ne

My Ma Oni xt
iy Meus Apa

a ‘a aa

in
iit uh i

Hi
ars

ae

' nih se bie H ae +
ay stab hat, be by et
ei ae :
“ i 4, aH a aa fe
ei sist ra a ee

she

hit ie, be if
Pai op re

fa 2
sae neds

i
eh

Rssrerestoeete < <

.

eget

oe ta

ih ’ F hs ‘ fix:
+) ,
fr i "
hh Rath fee!
oe tee
pita
ea
,
ee

Leite
eoaee
See

Pe ib Rams ocaeire
a a
ty

Lae eciiee oy ee
ls ote

i ep th
PC taey dh
A Fel raw
Te

ida + Hit hy
iu iethig Wh ine
ry SUR It

0961 8g 190

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY LIBRARY

- Return this book on or before the
Latest Date stamped below.

Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books
are reasons for disciplinary action and may
result in dismissal from the University.

University of Illinois Library

L161—O-1096

10 with funding f
of Illinois Urbar

y

University

; 1 ule

i

WY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

LA

“AND
“et

_ ALLIED SCIENCES.

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS:

- CHARLES E, BEECHER, Vew Haven, Conn,
SAMUEL CALVIN, Jowa City, lowa,.

_. 3 aaa ae JouHN M. Crarke, Albany, NV. Y. 9

r _ Epwarp W. CLAYPOLE, Akron, Ohio. PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphia, Pa.
ba a _ FRANCIS W. CRAGIN, Colorado Springs, Colo. EDWARD O. ULRICH, Newfort, Ky.

ie ION EYERMAN, Easton, Pa. WARREN UPHAM, Somerville, Mass.

teevae 3 MARSHMAN E, WApswortTH, Houghton, Mich.

‘ae Py ISRAEL C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va.
NEWTON H. WinCHELL, Minneafolis, Minn.

VOLUME XIV.

JuLYy ‘TO 0 Drceapen, 1894.

'

CU aa ~ Minneapouis, MINN.

Aue ?

: ” Sag Tue GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY.
Tae ge 1894.

. rae bo ALFRED ROPER PRINTING Co., Printers.

PON re OOPS -
$ so ave \ a) >)

III

CONTENTS.
JULY NUMBER.

New and little known Invertebrata from the Neoco-

mian of Kansas. F. W. Cracin. [Plate I.].... 1
Causes and Conditions of Glaciation. WARREN Up-
ME a seat Se A ea 12

The Present Conditions of the Karth’s Interior as
viewed from the standpoint of the Nebular Hy-

pened War F SRAMONG 6... cota ec ec sas os 20
Notes on some localities of Mesozoic and Paleozoic in
Shasta county, California. H. W. FarrBANKs... 25

On a Recent Diamond Find in Wisconsin and on the
probable source of this and other Wisconsin Dia-

monds. W. H. Hosss. [ Illustrated.].......... dl
Differential Faults. W.H. Hopss................. 30
The Early Stages of Bactrites. J. M. Cuarke. [ Plate

se kane Sie caine ale soy clodc's Sie es 37

Editorial Comment.—Death of Mr. Wm. Pengelly, 43.—The Columbian
Exposition: Exhibits of the Geology of Canada, 44; and Crystal-
line Rocks, 46.

Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Report on Irrigation, R. J.
Hinton, 48.—The Colorado formation and its Invertebrate Fauna,
T. W. Stanton, 51.—A Geological Reconnoissance in central Wash-
ington, 1. C. Russeiy,51.— Work and Scope of the Iowa Geological
Survey, C. R. Keys, 52.—_Summary of Progress in Mineralogy and
Petrography in 1893, W.S. Baytey, 52.--Orbicular Granite from
Rhode Island, J. F. Kemp, 53.—Argyrodite and a new Sulphostan-
nate of Silver from Bolivia, S. L. Penrrenp, 53.—The ejected
blocks of Monte Somma, H. J.Jounston-Lavis, 53.—Svenska klot-
graniter, H. Backstrom, 53.—Rensselaer Grit Plateau, New York,
RON] DAE, 54;

Recent Publications, 55.

Correspondence.—Reply to statements in Prof. Tarr’s “Lake Cayuga a
Rock:Basin, F. W. Stmonps,” 58._-The Niagara Gorge as a Measure
of the Postglacial period, Warren UpuaM, 62.

Personal and Scientific News, 65.
AUGUST NUMBER.

The Madison Type of Drumlins. Warren UPHam.
SPUUMIIM RN ec pclae o oitna ss Sees we StL ge a ee SA 69

Notes on the Geology of the Rocky Mountains be-
tween the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca. A.

MMMMTMNG SN 5 hao.) < <idlg"hs jn bdiw ie acsib eld nc dlavesa Wee aie 83
Notes on the Geology of the Coast Ranges of Califor-

nia. H. W. TurRNER and T. W. STanTon........ 92
Growth of Knowledge concerning the Texas Creta-

Pert PPUDUS IM ARCOU 4.0. j.02< etre cladccceecavads 98

IV Contents.

Geological and Topographical Features of the Region
about Atlanta, Georgia. C. W. PurtnaTon. | Plate
(a eS ec Se MRE amr 2S Se SLPS, 105

Editorial Comment.—_-The Columbian Exposition, some special State
exhibits of the crystalline rocks, 108.

Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Twelfth Annual Report of
the U.S. Geologicai Survey, J. W. Powewt, 113.The Origin and
Nature of Soils, N.S. SHaver, 114.--The Lafayette Formation, W
J McGes, 115.-The North American Continent during Cambrian
Time, C. D. Watcort, 116.—Eruptive rocks of Electric peak and
Sepulchre:mountain, Yellowstone National Park, J. P. Ipprnas, 117.
—Popular Lectures and Addresses, Baron Ketytn, 118.—Manual
of the Study of Documents, Persiror FRazmr, 118.—Die Fauna
des unteren Devon am Ostabhange des Ural, Tu. TscHERNYSCHEW,
119.—Highteenth Annual Report, for 1893, Indiana, Department of
Geology and Natural. Resources, S. S. Gory, 125.

Recent Publications, 126.

Correspondence.—Trilobites in the “Oil-Rock” Horizon of the Trenton
limestone, Wo. P. Biax®, 133.—The Rock Basin of Cayuga lake, J.
W. Spencer, 134.—The Age of Niagara Falls, J. W. Spencer, 135.

Personal and Seientific News.—Death of Prof. G. H. Williams, 136.—
Kansas State University, 136.

SEPTEMBER NUMBER.

Cladodus ? magnificus, a new Selachian. E. W. Cuay-
POE“ [Pinto we des orgie = pen eee eis aks eel 137

The Niobrara Chalk SAMUEL CALVIN.............. 140

Summary of facts proving the Cambrian age of the
white limestones of Sussex county, New Jersey.
Frank L. Nason. [Illustrated.]............... 161

The Elk Horn creek area of St. Peter sandstone in
northwestern Illinois. Oscar H. Hersuey. [ Il-
Destrated. 4%. 2, se oe. = See ee es 5. eee ot 169

History of Instruction in Geology and Paleontology
in German Universities. Kari A. VON ZITTEL
(translated by C. R. EHasTMAn)..............-- i79

Editorial Comment.—‘The Mineral Industry,” 185.

‘Review of Recent Geological Literature —ll|lustrations of the Fauna of
the St. John group, No. vit. G. F. Marraew, 187.—Contribution
to the Knowledge of the Preglacial Drainage of Ohio, W. G.
TrcHtT, 188.—Nepheline Syenite in the township of Dungannon,
Ontario, F. D. Apams, 189.—Second Expedition to Mt. St. Elias,
in 1891, I. C. Russevu, 199.—On certain Astronomical Conditions
favorable to Glaciation, G. F. Becker, 191.

Correspondence.—A Reply to “Causes and Conditions of Glaciation.”
MarspEn Manson, 192.—Lake Cayuga a Rock Basin, R. 8S. Tarr,
194.

Personal and Scientific News —The Summer Meeting of the Geological
Society of America, with notes of papers, 195.— Brooklyn Meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, with
notes of papers, 202.

Contents, Vv

OCTOBER NUMBER.
Nanno, a New Cephalopodan Type. J. M. CLarke.

nit iciete®, hein e sicld ts ve ae add he dn 205
The Relation between Baseleveling and Organic Evo-
Peo ia.) WOODWORTH... 0.220. isles eee eee 209

Tertiary and Karly Quaternary Baseleveling in Minne-
' sota, Manitoba, and Northwestward. WaARREN
OU ELON i gh ge 235

Interruption during the Deposition of the Burlington
Limestones. Francis M. Fuurz. [Illustrated].. 246

Review of Recent Geological Literature._Lower Silurian Lamellibran-
chiata of Minnesota, E. O. Utricn, 249.—Iron-bearing rocks of the
Mesabi Range in Minnesota, J. Epwarv Spurr, 251.—Nickel ores
of Sudbury, Canada, Joun D. Frossarp, 252.-Mining Royalties,
their practical operation and effect, Cuas. A. JamEs, 252.—Origin
of certain Novaculites and Quartzites, FRanK Rurey, 253.— Willy-
amite—a new mineral from Broken Hill, KE. F. Prrrman, 253.—Pa-
pers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and Ire-
land, Henry Carvitt Lewis (edited by H. W. Crosskey), 253.—
Mineral Resources of the United States, 1893, Davip T. Day, 254.

Recent Publications, 264.

Correspondence.—-_Note on the Geological Map of the State of New
York, Jutes Marcou, 257.—Sixth Session of the International
Congress of Geologists, PERSIFOR FRAZER, 259.

Personal and Scientific News.—British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, 271.—Manual of the Geology of India, 272.—Arc-
tic Expeditions from the United States, 272.

NOVEMBER NUMBER.

