms like
Stictopora in which the rapid development of the cells is not
retarded by lack of space.

The resemblances above pointed out sufficiently show the
position of the family to be near the Stictoporide, while their
relation on the other side again should be sought for among the
Rhabdomesontide rather than the Callarittde, the succession
of the forms in geologic ages being an important circumstance
greatly favoring the former. There is, however, a wide struct-
ural gap between both those families and the Arthrostylida, so
that we are at present justified in claiming the latter as a dis-
tinctively Silurian type of which no representatives are yet
known in succeeding ages.

The jointed character of the zoarium is the most conspicuous
as well as the most important feature of the family, being well
shown in all the genera excepting /Vematopora,' a new genus
in which the zoarium (very much as in P¢zlodictya, proper ) artic-
ulates at the basal extremity only, and above this base forms a
continuous dichotomously branching slender stem. In Arthros-
tylus Ul., Helopora Hall, and Sceptropora, the segments are
simple and terminally joined together, each segment giving rise
to one or two succeeding joints. The first of these genera is
distinguished by having one of the sides non-celluliferous and
simply striated longitudinally. In the second the segments are
subcylindrical with zowcia apertures on all sides, while in the
third the zoarium is non-celluliferous below and spreads rapidly
above.

The typical species of Aelofora is Hall’s H. fragilis, a very
abundant and characteristic fossil of the Clinton group of Can-

1 This genus together with a number of species will be described in vol.
viii, Illinois geological survey, now in press.

232 Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa.

ada. SBesides the type species eight others are known to me
which are constructed upon the same general plan, four of them
Lower Silurian and four Middle and Upper Silurian. These
are distributed as follows: HZ. sfiniformis Ul., Birdseye, A.
divaricata Ul., Trenton, 7. imbricata Ul. and HZ. harrisi James,
Cincinnati group, A. dedlula Bill., H. armata, Bill. and A. xo-—
dosa, Bill.," Anticosti group, and 4. dindstromz n. sp. from the
Upper Silurian rocks of Gotland.

Upon comparison I find that the Lower Silurian species differ
from the Upper Silurian and typical section of the genus in
having the cell-apertures arranged in longitudinal series between
elevated ridges, and the interspaces between the ends of the
zocecia apertures longer. In 4. fragilis the apertures are rather
oblique, oval or subquadrate, and separated by comparatively
thin subequal walls. In the Gotland species they are ovate,
nearly or quite direct, and surrounded by a hexagonal margin.
The Upper Silurian and Anticosti species also have small acan-
thopores, which, so far, have not been detected on any of the
Lower Silurian forms. In short the latter compare more closely
in the atrangement of the zoecia with Arthroclema Billings
than do the typical species.

It gives me great pleasure to name this species as above, in
honor of the talented Swedish paleontologist, Dr. Gustav Lind-
strom, to whose kindness I owe the opportunity of studying
this beautiful species. The specimens are more perfect than
those of any other species of HVelopora yet seen by me.

In Arthroclema, Billings, the arrangement of the zoecia is,
as has already been intimated, very much the same as in the
Lower Silurian species //elopora, but the development and com-
bination of the segments in the three species known to me is so
peculiar that the distinctness of the two genera can scarcely be
questioned. In Arthroclema, namely, the zoarium is composed
of a large number of subcylindrical segments. These are ar-

1In the Catalogue Sil. Foss. Anticosti, Mr. E. Billings describes twelve
species which he refers to Helofora. I have not seen specimens of all of
these but from a study of the descriptions I believe I can say safely that
with the exception of the three species above mentioned, and possibly A.
Sormosa and H. concava, none of the others are congeneric with 1. fragilis.
H. lineata and perhaps H. strigosa and H. striatopora belong to Nemato-
pora,; the others are undetermined.

Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa. 233

ranged in a bi-pinnate manner, those forming the central stem
being the largest. Each of the primary segments has one or
two sockets on each side for articulation with a smaller second-

Fig. 2. Thin sections illustrating the internal structure of Helopora
Sragilis Hall, from the Clinton group at Hamilton, Ontario, and Helopora
lindstromi n. sp.' from the Upper Silurian of Gotland.

All the figures are magnified 18 times. a, vertical section of small
segment of H. fragilis, showing the zocecia as they diverge from the
central axis. 4, small portion of a tangential section of the same, showing
acanthopores at the surface. c, tangential section of the same, as it ap-
pears in the ferruginous matrix; in these examples the extreme outer
region is destroyed; this section, however, still shows good indications of
acanthopores and, near the center of the figure, a close set row of much
smaller pores. d, transverse section of the same passing through seg-
ment near its upper extremity. e, transverse section of the same cutting
the segment just above its basal extremity. /, tangential section of H,
lindstromi, showing form and arrangement of zocecia and acanthopores.
g, transverse section of the same. 4, vertical section of the same.

1 The cylindrical or slightly club-shaped segments of this fine species
vary in length from 10to 15 mm., and in diameter from 1.3 to1.8mm. Both
extremities are without cells and nearly smooth, the upper one flattened

234 Ulrich on Genera of Bryozoa.

ary set. These, again, in like manner articulate with still more
slender tertiary segments, forming at the same time jointed
parallel branches of the primary series of segments.

Excepting in the Trenton beds near Ottawa, Canada, the
segments of Arthroclema are rarely found still in connection.
As the isolated segments closely resemble those of Helopora
they might readly be mistaken for a species of that genus.
They might even be supposed to represent two or three species,
since the secondary and tertiary elements are considerably
smaller than the primary one. This fact furnishes another
point of difference from F/e/ofora, since in that genus all the
segments are approximately equal, The main difference,
however, is found in the two or more sockets that occur on the
sides of the primary and secondary segments of Arthroclema.

In the typical species of the new genus Vematopora the mi-
nute characters and zocecial arrangement closely resemble those
of Arthrostylus, only the zocecia open on all sides of the branch-
ing stems. The type and several other species are from the
Trenton limestone; two species occur in the Cincinnati group,
several in the Anticosti, and two or more in the Niagara.
Hall’s 7rematopora minuta belongs here.

In the above short sketch I have endeavored to give the °
student a fair idea of the distinctive characters of the several
genera comprised in the Arthrostylide. On account of the
small size of the segments the species will probably continue to
be overlooked by the ordinary collector, but he who takes an
interest in paleozoic bryozoa should not fail to search for them,
as I can assure him he will find them not only an interesting
group, but also attractive objects under the microscope. Thin-
sections are easily prepared of most of them by simply taking °
slices of the rock holding them; and none are too small to be
thus studied. All of my sections of them have proved more
or less instructive and not a few make really handsome micro-
objects.

and slightly concave centrally, the lower moderately convex. Zocecia
arranged in quincunx; measuring lengthwise seventeen in 5 mm.; diag-
onally, four in 1 m. Apertures direct, oval, with a very narrow peri-
stome, set into a rhomboidal or hexagonal concave area. A rather strong
acanthopore generally occupies the space between the ends of the
zocecia apertures.

Miller on the Taconic. 235

THE TACONIC SYSTEM AS ESTABLISHED BY EMMONS,
AND THE LAWS OF NOMENCLATURE APPLICABLE

TO THE SUBJECT.
BY S. A. MILLER.

The term Zaconic system must be retained for all the rocks
existing between those belonging to the Laurentian age and the
Potsdam group or base of the Lower Silurian series, if it was
properly defined and published prior to the definition of any
other geographical name for the same rocks. In other words,
the laws of priority, in naming groups of rocks and the so-called
systems, must be as rigidly enforced as they are in the naming
of fossils and plants, if we are to have system and order, instead
of confusion, in geological science. When a group of rocks
have been named, and the fossils from them have been des-
cribed and illustrated so the rocks may be identified by a palzx-
ontologist elsewhere than at the typical locality, the name must
be retained, to the exclusion of all names subsequently pro-
posed. Synonymy in stratigraphical geology, is quite as odious
and objectionable as it is in paleontology, and most of it has
resulted from the ambition of those whose work has rather re-
tarded than advanced the progress of science.

The value of the rule of priority, as thus stated, will find no
more forcible illustration, than that presented by an examina-
tion of the extent of the rocks now under review, and the his-
tory of the synonymy to which they have been subjected.

In 1842 Ebenezer Emmons, in his report on the second geo-
logical district of New York, described the rocks lying on the
sides of the Taconic mountains, parallel with the boundary line
between New York and Vermont, under the name of the Ta-
conic system. He found the belt on the western border of the
mountains more than fifteen miles wide, and on the eastern side
nearly twenty-five miles, making a total of nearly forty miles.
The rocks occur in Westchester, Columbia, Rensselaer and
Washington counties, and stretching the whole length of Ver-
mont enter Canada and extend beyond Quebec. He mentioned
a typical locality in Berkshire, Massachusetts. The general
character of the rocks was given as follows:

1. A coarse granular limestone of various colors, called Stockbridge
imestone from the quarries at that place.

236 Miller on the Taconic.

2. Granular quartz rock,, generally fine-grained, in firm, teugh,
crystalline masses of a brown color, but sometimes white, granular and
friable.

3. Magnesian slate.

4. Sparry limestone.

5. Taconic slate, which is extremely fine-grained and only slightly co-
herent.

He traced the rocks ina north and south course for 150 or
200 miles, and observed the fact that they underlie the Potsdam
sandstone, wherever it does not rest upon the gneissoid strata.

In 1844 he published the “Taconic system,” reviewed his
former work, furnished numerous evidences in support of the
existence of these rocks below the Potsdam and above the
gneissoid rocks, or what are now known as the Laurentian,
and ascertained that they had a thickness, as shown by a single
section, of more than two miles. He said, taking one broad
view of the whole system, it might be described as consist-
ing of fine and coarse slates with subordinate beds of chert,
fine and coarse limestone, and grey, brown and white sandstone;
these admitting however, of further divisions, The leading
divisions recognized were:

1. Granular quartz or brown sandstone resting unconformably upon
the older gneiss. It is the least regular in its continuation of any of the
rocks of the Taconic system, and generally appears in isolated mountain
masses, as at Oak hill between Adams and Williamstown, Mass., at
Monument mountain in the south part of Berkshire, in the east part of
Bennington, Vt., and in Dutchess, Putnam and Westchester counties,
New York.

2. Stockbridge limestone, generally known as Stockbridge marble and

-occuring in New York, Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut.
Commencing at Sing Sing, it runs a northerly course through West-
chester, Dutchess and Columbia counties, and extends into Connecticut.
It passes up the valley of the Housatonic into the upper valleys of the
Hoosic, and onward into Vermont, and is well represented at Williams-
town, Massachusetts.

3. Magnesian slate which composes the highest mountains in the Ta-
conic ranges. The range of mountains composed of this slate extending
along the western border of Massachusetts and through Vermont, often
rising to the hight of fifteen hundred feet, known as the Taconic range
furnished the name to this system. It crosses the Hudson about thirty
miles above New York city, and passing south through New Jersey
enters Pennsylvania.

4. Sparry limestone, a name given to it many years before by Prof.
Amos Eaton. It occupies a belt of country in the eastern part of Dutch-

Miller on the Taconic. 237

ess, Columbia, Rensselaer and Washington counties, and, passing north,
strikes the west line of Arlington, Vermont.

5. Taconic slate, with its subordinate beds of roofing slate and coarse
brecciated layers. It occupies almost the whole of Columbia, Renssel-
-aer and Washington counties, and extends to the base of the Taconic
range, which separates New York from Vermont and Massachusetts,
and has an immense thickness. It crosses the Hudson above Newburg,
and passes through Orange county into New Jersey. From the roofing
slate he defined Diflograptus simplex, and from the Taconic slate in
Washington county Buthotrephis flexuosa, B. rigida, Paleochorda marina,
Nemapodia tenuissima, Nereites deweyi, N. gracilis, N. jacksont, WN. lanceo-
latus, NV. loomist, NV. pugnus, Myrianites murchisoni and M. sillimani.

6. Black slate, forming so far as he knew the highest member of the
Taconic system, and from which he named and illustrated Eillptocepha-
lus asaphoides and Atops trilineatus.

He identified the Smithfield limestone in Rhode Island with
the Stockbridge limestone, and an accompanying slate with the
Magnesian slate; and in Blackstone valley he found the brown
sandstone and fine granular quartz. He recognized in the
slates in Waterville, Maine, the Taconic slate of New York,
and found the /Vereztes, at Kennebec. ‘The fine roofing slates
on the Piscataqua he found subordinate to the Taconic slate in
like manner as they exist in New York. And, jointly with
Douglass Houghton, the Taconic system was found largely de-
veloped in the upper peninsula of Michigan; the slates of the
formation with their fucoidal impressions and the granular
quartz were both recognized. In 1846 he reproduced his work
on the Taconic system in a report on the Agriculture of New
York, with an appendix describing a conglomerate at the
base resting unconformably upon granitic rocks.

In this manner this geological subdivision was first deter-
mined, defined and established, and it should have been recog-
nized from that time forward. But others, much less in-
formed, disputed the existence of the rocks, erroneously refer-
red his fossils to more recent genera, and some, finding the
same rocks, gave to them different names, which added to the
confusion, and seriously retarded the progress of knowledge re-
specting them. It may be that later researches have not, in
every respect, sustained his determinations, but Ford’s work
near Albany, New York, where the position taken by Emmons
was most violently assaulted, has not only corroborated him,

;

238 Milley on the Taconic.

but has forever set the question at rest, in that locality; Wing,
Dale and Dwight have sustained his assertions respecting the
want of conformability of the Hudson River slates with the
Taconic. All the surveys of Michigan and Wisconsin have
sustained him, though the geologists apply the later name,
Huronian, to these strata. His determinations of the rocks in
North Carolina have been most fully confirmed by later geo-
logists, though some also use the word Huronian when refer-
ring to them.

In 1849 Alexander Murray an assistant on the geological
survey of Canada, in the report of progress for the year 1847,
described the rocks on the north side of lake Huron and many
of the adjacent islands under the name of “quartz rocks and
sandstones, conglomerates, slates and limestones,” and correctly
identified them as resting unconformably upon the older grani-
tic and syenitic gneiss, and succeeded unconformably by the
Potsdam; but he did not call them by any geological name.
If he had read Emmon’s “Taconic System,” it is difficult to
conceive why he should have hesitated in referring the rocks to
that system. In the report of progress of 1856 he described
these rocks under the name of the “Huronian series,” which
was adopted by the officers of the Canadian survey, without
once mentioning the Taconic system. From that time forward
authors have generally used the name Huronian, and have al-
most annihilated the name Taconic. The word Taconic how-
ever has priority over Huronian; it is equally appropriate, and
the definition of the fossils in the upper slates at once furnishes
the means of tracing it and determining it at different and dis-
tant places. The word “Huronian” is therefore a synonym
for Taconic, and comprehended, as used originally by the Cana-
dian geologists, substantially the same series of rocks, though not
ascending quite so high.

A section of the so-called Huronian, but more properly the
Lower Taconic, between the Mississippi and St. Mary’s rivers
in ascending order is as follows:

Vo Grey (Quartz ye Aeiisisjeyeyole erated lelaie/e\o/+\aieielets) ers cheleleleseievelels 500 feet.
2. Greenish, red-weathering chloritic and epidotic slates 2000 “
Sh White iq tlartzyi teeter Oi eon rlaleieilenel a .nibielotoleioledalsvalale 1000 ‘
AY Statescomelomienate ys iocy.ic ve, eisiersl one oleate ate istagelelawe everest sateroy, | Mt
Ra MAINVSSLOMMS Heyer ater et ete iallenelete fe ave tetetet alga lhl) sia) ellen sUal setts 200)
@) Slate conglomerate ete sci ee ee eee ie) « sinia)eleie els clols 3000 “

Milier on the Taconic. 239

. a

PE RREGOUATEZVLCLEEC Hs 5 bias cic citi tig s\aieis ecdielare Seales eo clots wie 2300 feet.
e2 eed gasper conglomerates etc. 3... <2 csc. eae c cienid ee 215m
SUMNER UAT EZIVIEC CLC 2.5.0. 5 arsi'e s'e-5 wlnlele arse sw e/d'el aca, o'e/ Biel s 2970 *
BOMae OWS, Chert Cte ry. 105 fe as cise sais cane arephiascrnt abe A00),
ieee Quartzyte ete... 65363 seen o SowocuaonsaeOt oc 1500 ‘“
PAE NOW ISTINCINCT.E CLEC lecjoye)e: of ofareiclejcinjcien sie bie os sie) «aise slays 200 *
Mn ORI MIATA YUE: 2. tic aisle, velo slot veveetbcie veins eta die 400 “

LOLS) canyp RS Gra RIG ARIA GID Brg ie anes, A am YR 18000 feet.

Another section adds to this one 4000 feet, and even then the
maximum thickness of the series in that locality has not been
reached.

Throughout the Huronian region, the whole series bears evi-
dence of great disturbance and is frequently cut with intrusive
masses of greenstone, granite, or other igneous rocks. The
more recent disturbances frequently bear metalliferous veins,
which give to the country its value as a mineral region. Cop-
per and iron are the chief minerals and abound in nearly every
section,—gold and silver sometimes occur. The Taconic of
Michigan contains vast beds of iron ore. The ores are mag-
netic, red specular hematite, and soft hematite resembling the
the brown hematite of other states. The magnetic and specul-
ar ores are the most prized, and usually contain from 60 to 70
per cent of iron and hardly a trace of phosphorus or sul-
phur. The lake Superior region is the chief locality of the
world for native copper. It is so pure the aborigines manu-
factured it into implements. The copper-bearing rocks extend
eastward along the south shore of the lake for more than forty
miles, then forming a narrow belt stretch in a north-east direc-
tion, for about 100 miles, to the extremity of Keweenaw point.
The copper occurs in a rock called melaphyr associated with
beds of conglomerate which appear to be interstratified with
it. Sometimes bands of slate separate beds of melaphyr. The
native copper exists in sheets, strings and masses, and is some-
times associated with silver. In Ashland county, Wisconsin,
the copper-bearing series has a thickness of more than four
miles though not very rich, in ore. The Taconic area in Min-
nesota islarge. Itextends across the northern border, and form-
ing an elbow in the northeast extends diagonally through the
state to the southwest corner. Here there is a reddish metamor-
phic sandstone called the Sioux quartzyte, interstratified with
which isa layer of red indurated clay or pipestone one foot

240 Miller on the Taconic.
®

thick called catlinite, largely used for the manufacture of pipes.
The quarry is thirty miles north of the southwest corner of the
state and four miles east of the west line. The Sioux quartz-
yte occurs in the north-west corner of Iowa.

The geological extent of these rocks in Canada is very great.
They may be traced from near lake Tematscaming, 80 miles
north-west of lake Nipissing, southwestward to lake Huron,
and from thence westward, on the north shore of the lake and
the north shore of lake Superior, and on beyond lake of the
Woods, a distance in all of about Soo miles. They pass beneath
the lakes and expose a large areain the upper peninsula of
Michigan, at Marquette and Menominee, and a great thickness,
extending from the lowest to the highest Taconic, as first ascer-
tained by Houghton; thence they pass into Wisconsin, exposing
a large area and quite as complete a representation of the series,
while another arm extends from Duluth into Minnesota. The
thickness in Michigan is about four miles, but in Wisconsin, in-
cluding the Copper-bearing series which is three-fourths of ig-
neous material, the thickness is much greater, and even exclud-
ing the igneous material the thickness exceeds four miles. The
upper part of the Taconic system in Wisconsin, formerly called
“The Copper-bearing series,” has received the unattractive
name of the Keweenawan formation, from Keweenaw point,
but as itis part of the Taconic system, the preferable name is
the older one of the “Copper-bearing series.” The rocks ap-
pear between Scoresby bay and cape Cresswell, in latitude
82° 40’ N., where Nares and Feilden called them Cape Rawson
beds. In 1856 Emmons divided the system into Upper and
Lower Taconic. The Canadian geologists, in 1863, placed the
Upper Taconic in the Silurian system, and called it “ Lower”
Potsdam, which name therefore became a synonym. The only
geographical names which have been used to subdivide the
Upper Taconic into groups, which seem, in the present
state of learning, to be worthy of retention, are in descending
order, the Swanton group, the Georgia group and the St.
John’s group—if in fact the last is below the Georgia and there-
fore not asynonym. Emmons placed the Stockbridge lime-
stone in the Lower Taconic, but it would seem from the exami-
nations made by others that his division would have been more

Miller on the Taconic. 241

clearly marked if the Stockbridge limestone had been retained
in the Upper Taconic. The Paradoxides beds at Braintree,
Mass., in Newfoundland and New Brunswick, and wherever
found on the continent, belong to the Upper Taconic. The
same difficulty exists in the west in separating the Upper Ta-
conic from the overlying rocks of the Potsdam, that has led to
so much discussion in the east, and the confusion is increased,
by the addition of numerous synonyms—the ready weapon to
to which ignorance resorts.

In 1863 G. F. Mathew named the rocks exposed at St.
John’s, New Brunswick, the “St. John’s group.” He described
them as arenaceous, argillaceous and carbonaceous shales and
clay slates, often sandy, with sandstone and quartzyte, having
a thickness of 4500 feet, and an exposure about 30 miles long
and four miles wide. He collected Paradoxides, Conocephal-
ites, Obelella, Orthis Orthisina, Discina, Hyolithes, and Lin-
gula. In 1865 he and Bailey and Hartt correlated these rocks
with the slates of Vermont having Olenellus ( E:llipsocephalus )
' asaphoides, and the schistose beds at Braintree, Mass., holding
Paradoxides harlanz; thus proving their “St. John’s group,” to
be asynonym, for Emmons “ Black slate” in the Upper Ta-
conic system. Furthermore, they identified the slates with
some found in Newfoundland containing Paradoxides and
Conocephalites. Water, they divided the Lower Taconic of
New Brunswick, which they called Huronian, into the “ Cold-
brook group,” the “Coastal group,” and the “ Kingston group,”
and estimated the thickness as exceeding 10000 feet.

The Vermont geologists in 1861 called the Black slate, Ta-
conic slate and Roofing slate of Emmons, the ‘Georgia
group.” The name Taconic has priority over the “St. John’s
group,” and if the Taconic system is to be divided into groups,
with geographical names, and three divisions of Emmons are
to be thrown together in one group, then they must, under the
laws of nomenclature, bear the name of the Georgia group.
The Black slate has however been called the Swanton group,
and if this name should become desirable, then the Upper Ta-
conic would be divided into the Swanton group and _ the Geor-
gia group; and their maximum thickness in Vermont exceeds
two miles. This division is that’ adopted by Perry, who has

242 Miller on the Taconic.

shown that the Potsdam sandstone rests directly upon the
Swanton or Black Slate group as originally asserted by Em-
mons, and that both the Swanton group and the Georgia group
are fossiliferous.

The Taconic rocks extend from Canada East and Maine to
Georgia and Alabama, flanking almost continuously the ranges
of mountains upon both the eastern and western slopes. Their
thickness in New Hampshire is over four miles, and in Ver-
mont the maximum must exceed five miles. The slate belts of
York and Lancaster counties, Pa., and the rocks containing
the valuable ores of nickel and copper, belong to this system.
There are five extensive outcrops in North Carolina, and three
or four subordinate ones. They rest unconformably upon the
belts of the exposed Laurentian, and very much resemble, in
their characters, the subdivisions in Vermont and New York.
The largest outcrop is from 20 to 40 miles wide, and extends
quite across the state. The maximum thickness exceeds five
miles. There are large outcrops in Virginia, South Carolina,
Georgia and Tennessee, and limited outcrops in Alabama. Gold,
silver, copper, lead, iron and other valuable minerals occur in
these rocks, not only in veins, fissures, and dykes, but in seams
following stratification, and as parts of the sedimentary materi-
als. In northern Georgia gold exists in seams with milky
quartz, following the stratification of hornblende schists, and
constituting as truly sedimentary rocks as the schists themselves
do. The seams are stratified within the slaty sediments, and
are of the same age as the Taconic system. These seams are
so constant that they characterize the slates and schists, in the
Appalachian system. They are metalliferous, and frequently
auriferous or cupriferous. The magnetic, and specular iron
ores also occur, with the material of the slates, as a deposit of
the same age, and constituting part of the same system. This
mineral wealth is so distributed that it is practically inexhaust-
ible. The Taconic appears in Missouri, Arkansas and Texas.
The iron ore districts, about Iron mountain and Pilot Knob, con-
taining porphyry rocks, is of this age, but the granite to the east is
Laurentian. The ore is found in very thick veins, in Iron and
Shepard mountains and Pilot Knob. It is specular ore con-
taining betweet 60 and 75 per cent of iron, free from sulphur

Miller on the Taconic. 243

and bearing no more than a mere trace of phosphorus. The
rocks appear in numerous places in the Rocky mountain ranges
from Mexico to British Columbia, often exposing great geo-
graphical areas and an immense thickness, and usually metallif-
erous.

The genera regarded as typical of the Taconic fauna and
which do not pass up into Silurian rocks, are Paradoxides,
Microdiscus, Atops, or Ptychoparia, Olenellus, Conocoryphe,
Anopolenus, Bathynotus, Solenopleura, Acrothele, Salterella,
Scenella, Iphidea, Hyolithellus, Archeocyathus and Lthmo-
phyllum. There are some others peculiar to these rocks, but
they are either obscure or limited in their distribution. Some
genera closed their existence in Silurian time, others reached
the Devonian age, and some, from this remote period,as Orthzs,
Orthisina, Orthoceras, and Leperditia, continued to live to the
Carboniferous, through Orthoceras reached its most remarkable
development, in the Black River group, and Orthis, in the
Hudson River. Not a single species belonging to the Upper
Taconic system crossed over the line that separates it from the
Potsdam group of the Lower Silurian so far as any reliable
determination has thus far been made. This, supported as it is
by a want of conformability, indicates a vast lapse of time be-
tween the deposit of the Upper Taconic and the commence-
ment of the Potsdam period. The Taconic is composed of the
disintegrated materials of prior Laurentian rocks, while the
Potsdam represents the washings of the Laurentian and Ta-
conic.

The Cupriferous series of the Lake region, called also the
Keweenawan, Keweenian, Keweenawian and Nipigon series, is
supposed to underlie nearly the whole basin of lake Superior,
or an area of about 28000 square miles, and a surface area, upon
the borders of the lakes and their immediate vicinity, of about
18000 square miles. This series has been divided into an upper
and lower division, with an estimated maximum thickness of
15000 feet for the upper division, and 35000 feet for the lower
which rests upon the slates and quartzytes of the Taconic system,
the last having a variable thickness that reaches a maximum
of at least 22000 feet. The Cupriferous series consists of erup-
tive flows and detrital rocks, with massive dikes. The region

244 Miller on the Taconic.

was, in Taconic days, represented by a volcano, which has sunk
beneath the waters of the lake. The flows were followed by
detrital rocks representing the intervals of time between them;
but these detrital rocks are composed largely of conglomerate
layers and large sized pebbles, indicating strong currents of
water. The flows visible upon the borders of the lakes were
forced through fissures by volcanic energies. The copper,
which occurs in the conglomerates, amygdaloids, epidote veins
and otherwise, is supposed to have been precipitated from water
holding it in solution, or leached from detrital rocks where it
was originally deposited in a sulphureted form. R. D. Irving,
who has studied closely the copper bearing rocks of this region,
says the explorer for transverse veins should bear in mind that
epidote, prehnite and chlorite are favorite associates of copper,
while laumonitic veins and those bearing a predominating quan-
tity of calcite are not so rich; that a wide vein in amygdaloidal
or other soft rocks will pinch to a mere seam, within the mas-
sive and compact layers; and in sandstone and conglomerate
deposits the valuable belts have been found where the conglom-
erate is overlaid with trap, or in sandstone very rich in basic
detritus. Any of the conglomerate seams from Keweenaw
point to Minnesota may be cupriferous. All of the upper div-
ision of the series is non-cupriferous, except the Nonesuch sand-
stone belt in the Porcupine mountains; and all the belts and
areas of acid rocks, such as the central area of the Porcupine
mountains, and the great spread of red rock, in the Brulé lake
country in Minnesota, and all belts and areas of coarse-grained
basic rocks, such as the great area of coarse gabbro in the Bad
river region in Wisconsin, and the similar area which occupies
the belt of country from Duluth to Brulé lake, are also non-
cupriferous. The slates and quartzytes of the Taconic system
which lie below the Cupriferous series on the north shore of
lake Superior, have been called the Animikie group. About
three-fourths of the great thickness of the rocks is referred to
Volcanic overflows and does not therefore, belong to the geo-
logical column, the whole of which is the result of sedimentary
deposition.

The vast extent and great thickness of the rocks, resting on
the granite and gneiss and followed by the Potsdam sandstone,

Editorial Comment. 245

were first made known by Ebenezer Emmons. He described
their stratigrapical and mineral characters as carefully and fully
as any one was capable of doing in his day, and he furnished
the paleontological evidence by which they might be determined,
and gave to them a geographical name according to the require-
ments of nomenclature. Every species illustrated by him is’
a valid species to-day, and none of them occur in higher rocks.
The generic name /llipsocephalus was preoccupied and hence
gave way to the later name Olezellus, but Olenellus asaphoides
is characteristic of the Upper Taconic in the region explored
by Emmons, and the genus is characteristic elsewhere. His
Atops trilineatus is characteristic, though complaint has been
entered against the name AZofs because he did not define it, and
some use therefore the later generic name /Ptychopfaria. He
illustrated, and named the fossil for the purpose of showing the
fauna of the rocks, and whether his generic name shall stand or
that of Corda be substituted, is of no importance, so far as his
labors went, in establishing the Taconic system.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

THE RIGHTS OF INTELLIGENCE UNDER PAID SERVICE.

Again we hear the sound of complaint in behalf of uncredited
and unhonored work performed under contract, for a pecuniary
consideration. Itis a familiar sound. A bright and industrious
young man enters into an agreement with an employer to per-
form a certain service involving more or less learning, intel-
ligence and administrative ability. It may embrace work in
original scientific investigation. The engagement runs on for
years by mutual consent, and the employed acquires a high de-
gree of ability for original research. The results of his labors,
however, appear under the name of his employer; and the im-
mediate investigator’s name remains unannounced to the public
—at least, uncredited for the work done. Such instances have
fallen under our observation from the fields of general geology,
paleontology, zodlogy and botany; and the paid investigator

246 Editoriai Comment.

has not in all cases, been a young man. Whatever the field and
whatever the condition in life of the person engaging his services
for hire, the ethical principles involved arethe same. They are
the common principles of ethics; they are very obvious, and dis-
entangled from their environment, are very simple.

The case is so simple that we venture to state elemental prin-
ciples which must regulate correct action.

Every agreement made is binding, according to its terms,
against both the parties; and neither party has the right to
terminate it or alter its provisions during the period specified in
the agreement. Ifno period is specified, the agreement may
be terminated at the will of either party; and if neither party
signifies his desire to terminate the agreement, both continue to
be bound by it. The agreement may prove onerous to one of
the parties. It may become increasingly onerous; but unless the
stipulated period of its continuance has been completed, he has
no remedy but an appeal to the generosity of the other party.
This supposes, of course, that the other party continues to ex-
ecute faithfully all the stipulations to which he agreed.

In an agreement to render scientific service for a money con-
sideration, accessory conditions come into view, which constitute
a distinct class of contracts; but these conditions do not qualify
the ethical principles involved in all contracts. They become,
rather, an occasion for the introduction of special stipulations in
the form ofthe contract. Whether introduced or not, the moral
and legal obligations created by it exist under the simple prin-
ciples just stated.

The most important accessory condition in a contract for
scientific service is the usual knowledge and intelligence re-
quired, and the increased value of their service with increase of
knowledge and experience. Plainly, if the stipulations of the
contract do not provide for special compensation in some form,
in addition to the pecuniary consideration, the employé has no
claim on his employer, beyond the stipulations. If they do not
provide for increase of compensation, either in money or repu-
tation or some other form, as the value of the employé’s services
increases with his experience, the latter still, has no claim be-
yond his agreement. The employer has discharged his duty, if

Editorial Comment. 247

he has kept the stipulations of the contract to the end of the
specified period.

The most plausible ground of complaint against an employer
is the neglect to make public acknowledgment of results pro-
duced under the contract by the employé, in cases where the
terms of the contract do not expressly provide for such acknowl-
edgement. Where alternative courses are open to the em-
ployer, the employé should see beforehand that the contract
provide for one course or the other. If he does not, neither
party. has liberty to elect arbitrarily which coursc shall be pur-
sued. Usage must control. If the contract does not specify
that the employé, in addition to his material recompense, shall
be publicly credited for his work, then the employer is not at
liberty to hold arbitrarily that no such credit shall be given;
and the employe is not at liberty to hold arbitrarily that it shall
be given. The contract must be construed in the light of
existing usage. But if usage be divided, either party may in-
sist on the usage preferred by him; but neither can have redress
if his view is not accepted by the other. However, as the giv-
ing or witholding of public credit is necessarily the act of the
employer, his decision on the usage to be followed will neces-
sarily prevail, and the employé has no redress.

Does any usage exist then, in reference to the accordance
of public credit for work done, in additional to the material re-
compense? The director of a geological survey is himself the
employé of the State The results of his investigations are pub-
lished under his own name. It has never been known that the
name of the State was subscribed to the results, to the exclusion
of that of the director. In this case, however, the agency of
the State is a minimum, and does not embrace any part of the
intellectual effort represented in the result.

The director of a geological survey generally employs assis-
tants. These receive pay for their services and also credit
for the professional work personally performed. The Director
of the United States survey surrenders all claim to the credit
for results attained. The Chiefs of Divisions also, divide honors
with their subordinates in the proportion of results attained
severally. Every worker receives his pay, and such reputation
as he can make in addition. Not less, where the work of a

248 Editorial Comment.

division is chiefly in the laboratory or office—as in researches
in paleontological collections made by others. Every worker
becomes responsible for what he accomplishes. Even the col-
lector stands credited in the published reports. Such seems to
be the usage in the conduct of public investigations.

Naturally, the same usage might be expected to prevail in-
investigation under private auspices. But it cannot be said that
such is the case. There is an obvious reason for the difference.
The pecuniary costs of field-work and investigation are often
very considerable. When the general public defray the costs,
no individual’s contribution is important; and no individual ac-
quires any claim antecedent to or collateral with that of the éx-
plorer or investigator. But when the expenses are defrayed by
one individual, he acquires a lien on all the results worked out
under his direction; and can dispose of his rights according to
his own pleasure. If he can get investigation done for a salary,
that is his right; but, if he is willing also, to accord some amount
of public credit to his paid investigator, that is under his discre-
tion. There is good reason for his not disbursing to others all
credits for results produced. That he has not personally pro-
duced all of them is due simply to the fact he has yielded to others
so much opportunity to become experts and acquire standing.

Where investigations are carried on at the cost of a public
museum or institution the results sustain relations analogous to
those accruing from a public survey. No individual can assert
a prior lien on the ground of antecedent expenses. By estab-
lished usage in public work, and by a rational courtesy, the as-
sistant in such case is entitled to due acknowledgement, even in
cases where previous agreement does not stipulate for it.

Speaking now exclusively of cases in which the employé
engages in paid investigation under private auspices, and with-
out stipulation for any compensation other than the material
salary, it appears to us that the employer might even to his own
advantage, make such public recognition of the work of the
employé as to enable him to feel that he is creating honorable
reputation in common with similar workers on public enter-
prises. Still, he should feel that his employer has borne great
personal burdens, and should not expect him to cede all honor
and reputation to those whose opportunities he has created.

»

Editorial Comment. 249

Every subordinate worker under private auspices, without
pledge for share in the reputation earned, may still congratulate
himself on the opportunity for acquiring exceptional skill, and
laying the foundations of personal reputation, whenever he shall
become free from the restraints of his personal obligations. If
however, while such eventuality is pending, health fails, or
death intervenes, the case becomes deeply sad; but the disap-
pointment can only be regarded as an incident of human for-
tune. It is not an occasion for incrimination of the employer,
unless it appears that he failed in the discharge of some portion
of his agreement with the employed. It furnishes, however, a
a fit opportunity to exercise his magnaminity in according to
his coadjutor and helper a posthumous reputation to such an ex-
tent as it may be done in justice to himself.

The discussion of this subject would be incomplete, should we
fail to point the moral. Every man, young or old, who engages
in the paid service of an employer conducting researches at his
own cost, should enter into a written agreement specifying to
what extent he will be entitled to public acknowledgement for
scientific results attained by his personal efforts. This precau-
tion should also be taken if the work is to be done under the
auspices of a public museum. If under the auspices of a pub-
lic survey, credit may be expected and demanded under the law
of prevailing usage.

THE USE OF THE TERMINATION YTE FOR NAMES
OF ROCKS.

The use of the termination “yte” in THE AMERICAN GEOLO-
GisT has occasioned some inquiries. As we expect the journal
to be read by many who are not professional geologists, a word
of explanation is here offered. In the fifth edition of his System
of Mineralogy (1868), Introduction, p. xxxiv, professor
James D. Dana introduced the following paragraphs:

“It has appeared desirable that the names of rocks should
have some difference of form from those of minerals. To se-
cure this end, the author has written the final syllable z¢e of
such names with a y; thus Diorite, Eurite, Tonalite, etc., are
written Dioryte, Euryte, Tonalyte. The y is already in the

250 To all American Geologists.

name Trachyte. The author has allowed Granite, and Syenite
to remain as they are ordinarily written, since they are familiar
names in common as well as scientific literature.”

In the third edition of his MWanzal of Geology (1880) page
67, the same change is formally adopted into that work. It
has not however been sanctioned by the usage of geologists
either American or European. It is not employed in E. S.
Dana’s Test Book of Mineralogy (3rd ed., 1880); and every
writer in the American Fournal of Science (controlled by J.
D. Dana) is allowed to employ his own orthography. The
Minnesota geological survey, however, has uniformly employed
the new spelling, and the managing editor has introduced it
into the GEoLocist. With any manifest tendency to adopt the
spelling proposed by Dana, it might be desirable to expedite the
result by promoting the multiplication of examples of approval.
For the present however, the final verdict of geologists cannot
be anticipated with any probability.

TO ALL AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS.

The International Geological Congress at Bologna determined to put
to a practical test the best of the many schemes presented to it for unify-
ing the colors in geological map-making, by selecting some large area
which should be as well known as possible to the largest number of geol-
ogists, and which should include the greatest number of cartographical
difficulties. Europe was naturally the area chosen. Not only is there in
that continent a greater number of geologists to the square kilometer
than in any other, but from the very fact that they belong to various differ-
ent and unhappily sometimes antagonistic nationalities, it was shrewdly
thought that if any scheme can pass the order of acceptance there, its
chances else-where are very good. As to the inherent puzzles of struc-
ture, whilst it cannot be said that Europe has the monopoly of them or
can even furnish the most difficult problems for solution, yet what there
are have been so long and so zealously discussed by the masters in geol-
ogy that it atones for the want of natural intricacies by having secured
a large amount of artificial ones. The area is therefore well chosen.

The Congress decided to accept as a base for the map one specially to
be prepared by Prof. Kiepert of Berlin, which is to include all the latest
geographical data published and unpublished. As a geographical map
alone it will therefore have the highest value. Itis to be printed in 49
separate sheets (7 in width and 7 in hight) of which each is to be about

To all American Geologists. 251
x
48 centimeters (say 19 inches) high by 53 centimeters (say 21 inches)
wide. The map if mounted as a whole will cover a space 11 feet high by
12 feet wide, and its scale will be 1 : 1,500,000. To pay for this map the
Congress has received appropriations 10,000 francs each from the follow-
ing “large countries” which are considered as “subscribers,” and to
each of which 100 copies of the map when completed will be sent, viz.:
France, Spain, Austro-Hungary, Russia, Scandinavia, Germany, Great
Britain and Wales.
The “other countries” viz: Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Switzerland
Portugal and Roumania are to divide amongst themselves 100 copies
and jointly to become a subscriber.

It occured to the American Committee that inasmuch as the object of —

the enterprize was less to make a map of Europe than to settle a general
and far-reaching principle, the United States had as much interest in it
as European countries, and should certainly have some of the maps.
The only question to settle was, whether it shonld be ranked with the
“large countries” or come in among the little ones as part of a subscriber.
On consulting the map of the United States, the annual reviews of
geological papers published, and the lists of geologists in the United
States, the Committee was induced—let us hope not too rashly —
to apply to the map committee for the recognition of its country as
a large one capable of assimilating 100 entire geological maps. Patriotic
Americans will not blame the committee for deciding thus, yet it may be
stated that several thousand circulars setting forth these facts sent out
by mail during the last three years to all the institutions of learning and
scientific men whose addresses could be obtained either from the ex-
change lists of the U.S.Geol. Survey, Cassino’s Directory and the pub-
lished members of Section E., A. A. A. S.. have thus far resulted in dis-
posing of only seventy-eight copies. In both the circulars and in in-
numerable articles contributed by the writer to scientific journals such
as the Am. Journ. of Sci.; Science, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Am-
erican Naturalist, the daily papers, and the published proceedings of the
Am. Inst. of Mining Engineers, of the A. A. A.S., the Am. Phil. Soc.
&c. &c., it has been again and again stated that the cost of the map to
_ every subscriber will be 100 francs plus a few sous for transportation if
delivered in Europe, but for American subscribers the sum has been
fixed at twenty-one dollars ($21.00) to cover freight &c. for all institu-
tions entitled to receive educational publications free of duty. This sum
will pay all expenses to the express or freight office nearest to such insti-
tution.

Individuals must pay in addition to this the duty which as nearly as
it can be estimated now will amount to five dollars. (See the letters of
Mr. Cadwalader, Collector of the port of Philadelphia, appended.) The
cost of the map to an individual will hence be $26.00, all expenses paid.

This will be the same price which will be charged to individuals in
Europe with one dollar additional to pay all costs to the final destination
of the map. But as a compensation, the individuals who help the Com-

252 To all American Geologists.

mittee to complete the requisite number of subscribers will receive their
copies before the sale is opened to the general public.

The following is a list of subscriptions sent to the undersigned up to
date.

It should be understood that no money subscriptions are asked for at
this time. As soon as I am notified that the map is ready I shall notify
the subscribers who will then greatly oblige me by promptly remitting
the amount above mentioned.

LIsT OF SUBSCRIBERS TO THE GEOLOGICAL MAP OF EUROPE IN THE
ORDER IN WHICH THEY WERE RECEIVED.

NAME. Number

Williams) (College cacct...cemsteceesscets BM rcaracastanasenoseepeniees Si toatescohest weceusdactereetanecene
Ohio) State Univ; Columbus eel cticccwasssossetess se dersecooenccoeecem teavecescoreseuioees
Rensselaer: Poly technicwMsbituber we ccc. ccsecscekce ones ece eee eer ee eee Sennen
WMiVersity OL VILE I ae eee a siestctnaducessp coasecean eee ceceeserst eee docssnseh
Amainst Of Mining PNGINCCLS i ccaceececeen coecoe con cmenes teow meeate te acest ena todas! SRE eee
Aimlhersti@ollege se secavosecscsateerscacskeosen Gu tedacte causeeussoueeneteucaweroueses nisweane saaceneeareete
Cornell University IDLAye. esc se cuccesers sce ccceeorecacaee teccees teat ce en tee te eee ac ae eee eae
ProvincialiMuseummy, Hialifad.’..srccsesccsscccssecccenecnseteadene coeectcreuouuast cane tesseconseceee
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.......

Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa..
Academy of Natural Sciences .... a3 ee ree
PLOT IC. ANI ECH COCK oe etecies csc ck Taasceeakece sus cusesteove ondecastactseccavssvecansstucnssemtecmenes
Profs TiSe NCW DELL Yai ssceseesseeuscce
Indiana Universitys...c.cc-.ssscccsecesseecs
Smith College, Northampton, Mass
Us 'S#Geological’Surnvey yw Washington, ys C2 ot cctcc ccs cccutosasses naatonatatenceauecsace
Rutgersy(CollegewNews Brunswick INiidmscis-suetcescasesacr ances ace seesestestaeccuverdcencrcara
Ale UMIVErsityMlbr arya tc scsccia tes dee desmocaeeu ones ceeccte seaeserac ue oaleetccuauasecamns eameeete
American GeorraphicaleS OClebVacccste-cte<ccstoccsavecscaescecos de stsenactascneatscscectesccsusenas
Peter Redpath Museum, McGill si anupseoee Monitreadlriciticccccsescccncsccss suasecomeuseeds
Ney MilitanypAcademyicrceicesiitsunssdascdevecenaces Bae ied
PrOiiG.pAr eODIG Hasta eececaenctesceees 43 say
Ne visuate wibrary.: Capitol Al bamyie.cscsscctesccscecccstencbcssscasossessacenvecccsseatacceas
HekleycBs COXe Dritbom we aac. ike pa sesbeseacoa tse tasbeapvecdasceceedersa dee enscudeeencons eb acentaas
Wniversitiy Ob NeEDrask ay oi 2. Ooo: ak coe cacockecuectecnunuuceldccusacceedevedsecscocecevssessoascecneetes
Kansas Sbabe pal bpraigyccuscnswescnthecdscesecseececdacoksen ces semcaseaetace se anne suuncuece san desanes
SBP SLAY yee oe cece cease hanu ca seece nas conossaue bases Sogunte siacsesanctecasocccsecuwewmeventesbe
Johns HopkinsiUniversitiy-.cctct soe hocssascscscsetcccacoredecvsscssurdase.custenechveserecdeeccete
RoW Matthiesens Tan Salle, bliin sac ccnetone ceascsavcasssecnstun sosuvdveccsasseelscebecsecasesceas
wenicn WalleyaiRn Re COs je bilagdel phidicc..-sscsescsserssesonteness tcececeenessastanswsvssees send
BY AVE ED MEniwalllierss: sees ot aecaeet toate te cecseccsticdurewencmusaonoccchosescrecse seer accueneecncsetateents
University of Wisconsin, Madison...... Be
2nd Geological Survey of Pennsylvania... ie:
State MiningiBureauiof Californian co Wee vst aac sctoenecsuectccstassdseascaseavenceeenas
Wi Sk Keyes: Call oe eee eee aoa oa ueales cual stebenesaskerodcdveabecscacescatscesscuasenes
Washington University.........
Dry Re Wi Rayan On Gee ies sors eaasseee woe devooeadenuns Gaseesesedoseteasebecsscd seewscepecsacastinceests
Hranklin Institute; Philadelpliaiis:)s.2cs-ssccsswtsoccsvcsscessececseusswcss cescoodsceteussceessons
HAT VATA: College MilDnarViccrsnecuccstecessacccdectecnss Cote stne venue cedeavlcavcccdecevestens ss kestchensme
University of North Carolina), Chapel Hay iiss cc.sccccorsccescctcencesceeccaccastense eae
University of the City.of Ne wav Orke ieee amines sc mowdostees seuesusaucaceetencstedes sens
Re De Baker ehiladelphiginvssscsesccecdsccccestecoe centers ane cescnccnseesceteenanarcomaracee tenemos
S. F. Emmons, U. 8. Geological Survey, Wasbingtomn..............cscessscressesscccess
H. F. Sims, Orbisonia, Pa

American Museum of Natural History, N. Y oes
Prof. Alexander Winchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor........-..:...eceeeees
HiepHuber, Areentine Ucansasi@ibyie. spessssaccedevecancsessovcsences s<eteeestsrosceecstnamaaeesass
JOS) 1. MILISS! Quinney salen wes eee eee es dccaecasuswsdescssrcusetenseucceeeusadenosaes
Cooper MUI CNA cen cueaeatas cess eecapaeseaeey sor acnnducdsenemcn eee necchesateene resell eante create
Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, Brooklym ..............:..csesccsecessceeccesceevene
Prof. H. 8. Williams, Cornell Univ ersity, INV uctcccauecciatteh cosencucetensenceraceracceress
JOS DMPO tts Ee nilaGdalphigiee neces ceccscscssanonaucsoneescotesteontssecsendteuseanstacsneseeeedas
ProOlia Gnwales yD avila Kaye: <a: ocuct cchckrensuetens tent ce sec cnere saved seeacceduasaaascctnshacenae
TEVA rich BlOctony Alan uiatcccorcauctethactesaravcntteaattoccesestaciecmmancesebendencuseee

rT

Pe eR I HE OH

To all American Geologists. “258

NAME. aber

MePeeeR CME TL ACOLD MI An scccssccosacecceicassteteacccscevocccctavecsscctcocpecscsiscuscteasevtesess a
Colorado school of Mines; GOldemy’COlss: cs. scccccecsassacscoss cossssceccccsanccoucscessasssces al
PRPC RG IOMO IATL 51 ai 555.8 boca cocuvaccgenssovesc cosncecdeectcbcessceedeecessesecsseapdecsacse ft
EPO POE KO PEHOHEH EO: MACH. oie cc cusknsscasess¥s:ovapaslacshavetevsesseecsecss coodedescsveosses 1
BRON ONL Ara A) OGEAWili) COUN, s..ccvsescectdessiceeescndbsccovsaccesoacscoscsscossderdaberereoses il
APEANSaS GeOlopical Survey, Wibtle"ROCK .isccc.ccscevecocceccecesvocecsescencnecevecesscovace al
RIC HEE NO Olle me ATK TOMO) Face cese en chan a cetecokosmeccsceeeravccncetaceccds sfecarcccececctevsssadseeces 1
Mercantilevuilbranryam Dil Adel pHa: ...2c0ccestencsecccercscask coscuadeccvscsslocasessloacedanscsveess 1
NUMIVEERID VOL IChipam 7 ANN VAT DOM. <..05. socctucsacs, sdecsakucesuscevncspescossecctevacsecssecses ab
Alabama Geological Survey, University Ala.............cccccscccscsccscsscccscccevcesccscees :
a
1
al
il
1
il
1
all

SRP ELGLOM a Ae) pale. ces vicboscateccalccesscestconcueesceedeat loscwadedescesswbececsedeswcsse
Worcester Polytechnic Institute. ¥
PPUTIS SIC UNG) NViccclercecsasexee
W.A. Ingham, Philadelphia ....... ........
Dr. Jas. P. Kimball, U, S. Mint, Wash.
PCM CU MING WIDELY); IN =) V coscssccoscccdcscecceeacedecsscseucs
New Harmony Institution, Ind............

R. Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Ia
EDS UGS OCMPNEUD-PEDISUichr.c:sta0..cnececuve cacecneseteecceebuceelsee cassedecculascesedscecsvescsaeesecess®

PNG Uae DET COPIES! SUDSCLIDEG LOM. ..cs2s-0ss.scrctcsssecsnenesessicvecueaccccsessensoscsssqe cas 78
PRES INE LE ET SU DO SCLIDGES sca,c- secs to cidcacsee tes cncacnecoueteceets covacncusacecssuscavscworndtvceseases 73

Of the above 73 subscribers 15 are from Pennsylvania (12 from Phila-
delphia); 14 from New York; 6 from Massachusetts. 3 each from Wash-
ington, Ohio, Michigan, California, Connecticut, and Canada; 2 each from
Kansas, Indiana, and Alabama; and 1 each from Arkansas, Colorado,
Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina,
New Jersey, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, and Virginia.

Not a single copy of this map which is both intrinsically and historic-
ally of great value, will find its way to the great states of Maine, Ver-
mont, Rhode Island, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Miss-
issippi, Tennessee, West Virginia, Louisiana, Minnesota, Texas, Nevada,
not to speak of the territories, many of which are well advanced in
methods of teaching.

The writer appeals again not only to American geologists but to edu-
cators everywhere to assist him in placing the remaining 22 copies of
this map. He is not informed when the map will be ready for distribu-
tion but it would seem natural that it would be prepared for Congress
next September if a possibility of this exists. He asks that the names of
subscribers be sent to him at the address below.

The Collector’s letters are herewith appended:

Custom House, PHILADELPHIA, PA.,
COLLECTOR’sS OFFICE, March ioth, 1887.

Dr. PERSIFOR FRAZER, Secretary American Committee, etc.

Dear Sir: Referring to your communications of 24th, ultimo and
gth instant respectively, in relation to the question of admitting free of
duty the International Geological Map of Europe for the use of certain
subscribing educational and scientific institutions in the United States, I
beg leave to state that the clause in the tariff which would admit the
maps or charts described by you to free entry is as follows: “Books,
maps and charts specially imported, not more than two copies.in any one
invoice, in good faith; for the use of any society incorporated or estab-

254 To all American Geologists. ;

lished for philosophical, literary or religious purposes, or for the encour-
agement of the fine arts, or for the use or by order of any college, acad-
emy, school or seminary of learning in the United States.” In order to
have the benefit of this provision it is necessary for the institution to file
with the Collector “a certified copy of the certificate of incorporation,
and other proof of organization, showing that the institution is of the
character and established for the purposes mentioned in said provision
of law” (Art. 312 Regs.). In addition thereto an affidavit of the proper
officer of the institution is required according to the form on blank here-
with enclosed. [Free Entry Blank, Cat. No. 611, enclosed. |

You will observe that there are two essential pre-requisites necessary in
order to bring the institution within the benefits of the provisions afore-
said, viz.: That it should be such an institution as is described therein,,
and that the map should be sfecially imported by its order and for its
sole use.

» Every case must be disposed of on its merits, as it arises and no advice
of a general character can be given in advance further than can be gath-
ered in a general way from the law and regulations above stated.

I may say, however, from my knowledge of them that most—if not
all—of the institutions named by you would be entitled to the privilege.
The indivlduals you name are, of course, not entitled to it.

It is customary for the principal officers of United States institutions
to make application, through their Departments, to the Secretary of the
Treasury for the free admission of articles for public use; hence, if this-
course is pursued by the Geological Survey and Military Academy, and
the necessary authority is received by the Collector from the Depart-
ment, the maps will be admitted free for those institutions without fur-.
ther requirement.

If all the regulations herein referred to were complied with, there
would probably be no objection to your Committee acting as agent for
the institutions in making the importations.

Most of the institutions specified have, probably, heretofore availed
themselves of the benefits of the foregoing provision for the free impor-
tation of books, maps, charts and scientific apparatus and are, conse-
quently, familiar with its requirements.

Very respectfully,
JoHN CADWALADER,
Collector.

Custom Housk, PHILADELPHIA, PA.,
CoLLEcToR’sS OFFICE, March 22, 1887.

Dr. PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphia.

DEAR Sir: Referring to your letter of 21st inst., ] have to inform
you thatas the rate of duty on maps is 25 per cent. at ad valorem, the
amount of duty to be assessed will depend on their market value at the
time and place of exportation to the United States, which value is deter-
mined by the appraiser upon the examination of the articles. Five dol-
lars was specified, as you stated the value of the maps to be $20 each.

Very respectfully,
JoHN CADWALADER,
Collector.

PERSIFOR FRAZER,
201 South sth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 255

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

On the structure and affinities of the genus ParkeriaCarp. By H. ALLEYNE
NicHoLson (Ann.and Mag. of Nat. Hist., Jan., 1888). This paper, in com-
mon with nearly all of Dr. Nicholson’s works, is evidently the result of
painstaking and sytematic inquiry, being a careful record of observations
made during the progress of a minute investigation into the structure of
the peculiar genus Parkeria. His observations are founded upon an
abundance of good material and extensive series of thin sections mainly
prepared by himself.

The author begins his paper with a condensed history of the genus.
From this we learn that Parkeria was originally described by Dr. W. B.
Carpenter in 1870(Phil. Trans., vol. clix, p. 721), and that the genus was
regarded by this eminent authority as belonging to the arenaceous fora-
minifera. In 1876 and 1877 the structure of the genus was investigated
by Mr. Carter, who came to the conclusion that the skeleton was aot
arenaceous and that the genus should be referred to the Hydractiniide.
Mr. Carter’s views have, in the main, been accepted by subsequent
writers, such as Steinmann and Zittel, and are now concurred in by Dr.
Nicholson. a

The ordinary form of Parkeria presents itself in the shape of spherical
bodies, varying in diameter from less than half an inch to about two
inches. Most of the specimens must have been entirely free in the adult
condition, but some at any rate, commenced growth upon some foreign
body. The surface of unworn examples generally exhibits rounded or
elongated elevations; in other cases it may present an alveolar or honey-
combed aspect. Rough fractures show that the skeleton is composed of
numerous cylindrical columns (“radial pillars”) which traverse the fossil
in a radial manner from the center to its circumference, and are united
at more or less regular intervals by imperfect concentric layers, separ-
ated from one another by concentrically arranged interspaces (‘“chamber-
lets”). These interspaces, or rather each successive tier of them, repre-
sents what was at one time the surface of the organism.

As regards the chemical constitution of the fossil skeleton, great differ-
ences are noticed in large series of specimens, in some it being composed
of carbonate of lime, with the chambers of the fossil occupied by calcite
or by an infilling of the matrix in which the specimen was originally im-
bedded. In the majority of cases the skeleton is more or less extensively
composed of phosphate of lime with the chambers occupied, throughout
or in part, by phosphatic infilling, while in a third group of specimens in
which the skeleton is also largely composed of phosphate of lime, the
central portion or the whole of the fossil has its chambers empty.

The question, what was the original composition of the skeleton Par-
keria is carefully considered. Carpenter’s view, that it was composed

256 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

of a small proportion of sand grains cemented together by a mixture of
phosphate and carbonate of lime (a condition best shown in the third
group of specimens above mentioned) is shown by good reasoning to be
erroneous; while Carter’s view, that the skeleton may have been origin-
ally chitinous in nature, is likewise thrown aside to give place to hisown
view. This is, that the skeleton of Parkeria, like that of the Stromatop-
orads, “was originally composed of carbonate of lime, and that phos-
phatization, when it has occurred at all, has been the result of secondary
processes which have operated subsequently to fossilization.”

The author next works out the minute structure of the organism in a
very satisfactory manner, showing by good illustrations, that the radial
pillars and the connecting concentric lamella are composed of innumer-
able, minute, simple, untabulated, cylindrical or polygonal tubuli, havlng
a radial disposition. These tubuli are separated by thin, porous walls,
allowing free communication between their cavities. The general can-
cellated tissue formed by them is regarded as ccenosarcal in its origin,
and compared with the canaliculated ccenosarcal tissue of Dz¢stichopora,
Allopora, Pliobothrus, etc.,and with the clathrate tissue of the Hydrac-
tiniide.

A coarser kind of cancellated tissue is commonly developed in thin
concentric bands at periodic intervals, separating thick strata of the
ordinary skeletal tissue. It consists of wide, irregular cells or tubuli,
united by coarse reticulated tissue. This the author is disposed to re-
gard as representing a periodic development of reproductive zooids, and
to compare with the periodic production of “ampulle” in the Stylasterids.

Certain more or less numerous, large, oval or circular tubes, averaging
0.15 mm. in diameter, are supposed to have contained zooids, and to cor-
respond to the gastropores and dactylopores of the Hydrocorallines.

Lastly the author compares the form under discussion with some re-
cent and many extinct organisms, showing its relations to the Stromato-
porotds, the curious Mitcheldeania, Syringosphera, and other forms.

With regard to the systematic position of Parkeria, he concludes that
“there can be little hesitation in accepting Mr. Carter’s reference of the
genus to the Hydrozoa. All the known facts as to the chemical consti-
tution, mode of growth, and general structure of the ccenosteum, no less
than the minute structure of the skeleton-fibre, point unequivocally in
this direction. With regard to the precise place which Parkeria should
occupy in the series of the Hydrozoa, it may be regarded as intermediate
between the Hydrocorallines and the Hydractiniide, but with nearer re-
lationships to the latter than to the former. In the minute structure of
the skeletal tissue Parkeria most closely resembles the Hydrocorallines ;
but in the general arrangement of its parts, and more particularly in its
mode of growth by the production of successive concentric lamelle sep-
arated by rows of chamberlets, it approaches most nearly to the Hydrac-
tiniide, with which group the genus may in the meanwhile be ranked.”

A brief narrative of the Fourneys of David Thompson. By J.B. TYRRELL,
of the geological survey of Canada (Proc. of the Can. Inst., March, 1888).

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 257

This is an important record of early geographicalexploration. It brings
to daylight a large amount of itinerary which has been buried hitherto
in the archives of the Crown Land Department of Ontario. David Thomp-
son crossed Minnesota in 1798, and discovered Turtle lake which, like
Beltrami twenty-five years later, he regarded as the source of the Missis-
sippi. He also reached the Missouri river, and the Columbia which he
descended to its mouth July, 15th, 1811.

Contributions to the paleontology of Brazil, comprising descriptions of Cre-
taceous invertebrate fossils. By CHARLES A. WHITE. 4to, 273 pp. 28
plates. (From vol. vii of Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Jan-
eiro, 1887.)

This large document, which has a parallel Portuguese translation
by Mr. Orville A. Derby, reflects credit on both North and South
America, and is a renewed proof of the friendly interest of the Brazilian
Emperor in natural science. It is based on collections made by the geo-
logical survey of Brazil under the late Prof. Charles Fred Hartt, but
is issued by Mr. Orville A. Derby, director of the geological section of
the Brazilian National museum, who was appointed to preserve the results
of the survey after the lamented death of professor Hartt. The letter-
press was done at Rio Janeiro, but the plates were lithographed at Phil-
adelphia by Sinclair.

The work describes 57 new species of conchifers, 77 of gasteropoda, 8
of cephalopoda, 5 of mollusca and 12 of echinoderma. ‘They are all re-
ferred to the Cretaceous (Neocomian) age, although they exhibit a com-
posite character, partaking of the Jurassic and of the Tertiary. Three
new genera of gasteropods and one of echinoids, are proposed. The
former, Orvillia, Cylindritella, Cypreactwon are proposed by Dr. White,
and the other Heteropodia, by Prof. P. de Loriol.

Some noteworthy facts are brought out concerning the relation of this
Brazilian fauna with the Cretaceous fauna of other parts of the world.
It is shown that this fauna has surprisingly little in common with the
Cretaceous of North America; somewhat more with that of Europe;
while its affinity with the Cretaceous fauna of southern India is conspic-
uously observable. Five species are identified with Indian forms as pub-
lished by Stoliczka; and three or four others are either identical, or very
closely allied, species.

One species of Aucella is described, which is only the second discovery
of this genus in the southern hemisphere; the other being A. flicata
Zittel, from New England.

A small collection of fossils from the Bahia group further from the
coast are fresh-water types, and have a recent aspect, illustrating,
as Dr. White remarks, the fact that living fresh-water types have
come down to us from remote geological periods almost unchanged.
Prof. Cope has examined the vertebrate remains found in these Cre-
taceous beds, and has referred them to the Fox Hills group of the
western United States, and those of the fresh-water Bahia group to
the Laramie. Mr. Derby has given a tabulated grouping and discus-

258 Review of ‘Recent Geological Literature.

sion of the various species, referred to the different provinces, show-
ing an extensive Cretaceous formation along the Atlantic coast of
South America,

Preliminary report on sea-coast swamps of the eastern United States. By
N.S. SHALER. Pages 353-398. (Accompanying the sixth annual report
of the director of the U.S. geological survey.)

The most noteworthy features of our Atlantic coast from New Hamp-
shire southward are its beaches lying commonly one to five miles outside
the shore of the mainland, and its salt marshes or swamps which are
formed in the shallow water thus enclosed. They remind one of the
barrier coral reefs of tropical shores, and the author finds in them an al-
most equally interesting field of geological study.

Where deep water reaches to the coast and fills its indentations, as
along the hilly and partly mountainous coast of Maine, these sheltering
beaches are wanting or very scantily developed, and swamp deposits are
limited to estuaries and narrow margins of the most shallow and pro-
tected bays and inlets. In marked contrast with this, on the south side
of Long Island and from New Jersey to Florida, the very gentle slope of
the coastal plain in its descent beneath the sea-level causes the formation
of the beach to take place several miles off shore, where it extends nearly
continuously along this distance of athousand miles. Along the portions
of the coast most favorable for its formation it is interrupted only by
gaps which are maintained by the outflow from rivers and the flow and
ebb of tides.

On a moderately hilly coast, like that of Massachusetts, when the sea
has been shallowed by the accumulation of sediment so that the space
between the capes of a bay is brought within about twenty feet of the
surface at the time of low tide, the conditions are favorable for the closure
of the inlet by a barrier beach. In heavy storms the waves mount too
high to pass over the shallow without breaking. The forward motion of
the wave is arrested, aud the detritus which it was urging forward falls
upon the bottom, until gradually a ridge of beach gravel and sand is
built up to the level of high water. Protected behind the beach, the
swamp deposits are formed chiefly of the fine sediments brought in by
the tides. The dense growth of eel-grass covering the bottom favors
this deposition of sea-mud up to the level of low tide, and forms the
lowest bed of the swamp. Between this marine vegetation and that of
the shores a zone of mud flats, laid bare at low tide, is built up more
slowly until it reaches sufficient light to permit the growth of the marsh-
grass and other shore vegetation which can endure at most only a sub-
mergence of a few feet at high tide. These form respectively the mid-
dle and upper beds of the sea-coast swamp, the surface of which is thus
raised nearly to the level of the highest tides and then supplies crops of
marsh hay.

The tide flows in and out by very irregularly winding and branching
channels, and there is hardly an acre that is without one of. these water-
ways. Its steep sides and tortuous course show its constant battle with

~ Review of Recent Geological Literature. 259

the encroaching plants, which grow with the most vigor near its banks.
Because these channels obstructed the harvesting of the hay crop, nearly
all the sea-coast swamps of New England have been ditched so that the
tide now finds it entrance and egress by a system of artficial parallel
channels a few rods apart; and in consequence the natural water-courses
have often disappeared, their beds being rapidly filled by mud and the
rank marsh vegetation.

Professor Shaler states that the aggregate area of salt-marsh lands
capable of being reclaimed from the sea by dikes and brought under
cultivation exceeds 200,000 acres for that portion of the Atlantic coast
lying between Portland and New York. The present agricultural value
of these lands for their product of hay does not exceed about $10 per acre:
but under cultivation like the similar lands gained from the sea in Holland
and other northern parts of Europe they will have a value of not less
than $200 per acre, amounting in total to at least $40,000,000, and it is
estimated that the cost of reclaiming these acres and reducing them to
cultivation should not exceed the fifth of this sum. They are unsurpassed
in fertility as market-garden soils and are practically inexhaustible.
South of the New England shore the marsh area is much more extensive
than in that region, and it is probable that the improvable marshes of our
entire eastern coast amount to at least 3,000,000 acres.

The limited tracts of sea-coast swamps are described in detail, with
maps, namely, the Plum Island marshes which extend Southward from
the north of the Merrimac river, and the diked lands of Green Harbor
river in Marshfield, Mass. <A catalogue of the salt marshes on the coast
of New England south from Casco bay and of Long Island is also given,
with their approximate areas derived from measurement on the Coast
Survey charts.

Postglacial marine deposits containing shells of the Leda, with other
genera that inhabit the northern circumpolar seas and extend south to
temperate latitudes, occur in Maine up to 200 feet or more above the
present sea-level, showing that at the close of the glacial period the ocean
there covered more of the land than now. It therefore seems very re-
markable that no evidence of elevated marshes or beaches has been found
in that region; and their absence proves that this northward postglacial
submergence was very brief, and that the sea very quickly attained its
present altitude, pausing at no time long enough to develop the charac-
teristic features of a shore line.

On nepheline rocks in Brazil, with special reference to the association of
_phonolite and foyaite. By ORVILLE A. DERBY. (From the Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc. London, August, 1887). The author gives descriptions of
the field-appearances of the rock masses of foyayte and phonolyte. He
concludes that these indicate (1) the substantial identity, as regards mode
of occurrence and geological age of the Caldas phonolytes; and foyaytes
-(2) the connection of the latter, through the phonolytes, with a typical vol-
anic series containing both deep-seated and aerial types of deposits ;(3) the
-equal if not greater, antiquity of the leucite rocks as compared with the

260 ‘Review of Recent Geological Literature.

nepheline rocks, whether felsitic, as phonolyte, or granitic, as foyayte,
and (4) the probable Palzozoic age of the whole eruptive series.

‘The Geological Magazine for February, In the February number of the
Geological Magazine Sir. Wm. Dawson notes several new facts regarding
Eozoén. He says that some recently found specimens show that it had
a definite form which was funnel, or top-shaped; that it had no ¢heca above
or below, and that the laminz coalesce at the margin. These laminze
are thi¢kest at the base and become thinner and confused above. Sir
Wm. Dawson is convinced that the forms which he described under the
name of Archzospherine are only these upper layers of Eozo6n.

Some cut specimens of Eozoén show, he states, a tubular structure to
which he applies the term “oscula” apparently suggested by some re-
semblance to the “oscula’’ of sponges. He also draws attention to the
fact that some of the Laurentian limestones contain abundant frag-
ments of EozoGn, showing its peculiar granulated structure, but not its
canals.

Sir William then suggests that certain bodies found in the Lauren-
tian of the Ottawa district, and the Cryptozoén of Hall and Winchell from
New York and Minnesota, may be related to the Eozo6n of the Lauren-
tian limestones.

In conclusion he urges, against the views of Mr. Julian and others,
who maintain the mineral nature of Eozo6n, the following objections.

1. Laminated minerals have simple laminz; those of Eozo6dn are con-
nected.

2. Laminated minerals are wholly crystalline; Eozodn has tubercles
and “oscula.”

3. Is it probable that pyroxene, serpentine, loganite, dolomite and
earthy limestone should all assume the same form?

4. Eozo6én often occurs away from the nodules and bands of pyrox-
ene, etc., in the limestone.

5. Eozodn does not resemble any banded rocks known in the Lauren-
tian series.

Prof. Bonney contributes the results of some experiments, and observa.
tions on the rounding of pebbles by rivers and streams chiefly in the
Alps. The process is of course most rapid when the motion is swiftest,
that is in the higher parts of their courses. He lays down the following
principles which are fully in accord with Daubrée’s previous conclu-
sions:

1. The time of rounding a stone depends upon its nature.

1. Stones are rounded most quickly where the descent is rapid and
but slowly when the stream is only just able to move them.

3. The process is most rapid at first. “Perhaps we may venture to say
as a rough standard of comparison that the effect of a thousand feet of
rapid descent is equivalent to that of the more leisurely traverse of at
least twenty miles, so that fairly well rounded pebbles of a rock with
hardness not exceeding 6 signify either a rapid descent of 3,000 feet or a
journey at less speed of 60 miles.”

Personal ana Scientific News. 261

Col. McMahon argues in reply to Mr. R. DB. Oldham, that the foliation
of granite, as in the Himalayes, is due to pressure acting on the intruded
granite before it had become completely solidified and not to the meta-
morphism due to pressure exerted on a cooled and solid rock.

Messrs. Cornish and Kendall, following out a suggestion of Sorby’s,
detail the results of a series of experiments by which they have proved
that shells composed of the aragonite form of carbonate of lime are much
more easily dissolved by carbonic acid water than shells composed of
calcite. ‘They suspended two fossil shells Pecten ofercularis (calcite) and
Pectemculus glycimeris (aragonite) in a solution of carbonic acid and found
that the latter lost weight much more rapidly than the former. The ex-
periment was continued until the aragonite shell literally fell to pieces.
That this change was due to structure rather than to the nature of the
minerals was shown by performing the experiment with powdered calc-
spar and with powdered shells, in neither of which cases was any differ-
ence observed in the rate of solution. The structure of shells composed
of aragonite is, they state, looser than that of shells composed of calcite.

The authors concluded by pointing out how these facts may ac-
count for the disappearance of fossils composed of aragonite from rocks
in which shells composed of calcite still remain, and quote several inst-
ances in support of this opinion.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

MeExico AND THE Paciric SLopr. Prof. A. E. Foote of
1223 Belmont Ave. Philadelphia, Pa., who has recently re-
turned froma nine months stay in Europe, where he spent
much time in Cornwall and Hungary, will soon start for a third
trip through Mexico and the Pacific states returning by way
of the Rocky Mountain region.

A. knowledge of the Spanish language and a considerable ex-
perience in Mexican mines will render his trip especially ser-
viceable to those desiring information of these regions.

Pror. J. P. LESLEY Is ENGAGED ON A SUMMARY Of the re-
sults of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania which
it is hoped will appear in no very long time. Such a work is
exceedingly desirable in order to bring within the reach of work-
ing geologists the mass of material accumulated and at present
almost buried in the more than fifty volumes of which the pub-
lications of this survey consist. The work will be handsomely
illustrated, with engravings, by various processes, of the prin-
cipal fossils discovered during the prosecution of the work, and
will be received with pleasure by geologists.

262 Personal and Scientific News.

Pror. MARSH GIVES'A SUMMARY in the London Geological
Magazine of his description of Stegosaurus, a Jurassic, aquatic
reptile belonging to the Dinosaurians and allied to the ornithop-
oda, a group intermediate between birds and true reptiles. This
animal was not large and was covered with bony plates, and its tail
was armed with spines formidable for its size, ranged in pairs
along the tail, and probably used in the same manner as are those
of the existing sting-ray.

THE SWINDLING NaTuRALIsT. I take pleasure in inform-
ing you that the “Swindling Naturalist” has finally gotten his
just deserts. Six weeks ago, he stole “from the University of
Cincinnati a number of microscopic objectives, and made good his
escape. Recognizing the importance of securing him, our city
detectives were put on his track. He was traced through In-
diana and Kentucky to Nashville, Tenn., and finally appre-
hended. On being returned to this city and indicted for grand
larceny, he pleaded guilty, and has been sentenced to spend
five years in the Ohio penitentiary. The scientific world is,
for a time, well rid of him. He passed here under the name
O. L. Syrski, and (after capture ) freely admitted his identity
with'the “ Swindling Geologist” of numerous aliases.

If you can let me know the name of the owner of the
Chenu’s Conchyliologie and the Wales objective, mentioned on
page 68 of the first number of the GroLocist, I may be able
to furnish information which will lead to the recovery of the

property. Yours respectfully,
Cuas. H. GILBERT,
Cincinnati, O., March 5, 1888. Univ. of Cin.

[Norr. This man has been engaged in these petty thefts for five or six
years, and has been published and described repeatedly by the press of
the country. He was apprehended about two years ago in Wisconsin,
and served six months imprisonment in the Elkhorn jail, but he immedi-
ately resumed his old methods of obtaining a livelihood. Such rascals
are not peculiar to America. About six months since Mr. Quaritch, of
London, advertised for the apprehension of a thief, supposed to have
come from Germany who had stolen from his stock of books. Ed.]

THE SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE of the In-
ternational Congress of Geologists has issued a call for a meeting
of the committee at Murray ‘Hill hotel, New York, at noon,
Monday, April 2znd., the object being to receive the delayed
reports and to complete the work preliminary to the next Con-
gress which meets in London on the 17th of next September.

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

MEAN: uiB88! No. 5.

WW ODs, T.

A NEW GENUS OF CRINOIDS FROM THE NIAGARA
GROUP.

BY S. A. MILLER.

SIPHONOCRINUS nN. gen.

The species belonging to this genus, so far as known, are
very large, rough or irregular and robust. They are all casts,
with the exception of one or two specimens preserving part of
the plates, with the surface markings destroyed, and the speci-
men figured by Hall taken from a gutta-percha cast in the
natural mold, and figured on plate 10 of the zoth Rep. N. Y.
Mus. Nat. Hist., under the name of Glyptocrinus nobilis, which
shows the external ridges and nodes of ornamentation on some
of the plates.

Basals three, pentagonal, except as affected by the perfora-
tion at the end of the column. They are rather small and,
therefore, may have been nearly covered by the column.

Primary radials 3x5; the first plates large, heptagonal and
hexagonal, about as wide as high; the second hexagonal, longer
than wide, and nearly as large as the first; third radials nearly
as large as the first, about as wide as high and supporting upon
the upper sloping sides the secondary radials.

The first interradials approximate, in size, the first primary
radials and rest upon the upper sloping sides of the latter.
They are each succeeded by two smaller plates, and these by
three or more, and so on diminishing in size and increasing in
number as they graduate into the plates of the dome.

The first azygous plate is as large as a first primary, and
rests upon the basal plates. Three plates follow it, one upon
its superior edge, and the others upon the upper sloping sides,

264 Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales.

From these the plates gradually diminish in size, but increase
in number, covering the convex and expanded azygous side.

Dome high, nearly as large as the calyx, lobed, and termi-
nating in a long proboscis either rising from the central part of
dome or recumbent.

Surface of the plates more or less covered with radiating
ridges and nodes.

Type Siphonocrinus nobilis Hall, described in the 20th Rep.
N. Y. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 372 under the name of Glyptocrinus
nobilis, and illustrated on plate 10, figs. g and ro.

Another species Siphonocrinus armosus McChesney, was
described, in 1861, in Mew Paleozoic Fossils, p. 95, under the
name of Lucalyptocrinus armosus, and redescribed and illus-
trated by Hall under the name of Glyptocrinus armosus, in 20th
Rep. N. Y. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 373, pl. 10, fig. 11.

THE NIAGARA SHALES OF WESTERN NEW YORK; A
STUDY OF THE ORIGIN OF THEIR SUB-DIVISIONS
AND THEIR FAUN&.

BY EUGENE N. S. RINGUEBERG, M. D.

A few introductory remarks on the stratum immediately un-
derlying these shales will here be proper. This is the Mag-
ara Transition group described in 1881.’ It represents the
period of introduction of many of the species heretofore con-
sidered as having their inception in the shales, and reveals the
cause of their introduction. It also forms the connecting link
between the Clinton limestones beneath, and the formation now
in question, and explains in large part the comparatively abrupt
faunal changes which took place at the time of its deposition.

The Niagara Transition group. Since writing the above
mentioned paper I have noted this formation further east at the
town of Middleport and as far west as the Niagara gorge, along

1 The Evolution of forms from the Clinton to the Niagara groups, by
Eugene N.S. Ringueberg, American Naturalist, 1882, p. 711.

Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales. 265

the railroad cut just above Lewiston; at both of which places it
presented its peculiar uneven surface and hard texture.

. The following Niagara species may be added to the list there
given: Retepora asperato-striata, Platyceras angulatum, S piri-
fera crispa, Retzia aprints, and asmall undetermined rhynchon-
elloid shell of which a few specimens have been found in the
shales. Orthis lynx must be removed to the list of species
common to the Clinton and Niagara, as it has since been found
in the shales of the latter. Here also may be added Orthis ele-
gantula. ‘Three determined species are characteristic of the
group itself, although judging from the material at hand there
are many more.

Though this group was regarded as forming a part of the
Clinton, the weight of the paleontological evidence proves it to
‘be more closely allied to the Niagara, and confirms the propriety
of classifying it as a distinct member of that group of equal
value with the others composing it.

It evidently represents a period of comparatively rapid physi-
cal change during which the ancestors of the Niagara forms
(which had been developing elsewhere, synchronously with
the forms representing the latter part of the Clinton here) were
suddenly introduced, and mingling with the Clinton species
then extant, produced this transitional group.

Various causes might be assigned as the active agents in the
production of this change; but the one which seems most prob-
able is a general subsidence of the whole region with concom-
mitant inflowing currents bringing with them an abundance of
life from adjacent seas in which a Niagara or Niagara-like
fauna was flourishing.

This complete change of both physical and organic surround-
ings is a sufficient explanation of the complete extinction of the
Clinton forms except such as were by nature readily capable of
adapting themselves to the new enforced phase of existence.

This same cause would also have its influence on the newly
introduced forms, and of these again only such as easily became
acclimated and adapted, would survive; especially if the change
continued, as is probable, after the initiatory subsidence. For
immediately following this period we find a complete and abrupt
change in the nature of the sedimentary deposit. Now let us

266 Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales.

observe how far this theory is supported by the facts of the
case.

The thickness of the shale in western New York and its
thinning out in both directions, show that a depression then
existed at this point.'. That this depression was of comparatively
rapid formation is shown by the following facts: The shale is
deposited directly upon the unevenly drifted surface of the
Transition limestone, as before noted.”

The upper surface is extremely irregular and undulating; having the
appearance of being drifted together. This is also corroborated by the
position of many of the fossils which seem to have been swept together
by eddies, charged with sedimentary matter, by which they were en-
tombed as we now find them.

This would also account for the perfection of the contained fos-
sils. The spots where no trace of the Transition is to be found,
were probably in the direct line of currents that had sufficient force
to clear the surface of any deposit which might have been made,
and to hold in suspension whatever sedimentary matter they con-
tained. Suchcurrents would also pick up and carry along such
animal life of this closing scene of the Clinton, free or readily de-
tachable, that lay in their paths; and after their force was spent
deposit the same indiscriminately with the mass of foreign mat-
ter they had brought with them. There are no regular lines
of stratification, as a rule, to be observed in this stratum. Whole
groups of species disappeared almost as suddenly as they ap-
peared;such asthe Cyrtoceratide,which are to be found abund-
antly in some localities in this formation, while immediately
before and afterwards they are almost unknown. So it is with
quite a number of species which are otherwise strangers in this
vicinity.

It is evident, however, that the changed condition of things
‘was more in conformity with the physical surroundings to
which the newcomers had been accustomed than that existent
during the latter part of the Clinton, for we find a greater pre-
ponderance of survivals among the transplanted forms than
among the original inhabitants of the region.

With such a birth we can well expect an interesting period

1 Prof. J. Hall. 28th Regents Rept. on the N. ¥. State Museum, p. 102.
4 Amer. Nat. ib.

Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales. 267

following, provided the conditions favorable to the continuation
and multiplication of organic life be maintained; and this ex-
pectation is well sustained by the paleontological wealth of the
succeeding period.

The Niagara shales. These shales were ushered in with a
great profusion of life of many species. At the very threshold
of the series we find represented with few exceptions the major-
ity of the species to be found throughout their entire extent.
From the beginning to the end there was gradual decadence
in the abundance of life, and the number of species, till at last
a few fucoids only remained.

These notes on the shales refer strictly to their appearance
within the confines of Niagara county. Here, at Lockport, they
have a thickness of some seventy feet and can, upon palzon-
tological evidence, be divided into three parts which will be called
thirds, although that designation will imply merely divisions
defined by the comparative abundance and range of the fossils.
The first or lower third comprises only some seventeen feet
on the Erie canal—the only place where its measurement has
as yet been effected. The rest of the series is divided into two
parts of some thirty feet each, without any distinct line of de-
marcation yet noted.

The most conspicuous peculiarity of these three divisions is a
regular upward decrease of the fossils. The lower third is
highly fossiliferous with comparatively few thin bands of un-
productive shale, chiefly in its upper part. Inthe middle third
a diminution may be noted, the fossils being for the most part con-
fined to bands of shale and some thin impure semi-calcareous
layers; or to isolated areas or patches. These bands are sepa-
rated by various thicknesses of shale mostly, but not wholly,
non-productive, the fossils growing scarce towards its upper por-
tion. The upper third has a considerable quantity of fossils
distributed through it, but they are few when it is compared
with the rest of the shale, and are for the most part confined to
their well separated layers. Taking these three divisions in or-
der we will describe first in detail the lower third.

This extends from the Niagara Transition bed or where that
is absent, from the Clinton, to a layer which is well defined
palzontologically, and which we will designate as the //omo-

268 Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales.

crinus band from one of its most characteristic fossils /Zomocri-
nus parvus. At its inception life was present in great profusion
and the lowest portion of the shale is largely made up of a mass’

nic remains, mostly fragmentary or distorted, principally
polyzoa, and disconnected brachiopod valves. But though many
species and great numbers are represented good specimens ex-
cept of the more solid forms are rare. Just here a few single
valves of Orthis lynx were found, representing the last surviv-
ors of this long-lived species, which flourished during the Tren-
ton, began to wane in the Clinton and finally yielded to the strug-
gle for existence here. These first few feet of the shales also
bear about the only examples of Orthis flabella yet found in
them. Here and there also were colonies of Stephanocrinus an-
gulatus and S. gemmiformis, the latter of which seems to haye
extended but little higher while its congener gradually decreased
in numbers, a few occurring part way up the wddle third while
few if any are found above it. The largest examples of Z//enus
are also to be found here equalling and exceeding the largest
from the Clinton, though unfortunately almost invariably in the
shape of disjointed cephalic shields and pygidia, some of them
while a little higher up
those exceeding three centimeters are scarce. //lenus toxus is

measuring eight centimeters across

the form generally found, but, judging from fragmentary evi-
dence there are one or two others having varietal if not specific
values. There certainly was a marked decadence of this species,
especially as regards size, after the close of the Transition, in
which, and the underlying Clinton, the larger form evidently
predominated. Calymene also underwent a similar retrogres-
sion in size after leaving the Niagara Transition. Dalmaniies
limulurus, Hlomalonotus delphinocephalus and Lichas boltont
although present do not begin to increase in numbers till to-
wards the middle of this lower third, /Zomalonotus not arriving
at its maximum until the next division is reached; while Lichas
evidently culminated in the upper half of this one; although it
is present all through the middle third, with a rare fragment
beyond. Lichenalia concentrica is ‘at its maximum from the
very start and gradually with varying fluctuations fades away
till lost in the wpper third. So it is with Streptelasma calyculus
which however decreases more rapidly in numbers and size;

Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales. 269

nearly all the large specimens being in the first couple of feet.
Strophomena rhomboidalis drops from six centimeters or more
as the maximum size in the lowest band to three in the upper
third. The Merestine are to be found in the greatest abun-
dance in the lower portion. Colonies of the larger species at
times multiplied largely to the exclusion of other life. After
this first portion the Graffolitide began to increase, though in
varying quantity and occasionally wanting, into the wpper third.
Inocaulis however seems to go but little beyond this section.

Some of the omnipresent species such as Sfirifera niagar-
ensis, Atrypa reticularis; Atrypa nodostriata ; Merstina nitida
and its var. odlata, Strophomena rhomboidalis; Rhynchotreta
cuneata var americana, Platyceras angulatum,; Platystoma ni-
agarense Streptorhynchus subplanum, and some others, are to
be found in varying quantities throughout the three sections
till near its close, where they of course are few in number.
Some extend further upward than others before dying out and
will again be referred to in speaking of the other portions.

Some of the rarer fossils seem to be almost entirely confined
to this third, only an occasional specimen being found in the
other horizons.

Of these we may mention, Atrypa rugosa, Rhynchonella
obtusiplicata, Anastrophia interplicata, Callopora nummifor-
mis, Calceocrinus radiculus, the Eucalyptocrini, Icthyocrinus
levis, Ceratiocaris dewyt, Macrostylocrinus fusibrachiatus,
and JZ. ornatus, Inocaulis anastomatica, Conularia bifurca,
and the Lecanocrini except L. macropetalus.

The Homocrinus band. This band represents the close of
the lower third.

Perhaps the most abundant species to be found is SAzrifera
niagarensis. Various other brachiopods and some of the char-
acteristic Niagara forms are to be found here. But it is not till
we come to a consideration of the echinodermata that we find
distinctive features. Of this class there are more striking ex-
amples collected together in the same stratum, to which many
of them appear to be confined, than we have found in any other
single portion.

Homocrinus parvus; this graceful pigmy crinoid with
its long slender thread-like columns and attenuated arms

270 ‘Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales.

has been found both singly and in groups at the only two ac-
cessible exposures known; and as it has been found nowhere
else and seems to be the most constant form the band has been
named after it. The fine almost black tracery of its columns
is generally seen associated with few other fossils. /Zemicyst?-
tites parasiticus is another species which I have never found
elsewhere. All specimens collected by me show them to be
parasitic on Sfirifera niagarensis, but Prof. Hall mentions
having secured it also on S. radiatus.

The specimens usually occur on individuals, in the colonies
of the former species, and sometimes two may be seen side by
side on the same valve. In this connection it may be mentioned
that a peculiarity of Spzréfera niagarensis is that it is gregarious,
living in small sized colonies so that the specimens at times al-
most completely cover slabs of shales, with comparatively few
individuals in the intervening spaces.

This band has also yielded the only star fishes so far found,
except Paleaster niagarensis, the exact horizon of which is un-
known, as Prof. Hall refers the single type specimen indef-
initely to the shale at Lockport. These consist of eight indiv-
iduals of Protaster stellifer and a type each of Hugaster con-
cinnus and Sguamaster echinatus.

Next to these the Lecanocrini are the most characteristic group.
The species of this genus are confined mostly to the lower
third except LZ. macropetalus which is found in the middle third.
The rest range sparingly through the lower third and ter-
minate here with many species and more individuals than in all
the rest of the shale. A species which resembles Z. calyculus
is the most abundant; the others are Z. excavatus, L. macropet-
alus, and L. nitidus. These except 1. macropetalus seem to
be peculiar to thisband. Z.soliédus andl. puteolus are from the
lowest band of the lower third. The fine state of preservation
of many of the specimens occurring in this band and the layers
immediately above and below it, is noteworthy. This is es-
pecially true of species as a rule found only in a disconnected con-
dition. Of these the well known Caryocrinus ornatus is the
most prominent example. The portion of the shale within a
few feet in either direction from the Homocrinus band has
yielded the most perfect specimens of this species which have

Ringueberg on the Niagara Shales. 271

thus far been found. Some magnificent ones with a goodly
proportion of the column and arms intact have been secured.
This species makes its first appearance in the Clinton, where it
is very rare, passes through the Niagara Transition, appears
in slightly increased numbers, rapidly augments its ranks and
reaches its maximum in the upper portion of the lower third;
extends in moderate numbers up into the middle third, before
leaving which it rapidly subsides, being almost unknown in the
higher portions of the upper third. After a temporary emi-
gration to more favorable haunts it returned and is again found
in the limestones immediately above; after which time it prob-
ably became extinct. Coincident with the preceding is the rise
and fall of Dalmanites.

Here also are found the best examples of AZyelodactytus brach-
tatus which, though rare, occurs uniformily through the /ower
third. ;

The middle third. This and the divisions following are de-
fined by the negative evidence afforded by the absence of many
species. A few exceptions may be made, the most prominent
being the development of AZomalonatus which reaches its max-
imum size after leaving the Homocrinus band, and extends up-
ward though in diminished numbers into the highest fossiliferous
beds of the upper third. A more careful stratigraphic classifi-
cation may yield some species of polyzoa which will be found
peculiar to it; thus the rare Clathropora frondosa has as yet
only been found in its upper portion, and possibly extends into
the third above. Striatopora flexuosa is found here, and but
rarely elsewhere. The few specimens of Cornz/ites and Sto-
matopora are mostly from within its borders as is also the case
with Zentaculites niagarensis and its almost universal asso-
ciate Beyrichia spinosa and the rarer B. symmetrica which are
mostly from its upper part. This latter trio extends into the
upper third. The types 7uberculopora inflata, Crania pan-
nosa, C. dentata and C. gracilis occur here. The only other
Crania known from the shales is a species which I have consid-
ered as identical with C. s¢dartana, which has only been found
in the dower third. Callocystites tripectinatus also occurs here.

The most notable absentees are among the crinoids and
cystids referred to as peculiar to the Jower third. After these

come the brachiopods which have before been listed.

272 Wasinuth on the Pitisburg Coal Bed.

The upper third. Two of the most constant fossils which
attain their best development in this division are Rhynchonella
neglecta and Streptorhynchus subplanum. Pterinea emacerata
is the principal lamellibranch. Among the trilobites Dalma-
nites and flomalonotus are the prevailing forms, others being
seldom found. Corals are scarce, being principally an occasional
Fravosites. Cephalopods are almost entirely wanting, Ortho-
ceras annulatum being the only one noticed. Platystoma niag-
arense is the only noteworthy gasteropod. Crinoidea are
excessively rare, a few Caryocrini, a Callocystites jewetti and
a type each of Wariacrinus warrentand Dendrocrinus celsus
being all that have been secured to date.

It will be observed that most of the recorded species are in
the dower third; this is not alone due to the profusion of fossils
there, but also to the more limited facilities for observation
which have occurred in the rest of the shale, and the immense
amount of material which must be worked over in order to get
a few data.

NOTES ON THE PITTSBURG COAL BED AND ITS
DISTURBANCES.

BY HENRY A. WASMUTH, M. E,.

The Westmoreland Coal Co. has opened the Pittsburg coal
bed by a shaft at station “ Biddle” on the Pennsylvania Rail-
road. The shaft has struck the coal bed at about 190 feet deep
on the northeru flank or flexure of a basin, the synclinal axis of
which has not been developed thus far, The area of the north-
ern flank, controlled by the company referred to, hasbeen
opened on the Englishand German systems of mining by divid-
ing both extensions of the coal bed on the strike as well as on
the incline into suitable pannels or divisions. Each pannel on
the strike has three main entries, one for the empty mine
wagons, one for the loaded wagons and the third one for the
returning air (A B C, fig. 1). From these main entries are
urned off the butt entries DD D D (double entry system), thus

Wasmuth on the Pittsburg Coal Bed. 273

dividing into pannels the extension on the rise, and from the
latter the rooms E E E for coal mining are turned off.

The particular
feature of the coal
bed in this district
is its distinct and
regular cleavage,

thus promoting min-
ing of lump coal;
the faces of the main
slips are the faces of
the rooms.

The distance
from the shaft to
the most inside faces o Fig. 1
of the main entries
is about one mile. An output of 1000 tons of screened coal per
day of ten working hours can be furnished without any force
on account of the most perfect working order of all details

concerned.

In extending the mine workings it has been developed, that
the northern flexure of the synclinal referred to, rises at an
average of 1 to 3 per cent. or hardly 1144 degrees; but the flank
of the basin consists really of a combination of numerous, very
gentle dipping rolls or synclinals and anticlinals, K K K, fig. 1, in
both directions, strike and dip. The anticlinals are called
“hills” and the synclinals “swamps” and both are accompanied
by numerous disconnections and dislocations of the coal bed and
its country rock (roof and floor), but in accordance with the
very gentle dip of the hills and swamps the dislocation mostly
is trifling, exceptionally from 1 to 1% feet vertical. The dis-
connection of the coal bed and roof work is complete and dis-
tinct, the original projections of fracturing being rubbed smooth
by continued sinking of one part of the measures or by dispro-
portionately sliding of both parts of the measures. The discon-
nections and dislocations indicated H H H, fig. 1, generally are
termed “clay veins,” “spars,” ‘slack veins.” The courses of
the clay veins differ, thus crossing each other, and the same
clay vein might be cut in several entries and rooms. These

274 Wasmuth on the Pittsburg Coal Bed.

clay and slack veins, according to the terms of geologist
Rogers and all authorities, are transverse and longitudinal faults,
and although small in extent they prove beyond doubt that the
coal beds and rock at the time of the disturbance from their
original horizontal position, have been as hard as to-day, which
will be explained in the following.

The synclinals or “swamps” indicated in fig. 1, dip very
gently; sometimes their deepest point is hardly two feet below
the corresponding point of the anticlinal. The shortest line be-
tween two corresponding points of two anticlinals and through
the corresponding point of the synclinal is longer, as the short-
est connection of the two points of the anticlinals; consequently
if the coal and rock had been in a soft or plastic state at the
time of the disturbance from their original position, in order to
cover the greater length they must have been thinned out by
the over-lying measures, either with or without more or less
fracturing; i. e. by upheaval the measures of the anticlinals must
have been thinned out. The facts demonstrate, that the thick-
ness and lamination of the coal and rock remain uniform all
over such synclinals (i. e. anticlinals) and in order to cover the
greater length the coal bed and country rock are disconnected

as illustrated in fig. 2. By a great number

of disconnections of the measures in the
mine referred to, always the fracture of the

WALZ. xoo8 rock is smooth and sometimes polished
and with distinct striation, although irregu-
lar in its course; and from these facts must be concluded, that
the coal and rock have been hard at the time of the disturbance
from their original horizontal position; that fracturing took
place when the sinking of the measures commenced and that
the disconnected hard measures by continued sinking rubbed
on each other and the fracture widened out, thus producing the
results described before. Had the rock been soft or plastic at
the time of the disturbance no such smooth polished and striated
planes could have been produced, because only hard substances
smooth and polish each other by friction. The width of the
fracture of the coal bed, fig. 2, differs from a few inches to two
and three feet, and while the sinking has been so trifling the pro-
jections of the fracture remained in their original shape, the

Wasmuth cn the Pittsburg Coal Bed. 275

fracture being filled with disintegrated fire clay (roof of the
coal.) Such occurrences are termed “ spars.”

Fig. 3. representes a disconnection and dislocation of the coal
and measures, the fracture dipping with the
course of the dip of the measures. The fract-
ure F mostly is several inches wide (and
more) and it is filled with disintegrated coal
and country rock (clayish substance). Conse-
quently it represents a body, more precisely a clay-lode, which
mostly has a greater incline than the mineral deposit, discon-
nected by it. If the terms of a mineral depeosit—troof, floor, top,
bottom, hanging wall, footwall—are applied to it, then the part
of the coal bed on the hanging wall of the fracture is in a lower
position, than the part on the footwall, which is the characteristic
of “transverse faults.”

Fig. 4. represents a dislocation of the strata, the fracture dip-
ping contrary to the dip of the measures, and
the part of the coal bed on the hanging wall
of the fracture or fault is in a lower position
than the part on thefoot wall. The effects of
such faults are similar to those of faults rep-

resented in fig. 3, but they are termed “transverse faults with
contrary dip.”

Fig. 5. represents a disconnection of the coal bed and
measures by two faults, one F F with
regular and one F with contrary dip but pe OS

without dislocation; perhaps their effects mus
have been compensated. The steeper Y Zine
ke,

dipping fault has died out on the regular
dipping fault. Such occurrences appear numerous and it is ob-
vious that their courses differ and consequently cross each other.

Both fractures are transverse faults.
Fig. 6 represents aso-termed “slack-vein” (G G, fig. 1) which
has been developed for a distance of

Fie & more than 1000 yards long in the

Firma Ltav”

EIT, Ui i mine referred to and it is the only
VZV, one met with in that district thus
< “ge

far. F F, in fig. 1, approximately
represents the water level, i.¢., strike line of the coal bed devel-

276 Wasmuth on the Pittsburg Coal Bed.

oped by the mine workings. It will be seen, that the strike
line of the slack vein is somewhat parallel with the strike line
of the measures. The fracture F or slack vein is about two
inches wide and it is filled with disintegrated coal only, because
the part of the coal bed on the foot wall of the fracture has slid
down, or even both parts disproportionately, thus the projections
of the fractured coal only have rubbed on each other and as the
vertical dislocation is only about six inches, no disintegrated top
rock could be dragged along. The measures on the foot wall
of the fault are in a lower position than the measures on the
hanging wall of the fault, which is the characteristic of ‘longi-
tudinal faults” or “overlaps” and the “slack vein” referred to
according to the terms of geologist Rogers is a “longitudinal
fault ” or overlap, or according to Heim, Koehler and other au-
thorities, a “folding fault.”

The course of transverse faults mostly approaches the course
of the incline of mineral deposits (lode-measures); the part of
the deposit on the hanging wall of the fault has slid down, and
is in a lower position than the part on the foot wall but, where
the dislocation is trifling and not distinct, mostly both parts of
the coal bed have been slightly bent downwards on the fault.

The courses of longitudinal faults mostly approach the course
of the strike line of the measures and the part on the hanging
wall of the fault or fracture is in a higher position than the part
of the measures on the foot-wall.

The dip of transverse and longitudinal faults generally is
greater than the incline of the deposits and measures, but in ore
lodes, according to their origin, occur no longitudinal faults.

It is a well-known fact, that clay veins, rather faults, of more
or less extent, have been struck in a great number of mines on
the Pittsburg coal bed. An investigation of several districts
will prove also that the Pittsburg coal bed to a degree is de-
vided into areas of more or less extent by erosion and clay veins,
the latter crossing each other. Furthermore it is a well known
fact that the filling of fractures and faults by clayish substance
acts like a dyke against water and gas, demonstrated in coal min-
ing in Europe and in the anthracite region.

The Pittsburg coal measures are underlaid by the Devonian
formation, or members of it, the reservoirs of oil and gas. It

Hicks on Geyserite in Nebraska. 244

must be accepted as a fact, that the disturbances of the Pittsburg
coal measures, to a certain degree, must have affected the un-
derlying Devonian formation and even the formation at the
‘bottom of the latter, thus forming areas of more or less extent
by clay veins etc.—Naturally, the greatest amount of gas should
be found on the higher elevations (anticlinals) and of oil in the
deeper portions of main and minor synclinals of the Devonian
formation, or members of it; but as this theory is refuted by
geologists of reputation, which certainly will prove to be correct,
there remains especially the influence of disconnections and dis-
locations of the oil and gas bearing strata by clay veins, etc.,
heretofore not mentioned at all, to explain the productivity of
the oil and gas wells of Pennsylvania.

GEYSERITE IN NEBRASKA.

BY DR. LEWIS E. HICKS.

In many counties of Nebraska occurs a fine, flour-like, white,
or grey deposit, which is used as a polishing powder. It ex-
cites much curiosity in localities where it is newly discovered,
and specimens of it are constantly being sent to the university
for identification. I have just received a specimen from the
northern part of the state with the inquiry whether it is emery.

Prof. J. E, Todd published in Science, Apr. 23rd, 1886, an
account of its occurrence in Seward county, Nebraska, in strata
of Quaternary age. He sent samples to Mr. J. S. Diller of the
U.S. Geological Survey, who replied that it was volcanic dust.

I have lately received a sample from Lindsberg, Kansas, and
Mr. J. A. Udden, who sent it, has since informed me that, having
forwarded samples to Washington, he was informed, by amember
of the U. S. Geological Survey, “that it was volcanic dust.

I wish now to recall the fact, once known to some portion at
least of the geological world, that Prof. Samuel Aughey has
given an extended description of this mineral in his “ Physical
Geography and Geology of Nebraska,” published in 1880. His
description is so full, minute and exact that it deserves to be re-
produced entire. It is as follows:

Polishing Powder—Infusorial Earth—Geyser Flocula. One of the most
remarkable of all the deposits of this Pliocene lake of the plains, is a

2478 Hicks on Geyserite in Nebraska.

peculiar flour-like material that appears in beds of greater or less thick-
ness and extent on the Republican, Loup and Niobrara rivers, and in
other sections of the state. When I first examined it under the micro-
scope a few diatoms were collected, from which circumstance it was re-
garded as probably of the character of tripoli. Since then, in many
specimens that have come under my observation,a diatom has rarely been
found. The chemical analysis of this earth is, moreover, very different
from tripoli. It is proved to be a silicate of the alkaline earths, and most
generally of soda, potash, magnesia, and lime. Sometimes only one,
and sometimes several of these alkalies are present. It ranges in color
from light gray to snow white, green and yellowish. All these colors
are sometimes found in the same bed, and the chemical composition
varies even more than the color. To the touch it feels very much like
flour. The best specimens have no grit, and when used as polishing
powder no scratches can be detected, even with the microscope. It is most
abundant along the Republican river, where it is found inalmost every
county. It is exposed on the east half of the northeast quarter of section
eight, and on the west half of the northwest quarter of section nine,
town three north, range twenty-one west of the sixth principal meridian,
in Furnas county, south of the Republican river and about eight miles
southeast of Arapahoe. One of the exposures here is nearly a quarter
of a mile long, and is a characteristic section. The measurements are
from the top down.

6 feet

Be pay otd
Compact silicate of lime and limestoOne............0..cseecseceeeeneee eee Sy
PIOMPAKe Cart. ine, zvseconcedvos sactecessdectewascoses<Qcescesectesocaparcnenccantoscasueesenentt 12 “

This bed is made up of layers one fourth of an inch in thickness, of
snowy whiteness, and other layers, from nine inches to a foot thick, of a
grayish white color. Nine feet from the top there is a layer two inches
thick of a greenish color, which contains potash and iron,

As already intimated it polishes as successfully and as finely as the
best tripoli.

Origin of this Flour-like Earth—_Near or in many of these beds are found
many extinct geyser tubes, and sometimes old geyser basins. Of these I
observed at least thirty between Arapahoe and the west line of the state.
I have also found them in the Loup region and on the Niobrara.

As some of these geyser tubes had their exit in the Fort Pierre group,
on the upper Republican, it is probable that they commenced their work
in the Cretaceous period, and were in operation all through the long
centuries of the Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs, and far into the
Quaternary. A similar bed exists on Oak creek which was deposited in
interglacial times. Nebraska and northern Kansas was in fact a great
geyser region all through the Tertiary period. Few memorials of these
extinct geysers are visible at the present time, owing to their being cov-
ered up by the superincumbent Quarternary deposits, but enough remain
to show that a prodigous number must have existed. It is probable that

Hicks on Geyserite in Nebraska. 279

this flour-like silico-alkaline earth owes its origin to these old geysers.
It is well known that hot alkaline waters dissolve silica. When, there-
fore, the geyser streams holding silica and alkalies in solution were
poured into this old lake the mineral in question was precipitated. In-
deed many of the flakes of this earth, under the microscope, clearly re-
semble the dried flocculent flakes of aluminic silicate which the chemist
obtains by pouring soluble sodic silicate into a solution of sodic alumin-
ate.

Another fact which tends to establish the probability of this theory
is that this silico-alkaline earth, on analysis, bears a striking resemblance
to geyserite, which is obtained from the deposits of existing geysers.
The following analyses are illustrations of this statement. No. 1 is an
analysis of this earth from the deposit near Arapahoe; No. 2 from the
Loup region; No. 3 from Iceland; and No. 4 from the Yellowstone.
Nos. 1 and 2 were made by myself; No. 3 was made by Forchhammar;
and No. 4 by Dr. F. M. Endlich.

MORRO AMET UTO Ure encase eocavenenecns soscensd ve cnaacsteue sav eseerelesetel ses dcdlecteusecsess|Meceaceetes 8.00
SHCA see eae ees e beso de ae aT 80.17 | 84.48 | 76.80
WUT: os 5-2. c5ess Penae Seales Wwavak tals cat tcabase civessthacencuvastias tees 7.43 7.88 5.00
PAV ONINITL A a oes sasah <a s ees se~'s 4.71 3 07 9.46
MI CNNe Rise asses case sotvsescchesceseranavcvacecccesese ss 8.01 assy trace
MTG e eetete cds cc sedcovecescevacsacscap shamescas delve 0.92 0.70 1.80
Soda and potassa : 2.27 0.92 trace
VPEUTIO SI Aen ose cote a aise saves e coane das ect Pate citecsiausssbceceesoues : 0.80 1.06 trace

99.31} 99.98 | 101.06

From these analyses it is evident that the principal difference between
this Pliocene earth and geyserite is that the former contains a much
larger per cent. of alkalies; though the specimen from the Loupis much
like the geyserite from Iceland. By reference to Dr. Endlich’s report
on the composition of the geyserites of the Yellowstone! it will be seen
that they differ very much in the proportions of their constituent ele-
ments. In the great number of analyses reported by him from as many
different geysers, no two are alike. Often geysers only a few feet apart
produce very different qualities of geyserite. The same is true of this
peculiar earth under discussion. It not only differs a great deal in differ-
ent localities, but even in different layers of the same stratum. It differs
most in the quantity of the alkalies which it contains. Some specimens
contain twenty per cent or more, while others contain only a trace, the
latter approximating closely in chemical, though not in physical consti-
tution, to the true geyserite. I submit whether these facts do not indicate
a similar origin. It is possible that the peculiar modification of geyserite
into a flour-like alkaline silicate may have resulted from geysers that
were active in the waters of this old Pliocene lake.

The deposits of a similar character in the Quaternary contain, where

1 Hayden’s Report for 1872, p. 157.

280 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

I have chemically examined them, a larger per cent, of iron, and are
coarser in texture.

It is but justice to Prof. Aughey that his account of this de-
posit should be accredited for all it is worth; and it may be the
means of correcting anerror. I do not assert that the opinion
which seems now to be widely entertained is erroneous. I wish
to provoke further investigation.

The relation of the silico-alkaline earth to one of the extinct
geyser tubes was recently observed in the Loup region by Mr.
F. W. Russell. He also reports a warm spring in that region.

The condition of fine powder which the mineral in question
usually presents is not a serious objection to its being regarded
as geyserite. The explanation may be such as Prof. Aughey
suggests; besides ordinary geyserite often falls to powder on
exposure. The specimens which I have seen from Nebraska
were all in fine powder, but Prof. H. H. Nicholson of this Uni-
versity assures me that it does occur here in the form of solid
incrustations as in existing geyser regions. ‘The specimen from
Kansas has greater solidity than any I have seen from Nebraska,
but it is quite friable.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARCHAZAN GEOLOGY OF
MISSOURI.

WITH PLATE I.

BY ERASMUS HAWORTH.

CONTENTS.

]. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS,

A. Geography.

B. Statement of work. *

C. General Geology. (a) General geological characters. (64)
Relation of stratified to massive rocks. (c) Relation of massive
rocks to eachother. (d) Surface decomposition. (e) Dykes.

II. PETROGRAPHY.

A. Granites. (a) Mineralogical composition. (46) Special de-
scription of minerals. (c) Structure of the granites. (d) Classi-
fication of granites.

B. Porphyries and Porphyrytes, exclusive of dyke rocks. (a)
Mineralogical composition. (4) Special description of minerals.

Haworih on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 281

(c) Structure of the porphyries. (¢) Classification of the por-
phyries.

C. Diabase and Diabase Porphyrytes including all the dyke rocks.
(2) Mineralogical composition. (4) Special description of,minerals.
(c) Structure of the diabases. (d) Classification of the diabases.

D. General Conclusions.

LITERATURE.

Broadhead, G. C.: Notes on such rocks of Missouri as admit of a high

polish. Mo. Geol. Rep., 1872, p. 414.

Geology of Madison county. Mo. Geol. Rep., 1873-74

Geological notes of S. E. Missouri. Published in Mines, Metals

and Arts, St. Louis, June, 1876.

S. E. Missouri lead district. Eng. and Mining Journ., June, 1876.

Age of our porphyries. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp.

366-370, 1877.

———Marbles of S. E. Missouri, Kan. City Review, vol. 5, p. 323, 1882.

Archean rocks of Missouri, ‘ . “ vol. 5, p. 733, 1882.

Frazer, Persifor: On some geological features of Iron Mountain and
Mine La Motte, Missouri. Phil. Acad.Sci. Proc., vol. 26, pp. 85-86.

Gage, James R.: On the occurrence of iron ores in Missouri. Trans,
St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 181-192.

Harrison, Edwin: Age of Porphyry Hill, S. E. Missouri. Trans. St.
Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 2, p. 504.

Litton, A.: Geology of Iron Mountain, Pilot Knob and vicinity. Mo.
Geol. Rep. 1855. Part II, p. 75.

Newton, Henry,: Iron ores of Missouri. Trans. Am: Inst. Min. Eng.,
vol. 3, p. 377 and 389.

Pumpelly, Raphael,: Notes onthe geology of Pilot Knob and vicinity.
Mo. Geol. Rep., 1872.

Schmidt, Adolf.: Iron ores of Missouri. Mo. Geol. Rep., 1872.

Schoolcraft, H. R.: View of the lead mines of Missouri. New York,
1819.

Shumard, B. F.: Geology of Ste. Genevieve county. Mo. Geol. Rep.,
1855 to 1871.

Swallow, G. C.: Metamorphic and igneous rocks of Missouri. Mo.
Geol. Rep., 1855. Part I.

Whitney, J. D.: Metallic wealth of the United States. Philadelphia,
1854, Pp- 479-480.

A few other notices and short articles have been published in different
journals, references to which I could not obtain.

282 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missourt

I— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

A. GEOGRAPHY.

The area covered by the work of which the following is a
summary lies in the vicinity of Pilot Knob, and Iron Mountain,
Missouri. This famous mining district is known by name to
almost everyone. It lies on the main line of the St. Louis, Iron
Mountain, and Southern railroad, southwest of St. Louis about
eighty-five miles. The principal places mentioned is this paper
are located as follows: Iron Mountain, eighty-two miles below
St. Louis; Pilot Knob, eighty-seven; Ironton, one mile below
Pilot Knob. It is the county seat of lron county, and the largest
town in the district described; Piedmont, about thirty miles
below Ironton; Syenite, a granite quarry, fifteen miles cast-
northeast of Ironton; Mine La Motte station, sixteen miles east
of Ironton; the mines by this name are two and a half miles
farther east; Graniteville, three miles northwest of Pilot Knob;
and the Silver Mines, ten miles southeast of Ironton.

The only two streams which will be referred to very often
are the St. Francois river and Stout’s creek. The former rises
near Graniteville, flows to the north a short distance, then forms
a big horse-shce curve and flows south, passing Syenite and the
Silver Mines. Stout’s creek passes south of Ironton, then
flows almost due east to the St. Francois, thus shutting in a
large area in the horse-shoe bend of the St. Francois.

The Archean area covers irregularly outlined portions of no
less than ten different counties. To the west it extends as far
as Texas county; to the north and northeast as far as Washing-
ton, St. Francois, and Ste. Genevieve counties. To the east it
passes through Madison county; and to the south nearly through
Wayne county. But only a small portion of this territory is
covered by the Archean rocks.

Throughout the whole Archzan area the surface is exceed-
ingly rough. Narrow valleys along the streams with high and
irregular hills beyond, rising from three to six hundred feet, is
perhaps as good a description as can be given. Sometimes
there is a long divide between two streams which is much more
nearly level than the hilly portion just mentioned.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 283

B. STATEMENT OF WorK.

It is attempted in the present paper to give the results of a
reconnaissance of the Archean area in Missouri, and a some-
what detailed petrographical description of a portion of the mas-
sive rocks occurring therein. There is such an inter-dependence
between the field relations of crystalline rocks and their micro-
scopical and chemical properties that, in order to gain a complete
understanding of the geology of any territory, one must alter-
nate field observations with microscopical and chemical studies.
The field work cannot be carried very far in advance of the
laboratory investigations, neither can one draw correct conclu-
sions from the latter if they are not accompanied by extensive
and accurate field observations. No work of this character has
before been attempted in the Missouri Archean. From the
very necessities of the case, therefore, this paper must be of a
preliminary nature. It is hoped that in the near future circum-
stances will permit a continuation of the work thus begun in this
interesting field. The information used as a basis for the pres-
ent paper was obtaimed partly from others, but principally from
observations made in the field during the summer of 1886, and
the subsequent examination of materials collected. Mr. Richard
Payne, of Madison county, has sent me over a hundred hand
specimens from localities not visited by myself. Prof. G. C.
Broadhead, formerly state geologist, has also kindly loaned me
portions of his private collection of rocks from this locality.
Individually I traveled over considerable portions of lron, Mad-
ison, and Wayne counties, going as far north as Bismarck, as
far east as Mine La Motte, as far south as Piedmont, and as far
west as the northeast corner of Reynolds county. Special ef-
forts were made to collect typical specimens of ail the massive
rocks, whatever they might be.

In the laboratory investigations [ have been assisted by Mr.
Charles E. Coats, of Baltimore, Md., who kindly made a silica
determination of the quartz-diabase described later by Prof. C.
R. Van Hise, of Madison, Wis., who gave me valuable sug¢est-
ons regarding the microscopic character of a large number of
thin sections sent him; but far more extensively by Prof. G. H.
Williams, of the Johns Hopkins University, in whose laboratory

284 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

the greater portion of these investigations have been conducted.
It is with pleasure that I make use of the present opportunity to
express my gratitude to all of the above named gentlemen for
their kindnesses, and especially to my honored teacher, Prof.
Williams, who was ever ready to give assistance and advice, and
to whose untiring interest such value as this paper may possess
is largely due.

C. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

(a) The general geology of the Missouri Archean is very
simple. There are no contorted or twisted strata, and no high
angles of dip showing violent orographic movements. Every
thing indicates that the movements which have occurred were
of the most gentle kind. The rocks themselves do not present
avery great variety. There is a total absence of any thing ap-
proaching gneiss or schist.' Different kinds of porphyry —
which is the predominating rock—granite with simple and al-
most constant mineralogical composition, and dykes of diabase
and diabase porphyryte constitute nearly all that can be referred
to the Archean.

(6) Relation of stratified to massive rocks.

Limestones and sandstones occur along the valleys and some-
times on comparatively high ground throughout almost all of
the Archean area. It is probable that from those places where
granite is exposed in the valleys, as along Stout’s creek and the
St. Francois, the sedimentary rocks have been carried away by

erosion. Pumpelly’ and Broadhead*—and in fact every one
else who has written on the subject — referred the granites and
porphyries to the Archean, and the limestone and sandstone to
the Silurian. In the geological map issued with the 5th An.

Rep. of the Director of the U.S. G. S, the sedimentary rocks

1 Pumpelly mentions a rock with “schistoid structure,’--Mo. Geol.
Rep., 1872, p. 26— which he thinks is a limestone changed to porphyry.
He says: “Here is a member of the porphyry series which was unques-
tionably a limestone, but in which the original physical and chemical
characters have almost wholly disappeared.” Not having seen sucha
rock J can say nothing about it.

2 Mo. Geol. Rep., 1572, p. 8.

> Mo. Geol. Rep., 1873-74, p. 347.

_ Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 285

are called Cambrian. All of my observations accord with these
views with reference to the relative ages of the different rocks.
There can be no doubt that the granites and porphyries are
older than the sedimentary rocks, as the following considera-
tions show:

1°. Numerous instances were seen in which the stratified
rocks overlie the massive ones and are non-conformable with
their surface. Broadhead also describes and figures such con-
tacts.

2°. The stratified rocks in the whole country are nearly
horizontal, rarely showing a dip of more than ten degrees. It
is very probable that this would not be true had such large
quantities of massive rock been forced up through them.

3°. Nowhere has a contact zone of metamorphosed lime-
stone or sandstone been observed. Had such large quantities of
massive rocks been forced up through the stratified ones it is
very probable contact metamorphism would be common.

During Cambrian time this portion of Missouri existed as an
archipelago of many small islands, some of which had deep,
narrow valleys between, while others were mere peaks separated
by five, ten, fifteen or more miles. Along these valleys the

Cambrian rocks were deposited.

(c). Relation of massive rocks to each other.

Long before Cambrian time, however, these islands had a
history. They had been lifted above the ocean waters and
subjected to different kinds of degradation. Along their shores
and upon their hillsides deposits of their own material had been
made which were subsequently firmly cemented together form-
ing a breccia. The material of the cement is very like that of
the fragments, so that it is often difficult or even impossible to
distinguish between the two. At present this class of rocks
must be almost entirely neglected, because the ascertained facts
are too meagre to warrant a discussion of them. It is quite
probable they have been given too prominent a place by those
who have written about them.

So far as observed the granites are on comparatively low
ground. Graniteville isin a valley, with high hills almost all
around, The granite quarries at Syenite are on the banks of

286 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

the St. Francois. The quarries along Stout’s creek are at the
water’s edge. These are the localities in which the best crys-
tallized granites occur. As we go back from the streams to-
wards the hills the surface is usually covered with soil, so that
the rocks can not be seen. The hills are almost invariably
composed of porphyry. There is a considerable area of granite
exposed to the west of Syenite, on both sides of the county
line between Madison and St. Francois counties. This is on
the highest ground of any granite exposures observed. In ap-
pearance these rocks very decidedly resemble the porphyries,
much more so, at least, than do the granites of the valleys. In
other cases the porphyries seem to be very coarsely crystalline
for such rocks. At the base of the hill just west of Hogan a
rock occurs which is difficult to classify. It seems to be half-way
between a granite and porphyry. Farther south the porphy-
rytes are so coarsely crystalline they can very well be worked
for paving stone. Numerous places along the road south as
far as Piedmont furnish excellent quarries of such rocks.. By
combining the rocks from these different localities, we have a
continuous series from the best crystalline granite of Granite-
vile, to the most fine grained felsophyre.

( ad). Surface deconposition.

Surface decomposition has progressed to a considerable extent
in some localities. About ten miles west of Pilot Knob there
are anumber of different places in which the porphyry is changed
to an impure kaolin. At Iron Mountain the surface decom-
position is very great. When mining was first begun the whole
surface of the hill was covered with clay through which the iron
was disseminated. At present quite fresh rocks are exposed
in some parts of the mine, while in others they are very
rotten.

The rocks on the southwest side of Pilot Knob are very badly
decomposed, as has been shown by borings and diggings. | In
other places similar decomposed areas are met with. .Yet one
is perfectly correct in saying that the great masses of the rocks
are comparatively fresh. With but few exceptions one can get
a good, fresh hand specimen by using a hammer on the ledges

of any hill-side.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 287

(e). Dykes.

In numerous places throughout this whole country dykes of
various sizes occur, sometimes in the gtanite, sometimes in the
porphyry, and, as stated by Broadhead, sometimes in the sand-
stone. It is difficult to determine the age of these dykes. In
nearly all cases they occur in the massive rocks in places where
there are no overlying sedimentary ones. The presence of one
of them in the sandstone would indicate that probably they
were formed after it was deposited. But in the report just
mentioned, on page 372, Norwood speaks of a dyke which is
overlaid by the sandstone. It seems probable, therefore, that
the great majority of them are of Archean age, while possibly
a few are younger.

These dykes are most abundant in Madison county, but-are
known in many other places. Their most common trend is
northeast and southwest, or approximately parallel to the Ozark
hills. The dykes vary in size from a fraction of an inch in
diameter to more than forty feet. It seems that they rarely if
ever overflowed the surface; or, if so, the material has been
carried away by erosion.

I PETROGRAPHY.

The massive rocks of Missouri may be divided into three gen-
eral classes or families. 1°, Granites. 2°, Porphyries and por-
phyrytes, exclusive of the dyke-rocks. 3°, the dyke-rocks, which
are varieties of diabase and diabase-porphyryte. They will be
described in the order given.

A. GRANITES.
(a). Mineralogical composition.

The mineralogical composition of the granites is not at all
complex or varied. The great mass of the rock is composed of
quartz and orthoclase. Other minerals are always present, but
in comparatively small quantities. They are microcline, plagio-
clase, biotite, hornblende, apatite, zircon, fluorite, topaz, and
iron-oxide— probably magnetite. To these must be added the
secondary minerals; chlorite, epidote, muscovite, leucoxene, and
calcite. Sometimes the biotite is sufficiently abundant to give

288 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missour

the rock a mottled appearance, and in fact it is not often en-
tirely absent. But it never occurs in half the quantity in which
it is often seen in biotite granites from other localities.: The
hornblende, when present, is always associated with the biotite,
occurs in much smaller quantity than the latter, and is generally
in idiomorphic crystals. These two minerals are quite fresh at
times, but more often are considerably altered. The alteration
products are those commonly observed; chlorite, epidote, etc.

All the other minerals named occur in small quantities, and
the most of them present no special points of interest. The
apatite needles are unusually free from the breaks, or fractures
so common to them in rocks from other places, and when they
are broken their fragments are not moved out of place, a fact
in harmony with the field-relations which indicate gentle move-
ments of the rock masses.

The zircons are very abundant, and are often clustered around
little fragments of biotite or hornblende, sometimes thirty or
more being in one group. The dark, pleochroic zones so com-
monly seen around zircons in granites and other rocks from
different places, are very often present in these granites. The
size of the zircon crystals is not great, the largest one seen
measuring only 0.118 mm.

Epidote occurs only as a secondary product from the biotite,
hornblende, or feldspar. The muscovite is also secondary, and
occurs in small quantities. The same is true of leucoxene and
calcite.

Only those constituent minerals which are especially interest-
ing will be mentioned in detail.

(6) Special description of minerals.

Quartz. The quartz has the limpid appearance so common
in granitic quartz. The granules vary in size from more than
a centimeter in diameter to those of microscopic size. There is
often a*decided approach to an idiomorphic structure, even in
the most highly crystalline granites. This is well shown in
specimen number 303, obtained at Knob Lick as it was being
loaded on to the cars for shipment. It was said to have come
from a quarry about two miles north of Syenite. Ina thin
section from this specimen one individual quartz crystal shows

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 289

the «oR and R faces well developed, as is shown in fig. 1.
The quartz grain is almost entirely surrounded by feldspar
crystals. Such idiomorphic quartz is very important in consid-
ering the structure of the granites.

Another very interesting feature of the quartz is the un-
usually great abundance of fluid in-
clusions. They vary from 0.025
mm.in diameter to so small a size
that they can scarcely be seen when
magnified 300 diameters. Gas bub-
bles are often present, but no one
was observed which was in motion.
Little cubic crystals—sodium chlo-
ride?—- were quite common in num-
ber 232.

Very frequently these fluid inclu-

x 40 diameters. sions are arranged in lines approxi-
This shows an _ idiomorphic Ls Ls - 5
quartz in granite. with R. andar ,Mately parallel, and also are some-

well developed. It i - d- : : :
ed by Peiaccen Scchcalass times in planes cut by the section at

lagioel Saree
eae aon. different angles. These. ‘recall the

“solution planes” of Judd.

It is very rare indeed to find anything at all resembling the
hair-like inclusions so common:in granitic quartz which Hawes'
thought to be rutile needles. In a thin section made from a
sandstone just north of Mine La Motte station, however, many
such inclusions were seen. Now if the sandstone was formed from
the disintegrated granites and porphyries near by, it is strange
that the first section made from it would show more of these
inclusions than can be seen in nearly two hundred sections of
the granite and porphyry.

Orthoclase. ‘The orthoclase in nearly all thin sections exam-
ined has a strong tendency to assume an idiomorphic structure.
The faces oP, « P and P® are frequently quite well devel-
oped. It is not uncommon to find beautiful micropegmatite
occuring in the same specimens with these idiomorphic crystals.

The orthoclase is often quite badly decomposed, but the
granites from the quarries are quite as fresh as the average

* Mineralogy and Lithology of New Hampshire.

290 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

New England granites which are found in the market. Mus-
covite is one of the most common products of alteration. In
the granites from Graniteville many very minute, isotropic,
strongly refracting grains of secondary origin occur which prob-
ably are garnets, but on account of their very minute size this
could ee be proved.

A very interesting occurrence was observed in several of the
granites which seems to be an enlargement of orthoclase indi-
viduals by a process of secondary growth. In all such cases
the original crystals are decidedly idiomorphic. The material
of the secondary growth is -attached to these original crystals
and is oriented with them. Sometimes the new material ex-
tends entirely around the crystals. as shown in fig. 2, b; in
other cases only a part of the way, as represented in fig. 2, a.
In still other cases the border of new feldspar material is con-
tinuous a portion of the way, the remaining part being occupied
by a micropegmatite in which the feldspar is attached to the
original crystal and is oriented with it. T his is shown in fig. 2.
A fourth form, as represented in fig.
2, c, consists of an entire border of
micropegmatite in which the feld-
spar is in rod-shaped portions pro-
jecting outward from the original
crystal to which they are attached
and with which they are oriented.
Thus there exists a complete series,
from the feldspar crystals with the
entire rim of the secondary growth

to those with the micropegmatite bor- Fig. 2
der all around. Sometimes cleavage x 40 diameters.

3 arrays wu and bare from a granite, No-
lines extend from the original crys- 364. They show the feldspar en-

largements. 2 shows cleavage
tal out through the attached part. tines passing from the original

i opt ite crystal into the added portion. ¢
In other cases there are lines in the js from No. 268, a pegmatite which

secondary border which do not ex- aa ade haciaine Tac
tend into the original crystal, and

which are not parallel to its cleavage lines. In such cases it
would seem that the growth began as in the micropegmatite
border and continued until the individual rays united forming a

solid zone. Each one of these rays, of course, would be oriented

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 291

by the original crystal, and therefore would all extinguish alike,
and when in the process of growth they finally coalesced they
would form but one individual. It is perhaps not improper to
look upon the rays of the micropegmatite border as being crys-
-tal skeletons produced under conditions unfavorable for the
completion of the entire individual crystal.
These enlargements have an important bearing on the question
of the structure of the granites in whichthey occur. The rocks
from which the figures already refer-
red to were taken have every appear-
ance of being true granites. Num-
ber 302 is froma specimen picked
up at Knob Luck, the shipping point
for the Syenite quarries, from which
place it is reported to have come.
The specimen has a uniform text-
ure, is of medium coarseness, and is

composed of a large amount of a
Fig, 3. light-colored feldspar, but little

ak neato artz, and an unusually large pro

aoe a granite No. 302, This WUAttZ, ¢ z Se, SE PEO:
shows an idiomorphic orthoclase srt] aati ‘ .
partly surrounded by second- portion of biotite for the Missouri
pees end partly) by amin. oranites.. Number 364 was. sent

cropegmatite in which the feld-

Ba pee ores vo the original me by Mr. Payne,and was reported
to be from section 3, T. 33, N. R. 5

E. It is reddish granite, of uniform texture, and is tolerably fine

grained. The most noticeable microscopic feature of it is the

strong resemblance in shape of the original orthoclase crystals

to the lath-shaped feldspars in diabase.

The original crystals are usually much more decomposed
than the secondary zones. Other slides show the same kind of
enlargements, but these two are the best examples.

Two different explanations for these phenomena might pos-
sibly suggest themselves.

1° We may. suppose the granites possess the “miarolitic”
structure; that is, they so contracted in cooling that numerous
cavities were formed throughout the mass. . It would then be
possible for certain crystals to project into such cavities form-
ing a druse. Subsequently the cavities might be filled with

292 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

quartz and feldspar material,’ the latter of which could arrange
itself around the feldspar crystals so as to form secondary
growths similar to those described by Van Hise.’

A careful study of these specimens however, shows a great
improbability of the correctness of this explanation for these
enlargements. There is not the slightest indication of the former
existence of the miarolitic structure, or of druses formed from
any cause. We must therefore look for another explanation.

2° We may suppose that in the process of cooling the
feldspar crystals were formed and floated about in the mag-
ma for some time, as the porphyritic feldspars do in the magma
of a porphyry. As the whole mass finally solidified these
crystals attracted around themselves portions of the remaining
feldspar material, and thereby were subjected to a second
growth differing from the first principally in the irregularity
with which it progressed.

This in reality is nothing more than a form intermediate be-
tween two well known phenomena; viz, the ordinary zonal
structure in idiomorphic crystals on the one hand, and the phe-
nomena resulting from the orienting influence of porphyritic in-
dividuals of quartz and feldspar, in the porphyries on the other.

A number of different investigators have already observed
similar phenomena. In 1881 C. Hépfner * gave a description of
certain zonal structures in the triclinic feldspar from Mt. Ta-
jumbina, Peru, and according to his observations certain irreg-
ular developments of these produce forms somewhat similar to
the secondary enlargements here described.

In 1882 Prof. G. H. Williams* described and figured certain
zones around both quartz and feldspar in quartz-porphyry
from the Black Forest, which he attributed to the continued
growth of the crystals during the effusion period. They thus
represent the same kind of enlargements found in the Missouri
granites.

In 1883 Prof. Friedrich Becke,’ in an article entitled, “ Erup-

1 See Rosenbusch’s Mass. Gest., 2nd ed., p. 39.
2U.S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 8. pp. 44-47.

® Neues Jahrb. Band 11. 1881. p. 164.

4 Neues Jahrb. Beilage-Band 2. pp, 605-607.

5 Min. und petrog. Mitth. vol. 5. pp. 147-173.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 293

tivgesteine aus der Gneissformation des niederésterrichischen
Waldviertels,” describes certain zones of feldspar material
around plagioclase crystals which, if I understand his article,
should be referred to a secondary growth during the second
period of consolidation. The rock in which they occur is a ker-
santyte. He divides the constitutent minerals into two classes.
The first class includes basic feldspar, biotite, augite, olivine and
quartz. He says that they were formed before the solidification
of the rock mass and correspond to the “éléments de premiére
consolidation” of F. Fouqué and M. Lévy. The second class in-
cludes plagioclase rich in soda, orthoclase, quartz, and pale-green
hornblende, and correspond to the “éléments de seconde con-
solidation” of F. Fouquéand M. Lévy. MHethen says: “These
last constituents, which cannot be called secondary in the ordin-
ary sense of the term, and which I have called constitutents of
the second order, are at times most intimately associated with the
above mentioned constituents of the first order; oligoclase and
micropegmatite appear as zones of parallel growth around the
andesine kernels of the first order,”?

Again he says: ‘The feldspar crystals [ of the 1 order] are
united with the ‘Zwischenmasse’ [the material of the 1 order ]
by means of the oligoclase zones,”? and further; “Also the
oligoclase zones pass directly over into the micropegmatite, as
is shown by the fact that the feldspar in the same extinguishes
with the oligoclase zones of the adjacent feldspar crystal.” *

In the same year Karl Bleibtreu,* in a paper entitled, “ Bei-
triage zur Kenntniss der Einschliisse in der Basalten, mit beson-
derer Beriicksichtigung der Olivinfels Einschliisse,” describes

1p.170. “Die letzteren. Gemengtheile, die man nicht als secundir im
gewohnlichen Sinne des Wortes bezeichnen kann, die ich deshalb als
Gemengtheilen 11 Ordnung bezeichnen werde, sind mit den fruher ang-
efuhrten Gemengtheilen 1 Ordnung zum Theil auf das Innigste verbun-
den; Oligoklas und Mikropegmatit erscheint als parallel fortgewachsene
Hulle um die Andesinkerne 1 Ordnung.”

*«“Die Feldspathkrystalle sind mit der Zwischenmasse durch die Oligo-
klashulle verbunden.”

§ “Auch setzen sich die Oligoklashullen hiufig direct in Mikropegmatit
fort, was daran erkannt wird, dass der Feldspathgrund desselben gleich-
zeitig mit der Oligoklashulle benachbarten Feldspathkrystalle ausléscht.”

* Zeitschrift der deutsch. geol. Gesel. 1883. vol. 35. pp. 489-556.

294 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

numerous instances in which feldspar and other minerals have
been partially fused by the basalt lava, and on cooling have had
secondary rims attached which were oriented by the original crys-
tals. They would thus be true secondary enlargements produced
in precisely the way suggested above for the Missouri granites.

In April of the same year E. Hussak,' in a paper entitled
“Ueber den Cordierit in vulkanischen Auswiirflingen,” describes
the same kind of occurrences, in substance, as there mentioned by
Bleibtreu. In 1884, C. Doelter and E. Hussak’ published an ac-
count of some very interesting experiments made by fusing dif-
ferent kinds of natural volcanic rocks and observing the effect the
fused mass had upon natural crystals of feldspar and other min-
erals. Portions of the crystals were dissolved and, upon cooling,
re-crystallized in the form of grains and lath-shaped crystals
which were oriented by the original crystal, often grading into
it in such a way that no well defined line was left between the
two.

In 1887 Dr. Max Koch® described feldspar enlargements in
kersantyte which he thinks could best be explained by attribut-
ing them to secondary growths of the original crystals from the
molten magma.

Rosenbusch, in the last edition of his great work, vol. 11. p.
341, mentions such enlargements in a general way, but gives
no specific descriptions, and no references to the literature of the
subject. On page 360 he mentions the work of Dr. Williams
above given. Of course this kind of enlargement is entirely
different from those in fragmental rocks described by Irving and
Van Hise* for quartz, and by Van Hise’ for orthoclase and horn-
blende. |

Before describing topaz it will be well to speak of the changes
which have taken place in the wall rock of the vein at the lo-
cality known as the “Silver Mines.” The vein itself extends
from the west bank of the St. Francois, back in a south-west
direction for an unknown distance. Years ago mining opera-

1 Issued with above litle; also vol. 87 der Sitzb. der k. Akad. der Wis-
senschaft, 1883. I. Abth. April Heft.

2 Neues Jahrb., 1884. 1 Band, pp. 18-44.

3. Jabrbuch der k. Preuss. geol. bh pe 1887, pp. 77-78 and 98.

AUS: Gisabulssd.;

*Am. J. Sci. vol. 30. pp. 233-2

J

2 ‘ es . = ©
ai niga on jeg; sat ‘Set
vem siege ee Nadie; Sisml ala

-
w=
-

> mie car ini ja ; Pigiiv! sens 3 nae!) £
7 Rartsdei5 to teap ait esp a) ee Stes ee abl a
ee ee , Aare eiea® efor sie i.