The Limit of Postglacial Submergence in the High-
lands east of Georgian bay. F. B. Taytor. [| Plate

Te tN eis harness w See elas Anew ad ke 273
A Review of the History of the Great Lakes. J. W.
DEO Mitre TAO V LL, [occ coc. s% ks violin ew cce me naal 289
Drainage Systems of the Carboniferous Area of Mich-
peered RIDGE, <:.). S Sue's ne aces see ee eels oa 301
The Mineralogical Characters of certain New Jersey
limestones. Lrwis G. WESTGATE........-..... 308
The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys. ALBERT A.
en MIVEMAL OE. Poe a ces tem ace etoile ape ens 313

Preliminary Notice of a newspecies of Temnocyon and
a new genus from the John Day Miocene of Ore-
OL OHN AYER MANS Yc os fui cs bs vs'e care o alelele's 320

Editorial Comment.—The Origin of Spheroidal Basalt, 321.March
Weather on the Greenland Ice-sheet, 326.--National Representa-
tion in the International Congress of Geologists, 327.—Mountain
Systems of Asia and Europe, 328.

Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Mesozoic Echinodermata of
the United States, W. B. Crark, 32.—Insect Fauna of the Rhode
Island Coal Field, S. H. Scupper, 330.—Catalogue and Bibliogra-

VI Contents.

phy of North American Mesozoic Invertebrata, C. B. BoyLe, 330.
—Historical sketch of the Discovery of Mineral Deposits in the
lake Superior Region, H. V. WincHELL, 330,--Alaska: its Physical
Geography, I. C. Russgextt, 331.—Paleontology of Missouri, Part I,
C. R. Keyss, 331.—Lower Silurian Ostracoda of Minnesota, E. O.
Uxrica, 333.—EHléments de Paléontologie, F. Bernarp, 334.—Prin-
cipes et Méthodes d’étude de Corrélation au moyen des Plantes
Fossiles, L. F. Warp, 334.—Fossil Plants as an aid to Geology, F.
H. Kyow.ton, 335.--Post-Pliocene Diastrophism of the Coast of
southern California, A. C. Lawson, 335.— Pleistocene of the North-
west Territories of Canada, northwest and west of Hudson bay, J.
B. TYRRELL, 338.

Personal and Scientifie News, 840.
DECEMBER NUMBER.
Sketch of Dr. John Locke. N. H. WincHELL. [ Por-

URAL Ns csert re aaeeete IN os wg ware bt OM atta ae d41
The “Slate Binders” of the “Pittsburg” coal-bed. W.
p. Gresimy. s [TMastrated..|-. o.oo ee eh 356

Springs: the Influence of Stratigraphy on their emer-
gence, as illustrated in the Ozark Uplift. T. C.
PAGO UNS, ay PG Stet ccs cs ates Cowen ee eels . pee
The Age of the Crystalline Limestones of Warren
county, New Jersey. Lewis G. WesteaTe. | Il-
VEEN cee Seven acy Metts ec ae ae ness cS EE Cede 369
On a new Placoderm, Brontichthys clarki, from the
Cleveland shale. E. W. Cuaypoute. [ Plate XIL.] 379
Geological History of the Missouri Paleozoic. G. C.
BEOADHEAD i ico intone che sb otatay & aieceine Siete ae we Ue 380

Editorial Comment.---A new Meteorite, Minnesota No. 1, 389.—Arctic
and Antarctic Exploration, 389.

Review of Recent Geological Literature.-Laramie and Livingston for-
mations, Montana, W. H. Weep, 391.—Big Stone Gap coal field,
Virginia and Kentucky, M. R. Campse tu. 392.—Glaciation of the
Yellowstone valley, W. H. Weep, 393.—Paleozoic section, Three
Forks, Montana, A. C. Pratr, with Petrographic Notes, G. P.
Merrixu, 394..-Annual Reports, Geol. Survey of Arkansas, J. C.
BRaNNER, 394.—The United States: Population, Immigration, and
Irrigation, J. D. Wuitnery,395.—Proceedings, Indiana Academy of
Science, 395.—Eskers of southern New England, J. B. Woopn-
WoRTH, 396,—Earthquakes in the United States since the Glacial
veriod, N.S. SHauer, 396.—Alluvial River Terraces, R. E. Doper,
397,—Preglacial Channel of Genesee river, A. W. GraBat, 397.—-
Granites of Cecil county, Maryland, G. P. Grrms.tey, 398.—Cam-
brian of the Salt Range, F. Norriine, 398.—Chipped (?) Flints,
Upper Miocene, Burma, F. Norerurna, 399.—Cone-iu-cone, Devon-
ian, Pa., W.S. Grestey, 399.

Recent Publications, 400.

Correspondence.—Note on Nanno, f. W. Sarprson, 402.—Evidence of
Superglacial Hskers in Illinois and northward, W. UpuHam, 403.—
Early observation on the History of the Great Lakes, E. J. Hixt,
405.

Personal and Scientific News, 405.

Index to Volume XIV, 409.

Vou. XIV, PLATE I.

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

New and little-known Invertebrata from the Neocomian

of Kansas.

‘THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

VoL. XIV. JULY, 1894. Noi

m

NEW AND LITTLE-KNOWN INVERTEBRATA FROM
THE NEOCOMIAN OF KANSAS.*

By F. W. CraaGin, Colorado Springs, Colo.

The Invertebrata herein treated were collected by the writer in Kiowa
and Clark counties, Kansas.

The ‘‘Belvidere section” referred to below, is that shown in the ex-
posures on the south side of the Medicine Lodge river, in the south-
eastern part of Kiowa county, at Belvidere. It was first described in
January, 1889; in the Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of
Natural History (No. 9, pp. 85, 86). It was more fully described in my
article ‘On the Cheyenne Sandstone and the Neocomian Shales of Kan-
sas,’ which was published in No. 11 of the same Bulletin (see pp. 75-79),
and, with some revision, in Vols. 6 and 7 of THk AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.
(See Vol. 7, pp. 25 and 26.)

The ‘Bluff Creek seection,’’ described also in the article “On the
Cheyenne Sandstone and the Neocomian Shales,’ ete., is in Clark
county on the east bluff of Bluff creek, about two miles below the old
Vanhem postoftice. '

(7 NEREIS) INCOGNITA, sp. nov.

Plate I, figs. 20-22.

The specific name, ‘ncognita, is proposed as a convenient
designation for the large, apparently nereid, worm that in-
habited the sandy beach of the Comanchean sea of southern
Kansas, and the castsof whose burrows (part of one of which
is shown natural size from above and in cross-section in figures
21 and 22 of Plate 1) occur commonly in Kiowa county in
No. 5 of my Belvidere section, and occasionally, at least, in
Clark county, in the earthy or saccharoidal sandstone which
constitutes No. 4 of my Bluff Creek section.

*Advance sheets distributed May 30, 1894.

2 The American Geologist. July, 1894

The burrows form boldly sweeping, tortuous curves which
lie in a slightly warped surface and occasionally cross them-
selves in a sigmoid or “figure 8” path. The transverse section
of the cast is lenticular, averaging about 10 and 6 mm. in ma-

ss

jor and minor diameters.
PLICATULA SENESCENS. sp. nov.
Plate I, figs. 17.and 18.

Shell quite small, compressed, inequivalve, obliquely sub-
pyriform or inequilaterally rounded-triangular; beaks de-
pressed and indistinct, that of the right valve subtruncate by
the scar of adnation; valves ornamented with numerous
punctations and short, radially disposed, punctiform wrinkles,
so arranged that the intervening elevations do not constitute
distinet, continuous, radial, rib-like plicules such as are seen
in most species of this genus, but, rather, faintly suggest
them; margins of valves thickened, that of the left valve
forming a broad, distinctly elevated, concentrically laminated
border in marked contrast with the discal sculpture; right
valve moderately convex, the left flattish or slightly concave.

Measurements.—Hight 11; length10; breadth 4.5 mm.

Occurrence.—In No. 3 of the Belvidere section, southwest of the rail-
way station. I have seen but two or three specimens.

AVICULA BELVIDERENSIS, sp. nov.

Shell strongly inequivalve, smooth, obliquely purse-shaped,
larger than that of A. swbgibbosa M. & H., as figured in Meek’s
Cretaceous Invertebrata (Plate 28, fig. 12), to which it bears
considerable general resemblance, differing from it apparently
in having a longer hinge-line, a relatively larger and more
prominent anterior and larger posterior ear; anterior ear ab-
ruptly compressed, marked off by a distinct but shallow sul-
cus, and marked with one or two infero-marginal folds: pos-
terior ear continuous with the gently concave posterior slope
of the shell; left valve strongly and rathér narrowly arched
from front to rear, much more convex than the right, its beak
also more elevated above the hinge-line than that of the latter
(? hinge-line as long as or longer than the shell).

Occurrence.—I have before me thirteen specimens of this species
from No. 5and one from No. 3 of the Belvidere section, taken in the
south and southwest vicinity of Belvidere. All are imperfect, none
showing complete outlines or the exact form of the posterior ear: and
none allowing precise measurements.

Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas.—Cragin. 38

PINNA COMANCHEANA, sp. nov.

Shell large, thin; anteriorly inflated and subcircular in
cross-section, becoming more compressed and with exteriorly
concave upper slopes posteriorly; not, or only very obtusely,
angulated along the median line; increase of hight with
distance from beak more rapid than in P. lakesii White;
decussately ornamented with rather remote radial costellie
and somewhat less conspicuously raised remote concentric
lines, there being about nine of the radial costelle on the con-
cave slope.

The shell attains a length of at least eight or nine inches.

Occurrence.—Common in rocks of the Fredericksburg division in
Kansas, Texas and New Mexico; especially in the Comanche Peak
‘limestone of Texas. The largest specimen that I have observed is in
the collection made in the Tucumeari district of New Mexico by the
W. F. Cummins’ party of the Geological Survey of Texas. The types
are specimens in the writer’s private collection from Kansas and Texas
and in the Colorado College collections from southwestern Kansas. All
of the specimens thus far obtained near Belvidere, Kansas, are from
No. 5 of the Belvidere section.