Sy epee SAOvs ‘oe
rien + ve * st a

[ > a 9 Ps oe trtts be ; 4 > Sifan

iat gti 2 Meni oN) 5 Sek CECE SE pen ey Be
; bo BF ;
el, me | PELE) Sts rs Ts
af An eeces era ms 4 3 es Gj
Ea Ti cate! tm z Sie A Et per ‘ee
as = 5 - 3 es
G The Greiit Begrrete Stas tr] 3 0! Rept, abit
Bi dai Merge tty ineper’s fae
7 a -
- " a & : sy Pe ts ‘LF a ~s = 4
= aes
7 4 OM 4 a ree Le be ‘te
cd
yz Wr id ine
t Paar ; tz eis
i 7 e
f i i ze ,

> . aoirp oa hit
cis Tt Varo) |i)

' Sol agpet tes: 3 i ‘ ; me i
, s) = td

5
“- ‘A * yd
- , = 4
mre? oe 3 j
7 7
7 bt sli ‘ {
re Lie ' a + oa .
it $ rpeeie P. j ee
A +9
x J | my
i 77 » 1
+ “i Peg +P. wiz F
ag
+ ) ‘s
’
,
>
we =
7 a
wt
th a . Ay
: Se + | “haat

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. The peecilitic structure in quartz-porphyry. As the thin sec-
tion is revolved between crossed nicols the field breaks up into different
areas, which extinguish differently, so that in any one position one area
will give its maximum amount of light, another its greatest darkness,
and others intermediate degrees. ;

From No. 211, north side of Shepard mountain, three-fourths way up
from the base. Magnified 44 diameters.

Fig. 2. Pseudospherulites with orthoclase nuclei. The microgranitic
portion is composed of quartz and feldspar.

From No. 410, the wall rock of the big diabase dyke at the “Tin

Mines.”

Magnified 44 diameters.
Bic 3. he opecilitics:

more coarsely crystalline than that shown in fig. 1. Three quartz crys-

structure in quartz-porphyry which is much

tals are represented, each of which has avery large surrounding area
that really is a portion of the central crystal, but spotted over with feld-
spar material. One of the crystals has a number of small but well
formed orthoclase crystals projecting into it. The areas which do not
have central crystals are similar to the others, and consist of a quartz
ground-mass with the feldspathic material scattered through it.

From No. 347. Magnified 30 diameters.

Fig.4. Augite with a secondary green hornblende rim around it;
biotite with a hornblende crystal enclosed, and also with magnetite scat-
tered regularly through it; plagioclase, and beautiful micropegmatite.

From No. 235, a coarse-grained quartz-diabase. Magnified 30 diame-
ters.

Fig. 5. Porphyritic primary quartz, a, and secondary quartz, c, with a
chloritic core. The primary quartz, a, has a reactionary rim around it
of almost uniform breadth, the result of a corrosive action of the molten
magma upon the quartz.

From No. 336, a fine-grained diabase-porphyryte. Magnified 30 diame-
ters.

Fig. 6. Diabase porphyryte with glass carrying trichites and crystal
skeletons. The plagioclase is shaded with parallel broken lines; the
augite with small crosses.

From No. 415, taken at the big dyke at the “ Tin Mines.” Magnified

44 diameters. : “2

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 295

tions were carried on in an almost fruitless search for silver.
At the time of my visit to the place the works were abandoned,
the shafts and tunnels filled with water, so that almost the only
available material was in the “dump pile.” A fourth of a mile
back from the river a shaft had been sunk upon the vein and
named the “Apex shaft.” The vein itself was filled with quartz,
argentiferous galena, fluorite, lepidolite, wolframite, and prob-
ably other minerals. The wall-rock was originally granite. At
present, however, it consists of quartz imbedded in a fine-grained
mixture of mica scales with traces of iron oxide, leucoxene,
beautiful little zircon crystals, and probably other materials.
Scattered through this mass in varying proportions are the
minerals fluorite and topaz.

We evidently have here the results of a fumerole action,
recalling in some respects the conditions around the tin mines
of Cornwall, Eng., of Zinnwald in Bohemia, and those of other
places. The resemblances consist in the granite wall-rock
being decomposed for a few feet on each side of the vein, and
the occurrence of topaz, wolframite, lepidolite and fluorite,
minerals which are associated with tin ores in other places.
But so far as now known there is a total absence of cassiterite,
as well as of tourmaline, and other minerals—excepting those
just given—which always accompany tin deposits.

Topaz.—tin all the thin sections examined from the wall-
rock of the vein just described a considerable quantity of a
mineral thought to be topaz was found. It does not have a
regular crystalline form, but in many cases the direction of the
crystallographic axes could be determined. Its index of refrac-
tion, as shown by its apparent thickness, its parallel extinction,
and its polarization colors strongly implied that the mineral in
question was topaz. Portions of it were isolated by first mak-
ing a separation with the Thoulet solution, sp. gr. 3.12, and then
treating the powder thus obtained with the strong, hot acids.
This dissolved everything but the mineral in question. Each
of the three acids was tried in turn, and finally aqua regia, but
after boiling no less than an hour the little grains were un-
affected. A blow-pipe examination with the salt of phosphorus
proved it to be a silicate. There can be little doubt, therefore,
that the mineral is topaz.

296 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

(c) Structure of the granites.

The granites from Graniteville, Syenite, Stout’s creek, and the
St. Francois river are moderately coarse-grained, of a pink color
which varies considerably in shade, and are generally mottled
with biotite or hornblende. At Graniteville and Syenite very
extensive quarries are worked, which produce grades of granite
equal in appearance to the New England granites. In localities
different from the ones named the granites have a finer texture,
and grade off into the porphyries.

It may well be said that in but few instances do we find gran-
ites which do not in some degree possess a structure approach-
ing the porphyritic. That from Graniteville shows it the least.
Those along Stout’s creek and the St. Francois have it much
more developed. The hornblende, when present, is always
idiomorphic, and the feldspar, biotite and quartz are to a con-
siderable extent.’ The well formed crystals of quartz in num-
ber 303 has already been mentioned. The feldspar enlarge-
ments have an important bearing here. They show unmis-
takably that there were two distinct periods of solidification,
and consequently that the only difference between the structure
of the granites and the overlying porphyries is in the character
of the product of the second period of solidification.

As we pass back from the low ground we invariably find the
texture of the granite becoming more fine, and in every respect
more closely resembling the porphyries and felsytes. The
structure of the rocks intermediate between the granites and
the porphyries can best be considered after the porphyries have
been described.

(dz) Classification of the granites.

As has already been stated the granites are all very similar
in mineralogical composition. There are but three different
varieties which are sufficiently distinct to be given separate
uames. The first of these is composed wholly of feldspar and
quartz, excepting the few unimportant accessory minerals
which may occur in all granites. From its intimate associa-
tions with biotite granite we must look upon it as being a facies
of the latter. The third variety has a small amount of horn-
blende, but by no means a sufficient amount to bring it under

Hicks cn the Reef=Builders. 297

the general division of amphibole granite of Rosenbusch.
Following Rosenbusch’s classification we shall therefore have
the following:
Granite (feldspar and quartz).
Granite { Granitite.
Hornblende bearing granitite.

(To be continued. )

THE REEF-BUILDERS.

BY DR. LEWIS E. HICKS.

What is the true theory of coral formations? Half acentury
ago Charles Darwin proposed the subsidence theory; half a
dozen years ago John Murray proposed the abrasion and solution
theory. Darwin accounts for the great thickness of the reefs
by a sinking of the foundation as fast as the polyps built upon
it. Murray supposes that the reef, beginning within the bathy-
metric life-limit of the polyps, first grew up to the surface, then,
by constant abrasion of the waves, became a factory for the
production of coral dedr7zs, and thus grew into deep water upon
the talus of its own fragments, the dead landward, or inner por-
tion (if it was an atoll), being at the same time dissolved away
by the sea water.

Two paths are open to us in the treatment of these theories.
We may either set them the one over against the other in an
antagonistic and exclusive sense, try to choose between them,
and then try to coérce all the facts under the theory of our
choice; or, realizing the complex nature of the phenomena and
the possibility of some truth in both theories, we may bend our
energies to the task of discriminating, sifting, discovering what
kind of structures each theory will explain most satisfactorily.
The latter path may not be the easier one, but it is certainly the
more rational.

At all events let us not here in America become heated par-
tisans of either Darwin or Murray. American geologists have
no occasion to take sides in the personal aspects of the contro-
versy provoked by the duke of Argyll in his “Great Lesson”
contributed to the September number of the “ Nineteenth Cen-

298 Hicks on the Reef=Builders.

tury.” It is true that all the parties concerned, professors
Huxley and Judd on the one hand, and the noble duke on the
other, are highly esteemed on this side of the water, but whether
peer or commoner shall prove to be wholly right, or both con-
siderably in the wrong, is not a vital matter to us. In respect
to the duke’s charge that scientific men are given to idolatry,
and guilty of suppressing truths which might topple their
Dagon (or Darwin) to the earth, we see too many examples of
the fierce zeal of young naturalists to win their spurs by knock-
ing old ones on the head, to give that charge much credence.

But as to the example brought forward by the duke to en-
force his “* Great Lesson ”— the true theory of coral formations—
we do take a deep interest in that. We want to know how
coral reefs and islands are actually formed, no matter who may
suffer or gain in reputation, by the establishment of the truth.
Holding this judicially impartial attitude we shall be better
qualified to discriminate and to reach a just conclusion than those
who have permitted their emotions to mingle with and obscure
their perceptions and judgments.

In the bald statement of the two theories, as above, there is
truly little or nothing to discriminate. But each theory is really
a great complex of facts and interpretations in which there is
much to discriminate. Especially in the application of the
theories to the facts is the great complexity of the problem, and
the need of careful distinctions apparent. The radical fault of
theorists is too frequently seen to be wholesale generalization —
“ brilliant” generalization, perhaps, at least in the eyes of their
admirers, but none the less wholesale and untrustworthy. The
assumption that all coral formations are subject to the same law,
that there must be @ theory of coral reefs and islands, is an error
of this kind. It is quite conceivable that one law of growth
may determine the form of some reefs, and a different law may
apply to others; in other words there may be two or more true
theories of coral formation, instead of one.

Why should coral reefs require any special explanation?
Are they not simply examples of ordinary organic sediments,
such as have been forming all through geological history?
Take any one of the old limestones and inquire how it was
made. Was it not by the accumulation upon some sea-bottom

Hicks on the Reef=@Builders. 299

of the calcareous matter secreted by certain animals? And
what else is the coral reef? The polyps take up carbonate of
lime from the water and build it into masses of coral which are
then broken, triturated and pulverized by the waves, and finally
deposited like any other sediment.

In answer to this three reasons may be given for removing
coral formations from the category of ordinary calcareous sedi-
ments. In the first place the limited range in depth—the bath-
ymetric limit—of the polyps, imposes peculiar conditions.
Secondly, the polyps are true reef-builders. Sediment is
something that settles down; the reefs are built up. Not
the whole of the reef indeed, but certainly that portion be-
tween the depth of 120 feet’ and the line of wave action is a
genuine duz/ding of which the polyps are the architects and
masons. In the third place, the pure calcareous matter, when it
has been comminuted by the waves, hardens with such rapidity
as to introduce a new and distinguishing feature in sharp con-
trast with ordinary sedimentation. This facilty in passing from
the condition of incoherent fragments to that of firm and com-
plete consolidation, has two notable results. It prevents that
dissipation of the rock material over wide spaces which would
necessarily follow if solidification were long delayed; and it
produces steep slopes instead of the horizontal planes which are
characteristic of ordinary sediments. Even the loose coral sand
will lie at almost as high an angle under water as dry sand in
air. I have ascertained experimentally that the average resting
slope of fine dry coral sand is 35° , and Prof. Agassiz observed
slopes of 33° composed of coral sand under water.

But notwithstanding these three good reasons for separating
coral reefs from ordinary sediments it is certain that, in many
cases, the best light in which to study them is that which is
furnished by the ordinary laws of sedimentation. The Florida
reefs, for instance, have been shown by Prof. Alexander Agas-
siz to owe their form and their extension westward to the ac-
tion of tides and currents which shape the calcareous sedi-

_1 There is much variance in the statements of the depth at which the
reef-building species will live. Undoubtedly they will live much deeper
in some seas than in others. I give the figures 120 ft. as a general ay-
erage.

300 Hicks on the Reef=Builders.

ment just as any sandspit is shaped. A counter current to
the gulf stream sets into the gulf from the Atlantic, carries
the coral debris along with it, and spreads it out in a long
curved tongue in the line of the Keys. The coral sand soon
hardens, and upon the foundation thus furnished the polyps
take root (at adepth no greater than 42 feet in this region)
and build up to the level of low tide where the waves take
up and finish the work.

Such is the statement of Agassiz, who discredits the subsid-
ence theory of Darwin. But, in order to make good my claim
that there is no dispute about the essential facts, I quote from
Prof. James D. Dana, the most illustrious advocate and ex-
pounder of Darwin’s theory. ‘The facts presented by lieuten-
ant Hunt, and more fully by Mr. Agassiz, with regard to the
effects of the eddy current of the gulf stream, show that
co1al reefs may be elongated, and also that inner channels
may be made, by the drifting of coral sands, But the ac-
tion with coral sands is essentially the same as with other
sands; and illustrations of this drifting process occur along the
whole eastern coast of North America from Florida to Long
Island. We there learn that drift-made beaches run in long
lines between broad channels or sounds and the ocean; that they
have nearly the uniform direction of the drift of the waters,
with some irregularities introduced by the forms of the coast
and the outflow of the inner waters which are tidal and fluvial
and have much strength during ebb tide. The easy consolida-
tion of coral sands puts in a peculiar feature, but not one that
affects the direction of drift accumulation.” ”

Dana corroborates Agassiz fully in regard to the facts, but
later in the same article he draws the inference that there has
been “a great subsidence ”in the reef region of Florida aud the
West Indies. This inference encounters serious obstacles.
Several concentric reefs form the southern extremity of the
peninsula. They are thin reefs; their summits are all about at
the same level; they seem to have been formed succesively, not
simultaneously; and lastly the process and method of their for-
mation without subsidence seems to have been fairly demon-

strated by observation on the spot.

2 Am. Journal of Science, Sept. 1885 p. 178.

Hicks on the Reef=-Builders. 301

But the Florida reefs are perhaps the least favorable to the
Darwinian theory of any that could be selected. How isit pos-
sible, without subsidence, to account for some of the reefs of
the Pacific ocean, which are five or ten times as thick as the
Florida reefs? The reef along the north shore of Tahiti, hav-
ing a thickness several times the depth at which the reef polyps
will live, may serve for a test of the two theories as applied to
a thick reef. This is a barrier reef three fourths of a mile from
land. The lagoon channel is not too deep for polyp-life, so
that the reef may have begun where its inner base now rests.
There is no need of invoking the solvent action of sea water to
account for the depth of this lagoon. All the interest is con-
centrated upon the seaward face of the reef, of which the ac-
companying illustration (fig. 1) will give a better notion than
can be conveyed by words.

SEA- LEVEL. aq

FXYAVAOMS.
°o 50 100 200 300

Fig 1. Diagram of seaward face of the barrier reef at Tahiti, on a true
scale vertical and horizontal. After Murray. (A portion of the reef be-
low dis omitted. The slope diminishes to 6° at the bottom of the portion
omitted).

a to b, slope of 18° with colonies of living coral polpys.

b toc, talus of large blocks (some 20 and 30 feet long) of reef rock. Ay-
erage slope 45° , maximum slope 75° .

c to d, slope of 30° composed of coral sand.

Depth at b, 40 fathoms, at c, 1co fathoms, at d, 425 fathoms.

Horizontal distance from a to b, 250 yards, from b to c, roo yards.

Murray maintains that the slope from a to b is the great lab-
oratory for the production of reef matter, all below being

302 Hicks on the Reef=Builders.

simply a mass of debris, of which the very coarse and angular
fragments form the steep slope just below the zone of living
corals, and the finer sand forms the gentle slope down to the
seaward base of the reef. Dana corroborates the facts, and re-
marks that they “sustain instead of correcting those announced
by earlier observers. Beecher and Darwin make the mean slope
about 45°, and my report says 4o°to 50°.” But he main-
tains that the talus of large blocks from 4o to 100 fathoms is
“positive proof of much subsidence” because it is “far below the
limit of forcible wave action.” This is not conclusive. ‘These
blocks have descended by falling or sliding down the sea-ward
face of the reef—how far may be doubtful, possibly from any
part of the slope ab. If they have descended at all their present
depth below the line of any wave action forcible enough to
break them off does not appear to furnish the positive proof of
“much subsidence”? which is claimed for them. Dana has him-
self stated that when subsidence is not in progress “the coral
and shell material produced that is not lost by currents, serves
to widen the reef and to steepen in consequence of the widen-
ing, the upper part of the submarine slopes.” The tendency
of this action would be to broaden the life zone a b, until
it became very steep or even overhanging at b, like the
“coral heads” described by Whipple and Hartt.’ In that case
no very forcible wave action would be required to dislodge
the huge blocks which form the talus b c. Tahiti has not been
subsiding, but rather rising, in recent times, as shown by the
breadth of shore plain underlaid with coral somewhat above
sea level. If we grant that the talus of large blocks does not
prove subsidence, then there is no evidence of it known to me,
except that the Darwinian theory demands it.

Plainly the Tahitian reefs may have been formed without
subsidence. he seaward slope is not too steep for the pos-
sibilities of debris-accumulation in deep and, therefore, quiet
water. The part composed of coral saud is even less steep
than slopes of the same material observed by Agassiz at the
Florida Keys. In the steepest part the fragments are coarse
and angular, and the cementing effect of the calcareous matter

1Am. Journal of Science, Sept. 1885, p. 175.
2 See Corals and Coral Islands. Dana pp, 139, 141.

Hicks on the Reef-Builders. 303

filling the interstices as fine sand and precipitated from solution
in the sea, would help to form and maintain a steep face. The
position of the talus just beneath the zone of living corals ac-
cords with Murray’s theory. In fine the facts are against sub-
division as a zecesszty in the explanation of thick reefs.

But while thickness of coral reefs is not in itself a positive
proof of subsidence, there may be other attendant circumstances
which do constitute good evidence of it. If, for instance, a reef
is very thick and at the same time very steep in the lower part
of its sea-ward face (about the region d in fig. 1) we may rea-
sonably infer subsidence. ‘Seven miles east of Clermont Ton-
nere the lead ran out to 1145 fathoms (6870 feet) without
reaching bottom. Within three quarters of a mile of the south-
ern point of this island the lead, at another throw, after running
out for awhile, brought up an instant at 350 fathoms, and then
dropped off again and descended to 600 fatnoms without reach-
ing bottom. On the lead, which appeared bruised, a small
piece of white coral was found, and another of red.” This
sounding indicates vertical or overhanging walls at great depths.
Several examples of the same kind are on record, and are good
evidence of subsidence, although such wall-like steepness is
quite exceptional. Great thickness of a reef on the inner or
lagoon side is also good evidence of subsidence, at least until we
have more complete proof of the adequacy of Murray’s solution
theory. Dr. Archibald Geikie, who in other respects accepts
Murray’s views, doubts the competency of sea water to dissolve
such vast masses of limestone as must have been removed in
some cases. Prof. Carl Semper accounts for deep lagoons by
the scouring action of tides and currents, but Dana replies that
the waters can scour only to the depth of the outlet from the
lagoon to the sea, which is sometimes of less depth than the
lagoon. Deep lagoons, therefore, seem to present the strongest
case for the Darwinian theory.

Atolls are placed by Darwin at the end of a series, beginning
with the fringing reef, then the barrier reef, then the atoll; and
upon that supposition they must always have been preceded by
subsidence. Dana accepts this view, and makes it the basis of

1 Dana. Corals and Coral Islands, p. 171.

304 Hicks on the Reef=Builders.

his reasoning in locating the line A A (‘the axial line of this
great Pacific subsidence”) upon the Physiographic Chart at the
end of his Manual of Geology. Murray maintains that atolls
are no more to be taken as evidence of a sinking bottom than
other coral formations. They begin upon submarine banks
within 120 feet of the surface and assume the circular form
simply by reason of the vigorous growth at the periphery, and
the dwindling or death of the polyps nearer the center. Even
Darwin admits this explanation as a possibility. The founda-
tion for the atoll may be a hidden rock or the accumulations of
pelagic life upon the higher parts of the sea floor, raising them
within reach of the reef-builders.

Prof. Semper has long maintained that the atolls of the Pelew
group not only fail to prove subsidence, but that the facts are
all against Darwin’s interpretation. Instead assuming sub-
sidence as a necessity he claims that “the problem ought in each
case to be determined by actual detailed observation.” That
a given reef region may have subsided, and that the reefs do in
that case owe their form largely to the fact of subsidence, he is
quite ready to admit, and so are all the anti-Darwinians. But
they insist that subsidence is not a zecessary condition of the
problem, and hence that atolls do not simply by virtue of their
presence prove a downward movement of the region in which
they occur. If such a movement has occurred then the atoll
may very well be the last term of a progressing series, as Dar-
win supposed, but the whole series cannot be inferred from the
existence of the atoll.

Darwin should not be held responsible for the views of his
followers, unless they were his own. It would be a delicate
and thankless task, however, to attempt to draw the line be-
tween his real opinions and the exaggerations of his followers.
Without attempting any such distribution of praise or blame I
am constrained to remark that the impressions produced upon
the reader by most of the current geological literature are mis-
leading, and the discussion now in progress was needcd in order
to clear our vision. For an example I will refer the reader to
an excellent book, Prestwich’s Geology,’ recently published.

2? Geology, Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical. By Joseph Prest-
wich, Oxford, 1886.

Utrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 305

Read the paragraph entitled “Surrounding Depths,”.( vol. 1, p.
237) together with the comparison in the next paragraph of
the barrier reef of Australia to “a great submarine wall front-
ing the sea,” rising “at its seaward edge from depths which
certainly exceed 1800 feet,”and farther on “such is the nature
of these wonderful growths rising up in the midst of the great
oceans,” and see if the mental picture is not that of huge verti-
cal walls standing up in the waters. That is the tone of all the
text-books. Who would ever imagine, if he had access only to
such descriptions, that the actual average slope is no more than
45 degrees, and often as low as 30 degrees? Prestwich goes
beyond Darwin or Danain the sweeping inference of subsidence
based upon the presence of coral formations. In his map, page
235, he colors every reef region as a sinking area, no matter
whether the formations are fringing reefs, barrier reefs, or
atolls.

We may conclude:

1. That thin reefs, such as those of Florida, give no support
whatever to the theory of subsidence.

2. That thick reefs may be formed either with or without
subsidence.

3. Atolls also may be formed on a stable as well as on a
sinking platform.

4. Deep lagoons, or steep slopes fronting the sea in deep
water, cannot well be explained without subsidence.

A CORRELATION OF THE LOWER SILURIAN HORIZONS
OF TENNESSEE AND OF THE OHIO AND MISSISSIPPI
VALLEYS WITH THOSE OF NEW YORK AND CANADA.

BY E. O. ULRICH.
(Continued from p. 190.)

A digest of the preceding list is as follows:!

Total No. sp. mentioned from beds XI, XII, XIII, XIV..450; restricted to same, 892
A aA ts “ Coe ll Ae eee 186; we at 108
oh ‘ ‘A ULL 0. Gt IP DR nos ee 183; A ) 40

1 Certain errors in the range of the species given in the preceding
table should be rectified. The species are referred to by their numbers.
Thus, 49 is restricted to x11 a, instead of x11 6; 78 also in xtt 8; add as

306 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

Total No - SP. mentioned from beds =p ARR Fora bil ste ares ats 136; restricted to same, 41
ac ae ae ae ae 7 ae “ce ae
ee ae oe iad ce “ “e 46

“ec “ce “c 6c “ce

Species common COURS Lar AM TD. ee i ete eee estas dosecuedessmeasee tena: esse seaes eae et eee a eee
“ XIla ‘* XIIb

denne eee e eee n eee e rane steer e eee eeeee eee e tees eneseeessseseeeeeseresanessees

ss OY COED -@ll Ce TT eee ae ie caue ena Sens iced ou deh ee sea icles aa ante ce ae aan Ee

OF ug LoD Ctl Barada Ed (8 en Ve er HPN SR SI ar RE AR i A ismscrk:

Oh Ge ESSIEN i683) ERETO IGA TUNE EY RCN Me vale dale anu ae Le oe cake re ale Cea nep Rea e eae ne
Total No. of species passing from beds XIa into and not beyond XIb..

“ce ase BX “e DOMI LAS

“ec “a ac ac ac or “ec ae “ec XT

s o6 a A Gs ONT ST TWO eseceehasceentectee see OD sic Misetecemnees

Wi Of Ks i Ou XIla into and not beyond XT byt. eee 24.

WG es CG sc as XII ae B.C 0 ees ee 20

Ke ce Ot ot ce EXT A pimbOWS ove ev acta eese woes Bl IN Pet Beat 30

as ms “ ranging through all the beds from XIa to XIV.,.....23 (2 doubttall

es ss cf ‘ passing up from lower beds andranging through bastadebacerenemeaNom ne

UG ee 4b “into beds XI or higher, 58 ‘@acubifan
Of these 58 species 5 22 are not dows GOVE PEGS: -\:1. cess lccees couldacdaneceuonec septs rename AL
83 occur in beds XJ but are last met with in beds ....... Pe ec Af
3 ss “ Xi and ATT but aretast: met) with im beds. lo sevccseckees seeceues XTIT
6 rs <C PAPE DUG Aare NOUKNOWN AD! DEOSessc.sctescssscoeecncs cooteeeec teens XT, XE, XTV
1 occurs “« XIlT and XIV but is not known in beds.................sceeeesee: XI and XIT
1 6 (OP OL Va DUG ASO U KTM O WIN il OCOSiecessneaeecesseresaoseea neers AI, XIU, and XTIT

We will now proceed to consider these beds more in detail.

Beds x1. This division is about 300 feet thick at Cincinnati,
Ohio, and consists mainly of shales separated at intervals vary-
ing between 2 inches and 6 feet, by mostly thin layers of lime-
stone. The latter vary in thickness from 1 to 24 in., yet are
rarely more than 6 in., and commonly less than 4 in. In gen-
eral terms they may be described as drab to bluish, sub-crystal-
ine, even bedded, firm limestones, usually charged with fossils.
The drab courses are somewhat sandy and in them fossils are
rather scarce.

The shales vary both in color and firmness, those met with in
the lower portion of the division being harder and their bluish
tint less decided than that of those which constitute the bulk of
the middle and upper portions of the section.

These beds as they are exposed in the vicinity of Cincinnati,
admit of being again divided into two subdivisions, which may
be designated, as a and 4. In the following careful description of
their peculiarities, I shall endeavor to show that they are dis-

85 a Lichenocrinus cratertformis Hall in columns L. B, xia, and x1 6;
87 also in x1 6; 91 and g2 range up from column L. B; add as I21a He-
terotrypa? vaupeli, in xtt b; 126 occurs in x1 a, x1 6 and x11 @; 203 also in
XIII; 240 occurs apparently only near top of x11 a,and not in x11 4; 245
should read G. schuchertana Ulrich; 266 and 297 also in x11a; 311 also in
XIV; 328 in x11 instead of xiv; 362 in x1 J instead of xiI a; 391 in x11 in-
stead of x11;@ 395 also in xI1I; 442 and 443 in x11 Jinstead of x111; 444 in
X11 @ instead of x11 6; 448 in L. B. and xia.

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silwrian. 307

tinguished by recognizable, though slight, changes in both their
lithology and fauna."

a The thickness of this subdivision in the vicinity of Cincin-
nati is between 75 and So feet, but only 50 of these are exposed
in the Kentucky bank of the Ohio river opposite the city, the
lower 25 or 30 feet being below low water mark. In go-
ing up the river, however, more and more is brought to the
surface, till near Point Pleasant the whole thickness may be
seen. The character of the lower 15 or 20 feet in the Ohio
river exposures is not fully established, and I can speak of them
only in the light furnished by well-borings at Covington and
Cincinnati.” These appear to show that they are composed of
dark shales, and twelve or more 3 to 8 inchcourses of either
subcrystalline or impure hard limestones, the latter apparently
the more numerous. Both the shales and limestones contain an
abundance of trilobite remains, of which those belonging to two
or three species of Asafhus are by far the most numerous.
The valves of several species of Beyrichia, Primztia and Cy-
theropsis are also very numerous, but other fossils seem to be rare.

Several of the well-borings at Cincinnati seem to show that
the contact between beds X and XI a is well marked, the pas-
sage of the drill from the shaly layers of the latter into the
tough heavy-bedded limestones of the former being abrupt,
Still, I am inclined to believe that to the south and east of that
city some localities will be found where the passage from the
one into the other is not so abrupt. Such a locality probably
exists along the Kentucky Central R. R. not far north of Paris,
Ky. Carloads of rock brought from that vicinity and used for
ballast by the Ky. Central R. R. Co. certainly resemble some
of the layers of XI @. The rocks are full of fossils, of which
among others characteristic of beds XI a, Orthis borealis Billings
and ?hynxchonella increbescens Hall, have not been found above
beds X in central Kentucky.

1It is to be observed here that xta is nearly equivalent to the River
Quarry beds, and x1é to the Eden shales of Prof. Orton (Geol. Surv. of
Ohio, vol. 1)

2 The writer hopes soon to make a careful examination of the Point
Pleasant section so as to determine, if possible, the exact position of the
strata there exposed.

308 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

The best exposure of this subdivision known to me is found
in the Kentucky bank of the Ohio river, beginning about one
mile west of the mouth of the Licking river, Here every layer
of the upper 50 feet may be traced for nearly a mile, and, on
account of the frequent washings to which the beds are sub-
jected by the rising of the water in the river, many fine fossils
are annually collected there.

At this locality the uppermost member of the series is formed
by a crinoidal limestone layer, varying in thickness from 1 to 2
feet and composed almost entirely of the comminuted remains
of Heterocrinus. ‘The upper surface of this layer is rough and
generally presents a mottled appearance due to small lenticular
concretions, often charged with iron, which are contained in it.
A large branching species of Pttlodictya which I propose to
name P. porderosa, is apparently restricted to this layer. The
branches of this bryozoan are often more than an inch in width,
and nearly a quarter of an inch in thickness.

Immediately beneath the heavy layers there is a little soft
shale, and below this three or four feet of somewhat granular,
unevenly bedded, limestones, which disintegrate rather rapidly
and are disposed to break up into irregular layers on exposure to
the weather. When freshly fractured, their crystalline interior
is light blue in color, and contrasts strongly with their gray or
brownish exterior. It is from them that the Dendrocrinus
dyert is derived. Specimens of this graceful crinoid are not
rare, but, on account of the peculiar character of the rock, very
few of them are well preserved. A singular feature relating to
the occurrence of this crinoid is that the specimens are almost in-
variably attached to the lower side of the layers. Other fossils
are rare, and except a Lingula (L. norwoodi Fames) always
illy preserved.

Below these layers there are about 12 feet of a soft clayey
shale and more evenly bedded impure limestones, when a layer
holding numerous hard clay nodules is met with. Some of the
limestones are highly fossiliferous, while the shale in places
contains numerous fragments of JZoxotrypella briareus. Other
fossils that are more or less abundant at this horizon are AZodiol-
opsis cincinnatiensts, M? cancellata, Lyrodesma planum, Pleu-
rotomaria ohtoensis, Bellerophon bilobatus, Locketa seliqguaria,

“Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 309

Cyclophycus laterale, Batostoma erraticum, Aspidopora? caly-
cula, Ambonychia n. sp, and Tetradium fibratum (rare.)

Two or three feet below the nodule layer there is a strongly
undulated limestone, 3 to 10 inches thick, containing Tedlinemya
alta, in great abundance. From this layer to low water mark
(about 18 feet) the section consists mainly of hard and softer
shales, grayish or drab colored when weathered, and several

courses of impure limestone. Aside from rather numerous frag-
ments of Asaphus fossils are comparatively rare.

In going up the river to the mouth of the Licking the slight
rise in the strata brings up about 4 feet more of the series.
These consist of a number of courses of subcrystalline dark or
grey limestone, four to six inches thick, separated by nearly the
same amount of shales. The upper layer of limestone gener-
ally contains many good examples of AZodiolopsis cincinnatien-
sis, while the lower ones are full of ostracoda, and hold also a
considerable number of Asaphus fragments. The shale bands
contain Pterinea insueta, Lingula cobourgensis and, one band
in particular, great numbers of Lefptobolus lepis. This same
horizon is exposed several miles up the Licking river. Here
they furnished also species of conodonts referable to Deprano-
dus.

Several feet of shales that are swpposed to represent the por-
tion of the section immediately below that mentioned in the
pteceding paragraph are exposed under the bank of the river in
the first ward of Cincinnati. They can only be reached when
the water is very low, but as the river rarely fails to drop to
the desired level at least once during the summer, this draw-
back is not very serious.

Several fossils occur in these shales that are not found else-
where in the immediate vicinity of Cincinnati. Zyéarthrus
becki which they contain in abundance, is probably ‘their most
important fossil; put none the less interesting are certain grap-
tolites which have been found in trem. These and other fossils
that add interest to the beds are: Graftolithus gracilis, Dic-
ranograptus ramosus, Diplograptus spinulosus, Aspidopora
areolata, A? newberryi, Leptena plicatella, Lingula ricini-
formis,Leperditia radiata, Merocrinus curtus,and Stenocrinus 2
geniculatus. A colony of Paleaster fined, comprising more

310 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

than one thousand individuals was found. These occupied the
surface of a layer of the shale over a space scarcely 2 feet
square. In Mercer, Boyle, Washington and other counties of
central Kentucky, the contact between beds X and XIa is often
exposed. At the base of the latter, though not often seen in
places because of its easy disintegration, there is generally a
layer of limestone, one foot or so in thickness, which usually
contains some rounded limestone pebbles, a little iron, fluor-
spar, and worn fragments of shells and bryozoa. Resting upon
this there may be several feet of thin hydraulic limestone, then
15 feet, more or less, of dark limestone, appearing thick-bedded
in fresh cuts, but breaking up into small pieces when long ex-
posed. These are largely made up of the zoaria of an unde-
termined ramose bryozoan, with now and then an example of
a massive species of Crepipora. Between these bryozoa layers
there is also usually included one or more irregularly bedded
hard crinoidal limestones.

Overlying the bryozoa beds we usually find several feet of
soft, drab slightly greenish shales containing hard concretionary
masses and a few fossils, mainly AZozotry pella briareus. Above
these shales there is usually a thick layer of limestone, probable
equivalent to the crinoidal layer which marks the top of the sub-
division in the Ohio river exposures. This is supposed to be so
from the fact that the superposed strata have the character of
X16.

Much study is still necessary before we can satisfactorily cor-
relate the strata of XIa@ observed in the central Kentucky
counties south of the Kentucky river with those exposed inthe
neighborhood of Cincinnati. One thing seems certain, and that
is, that the lower or trilobite layers are entirely absent south of
the Kentucky river. That some member is missing is already
indicated by the decreased thickness of the subdivision, it
having diminished to about half the thickness observed at
Cincinnati.

In Washington, Mercer and Boyle counties none of the ex-
posures seen by me exhibit any strata which could be regarded
as representing the trilobite layers, nor can I find any mention
of such in Mr. Linney’s reports on the rocks of those and other
counties studied by him. That these layers were carefully

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 311

searched for by him I cannot doubt since in a conversation
with him, he expressed himself as greatly disappointed because
of his failure to discover certain species belonging to this hori-
zon in the counties in which he was engaged.

Nor is this horizon established in Fayette Co., but in going
farther northward I have observed, but not studied, certain beds
at Georgetown and Rogers Gap which may represent them.
At the last locality, especially, the Cincinnati southern R. R.
has made several extensive cuts which would, I believe, throw
much light upon the point.

X16. This sub-division is exposed in numerous runs and
creeks that empty into the Ohio and Licking rivers in the
vicinity of Cincinnati. The upper half forms the base of the
hills surrounding that city and Covington and Newport, two
cities directly across the river in Kentucky. Over three-fourths
of the entire mass, which here has a thickness of 225 feet, is
composed mainly of soft shales. These vary slightly in color
as we go upward, being greenish-gray, drab or yellowish, for
the first twenty feet and of various shades of blue throughout
the rest. Limestones are few and generally thin in the lower
ninety feet, more abundant and in heavier courses (3' to 8’ ) in
the succeeding forty feet. Above this horizon for forty feet
or more the shales again predominate greatly over the lime-
stones, the latter being generally less and rarely more than three
inches thick and separated from each other by beds of shale
three feet or more in thickness. From this horizon which
is often marked by two six-to-twelve-inch layers, to the top of
the sub-division, a distance of fifty feet, the limestones, though
still thin-bedded, become more frequent, the separating shale
being usually less than one foot in thickness. Both the shales
and limestones in this portion of the section gradually assume a
sandy character, but this is never so pronounced as in the lower
portion of the succeeding division.

At the base of these shales and resting directly upon the
heavy crinoidal limestone top of XIa, there are often about
two feet of hard drab shales having a concretionary structure.
These are unfossiliferous, but in the next ten feet quite an
abundance of species may be found free or on the surface of
thin limestones slabs. Crepifora venusta and Stictoporella

312 Uirich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

interstincta are two interesting bryozoa which occur at this
horizon more frequently than at any other known to me.

At ten feet above the base (7. e. sixty feet above low water
mark in the Ohio river at Cincinnati) I have in several instances
found a thin layer which is remarkable because it contains, be-
sides large numbers of that small shell Leptobolus tnsignis, a
number of fossils which are otherwise known only from the
shale beds that have been described as occurring under the river
bank in the first ward of Cincinnati. These fossils are AZero-
crinus curtus, Leptena plicatella, Triarthrus becki, Primitia
divertex and Cytheropsis unicornis. ‘The same layer is appar-
ently represented in Taylor’s creek east of Newport, Ky.,
where it is also about sixty feet above the bed of the Ohio river.

The five species above mentioned ought perhaps to be counted
as common to Xla and X14, but as they are characteristic fossils
of the former and as none of them are known to extend higher
in the series than stated, they have not beenso regarded, but
in the list are noted as restricted to the lower sub-division.

In the succeeding twenty feet very few fossils excepting
trails, tracks and so-called fucoids, occur. The latter, however,
are moderately abundant and better preserved than at any sub-
sequent horizon in the Lower Silurian strata under discussion.

At about eighty feet above low water mark! (thirty feet above
the top of XIa@) fossils once more become abundant, bryozoa
being predominant here as they are at all subsequent fossilifer-
ous horizons in the sub-division. From here on to.180 feet
above the river, fossils of that class increase in number until
from the last mentioned level to twenty feet above they may
be said to literally fill the shales. Where these layers are ex-
posed to the weather the surface of the ground is found thickly
strewn with generally well preserved fragments. These belong
to many species, but as by far the most of them belong to three
species of Dekayella (D. ulrichi, D. obscura, D. n. sp.) the
layers might be appropriately called the Dekayella bed. Orthis
multisecta, Monotry pella equals, Batostoma jamesi, B. tmpli-
cata, Callopora sigillaroidea, Ceramoporella distincta, C. ohio-

1 When this expression is used, without being otherwise qualified, it
refers to low water mark in the Ohio river at Cincinnati, O.

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 313

ensis, Diamesopora communts, and D. vaupelt, are also very
common at this horizon.

Before going farther I desire to mention two other interest-
ing fossil horizons. The first, about 120 feet above low water
mark, afforded fine examples of 7enzaster flexuosa, T. fimbriata,
Paleaster finei, Paleaster n. sp., Trinucleus concentricus, 7.
bellulus and Serpulites dissolutus, all species that are considered
rare. Three feet below this bed another contained many spec-
imens of fossil worms in excellent preservation which have
been described by me under the names Protoscolex covington-
ensis, P. ornatus and Eotrophonia setigera.' Associated with
these in extreme abundance were complete examples of an ex-
ceedingly delicate jointed bryozoan ( Arthrostylus tenuis).

The second bed is about thirty feet above the star-fish layer,
in a small run one-fourth of a mile south of Lewisburg, a
suburb of Covington. Here several inches of the shale are
crowded with graptolites belonging almost entirely to the
species which I have named /xocaulis arbuscula.

At the top of the Dekayella bed there comes in a large
form of Cadllopora sigillaroidea. An occasional fragment of
Constellaria florida var. prominens is also met with here, but
in the succeeding fifty feet this strongly marked variety be-
comes, at any rate at certain localities, very common. At 260
feet above low water mark the majority of the bryozoa observed
in the Dekayella bed reappear abundantly ina bed three or four
feet thick. This brings us to the top of the sub-division which
is marked by an increase in the limestones and in the sandy
character of the strata.

Little is known of the eastern and western extensions of this
bed of shales, but there is scarcely any reason known to me why
they should be found materially different from the Cincinnati
section above described. To the south and beyond the Ken-
tucky river some variation may be looked for, but this, it has
been ascertained is not greater than has taken place in the
southern extension of XIa.

In Boyle, Washington, Mercer and other counties of Ken-
tucky, the lower eighty feet or more, the same as at Cincinnati,
consist mainly of soft shales, the limestones being thin and

1 Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. 1, p. 187.

314 Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian.

widely separated, with bryozoa the principal fossils. Above
these there are seventy or eighty feet more of shales and lime-
stones, differing from the preceding eighty feet in having the
limestones, especially in the lower part, heavier and the shale
bands thinner.

This portion of the section contains several “wave layers”
like those that occur in the same beds at Cincinnati. The up-
per one, which in central Kentucky comes in at about 170 feet
above the top of beds X,is a marked feature at many localities
in Washington and other counties.

Above this wavy layer there is a succession of limestones and
shales 100 or more feet thick, the limestones, occurring in
courses from two to eight inches thick, being generally impure,
but in some cases semi-crystalline. The shales are more or less
sandy and form beds of from two to twenty feet in thickness.
The sandy character of the strata increases toward the top:
causing some difficulty in drawing the line between this division
and the arenaceous base of beds XII.

Fossils belonging to the same species as those mentioned in
the description of the Cincinnati exposures are very abundant
in both the shales and limestones, particularly so at several hor-
izons in the lower and middle thirds of the sub-division. In
these they are also well preserved and readily washed from the
matrix; but in the sandy upper layers they are neither so well
preserved nor so plentiful.

Of the 186 species that are mentioned in the list as occurring
in these beds, 108, or more than one half, are restricted to them,,
eighty are found in both the upper and lower portion, fifty pass
into them from lower beds, and fifty-two pass into beds XII.

The late discovery of natural gas and oil in northern Ohio.
and Indiana has given us excellent opportunities for comparison..
Innumerable wells have been drilled, and of many of them
fairly reliable data have been preserved. These are often im-
portant and generally most interesting. In this place, however,
I shall restrict myself to a few remarks on the northward ex-
tension of the 300 feet of shales and limestones which above
are described and designated as beds XI.

In tracing the beds northward from Cincinnati it appears that
the calcareous material gradually decreases till at Findlay, Ohio,

Ulrich on Correlation of the Lower Silurian. 315

we find them represented by an apparently uninterrupted series
of shales 300 feet thick. These shales, because they are black
or brownish and contain Leptobolus insignis, have been identi-
fied by Prof. Orton with the Utica shale of New York.
Though a little anticipatory, I may still be allowed to say here
that, judging from the position held by them and from a series
of drillings kindly sent me by Prof. Orton, I fully concur with
him in thus placing them.

On page 117 of his “preliminary report upon petroleum
and inflammable gas,’ Prof. Orton concludes that in tracing
the shales southward from Springfield, to Dayton, then to Mid-
dletown (where it is only 100 feet thick) and finally to Hamil-
ton, it rapidly lost in thickness. At the last locality the shale is
reported as only 37 feet thick. At this rate of decrease it would,
of course, run out before reaching the Ohio river. We must,
however, bear in mind that it is only the d/ack shale that is de-
creasing in volume, while, if the 300 feet of this shale at Find-
lay is not represented in the Ohio valley, the Lower Silurian
strata above it must have increased from 460 feet at Findlay to
at least 800 feet near Cincinnati.

In my opinion, and I hope to show it in a later installment,
this increase is greater than the facts known and relating to
the point indicate. For the present it must suffice to say that,
if not all at least a large proportion of the strata comprised in
beds XI are equivalent to the black or Utica shales underlying
Findlay. A study of the tabulated list will show that the Cin-
cinnati exposures of these beds have furnished not only one
but at least ten of the species which Walcott and others regard
as strictly diagnostic of Utica. When we consider the change
in composition, this is as great a proportion of such species as
can reasonably be expected.

(To be continued.)

316 Taylor on Geology in our Preparatory Schools.

GEOLOGY IN OUR PREPARATORY SCHOOLS.

BY W. EDGAR TAYLOR,
Nebraska State Normal School, Peru, Neb.

A loud cry for help is going out from the teaching profession. In-
formation is wanted as to how, what and where, to find means to teach
geology. The professional chairs in schools and colleges, no less than
the country school houses, are beginning to resound with the inquiry,
for guidance, for suggestions, and for direct information as to the ways
and means for geological information, and especially for giving geologi-
cal instruction.— AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

The Section of Geology of The American Association for
the Advancement of Science heeded this loud call in part, at
least, by presenting two papers at its last meeting on the sub-
ject of geological teaching. But while this need of improve-
ment is felt mostly in the university, the class of schools named
can not hope to make much progress in geological teaching till
the preparatory schools, including high schools, smaller col-
leges and normal schools become aroused to the importance of
the work. This fact teachers of geology seem to have over-
looked entirely. We do not remember to have seen an article
on the subject of teaching geology published in any general
educational journal, nor have we noticed an article of the kind
named, treating the subject as taught in preparatory schools, in
any journal or magazine, literary or scientific. Papers on
methods and plans of doing geological work and ‘teaching, in
larger colleges and uriiversities, are more common of late years,
but we repeat, instruction suitable for our preparatory teachers
is sadly lacking. This being true, does it seem strange that the
methods of teaching this one branch are far behind methods
employed in the other sciences? Most teachers of geology in
our preparatory schools are not specialists in any of the sciences;
most geological literature, owing to its cost, is out of their reach,
and geology seldom being mentioned in their general educational
readings, their immediate attention is scarcely ever called to the
subject. If specialists, their preference more frequently is in
some other line, and hence geology is given but little attention.
given but little attention to
geological work but little time is given to its study, while this

Since the smaller schools have

Taylor on Geology in our Preparatory Schools. 207

short study is crowded into some out of the way corner of the
course. Many of our smaller colleges and normal schools do
not give the subject more than ten or twelve weeks, (forty-five
minutes per day, five days each week), most all this time being
spent in reciting from the text-book.