CUCULLAA (IDONEARCA) TERMINALIS, var. nov. recedens.
Plate I, fig. 19.

The hinge of Cucullea terminalis Con. being entirely un-
known, I present a figure of the interior of the Belvidere,
Kansas, 7donearca which I provisionally referred to C. fer-
minalis in my “Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleontology
of the Texas Cretaceous” (Fourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of
Texas, p. 175). This shell occurs in great abundance in No.
5 and oceasionally in No. 3 of the Belvidere section; and is
found through the entire thickness of the Comanche shales of
Clark county.

As compared with the type-figure of C. terminalis, the Bel-
videre species has the beaks less anterior, and by no means
terminal, though their position is somewhat variable and the
figure now given represents perhaps a little more than the
average of their recession from a terminal position.

Typical C. terminalis belongs to the Alternating beds,
while the C. recedens belongs to the lower part of the Fred-
ericksburg division, as represented in Kansas and as seen on
a hill-slope a little west of Weatherford, Texas (where oc-
curs a shell-bed that is apparently the equivalent of No. 5 of

4 The American Geologist. July, 1894

.
my Belvidere section in paleontologic character and strati-
graphic position). It is therefore possible that recedens may
prove to be a species distinct from ferminalis, when future
explorations in the Alternating beds shall lead to the discov-
ery of the hinge of undoubted terminalis.
LIMOPSIS SUBIMBRICATUS. sp. nov.
Plate I, figs. 6—8.

Shell small, obliquely subrotund, or obliquely rotund-quad-
rilateral, of moderate convexity; beaks placed a little in ad-
vance of the middle, small but distinet, giving the dorsal
outline of the shell an apiculate aspect; hinge-plate ample,
but gradually narrowed to a strait in the mid-part where its
lower border is gently subangulated at a point a little back
of that immediately below the beaks; denticles about twenty-
three in number, arranged in a divaricate series, median and
terminal denticles short and minute, the intermediate larger
and elongate denticles for the most part curved or angulated ;
outer surface of shell smooth, except usually for a few re-
mote, unevenly distributed, coarse, concentric growth-lines,
or incipient imbrications; margin entire.

Measurements—Hight 19; length 19; breadth 10 mm.

Oceurrence.—Common in No. 5 of the Belvidere section, south of the
railway station.

NUCULA CATHERINA, sp. nov.

Shell small, compressed, triangular, or ecuneate-ovate; the
entire exterior ornamented with numerous concentric rows of
small, closely set, compressed, hyphen-like tubercles, with one
or two distal, broad, deeply-impressd, concentric growth-lines,
and with delicate radial strizw; each tubercle set so that its
trend agrees with the direction of the subjacent concentric
growth-line, and all of the tubercles being arranged not only
in concentric series but at the same time in quincunx order,
so as to form two sets of intersecting, oblique, and gently
curving rows.

Measurements.—Hight 10.5; length 15; breadth 5 mm., in
a small specimen. An imperfect larger specimen indicates
dimensions at least one and a half times these.

Occurrence.—In No. 3 and in the transition from No. 4 to No. 3 of the
Belvidere section, one and a half to two miles southwest of the Belvi-
dere railway station.

None of the three type-specimens show the hinge charac-

Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Nansas.—Cragin. 5

ters; so thatthe generic position must, for the present, re-
main somewhat doubtful, the provisional generic reference
being based upon the shape and general aspect. The species,
however, is so strongly marked by its exquisite ornamentation
that it cannot be mistaken for any other with which I am
acquainted. It is named in honor of my wife.
REMONDIA FERRISSI Cragin.
Plate I, fig. 1.

The illustration is from a drawing of the type-specimen
made in 1889. when the original description of the species
(published in Bull. Washb. Coll. Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 2, No.
10, Dec. 1889, p. 68) was prepared.

Attention may here be called to some errors which crept
into that description. In the fourth line of the description,
the ratio, “3:7,” should read 7:3. In the fifth and tenth
lines, the word, “‘convex,” should read, concave.

The type was from No.3 of the Belvidere section; but the
writer has recently collected several other examples in No. 5,
south of the Belvidere railway station. These agree well in
size and outline with the type, and show that the latter was
an adult specimen, and that the species is quite distinet from
the Sonoran &. furcata Gabb. But some of them present an
ornamental feature not observed in the type, in having a se-
ries of several parallel, oblique folds, trending backward and
a little upward on the umbonal region. The crests of these
folds are acute, though low, and the troughs are broad and

shallow.
CARDITA BELVIDERENSIS, sp. nov.

Plate I, figs. 9-11,

Shell of small to medium size, triangular or cardiform,
moderately to rather strongly ventricose; beaks placed near
the anterior side and directed strongly forward; exterior of
either valve ornamented with about 26 ribs, of which 19 or 20
are narrow, prominent, spinigerous, and separated by valleys
about twice as wide as themselves, the other 6 or thereabout
being low, plainer, and crowded; spines of the larger ribs
much more closely set than the ribs themselves, short, erect,
subtruneate (commonly appearing as little more than coarse
granules owing to the weathering of the shell); margin of
valves deeply notched.

6 The American Geologist. July, 1894

Measurements,—Hight 28; length 27; breadth 17.5 mm.,
in the largest specimen; average specimens having about
two-thirds of these dimensions.

Occurrence.—The species abounds immediately south and southwest
of Belvidere, in the shell-platform designated as No. 5 of my Belvidere
section, associated with Sphenodiscus pedernalis Roem., Schloenbachia
peruviana Vou B., Limopsis belviderensis Crag., Serpula sp., ete. It is per-
haps the commonest fossil of this horizon, excepting the small or
“hill” phase of Gryphwa pitehert Mort. It occurs here, however,
mostly in weathered specimens that show the short spines as more or
less protuberant granules only. It occurs sparingly in No. 3, sometimes
with the spines beautifully preserved. I have collected a few speci-
mens in the lower part of the Bluff Creek Neocomian section in Clark
county, Kansas. I have -also seen several examples of this species
among specimens collected by Mr. W. F. Cummins in the Tucumeari
district in New Mexico.

(?CARDIUM) MUDGEI, sp. nov.

Size apparently about that of Cardéta belviderensis, shell
ornamented with heavy, narrowly-interspaced, round-topped,
radial ribs, and with numerous freely projecting, concentric,
lamellar borders, which are relatively more prominent in cros-
sing the ribs than elsewhere, forming thereupon strong hood-
like imbrications. Within a space of 9 millimeters on the
ventral margin of the type specimen, there are 5 ribs, and on
the largest one of these ribs there are, on the distal 7 milli-
meters of its length 9 of the hood-like imbrications.

Occurrence.—No. 8 of the Belvidere section, about a mile and a half
southwest of the Belvidere railway station.

Only a part of a single valve of this shell has been found, so that the
generic place of the species is somewhat doubtful; but the ornamenta-
tion is of such a character as to readily distinguish the species, which
may belong to Cardita or to Pectunculus.

The Fox Hills bivalve, Pectunculus subimbricatus M. & H., as figured
in Meek’s Cretaceous Invertebrata, Pl. 28, fig. 14a, isa shell whose orna-
mentation recalls, but does not specifically duplicate, that of the pres-
ent species, its hood-like spines, or imbrications, being less prominent
than in the latter and otherwise different.

The species is named after that most excellent pioneer worker in Kan-
sas geology, the late Prof. Benjamin F. Mudge.

CARDIUM (NEMOCARDIUM) BISOLARIS, sp.. nov.
Plate I, fig. 16.

Shell small, quadrilaterally or subtriangularly rotund, of
moderate convexity; beaks subcentral, slightly in advance of
the middle; posterior fourth (or less than fourth) part of

Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas.—Cragin. 7

outer surface ornamented with thirty or more, slender, radial
eostellw, the anterior three-fourths being devoid of concentric
costelle and marked with extremely delicate and crowded
radial strie; inner part of free margin delicately notched,
or crenulated.

The costelle of the posterior part are not visibly echinate
in the types.

Measurements.—Hight 23; length 21; breadth 15 mm.

Occurrence

Moderately common in No. 5 of the Belvidere section,
south of the railway station.
ROUDAIRIA QUADRANS. sp. nov. .
Plate I, figs. 14 and 15.

Shell small, short, strongly elevated, triangular, the discs of
moderate convexity; beaks situated considerably in advance
of the middle, elevated, somewhat compressed on the anterior
part and strongly so on the posterior, curved inward and
downward and directed somewhat forward; no distinctly lim-
ited lunule; anterior and discal slopes flattish-convex, sepa-
rated from each other by a broadly-rounded, scarcely appre-
ciable angulation, their outer surface marked only by ordinary,
unequal, concentric growth-lines; posterior slope (about one-
fourth of the valve) strongly flattened, separated from the
discal slope by an abruptly rounded angulation, and orna-
mented by numerous linear radial costelle separated by
grooves of about their own width.

Measurements— Hight 50; length 47; breadth 36 mm., in
the largest specimen. Most of the other specimens before me
are relatively shorter and some of them much so.

Oceurrence.—Southwest of Belvidere, in No. 3 of the Belvidere section;
chiefly near the transition from No. 4 to No. 3.

The exact number of radial costellw is not shown in the types: butain
the well-preserved part of the striated area one example shows fifteen
and indicates apparently between twenty and thirty for the full num-
ber. Two of the type-specimens are much larger than that selected for
illustration, and one of these is of a short, elevated form, the other rel-
atively longer, showing that the shell is subject to considerable varia-

tion.

TAPES BELVIDERENSIS, sp. nov.
Plate iy figs. 12, 13.
Shell of medium size, ovate, or in elevated specimens tri-
angular, ovate, the superior outline excavated in advance of

8 The American Geologist. July, 1894

the beaks; valves of moderate convexity, rather thin, beaks
placed at less than one-third of the length from the anterior
extremity, only moderately prominent (their summits rising,
in adult specimens, about two millimeters above the cardinal
teeth); hinge of moderate size; the three divergent cardinal
teeth separated by clefts of subequal amplitude but very deep
and abruptly excavated in the case of the anterior cleft and
less so in the posterior; anterior cardinal tooth small, second
tooth larger and compressed but not sharply so, third large,
broad, flattish-topped and feebly channeled or bifid; posterior
lateral tooth rather large and long; surface marked with
ordinary concentric growth-lines of which a few, not regu-
larly spaced, are usually much stronger than the rest.

Measurements.—Hight 45; length 49; breadth 22 mm., in an
elevated example. Fig. 12 shows an example of the more
elongate form.

Oceurrence.—In No. 3 and 4 of the Belvidere section, south and south-
west of the railway station. Most common near the transition from
the former to the latter horizon. Specimens in the upper part of 4 fre-
quently occur as casts and moulds, while those in the lower part of 3
are usually well preserved.

None of the rather numerous specimens before me show the
pallial line or the teeth of the left valve, but one specimen
shows the posterior adductor-scar to be only faintly im-
pressed.

There is considerable variation in the form of this shell.
In some examples, the hight is equal to only three-fourths of
the length, the outline in such being subovate; in others, the
hight becomes fully equal to the length and the outline accord-
ingly is more triangular.

. LEPTOSOLEN OTTERENSIS, sp. nov.
Plate I, fig. 2.

Shell compressed, elongated, subrectangular, the hight con-
tained nearly two and a half times in the length; dorsal and
ventral margins nearly parallel back of the beaks, and some-
what convergent anteriorly from them; anterior margin
rounded, posterior truncate; beaks at about the anterior third
of the length: valves thin, each presenting a broad, low, and
gently elevated, distally widening fold, which extends from
the beak obliquely downward and forward to the antero-ven-

Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Nansas.—Cragin, 9

tral margin; cast marked with a strong, distally narrowing
and shallowing sulcus which radiates from the beak down-
ward and slightly forward, becoming obsolete before it reaches
the ventral margin, and indicating a corresponding rib on the
inner face of the valve; surface of cast marked with crowd-
ed, fine, concentric, and coarser, rather remote, and evenly
distributed growth-lines.

Measurements.—Hight 13; length 382 mm.

Occurrence.—The figure of this species was drawn several years since
by the writer, who obtained the type and only known specimen from
dark clay shale in the ‘‘Blue Cut’ of the A. T. &S. F. railway, on
Otter creek, a few miles south-southwest of Belvidere. It was associ-
ated with Cyprimeria gradata Crag., Cardium kansasense Mk., Turri-
tella seriatim-granulata Roem., Schloenbachia perurviana Vou B., Spheno-
discus pedernalis Roem., and other species belonging chiefly to No. 3 of
the Belvidere section.

MACTRA ANTIQUA, sp. nov.

Shell small, triangular, longer than high, of very moderate
convexity ; upper anterior margin of either valve, in advance
of the feebly excavated beak-front, forming nearly a straight
line a little shorter than the feebly convex line described by
the supero-posterior margin; anteumbonal and postumbonal
slopes depressed so as to present a broad and shallow radial
sulcus, the anterior suleus separated from the discal surface
by a slight angulation; beaks slightly in advance of the mid-
dle, their apices turned inward and but very little forward;
hinge narrow; the anterior ,-shaped cardinal tooth of the left
valve short and stout, its sinus shallow; posterior cardinal
narrowed above, broad below, the broad lower extremity bear-
ing on its anterior side a short denticle which imperfectly
subdivides the cartilage-pit.

Measurements.—Hight 23.5; length 27; breadth 16 mm.

Occurrence. Several specimens from the transition between No. 4 and
No. 8 of the Belvidere section; one to two miles southwest of Belvidere
station.

The occurrence is interesting, as the genus Mactra is chiefly charac-
teristic of recent and Neocene times and is but sparingly represented in
the lower Cretaceous, WM. occulta of the upper Jurassic being the only
species of this genus known to occur earlier than the Neocomian,

MARGARITA MARCOUANA, sp. nov.

Shell turbinate, spire moderately prominent; whorls four

and a half, convex, increasing rapidly in size, the large body-

10 The American Geologist. July, 1894

whorl obliquely flattened below and above; aperture subcir-
cular, apparently as high as wide; no umbilicus; columella
flattened below; whorls marked with prominent, oblique
growth-lines, and ornamented with three strong, equidistant,
coarsely but regularly beaded carine above which, on the
body-whorl, is a fourth smaller one close to the suture.

Measurements.—Hight 15; breadth 14.5 mm.; divergence of
slopes 85 degrees.

Oceurrence.—Two specimens only of this species are known. These
were obtained: one in No. 5 of the Belvidere section, three fourths of
a mile south of the railway station: the other from No. 8, about a mile
and a half southwest of the station,

The species is very closely related to MW. mudgeana Mk., from which
it is distinguished chiefly by the beaded character of the revolving
Carine, a character which also distinguishes it from Turbo reedi
Kpng. Our specimens are somewhat smaller than the type of WV.
mudgeand, as figured by Meek.

The species is named in honor of Mr. Jules Marecou, discoverer of
the American Neocomian.

MARGARITA (SOLARIELLA) NEWBERRYI, sp. nov.

Shell thin, low-turbinate, or spherico-turbinate, consisting”
of about four rapidly enlarging whorls, spire small and low,
the sutures rather deeply impressed, the body-whorl very large
and ventricose; surface of each whorl ornamented with coarse,
unevenly elevated revolving lines or granuliferous ridges, the
intervals between which are marked with usually two similar
but much finer revolving lines, the whorls being also obliquely
crossed by a system of rather remote, narrow, raised lines
which proceed from the apex down the slopes of the shell
with a somewhat sigmoid, or sickle-like, curvature and pro-
duce more or less distinct eminences at their intersections
with the revolving ridges. Of the primary revolving lines or
ridges, there are six or seven on the flank and shoulder of the
body-whorl.

Measurements —Hight of shell 13.5; breadth of body-.
whorl 15 mm.; divergence of slopes 104 degrees.

Occurrence.—The type and only known specimen of this species was
found in No. 5 of my Belvidere section, half or three-fourths of a mile
south of the railway station, associated with Gryphewa pitchert, var.
hill, Cardita belviderensis, ete.

The base of the type specimen is imperfect, and does not show the

Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas.—Cragin. 11

apertural details nor the ornamentation of the lower part of the body-
whorl. The broken surface apparently indicates an open umbilicus,
but not so plainly as to banish doubt.

The species was named in honor of the late illustrious Dr. J. S. New-
berry: earliest geological explorer of southwestern Kansas.

TROCHUS TEXANUS Roem.

A single well preserved specimen of this rare Trochus was
obtained about two miles southwest of Belvidere station, from
No. 3 of the Belvidere section. This, so far as the writer is
aware, is the first reported occurrence of the species outside
of the type-locality.

The shell is a little more elevated than the example figured
by Dr. Roemer, owing to the less rounded character of the
apical part of the spire; and, though the spiral lines of gran-
ules are five in number on each whorl, the ornamentation is
somewhat finer than in that example. But as the Kansas
shell is also somewhat smaller, the granules would necessarily
be smaller also, and the variation from the Texas form, in
ornamentation and angular divergence of slopes, indicated by
this specimen does not, at furthest, equal that seen in
Turritella seriatim-granulata Roem.

The measurements of the Kansas shell are: hight 14.5;
breadth of the body-whorl 11.5 mm.; divergence of slopes
(lower part of shell) 51 degrees.

PETERSIA MEDICINENSIS, sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, consisting of five or more ( ? six or
seven) whorls, spire rather short, acute, equalling about or a
little less than half the hight of the shell; whorls shouldered
and ornamented with numerous closely-spaced, raised, revolv-
ing lines and with prominent but rather narrow vertical ribs
or folds, of which latter there are about 14 on each of the
lower whorls; aperture elongate, subquadrilateral, bent
slightly backward below to form a very short or rudimentary
notech-like canal, and with a somewhat similar rounded, everted
notch at the upper (posterior) corner; spindle short; inner
lip, within, bearing, opposite the middle of the aperture, two
oblique, parallel, narrow, sharply-raised folds which do not
extend outward to its slightly thickened and everted border ;
outer lip with a sharp, slightly crenulated edge, back of
which the newest fold (in the stage of growth shown in the

12 The American Geologist. July, 1894

younger, but more perfect, of the two type-specimens) forms
a rib-like thickening.

Measurements—Hight 21; breadth of body-whorl 11.5 mm;
divergence of slopes 52 degrees,—these being the measure-
ments of a young shell. An imperfect specimen, which per-
haps represents nearly the adult size, indicates a hight of
nearly 50 mm.

Oceurrence.—In No. 3 of the Belvidere section, about a mile and a
half south of the railway station.

There are 14 of the coarse vertical folds on the body-whorl and 13 on
the first spire-whorl in the smaller of the type-specimens.

Iam unable to refer this shell elsewhere than to the upper Jurassic
genus, Petersia.

CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF GLACIATION.

By WARREN UPHAM, Somerville, Mass.

At the meetings of the British Association in each of the
past two years the causes of the Glacial period have been dis-
cussed from new points of view. One of these papers, pre-
sented in 1892 by Perey F. Kendall and J. W. Gray, is fully
published by Mr. Kendall in the Transactions of the Leeds Geo-
logical Association for Feb. 16, 1893 (pages 53-70). This
paper holds that the Glacial period came on with extreme
slowness: that it was of long duration (an estimate of at
least about 11,000 years being given for the time of growth
of the European ice-sheet, and two-thirds as long for the
North American) ; that the Glacial period ended very abrupt-
ly; that the level of the British Isles was nearly the same at
the beginning of the Glacial period as now; that the end of
this period was very recent in a geological sense (the esti-
mates of 10,000 years, or less, for the Postglacial epoch, as
drawn from the rates of recession of the falls of St. Anthony
and of Niagara, being accepted); and that there has been
only one epoch of glaciation. This review of the Ice age for-
bids an explanation of its causes by the astronomic theory of
Croll, Geikie, and Ball. Against the American theory that
great uplifts of the drift-bearing lands brought on their cool
and snowy climate and glacial envelopment, and that final
subsidence under the weight of the ice-sheets caused them to

Causes and Conditions of Glaciation.— Upham. 13
4 L

be melted away, it is objected that the Pliocene and Pleisto-
cene marine deposits of portions of the shores of Great Brit-
ain leave no room for such changes there in the relations of
land and sea. The authors conclude, therefore, that the Ice
age was probably due to great variations in the heat of the
sun, but how these could be caused is left in uncertainty.