With these facts before us, it is no wonder, that while almost
all schools provide apparatus for teaching biology, physics and
chemistry, the material possessed for geological instruction con-
sists mostly of a small collection of fossil curiosities, imperfectly
labeled if classified at all. Many schools have well arranged
courses in the chemical, physical and biological sciences, with
provisions for Jaboratory work, and why may we not have simi-
lar facilities for geological instruction?

With the hope of calling out others the writer submits a brief
outline for laboratory and field work in geology, time covering
say ten weeks of two recitation periods per day. The outline
is only suggestive, and doubtless might be improved in many
ways.

We usually begin the study of geology with:

I. Lithology.

1. Mineral determinations.

a. A written description of at least twenty of the most
common minerals to be found in the immediate vicinity.
The pupil should be able to determine for himself the fol-
lowing points, viz., form, color, structure, streak, lustre,
transparency, cleavage, hardness, fracture, touch and specific
gravity. Usually, before the student is asked to make out
the above descriptions (unknowns) he should be given a set
of typical minerals for careful examination and comparison.

6. Blowpipe analysis and neat record of at least five
minerals. In blowpipe work the student should follow
some well defined plan. We would suggest that the min-
erals be studied in the following order:

(1) Physical properties.

(2) Examination in a sealed glass tube or matrass.
(3) Examination in an open glass tube.

(4) Examination on charcoal.

(5) Examination with re-agents.

(6) Examination on platinum wire.

318 Taylor on Geology in our Preparatory Schools.

2. Crystallography.
a. Make with appropriate notes a drawing illustrating
each of the six systems of crystallization.
6. Make, of paste-board, clay, plaster of paris, or putty,
forms illustrating the six systems.
c. Classify and describe at least six minerals with refer-
ence to their crystallization.
3. Collect, classify, label and neatly arrange in a neat box
at least twenty-five minerals.

Ll. Paleontology.

1. Determination and written descriptions of at least ten
species of brachiopods. Generally it is best not to aim to class-
ify further than the family name; the object being to give the
pupil a clear knowledge of the history and structure of geolog-
ical species as compared with existing shells. The pupil should
be able to determine the characteristics of the shell; viz. loca-
tions of the dorsal and ventral valves, forms of internal sup-
ports and external markings, beak, hinge-line, cardinal area,
deltidium, and internal muscular impressions. In studying ex-
ternal markings observe the length, width, and thickness of the
shell, also the sinus, median depression, width and length of the
hinge-area, prominence of the beak, number and size of the
striations, lines of growth and the comparative measurements of
the shell. The forms of the former internal structure in part,
may be reproduced by the pupil, who thus gains a more accurate
and precise knowledge of the internal markings of the fossil
brachiopod. If desired other classes of animals may be substi-
tuted for the brachiopod, and studied in a similar manner.

2. Monographs.

The pupil should draw more or less in all geological work,
but historical and stratigraphical geology offers special advan-
tages in this direction. Under this heading the pupil may easily
be given some idea of the methods of preparing plates and
making notes and descriptions. The teacher can not do better
than model this work after the plan of standard paleontologi-
cal reports; making three parts of the descriptions; viz. one
plate each, for drawings, explanations and general notes. The
drawings may be made with the pencil, but the explanations

Taylor on Geology in our Preparatory Schools. 319

and general notes should be written in ink. For a short course
in geology we should say that the monograph should consist of
not less than four species of at least four drawings each, namely
one each of the dorsal and the ventral surfaces, and two sections
showing internal structure. For methods of sectionizing fossils,
and determining their internal markings we could not do better
than refer the reader to Dr. Winchell’s Geological Studies.

3. Collect, classify, label and carefully arrange ina neat box
or case, at least twenty species of fossils, simply giving family
names. Each specimen should have cemented to it a small
numbered ticket referring to a catalogue containing notes giving
name, locality and geological formation of the fossil as well as
the date and by whom labeled and collected. The ticket should
be no larger than necessary to contain the number, which should
be written in ink and with a pointed pen,and may vary in shape
and color in order that the collections of different students may
be kept separate.

IIT. Maps.

One map for each student; standard sizes, say not over 30 x
36 inches. If outline mapscan not be procured use heavy paper
prepared for architectural drawings or cloth. For a suitable
map we usually select a map of North America, United States,
or a part of it, orthe map of some state. The colors, which
should be the standard agreed upon by the International
Geological Congress, the United States Geological Survey, or
those adopted by custom, may be made in many ways, but we
have had better success when using Diamond dye colors.
' These colors are sold in ten cent packages by all druggists, and
one package of each color needed will supply a class of fifty,
or more. These colors should be filtered after being dissolved
in hot water, and spread on with a tolerably large camel’s-hair
brush. In coloring the map great care should be taken to get
the outlines sharp and not to make the tints too strong. Dif-
ferent maps requiring similar effort may be given to each
student. These maps, when accurately drawn and carefully
mounted on rollers may be made quite useful in class recitations.
Maps on economical geology may be drawn, on a smaller
scale, illustrating distribution and production of coal, petroleum,

;

320 Taylor on Geology in our ‘Preparatory Schools.

marble, iron and other useful metals, as well as the precious
metals, mining, etc. Many good models for this work may be
found in the reports of the tenth census.

LV. Sectionizing.

Under this division we required of our last class the following:

1. Actual section of some bluff showing a formation, a
stratum, and a lamina.

2. Eastand west section of some state. These sections were
made in standard colors, on stiff paper, size 12x15 inches, appro-
priately lettered, with key and proper scale.

3. Section of the Missouri river bluffs south of Peru. This
section was required to be made in ink and on stiff drawing paper.

The explanations, plates and notes may be modeled after sim-
ilar sections in standard geological reports.

The teacher to a certain extent may modify his work to suit
the demands and special advantages for certain lines of work.

For example most of the time of the class may be given to
certain parts of geology, as mineralogy, paleontology, strati-
graphical or geographical geology. The student should be re-
quired to keep neat, full and accurate record of all the work
done. He may be stimulated much by allowing him to retain,
after leaving the class, his records and drawings, including maps
and sections, as well as all collections. Ownership is a great
stimulus on the part of the student when properly directed by
the teacher. At times and under proper conditions, the teacher
may even encourage exchanges on the part of the pupils, with
collectors living in other localities. However the teacher
should see to it that the student does not become a mere collector
of curiosities, a class of people found everywhere, but in no
sense to be called geologists.

The writer has usually found it best to give about one third
of the time for this study to recitations, adapting as far as possi-
ble the subject matter of the recitation to the laboratory work.

For example while the class is giving special attention to the
brachiopod, and after this family has been pretty well discussed,
the teacher may explain other families \of mollusca, when the
limited time of the class will not permit a more minute study of
this class.

Editorial Comment. 321

As a stimulus toward special readings we have usually re-
quired from two to four monographs or essays per term from
each student. These essays are written on paper of uniform
size say letter paper (1014x8 inches), consisting of four or five
pages of reading matter and from one to two drawings illustrat-
ing parts of the paper. The subjects assigned vary with the
different divisions of geology, but more frequently deal with
economical geology. We usually assign each student a sepa-
rate subject and have a part of the papers read before the class.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

SOME NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DISCUSSION OF CORAL
FORMATIONS.

Captain W. J. L. Wharton, Hydrogapher to the English
Navy, contributes to Nature an account of some coral forma-
tions in the China sea

a welcome addition to our knowledge
of the facts, doubly welcome in contrast with the unseemly per-
sonalities and recriminations growing out of the bitter charges
made by the Duke of Argyll against English scientists. ©Whar-
ton frankly avows his “abandonment of the supposition that
subsidence plays a principal part in the production of barrier
reefs and atolls,” but at the same time is “not satisfied with one
part of the explanation offered by Mr. J. Murray.” The one
element in Murray’s theory which does not satisfy Capt. Whar-
ton is the same which Dr. L. E. Hicks in his article, «The Reef
Builders,” in this number of this journal, regards as the weak-
est, viz., the competency of sea water to remove, by its solvent
action, the great masses of coral which are supposed to have
partially filled the deep lagoons of some atolls, and the deep
channels within certain barrier reefs.

Referring to the very interesting and important fact ascer-
tained by the Challenger Expedition that pelagic shells falling
through great depths are dissolved, Wharton says that the case
is very different from the solution of coral rock in lagoons.

322 Editorial Comment.

The shells fall through a solvent medium, are attacked on all
sides, constantly washed clean for a fresh attack, and constantly
meeting fresh portions of the liquid. Masses of coral limestone
in a lagoon are, on the other hand, attacked only from above,
are protected by the debris of their own disintegration, as well
as that falling from the surface or swept in by currents, and are
long in contact with the same liquid particles.

The readers of Nature will find much to interest and instruct
them in the charts given by Capt. Wharton of the Tizard,
Macclesfeld, and Prince Consort banks. The central portion
of the Tizard bank is from thirty to forty-seven fathoms in
depth, with a rim of living coral rising within four to ten
fathoms from the surface, some small patches of reef even
reaching the surface. The other two banks are similar except
that the coral is deeper in the water. Wharton maintains that
the progressive development of these banks will result in atolls
with deep lagoons, for the production of which neither the
subsidence assumed by Darwin nor the solution assumed by
Murray, is needed.

His facts will certainly tend to emphasize the opinion ex-
pressed at the close of his communication, that a better know-
ledge of the physical and biological phenomena of coral
formations is requisite to settle the theoretical disputes about
them.

Mr. John Murray, however, demurs to the proposition that
our knowledge is so very limited at present, and re-affirms his
faith in the solution theory. .

In the same number of Nature (March 1) Prof. G. C. Bourne
contributes additional facts derived from the study of living
corals at Diego Garcia, and the Great Chagos, Pitt, and Centu-
rian banks. His conclusions are, as he puts it, “« nearly identical”
with those of Capt. Wharton. He adds however, what seems
to us an important suggestion, viz., that currents by their too
great violence, or their entire absence, have more to do with the
absence of living polyps in lagoons than the supply of food.
At Diego Garcia “the most luxuriant coral patches are found
at the south end of the lagoon, furthest away from the lagoon
outlet.” In this case the food supply, which may be assumed
to enter by the “lagoon outlet,” is manifestly not the most es-

Editorial Comment. : 323

sential condition. But in general the close relation of currents
to food supply is so obvious that we cannot regard Prof. Bourne’s
explanation as independently and universally valid. If taken as
not excluding but supplementing the theory that the supply of
food is a stze gua non, it may command acceptance.

In Nature, March 15th, Robert Irvine and James G. Ross
give the results of careful study of the solubility of coral rock
in sea water. Both conclude that the rate of solution is rapid
enough to produce note-worthy results highly favorable to
Murray’s theory. H. B. Guppy comes forward also with a
suggestion to the effect that the anti-subsidence theory is not
obliged to rely upon solution alone for its validity. It has
many other strong points in its favor.

THE PAL ZONTOLOGICAL LABORS OF PROF. JOS. F. JAMES.

The destructive tendency exhibited in nearly all of Prof.
James’ papers, and their extreme boldness, have given them, at
any rate so it appears to us, a degree of importance beyond their
true merit. They seem also to show little respect for the work
of others, some of whom have required many years of pains-
taking study to formulate views which he casts aside as worth-
less. That all men are liable to errors is too apparent to need
to be admitted here, yet it is neither just nor possible to set aside
an author’s views without giving good reasons for doing so.
This it seems he has regarded as unnecessary, since in no in-
stance are his views supported by any facts nor evidence beyond
his mere assertion. Scientific truths must stand upon more
than mere assertions — facts must be cited before they can be
regarded as entitled to favorable consideration.

To show that the above criticism is well founded, we will
briefly review Prof. James’ paleontological papers in the order
that they appeared.

In his first paper, which appeared in the Journal of the Cin.
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vii, 1884, he grapples with one of the most
difficult subjects,—the so-called fucoids of the Cincinnati rocks.
This group of fossils had been mainly named by Mr. S. A.
Miller, though other authorities, among them Prof. James Hal
and Mr. C. D. Walcott, also contributed. Prof. James under-

324 Editorial Comment.

takes to show that all of the fossils in question are referable
either to inorganic causes, or to tracks, trails, and impressions
of organisms, or were graptolites. Thus, with one stroke, many
generic and many more specific names are wiped out. Among
these mistreated fossils are several undeniable sponges, their
spicular skeletons being known. It is therefore sad to think
that such an interesting form as Walcott’s Cyathophycus sub-
sphericus should have to figure as a mud bubble! Most pale-
ontologists admit that some of the supposed marine plants of
palzozoic rocks may be the result of inorganic causes, but there
are good reasons to believe that many, if not the majority, will
be eventually classified with the spongida.

In the October 1885 number of the same journal we find
three small papers from his pen, each acting as a sword to lop
off useless names. ‘The first destroys our confidence in a fossil
fungus which the venerable Leo. Lesquereux claimed to have
discovered in the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania. The second
expunges Ormatichnus and Walcottia, two names that their
authors hoped might be useful. The third deals in like manner
with Lepidolites and Anomaloides, two generic names proposed
by Mr. Ulrich in 1878 and 1879. Because the former has some
outward resemblance to /schadites, Prof. James concludes they
must be the same, ignoring the fact that beyond the superficial
appearance of the spicular plates there is no resemblance be-
tween them, /schadites being built up very much upon the
same plan as Aeceptaculites, while Lepidolites consists solely
of a thin integument of imbricating plates. That these peculiar
bodies probably belong to the Receptaculitide, we freely admit,
but they are not by any means the same as /schadites. _Anom-
aloides he places as a synonym under /Receptaculites, Despite
frequent examinations of the types of that remarkable fossil we
are unable to indicate its natural position, but it is simply ridic-
ulous to identify it with Receptaculites. Not asingle structural
feature is common to them,

His next venture we find in the January 1886 number, when
he favors us with a revision of the cephalopoda of the Cincin-
nati group. Before he undertook this work Cincinnati geolo-
gists prided themselves upon having at least thirty-seven species
and two varieties in their rocks, but again the useless ones are

Editorial Comment. 325

thrown out, leaving bui twenty-nine. Perhaps to console them
he describes the siphuncle of an &zdoceras upon which the
septa have been tightly pressed (a common occurrence in soft
shales) as a new species of Colpoceras. Such good species as
Orthoceras fostert 5. A. Miller, O. cincinnatiense S. A. M.,
and Cyrtoceras conoidale Wetherby, are consigned to the “ limbo
of the improbable,” while such an evident synonym as O. hindei
James,’ stands asa remarkable semicylindrical shell. One Ni-
agara and several Trenton species are stated to occur at Cin-
cinnati, while his descriptions are in most cases so vague and
meagre that they are, to say the least, no improvement upon
what we had before. To begin with, he complains of the
fragmentary material upon which some of the species were
founded by previous authors, and yet we find in the same num-
ber that he describes under the name Gomphoceras powerst, a
specimen so badly preserved that a generic reference must be
purely conjectural. But it is remarkable in having both ends
tapering and without septa! At the close of this paper he
severely rebukes Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, whom we all supposed
knew something of the cephalopoda, for framing a system of
classification which is “simply appalling.”

Just one year later he publishes a descriptive catalogue of the
“Protozoa of the Cincinnati group.” In this paper JAZicrospon-
gia is placed as asynonym under Astylospongia, when he might
easily have learned, that these two genera are really very dis-
tinct, and belong to different orders. Thin sections (of which
he says truly that they are essential to the study of pyleozoic
sponges) show conclusively that A@icrospongia gregaria is
congeneric with, even very closely related to, the common Ni-
agara fossil Calamopora fibrosa Roemer (non Goldfuss), which

1 This name beyond question, was given to examples of ©. transversum
S. A. M., which had been partly bedded in soft shale. As is well known
all cephalopodous shells occurring in soft shales have lost nearly all of
their calcareous material, being generally represented by a delicate brown
or black film which weathers away as readily as the shale itself. O.
hindet, differing in no other respect than in the semicylindrical form from
O. transversum, was produced by the weathering away of that portion of
the shell which had extended up or down into the shale, the form and
substance of the other half of the shell being well preserved in the lime-
stone,

326 Editorial Comment.

Duncan described in 1875 as a new genus of calcareous sponges,
under the name of Aixdia spheroidalis. The later work of
Hinde and particularly that of Dr. Rauff upon this species, goes.
to show that /77xd7a is a lithistid sponge.

Beatricea he places with the foraminifera and Stromatopora
and Stromatocertum with the spongida, when our best author-
ities agree that they are closely related genera belonging to the
hydroida. Ladechia he does not recognize, but its species, as
wellas Dystactospongia Miller (avery different and remarkable
true sponge) are ranged under Stromatopora. With regard to
the last genus it is sufficient to say that no true species of it is as.
yet know from the Cincinnati rocks, nor from any other Low-
er Silurian horizon. This paper furnishes no evidence that its.
author had studied any of the recent literature on the sponges,
and, as usual, his innovations are retrogressive and detrimental
to the progress of paleontological science.

His latest and most important step is to attempt a revision of
the monticuliporoid corals of the Cincinnati group. Two parts.
of this undertaking, in which his father’s name is coupled with
his own, have appeared in the October 1887 and Jan. 1888,
numbers of the Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. So far as can be
judged from the parts already published, this paper will make
rich, almost sensational, reading for some of the authors who.
have done work in this branch of paleozoology. When their
work has been completed the Geolog7st will probably review
it at length.

Again the work is highly destructive and retrogressive, since
it puts the subject back where it was 12 years ago when Dr..
Nicholson first began the preparation of thin sections to show
internal characters. These the Messrs. James curtly condemn
as a basis for classification, saying that sections are difficult to
prepare and unreliable when made. To support this untrue
statement they make quotations, all misleading—from Geike,
Prestwick, Nicholsonand Ulrich. To any one acquainted with
the subject this attempt to cast doubt upon the only method
known that admits of bringing some harmony and system into
the classification of this difficult group of fossils seems insincere..
The extreme utility of thin sections in the study of the fossil
bryozoa is recognized by all naturalists who are making a

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 327".

special study of them, and the mere assertion that they are un-
reliable, can have no effect in delaying the adoption of internal
peculiarities as of the first importance in their systematic classi-
fication.

He who condemns internal characters as a basis of classifica-
tion in the bryozoa cannot stop there, but, to be consistent must
also carry his condemnation to other classes of animals in whose
arrangement they constitute important factors. But weask, who
would for a moment think of overthrowing the admirable system
proposed by Zittel for the sponges (which rests entirely upon
minute internal characters ) for the extremely artificial classifica-
tion previously in vogue? Or, who would say that because it
is generally difficult to determine the interiors of fossil brachio-
poda, the arrangment and form of the spirals and other inter-
ual features of the shells should not be accorded great classifica-
tory value? Similar questions relating to the value of pallial
and muscular impressions, and the hinge peculiarities of the lam-
ellibranchiata, the arrangement of the septa and other features
of the rugose corals, (all strictly internal characters) might be
asked were they necessary, but, fortunately, scientific inquiry
has advanced so far that to call them in question is to insult our
highest authorities on those branches of natural history.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

In the Geological Magazine for February the Rev. Norman Glass, long
the associate of the late Thos. Davidson in his labors on the British fos-
sil brachiopoda, describes the position of the spirals in these shells. In
the spiriferids he says the spirals have their bases facing each other in
the center of the shell but their apices point a little upwardly toward the
hinder end of the lateral margin. In some Cyrtinas they are directed
backward into the rostral cavity as well as upward.

In all the other spiral-bearing brachiopods the spirals are so arranged
that a section made transversely through the shell at its greatest circum-
ference would cut the apices and the centers of the bases of the spirals.
Thus, in A¢hyris the spirals face each other in the center, and their apices
point directly away from one another toward the lateral margins. If
they are rotated —both outwardly —about antero-posterior lines passing

328 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

through the centers of the bases, the spirals will assume the position
that characterizes the genus Dayia Day. Continuing the rotation their
position in Thecosfira Zag., is soon reached, where they point to the
bottom of the ventral value. When a half turn has been made and the
spirals point toward each other in the center of the shell the position |
characterizes the genus Glassia Day. After 225 degrees have been
passed over and the spirals are directed obliquely into the dorsal value,
Zygospira is indicated, and lastly Atryvpfa, which has the spirals directed
to the bottom of the dorsal valve, is represented after a turn of 270 de-
grees.}

The Taconic of Georgia, and the report on the geology of Vermont. By
JuLes MARcov. (From the memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural
History, vol. iv. Read May 4, 1857.) This valuable paper gives some
further facts respecting the geology of northwestern Vermont, and
sketches the history of the term “Georgia formation.” Since the death
of Dr. Emmons the burden of the pro-Taconic discussion has been ably
maintained by Mr. Marcou, and he welcomes the advent of the new re-
searches and conclusions of Mr. Walcott. ‘I salute with joy the arrival
of new observers, better fitted out and armed than I was, sure that now
the truth will not be kept much longer in the background.” Mr. Marcou
concludes that the term Lorraine shales should be used for “ Hudson River
group,” which has become so hopelessly involved. In this he is followed
by Mr. S. W. Ford (Am. Jour. Sci. xxix, p. 16). The age of the red
sandrock near Swanton he considers still to be somewhat puzzling. He
had taken it to be the Potsdam, wholly, but the discovery of the fauna
of the Georgia slates in some part of it by Mr. Walcott, he thinks shows
it is older than the Potsdam, That is to say, that Mr. Walcott has dis-
covered the middle primordial fauna in it, whereas it seems that Mr.
Marcou regards the Potsdam as containing the upper primordial fauna
—an assumption which has not yet been established. It is perhaps as
likely that the New York Potsdam, when fully examined, will be found
to contain the middle as the upper primordial. The “ Potsdam fauna”’

1 The relation here pointed out by Mr. Glass is exceedingly interesting
to the paleontologist, and may be thus represented if we begin with the
position of the spirals in Athyris as described above. ;

UNO ATIS OS V6 sig oF 0° Re pessee eytyermacone tas N35 JNSA ENO cod 3 270°
IDEN USA head ov 45° Glassianew saahe. 180° Ps aah aloes spayerels 315°
Thecospira...... go° LY FOSPIGA ./es 010 -22He AAS. oss Gao 6 360°

Where are the genera indicated by the interrogation points, and where
are the missing links between the genera already defined? Probably
more careful measurement of the angles will bring some of them to
light and aid in filling the series.

Similar continuous relations will probably be tracedin the structure and
position of the loops or calcareous fibers connecting the spirals of which
Mr. Glass adds descriptions, as they occur in the leading genera of
brachiopods. .

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 329

as accepted by Messrs. Walcott and Marcou is that of the upper Mississ-
ippi valley, and there is, as yet, no evidence to prove that it is found in
the Potsdam of New York. On the other hand if that evidence which
exists be heeded, the New York Potsdam would be placed in the middle
primordial zone. The paper also reviews the report on the geology of
Vermont, and the classification of Messrs. E. and C. H. Hitchcock, es-
pecially with reference to its date of publication, and that of some of its
parts, and brings out fully the unfriendly opposition of the report toward
both Emmons and Marcou as well as toward the Taconic system.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government reports.

Geological survey of New Jersey; Annual report of the state geologis:
for the year 1887. 45 pp. one map, George H. Cook. New Brunswick:

The gabbros and associated hornblende rocks occurring in the neigh-
borhood of Baltimore, Md.; George Huntington Williams. Bulletin
No. 28 of the U. S. Geological Survey Washington.

Seventh annual report of the state mineralogist for the year ending
October 1, 1887. William Irelan, State Mineralogist, 8 vo., 315 pp. Sac-
ramento, Cal.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

In the Zvransactions of the Field-Naturalist Club. March 1888. On
Utica fossils from Rideau, Ottawa, Ont. Henry M. Ami. Notes on
geological work during the summer of 1887. Mr. Yohn Stewart. Re-
port of the Geological Branch for the season of 1887. Ottawa.

Archeology of Ohio. 8 vo., 119 pp. M.C. Read. The Western Re-
serve Historical Society.

Proceedings and transactions of the Nova Scotian institute of natural
science of Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1886—87.

3. Papers in sctentific journals.

In the March number of the American FYournal of Science. On the so-
called Northford, Maine, Meteorite /. C. Robinson. History of the
changes in the Mt. Loa craters. Sfames D. Dana. The Taconic system
of Emmons, and the use of the name Taconic in geologic nomenclature.
C. D. Walcott. With one plate. On the crystalline form of polianite.
£. S. Dana and S. L. Penfield.

In the February number of the American Naturalist. On meteorites.
Dr. Hans Reusch.

In the April number of the American Fournal of Science. HU istory of the
changes in the Mt. Loa craters. ¥. D. Dana. Notes on certain rare
copper minerals from Utah. W. F. Hillebrand and H. S. Washington.
The Taconic System of Emmons and the use of the name Taconic in
geologic nomenclature. C.D. Walcott. Three formations of the middle

330 Review of ‘Recent Geological Literature.

Atlantic slope. W. ¥. McGee. Diorite dike at Forest of Dean, Orange
county, N.Y. F. &. Kemp.

In the March nnmber of the American Naturalist. Synopsis of Rosen-
busch’s new scheme for the classification of massive rocks. W.S. Bayley.
Glacial erosion in Norway and in high latitudes. Ff W. Spencer.

The Canadian Record of Science for April contains: Preliminary note
on new species of sponges from the Quebec group at Little Métis. Sir F.
William Dawson. Notes on sponges from the Quebec group at Métis,
and from the Utica shale. Geo. ¥ennings Hinde. On the classification
of the Cambrian rocks in Acadia. G. /. Matthews. Notes on fossils
from the Utica formation at Point-a-Pic, Murray river. Henry M. Amr.

4. Excerpts and individual publications.

Notes and observations on the Kivakiool people of Vancouver island.
George M. Dawson. Tvans. Roy. Soc. Can., vol. v, 1887. Ottawa.

Studies on the stratification of the anthracite measures of Pennsylvania.
Henry A. Wasmuth, 4 plates of sections. 18pp; 50 cents. J. B. Lippincott
Co. Philadelphia.

The southern anthracite coal field of Pennsylvania—its enormous dis-
turbances and consequent premature exhaustion. Henry A. Wasmuth.
Four. Frank. Inst,, Feb., 1888.

A brief narrative of the Journeys of David Thompson, in Northwestern
America. J.B. Tyrrell. Proc. Can. Inst., Toronto, March, 1888.

Peridotites of the “Cortlandt series” on the Hudson river near Peeks-
kill, N. Y. George H. Williams. Amer. Four. of Science, Fan., 1886.

On a new petrographical microscope of American manufacture. Geo.
H. Williams. Amer. Four. of Sctence. Feb., 1888.

Note on some remarkable crystals of pyroxene from Orange county,
N. Y. George H. Williams. Amer. Four. of Sctence, Oct., 1887.

The Norites of the Cortlandt series on the Hudson river near Peekskill,
N.Y. George H. Williams. Amer. Four. of Science, Feb., 1887.

On the Serpentine (peridotite) occurring in the Onondaga salt-group
at Syracuse, N. Y. George H. Williams. Amer. Four. of Science, Aug..,
1887.

The chemical structure of the natural silicates. F.W. Clarke, Amer.
Chem. Four., vol. x, No. 2.

The genera and species of North American Carboniferous trilobites.
Anthony W. Vogdes. Author’s edition. Ann. NV. VY. Acad., vol. 4, 1887.

The geological formation of Long Island, New York; with a descrip-
tion of its old water courses. ‘Sfokn Bryson.

Precious stones. Extracts from the annual reports of the U.S. Geol.
Sur. on Mineral Resources of the United States for 1886 and 1887. Also
from Afpleton’s Physical Geography. By George F. Kunz.

On gold and silver ornaments from mounds of Florida. By George F.
Kunz. From the American Antiquarian. July, 1887.

Gold ornaments from the United States of Columbia. George F. Kunz.
American Antiquarian, Sept., 1887.

Review of ‘Recent Geological Literature. 23%

On a large garnet from New York island. By George F. Kunz. Read
May 30, 1886, before the Mew York Acad. of Sciences.

Meteorites from Glorieta mountain, Santa Fé Co., New Mexico.
George F. Kunz. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. iti, 1885.

On the new artificial rubies. By George F. Kunz. Trans. N. Y. Acad.
Sci., Oct. 4, 1886. |

On two new meteorites from Carroll county, Ky., and Catorze, Mexico,
George F. Kunz. Am. Four. Sct., March, 1887.

The following by Mr. Kunz are from the Am. Four. Sct., Dec., 1887:
Waldron Ridge, Tennessee, meteorite; Taney county, Mo., meteorite;
Chattooga county, Georgia, meteorite; East Tennessee (?), meteorite;
Powder Mill creek, meteorite; Rhodocrosite from Colorado; Hollow
quartz from Arizona; A North Carolina diamond; Hydrophane from
Colorado, and silver nugget from Mexico.

On the petrographical characters of a dike of diabase in the Boston
basin. By William H. Hobbs. 12 pp. One plate. Bulletin of the Mus.
of Comp. Zool; from the Geol. Ser., vol. ii.

The Taconic of Georgia and the report on the geology of Vermont,
By Fules Marcou; read May 4, 1887. From the memoirs of the Boston
Society of Natural History.

On the use of the name Taconic. Fules Marcou. March, 1887. Proc.
Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii.

Vol. viii, No 65, of the circulars of Johns Hopkins university contains
valuable contributions to the Archean and Tertiary geology of Mary-
land, and surrounding regions, by Prof. George H. Williams, William B.
Clark, and Wim. H. Hobbs; Erasmus Haworth has a preliminary notice of
the Archean geology of Missouri, and A. C. Gill a like notice of the erup-
tives of the island of Fernando Noronha.

The Cosmogony of Genesis, by Prof. G. Ff. Wright, Bibliotheca Sacra,
April, 1888.

5. Foreign Publications.

Contributions to the paleontology of Brazil, comprising descriptions of
Cretaceous invertebrate fossils, mainly from the provinces of Sergipe,
Pernambuco, Para and Bahia. By Charles A, White, with a Portuguese
translation by Orville A. Derby. Extracted from volume vii of the Ar-
chivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Faneiro. Quarto, pp. 273, 28 plates.
Rio Fanetro.

On Nepheline rocks in Brazil with special reference to the association
of phonolite and foyaite. Orville A. Derby. Quart. Four. Geol. Soc.,
Aug., 1887. London.

Ueber die Altersfolge der vulkanischen Gesteine und der Ablagerungen
des Braunkohlengebirges in Siebengebirge. Mit zwei Tafeln, Von Dr,
phil. Gustav Mongold. Aus dem mineralogischen Institut der Universitat
1888. Kiel.

Verhandlungen der k. k. zodlogish-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien.
Band xxxvii und xxxviii. 1887.

$325.53 Correspondence.

The Geological Record for 1879. An account of works on geology, min-
eralogy and palxontology published during the year; with supplements
for 1874-1878. W. Whitaker and W. H. Dalton. 418 pp. 1887 London.

Annalen des k. k. naturhistorischen Hofmuseums redigirts, von Dr.
Franz. Ritter von Hauer. Sieben Tafeln. Band 11. Nr. 4. 1887. Band
DLs Nit LaOoory MiLeIe

Memorias de la Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate,” Tomo I, Cuad-
erno num. 8. Febrero de 1888. Mewico.

Extrait de l’annuaire geologique, Tome 111, 1887. Compt-rendu de pub-
lications relatives 4 la geologie de l’Asie et de !Amerique par M. Emm.
de Margerie 1887. Paris.

Memorias de la sociedad cientifica “Antonio alzate.” Tome 1. Cuader-
no num.g. Marzo de 1888.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Note on the Cascade Anthracite basin, Rocky Mountains. Referring to
the analysis of anthracite from the Canadian Anthracite Co’s mine pub-
lished in your issue for March, and the remarks quoted from Mr. Pugh re-
specting the coal basin in the Bow river valley, it may be of interest to
your readers to know that the district in question is described in the an-
nual reports of the geological survey of Canada for 1884, 1885, and 1886.
The coal bearing rocks form an elongated basin or trough in the eastern-
most great longitudinal valley of the Rocky mountains where crossed by
the Canadian Pacific railway. This trough has been continuously traced
by the writer (as shown on map accompanying the report for 1885) from
the Kananaskis river northwestward to lat. 51° 43’ or for about seventy
miles. Its northern extension has not yet been fully ascertained as it was
not followed in 1884 beyond the edges of the map sheet. The average
width of the trough is about two miles, and disregarding minor irregular-
ities, its structure is that of a synclinal completely overturned to the
north-eastward so that the beds now dip almost uniformly to the south-
westward. The south-western edge ofthe trough is generally and pos-
sibly throughout its length bounded by an extensive fault, which, it has
been ascertained by Mr. R.S. McConnell, has at one place (near Caumore)
a downthrow to the north-eastward of 10,000 feet. The coal bearing rocks
themselves are of lower Cretaceous age and referable to the Kootanie
series, with a peculiar and characteristic flora which is described and il-
lustrated by Sir. Wm. Dawson in volume iii of the transaction of the
Royal Society of Canada. The ascertained thickness of the Cretaceous
rocks here is about 5000 feet, but elsewhere in the mountains the lower
part of the Kootanie series, beneath the principal coal-bearing horizon, is
known to have avolume of about 7ooo feet. The Cretaceous infold here

Correspondence. 330)

specially referred to has been named the Cascade Anthracite basin and is
almost continuously bordered by high mountains composed of Devonian
and Carboniferous limestones (Intermediate and Bauff limestones of Mr.
McConnell’s report). In other long Cretaceous basins which occur in
the mountains for some distance southward, good coking bituminous
coals are found, but in the Cascade basin only has the alteration been
carried so far as to produce anthracite.

A partial analysis of the Cascade anthracite, which closely agrees with
that of Prof. Dodge, will be found in Motes on coals and lignites of the
Canadian Northwest, Montreal, 1884. Several additional analyses appear
in the reports of the Geological Survey for 1882-84 and 1885. These are
by Mr. G. C. Hoffmann who has also determined the evaporative power
as 7852 calorics or 14.62 lbs. of water at 100° C. evaporated by one pound
of coal. This evaporative power was determined from aspecimen some-
what inferior in quality to the coal now mined. No ultimate analysis of
the coal has, so far as I know, yet been made.

In consequence probably of strains subsequent in date to the complete
mineralization of the coal, portions of the seams have been found in a
shattered and slickensided state, but the prospects for profitable mining
on a large scale appear to be in general very favorable.

GrorGE M. Dawson.

Nomenclature of some Cincinnati group fossils. Letter from Prof. Foseph
F. Fames. In the March number of the “ American Geologist” the list of
fossils beginning on page 183 contains some errors, probably errors of
oversight, but which should be corrected. Reference in particular is
made to numbers 94, 143, 149, 153, 164, 165, 303, though there may be
others. All of these species are credited to Nicholson, whereas they
should have been given to Mr. U. P. James. Some of them were, it is
true, described by Dr. Nicholson, but were by him duly credited to Mr.
James, who had given them the names under which they are now known,
It is a little strange that these species should be in this predicament,
while others named and described under similar conditions are properly
credited. As examples ofthese there are numbers 216, 223, 241, 243, 255,
&c. Mr. Ulrich will, it is presumed, when attention is called to the error
in his paper, correct it, so that future investigators may not fall into er-
rors concerning the species that have been mentiened.

Joseru F. James, M. S.

Miami University, Oxford, O., March 17, 1888.

Reply of Mr. Ulrich. The species referred to in the above communi-
cation by numbers 94, 143, 149, 153, 164, 165 and 303 are respectively,
Stomatopora frondosa, Aspidopora calycula, Batostomella gracilis, Bythopora
delicatula, Leptotrypa clavacoidea, L. discoidea and Pleurotomaria ohioensis.
With regard to the last I will at once concede that the species should be
credited to Mr. U. P. James and not to Hall as it appears in the list.
This is purely a clerical error. Prof. James commits another when he
states that we have credited the name to Nicholson. The authorities

334 Correspondence.

given in the other cases are properly cited and in strict conformity with
commonly accepted rules of nomenclature. This will appear from the
following facts: The first, third and sixth of these specific names appear
in Mr. U. P. James’ Catalague of the Fossils of the Cincinnati group, pub-
lished in 1871. Being unaccompanied by either figures or description, it
is evident that the species must be considered as unpublished. The rules
are very clear upon this point—A species announced in a publication
but without any description cannot be considered as published.”! In vol.
ii of the Ohio Pal., Dr. Nicholson both describes and illustrates these
species, but credits Mr. James with the names. Now, this being the first
proper publication of the species their date is necessarily the same as
that of the volume, and, as they are there described by Nicholson and
not by James, they are established and stand upon the authority of the
former, despite the fact that injudicious sentiment on the part of Dr.
Nicholson led him to credit them to Mr. James. Had the former quoted
the latter’s descriptions of the species the cases would have been different;
—but he did not. Furthermore, we have no absolute certainty that the
species so named by Dr. Nicholson are identical with those to which Mr.
James applied the name in 1871, since the latter has not yet published de-
scriptions of his species.

In nomenclature, which can only be made uniform by strict adherence
to established principles, sentiment of the kind mentioned should stand
aside, since it almost invariably breeds confusion. Viewing the matter
from another point we can readily imagine cases where an injustice may
be perpetrated upon the author of a manuscript name. No responsibility
rests with him till he has perfected his claim to the name by giving it
adequate publication. Before he has done so, however, some other author
may apply his name toa form perhaps quite distinct from the one he in-
tended to give it to. In this case the name would have to stand upon the
authority of the second author for the species to which he applied
it, while the first claimant would not only be forced to select a new name
for his species, but would stand credited with another, the very existence
of which he may not have suspected before. Again the author of a
manuscript name might upon subsequent investigation learn that the
form he intended to describe under it was really not sufficiently distinct
from previously published species to justify separation. In the mean-
time, another author, not so well informed, may have published a de-
scription of the form and given the original author as authority for the
name.

We might go on at length but the point seems so obvious that what
has been said already appears superfluous.

As regards the fourth name, B. delicatula, the complainant must be in
error. Wecannot find that Mr. James ever described this species or

even proposed the name.

(Dall).

Personal and Scientific News. 335

The second and fifth names (L. calycula and clavacoidea) may apply to
species which Mr. James has described. On this point, however, we are
in doubt, since his descriptions are unaccompanied by figures and so
brief and vague that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to identify his
species. Mr. James has described a large number of bryozoa in this
manner, and not only we but others have experienced the same difficulty
in attempting their identification. Some of these species (the two in
question among the number) have been very fully described and illus-
trated by Dr. Nicholson,! and so, while we do not yet know what Mr.
James intended to name, we do know what species Dr. Nicholson had
before him when he drew up his descriptions. Hence it is Dr. Nichol-
son’s species calycula and clavacoidea that are referred to in the list and
not Mr. James’.

The other species which are said to have been named and described
under similar conditions, but properly referred in the list, are: Orthis
bellula, O. multisecta, Zy gospira cincinnatiensis, Z. kentuckyensis and Strep-
torhynchus nutans. Of these the first three and the last should be credited
to Mr. Meek for the same reasons as those mentioned in treating of
Stomatopora frondosa, Batostomella gracilis and Leptotrypa discoidea. Mr.
James neither described nor illustrated the species, while Mr. Meek did
both.

In preparing the list, brachiopoda and other classes of fossils, excepting
the bryozoa, were simply copied from one of the published catalogues of
the Cincinnati group fossils. In these the references stand as given by
Meek. As the points here at issue were not at that time in our mind the
change of authorities was overlooked. The bryozoa, however, were
taken from our manuscript catalogue, in which the changes had been
made some time ago.

Z. kentuckyensis (a very large var. of modesta) is credited to Mr. James
because it appears to be new and is one of the few forms described by
him that we can identify.2 There is therefore nothing remarkable in
referring to him as authority. E. O. ULRICH.

Newport, Ky., April 13, 1888.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, OF THE SCHOOL oF MINEs, Col-
umbia College, N. Y., receives the Murchison medal from the
Geological Society of London—a worthy compliment to one of
the worthiest of American geologists.

1'The Genus Monticulipora, pp. 165 and 182; 1881.

2The question, does Mr. James’ “The Palzontologist” fulfill the re-
quirements of a proper publication? is not at issue here. If it were, I
should be seriously inclined to answer in the negative.

336 Personal and Scientific News.

FROM THE REPORT OF RoBeERT T. Day, chief of the division
of mining statistics, U. S. geological survey, we learn that the
total value of ager products in this country for 1886 was
$465,327,588. During the three years 1882, 3 and 4 the pro-
duction steadily diminished. In 1885 it increased slightly, and
in 1886 it exceeded the very large pr rodinge of 1882 by $o9,162,-
399. The fluctuation is chiefly in the metallic minerals, especi-
ally iron, the non-metallic minerals, such as coal, being nearly
constant. The production of the precious metals, gold and
silver, is much more constant than that of iron, but the. value of
iron ($95,000,000 in 1886) is greater than that of gold and silver
combined ($86,000,000).

Coal exhibits an output still more valuable than iron, viz.,
$154,000,000, about equally divided between bituminous and
anthracite. Thus we find the non-metallic minerals decidedly
in the lead. One of them is first of all in aggregate value; their
production is more constant; and the total v value of the non-me-
tallic minerals exceeds that of the metallic by $34,000,000 not-
withstanding the incompleteness of the statistics. Under “min-
eral products unspecified ” are lumped together a great number
of common products of the earth, such as clay and sand, with a
total estimated value of $6,000,000, which is much too low. If
complete statistics of these could be obtained the excess in value
of the non-metallic minerals would be largely increased.

The first ten minerals in the order of annual value in round
millions are:

UG Oad see R eG See ee 154 miliions GU Petrolewmy ii scs-sceeceeenes 20 millions
AUTOM ee auas wees sec aeesiossen 95 Hs 7 Building stone................. 19 os
SOU VOT NAT CL. net Moyea game 51 « 8 Copper 16 ih
AGO Gie edi, soda sesvccrsseseuaee se’ 35 vd Ore aye et eo oe uu ea 12 Es
MEATS) EO Ne eee 21 os 10 Naturalgas est cccrscce. 9 uh

Dr. Rruscu on METEORITES—In a lecture delivered at the
University of Christiana, Norway, Dr. Hans Reusch gives a
learned and interesting dissertation on meteorites. In Norway
they are popularly known as “thorelo”, 7. ¢ e., the wads of Thor.
One is apt to think that if the w adding of the thunder-god is
so formidable, his solid shot must be portentous indeed.

Under the head of “phenomena accompanying the fall of
meteorites,’ Dr. Reusch describes the descent of the Tysnzs
meteorite which came down “like a shot bird,” about a minute
after a loud report had been heard in the heavens. No fiery
display was witnessed by observers at the spot, apparently be-
cause it was over their heads; but distant observers saw the
usual phenomenon of a fire-ball rushing rapidly through the
air and exploding.

The most significant observation in the lecture is that the in-
ternal structure of the Tysnzs meteorite, which belongs to the
stony group having little iron, indicates that it has been broken

Personal and Scientific News. 337

o pieces and the fragments retinited at least twice before it en-
tered the earth’s atmosphere. It is in fact a conglomerate in
which the component pebbles are themselves conglomeritic.

In searching for a cause of this singular structure Dr. Reusch
cites the probable conclusion, deduced from the periodicity of
meteoric showers that these bodies travel through the interstel-
lar spaces in flocks, like the component particles of a comet, and
with similarly elongated orbits. In perihelion they are rent in
fragments and partly melted by the intense heat. The frag-
ments may be rounded by mutual impact and attrition, then re-
cemented by the molten matter. The Staelldall meteorite
shows rounded fragments in a magma of brownish glass.

‘THE NEW MAP oF Europe. The list of subscribers to this
map given on page 252 should have included the University of
California which was inadvertently omitted. Since then the
following subscriptions have been made, leaving only thirteen
copies now available, viz.; J. B. Hastings, Ketchum, Idaho;
Geological survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis; R. D. Lacoe,
Pittston, Pa.; University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Vassar
College, Poughkeepsie, New York; Mt. Holyoke Seminary,
South Hadley, Mass.; Colby University, Waterville, Me.

Later CRETACEOUS IN Iowa. Mr. A. G. Wilson, of
Hopkinton, Iowa, states in correspondence that at about five
miles north of Mt. Vernon, in Linn county, Iowa, a fossil, sup-
posed to be Belemniiclla yucronpta was found about forty feet
below the surface, in the drift, and its origin could not have
been much further west. In vol. i of the final report of the
Minnesota geological survey, page 599, Mr. Warren Upham
states that the shales of the Fort Pierre and Fox Hills groups are
indicated by fossils found ¢z st in numerous instances in Y el-
low Medicine and Lyon counties; also on p. 584-85 that acw-
lites and Inoceramus are frequently found in the drift in Brown
county. Mr. J. H. Kloos states (Am. Four. Sci. (3), 11, 24),
that Laculites has been found in Nobles county, and infers that
the latest members of the Cretaceous exist in Minnesota.