’ A second paper, presented to the British Association in
18938, was by C. A. Lindvall, a Swedish engineer of high at-
tainments in his profession, whose attention during many
years of observation has been much given to the problems of
the glacial drift. His views had been set forth, however, two
years earlier in a pamphlet of 48 pages, with five plates, pub-
lished both.in Swedish and English at Stockholm in 1891, en-
titled, “The Glacial Period: essay on its Origin, Effects, and
End; as also the Possibility of its Recurrence.” The drift
deposition is ascribed to marine submergence with icebergs
and floes, which are thought to have been borne over Seandi-
navia, a large portion of Russia, northern Germany, and the
British Isles, while only the highest parts of the Scandinavian
plateau rose as islands of the sea laden with the ice of Arctic
currents. If such submergence should recur, Mr. Lindvall be-
lieves that an Ice age would be reinstated. Inquiring what
were the climatic conditions of the earth during its earlier
eras, he writes:

We then view our globe in the early dawn of time, a glowing mass
surrounded by a thick veil consisting of almost all the water and other
volatile matter on our earth, being kept in a gaseous form by the in-
tense heat. With the intrepidity of youth it cares but little for the
warmth of the sun, being as hot at the poles as at the equator. But
spite of its covering it loses heat by radiation, and as the earth cools the
effect of the sun becomes more and more preceptible...... First at the
poles and so gradually farther down, vegetable life commenced; this
vegetation being accelerated by the heat of the earth beneath, pouring
rain from above, and an atmosphere saturated with carbonic acid,—all
to such an extent that we can show no parallel: but the product of
course was luxuriant in due proportion........ During all the periods of
successive changes of climate and vegetable life in the polar lands, with
the sole exception of the very latest period, a more or less broad belt
has probably existed at the equator which was far too warm for plants
or animals to exist there.

In Falsan’s “La Période Glaciaire” (1889), of which a re-
view appeared in the Amertcan Geo ogist for July, 1890, an-

14 Lhe American Geologist. July, 1894

other theory of the causes of the Ice age is given, which makes
it depend on high altitude of the glaciated regions, but draws
attention especially, like Lindvall, to the changes in the rela-
tions of solar heat to the earth. This view, proposed by Dr.
Blandet, and adopted by the Marquis de Saporta, Prof. de
Lapparent, M. Falsan, and others, is presented in the follow-
ing translation by Kendall in the Glacialists’ Magazine for
January, 1894:

The sun must certainly have passed through different states, and
have produced at the surface of the earth various phenomena propor-
tional to the magnitude of his successive diameters. Wéithan apparent
diameter of 47°, the distribution of light and heat, as M. de Lapparent
has shown, would no longer correspond with the order of things estab-
lished to-day. The differentiation of the seasons disappears, no part of
the earth remains plunged in long nights, latitude loses a great part of
its influence, the poles enjoy a mild temperature, and, at the torrid zone,
the nebular state of the sun attenuates and compensates for the excess
of heat which would have resulted from its proximity to the earth....
Been These facts once admitted, and it would be difficult to gainsay
them, many geological problems find their immediate solution. It is
no longer a strange anomaly to see the rich vegetation which has grown
about the pole in ancient geological epochs, and even till after the Mid-
dle Tertiary times. One understands why, over all the earth and at all
epochs, there succeeded a series of plants of which the unifdrm devel-
opment was favored by the equability of climates and of seasons: how
the plants have finished by disappearing from the poles, and by migrat-
ing to the south, when the sun, always concentrating upon itself, could
send them only feeble and oblique rays. Then the climate of the poles
was slowly modified, the seasons were progressively accentuated, and
the atmospheric humidity was able to supply abundant precipitation
OMSTLON YE) swe teue, «- By the effect of solar concentration and of the changes
operating in the mode of distribution of heat, the new climatic condi-
tions resulted in a state of unstable equilibrium. They could easily be
modified by a host of circumstances previously of no effect, such as
latitude, the variable action of marine and atmospheric currents, the
orogenic movements of the earth, that is to say, the relief of mountains.
These oscillations became stronger in proportion as the terrestrial crust
acquired greater thickness, and they even acquired a preponderant in-
fluence in the establishment of glacial conditions.

A fourth theory, analogous with the three preceding, but
more bold in its assumptions, disregarding many well ac-
cepted conclusions of geology, as the continuous descent and
development of floras and faunas, including those of the sea,
and supposing ice-sheets to have extended over even inter-
tropical land areas, has been thought out by Mr. Marsden

. Causes and Conditions of Glaciation —Upham. 15
Manson, a civil engineer of San Francisco, California. This
ingenious and well argued hypothesis is published in volume
vul of the Transactions of the Technical society of the Pa-
cific Coast (Sept., 1891), and separately, in a somewhat mod-
ified and more extended form, in a pamphlet of 49 pages,
“Geological and Solar Climates, their Causes and Variations”
(Department of Geology and Physics, University of Califor-
nia, May, 1893). Kendall reviews Mr. Manson’s work as fol-
lows in the February number of the Glacialists’ Magazine:

According tothe author, during the early stages of cooling of the earth
water-vapor would be present in the atmosphere in such quantities as to
quite shut out the heat rays, though not the light rays, of the sun: and
therefore the effect of the solar rays would be limited to heating the outside
of a cloud shell, and so retarding the secular cooling of the earth. The
cloud canopy would be effective in obstructing ingress as well as egress
of heat rays. The isotherms would depend solely upon altitude and not
at all upon latitude. As the earth slowly cooled, the isothermal shells
would successively shrink down upon the surface. When the surface
temperature was 90° F., ‘‘a particularly uniform, moist, and highly tor-
rid climate was established,...... culminating in the Carboniferous
age.”’ With further cooling, temperatures corresponding with tropical
and then temperate climates would prevail the world over. The iso-
therm of 32° F. would touch the mountain tops and a snow-line would
be produced. ‘‘From the moment that snow began to accumulate,
every remaining vestige of earth heat was available for producing those
conditions favorable to glaciation, namely, warm seas, dense fogs, and
cold continental areas: and every unit of solar energy reaching the up-
per regions of the atmosphere was available for maintaining those favor-
able conditions. Glaciation under these conditions would be cumula-
tive until the oceans, exhausted of their heat and lessened in area,
were no longer able to supply the moisture necessary to completely
shroud the earth from direct solar heat.”

The culmination of the Ice age, according to the author, was made by
the gradual reduction of the waters of the oceans to a temperature of
81° F. down to the bottom, the present bottom temperature of the
oceans, and the consequent reduction of evaporation permitted the sun’s
rays at last to break through, and to their heating power the disappear-
ance of the ice-sheets is ascribed: but, just as the high specific heat of
water kept the oceans warm long after glacial conditions had super-
vened upon the land, so now the same property retards their recovery
under the genial influence of the radiant heat of the sun. In the author’s
opinion the climate of the whole earth is becoming warmer, and he ap-
peals to the general retreat of glaciers in proof.

Each of these discussions doubtless presents, in greater or
less degree, some useful portion or hint of the truth; but each

16 The American Geologist. July, 1894

also seems to the writer to be, in important portions, erro-
neous. With acceptance of the review of the Glacial period
as given by Kendall and Gray, there appears no warrant for
their opinion that it was caused by a diminution, and ended
by an increase, of the sun’s heat. During the centuries of
written history, and especially during the past century of
critical investigations in terrestrial and solar physics, no vari-
ations of this kind have been discovered. Such a cause of
the glacial accumulations would have enveloped Alaska and
Siberia with ice-sheets and their drift deposits. The anoma-
lous geographic distribution of the drift forbids this hypoth-
esis. Prof. H. A. Hazen, of the U.S. Weather Bureau, in a
paper contributed to the Engineering Magazine for March,
18938, shows that the climates of Palestine, Egypt, and China,
have undergone no appreciable change during the past 3,000
to 4,000 years,

The fully proved land-ice origin of the general drift sheets
in North America and Europe effectually opposes Lindvall’s
theory of the nature and causes of the Glacial period; and
the remains of past life in the rock strata are discordant with
his supposition concerning the torrid zone previous to the
(Juaternary era.

If we should accept Tait’s and Newcomb’s estimate, that
the existence of the sun since its contraction past the place
and time of its shedding off the matter which now forms the
earth and moon, has been no longer than about ten million
years, we should surely require for the geologic record all the
time possible under that hypothesis. Life might then be sup-
posed to have begun on the earth when the sun was so large
as Blandet and Falsan suggest; but more probably the sun is
vastly older, as one to two hundred millions of years, so that
the solar contraction and intensity of heat became nearly
what they are now before the time of the oldest known fauna
of the Cambrian rocks, which, to judge from its stage of de-
velopment, was far from the beginning of life on our planet.

The occurrence of many and distantly separated areas of
late Carboniferous or Permian glaciation, marking the only
time of wide prevalence of glacial conditions previous to the
Pleistocene ice age, as reviewed by C. D. White in the Amerr-
CAN GeEoLoGist (vol. ur, pp. 299-330, May, 1889) and in

Causes and Conditions of Glaciation—Upham. 17

Wright’s “Ice Age in North America” (pp. 435, 592), is in-
consistent with Falsan’s and Manson’s views, which have no
place for general glaciation before the Pleistocene period.
Another obstacle to Manson’s hypothesis of a continuous cloud
envelope till after the Quaternary glaciation consists in the
extensive deposits of rock salt and gypsum found in strata
as old as the Silurian and Cambrian, since these beds could
only be formed by evaporation of lagoons shut off from the
sea, or of saline lakes, under a drying atmosphere.

The epeirogenie theory of glaciation, thought out by Dana,

Le Conte, Wright, and other American glacialists, and by

Jamieson in Scotland, which has been presented in the Am.
GeoLocist (vol. vi, pp. 327-339, Dec., 1890; vol. xm, p. 278,
April, 1894), in “The Ice Age in North America” (pp. 573-
595), and the American Journal of Science (vol. xiv1, pp.
114-121, Aug., 1893), is held by Falsan to account for the
Glacial period, but it is rejected by the other authors here re-
viewed. The chief objection urged against it, which is pre-
sented, as before noted, by Kendall and Gray, consists in an
approximate identity of level with that of to-day having
been held by some drift-bearing areas at a time very shortly
preceding their glaciation. This is clearly known to have
been true of portions of Great Britain and of New England.
In respect to this objection, it must be acknowledged that the
preglacial high elevation which these areas experienced was
geologically very short. With the steep gradients of the Hud-
son, of the streams which formed the now submerged chan-
nelson the Californian coast, and of the Congo, these rivers,
if allowed a long time for erosion, must have formed even
longer and broader valleys than the yet very impressive
troughs, continuing to depths of 2,000 to 6,000 feet beneath
the sea level, which are now found on these submarine conti-
nental slopes. But the duration of the epeirogenie uplift of
these areas on the border of the glaciation for the Hudson,
beyond it for the Californian rivers, and near the equator in
western Africa, can scarcely be compared in its brevity with
the prolonged high altitude held during late Tertiary and
early Quaternary time by the Scandinavian peninsula and by
all the northern coasts of North America from Maine and Pu-
get sound to the great Arctic archipelago and Greenland.

18 The American Geologist. July, 1894

The abundant long and branching fjords of these northern
regions, and the wide and deep channels dividing the many
large and small islands north of this continent, attest a very
long time of high elevation there. At the time of culmina-
tion of the long continued and slowly increasing uplifts at
the north, they seem to have extended during a short epoch
far to the south, coincident with the formation of ice-sheets
in high latitudes. But when these lands became depressed
and the ice burden of the glaciated countries was removed,
they in some instances, asin Great Britain and New England,
returned very nearly to their original levels, beautifully illus-
trating the natural condition of equilibrium of the earth’s
erust, which Dutton has named /sostasy, that when not sub-
jected to special and exceptional stresses it acts as if floating
ona heavier plastic and mobile interior.

In the great erosion of the Lafayette formation on the At-
lantic coastal plain and Gulf border of the United States,
and in the lower Mississippi basin, which formation is re-
garded by Hilgard, Spencer, E. A. Smith, and the present
writer, as of early Quaternary age, formed during the initial
stages of the high uplift that culminated in the Ice age, we
have an impressive record of that epoch of great altitude of
the northern and principal part of this continent. Similar
rapidity of erosion must also have ensued when any moderate
retreat of the ice-sheet during the time of high uplift and ice
accumulation permitted much of its drift gravel and sand to
be deposited, as in the valleys of the Ohio river and its trib-
utaries, described by Chamberlin and Leverett in the April
number of the Am. Journal of Science (also see the Am. Grox-
ocist for March, pages 217-219). With an elevation of that
area probably 3,000 feet bigher than now, giving its streams
far more rapid descent, and with the aid of a dam formed by
the ice-sheet crossing the Ohio valley at Cincinnati while
most of the valley drift was being laid down, and the subse-
quent removal of this barrier while the stream erosion took
place, we may well suppose that an interval of a few thou-
sand years between the stages of ice advance would suftice for
an amount of stream channelling many times greater than has
been accomplished in the less abundant later deposits of val-
ley drift during all the Postglacial epoch of low altitude and

Causes and Conditions of Glaciation —Upham. 19

gentle river currents. The same lapse of time would also
suffice for the amount of leaching and oxidation of the earli-
est drift which Mr. Leverett has observed in sections of its
former surface now covered by thick deposits of later drift in
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio (Proe., Boston Society of Natural
History, vol. xxiv, pp. 455-459, Jan. 1, 1890). It may be
true also that within this interval the rock gorges in north-
western Illinois described by Mr. Oscar H. Hershey in the Am.
GeroLoaist for November, 1893, were eroded; but it is neces-
sary to scrutinize very carefully the evidences for such rock
erosion during the Glacial period, lest preglacial channelling,
done by small tributaries of the main valleys during the
gradual uplift of the country leading to the Ice age and con-
temporaneous with the Lafayette erosion, be thus misinter-
preted.

The complexity and great length of the Glacial period in
Europe, with subdivision by interglacial epochs, which are
taught by Prof. James Geikie in his admirable books and es-
says, and by Mr. Andrew M. Hansen in the Feb.-Mareh num-
ber of the Journal of Geology (also Am. Groxoaist, vol. x11,
p. 225, Oct., 1893), may probably be reduced to a much less
time and to essential continuity of glaciation, interrupted as
in America only by moderate fluctuations of the ice borders,
when we consider the lesson of the Malaspina glacier or ice-
sheet in Alaska, showing how temperate floras and faunas
may be enclosed between deposits of till by oscillations of the
ice front requiring no long time.

One remaining question, which Prof. R. D. Salisbury has
recently asked in the Journal of Geology (vol. 11, p. 222, Feb.-
March, 1894), concerning the departure of the ice-sheet
because of epeirogenic subsidence of the glacially burdened
land, may be readily answered. Though the still high surface
of the greater part of the ice-sheet would not be affected by
the temperate climate of the country depressed to its present
level or slightly lower, the warm summers along the ice border
would cause it to be rapidly melted. This process extended
inward until all the ice-sheet disappeared. When the progress
of the marginal melting in the Mississippi basin had given
generally steep gradients of the ice-front, its more powerful
currents formed the retreatal moraines and the many lake

20 The American Geologist. July, 1894

basins of the unevenly laid later drift which are so strongly
contrasted with the smooth and attenuated outer portion of
the drift sheet beyond the moraines.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE EARTH’S IN-
TERIOR AS VIEWED FROM THE STANDPOINT
OF THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.

By Pror. W. H. SEAmon, Rolla, Mo.

Although there are now but few, if any, geologists who
would contend that the earth consists of a cold crust sur-
rounding a melted interior, many of them, particularly writ-
ers of text-books, still teach that the earth’s interior is very
highly heated. While we do not find in any recent literature
any positive statement as to the degree of heat, I am sure
that I make no mistake, when I assert that Dana, Le Conte
and Geikie, all give the impression, perhaps unintentionally,
that the temperature of the earth’s interior is so great that,
were it not for the weight of the superincumbent crust, all
of it would be in a molten condition, at a temperature much
hotter than necessary for complete fusion.

Dana says: “The rate 1° F., for 60 feet of descent, in
the latitude of New York, would give heat enough to boil
water at a depth of about 9,000 feet: and 3,000° F., at a depth
of about 83 miles. But the ratio is not an arithmetical one,
because both of the greater conductivity of the earth below
(owing to greater deysity) and the increased pressure, and
hence the depth of fusion, supposing fusion a fact, much ex-
ceeds this amount; but how much, has not yet been deter-
mined.”’*

Le Conte says: “From the facts given above it is probable
that the temperature of the interior of the earth is very great.”

After a very clear and able argument showing the effects of
pressure in deepening the fusion level, if fusion exists at all,
he says: “From this line of reasoning, therefore we conclude
that the solid crust of the earth must be much thicker than
is usually supposed, and there may be even no interior liquid
at all.”’?

*Dana’s Manual of Geology, page 717.
+Le Conte’s Elements of Geology, third ed. (1891), page $4.
tLe Conte’s Elements of Geology, page 86.

Meh eta amas}? 7 ‘ae ‘ ‘ ya 2 7 = -

Condition of the Earth's Interior,—Seamon. 21

In another place we find: “It is a cool crust, covering an in-
candescent interior.”’*

Geikie says: “It was formerly a prevalent belief that the
exterior and interior of the globe differed from each other to
such an extent that, while the outer parts were cool and solid,
the vastly more enormous inner énfensely hott part was more
or less completely liquid.’’+

In another place he says: “It appears highly probable that
the substance of the earth’s interior is at the melting point
proper for the pressure at each depth. Any relief from the
pressure, therefore, may allow of the liquefaction of the mat-
ter so relieved.”’§

Astronomical observations do not admit of a liquid interior,
and compel the belief that the earth throughout is a rigid
solid, except in certain localities which are most probably en-
tirely within the outer crust, made liquid by the heat pro-
ceeding from chemical changes and mechanical movements
within this crust.

There are but two good reasons for believing the earth’s
interior to be highly heated at the present time.

1. The gradually increasing temperature observed as
depth in the crust is attained.

2. The nebuiar hypothesis requires a former very high
temperature for the earth, making reasonable the assumption
that much of this primary heat has been entrapped and _re-
tained beneath the crust.

The observations made in shafts and borings show an _ in-
creasing temperature. But the results are very variable, and
seem to confirm the impression that this increase may be en-
tirely due to heat produced by chemical and mechanical ac-
tion within the crust.

Those holding to the retention of much primary heat, have
felt compelled to give reasons why the interior is not in a
melted condition. The best reason given, the weight, or pres-
sure of the superincumbent crust, only augments the difticulty
of the explanation; for while pressure may prevent actual

*Le Conte’s Elements of Geology, page 166.

{Italics are the writer’s.

tGeikie’s Text Book of Geology, second ed. (1885), page H.
SGeikie’s Text Book of Geology, page 55.

22 The American Geologist. July, 1894

melting, it will usually increase the amount of heat in the
compressed body.