Prof. E. Haworth also writes that the fossil plant mentioned
by Dr. C. A. White, in his article on p. 224, indicating the
Dakota group of the ORE eas es was found at Oskaloosa, low a,
abont eighty miles nearly due south from the locality of ahee in-
vertebrate fossils, and in a boulder lying on the surface.

Probably the most eastern point in the Northwest at which
the Cretaceous has been identified, is in the northern part of
Goodhue county Minnesota, where shales and sandstones of the
Dakota group are opened up for pottery-ware. Dr. Lesque-
reux has fully identified the plant remains and refers them to
the earlier Cretaceous. This locality will be described in the
forth-coming vol. ii, of the final report of the Minnesota survey.

338 Personal and Scientific News.

Pror. E. Huu reviews in the Geological Magazine for
March, the variots opinions that have been put forward re-
garding the effect of continental lands in raising by attraction
the level of adjacent oceans. Suess and Fischer, basing their
calculations on Airy’s observations of the variation in the
number of beats of the seconds pendulum, on oceanic islands and
at coast stations, made the difference of oceanic level between
California and the Sandwich islands equal to 4520 feet—a re-
sult scarcely credible.

The author with the assistance of Prof. G. C. Stokes has
tried to calculate the effect of the attraction of the continental
masses on the oceanic waters, and states the following results as
the elevation above geodetic level:

MOD THe COASL OLMERICO secs sececscss ces sense danccoccdteceeece seen ecu ae cate ct ana eccueuectenteesteee 780 feet.
St Ke IB OUU VTA poles aso iroxccach someone sik baes us Cat eae scat cabs Gadse tba cece nceouneareane 2.159545
eS SO CBT ee SF Ri ee te Lame oval chess ebb onceeee soaeutecste seman taecataees W5S2ees

IN THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE LONDON GEOLOGI-
CAL sociETY for February Dr. Lyddeker discusses at length
the various genera of Sauropoda founded on separate bones, and
gives his reason for uniting several of them in the single genus Or-
nithopsis, and concludes, after a few remarks on the Theropoda,
with a note pointing out the extremely unsatisfactory condition
of our knowledge of these reptiles, and reflects on the practice
of setting up new genera for every new bone discovered, or
“even a fragment of a single bone.” “It is the easiest thing in
the world to apply a new name to any specimen that turns up,
but when we find one genus founded on a humerus, another on
a cervical vertebra, a third on a caudal vertebra, and a fourth
on the cast of a sacrum, the evil results of such a system are
self-apparent.” ‘It would be advantageous if we were begin-
ning de novo to take one particular part of the skeleton and say
that on the evidence of that part alone generic terms should be
made, but such a rule would be of little use now.” Still it is a
necessary evil, incident to our imperfect knowledge, that the
femur of an animal bears one name and the humerus another,
while in some cases possibly several bones from the same
skeleton are figuring before the palzontologist as real beings.
In days to come it will be picturesque to see the whole skeleton
restored, each bone bearing a separate specific and possibly
generic designation.

On nearly the same lines Prof. H. G. Seeley describes from
a part of a vertebra a species which he has named Vhecospon-
dylus daviesi and on this small foundation attempts to build
up the vertebra and then the animal with “an elongated head
and long slender jaws and neck” ‘so that the measurement from
the tip of the snout to the extremity of the tail may have been
under ten feet; of active habits, with long limbs and specialized
extremities.”

THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

iWiorter 1. JUNE, 1888. No. 6.

SOME AMERICAN NORYTES AND GABBROS.

Geological notes from the laboratory of Denison University.
1.
BY C. L. HERRICK, E. S. CLARKE, AND J. L. DEMING.

The material for this paper was gathéred in various parts of
the United States and Canada, the species selected for descrip-
tion being chosen for their supposed bearing on the genesis of
this family. The norytes and gabbros constitute a very inter-
esting group which may be regarded as forming a link between
the diabases and basalts on one hand and the diorytes and other
paragenous eruptives on the other.

The view held by the senior writer that older eruptives are
to be classed in one or other of two groups, depending on the
method of origin, has already been foreshadowed in a paper in
the second volume of the bulletins of Denison University. All
the older eruptives which are apparently independent, so far
as composition is concerned, of the influence of the interpene-
trated rocks are termed Aztfogenous eruptives. Illustrations
are afforded by ordinary diabases and basic gabbros and norytes.
The remainder of what are commonly known as basic eruptives,
which show in their composition the obvious effect of the
country rock, are termed paragenous eruptives. And, how-
ever much the texture may vary in each of these, it is claimed
that they constitute rather sharply and naturally distinguished
assemblages. The paragenous species may assimilate closely
to the wall rock or may resemble very nearly the parent auto-
genous species. The diorytes are of this nature, at least in

‘

340 Herrick et al. on American Norytes and Gabbros.

most cases. Such rocks would be expected to resemble ordi-
nary metamorphic sedimentaries in the inclusions.

Garnet and the various metamorphic accessories then would
be quite at home in the paragenous but foreign to the autogen-
ous eruptives. Illustrations of these distinctions can be found
in any highly metamorphic region, and while it may be easy to
find instances where diorytes form apparently autogenous dykes,
yet it is claimed that they may generally be traced to some re-
lation with dykes of the first order and owe their origin to
secondary fusion and perhaps also to a commingling of true
igneous matter with such products of fusion as can be traced to
the adjacent wall-rock. If this view be correct, the group at
present under consideration may be regarded as standing on the
boundary between the two classes. The resemblance between
certain norytes, especially the olivine-bearing variety and dia-
base, is so close as to baffle discrimination in the field. In like
manner we shall be able to establish a close connection between
gabbro and diabase in the Duluth locality. The present pur-
pose is merely to call attention to three distinct phases of this
group with some remarks upon the relations sustained by them
to adjacent rocks.

1. (1146) Olivine noryte, near Marshall, N. C. (sp. gtr.
2.99.) This rock occurs about six miles northeast of Marshall
sia the form of a dyke of variable width, penetrating the gneisses
and micaceous schists, and forming the axis of a considerable

-area of metamorphism. The walls of the dyke are formed, in
many places at least, by a zone of dioryte to be described. fur-
ther on. To the presence of this, or a related dyke, is probably
to be ascribed the segregation of ore in the iron mines in this
locality. The typical phase of this noryte, as seen in the out-
_crops at Bull creek, is a very coarsely crystalline purplish-black
rock with well-defined black crystals of an orthorhombic min-
-eral. The feldspar is in elongated narrow twins, while irregu-
ilar, greenish, glassy masses of olivine can be distinguished here
and there. The feldspar is very dark, evidently from a suffu-
sion of the coloring matter of the bronzite. The only other
ingredient which can be distinguished in the hand sample is
magnetite, to which the high specific gravity may be largely
attributed.

Herrick et al. on American Norytes and Gabbros. 341

The relative proportion by bulk of the ingredients as esti-
mated from measurements of the microscopic section is as follows:
‘olivine, 17.36 per cent., bronzite, 20.87 per cent., magnetite, 6
per cent., biotite, 2.8 per cent., labradorite, 47 per cent., chlorite,
2.4 per cent., apatite, etc., 3.57 per cent. These of course are
empirical and derived from few measurements. The section
affords beautiful twins of plagioclase with brilliant polarization
and a tendency to coalesce into aggregates with the axes at right
angles. The angles noted on either side the twinning plane
were 14°—16°; 12°—14°; 12°—15°; 15°—16°; indicating lab-
radorite. On pulverizing the rock and separating by use of
sonstadts solution, the feldspar gave a specific gravity of 27s
the slightly excessive weight being apparently due to the suf-
fusing coloring mattter so characteristic of the feldspars of this
rock. ‘The pyroxene is very dark brown and affords the well
developed cleavage lines parallel to 1. In cross section the pe-
culiar cleavage parrallel to 7—7 is seen as very fine, closely ar-
ranged lines with inclusions of a black mineral. To this cleav-

-age the extinction is perpendicular, showing the species to be

orthorhombic, with the characters of bronzite. It is not rare to
find twins or aggregated crystals with z—7 as the twinning
plane. <A thin lamina may be interpolated in an otherwise per-
fect crystal with no obvious rotation of the interpenetrating
member. The bronzite is cut by both feldspar and _ olivine.
This latter ingredient is in rather large corroded crystals, evi-
dently at one time of perfect form I, z—z, z—z, O, and was
the first of the essential minerals to form. Its sections are every-
where broken by irregular fracture lines which are followed
by inroads of the superficial decomposition, and the outer por-
tion is frequently altered to a reddish aggregate, but is also us-
ually enclosed by a considerable zone of bright green chlorite
with vivid blue polarization colors. The magnetite is found
both in regular crystals and in corroded irregular masses. The
magnetite is generally bordered by a zone of reddish matter
stained with hematite and frequently is accompanied by scales of
biotite. The chief remaining accessory is apatite in moderate
abundance. The rock is thus fully described because of the
doubt cast upon the specific integrity of noryte by many writers,

342 Herrick et al.on American Norytes and Gabbros.

and Rosenbusch’s statement that it has been found only in the
northern regions of America. |

2. The adjacent paragenous rocks are hardly less interesting
than the noryte. They consist of accessory dykes and flows of
dark porphyritic dioryte, very dense and hard. The section
displays much segregated biotite and hornblende with iron
oxides. The feldspars are oligoclase and orthoclase with pre-
vailing Carlsbad and occasionally Baveno twins. The feldspars.
and quartz are full of liquid and other inclusions. The most
important solid inclusions are garnets in large, richly-colored
specimens as well as in very small perfect isotropous crystals.
Apatite is likewise abundant. The structure of the diorytes
can be easily explained by reference to the schists which make
the country rock at this place. These schists abound in corun-
dum minerals and the silicates, and there are local masses of
rutile, but a chemical examination of the magnetite of our
noryte failed to reveal any titanium. The magnetite in the
diorytes is in the form of aggregates occupying elongated or
dendritic cavities among the hornblende and mica. Hematite
is abundant as an alteration product. —

3. The Duluth gabbros. This is a peculiarly interesting
series and has already been the topic of considerable discussion.
It is probable that the vexed question of the relations of the
rocks associated at Duluth could be solved by a sufficiently ex-
tended study in the field and the laboratory. Meanwhile, a few
suggestions are offered.

The rock which may, perhaps, be regarded as typical of the
primary overflow, is seen at the north east of the city, where it
is now extensively quarried. It is an intensely black rock with
a specific gravity of 2.77, containing long bladed feldspar and
regular but corroded aug:te. The deep color is largely due to
the suffusion of iron oxide, the magnetite being badly corroded
and affording haematite by alteration. Technically this species
is diabase, but it is closely related with the gabbros and posses-
ses certain peculiarities which may explain the relation. The
structure of the feldspar is peculiarly instructive upon this point.
Many of the plagioclases are zonary, and, though a hasty ex-
amination might read them oligoclase, greater care will generally
show that the central zone is of a higher basidity than the outer;

Herrick et al. on American Norytes and Gabbros. 343

indeed, it not unfrequently happens that the central portion re-
tains its original character with multiple twins and a ratio of
¢ to © agreeing with labradorite (in one case 25° —26° )while
the outer zone is monoclinic, with characters of orthoclase.
These zones are commonly separated by an irregular band of
alteration, which is granular, greenish-white and isotropous.
All stages between crystals in which the basidity of the zones is
nearly the same and those described can be traced. The only
other characteristic of moment is the enormous development of
apatite, (see fig. 8). (Irving remarks upon its absence in this
series). The most obvious explanation of these structural pe-
culiarities is that the rock was primarily a true diabase with
labradorite as its feldspar, but that the process of decomposition
has been inaugurated by a leeching out of the calcium and sodi-
um and its replacement about the periphery by potassium.
The source of the potassium might be sought in meteoric water
from kaolinizing adjacent acid rocks. But we shall have oc-
casion below to assume for some of the adjacent orthoclase gab-
bro a mixture of acid and basic rock on a large scale in order to
explain the origin of the orthoclase.

The ordinary gabbro of Duluth is already known from many
descriptions. It is found exposed along the principal street and
is used extensively for monuments, etc. The labradorite is in
beautiful large crystals, the pyroxene is green diallage in small
amount, magnetite and apatite making up the section. Its spe-
cific gravity is 2.9. To the westward rise parallel ridges ex-
tending north and south and these are composed of different
phases of the same series. Upon the first low range appears
the red fine-grained variety next to be described, which abuts
upon the gabbro by a tortuous but rather distinct line of contact.
This has been called orthoclase gabbro but its relation to the
typical species has not been explained. The hand sample re-
sembles a close-grained hornblendic granite or syenite, but
obviously differs in the slender rod-like form of its feldspar.
‘The section shows all the ingredients to be altered. The alter-
ation is of the character which can best be explained as the
result of intense heat, and resembles that induced in a granite
which has been broken up and its fragments encased in a basic
eruptive. There is a well-defined pseudo-porphyritic structure.

344 Herrick et al.on American Norytes and Gabbros.

The magma consists of reddish or whitish amorphous material’
masking feldspar crystals of the first order. The diallage is.
equally altered but retains its green color and optical properties..
The greater number of porphyritic crystals are less obviously
altered and preserve their outlines. Most of them are oligo-
clase or orthoclase. The primary feldspar is often obviously
of a higher basidity. Secondary quartz is also present. The
most natural way to account for the peculiarities of this rock,.
which occurs also on the ranges further west, would be to re-
gard it as paragenous and formed below the surface by inter-
action of the gabbro or diabase flows on an acid country rock,,
in the process of which the crystallizing autogenous material
became more or less mingled with secondary fused matter from
the walls. This process would then be quite analogous to that
involved in the formation of the porphyritic felsytes and para-
genous diorytes of the north shore and elsewhere. The fact
that the feldspars of the first order are more basic favors this
view. Microscopic examination of the contact between the
true gabbro and the red orthoclase-bearing variety seems to
substantiate this theory also. The plagioclase on the gabbro
side becomes less basic from diffusion from the contact, while
those of the other side react as monoclinic and are iron-stained
and greatly altered, vet even these often exhibit traces of pre-
viously existing multiple twins. We are driven to the conclu-
sion that the red rocks are the product of mingled autogenous.
gabbro with secondary acid material from the walls, and the
interaction of the two under pressure and long -continued high
temperature. The presence of potassium and sodium salts
would explain the development of secondary quartz and the
paragenesis of the feldspars.

We have space to mention but one other member of this
group. The earnetiferous gabbro from Granite Falls, Minn.
This is selected as still further illustrating the paragenous ten-
dency of gabbro. This is typical gabbro in its essentials, the
greater part of the section consisting of a rather low-angled
labradorite and abundant diallage of an intense green color.
But the specimen is remarkable for large grouped garnets and
free quartz, together with a very small amount of hornblende
as alteration product of the diallage. The quartz and garnet

Herrick et al. on American Norytes and Gabbros. 345

are full of inclusions and the latter is nearly always associated
with magnetite in corroded grains. The plagioclase and dial-
lage are so fresh that it is believed that these accessories can
not be the product of internal decomposition. The almost com-
plete limitation of garnet to metamorphics is additional reason
for the inference. The present writers, unfortunately, have
had no opportunity to personally examine this locality, hence
can bring to bear no topographical evidence. An examination
of a number of so-called quartz-diabases and garnetiferous dia-
bases has shown them all to be diorytes, or easily explained as
a mechanical mixture due to the explosive dis-memberment of
a granite when embraced in a dyke-mass. Instances of this
sort are very well seen in Michipicoten bay where a diabase
dyke not infrequently contains in itself scattered fragments of
the adjacent granite, the fragments being of all sizes and ex-
hibiting in a beautiful way the contact phenomena where heat
out of the presence of vapor is the sole agent. A specimen
now before us might easily be called a quartziferous diabase
had we not traced its relations as indicated beyond peradventure.
The naming of such a chapter of accidents tends we think to
confuse and retard our progress toward a classification which
shall be natural in the sense of expressing the relationships and
development of the rocks.’

Since writing the above the valuable paper by M. E. Wads-
worth entitled Preliminary Description of the Peridotytes, Gab-

1 Irving (Copper-bearing rocks of lake Superior) states that “the distince-
tion between diallage and augite is a valueless one, since not only are
both often found in the same section but every gradation is found in
rocks of this class from augite to diallage.”

To this it may be replied that while it is doubtless true that such tran-
sitions occur, that fact does not obliterate the value of discriminations
based on two minerals so distinct when typical, or of varieties of rock so
unlike in appearance and occurrence as diabase and gabbro. It might be
urged with equal truth, because augite and hornblende pass into each
other by alteration and both occur in the same rock, that diabases and
diorytes should not be distinguished. It is customary to divide the rocks
of the lake Superior region into original and detrital. The term “origi-
nal” seems misleading, for it is certain that a large part of the basic and
acid eruptives are paragenous in the sense defined above and are quite
distinct from the autogenous members, which alone deserve to be called
original, though both are undoubtedly eruptive in origin.

346 Herrick et al.on American Norytes and Gabbros.

bros, Diabases and Andesytes of Minnesota, has come into our
hands. Inasmuch as this work touches substantially the same
ground as that covered by our yotes a few words may be necessary
in further explanation. We differ most radically in the theory
proposed to explain the origin of diorytes. Believing as we do
that Dr. Wadsworth has laid lithological students under great
obligation by calling attention to the genetic relations of various
species and attempting to base a classification on the actual re-
lationships of the species, we dissent from many of his conclu-
sions and think his own work abundantly demonstrates that we
can ill afford at present, to neglect for a nomenclature which
can only express individual interpretations of endogene modifi-
cations, the accurate and highly useful mineralogical system of
Rosenbusch, which seemed at one time likely to give us a uni-
form cosmopolitan terminology. —__

We believe field-work will bear us out in suggesting that the
reaction between diabases and acid country rock is alone com-
petent to explain the origin of most diorytes. The decomposi-
tion of diabases in no case so far reported produces a true dioryte.
Further, it seems probable that the reaction was cotemporaneous
rather than subsequent. This radical difference is really less
important as affecting the classification of Wadsworth than it
would at first seem. We would write, for example.

, Diabase Gory
Hornblendic schist. DBAS

{ Noryte { mica dioryte

? Mica schist. § (garnetiferous),
{ Diabase ) mica dioryte

( Chloritic quartz schist. § (calciferous),

It seems strange that in studying the series of gabbros from
Minnesota Dr. Wadsworth should have failed to notice the par-
agenesis of plagioclase. He mentions, indeed, its “replacement by
ferric oxide, viridite, micaceous minerals, magnetite, orthoclase,
quartz, epidote, etc.,” but seems to consider it of no greater im-
portance than a stage in decomposition. A careful study of
contact phenomena between quartz-porphyry and diabase por-
phyryte and olivine diabase at Michipicoten island, confirms
the belief that the change from anorthite or labradorite to
orthoclase is a constant symptom of interaction of the kind indi-
cated above.

©

DESCRIPTION Ob Pie vae

Figs. 1-4. Zonary feldspars from black diabase north east of Duluth.
Outer zone orthoclase or oligoclase, inner zone labradorite, with amor-
phous zone between.

Fig. 5. Section from noryte near Marshall, N. C.; 4, bronzite showing
both cleavage systems. The fine lines are parallel i-i, in which zone lies
the interpenetrating lamella; 0, olivine; /, labradorite feldspar.

Fig. 6. Portion of the same section showing occurrence of biotite (7)
about the magnetite; 0, olivine; a, apatite; ch, chlorite; 4, plagioclase.

Fig. 7. Portion of same section illustrating the occurrence of the
magnetite; #, biotite mica; f, plagioclase. Granular decomposition pro-
duct filling interstices.

Fig. 8. Portion of section from diabase of Duluth; a, augite; af, apa-
tite; 7, feldspar.

Fig. 9. Crystals of garnet (?) from dioryte adjacent to noryte of figs.
Pike

Fig. 10. Feldspar paragenesis in so-called orthoclase-gabbro of Du-
luth; d, diallage.

4

A. Wincheli on the Taconic Question. 347

THE TACONIC QUESTION.

BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL.

CONTENTS.

I. Original proposals of the founder of the Taconic system.
1. .Date of first definition.
Stratigraphical position.
Geographic position and distribution.
Constitution.
Paleontologic characters.
Original grounds of the Taconic system.
(1) Lithological.
(2) Stratigraphic unconformities.
(3) Paleontologic unconformity.
7. Central conception of the founder of the Taconic system.
II. Is there a real sub-Silurian system?
1. Lower limits of the Silurian.
2. Determinations in America.
III. Was Dr. Emmons anticipated by other investigators?
1. Limits of the Silurian.
2. Position and rights of the Cambrian.
3. Stratigraphical relations of the primordial zone of Barrande.
(1) Primordial fauna unknown to Murchison and
Sedgwick.
(2) Primordial fauna embraced by Emmons.
4. Stratigraphical relations of the Huronian of Logan.
IV. Validity and scope of the Taconic.
1. Grounds of opposition to the Taconic.
(1) Walcott’s view.
(2) Held in the light of Walcott’s results.
2. Defenders of the claims of the Taconic. |
3. Position and equivalences of the Taconic system.

Anh wp

The following concise statements of the elements of the ques-
tion concerning the Taconic, may prove helpful to the young
student who lacks time or opportunity for consultation of the
original documents. The writer undertook the investigation
with complete freedom from bias, save that his patriotism was
predetermined to claim for American geology all that belongs
to it. The research is not continued into the later history of Dr.
Emmons’ work in this field, because the validity of the name
must rest on facts connected with the period of its first proposal.

348 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

I. ORIGINAL PROPOSALS OF THE FOUNDER OF TIIE
TACONIC SYSTEM.

1. Date of first definition. ‘The term Taconic system was
first employed by Dr. Ebenezer Emmons, in the final report
on the geology of the second district of New York, the preface
to which is dated January 1, 1842.’

The conceptionyof the system existed in his mind, as he tells
us, long before. “*When, in 1836, I determined that in New
York, the Potsdam sandstone was the base of the Silurian system,
it seemed that we had at that time, the base of the sediments;
but when two years subsequently I had observed the same base

resting on sediments still older—as those along the eastern side
of Champlain and elsewhere—it became evident that there was
still a series older than the Silurian. The proof of this has
been accumulating ever since; and the Taconic system is found
to rest upon primary rocks without an exception; and it has
now been observed through the whole length of the states, from
northeast to southwest. Itis worthy of note, that through this
whole extent, the base is continuous.”

2. Stratigraphical position. “A group or system of rocks
~which belong evidently to a position between the primary of
the Atlantic ranges of mountains and the New York system.”
That is, between the crystalline schists and the Potsdam sand-
stone. This was a first formative conception of the stratigra-
phic limits of the system. It would be anticipated that the pre-
cise limits would be fixed by subsequent observations. For in-
stance, the rocks naturally referable to the system might not
always rest on the crystalline schists; and on the other hand, the
upper limit might not finally be fixed at the base of the Pots-
dam sandstone.

3. Geographic position and distribution. ‘The typical rocks
“lie along both sides of the Taconic range of mountains, whose
direction is nearly north and south, or for a great distance par-
allel with the boundary line between the states of New York,
Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont. The counties [in

1 Constituting chapters VII. VIII, and IX.
2 American Geology, pt. II.. The Taconic System. [Albany, 1855,]
pp. 5 and 6.

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 349

New York] through which the Taconic rocks pass are West-
chester, Columbia, Rensselaer and Washington; and, after pass-
ing out of the state, they are found stretching through the whole
length of Vermont, and into Canada, as far north as Quebec.
It is however, in Massachusetts, in the county of Berkshire, that
we find the most satisfactory exhibition of the rocks. They
form a belt whose width is not far from fifteen miles, along the
whole western border, and which extends clearly to the western
base of the Taconic range. The greatest breadth therefore, as
will be seen, by an inspection of any map of this section of
country, is wider upon the eastern than upon the western side
of this range. In Vermont, they range along the upper mem-
bers of the Champlain group, and thus become connected with
the Second District.” [ p. 136 ].

The “ Black slate” “extends as far as St. Albans in Ver-
mont.” The Taconic slate, with its subordinate beds, occupies
almost the whole of Columbia, Rensselaer and Washington
counties.” The Sparry limestone passes through Ancram,
Hillsdale, New Lebanon, Canaan, Berlin, Petersburgh, Hoosic,
White Creek, the west part of Arlington, [ Vt], and onwards
in the same range north, through the eastern townships of
Canada East.”! The magnesian slate forms the highest moun-
tains in the Taconic range, which “extends along the western
border of Massachusetts and through Vermont.”

In 1846, the occurrence of Taconic rocks was announced in
Rhode Island, Maine and Michigan.” ?

In 1855, Dr. Emmons announced that the Taconic system of
rocks had “been observed through the whole length of the
states from northeast to southwest * * * The most
northeasterly point at which I have observed this system is at
the Fox islands, off the coast of Maine, but I have good reason
to suspect its existence in Newfoundland. If so,it ranks among
the most persistent geological formations of the country.” *

It is not necessary to follow Dr. Emmons’ later identification
of the Taconic in North Carolina and other regions.‘

1 Agricultural Rep., 74.

2 Report on Agriculture, pp. go—1or.

3 American Geology, pt. II, pp. 5 and 6.

* Geological Report of the Midland counties of North Carolina, Raleigh,
1856, 8vo.

350 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

4. Constitution. In the first enunciation of the system, Dr.
Emmons was not fully persuaded of the order of superposition
of the strata embraced in the Taconic belt. Leaving that deter-
mination to the future, he described them in geographical order
from the west. As the general dip was easterly, this order
would be ascending, unless the whole system had been subjected
to an overturn. The order was as follows:

Taconic slate, sparry limestone, magnesian slate, Stockbridge
limestone, granular quartz.

In the first volume on the Agriculture of New York, the
preface to which is dated December 30, 1846, Dr. Emmons de-
scribes the members of the Taconic system in the following
order:

Black slate, with two species of trilobites. Not here certainly re-
garded as belonging to the Taconic.

Taconic slate with its subordinate beds, with various markings re-
ferred to Nereites. Cited from Brunswick, Rensselaer county.

Sparry limestone.

Magnesian slate. (Talcose slates of 1856.)

Stockbridge limestone.

Brown sandstone or granular quartz.

5: LPaleontologic characters. In the original characteriza-
tion of the system, it was supposed to be destitute of fossils.
This was made one of the points of distinction from the rocks
of the Champlain Division. In the agricultural report, how-
ever, the author, besides describing and figuring two genera of
trilobites— Afops trilineatus and Llliptocephala asaphoides
(now known as Conocephalus and Olenellus)— from the Black
slate, described and figured eleven species of Nereites and two
fucoids; also one crushed tube supposed to be that of an annelid.
Subsequently, many more species have been discovered in the
rocks embraced by Dr. Emmons in the Taconic system.

6. Original grounds of the Taconic system. (1). Litho-
logical: Compared with the paleozoic rocks, they are not the
same, nor the same in a metamorphic state. Nor do the differ-
ent lithological divisions occur in the same order as the divisions
of the Champlain group from which they might seem to be
derived by alteration. Further, they are distinguished by the
presence of hematitic masses, while the iron of the Silurian is

argillaceous or odlitic. The black oxide of manganese is another

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 351

distinction. As expressed in the agricultural report, “The
members of the Taconic system have a different arrangement.
The sandstones, limestones and slates are not only different in
their relative position but they are much thicker than those with
which they have deen supposed to be identical in the New York
system.”’! .

Compared with the primary rocks they are less crystalline,
and in constitution, the rocks themselves differ, and also inclose
a different range of accessory minerals. Actinolite, epidote,
titanic and auriferous sulphuret of iron and graphite are confined
to the primary. Further, the minerals of the Primary have a
uniform connection with the rock masses; they are contempo-
-raneous with them. ‘There are rarely any cavities around them;
but they are closely invested on all sides by the materials of
which the rock is composed. On the contrary, in aqueous rocks,
minerals occur in pre-existing cavities, and they are usually
composed of substances more or less soluble under one or more
conditions.’

(2). Stratigraphic unconformities: These appear not to
have been distinctly brought out before 1846. In the agricul-
tural report, page 56, three sections are delineated, in which
the Calciferous sandstone is shown to overlie the Taconic strata
unconformably. In plate X VIII, six sections are given in de-
tail, showing the unconformable relations of the Taconic and
New York systems. The details of the report point out
marked unconformities with the underlying Primary masses.’

(3). Paleontologic unconformity: In the first enunciation,
the Taconic beds were supposed differentiated from the New
York system by their complete destitution of organic remains.
At the date of the agricultural report, Dr. Emmons’ view on
this point was embodied in the following conclusion: ‘The
Nereites and other fossils of the Taconic slates are unknown in
any of the members of the Champlain group; the mollusca of
the New York system are also wanting.” *

In subsequent publications, the author of the Taconic system

1 Report on Agriculture, p. 168,

2 Report on the Second District, pp. 138-141.
3 See, for instance, p. III.

4 Agricultural Report, p. 108.

352 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

embodied the results of later studies both by himself and others,
and the stratigraphic and paleontologic grounds of the system
were much more fully, accurately and effectively stated. But
it is only necessary in this examination to learn distinctly what
was the founder’s view in the institution of his system.

7. Central conception of the founder of the Taconic system.
From a study of the oldest documents treating of the Taconic
system, it is not difficult to discover their essential purport.
The central conception of Dr. Emmons was a system of sedi-
mentary fossiliferous rocks underneath the Champlain group.
To be a system it must possess distinct stratigraphic limitations
both above and below, and must contain the records of asystem
of life unlike that of the overlying system. Quite possibly, the
original propounder had not attained exact views in reference
to the true limitations of his systems either above or below.
He entertained the opinion that the Potsdam sandstone was not
embraced in the Taconic; in that he may easily have been
mistaken. He seems to have entertained the conviction that his
system extended downward to the crystalline schists, and held
what he termed “the absolute sedimentary base;” in this he
may ilso have been mistaken. The upper and lower limits
concern, however, only the border land of a great conception
a vast downward exten-

which with him was entirely original
sion, below the base of the New York system, of the records
of marine sedimentation and of life.

Il. Is THERE A REAL SUB-SILURIAN SYSTEM?

1. That the Potsdam sandstone, the base of the New York
system, does not mark the lowest limit of the record of life, is
now a fact so notorious as to constitute one of the elementary
truths of the science.

2. An extensive fauna of sub-Silurian life has been brought
to light within the very area over which Dr. Emmons extended
his system. Many of these forms have been discovered 1 in the
very strata embr aced in the enumeration of the Taconic forma-
tion. Most of them have been signalized from strata lying on
the eastern side of lake Champlain, and northward toward
Quebec—the Swanton slates, the Phillipsburg group, the
Georgia slates and the St. Albans group—called collectively

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 353

the Georgia group, by Walcott. On the west side of the state
boundary, at Bald mountain, in Washington county, and near
Saratoga, occur fossils belonging to sub-Silurian types, and
therefore Taconic; but the latter are found in the upper por-
tion of the Potsdam group, and hence carry that group into the
Taconic, in spite of Dr. Emmons’ early opinions. It may be
added that fossils of the same significance have been found also
by Marcou, at Keeseville in New York; and if the red sand-
rock of Vermont is in continuity with the granular quartz,
which, according to Walcott, contains primordial fossils, the
place of the Potsdam is fixed in the Taconic.

The discovery of sub-Silurian remains in Massachusetts, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nevada, Colorado, Mount Stephens,
Northwest Territory [ recently, by Dr. Rominger ], and other
regions in America, require no more than the mention.

I quote a single passage from Mr. C. D. Walcott, in one of
those careful and elaborate memoirs which have so enriched the
literature of American geology: “Of the presence of a well-
defined geologic system beneath the strata characterized by the
second fauna of Barrande, or the Trenton fauna [ including the
Chazy and most of the Calciferous ] of North America, on the
North American continent, there is no question. The geologic
sections given in this paper show it to have a total thickness of
over 18,000 feet.” !

It will give a clearer conception of the’justness of this verdict
of Mr. Walcott to reproduce some of the results embodied in
his last and very important memoir,’ a continuation of which
is promised. He gives us a colored map of the original Taconic
region through Vermont, Massachusetts and New York. The
so-called Georgia group, which is sub-Potsdam, is represented
by three colors. These collectively form a band beginning at
the northern boundary of Vermont, and extending without a
break, through western Massachusetts to Columbia county,
New York, where information seems to be wanting. But be-

1 Bull. U. S. Geol. Sury. No. 30, p. 11; also Am. Jour. Sci. (3), xxxiii,
139, Aug., 1886.

5”

2 Am. Jour. Sci., (3), xxxv, pp. 229-242 and pp. 307-327, with a colored
map and a section, To be followed by a memoir on Washington county,
La ee

354 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

yond this it is known with interruptions as far as Litchfield and
New Haven counties, Conn., and Dutchess county, New York.
From the Canadian border to Columbia county these rocks
cover a breadth of eight to twenty miles. Mr. Walcott states
that he knows the occurrence of fossils at over one hundred
localities within the area of the Georgia terrane. All these
rocks and all these fossils are older than the Potsdam. They
lie within the area of the original Taconic, and the fossils are
all types of the first fauna of Barrande. I consider these results
conclusive of the right of the Taconic system to full recognition.

A sub-Silurian is therefore well established at the present
day. This is precisely what Dr. Emmons contemplated and

anticipated.

Ill. Was Dr. EMMONS ANTICIPATED BY OTHER
INVESTIGATORS?

1. Limits of the Silurian. In 1839, Sir R. I. Murchison
published his “ Silurian System,” in which he gave an exposi-
tion of a system of fossiliferous rocks underlying what is now
known as the Devonian system. The name Silurian had been
employed by him since 1835. It was intended to embrace all
the known fossiliferous rocks below the Devonian, but at that
time little was known of remains below the horizon of the
Caradoc. In 1834 Murchison had recognized the extension of
the sedimentary series as far down as the “unfossiliferous gray-
wacke of the Longmynd.”? In his Silurian System, and: in
Siluria [1854] the Longmynd and Llanberis rocks are excluded
from the scope of the Silurian system, because destitute of fos-
sils, so far as known in Great Britain. The Longmynd were
characterized as “bottom rocks.” But even in 1844 two species
of Oldhamza had been described from beds in Ireland equiva-
lent to the Longmynd of Shropshire and South Wales. The
Silurian therefore, terminated downward in the midst of the
fossiliferous column.

2. Position and rights of Cambrian. In 1836, the name
Cambrian was bestowed by professor Sedgwick on a series of
strata occuring in North Wales, believed to occupy a position

1 Proc. Geol. Soc. London, II, 11, Jan., 1834.

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 355

inferior to that of the series designated as Silurian by Murchison.
But it subsequently appeared that the upper portion of them
was the equivalent of strata in the continguous county of
Shropshire, which Murchison had already annexed to his Silur-
ian, under the designation of Lower Silurian

assuming that
one systemic designation could properly include a paleontologic
and stratigraphic break as abrupt as that between the “Upper”
and “ Lower” Silurian. The Cambrian of Sedgwick extended
from the top of the Bala rocks to the bottom of the Llanberis.
Their position was below the Silurian of Murchison as first con-
ceived by himself, but was embraced in what may be called the
Silurian annex.

3. Stratigraphical relations of the Cambrian. Meanwhile,
M. J. Barrande was at work on the geology of Bohemia. In
1851, appeared his publications in the Bulletin de la Societe ge-
ologigue de France, and in 1852, the first volume of his Systeme
silurien dela Boheme. In these was introduced his classifica-
tion of older rocks into stages denoted by the letter A, B, C,
etc., and the more important recognition of certain great pale-
ontologic breaks, separating a succession of distinct systemic

faunas, thus:
Eto H. Third fauna, goo feet.

D. Second fauna, 6,000 feet.
C. Primordial fauna, 1,200 feet.
A and B. Azoic schists, 9,000 feet.

When the same strict principles of paleontologic classification
came subsequently to be applied to the oldest rocks of Great
Britain and America, the following conclusions were apparent:

(1). The true primordial fauna had not been embraced in
the proposals of either Murchison or Sedgwick. The rocks
containing this fauna in Bohemia extend “on an average, ten
thousand two hundred feet” below any fossiliferous strata then
known to Murchison or Sedgwick. Barrande embraced this
entire extension under the name “Silurian,” because he had
then (1852) no knowledge of what had been done and proposed
by Sedgwick in 1836, or by Emmons in 1842.

(2). The “sedimentary base” of the Taconic system signal-
ized by Emmons in 1842, and synchronized with his “ paleozoic
base,” fixed in 1844, did reach down to the primordial fauna of
Barrande, and included it. So that Emmons was guided by a

356 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

true insight in 1860, when he wrote: — “The upper part of the
Taconic is equivalent to Barrande’s primordial group.”! The
Cambrian, therefore, laid no claim to the chief ground covered
by the Taconic.

4. Stratigraphical relations of the Huronian of Logan. The
Huronian system was proposed by Sir W. E. Logan, in 1855,
for some Canadian strata located north of lake Huron, and sup-
posed to extend from the base of the Potsdam sandstone down-
ward to the crystalline schists. His conception was therefore
identical with that of Dr. Emmons in proposing the Taconic
system. In the case of the Taconic, strata containing primor-
dial fossils older than the Potsdam have been found within the
geographical limits originally assigned to the system. In the
typical region of the Huronian, no fossiliferous strata have as
yet been discovered, and it remains to show what part of the
Taconic they correspond to. In saying this, I employ Taconic

as originally conceived by Emmons—a great system extending
down to the crystalline schists. It may be said, however, as the
Huronian strata are now known to rest unconformably on lower
strata which overlie the crystalline schists,’ so, undoubtedly,
adequate knowledge of the base of the Taconic, will show the
inadmissibility of its claim to extend down to the crystalline
schists. At its base, the Huronian stands, therefore, at the pres-
ent time, precisely in the position of the Taconic, and is super-
seded by it. Above, it remains to determine whether the typical
Huronian reaches up into the zone of the primordial fauna,
which, as stated, the Taconic includes. In the basin of lake
Superior, the so-called Kewenian series intervenes between
schists identified with the Huronian and strata believed to belong
to the age of the Potsdam sandstone. These hold, therefore,
the stratigraphical position of the St. Albans, Phillipsburg and
Swanton groups, with their primordial fauna. As beds having
an igneous history, they may sustain some such relations to pri-
mordial life as the porphyry of Bohemia, whose eruption ter-
minated the existence of the primordial fauna, before it had

1 Letter to M. J. Marcou, in The Taconic system and its position in strati-
graphical geology, by Jules Marcou, Proc. Am.Acad., new ser.,vol. xii, p.184.

2 A. Winchell, in Amer. Jour. Sci., Oct., 1887, p. 314; American Geologist,
Jan., 1888, pp. 14-24.

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 357

attained so prolonged a history as in some parts of North Amer-
ica. Whatever the facts may be as to the upper limit of the
Huronian, the designation commonly employed for the system
is clearly superseded by Taconic. This was the understanding
of Dr. Emmons, though the contention seems to have dropped
almost out of remembrance.’ In 1860, in a letter to M. Marcou,
speaking of acommunication to the American Journal of Science,
~which was refused publication, he says, “I claimed that the
Huronian was only the Taconic system.” In 1861, he wrote,
“Tt was ten years ago, I think, when I claimed Logan’s Huro- .
nian system as nothing more than the Taconic.” Unless, there-
fore, we find the zone of the primordial fauna interposed
between the typical Huronian and the Lower Silurian, showing
the typical Huronian to stand for a zone of truly azoic sediments,
it would appear that the name Huronian ought to be dropped
out of use.
IV. VALIDITY AND SCOPE OF THE TACONIC.

1. Grounds of opposition tothe Taconic. It was from the
beginning maintained by certain North American geologists, to
whose judgment most of the others deferred, that the rocks
within the area of the Taconic as defined by Dr. Emmons, were
newer than the Potsdam sandstone, instead of older; and that

‘their more ancient aspect than the other strata of the same age
was due to metamorphism, It is not needful to consider with
whom this view originated, nor to recall the discussions which
have taken place. It may be granted that paleontological and
structural investigations, carried on in the region south of lake
Champlain, have succeeded long since, in showing that a con-
siderable mass of strata embraced by Emmons in the Taconic,
lies really within the New York system. It is not known,
however, that no genuine sub-Potsdam Taconic occurs within
the same area. Indeed, it has been shown while I write, that
the quartzite series contains sub-Potsdam fossils, and extends
from near Bennington in Vermont to Williamstown, Mass., and
Stissing mountain in Pine Plains, Dutchess county, N. Y.?

1 This equivalence was urged by N. H. Winchell in his vice-presidential
address before the Am. Assc. Ady. Sci. in 1884.—[Ep.]
2 Walcott: Zhe Taconic System of Emmons. Am. Jour. Sci., 3, xxxv, pp.

234-6.

358 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

As to the region east and north of lake Champlain, investiga-
tions equally assiduous have succeeded in showing that a con-
siderable area is occupied by strata older than the Potsdam; and
that they contain a fauna of a truly primordial character, whose
geological position is lower than any fossiliferous strata known
to either Murchison or Sedgwick. Nothing more is needed
than this simple statement.’

Thus the investigations of forty years have shown that the
central conception of Dr. Emmons was founded on fact. This
was simply a system of fossiliferous strata older than the New
York system. Such system has been demonstrated by the re-
searches of many investigators — Perry, Barrande, Billings, Mar-
cou, Ford and Walcott. “To him belongs,” says Walcott, “the
credit of recognizing and describing the Middle Cambrian series
of North America, as a distinct formation, both on structural
and paleontologic grounds. * * * The central idea of
which [Emmons’ proposal] that a great series of Palwozoic
strata, of pre-Potsdam age, existed east of the Hudson river
shales of the valley of the Hudson and lake Champlain, we now
know was correct.”

It signifies nothing that others— Dana, Dwight, Walcott’—
have shown that some strata of the New York system are in-
cluded among those described by Dr. Emmons as Taconic. Any
amount of demonstration of such a proposition has no bearing
against the conclusion that sub-Potsdam strata do exist, as
Emmons alleged, and in the region originally circumscribed by
the founder of the Taconic. ’

Mr. Walcott, who seems disposed to do justice, expresses re-
gret that he cannot apply the term Taconic to the series of fos-
siliferous strata older than the Ordovician, the middle division
of which Emmons distinguished “on structural and palzonto-
logic grounds.”” But, if we do so, he says, “the great lower
division described by Emmons as the typical Taconic, will be
dropped entirely, and the Upper Taconic, which is not now

1'The objections urged against the Taconic are discussed seriatim by
my brother, N. H. Winchell, in American Geologist, March, 1888, pp. 162-72.

2 Walcott: Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 30, p. 65.

3 See especially, Walcott’s most recent paper, Am. Jour. Sci., (3), xxxv,
229-42 — still to be continued.

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question. 359

- known to occur in the Taconic area, would be taken as the
true Taconic, which it does not appear to be, although Dr.
Emmons included the Black Slate in it in 1847.”?

The above paragraph, if I successfully penetrate its meaning,
seems to me at variance with good reasoning. If Dr. Emmons
characterized well the middle division of Mr. Walcott’s Cam-
brian, it seems to me the twoends must go with the middle into
the Taconic, whether Emmon’s established a proper order
within the Taconic or not. If, in continuing, the writer means
that the great lower division of the Taconic was “described
as the typical Taconic,” I should beg to differ, since the greatest
abundance of Taconic characteristics cited by Emmons per-
tained to the Upper Taconic—as finally he designated it.
The Lower Taconic was originally described simply as a part
of the Taconic, and if it cannot hold its place a large body of
Taconic rocks remains. Lastly, with the statement that the
Upper Taconic “is not now known to occur in the Taconic
area,” I beg again to differ, since the whole“ Georgia group,” -
as defined and mapped by Walcott, and ranged in the middle
division of his Cambrian, falls within the original Taconic area.
The Upper Cambrian of Walcott was excluded from the Ta-
conic, but it appears that its paleontological affinities carry it
there.

Mr, Walcott’s position will be made plain by the following
compilation of results embodied in his last paper, to which ref-
erence has already been made:

Parallel with Walcott’s stratigraphy I have placed the prin
cipal members of Emmons’ system, showing the singular strati-
graphical disorder into which he fell. At the right hand, the
Taconic and Cambrian stand as I would here propose.

It is chiefly in consequence of this unfortunate confusion that
Mr. Walcott concludes the term Taconic ought to be dropped
out of use. It seems almost presumptuous to differ with so
thorough and candid an investigator. Mr. Walcott seems to have
completed happily the difficult work on which professor Dana has
so skillfully labored for several years. The results possess the
highest scientific value, for the labor has been one of exceptional

1 Bull. U. S. Surv., No. 30, p. 65.

360

A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

difficulty, requiring paleontologic and stratigraphic skill of the

highest order.

A flood of light now shines on a question long

dark. We can understand that the defenders and the opposers
of the Taconic have all had good reasons for their claims—if

they had not made them so exclusive.

ORDOVICIAN.

CAMBRIAN,

MIDDLE.

| WALCOTT.

UPPER.

Walcott’s stratigraphy within the Taconic area.

Hudson terrane.

4. Shales and sandstones.
Graptolites.

6. Red, black and green shales, cherts and sand-
stones, faulted in between two parts of terrane

Smooth shales with

No. 5. With Graptolites.

Trenton-Chazy-Calciferous.

38. Limestone and marble, both sides of the 1'a-
conic range. Determinations worked out chiefly
by Dana.! Fossils investigated by Wing, Dana and
Dwight, and by Walcott.

Potsdam group.
2. Talcose and silicious slates, sandstones and
limestones. 2,000 feet.
i 2. Limestone with Potsdam fauna.
cara J 1. Massive sandstone, with typical
y- | Potsdam fossils farther north.
(3.

Washington } 2
county. la

Dutchess
county.

Limestone, with Potsdam fauna.
Potsdam sandstone.

{Limestone with Potsdam fossils.

Georgia group.

1. Quartzyte series.

Shore-line deposit, con-
temporaneous with No.
5, Not as low as lowest
of No. 5. Bennington
and Pownal, Vt., North
Adams, Mass., Stissing
Mt., Dutchess Co., and
elsewhere.

5. Georgia terrane.
Slates, shales and in-

and sandstones 14,000
feet. Off shore deposits.
Fossils at over 100 lo-
calities in the typical
Taconic area.

LOWER.

Paradoxides fauna belongs below.

Calciferous, fnterbedded in shales.

Emmons’
equivalents.

Lower Taconic.
Talcose slates.

‘URTINIIS

IOEMOT JO UOTIIVO
-dor 8 AljeIguessa

Lower Taconic.
Stockbridge lime-
stone.

Super-Taconic.
Chazy at Bald Mt.

Super-Taconic.
Calciferous.
Potsdam.
Overlapping by

faulting.

terbedded limestones.

Lower Upper
‘aconic.—Taconie.
Granular} Slates,
quartz, Shales,
limestones,
sandstones

American geology owes

| “UPLLIU MA

“NVIYAWNVO

“OINOOVGSG

Mr. Wallcott gratitude and honor for what he has accomplished.
But I am inclined to the opinion that it is the very severity of
his scientific method which prevents his due appreciation of the
bearing of the facts which he has been foremost to bring to

1 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1872 to 1887.

'

‘A. Wincheli on the Taconic Question. 361

light. Mr. Walcott has gone farther than a comprehension of
the elements of the Taconic question requires. He has followed
Taconic history too far, and with too much minutiz of criticism
for a broad, judicial contemplation of the essential problem —
though not, I repeat, too far for the ends of science. He has
disclosed many egregious errors which, at first view, are rather
confounding, and suggest that with so much mixture of error,
confusion and truth, it may be best to abandon Taconic to the
records of the past. But when we rise from the study of these
perplexing and discouraging features of Taconic history, and
generalize our field of view again, we observe that after all, they
are but details, subordinate to the grand fundamental conception
of a sub-Silurian and sub-Cambrian system of rocks and of life.
As long as Dr. Emmons’ central conception remains valid, we
must not be too exacting in reference to the details of his deter-
minations. Nor must we mercilessly hold to the standards of
to-day, the conclusions of a research prosecuted over forty years
ago, when primordial paleontology scarcely had existence
either in America or Great Britian; and when stratigraphic and
petrographic methods of research were generally no more
thorough than those which Emmons so long, and so patiently,
and so full of conviction, pursued. Unfortunate circumstances
surrounding him gave an adverse set to opinion, which no
efforts of his friends could change during his life-time. Those
who knew Dr. Emmons personally can understand some of the
reasons of this. But personal dislikes are poor arguments, and
they become contemptible when known only as traditions. We
are concerned at this day, only for truth and justice. If we
can discern the grand outlines of truth and justice, we shall not
be frightened away by some details of error and misconception.
Viewing the subject in a large way, with a mind free from
prejudice and prepossession, I feel borne to the conviction that
the Taconic system has a right to stand.

2. Defenders of the claims of the Taconic. American de-
fenders I will not cite; but I wish to quote the judgment of M.
Barrande, whose competency perhaps none will question:

« At its origin, that is to say, from 1838 to 1844, this Taconic
system was presented as founded on petrographic and strati-
graphic observations, and constituted simply the sedimentary

362 A. Winchell on the Taconic Question.

base, according to the American expression. It was still with-
out any characteristic fauna. But in 1844, Dr. Emmons having
discovered in this formation fossils before unknown, his Taconic
system for him represented the falwozoic base.

“This expression, used on the other side of the Atlantic, is
evidently equivalent to that of “primordial fauna,’ which I
have applied to the trilobitic group, the oldest of Bohemia, de-
fined for the first time in my JVotice preliminaire, in 1846. It
is known that the ZL¢xzgale which characterize the horizon of
Lingula flags in Wales, that is, the Cambrian region of Eng-
land, were only discovered by Mr. Davis in 1845 [Siluria, 2d
ed. p. 43, 1859: ]

“In comparing these dates, it is clear that Dr. Emmons had
first announced the existence of a fauna anterior to that which
had been established in the ‘Silurian System’ as characterizing
the Lower Silurian division, and which I have named second
fauna. It is then just to recognize this priority, and I think it
all the more fitting to state it at this time, that it has not been
claimed to this day.” !

I agree with Marcou that “it is evident that if Barrande had
seen the memoirs of Emmons when they appeared, he would
have used the name “ Taconic” to designate all that lower part
of the most ancient strata of Bohemia which, having nothing
better, he called Divisions A, B, and C of the Lower Silurian.’

The other judge whom I desire to cite is M. Dewalque, the
general secretary of the committee on uniformity of nomen-
clature. At the meeting of the International Congress at Ber-
lin, in 1885, after giving the opinions of various national com-
mittees in reference to the classification of the lowest Paleozoic
rocks, M Dewalque said:

“‘ Since the receipt of the reports of the national committees,
the question to be decided has become complicated. M. Jules
Marcou, in an important work published by the American
Academy of Science and Arts, and entitled “ Zhe Taconic
System and its position in Stratigrapic Geology,” has vindi-

1 Documens anciens ct nouveaux sur la Faune primordiale et le Systeme
Taconigue en Amerique. Bull. Soc. geologique de France, 2 ser., tom.,
VAI, Py 22 5h TOOL:

2 Proceedings Amer. Acad., xii, 252, 1885.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 363

cated the priority of the term Taconic, of which the Cambrian
above mentioned [ of primordial fauna | would be the equivalent.
To us the question seems demonstrated. In such a case, the
term Cambrian would be employed to replace the Ordovician,
and the name Silurian would come back by right to group 6.
If we be not in error, this solution would avoid many difficult-
ies.”

3. Position and Eguivalences of the Taconic system. I for-
bear the presentation of any extended table of sub-divisions and
equivalents of the Taconic system. After the presentation of
Mr. Walcott’s results, it is scarcely necessary to do more than
refer for comparison to the table of M. Marcou in his last pub-
lication.' I conclude by saying, that in my opinion, the proposal
of M. Dewalque is entirely feasible and just. The term Or-
dovician has no need to appear in American geology. It stands,
in England and America, for the rocks first named Cambrian;
and Taconic stands for the older strata holding the primordial
fauna. I favor, therefore, the following arrangement:

III. Silurian [—Upper Silurian, containing 3d fauna.]
II. Cambrian [—Ordovician, containing 2d faun.]
I. Taconic [Containing primordial fauna.]

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARCHAZZAN GEOLOGY OF
f MISSOURI.

BY ERASMUS HAWORTH.

PART II.
B. THe PoRPHYRIES AND PORPHYRYTES.

The porphyries and porphyrytes constitute at least nineteen-
twentieths of the massive rocks of Missouri. They are the
most extensively developed around Pilot Knob, and Iron Moun-
tain. The different varieties grade into each other by almost
imperceptible transitions, not only in the character of the rocks,
but also with reference to the geographical areas over which
they are exposed. In general the most acid types are near

1On the Use of the Term Taconic, Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist., Boston, xxiii,
Mar. 2, 1887, pp. 343-55.

364 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missourt.

Pilot Knob. As we pass to the south and southeast we find
them becoming more and more basic.

(a) Mineralogical composition.

The minerals which occur in sufficient quantities to form any
considerable proportion of the rock masses are quartz, orthoclase,
plagioclase, and epidote. The list of accessory minerals is much
greater. Some of these are original constituents, and some are
of secondary origin. They are, iron-oxides of different kinds,
chlorite, leucoxene, calcite, apatite, fluorite, pyrite, zircon, rutile?,
muscovite, and piedmontite. It is quite probable that biotite, or
hornblende, or augite has been present in considerable quantity
in the more basic varieties, and that it was the source of the
greater portion of the epidote so abundant in some of the por-
phyrytes; but no instance was noticed in which either of these
three was present, even in the smallest quantity.

It is interesting to note that the general mineralogical com-
position of the porphyries is almost identical with that of the
granites. The absence of biotite and hornblende and augite in
the porphyries has already been mentioned and a probable ex-
planation given. Topaz would be expected only where fume-
role action has existed, and therefore its presence or absence has
but little, if any, bearing on the probable original composition
of the rock magma. Zircon is comparatively rare in the por-
phyries, and iron-oxide is much more abundant than in the
granites. Otherwise there is almost no difference in the miner-
alogical composition of these two rock families as they occur in
Missouri.

(6) Special description of minerals.

Tron-oxide. Wittle black grains of iron-oxide—probably mag-

netite in most instances—are scattered all through every thin sec-

tion of the porphyries examined. The most common size of
these grains is 0.05 mm, but some of them are much larger, and
others are very much smaller. Quite frequently the very little
grains are arranged in lines, and when looked at with an ordi-
nary magnifying power would be taken for threads or hair-like
inclusions, but when examined with a high power their true
character is revealed.

In some localities the iron-oxide is unevenly distributed

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 365

through the rock mass, so that it gives the rock a spotted ap-
pearance. A portion at least, of the so-called fragmental rocks
owe their spotted color to this cause.

Orthoclase and plagioclase. One of these minerals is al-
ways present and in many cases the two exist side by side.
The presence or absence of quartz does not determine the
relative amounts of them. In the more basic varieties the
plagioclase is labradorite or bytownite, and in the more acid
ones it is oligoclase or andesin, as is shown by their specific
gravity determinations. In specimen number 273 the results
obtained were 2.716, and in number 223 it was 2.665. It
is interesting to note that number 223 has no_porphyritic
quartz whatever, while number 273, with the basic feldspar, has
a great deal of quartz in the very coarse ground mass by the
side of large quantities of epidote. Usually the feldspars are
quite fresh. When altered they yield the ordinary products of
alteration.

Epidote. This mineral is present in varying amounts in a great
many of the porphyries. Its irregular distribution in the rock-
and

mass—often occurring in partially decomposed feldspars
the total absence of crystalline form indicate that it is of secondary
origin and suggest that probably it was mainly derived from an
iron silicate which has been wholly changed so that no vestige
of it can now be discovered. The epidote varies from the small-
est grains to those an eight of an inch in diameter. As we pass
south from Pilot Knob the amount gradually increases. In
some places, particularly at’ the Piedmont quarries, it is suffi-
ciently abundant to give the rock a spotted, dark green color.

Piedmontite. This rare manganese epidote exists in small
quantities in the porphyries at different places. It is most abun-
dant at the quarries four miles southeast of Anapolis, but traces
of it were seen in specimens from Piedmont; and, judging from
the similarity of different rocks, it should be looked for at all those
quarries along the road between Hogan and Piedmont. Speci-
mens numbers 278 and 279 have the largest amount of the min-
eral of any examined. They are reddish, coarse-grained porphy-
rytes, consisting essentially of a quartz and plagioclase ground-
mass through which iron-oxide, epidote, and the piedmontite are
scattered. The porphyritic constituent is plagioclase. The pied-

366 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

montite is in small, irregular grains which, while not being in
well-developed crystals, are often elongated sufficiently to show
their axial directions.

_ In order to determine whether or not the mineral was pied-
montite it was subjected to the following examinations. A
careful microscopic examination was made, which showed that
a portion, at least, of the grains extinguished parallel to their
greatest elongation. Piedmontite is elongated parallel to crys-
tallographic b, and all sections in the zone of the basal-pinacoid
and orthopinacoid planes would have parallel extinction. The
mineral is strongly pleochroic, giving @ == carmine, b = ame-
thyst, © — orange. These correspond quite well with the colors
given by Laspeyres' for piedmontite from St. Marcel. The
index of refraction is quite strong, as is shown by the apparent
thickness of the mineral in the slide. A quantity of the mineral
was isolated by first making a separation of the portions of the
rock heavier than 3.1 by means of the Thoulet solution, and
boiling the powder thus obtained in strong chlorhydric «cid,
which dissolved the iron oxides, leaving the piedmontite mixed
with epidote. During the boiling examinations were made to
see if free chlorine were given off, which would have been the
case had manganese dioxide been present. None whatever
could be detected. The residue looked quite red, and gave a
strong reaction for manganese.

Now the only two minerals with which piedmontite is lia-
ble to be confused are withamite and thulite, two varieties of
epidote. Rosenbusch, in the last edition of his petrography, is
inclined to class with withamite all the red epidotes which he

mentions as occurring in porphyries—see p. 472. Lacroix” has
investigated the optical properties of withamite and thulite, and
finds that they correspond very closely with those given by
Laspeyres for piedmontite. Thus, all three are positive; the
three pleochroic colors are the same for the three minerals, and
have the same arrangement in piedmontite and withamite, but
different in thulite. The colors in piedmontite, however, are a
little more strong than in either of the others.

The different text-books examined which mention withamite

1 Zeitschr, fiir Kryst, vol. 4, pp. 435-468.
2 Bull, de la Soc. Francaise de Min., p. 75.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 367

give it as a manganese free epidote. But in Prof. Heddles’?
complete analysis of the mineral he finds 0.138 per cent. of MnO.
I did not succeed in isolating a sufficient amount of the Missouri
mineral for a quantitative analysis, but judging from the results
of the qualitative examinations there is little chance to doubt the
presence of manganese in sufficient quantity to make the mineral
a piedmontite. The occurrence of this rare mineral in Mis-
souri is quite interesting. So far as known to the writer it has
thus far been reported from but three different localities;
St. Marcel in Piedmont, Italy; Jacobsberg in Wermland,
Sweden; and from Japan. The last named locality was recently
reported by Prof. Koto* who describes it as occurring very
abundantly in the Archzan schists and gneisses.

(c) Structure of the porphyrtes.

The structure of the groundmass has always been regarded
as a matter of first importance by students of porphyritic rocks.
This groundmass may be holo-crystalline, semi-crystalline, or
glassy. Rosenbusch divides the first of these into the mzcro-
granitic and granophyric and designates the second and third
respectively by the terms felsophyric and vitrophyric. In the
Missouri porphyries a third class of the holo-crystalline ground-
mass is so well represented that it should receive special notice.
Before describing it, however, a short discussion of the different
possibilities in a holocrystalline groundmass may be of interest.
The following is taken from the lecture notes of Prof. G. H.
Williams, who kindly consented to my copying it:

“A holocrystalline groundmass contains no amorphous or unindivid-
ualized matter whatever, and independently of differences occasioned
by variations in the fineness of grain, three quite distinct types of holo-
crystalline structure are distinguishable. These three types are condi-
tioned by the mutual relation of the quartz and feldspar crystals which
compose the groundmass. In the first place they may be wholly inde-
pendent, thus giving rise to a granular aggregate which is well designated
by the term Microgranitic Structure.

In the second place a granular effect may be produced by the complete
interpentration of two individual crystals of the same size. In this case

1 Mineralog. Magazine, vol. 5. p. 15.
2 Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, vol.
1, part III, pp. 303-312.

368 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

—due to the simultaneous crystallization of the two minerals from the
magma—all the parts of the same individual, no matter what the size or
shape, must have exactly the same opticalorientation, and must hence
extinguish the light between crossed nicols together. Such a structure
is termed, according to the particular form it assumes, micropegmatitic or
gvanophyric. In the third place a single large crystal of one of the two
constituents of the groundmass may be filled with much smaller, irregu-
larly arranged grains or crystals of the other. This would also give the .
general effect of a finely granular structure, although it is essentially dif-
ferent from either of the others above mentioned.”

This type of structure apparently has never received attention
as a variety of the holocrystalline groundmass in porphyries,
but it is admirably exhibited in the Missouri rocks. It may
perhaps best be designated as the pecilitic structure, being
strictly analogous to the mottled appearance described by this
term by Prof. Williams in certain coarse-grained peridotytes,
where large hornblende crystals are dotted through with grains
of olivine and hypersthene.'

We may therefore divide the Missouri porphyries, in regard
to the structure of their groundmass, as follows:

I. Holocrystalline. (1) Microgranitic.
(2) Granophyric.
(3) Peecilitic.

II. Semicrystalline. (4) Felsophyric.

III. Glassy. (5) Vitrophyric.

. Lhe microgranitic structure: This class includes more
than half of the different kinds of porphyritic rocks of the whole
area. It is represented in the quartz-porphyries, the quartz-
free-porphyries, and the porphyrytes. The porphyritic indi-
viduals in it are sometimes corroded, but not so frequently nor
so badly as in those with felsophyric and vitrophyric structures.
The size of the individual crystals in the groundmass varies
greatly. In the coarsest grained ones the constituents can readily
be determined to be quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase, the
particular associations depending on the nature of the rock.
From this degree of coarseness they pass into the microfelsytes
by almost imperceptible gradations.

2. The granophyric structure: This is so well known it

1 See the Peridotites of the Cortland series. Am. Jour. Sci., (3). xxx,
p. 30, Jan., 1886, and xxxiii, p. 139, Feb., 1887.

*

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 369

needs no special description here. It is represented in compar-
atively few localities in this area. Some of the coarsely crystal-
line varieties which are as nearly granites as porphyries belong
to this type, such as number 268, from near Hogan. It is very
common to find a porphyritic individual of feldspar or quartz
that has served as a nucleus around which the radiating rays of
the granophyre are clustered. Fig. 2, pl. 1, from number 410,
the wall rocks of the big dyke at the Tin Mines, show this
quite well.

3°. The pecilitic styucture. In many of the fine grained
rocks the individual grains cannot be seen unless highly magni-
fied, but if the section be revolved on the stage of the microscope
while the nicols are crossed the whole field is broken up into
different areas, each of which will change alternately from dark
to light. A great many little specks of feldspathic material are
scattered through the whole mass, but they seem to be entirely
irregular in their arrangement. Fig. 1, pl.iis an attempt to
represent this structure as seen in number 211, taken from the
north side of Shephard mountain, about three-fourths of the
distance from the base to the summit.

As the crystallization increases these different areas increase
in definiteness, so that in the more coarse-grained varieties their
true character can readily be determined. Fig. 3, pl. i, shows
a coarse-grained porphyry, number 347, in which this structure
is well represented. A given quartz crystal is entirely sur-
rounded by a larger area of a mixture of quartz and feldspar in
which the quartz is oriented with the central crystal. In reality,
then, this is a large quartz crystal, a portion of which has a great
deal of the feldspathic material as an impurity scattered through
it in an irregular manner. In some cases the feldspar is well
crystallized, and projects into the quartz crystal, as shown in the
same figure. This, then, is the explanation for all of these areas
into which the field breaks up as the stage is revolved. Each
one represents a quartz or feldspar crystal throughout which
the feldspar material is irregularly scattered. The degree of
crystallization determines the definiteness of outline of each area,
and the amount of light which passes depends largely on the
distribution of the feldspar material.

4°. The felsophyric structure. A large proportion of the

370 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

porphyries of this area have a structure corresponding to the
popular microfelsitic, or felsophyric. Some of them are exceed-
ingly fine-grained, and differ from the microgranites in this re-
spect only; others more closely resemble those with the pecilitic
structure; while still others are rocks which have many spheru-
lites scattered through them. Many of them have the flow
structure well developed, and it is not unusual to find associated
in one slide the spherulites, the flow structure, and a very fine-
grained micro-granitic structure.

All of the rocks of this structure are very compact and have
a flinty fracture. They are very abundant around Middlebrook,
Pilot Knob, and many other localities.

5°. The vitrophyric structure. Rocks of this class origi-
nally were vitrophyres, but the process of devitrification has
progressed so far that at present little if any of the isotropic
ground mass remains, yet the structure is such there can be no
reasonable doubt regarding their original condition.

About two hundred yards north of the station at Arcadia a
large mass of porphyry is exposed by the roadside. Specimens
202 and 203 are from this place. They have badly corroded
quartz and orthoclase crystals, and have the flow structure well
developed in the ground mass. Less than a fourth of a mile
away, at the foot of the hill northeast of the Methodist church
is another rock, number 204, which has the flow structure as.
well developed as any modern volcanic rock. On the south
side of Shepard mountain, about half way from the base to
the summit, there are a number of thin, even layers less than
two inches thick which were thought to be sedimentary rocks,
but which, upon examination with the microscope, proved to be
lava flows. Number 216 is from this place. Many other lo-
calities of similar rocks could be given, but these will serve for
illustration.

The rocks representing these fine types of structure have no
sharp lines between them, but they pass from one extreme to
the other by many intermediate grades.

A comparative study of the porphyries and granites of this
district reveals the interesting fact that there is no sharp division
line between the two, at least so far as can be judged from the
hand specimens. The question naturally arises, “Do we have

.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. Biya

here in Missouri an illustration of the gradual transition from a
holocrystalline, coarse-grained rock through the fine-grained
ones into those which originally were vitrophyres?” If the
field relations strongly corroborate the evidence obtained from
the hand specimens it will add greatly to the probabilities in
favor of the correctness of an affirmative answer. Let us see
what the facts are.

There are two important points however which should con-
stantly be kept in mind while considering this question. 1°. The
present elevations may, and probably do, differ from those which
obtained during the period of solidification of the rock masses.
The time has been so long that surface erosion and oscillations
may have somewhat changed the original contour. 2°. The
surface of this original eruptive mass during the period of solid-
ification very probably was quite uneven. It is the distance
below this original surface at which any given rock mass solid-
ified that should determine its structure, and not necessarily its
relation to the present surface.

It is therefore manifest that in certain cases there may be ap-
parent reversions of the rule that the farther below the surface
a rock exists the more coarsely crystalline it is. Such cases are
not lacking. Specimen number 214, from the very summit of

hepard mountain is more highly crystalline than number 204,
which came from a point in the valley 600 feet below. But
there are many reason for believing number 204 was ina valley
of the erupted material and that this valley has not been eroded
as much as has the top of Shepard mountain, therefore number
214 probably cooled farther below the surface than did number
204.

Now it is an interesting fact that all the granite exposures
are on comparatively low ground, with porphyry hills near by;
and also that generally there is good evidence of extensive ero-
sion from the surfaces of the granite beds. Thus we find them
along the valley of the St. Francois, the largest stream in the
district; and along the lower portion of Stout’s creek. The
Graniteville quarries, it is true, are not located on a stream of
any great size, but they are in a valley with high porphyry hills
almost all around. Passing back from the streams we find that
whenever granite is exposed it is a fine grained variety, and in

372 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

its general appearance resembles the porhpyries. In some places
rocks were seen which, macroscopically, as much resembled the
porphyries as the granites.

If we turn to the porphyries themselves we shall find, that
those from the base of the hills are more coarse grained than
those near the top. Number 268 is from the base of a hill more
than 400 feet high. It is in structure half way between the
granites and porphyries. All of the porphyrytes from number
273 to 280 are from quarries which are near the bases of the
hills. They all have a very coarse grained microgranitic struc-
ture. Number 287, from about two miles west of the Silver
Mines, is from the base of a hill 500 feet high. It has the
peecilitic structure very well developed, and is a very coarse
grained porphyry.

In more than 220 hand specimens examined in the prepara-
tion of this article not a single one represents a coarse grained
porphyry from the top of a hill, while many of them show
that the rocks at the top of high hills are much more fine grained
than those from the bases of the same. _The transition from
the coarsest microgranite into the finest grained felsophyre is
absolutely without a break. The series from the coarse grained
granite to the micro-granites is almost as complete.

No instance was seen in which this change could be traced
from one extreme degree of crystallization into the other in the
same rockmass. But this may be due to the insufficiency of
the field-work done, or to the fact that a heavy covering of soil
usually conceals the rocks over an area between the granites
along the streams aud the porphyry hills farther back.

It is thought that the evidence now at hand is sufficient to
warrant the suggestion, as a working bypothesis, that we have
here an example of the gradual transition from a coarse grained
granite into a very fine grained felsophyre; such transition in
structure being due to the difference of physical conditions —
heat and pressure—under which the various massess solidified,
difherences largely brought about by the varying depths at
which different portions of the original magma existed.

The old classification of massive rocks based upon their age
is at present almost entirely abandoned, but a short review of
the work which has contributed to this result may not be amiss
in this place.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 373

The classification was based on the idea that there was a
marked difference between the structure of pre-Tertiary rocks
and those younger. It was believed, for example, that the
granite and gabbros were of pre-Tertiary age, and that all rocks
as young as the Tertiary which were similar to them in chemical
composition differed from them materially in structure, being
much less perfectly crystalline.

In 1874 Prof. J. W. Judd’ published a long paper, on the
secondary rocks of Scotland, in which he showed that the
granites, and gabbros of Lyke, Mull and other points were of
Tertiary age, and that they graded into the overlying volcanic
rocks which were glassy, the degree of crystallization varying
with the depth below the surface at which the rock mass solidi-
fied. In 1876 he published? a paper of similar import concerning
the rocks of Shemnitz, Hungary.

In Feb., 1885, Messrs. Arnold Hague and J. P. Iddings* pub-
lished their paper, Oz the development of crystallization in the
igneous rocks of Washoe, Nevada, in which they showed that
the structure of the rocks varied with the depth, and that the
deep seated ones, previously called Archean, were of the same
age as those near the surface which had been: called much
younger. Inthe same year Prof. Alfred Steltzner* published
his work entitled: “ Beitrage zur Geologie und Palzontologie
der Argentinische Republic,” in which he describes four different
localities in the Andes mountains near the boundary between
Chili and the Argentine Republic that show gradual transitions
from the holocrystalline rocks, such as granites and diorytes,
into andesitic lavas, tuffs, and breccia. It should be noted that
his field work was done from 1871, to 1874. In February, 1886,
Prof. Judd’ published a long paper reviewing those published by
him in 1874 and 1876, and adding considerable evidence to the
views therein expressed.

1 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1874, vol. 30, pp. 220-303.

2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1876, vol. 32, pp. 292-324.

3 U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 17.

4 Title as above, 1, Geologische Theil., pp. 198-213, Cassel und Berlin.
‘The book was reviewed by Prof.G. H. Williams in Am. J. Sci,. vol. 33,
Pp- 315-316.

5 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 42, pp. 49-97.

374 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

In April of the same year Signor B. Lotti’ described certain
Italian rocks which teach the same lesson. In 1887 Karl Dal-
mer? described the quartz trachytes and other rocks from Cam-
piglia in which he finds additional evidence that crystallization
depends principally upon the conditions of heat and pressure at
the time of solidification, rather than upon the age of the rock
magma.

(d@) Classification of the porphyries.

In the classification of the porphyries it is customary to base
the first general divisions on the mineral constituents of the rocks
considered, and, a portion at least, of the subdivisions on the
structure of the ground mass. In this way Rosenbusch divides
the paleo-volcanic rocks into five general divisions, or families;
the quartz-porphyries, the quartz-free-porphyries, the porphy-
rytes, the augite-porphyrytes, and the pickrite-porphyrytes. The
first three of these families are well represented in Missouri,
and the fourth very probably existed at one time, although at
present, as before stated, the epidote is the only representative
of the original bisilicate, whatever it may have been.

The quartz porphyries include representatives of three of the
sub-divisions given by Rosenbusch. These three are: micro-
granites, granophyres, and felsophyres, the rocks which orig-
inally were vitrophyres having been completely devitrified.
The quartz-free porphyries can well be placed in a single sub-
division, the orthophyres; the minor sub-divisions, such as augite
orthophyre, biotite orthophyre, etc, have not been discovered,
and probably do not exist.

The porphyrytes cover a very large area. The different
varieties grade into each other so that division lines cannot easily
be drawn between them. Some of them have quartz as an es-
sential constitutent, and others do not. Some have an abundance
of epidote, and others have none. Leaving out of consideration,
the augite porphyrytes— and we have to do this, because we
can say nothing about them with certainty —we may represent
the classification of the whole of the palzo-volcanic surface rocks

1R. Com. Geol. D’Italio Boll., April, 1886, p. 73. Reviewed by Prof.
J. D. Dana in Am. J. Sci., vol. 32, p. 239.
2 Neues Jahrb, 1887. 11 Band, pp. 206-221.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 375

of Missouri by the following scheme, the numbers used refer-
ring to typical specimens of each class.
Microgranite, 287, 347.

Quartz-porphyry . . 4 Granophyre, 268, 410.
Felsophyre, 204, 283.

Porphyries + Quartz-free porphyry { Orthoclase, 213.

Porpliyry ter. che hs5. Epidote-free, 223.

Epidote-bearing, 273.
C. DiIABASE AND DIABASE PORPHYRYTES.

Under this head are included all the dyke rocks of the dis-
trict. It is thought they are sufficiently related to be considered,
under one general head. The dykes themselves have already
been described, so that the petrographic discriptions may at once
be introduced.

(a) Mineralogical composition.

Mineralogically there is nothing new in these rocks. The
most abundant mineral is plagioclase. Then follow augite, oliv-
ine, ilmenite with its decomposition product leucoxene, chlorite,
iron-oxide — probably magnetite—hornblende, quartz, biotite,
apatite, epidote, pyrite, calcite and serpentine. To this list of
constituents glass must be added, since it forms an essential
part of a few rocks.

The character and mode of occurrence of the greater portion
of these constituents do not differ essentially from those often
described by others, and consequently need only be mentioned
ina general way. The ilmenite, leucoxene, and iron-oxide are
presentin all the rocks, and are quite uniformly scattered through-
out the mass. The chlorite, of course, is a decomposition pro-
duct, and is the most abundant in the weathered specimens.
The biotite is scarce, but in a few specimens, particularly num-
ber 235, large individuals of it occur. ~Apatite, as usual, is
scattered through all the rocks; epidote only occasionally occurs,
and is probably always secondary. Pyrite is not often found,
but a few of the porphyrytes have it scattered uniformly through
the ground-mass. Calcite and serpentine are present only as
secondary products.

(2) Special description of minerals.

Plagioclase. This mineral always occurs in the form of long,

376 -Haworth on the grchean Geology of Missouri.

slender crystals which generally show the twinning lamelle very.
perfectly. A determination of its specific gravity in specimen
346, an olivine diabase, showed it to vary from 2.671 to 2.718.
The same kind of a determination for number 415 gave a varia-
tion from 2.655:to 2.709. In this case the presence of a glass.
somewhat interfered with the separation, so that the results may
not be exactly reliable. Quite a number of extinction angles
were measured in other specimens by the Pumpelly-Lévy
method with the following results:
Number 301 gave 38° 4. 37° Number 310 gave 38° 4 36°.
eS 238) Not OBS rh wg OlZ

The results of these two investigations indicate that we have
a lime-soda feldspar varying from andesin to bytownite, with
possibly a little anorthite.

The size of the plagioclase individuals varies greatly. In the
more coarse-grained rocks they can readily be seen macroscopi-
cally, but in some of the diabase porphyrytes they are not more
than a tenth of a millimetre long. Ina few cases the other
constituents decrease until the rock is nearly all plagioclase.
Numbers 349 and 365 are examples of this.

In the olivine diabase the feldspars are remarkably well pre-
served. Occasionally rifts across the crystals have their walls
coated with a green decomposition product, but in many of the
rocks this cannot be seen. In the uralite diabases, and those
badly weathered, the feldspars are often clouded with decom-
position products.

In number 235 orthoclase may replace a portion of the pla-
gioclase, but the feldspars are so clouded one cannot say toa
certainty.

Augite. This mineral generally occurs in allotriomorphous
masses filling the spaces between the feldspars. In a few of the
porphyritic rocks crystals with well formed outlines were ob-
served. In the fine-grained varieties the augite is scattered
throughout the groundmass.

In the olivine diabases it is unusually fresh, but in many of
the others it is badly altered, sometimes to hornblende, and
sometimes to chlorite and other products.

Olivine. This occurs in large quantities in nearly half the
specimens examined. Occasionally it is sufficiently idiomorphic

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 377

to show the general outlines of the crystal and to have two
or more planes well developed. Much more often, however, it
is very irregular in shape, and not unfrequently is entirely sur-
rounded by augite. Lines of fracture running through the crys-
tals are very common. In the unweathered specimens the olivine
is remarkably fresh, and is almost entirely colorless. As de-
composition progresses the borders and walls of the fracture lines
turn green, iron-oxide separates out— usually magnetite, but
sometimes a blood red oxide— and serpentine is obtained as the
end product, but the amount of this last is very small.
Flornblende. Itis quite probable this mineral never occurs in
the Missouri diabases as a primary constituent. Green, fibrous
hornblende is found in many of the specimens, and brown horn-
blende in three or four of them. In the greater number of in-
stances it exists under such conditions there can be no doubt
concerning its secondary origin. Number 235 shows this quite
well. Itisa coarse-grained rock with some of the crystals fully
one and a half centimetres long. The borders of nearly all

these augites are completely changed to hornblende, either green
or brown. It is not uncommon to find such a crystal with a rim
of brown hornblende forming but one individual. Fig. 4, pl. i,
represents a twin augite, with a green hornblende border, the
portion on the smaller member of the twin being a single indi-
vidual.

Number 370 also shows the change of augite to brown horn-
blende. Here we have a very fresh augite with few if any
crystallographic outlines. In some individuals there are numer-
ous little spots in which the change is complete. In other cases
the altered parts are much larger, and in a few instances olivine
crystals are entirely surrounded by the hornblende which is
probably secondary.

The green hornblende of the uralite-diabase is usually quite
fibrous. It is an interesting fact that in the specimens examined
not a single olivine-diabase is uralitized, while very few dia-
bases free from olivine were found in which uralite was not
abundantly developed at the expense of the pyroxene.

Quartz. Few of the diabases contain quartz, but number 235
has a considerable amount of it which forms a beautiful micro-
pegmatite with the feldspar. In other cases secondary quartz

378 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

is present, having resulted from the decomposition of some
of the original.

In number 366, we have an interesting example of what
seems to be primary quartz, existing in the form of porphyritic
individuals. This rock, which came from sec. 10, T. 33. N.
R.V.E., is adiabase porphyryte with a tolerably fine grained,
almost holocrystalline groundmass, consisting essentialy of pla-
gioclase and augite. It has numerous large, rounded, porphy-
ritic feldspars, some of which are two centimetres in diameter.
The porphyritic quartz is much smaller, the average diameter
being about two millimetres. Fig. 5, a. pl. 1, represents one of
these quartz-graines, and c, of the same figure is a secondary
quartz.

Around these supposed primary quartz grains there is a
border .oS mm wide which apparently is the result of a partial
refusion of the quartz grain by the magma just before its final
solidification. The border is composed almost entirely of little
slender augite crystals a majority of which are radially arranged
around the quartz. Some of these are as long as the border is
wide, and some of them are much shorter. The inner portion
of the border is decidedly green, but the color fades towards
the outside, even in the same augite individual.

Mr. Charles E. Coates, graduate student in the chemical
department of the Johns Hopkins University kindly made a
silica determination of this rock for me which showed it to con-
tain 53.4 per cent. SiO,. It is by no means common to find
free silica in a rock so basic as this. Its existence in such rocks
which were once molten seems to be a chemical paradox. Re-
cently, however, anumber of similar occurrences have been
reported, one of the most interesting of which is that described’
by, Mz.J.o'S: Diller of the Us 3S..G!.s..) In vthe? basalt arom
“ Cinder Cone” near Lassen peak, in California, he found quartz
crystals whose presence could reasonably be accounted for only
on the supposition that they were primary. An analysis of the
basalt showed it to have 57.25 per cent. SiO, , which makes it
more acid than the Missouri diabase. Until more is learned
concerning the effect of heat and pressure upon chemical affinity

..2 Am, Jr. Sei., vol. 33, p. 45, Jan., 1887.

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 379

one cannot well speculate regarding the possibility of quartz
crystallizing out of a basic molten magma. We know that in
the porphyries both quartz and feldspar are very often partially
redissolved after being formed, showing that during the effu-
Sive period some cause made the chemical affinity differ from
what it was at the time these crystals formed. For aught we
now know it is possible that quartz would crystallize out of a
deep seated, basic magma in a similar manner, and would be
wholly or partially redissolved when brought near the surface.

Glass. About half the specimens examined contain an un-
crystallized residue. The smaller dykes nearly all have it; and
some of the larger ones as well. In fact the largest dyke in the
whole district, the one at the place called the “Tin Mines” in
sec. 30, T. 33. N. R. VI, E., has the most glass. The 50 inch
dyke on the east side of the St. Francois also has a large amount
of glass. In the majority of cases devitrification has been
brought about by the development of small crystals of plagioclase
so that the original glass has almost disappeared. ‘Trichites and
crystal skeletons of iron-oxide are very abundant. In some of
the badly weathered diabase-porphyrytes the former existence
of a glass base is shown by the presence of these crystal skel-—
etons in the ground mass.

(6). Structure of the diabases.

The diabases vary in color from black with a waxy lustre, as
in the case of those from the “Tin Mines,” through steel gray,
to light grey sometimes mottled. Some of them havea greenish
tinge, and one, number 235, has so much pink feldspar mixed
with large black augite crystals that it gives the whole rock a
spotted pink and black color.

The texture of the diabases varies from coarse-grained with
crystals two centimetres long to those so fine-grained that their
macroscopic appearance is that of a homogeneous mass Num-
ber 284 and 289 perhaps are the extremes for fine texture. The
microscope shows that number 284 is holocrystalline. This is
quite unexpected, for it came from a six inch dyke in the por-
phyry. Number 289, from an eighteen inch dyke in granite,
however, contains a large amount of glass.

The structure of some of the more coase-grained glass-bearing

380 Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri.

rocks is quite interesting. Instead of appearing to be a glassy
groundmass in which the crystals are imbedded it looks more
as though the coarse crystals formed first and crowded the glass
into the interstitial spaces, so that the structure is that of a typi-
cal diabase in which a portion of the augite is replaced by the
glass. This particular type of structure is best illustrated in
> numbers 359,
411, 414,and 415. Fig. 6, pl. 1 istaken from number 415, and

number 290, and in those from the “Tin Mines,’

shows a portion of the section as it appeared in the field of view
when magnified 44 diameters. The occurrence of so much
glass in such a coarse-grained rock is rather unusual.

It is also interesting to note that at the “ Tin Mines” the
amount of glass decreases as we descend below the surface.
Thedyke cuts through a big hill of porphyry fully 400 feet high.
Years ago four different tunnels were driven into the hillside
in a vain search for tin. The first of these is about 75 feet
above the base of the hill; the others are higher up. Number
416, from this first tunnel, shows no glass, 415 has a small
amount relatively, while 414 and 411 have a great deal of it,
This locality was not visited by the writer, but from the char-
acter of the specimens received from Mr. Payne it would seem
that we here have an excellent illustration of the crystallization
of a molten magma being dependent upon the depth below the
surface at which it solidifies.

The structure of the ordinary diabase and olivine diabase is so:
well known it is useless to give it here in detail.

(c). Classification of the diabases.

From what has already been given it will be seen that with
reference to their mineralogical composition we have three
grades, or classes of diabases, the quartz-bearing, the olivine-
bearing, and those with neither of these minerals; also that the
last division may be sub-divided into the uralitized diabases, and
those in which the augite is not altered. With reference to the
structure we also have a number of varieties. There are the
holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic ones; the glass-bearing, coarse-
grained, hypidiomorphic ones, and those with a true porphyritic
structure. Only one porphyritic specimen was found which
contained olivine, but further search would probably reveal

Haworth on the Archean Geology of Missouri. 381

more, so this one must not be overlooked in the classification,
although it is the only representative of the melaphyres. The
following scheme represents the different types found, the num-
bers given being those of the hand specimens which are fair
representatives of the several types. The classification is slightly
different from that given by Rosenbusch in that all the dyke
rocks are here placed under one general head for convenience,
while he would place them under two.

hea Quartz-diabase, 235, 365.
Non-uralitized4 Wanting.
Holocrystalline : :
Diabase Bue? Uralitized .. eee ane
and an 236, 339-
diabase SNS
free. Hee porphyrytes,
porphyryte Glassy 290.
Here koe 388.
Okie Holocrystalline ~ Olivine-diabase.
(ouearine GISSS Yin a oe new te) 4+ Melaphyre.
Summary.

1° The Missouri Archean is interesting on account of its
isolated position, and on account of the simple character of its
rocks. 2°. The rocks may be divided into three general classes.
A, Granites; B, Porphyries of different kinds; C, Dyke rocks
which are diabase and diabase-porphyrytes. 3°. The granites
are mainly granitites with a small amount of biotite, but they
grade on the one hand into a quartz, feldspar granite —or gran-
itell of some American geologists and on the other into a horn-
blende-bearing granitite. 4°. The feldspar enlargements of
the granites probably resulted from a secondary growth, during
the effusive period of idiomorphic crystals formed during the
intertelluric stage. 5°. The idiomorphic quartz and feldspar
crystals, the micropegmatite, and the granophyric structure show
that the structure of the granites approaches the porphyritic,
and the gradation of the one into the other is easily traced. 6”,
The evidence of fumerole action at the Silver Mines consists in
the alteration of the granite wall rock of the vein and the for-

mation of topaz, wolframite, lepidolite, and fluorite. 7°. The

382 Claypole on the Interior of the Earth.

porphyries have a mineralogical composition which is almost
identical with that of the granites. 8°. The occurrence of the
rare manganese epidote, piedmontite, was noticed in three differ-
ent specimens, and probably it has a much wider range. 9°.
The structure of the porphyries varies from what was originally
a vitropyre with the flow structure well developed, through the
different grades of microfelsyte, granophyre, and micro- granite
into the fine-grained granites. 10° The poryhyries havea
structure, not described by others, for which the name peecilitic
is suggested. 11°. The dykes seem io be of Archean age, but
possibly a few of them are younger. Nearly all of them trend
from northeast to southwest, or approximately parallel to the
Ozark hills. 12°. Four general kinds of dyke rocks occur, the
quartz-diabase, the uralite-diabase, the olivine-diabase, and the
diabase-porphyryte. 13°. The quartz-diabase is interesting on
account of what seems to be primary, porphyritic quartz in so
basic a rock. 14°. The olivine-diabase is a very beautiful rock
which is unusually well preserved. 15°. The amount of glass
in the big dyke at the “ Tin Mines” decreases as we descend
from the surface, so that specimens taken from the lowest
tunnel show none.

ON SOME INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING THE CONDITION
OF THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH.

PROF. E. W. CLAYPOLE, AKRON, O.

he condition of the interior of the earth is perhaps the
most difficult problem with which geologists are now grappling.
Progress is slow, necessarily slow. All work must from the
nature of the case be done at arm’s length or more so to speak.
Inaccessible as are the depths of the sea we can reach them by
the use of an immensely elongated slender finger —the sound-
ing-wire with its grapnel and dredge. These implements ac-
tually bring within our grasp some small specimens of .the
material of which the bottom consists so that we are able to
handle and examine it in the laboratory.
But we are totally unable thus to reach and explore the in-

Claypole on the Interior of the Earth. 383

terior of the earth. All the mines and wells and bore-holes that
have been sunk are but so many punctures in the skin revealing
nothing of the great central mass below. No auger has ever
fathomed more than a single one of the four thousand miles
that separate us from the centre. And the data thus obtained
from this single mile are too slender, the material is too scanty
to warrant wholesale induction regarding the greater inacces-
sible residue of the sphere. Direct examination fails and we
are therefore driven to employ indirect methods — to infer from
feeble manifestations at the surface the nature and the intensity
of the energies at work below —to extend cautiously but im-
mensely the results of petty experiments in our laboratories
until they match in magnitude the vast operations in the great
subterranean laboratory of nature—and finally to deduce from
the known properties of matter its necessary or probable be-
haviour in unknown and unattainable conditions. All this is
working under immense difficulties and at enormous disadvant-
ages; and progress toward the solution of this interesting prob-
lem is proportionately slow.

And when in addition to all this we reflect that in order to
deal with the subject aman should possess knowledge of a high
order in mathematics and physics, and ability to use readily the
most powerful engines at the command of these two sciences
not less than those methods more strictly geological, we can
‘understand why so few enter the field and why the results of
their labors are so small and so uncertain.

Yet there is progress. From year to year some new fact is
made known on evidence that commands general assent. Some
new inference is deduced that deserves examination. Some
new possibility is suggested that promises to reward investiga-
tion. Through these three stages all our knowledge regarding
the condition of the earth’s central mass is destined by the na-
ture of the case to pass.

Not very long ago it was an accepted doctrine that the earth
was composed of a hot and liquid internal sphere surrounded
by a solid shell of comparatively small thickness. This doctrine
may yet be recognized in some of our popular semigeological
literature. But it has passed into oblivion as a tenet in geology,

354 Claypole on the Interior of the Earth.

being found totally inadequate to explain the phenomena as
they appear at the surface.

As this opinion waned there rose in its place another directly
opposed to it. Ushered in under the shadow of great names in
the world of science it taught us to believe that the globe was
solid from core to crust. We were told that all our geological
theories must be reconstructed on the basis of a solid globe.
The authority of Thomson, of Hopkins and of Pratt, secured
for this new doctrine a respectful hearing and a wide acceptance.
It was a not unnatural reaction from the opposite extreme which
had preceded it. It afforded for a while great hope of a final
solution of the problem. But it has been tried and found want-
ing. Like its predecessor it has failed to explain the phen-
omena.