The crust of the earth possesses the properties of an arch,
and, as it is composed of oxidized materials, it possesses a
lower coéflicient of contraction than does the metallic interi-
or. The contraction of the interior would, therefore, be greater
than for the crust, for equal decrements of temperature; and
instead of there being much pressure on the metallic interior,
the probabilities are there is none, resulting from the weight
of the crust.

It is the object of this article to show that, proceeding from
the nebular hypothesis, the temperature of the interior can-
not be as much as 3,000° F. at any point, except perhaps, but
not necessarily, localities in the crust, whence proceed the
fused materials ejected by volcanoes.

The nebular hypothesis of the earth’s origin is so generally
accepted, and appears to be so firmly based upon observations
of celestial phenomena, that we should always consider it in
our speculations as to the history and present condition of
the earth’s interior.

When the earth was in its nebulous condition, the temper-
ature, though high, must have been nearly uniform throughout
the nebulous mass. Matter in the gaseous form so readily
diffuses, as shown in the present composition of the earth’s
atmosphere, moving most rapidly from hot to colder points,
that it seems, even in so large a volume of gaseous matter as
that of the earth in its nebulous condition, the temperature
must have been kept nearly uniform, down to the time when
it was condensed to the liquid state. At what temperature
liquefaction began is a matter for speculation which I have
not considered. It seems evident however that the first mol-
ten mass was mainly composed of the heavier metallic ele-
ments, while the lighter gaseous, alkali, and alkaline earth
elements, still remained in their gaseous condition, uncom-
bined with each other. The lamented Sterry Hunt, in an ad-
dress before the Royal Institution, in 1867, generalized as
follows: “The breaking up of compounds, or dissociation of
elements by intense heat is a principle of universal applica-
tion, so that we may suppose that all the elements which
make up the sun, or our planet, would when so intensely

Condition of the Earth's Interior —Seamon. 23

heated as to be in the gaseous condition, which all matter is
capable of assuming, remain uncombined, that is to say, would
exist. together in the state of chemical elements.” Perhaps
the hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, may have been
at that time, or an earlier period, in a condition as highly at-
tenuated as the hypothetical ether now prevading space, which
may be after all the only true elementary substance.

After the formation of the first molten mass, the earth
would have been constituted very much like our present sun,
a molten mass surrounded by a gaseous envelope of substances
in their elementary condition. As the caloric of the gaseous
envelope was radiated into space, it received heat from the
molten interior. ‘The temperature of this molten mass would
not have varied much as to uniformity, since liquids carry
heat quite readily by convection, tending to maintain a uni-
form temperature throughout their mass. In fact, the prob-
abilities are that the molten mass was at first very small, and
grew in size, as it and the surrounding envelope cooled and
slowly condensed. Such a method of growth would have
largely tended to maintain a uniformity of temperature. We
may presume that this continued until the lighter metals be-
gan to condense. By the time this point was reached the
oxygen would have to combine with them and other elements,
forming acid and basic oxides, which would have readily com-
bined with each other forming a fused magma. This magma,
on account of its greater lightness, would have floated upon
and protected the inner metallic mass.

On account of the high conductivity of the inner metallic
mass, it would have poured off its heat to the oxidized magma
as rapidly as the latter could receive it. This fused magma
by convection would have tended to maintain the uniformity
of its temperature; and the heat produced by the chemical
combinations in the magma and in the atmosphere of the
earth would have delayed solidification. Finally solidifica-
tion of the crust began.

The first crust was of similar composition as diorite or
syenite. *

Diorite melts at a temperature of about 2,000°C., As new
experiments, with better pyrometers, have largely reduced the

*Le Conte’s Elements of Geology, page 215.

24 The American Geologist. July, 1894

formerly accepted melting points of many substances, we may
expect this result for diorite to be reduced also. It therefore
seems to me that we may assume the temperature of the earth
at the period of the solidification of the crust to be about
3,000° F.

The temperature of the interior would have prevented a
rapid thickening of this crust. After the crust had formed,
the heat of the metallic interior would have still been rapidly
communicated to the outer crust. It must not be forgotten
that it was not a case of heating a cold crust; but that the
heat from the interior had simply to continue to flow through
this outer crust.

The following equation will give the present temperature
of the earth’s interior, as accurately as the factors can be de-
termined.

Present temperature of the metallic interior =

Volume X density X sp. heat X orig. temp. X 62.25.*

Time of cooling X area of radiating surface X annual loss of heat.

Substituting in this equation the following values and solv-
ing, we obtain 468° F. as the present temperature of the earth’s
interior.

Specific heat of the metallic interior, 0.1.+

Specific gravity of the metallic interior, 9.

Time since crust began to form, 60,000,000 years. *

Assumed average thickness of the crust during this period,
fifty miles; diameter of the earth, 7,900 miles.

Temperature of the earth at the time the crust began to
form, 3,000° F.

Amount of heat annually flowing through the crust, forty
units of heat from each square foot of the radiating surface
of the metallic interior.

In conclusion, I desire to say that I recognize that the re-
sults of my calculation may be criticised, owing to my inabil-
ity to secure the exact values of the factors in my equation;
yet that is not the material point of this article, which is in-
tended to show, to the supporters of the nebular hypothesis of

*Weight of a cubic foot of water in pounds avoirdupois.

+This is above the average specific heat of the heavy metals.

tEstimates of the age of the oldest stratified rocks vary from 10,000,-
000 to 200,000,000 years. See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, pp. 56 and 57.

Shasta County, California.— Fairbanks, 25

the earth’s origin, that there is no real necessity for assuming
or believing that the internal temperature of the earth is high,
but that instead it is most probably low.

NOTES ON SOME LOCALITIES OF MESOZOIC AND
PALEOZOIC IN SHASTA COUNTY,
CALIFORNIA.

By HAroup W. FAIRBANKS, Berkeley, Cal.

Tntroduction. In the summer of 1891 the writer, while at
work on the geology of Shasta county, was fortunate enough
to make the discovery of several very rich fossiliferous loeali-
ties which appeared to represent horizons previously unknown
in that part of thestate.* Some time later the extensive pa-
leontological material was placed in the hands of J. P. Smith
of the Leland Stanford University, who is at present at
work on it in connection with a more detailed study in the
field. The field notes are largely those of the writer, but he
is indebted wholly to Mr. Smith for the determinations of the
various horizons described.

General geology. Shasta county occupies the greater por-
tion of the Klamath Mountain region which drains into the
Sacramento river. The lava flows of northeastern California
have covered the eastern half of the county, reaching nearly
to the Sacramento river on the south, while in the northwest
corner a small flow descended the valley of the same stream
for a number of miles. That portion of the county to the
north and west of Pitt river as far as Big Bend is wholly free
from the lavas, and it is in this region that the richest fossil-
iferous beds occur. The mountain ranges have a north and
south trend and rise from two to three thousand feet above
the valleys, being very rocky but not precipitous. Although
there is some timber the greater portion of the surface is cov-
ered with dense brush, making it difficult to traverse except
over the old trails.

*The report on the geology of Shasta county containing a description
of these discoveries would have been issued by the California State Min-
ing Bureau in the winter of 1892-8, but owing to the refusal of the Goy-
ernor to have the whole printed it was cut down and much of the geo-
logical portion left out.

26 The American Geologist. July, 1894

The geological structure of the central and north central
portions of the county, lying immediately west of the lava, is
comparatively simple. In the regularity of strike and dip of
the strata over considerable areas it more resembles that of
the Sierra Nevada than the Coast ranges. Eruptives too are
of rare occurrence in the north central portion, that region
lying between Kosk’s creek and the upper Sacramento. While
so much of Shasta county is auriferous, there is hardly a trace
of the precious metals in this region. The metamorphic se-
ries consists to a great extent of slates. Toward the western
side of the county in the direction of the higher ranges of the
Klamath mountains there is a considerable change in the
character of the sedimentary rocks. Although there are large
areas of slate, yet fine silicious conglomerates are very promi-
nently developed. The strike and dip also become very ir-
regular because of the many large masses of intrusive rock.
It was in Shasta county that the Carboniferous was first rec-
ognized in California. Dr. Trask made a considerable collec-
tion from the Gray or Marble mountains near the mouth of
the MeCloud in 1854. Later work was carried on by Whit-
ney’s survey, but no important addition was made to our
knowledge of the metamorphic series.

In 1883 J. S. Diller, of the U.S. Geological Survey, began
work in this section of California, making collections from
several new localities of Carboniferous limestones. In 1890,
with more complete paleontological material, the limestones
on Cedar creek were determined as Trias. In the summer of
1891 the writer found the first Jurassic fossils in place in the
Big Bend region, although Mr. Diller had previously picked
up float specimens near Kosk’s creek.

Jurassic of Big Canon. The youngest portion of this series
of metamorphic rocks is found just west of the lava sheet,
whose western border in the northern part of the county is
Kosk’s creek and Pitt river. Big Cafion enters the cafion of
Pitt river a few miles below Big Bend, and in this canon the
first Jurassic fossils were found in place. The slates and
shales vary from black to reddish brown in color, closely re-
sembling the Jura of Taylorsville. The fossils were not abun-
dant and consisted almost wholly of lamellibranchs. They
were found in place and in float boulders in the creek bed.

Shasta County, California.—Fairbanks. 27

The fossils were studied by J. P. Smith and pronounced to be
the equivalent of the Hardgrave sandstone, Lower Jura, of
Plumas county. It seemed probable that a much larger col-
lection might be made from the upper portion of the cafion,
but the thickness of the brush prevented at that time any
farther investigation. The strata are vertical or dip at a high
angle to the east, and strike nearly north and south.

Mr. Diller has also obtained fossils from other localities in
the Big Bend region, apparently higher in the series, for Prof.
Hyatt considers them as probably equivalent to the Mormon
sandstone. The Bend formation then consisting of slates and
argillaceous limestone embraces as far as is known the Lower
and Middle Jura.