No other extreme being possible most of the later theories
have been modifications or combinations of these two, with
qualifying additions intended to explain special difficulties or
fill inconvenient gaps.

Without going into detail, which would be foreign to the
purpose of this paper, it will suffice to say that most of the more
recent theories involve the presence of a layer of imperfectly
liquid matter between a solid nucleus and a solid crust. This
layer is by some supposed to be continuous and by others to be
divided into lakelets of greater or lessextent. Both these views
are held by geologists well qualified to form and well entitled
to express an opinion. Each is intended to account for certain
phenomena which have proved difficulties in the way of the
adoption of the other.

This viscous layer is not only a result of a compromise be-
tween two opposing theories but is alsoa result of a compro-
mise between the two great solidfying forces of pressure and
cold. It appears to be a necessary result of the evolution of the
terrestrial sphere. Looking back to the time when the earth
existed as a molten globe it is evident that the constant radiation
of heat from its surface into space must have steadily though
slowly, cooled the outer layer. This as fast as it grew cool
and perhaps solid sank into the heated mass in consequence of
its greater density. There it was remelted but at the expense of
the internal store of heat. This process continued until the

I

Claypole on the Interior of the Earth. 385

whole globe had so far cooled down that its original fluid-
ity was lost and it became viscid or slaggy. The sinking
of the cooled crust then ceased because convection-currents
could no longer travel between the centre and the circumfer-
ence. Free motion between one part of the sphere and another
was henceforth impossible and all further cooling must take
place by the slower process of radiation from the surface and
conduction from the interior. Even by this means some further
refrigeration must have occurred in the long interval that has
since elapsed so that the centre itself is now rather lower in
temperature than it was when solidification took place.

On this view then the interior of the earth consists of a mass
of matter intensely hot but less so than some writers have as-
serted. As already mentioned there is abundant reason to
believe that it is solid. But it is under enormous pressure and
this pressure has the effect of raising its temperature of solidifi-
cation or in other words of its freezing-point. It is consequently
solid at a temperature at which it could not remain solid were
the pressure removed. ‘That is to say, a portion of the central
mass if suddenly transferred to the surface would instantly
become liquid merely from relief of pressure.

On this view the internal temperature must increase from the
surface downward to the very centre. But the inference that
this increase continues at the same rate as that which we find
near the surface would be very hasty. As was remarked at the
outset, the greatest depth yet reached by an auger is infinitesi-
mal compared with the 4ooo miles that separate us from the
centre, and to assume therefore that the law of increase which it
reveals will be found to hold good at great depths would be
not only illogical but, in view of the considerations abové stated
regarding the condition of the central mass, it would be exceed-
ingly improbable. It is more in consonance with them to be-
lieve that the va¢e of increase of temperature downward will be
found to steadily diminish until it becomes insignificant, and for
practical purposes from that point down to the centre the tem-
perature may be considered constant.

The interior of the earth on this view then is a sphere of
matter whose nature is unknown but which is kept solid solely
by the pressure of the mass above it. It is therefore always on

386 Fames on Monticulipora.

the point of fusion and in so unstable a physical condition that
the relief of the pressure at any point would cause its instant
liquefaction. This fact must be borne in mind in all reasonings
on the problem.

As the central mass is kept solid by pressure so the superficial
layers are solidified by cold. They have radiated off into space
their original heat and being unable on account of the bad con-
ducting quality of the matter to obtain a sufficient supply to
replace it from below, they have become as cold as is consistent
with slow conduction from the heated core and with powerful
solar radiation. '

The existence of the viscous layer already mentioned is then
an almost unavoidable deduction from the history and actual
condition of the earth. So far as we can judge from the anal-
ogy of experiments on a small scale the rise of temperature
downward is much more rapid than the rise of the freezing or
solidifying-point resulting from increased pressure. It seems
therefore a necessary inference that at some depth there must
be a layer where the temperature is so high as to cause semi-
fluidity in spite of pressure. But the va¢e of increase of tem-
perature as above shown becomes less and less until it almost
disappears. The solidifying effect of pressure therefore, which
is subject to no such decrease downward, but which rises to the
very centre at an increasing rate in consequence of greater den-
sity of the materials, must eventually overtake and surpass the
liquefying effect of higher temperature and produce solidity in
spite of the heat. The interval between the levels of supre-
macy of these two contending forces, heat and pressure, is there-
fore the viscous layer where neither is supreme.

(To be continued.)

MONTICULIPORA, A CORAL AND NOT A POLYZOON.
BY JOSEPH F. JAMES, M. S.,
Professor of Botany and Geology in Miami University.
In a late paper upon the “ Monticuliporoid corals of the Cin-
cinnati group,”? undertaken by Mr. U. P. James and the present

1 Published in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History,
vols. X and XI.

Fames on Monticulipora. 387

writer, the various genera proposed from time to time for differ-
ent species, were all arranged under one family, the AZozticuli-
poride, Nicholson. This family includes two genera, with three
sub-genera. These are (1) MJonticulipora, with the three sub-
genera Dekayia, Constellaria and Fistulipora, and (2) Ceramo-
pora. In the paper in question all these forms were regarded
as corals. They have been, except Ceramopora, generally re-
garded as corals, but they have been placed by some writers,
principal among whom is Mr. E. O. Ulrich, in the class Polyzoa,
or as he calls it, Bryozoa.’ Dr. H. A. Nicholson and most other
workers on the other hand, retain the AZonticuliporide in the
corals. The question of the position of the family being thus
a disputed one, it will be the endeavor in the present paper to
settle the matter, and in order to do this it will be necessary to
examine the features of the two classes and see upon what
grounds the reference of the A/onticuliporide to the Polyzoais
advocated.

The great sub-kingdom, Ce@LENTERATA, inclndes many di-
versified forms both fossil and recent, the various genera rang-
ing in time from the Paleozoic to the present. There have been
generally recognized two classes, although some members of
these have at times changed places. As at present understood
these two classes are H/ydrozoa and Anthozoa. The greater
part of the first of these are meduse, marine animals difficult
of preservation and therefore of study; while the fresh water
Hydra is an example of another part. So few of these have
ever been preserved in a fossil state that so far as paleontology
is concerned they may be regarded as almost non-existent. One
fossil group, that of graptolites, has been referred here, but Dr.
Lankester does not regard these forms as at all closely allied to
the Hydrozoa proper. We are, however, not here concerned
with this question.

The Axthozoa include the larger number of these forms
known as true corals, and we shall have with this at present

1The former of these two terms, viz.: Polyzoa, has four years prece-
dence over the latter. J. V. Thompson applied the term Polyzoa in 1830
(Geol. Researches and Memoirs, V”), while Ehrenberg used Bryozoa for
the same forms in 1834, (‘‘ Abhand, der k. Akad. der Natur. zu Berlin.”)
See Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition under Polyzoa.

388 Fames on Monticulipora.

mainly to deal. The class Axthozoa has been divided into
three great orders, namely, Zoantharia, Rugosa, and Alcyon-
aria. The Zoantharia again have been divided into three
groups, one (JZalacodermata) including the sea-anemones, in
which there is either no skeleton at all, or else a pseudo-skeleton
made up of scattered spicule; a second, (sclerobasica) in which
the colonies are more or less branched and fleshy; and a third
(sclerodermata) in which a true calcareous corallum is always
developed. It is this last group of the three with which we
now have to deal, as it is only here that the forms are preserved
in a fossil state in any numbers.

The scelrodermata, then, have been divided by the great
authorities, Edwards and Haime into four sections, namely,
Aporosa, Perforata, Tabulata, and Tubulosa. Inthe Aporosa
are found mainly living genera. The corallum is made up of
a great number of tubes which are divided longitudinally by
well developed septa; while cross partitions, tabulez, are rarely
found. Javistella is probably an example of this group. In
the Perforata the septa may be well or may be only slightly
developed, and in some cases the tubuli are crossed by tabule
while in others they are open. The walls are very generally per-
forated. This group contains many fossil genera, such as Pro-
tarea and probably the /avositide. The third group, the
Tabulata, originally formed to contain those corals in which
septa are scarcely developed at all and tabule are well de-
veloped, seems such a mixed collection of forms that it has
been proposed to break it up and distribute the genera else-
where, or else greatly restrict its limits. Of the genera form-
erly included in it, some have been transferred to Hydrozoa
(MZillepora for example, though this has also been placed in
the order Alcyonaria), some have gone to Perforata (e. g.
Favositide), while others have been transferred to the order
Alcyonaria ( e. g. Monticuliporide and Flelioporide). Of
these last two families we shall have more to say directly. Lastly
the Zubulosa constitute a small group to which belongs Awlof-
ora and possibly Stomatopora. These present some affinities
to the Polyzoa, and may have to be transferred there. These
then are the groups of Zoantharia sclerodermata. et us turn
now to the second order, or

Sames on Monticulipora. 389

The Rugosa. The members of this, like the previous group,
are possessed of a stony corallum, and present generally both
tabule and septa. The order is divided into four families,
Stauride, Cyathaxonide, Cyathophyllide, and Cystiphyllide.
To the third of these belong Zaphrentis and Streptelasma, but
as none of the group seem related to the MWonticul/poride we
pass on to the third and last order.

The Alcyonaria. Of the five families into which this order
is divided, but one presents any affinities to the monticuliporoids.
This is the Helioporide Mosely. This author has examined
Fleliopora in a living state and describes it as having a well de-
veloped, stony corallum, composed of corallites of two kinds.
Both kinds are tubular; the larger ones are crossed by well de-
veloped tabulz, and the walls are folded in such a way as to
give rise to a variable number of septa. The smaller, (inter-
stitial?) tubes are destitute of septa, but have numerous tabule.
The living parts of the corallum occupy only the spaces in the
corallites above the uppermost septum. Several extinct genera,
fTeliobites, Plasmopora, &c., present similar features to He/io-
pora and are referred to this family. Finally we find in the
Monticuliporide several features which show it to be closely
related to the Hlelioporide. In the sub-genera Dekayia, Con-
stellaria and Fistulipora the large tubes are often nearly: sur-
rounded by smaller ones. In JMonzticulipora proper, these
interstitial corallites vary in number in different species, being
sometimes very few, and again very numerous. Septa seem
to be absent in both kinds of tubes, a point of difference from
FHlelioporide, but tabule are generally well developed in both
kinds, though there is great variation in this respect..~ In certain
species of Monticulipora it is found that the walls of the coral-
lites are more or less inflected, and it may be that these are the
possible remains of former septa. From this examination it is
clear that the MWonticuliporide are in many features similar to
the Helioporide; and it would seem the best plan to place the
families side by side, as members of the A/cyonarza.

If we turn now to the Polyzoa we find here also a mixed as-
semblage of forms. ‘The class is divided into three sections, all

‘of which are in general terms characterized upon the living
animal. The first two sections contain three genera, all of

390 Fames on Monticulipora.

which are living and one of which forms a membranous, branch-
ing tube (/thabdopleura) similar in general appearance to those
of certain species of Stomatopora, but all the tubes are connected.
The third section includes the greater number of the genera of
the class, and is divided into three orders. ‘The first of these
contains five genera. One of them, Crzstatel/a, is remarkable
for having a locomotive zoarium, but it resembles in no respect
any monticuliporoid. Adcyonella, however, forms massive
ceencecia made up of several hundred individuals. The second
order, GyMNOL&MaA, is divided into three sub-orders (by Busk),
according to the shape of the zocecia, and the nature of the
margin of the mouth when the polypide is retracted. The
Cyclostema “shave long tubular zoeecia, often of large size and
calcified, placed side by side in cylindrical bundles or in other
definite grouping; the mouth of the zocecium is circular and
devoid of processes.” (Ency. Brit., gth Ed., xix, p. 437.)
Most of the genera of this group are fossil. It includes Stomat-
opora, Fenestella, &c. The second order, Cr—ENosToMA, has
species with usually a soft zocecium, but the third, CH1LosToMA,
is the largest and most varied. ‘The zocecia are horny or cal-
cified; their orifices can be closed by a projecting lip in the form
of an operculum. * * * The surface of the zocecium
is frequently sculptured, and its orifice is provided with pro-
cesses and spines.” (Ibid, p. 437.) Itincludes Retepora, Flus-
trina, Ptilodictya, and others.

Now although the Polyzoa include forms of so diverse an
aspect, we find little in their appearance to justify placing the
monticuliporoids with them. And while it may be regarded
as an impossibility to settle definitely and without dispute the
position of the monticuliporoids without having the living animal,
it may be considered that all their features point to an alliance
with the Coelenterates rather than with the Molluscoidea.

Let us now turn to the paper of Mr. Ulrich in which he states
his reasons for calling the group of monticuliporoids, Bryozoa,
[ Polyzoa, ] and see upon what grounds this is advocated. With-
out going into the details we appeal to the summary of his
views as given on pages 144-147 of volume v, of the Journal
of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. The genus /eter-
opora is taken as the type of the Polyzoa. (Is it not rather an

Fames on Monticulipora. 391

aberrant member of the class?) As a resemblance it is stated
that both in //eteropora and in certain ramose species of JZontéz-
culipora, the corallum is “composed of slender fasciculate tubes,
which are nearly vertical in the axial region of the branches,
and then curve outward more or less abruptly to reach the sur-
face.” (p. 144-5.) I would point out, however, that in the
sub-genus /istulifora, we have the corallites in one ramose
form (vexusta) springing from a “wrinkled, dermatic crust”
direct to the outer surface without bending. In other species,
both discoid and frondose of the proper genus, MJonticulipora,
the corallites spring upward from a germinal plate also without
bending (e. ¢. frondosa, whiteavesi, petasiformis, &c.,) so that
this difference between the axial and peripheral region does not
always hold good. Neither is it by any means universal, if, in

deed, the rule, in Polyzoa.

Second, the dimorphic condition of the corallum in both
Fleteropora and Monticulipora is made a point of resemblance;
as is also the presence of tabule in the large tubes, the smaller
ones in Aeteropora lacking these. But it should also be re-
membered that there are certain species of Mozticulipora (e. g.
jiliosa, trregularis, discoidea, briarea, delicatula, septosa, ken-
tuckiensts, worthent etc.,) which have no interestitial cells:
others which have a few, and still others in which they are
numerous. So this resemblance can not hold. It is also to be
noted that in the various species tabula may be few or numerous;
and it has already been pointed out that these in themselves
cannot be considered as of very great value in classification.

Third; in regard to the structure of the walls of the corallites
it is stated that the discovery of a few mural. pores in one for-
tion of one specimen of a single species of MWonticulipora is in
accord with the condition of /Zeteropora, while, on the other
hand, some species of the latter genus are without these pores.
It is sufficient to note that in the Favositide and other members
of the Perforata of Zoantharia, these pores are very numerous,
and there can be no denial of the fact that the Mozticuliporide
are eminently imperforate.

Fourth; the possession of certain radiating spines in //efer-
opora and their absence in JJonticulipora is commented upon,
but Mr. Ulrich does not attach any weight to their absence in

392 Fames on Monticulipora.

Monticulipora, ‘since if it were a character of real importance,
such as the ‘septa’ of Calenterata it would be developed in all
the species, which our present knowledge of these forms justi-
fies us in saying, is not the case.” (Jour. C: S, N. H. v, p. 147.)
But the septa are zo¢ developed in all forms of Ceelenterata (e. ¢.
Favositide) and there are certain species of JZonticuliporide in
which there are found projections from the wall of the cellinto
the cavity, (orton and seftosa for example,) which may or may
not have been in the nature of septa. And further it should be
remembered that in //edzopora, certainly a true coral, the septa
are but poorly developed, these being produced merely by the
foldings of the walls of the corallites as may well have been the
case with JAZ. ortoni and others.

Fifth; spiniform tubuli are stated to be developed in the
majority of Aonticuliporide as they are also in Heteropora.
But these are zo¢ found in dréarea, septosa and possibly others,
for in the descriptions of many species no mention is made of
them, and they are few to numerous in many species.

Sixth, and lastly, in weighing the points of resemblance be-
tween /feteropora and Monticulipora, Mr. Ulrich says, (Ibid,
p- 146): (1) The colony is composed of two sets of tubes:
(so also is the corallum of /fe/iolites and other undoubted
polyps); (2) both have their tubes crossed by diaphragms; (it
is so also in /Zeliolites, Fravosites, etc.); (3) in certain types of
Monticulipora the interstitial tubes are in no way structurally
different from the proper ones: (but so is it also in Fedzolites) ;
while (4) in relation to the mural pores these are present or
absent in the Aporosa (corals), and so can scarcely be considered
as a sufficient character to depend upon.

From all these things we fail to see why it would not be just
as wise a course, if indeed not a wiser one, to place the AZonti-
culiporide close to the Helioporide, as to remove them to the
Polyzoa. Individually, and we are not alone in the belief, we
believe that the AZonticuliporide constitute a family closely al-
lied to the /lelioporide, and that they belong to the order A/-
cyonaria of the class Anxthozoa of the C@LENTERATA.

Norre.— We are indebted to the article on Corals in the Encyclopedia
Britannica, written by Dr. H. A. Nicholson, and to that of Polyzoa, by

Prof. Lankester, in the same work, for much of the information relating
to the features of these two groups embodied in the above article.—]. F. J.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

zr. State and government reports.

Report on a part of northern Alberta, and portions of adjacent districts
of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. By J.B. Tyrrell. Part E. of the an-
nual report of the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur., of Canada, for 1886; pp. 176;
two maps; Montreal.

Penn. Geol. Surv.; annual report, 1886. Part 111. Anthracite coal
region. By Frank A. Hill. Illustrated with a frontispiece map of coal
fields; a heliotype page plate; and three folded maps, with an atlas of
seven sheets.

2. Proceedings of scientific socteties.

Proc. Canad. Inst. April, 1888; and annual report of the same, 1886-87.
Toronto. The latter contains the report of David Boyle, Curator, on ar-
cheological work in 1887.

Bulletin of the N. Y. state museum of Natural History, No.3. March,
1888. Building stone in the state of New York. By Fohn €. Smock.

3. Papers in sctentific journals.

In Am. Four. Sci. May. Three formations of the middle Atlantic
slope. W. $¥. McGee. (with plates vi and vii). On some peculiarly
spotted rocks from Pigeon Point, Minnesota. W. S. Bayley. The
Taconic system of Emmons, and the use of the name Taconic in geologic
nomenclature. Chas. D. Walcott. The terminal moraines in North
Germany. Prof. R. D. Salisbury.

4. Excerpts and individual publications.

Illustrations of the fauna of the St. John group. No.iv. Parti. De-
scription .of a new species of Paradoxides (P. regina). Part 11. The
smaller trilobites with eyes (Ptycoparide and Ellipsocephalidex). By G.
F.Matthew, M.A. TZyrans. Roy. Soc., Canada. Presented May 25, 1887.

A preliminary notice of a new genus of Silurian fishes. By G. F.
Matthew. Read Oct. 5, 1886. Bulletin of the Nat. Hist. Soc.

American geological classification and nomenclature. By Jules Mar-
cou, pp. 75. Cambridge, Mass.

5. Foreign publications.

Lakis kratere og ivastromme, at Ammund Holland; Universitetspro-
gram for 2nd. semester, 1885. Kristiana.

Reports of geological explorations during 1885 with maps and sections.
Sir. James Hector, director. Wellington, New Zealand.

Same for 1886-87.

394 Correspondence. *

Index to reports of the geological survey of New Zealand from 1866 to
1885 inclusive.

Notice nécrologique sur M. A E. Béguyer de Chancourtois; par M.
Edmond Fuchs. [Extrait des Annales des mines. Mai-Juin, 1887]-
Paris.

Note sur la constitution des gites de phosphate de chaux, et sur les
conditions spéciales de gisement de ceux du nord de la France, par M.
Edmonds Fuchs. Assoc. Franc. Vavanc. d. Sciences, 1887.

Jahresbericht des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Stettin, 1887.

Anthozoen und Bryozoen des obern mittelrussischen Kohlenkalks; von
A. Stuckenberg; mit 4 Tafeln, 1888;also, Die Fauna des untern Devon am
west-Abhange des Urals, von Th. Tschernyschew, mit 9 Tafeln, 1885;
also, Bibliotheque géologique de la Russie, 1886. Comite geologique, St.
Petersburg.

Shell-growth in cephalopoda (Siphonopoda.) By F. A. BATHER, of the
British Museum. (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist; April, 1888).

CORRESPONDENCE.

Hayden Memorial Geological Fund. Mrs. Emma W, Hayden has given
to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in trust the sum of
$2500 to be known as the Hayden Memorial Geological Fund, in com-
memoration of her husband, the late Prof. Ferdinand V. Hayden, LL. D.
According to the terms of the trust a bronze medal and the balance of
the interest arising from the fund are to be awarded annually for the best
publication, exploration, discovery or research in the sciences of geology
and paleontology, or insuch particular branches thereof as may be desig-
nated. The award and all matters connected therewith are to be deter-
mined by a committee to be selected in an appropriate manner by the
Academy. The recognition is not to be confined to American naturalists.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Philadelphia, May 8, 1888.

The proposed geological society. Geologists will recall the fact of the
appointment of a committee of their number at the meeting of the A. A.
A. S. in 1881 to consider the advisability of forming an American Geologi-
cal Society. This committee sent out circulars asking for opinions, and
received 126 answers to their inquiries, all but two of which expressed a
belief in the expediency of organizing such a society. These facts were
reported at Montreal in 1882. It was there voted expedient to establish
a geological magazine. A proposed constitution for a society was pre-
sented, discussed and laid upon the table for future consideration. At
the adjourned meeting in 1883 at Minneapolis the questions of the maga-
zine and society were further consider. Little was accomplished beyond

Persbnal and Scientific News. 395
\

the appointment of a committee to confer with the Mineralogical and
Geological section of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. For
various reasons no meeting was called to discuss the subject at Philadel-
phia. Since then regret has been expressed by some who were at first
opposed to the project that the effort had not been pressed. At the New
York meeting of the International Congress Committee (A. A. A. S.),
August, 1887, the following resolution was passed: “That the American
Committee of the International Congress will approve of a call for the
meeting of an American Geological Congress, whose object shall be the
discussion of important geological questions.”

The chief objection to the establishment of an American Geological
Society has been the fear that its existence would impair interest and at-
tendance at the meetings of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. But ifthe new society could be made identical with
Section E, retaining the officers chosen at the meetings of the A. A. A.
S., and having the power to assemble at other times during the year,
adopting necessary regulations for the extra sessions, it would seem as if
the geologists might obtain all the advantages of a special organization.

The chairman and secretary of the above named committee of Ameri-
can geologists would therefore call upon all American geologists to as-
semble with them at Cleveland, Ohio, at 3 p.m., of Tuesday, August 14th,
the day before the next session of the A. A. A. S., and if deemed expedi-
ent, organize a society subject to the following limitations:

1. The members ofthe society shall be alsomembers of the A. A. A.S.

2. The president and secretary of the new society shall be the gentle-
men elected to these offices by the A. A. A.S.

3. It will be recommended to Section E. at its formal session to offer
an amendment to the constitution of the A. A. A. S. that Section E may
be allowed to hold meetings at such time and place as they may desire,
independently of the other sections, subject to their own regulations.

[Signed,] N. H. WINCHELL, Chairman,
C. H. Hircucock, Secretary.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

THE GEOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF BUCHTEL COLLEGE,
Akron, O., has recently acquired a lapidary’s lathe and fittings
of the latest make and finish, with slitting disc and bort slicer,
laps, grindstone and necessary polishing powders, complete, as
used in the British Museum. Some difficulty was experienced
at the port of entry (N. Y.) as the importing agents without
advice paid the duty, and were unable to procure its refund-
ment, the department of the interior being apparently unaware

396 Personal and Scientific News.

of the extent to which these instruments have lately been in-
troduced for the study of some branches of geology and con-
sequently being in doubt if the lathe in question could be re-
garded as a scientific instrument entitled to free entry for college
use. As the final decision may be of interest to others it is here
reprinted. The lathe was manufactured by the firm of Cotton
& Johnson, Gerard St., Soho, London, W.., and the total value
including all charges of freight and entry was about $120.

Lapidary’s Machine.— The Treasury Department has granted the ap-
plication of Messrs. Davis, Turner, and Co., for the free entry of a lapid-
ary’s machine recently imported at New York for the use of Buchtel
College, Akron, Ohio. It was shown that machinery of the kind long
used by lapidaries is now indispensable in the study of geology and lith-
ology for use in the preparation of sections for examination under micro-
scope. The department therefore decides that such machines can be
admitted free under the provision of the free list for ‘philosophical and
scientific apparatus specially imported in good faith for use of any in-
stitution established for educational purposes.” — U. S. Government
Advertiser, March, 15, 1888.

Dr. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON maintains in the Geological Mag-
azine for March, in reply to Mr. James Thomson, the con-
stant occurrence of mural pores in all favositoid corals, and that
failure to find them must be caused by peculiar mineralization,
unfortunate slicing or, to use a mild euphuism, “want of knowl-
edge.”

Dr. LyDDEKER NOTES THE OCCURRENCE Of fossil bones in the
upper Eocene of England undistinguishable thus far from those
of Iguana and proving therefore the former existence of this
now exclusively American genus in Europe.

Discussing further a number of specimens in the British
Museum we find that several which have hitherto passed under
different names all belong to Placosaurus, and moreover that
this genus was closely allied to the Anguide though possessing
well developed limbs. It therefore apparently furnishes a
creature of snake-like aspect and affinity with the legs of a lizard,
and may be a direct ancestor of our present boas and pythons in
which all the limbs are rudimentary and scarcely visible outside;
a structure which is matched on a small scale by the little blind-
worm of English copses, Angus fragilis.

Dr. Lyddeker advocates the retention of the term Palwo-
phide to denote a family of large marine (?) serpents whose
remains are found in the London and Bracklesham Tertiary
clays, and which are generally regarded as also nearly allied to
the existing pythons.

Pror. E. W. CLAYPOLE, ONE OF THE EDITORS of this mag-
azine, will sail for England on June 7th, by the SS. “State of
Georgia,” of the State line. His family will accompany him
and they will remain in Europe till September.

INDEX.

A

Additions to the minerals of Minn.,H. V.
Winchell, 132.
ar eae lake, Beaches of, Warren Upham,

A great primordial quartzyte, N. H. Win-
chell, 173,

Akron, Ohio, Subterranean commotion
at, 190.

American Anthropologist, 133.

American committee of International
Congress of Geologists, Dr. Persifor
Frazer, 3, 86; Origin of, 8; First mem-
bers, 4; Members added at Nashville
meeting A. A. A. S., 4; Subsequent
changes in membership, 5; Reporters
on the several formations, 97; First
meeting, 95; Second meeting, 96; Third
meeting, 97; Fourth meeting, 97; Fifth
meeting, 98; Sixth meeting, 99.

American Geologist, Introductory, 1.

sar geological society, proposed,

American Society of Naturalists, 133.

American Naturalist, 134.

Animike black slates and quartzytes and
Ogishke conglomerate, equivalent to
the Huronian, N. H. Winchell, 11; Un-
conformities of in Minnesota, A. Win-
chell, 14.

Annelid, new genus and species,Calvin, 24;
Teeth from the Hamilton, Clarke, 127.

Annual report department of mines New

, South Wales, T. W. Edgworth David,
122; Of the state geologist of New
York, James Hall, 127; Of the geologi-
cal survey of Arkansas, John C. Bran-
ner, 65

Anthracite coal, Bow river, Canadian N.
W., J.A. Dodge. 172; Further notes on
by Geo. M. Dawson, 332.

Aragonite, shells of, more soluble than
those of calcite, 261.

Archean geology of Missouri, Erasmus
Haworth, 280, 363.

Aughey, Samuel, on Geyseritc in Neb.,
277.

B

Beaches of lake Agassiz, Warren Upham,

Beecher, C. E., 60.

Berlin meeting Int. Cong. of Geol., 98.

Bologna meeting Int. Cong. of Geol., 87.

Branner, John C., 65,

Brown hematite in Allamakee county,
Ta., Ellison Orr, 129.

Buchtel college laboratory, 394.

Bulletin of Denison University, 117.

Cc

Call, R. Ellsworth, a new post pliocene
limnzeid, 146.

Calvin, S., new genus and new species of
tubicolar annelida, 24; Formations
passed through in deep well at Wash-

ington, Ia., 28; Vertical range of Ham-
ilton fossils in western Ontario, 81.

Capellini, president of the second inter-
national geological congress, 89.

Cascade anthracite basin, Rocky Mts.,
George M. Dawson, 332.

Chamberlin and Salisbury, on the drift-
less area of the upper Mississippi, 122.

Chamberlin and Irving on lake Superior
sandstones, 44.

Chert of the upper Coal Measures, Mont-
gomery county, Ia., 119; Of the Car-
boniferous limestones of Ireland, George
J. Hinde, 121.

Clarke, E. S., 339.

Clarke, J. M., 127.

Claypole, E. W., Darwinand geology, 152,
211; Subterranean commotion near
Akron, O., 190; Future of naturalgas,
81; Lake age in Ohio, 63; Interior of
the earth, 382,396.

Coal Measures, chert in Iowa, 116.

Color-scheme, Int. Cong. of Geologists, 95.

Continental glacier, effect of pressure, A.
Winchell, 189.

Cope, E. D., Obituary notice of Dr: F. V.
HayGen, 110; Vertebrateremains from
Brazil, 257.

Congress, Int. of Geologlsts, 3, 86; Pro-
ceedings of, Paris Meeting, 6; Proceed-
ings of, Bologna Meeting, 87; Proceeds
ings of, Berlin Meeting, 93.

Congress, Int. of Geologists (continued);
Nomenclature adopted by, for rock-
masses, &c., 90; For species, 91; Color-
scheme, 97. ‘

Coral formations, Darwin’s theory of,
212, Murray’s theory of, 1138, 213;
Some new contributions to the discus-
sion of, 321; Wharton, W. J. L., on,
821; Hicks, L.E., the reef-builders, 297.

Correspondence, 129, 332, 394.

Crandall and Hodge, Coal fields ofsouth-
eastern Kentucky, 65.

Crinoids, work of Wachsmuth and
Springer on,132; Summit plates of blas-
toids, erinoids and cystids, 61; New
genus of, S. A. Miller, 263.

Crystalline rock near the surface in Paw-
nee county, Neb., F. W. Russell, 130.

D

Dana, J. D., on Darwin’s theory of coral
reefs, 300; Views on the Taconic, 165.

Darwin and Geology, E. W. Claypole, 152,
211

David, T. W. Edgeworth, 122.

Dawson, Wllliam, note on plants of Cre-
taceous and Laramie, 195; New notes
on Eozoon, 260.

Dawson, Geo. M., Onthe Cascade anthra-
cite basin, 882.

Day, Robt. T., mining statistics, 336.

Pee well at Washington, Ia., S. Calvin,
2

Deming, J.L., 889.

398

Denison University, Bulletins of the scien-
tific laboratories, 117.

Derby, Orville A., 259.

Diabase dykes, Rainy lake, Andrew C.
Lawson, 199; In the Missouri Archean,
287.

Diagram of barrier reef at Tahiti, 301.

Diamonds in meteorites, 137.

Diatomaceous earth in Neb., L. E. Hicks,
136.

Diller, J. S., Lavas ofnorthern California,
125

Dodge, J. A., Anthracite coal, Bow river,
northwestern Canada, 172.

Driftless area of upper Mississippi valley,
Chamberlin and Salisbury, 122

Duty of water in irrigation, 73.

E

Earth, interior of, 882.

Emmons, Ebenezer, Definition of Taconic
system, 168, 235, 348; Description of
the Potsdam sandstone, 174.

Emmons, S. F., Geology and mining in-
dustry of Leadville, Col., 194.

Eozoon canadense, Dawson, 260.

Equus fauna synchr onous with the glacial
epoch, 141

Extinct peceary in Michigan, 67.

F

Falls of St. Anthony, 66.
Findlay, O., Discovery of gas at. 65.
Fenestellidz of the Hamilton, 127.
Flora of coast-islands in relation to re-
cent changes in physical geography,
Joseph Le Conte, 76.
Ate of the Dakota group, duplicates,
Be
Florida reefs, 801.
Foote, A. E., 67, 261.
Foliation of granite before extrusion, 261.
Fossits—
Vertical range of Hamilton fossils in
western Ontario, 81.
Duplicates of the flora of the Dakota
group, 133.
Of the Loess at Iowa City, 149.
New fossil of the later Cretaceous in
Iowa, 221.
Of the Lower Silurian, 183.
New, deseribed by C. A. White, from
Brazil, 257.
Primordial, from Mt. Stephens, North-
west Territory of Canada, 61.
Spiral bivalve from the Waverly of
Penn., 60.
Structure and affinities of Parkeria,
255.
Streptindytes arcervularie Calvin, 27.
Reptilian bones, Lyddeker, 396.

Frazer, Persitor, Int. Cong. of Geologists, ©

8, 86, 250.
Franktorter, G.
Neb:; 137:

B., The limestones of

G

Gas wells at Litchfield, Ill., 188; In Penn-
sylvania, E. W. Claypole, 31; At Find-
lay, O., 65.

Genera of Sauropoda founded on sepa-
rate bones, Lyddeker, 388.

Geological society, proposed, 894.

Geology and mining industry of Leadville,
Colo., 194.

Index.

Geology in the educational struggle for
existence, 86.

Geology in preparatory schools, W. Ed-
gar Taylor, 316.

Geological map of Europe, 98, 117, 250
seq., 837,

Geological survey of New York, vol vi,
58; Annual report, 127.

Geyserite in Neb., Lewis EK. Hicks and S.
Aughey, 277.

Gilbert, C. H., 262.

Glass, Norman, Position of spirals in
brachiopods, 327.

Gray, Asa, Relations with Darwin, 220,

Gunflint lake, map of, 18.

H

Hall, James, Report on first Interna-
tional Geological Congress, 4; Geology
of New York, 58, 187.

Hamline University, Science Hall, 198.

Haworth, Erasmus, Archean geology of
Missouri, 280, 368; Fossil plant in
Towa, 3387.

Hayden, F. V.,
Cope, 110.

Hayden memorial geological fund, 394.

Hebert, M., Opening of the First Inter-
national geological congress, 7.

Herrick, C.L.; 117, 839:

Hicks, L. E. ; The Niobrara river eonitd!
ered with reference to irrigation, 69;
Diatomaceous earth in Nebraska, 136:
Geyserite in Neb., 277.

Hinde, George J. 121; The reef-builders;
297.

Hitcheock, C. H,, on proposed geological
society, 894.

Hodge, J. M.,
tucky, 68.

Holmes, Mary E., 61.

Hull, E., 338.

Huronian, relation of to Animike Ate
and Ogishke conglomerate, 11; Synon-
ymous with Taconic, S. A. Miller, 238;
Is there a Huronian group? R. D, Iry-
ing, 119; Superseded by the Taconic,
A. Winchell, 356.

I

Indiana Academy of Sciences, 18

Iowa Association of Scientific Research,
125.

Towa City, Fossils in the Loess at, 149.

Irrigation in the Niobrara valley, l. E.
Hicks, 69.

Irving, R, D., 119.

Irving and Chamberlin on the lake Su-
perior sandstones, 44.

J

James, Joseph F., 59, 828, 333, 386.

Janettaz, M., On the Comite fondateur
de Philadelphie, 7

Judd on the lavas of Krakatoa, 192.

Obituary notice by E. D.

‘Pounding mill”’ in Ken-

K

Keokuk scientific society, 133.
Kewatin series of Lawson, 20.
Keyes, Charles, 135.

Kloos, J. H., 61, 887.
Krakatoa, lavas of, 192.

, Index.

Lc

{Lake age in Ohio, E. W. Claypole, 63.

Lake Superior sandstones, age of; Edi-
torial review, 44.

Later Cretaceous in Iowa, C. A. White,
221, A. G. Wilson, 337.

Lawson, Andrew C., Diabase dykes, Rainy
lake, 199.

Langley, S. P., 66.

Leadville, Colo., Mining industry of, 194.

LeConte, J., Flora of coast-islands in re-
lation to recent changes of physical
geography, 76.

Lesley, J. P., 261.

Lesquereux, Leo, 227.

Lindley, C. T., 198.

Lispodesthes? haworthi White, 224.

Lower Silurian horizons, Soreeyidon of,
E. O. Ulrich, 100, 179, 80

Lower Silurian fossils, Ha of in beds
XI, XII, XIII, and XIV, E, O. Ulrich,
183.

Lyddeker, Genera of Sauropoda, 338;

~ Other reptilian bones, 396.

M
aaa , Jules, Geology of Georgia, Vt.,

Marsh, O. C., 136, 262.

McGee, W. Eat Ovibos cavifrons in Iowa,

Meteorites. Hans Reusch on, 386; Dia-
monds in, 187.

Metz, Discovery of paleoliths at Madi-
ponnille, O., 137.

Miller, S. A. 82; The Taconicsystem, and
laws ip nomenclature, 235; Huronian
synonymous with Taconic, 238, Anew
genus of crinoids from the Niagara
group, 263.

MINERALS—
eae to minerals of Minnesota,
Anthracite in Bow river valley, 172.
Brown hematite in Allamakee county,

Iowa, 129.
eee in the porphyries of Missouri,

Piedmontite in the porphyries of Mis-
souri, 395,

Augite, olivine, hornblende, glass and
quartz in the diabases of Missouri,
376-7.

Quartz, original in the lava of Lassen’s
peak, 126

Mining industry of Leadville, Colo,, 194.
Mining statistics, Robt. T. Day, 336.
Missouri, Archean geology of, E. Ha-

worth, 280, 363.

Monticulipora a coral and not a poly-

zoon, Jos. F. James, 386.

Monticuliporoid corals of the Cincinnati
group, U. P. and Joseph F. James, 59,
Morphology of carinze upon the septa of

rugose corals, Mary E. Holmes, 61,

Mt. Stephens, Northwest Territory of
Canada, primordial fossils at, 61,

N

Narrative of the journeys of David
Thompson, J. B, Tyrrell, 256.

Natural gas, future of, E. W. Claypole,
31; Report on, by Orton, 62; At Find-
lay, 0, 65; At Litchfield, Ill., 188.

399

Newberry, J. S,, receives the Murchison
medal, 335; On the production of gold
and silver, 66.

Nepheline rocks Orville A.
Darby, 259,

New genus and a new species of tubicolar
annelida, S. Calvin, 24.

New genus of crinoids from the Niagara
group, 8, A. Miller, 263.

New publications, 128, 197, 329, 393.

New geological map of Europe, 93, 117,
250,337:

New post-pliocene Limnaeid, Call, 146.

New South Wales, Rept, of the Dept. of
Mines, 122,

Niagara shales of western New York, sub-
divisions and faune, N, 8, Ringueberg,
264,

Nicholson, Alleyne, 198, 255, 396.

Niobrara river considered with reference
.to irrigation, L. E. Hicks, 69,

Nomenclature, Rules of the International
Congress of Geologists, 91,

Nomenclature of Cincinnati group fossils.
Jos. F. James 383, E. O, Ulrich, 333,

Norytes and gabbros, 339.

oO

Ocean level raised by adjacent land, E.
Hull, 338.

Ogishke conglomerate, 11.

Organic origin of chert in Carboniferous
of Ireland, and similarity to that of
North Wales and Yorkshire, Geo. Hinde,
121,

Orton, Edward, Preliminary report on
inflammable gas, 62; On the Trenton
limestone as an oil formation, 133.

Ovibos cavifrons {rom the loess of lowa,
W,J. McGee, 126,

P

Paleoliths in glacial drift at Madison-
ville, O., 137.

Paleontological labors of Joseph F,
James, 323,

Paleontology of Brazil; Cretaceous fos-
sils, C. A, White, 257,

Parkeria, Structure and affinities, 255.

Peat in Loup region, Neb., F, W, Russeil,
137.

Pittsburg coal bed and its disturbances,
Henry A. Wasmuth, 272.

Platygonus compressus, 67,

Pompholopsis whitei Call, 147,

Potomac formation, 186,

Potsdam sandstone at Potsdam, N. Y.,
Original description of Emmons, 174.

Pounding mill still in use in Ky,, 68,

Preliminary report on southeastern Ky.
coal fields, Crandall and Hodge, 65.

Preglaclal man, 137, 198,

Preliminary report upon petroleum and
natural gas, Edward Orton, State Geol-
ogist of O., 62.

Preliminary report on sea-coastswamps,
Prof, N, S, Shaler, 258,

Pressure of continental glacier, effect of,
Dr. A, Winchell, 139.

Primordial fossils from
northwestern Canada, C.

R

Rainy lake region, diabase dykes of, A.
C. Lawson, 199,

in Brazil,

~

Mt, Stephens
Rominger, 61.

400

Reef-builders, the, L, E. Hicks, 297,

Rights of intelligence under paid service,
245,

Ringueberg, Eugene, N. S,, on the Niagara
shales, 264,

River-lake system of Mich., Wooldridge,
143.

Rocks—
And minerals of the W. Indies, 61.
Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, 125.
Periodotyte from Kentucky, 125.
Quartz basalt from Lassen’s peak,125.
Diabase dykes of the Rainy lake region,
4 199.
Names in yte, 249.
Nepheline in Brazil, 259.
Archzean of Missouri, 280, 365.
Norytes and Gabbros, 339.
Duluth gabbro, 342.

Rolfe, Chas. W., 188,

Rominger, C., New primordial fossils, 61.

Rounding of pebbles by streams, Bonny,
260,

Russell, F. W,, On the salt well at Lin-
coln, Neb., 31; Peat in Nebraska, 137.

S

Salisbury, Chamberlin and, on the drift-
less area, 122.

Salt well at Lincoln, Neb., F. W. Russell,
131.

Sand boulders in the drift, orsubaqueous
origin of the drift, J, W, Spencer, 120,

Sceptropora,a new genus of bryozoa,with
remarks on Helopora, Hall, and other
genera of that type, E. O. Ulrich, 228,

Sea-coast swamps, preliminary report
on, N, S. Shaler, 258.

Seeley, H, S., 8388.

Shimek, B., fossils of the loess at Iowa
City, 149,

Siphonocrinus, Miller, nov. genus, 268.

Snow Hall, Lawrence, Kas., 134.

Some American norytes and gabbros,
Herrick, Clarke and Deming, 339.

Some investigations regarding the con-
dition of the interior of the earth, E.
W. Claypole, 382.

Spencer, J. W., 120, 198.

Spiral bivalve from the Waverly of Pa.,
Chas, E. Beecher, 60.

Spirals in brachiopoda, position of, Nor-
man Glass, 327.

Springer, Frank, 135.

Streptindytes acervularie, Calvin, 27.

Structure and affinities of the genus Par-
keria, Carp., H. Alleyne Nicholson, 255.

Summit plates in blastoids, crinoids and
cystids, Wachsmuth and Springer, 61,

Subterranean commotion near Akron,
O., E. W, Claypole, 190.

Subscribers to Geological Map of Europe,
252, 337.

Swindling naturalist, 67, 135, 262.

44

Taconic system, N. H. Winchell, 162,173;
Defined by Emmons, 1638, 235, 348;
The lost map of Emmons, 160; S. A.

Index.

Miller on, 285; And the Vermont re-
port, 829.

Taconie of Georgia and report ongeology
of Vermont, Jules Marcon, 328,

Taconic question, the, A. Winchell, 347.

Tahitian barrier reefs, 801,

Tariff on Geological Map of Europe, 2538;
On lapidary’s machine, 396,

Taylor, W. Edgar, Geology in prepara-
tory schools, 816.

Thompson, David, 256,

To all American geologists; Appeal of
Persifor Frazer, 250.

Trenton limestone as an oil rock, 1838.

Tyrrell, J. B., 256,

U

Ulrich, E. O., Lower Silurian horizons,
100, 179, 308; On Sceptropora, a new
genus of bryozoa, with remarks on Hel-
opora, Hall, and other genera of that
type, 228; Nomenclature of Cincinnati
group fossils, 388,

Unconformities of the Animike in Minn,,
A. Winchell, 14.

University of Neb,., 186.

Untersuchungen ueber Gesteine und Min-
eralien aus West Indien, J. H. Kloos, 61.

Upham, Warren, 64, 67, 337.

Use of the termination yte for names of
rocks, 249.

Vv

Vertical range of fossils of the Hamilton
in western Ontario, 8. Calvin, 81,

Voleanie eruption in northern Cal., and
its peculiar lava, J, 8. Diller, 125.

Ww

Wachsmuth and Springer, 61, 183.

Wadsworth, M. E., 345.

Washington, Iowa, Deep well at, 28,

Waseauthy Henry A., Pittsburg coal bed,

Western society of naturalists, 136.

West Indies; Rocks and minerals, J. H.
Kloos, 61.

White, C, A., Later Cretaceous in Iowa,
221; Contributions to palaeontology
of Brazil, 257.

White, Z. L., 65.

Winchell, Alexander, Unconformities of
the Animike in Minn., 14; Extinct pec-
eary in Michigan, 67; Pressure of con-
tinental glacier, 139; The Taconic ques-
tion, 347.

Winchell, H. V., minerals in Minnesota,

Winchell, N. H., Animike slates and
Ogishke conglomerate equivalent to
the Huronian, 11; Some objections to
the term Taconic considered, 162; A
great primordial quartzyte, 178; Am-
erican geological society, 394.

Wood, Harrie, 122.

Wooldridge, C. W., River-lake system of
Mich., 148.

Wright, G. Frederick, 68,

i J

a in| fe Uo Cian
nr th fe

:
=
|
‘
ny

Oe }
en