The Trias of Squaw Creek. Farther to the west, the divide
between Pitt river and Squaw creek is capped by extensive
limestone beds, which are greatly faulted and broken. The
limestone begins to outcrop prominently on the south near
the point where the trail from Madison’s to Brock’s crosses
the divide. It extends northwards for about eight miles,
when its course carries it across Squaw creek. It is known to
extend to the divide south of the McCloud river. The beds
are not absolutely continuous, but swell and contract in lens-
like forms. The northern portion of the limestone and in-
closing shales has a vertical dip, but about five miles north of
Madison’s the strata change their position, and the limestone
in part caps the divide, dipping to the east at varying angles.
The limestone presents bold cliffs several hundred feet high to
the west, and reaches in places an elevation of 4,000 feet.
On the summit a little north of the trail to Brock’s the lime-
stone rises in high and rugged pinnacles. Here a rich
Triassic fauna wasfound. The fossils are chiefly cephalopods
and are well preserved; a large number of species was col-
lected, many of them being new. Ina gulch at the southern
extremity of the main limestone range there is an opportunity
to study the transition from limestone to slate, made doubly
interesting by the fact that some species in the limestone can
be followed for several hundred feet into the argillaceous
slate. These fossils were studied by J. P. Smith, who re-
ported them to belong to the Karnie division of the Upper
Trias, while the calcareous and argillaceous slates are proba-

28 The American Geologist. July, 1894

bly of Lower Karnie age. The limestones are considered by
him as the equivalent of those on Cedar creek, south of Pitt
river. In relation to the Taylorsville Trias, he considers the
limestone equivalent of the Hosselkus limestone, and the un-
derlying Ammonite slates the equivalent of the Halobia slates.
The conclusion based on a study of the field was that the
Squaw creek limestone and associated fossiliferous strata oc-
cupy an intermediate position between the Jura of Big cafion
and the Carboniferous of the McCloud. The argillaceous slate
below the limestone is followed in the direction of Squaw
ereek by silicious slates, having a nearly vertical dip. In the
latter, fully 2,000 feet below the limestone, several poorly
preserved specimens of brachiopods were found.

The silicious slates continue southward and are probably
the equivalent of those at Silverthorne’s ferry, where there is
an exposed thickness of nearly 2,000 feet. According to
the paleontological evidence obtained here by J. P. Smith,
he would place these slates in the Middle and possibly the
Lower Trias, of which there are no equivalents at Taylors-
ville. It is intended to apply the term Pitt shales to’ these
rocks, which, together with some Upper Carboniferous strata
(McCloud shales), twenty miles above the Fisheries, shall be
embraced under the designation Pitt formation.

The Carboniferous of the McCloud [iver.—The Gray or
Marble mountains of the McCloud river, asa high and rugged
range, border that stream for many miles on the east. In the
vicinity of the United States fisheries the scenery is very
picturesque. The limestone is much disturbed, in places be-
ing nearly vertical, in others dipping to the east at an angle
of thirty degrees or less. Whitney estimated the thickness
at the fisheries as 1,000 feet, but it seemed to the writer
much greater, probably twice that amount. Dr. Trask collec-
ted the most of his fossils from near Basses ranch south of
Pitt river, the limestone being the southern continuation of
that on the McCloud.

The lowest horizon recognized at the fisheries is a black
silicious shale, probably 500 feet thick (Baird shales), the
fauna of which Mr. Smith considers analogous to the Waverly,
but that the stratigraphical position is higher. The fauna
is chiefly molluscan. This fauna seems to appear at a num-

Shasta County, California.—Fairbanks. 29

ber of places below the limestone as far up the river as
Campbell’s. Theshales outcrop most prominently on the west
side of the river just above Baird P. O. Here they are very
highly metamorphosed in places by dikes of diabase and dia-
base porphyrite. Four miles above, two specimens of trilo-
bites were obtained from a dark calcareous shale. They were
submitted to eaptain A. W. Vogdes, U. 8. A., who stated that
they were quite similar to Proetus ellipticus from the Lower
Carboniferous of the middle states.

The limestone peaks along the east side of the McCloud ex-
tend inanorth and south direction, but the strike of the strata
is about north 30 degrees west. The repetition of the lime-
stone bodies in the north and south direction, as well as that
of the fossiliferous beds along the river, is undoubtedly due
to sharp folding or faulting. If this were not so the thick-
ness of the limestone would be immense. The McCloud lime-
stones are considered by Mr. Smith as belonging to the Upper
Carboniferous. The fauna consists chiefly of corals and
brachiopods. Perhaps the best preserved specimens are to be
obtained from the oldest known locality south of Pitt river.
Fossils are however quite abundant in many places as far up
the river as Campbell’s. These limestone beds Jie along an
axis of great disturbance for at least twenty-five miles. At
the southern extremity this disturbance seems to have been
greatest, for in the vicinity of Basses ranch, south of the main
limestone range, small areas of the rock appear separated from
each other some distance, and inclosed in a variety of erup-
tive rocks. At the fisheries and many other points up the
river, the limestone has been intruded by a great number of
fine grained dikes. These seem to have come up underneath
and to have very much broken the lower portion. In some
places radial arms of limestone extend down from the main
portion of that rock toward the river and are partly or wholly
inclosed in eruptive masses. On stratigraphical grounds the
writer would correlate the McCloud limestone with that found
by Mr. Diller on Soda creek in the extreme northern part of
the county. The McCloud limestones cross the river about
sixteen miles above its mouth and are known to occur at sey-
eral points in the high range east of the Sacramento river.
The McCloud limestone is generally associated with rocks

30 The American Geologist. July, 1894

quite different from that east of Squaw creek. On Campbell’s
creek the rock overlying the limestone appears to be a pseudo-
diorite, associated with others in a highly metamorphic con-
dition. Nine miles above Campbell's the limestone strata are
separated by layers of a hard feldspathie rock of a greenish
color. Twelve miles to the north the overlyimg rock isa green
to purplish conglomerate, very compact and hard@. On Chat-
terdown creek occur quartzite, green conglomerates, and di-
orite. The great body of the rock seems semi- to fully erys-
talline. The field is undoubtedly an interesting one for the
study of metamorphism.

The uppermost horizon of fossiliferous strata on the Me-
Cloud occurs about twenty miles above the Fisheries on the
east side of the river. Here is found a calcareous argillite
rich in several species of Productus, besides other forms,
which according to Mr. Smith belong in the upper portion of
the Carboniferous. These argillitic limestones and the asso-
ciated shales are embraced under the designation, MeCloud
shales.

The Devonian of the Sacramento River. What is perhaps
the oldest fossiliferous formation in this region is found west
of the Sacramento river and near the station of Kennett.
Here occur four or more detached limestone areas associated
with green rocks and slates; areas probably once more or less
continuous, but which have been broken apart by intrusive
masses. The strike and dip of the inclosing rocks is exceed-
ingly irregular. One body of fossiliferous limestone is crossed
by the old trail from the Squaw creek to Kennett. The other
most important ones lie on the mountain side between the
Backbone creeks. The fossils found here are exclusively co-
rals and the number of species is not large. Much of the
limestone seems formed almost wholly of the coral fragments.
In places a network of coral stems weathers out, almost com-
pletely covering the surface of the rock. The age of this
limestone is probably Devonian, according to determinations
made by the U. S. Geological Survey.

Geological Results. Mr. Diller has added largely to our
knowledge of the geology of Shasta county. Several locali-
ties of Triassic and Jurassic as well as Carboniferous fossils
have been reported by him. The age of the main portion of

.*

On a Recent Diamond Find in Wisconsin.—Hobbs. 31

the Klamath mountains, however, yet remains to be deter-
mined. j

There are then probably four important geological horizons
represented in this section: Devonian, Carboniferous, Trias,
and Jura; the fossils showing the rocks to be successively
older from east to west. The structural relations of the dif-
ferent horizons yet remain to be worked out. Whether un-
conformities exist is not yet known. It would appear that
the region of greatest upheaval and disturbance lay to the
west; that structurally the Klamath mountains are more dis-
tinct from the Sierra Nevada than has been supposed.

There is yet no proof of any granite or other crystalline
rock in this region older than the sedimentary complex. The
hornblende granite near the Fisheries, referred to by Becker
and White as older than the sandstones underlying the Car-
boniferous, is probably younger, as it is fine-grained near the
edges and terminates in ramifying dike-like arms, The age
of the most of the granite of the Klamath mountains is not
known. That of one of the eastern ranges, the Trinity
mountains, is probably post-Jurassic.

ON A RECENT DIAMOND FIND IN WISCONSIN AND
ON THE PROBABLE SOURCE OF THIS AND
OTHER WISCONSIN DIAMONDS.*

By WriLu1AM H. Hogss, Madison, Wis.

In October, 1893, a son of Charles Devine found some bright
stones while playing in a clay bank on the farm of Judson
Devine which is located near the village of Oregon in Dane
county, Wisconsin. These stones he took home and in Novy-
ember of the same year they were brought to me for examin-
ation. One of them proved to be arough diamond, the others
being quartz pebbles. The diamond is a slightly distorted
rhombie dodecahedron with much rounded faces. It has an
average diameter of about a quarter of an inch and weighs
3.83 carats. It is not perfectly transparent, but the grayish
coloring matter which it contains is apparently superficial.
The edges of the rhombie dodecahedron seem to be slightly

*Read before the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Dec. 30th, 1893.

32 The American Geologist. July, 1894

truncated by the faces of the icosatetrahedron. Numerous
irregular-shaped cavities appear on the faces of the dodeca-
hedron and are probably etchings. Mr. Devine sold the stone
to Messrs. Tiffany & Company of New York, and I have been
informed by Mr. George F. Kunz that it would doubtless cut
white but would not be entirely perfect. The stone has been
placed uncut in the “Exposition Collection” of gems prepared
by Tiffany & Co. Mr. Devine’s farm, on which this diamond
was found, is two miles south of the village of Oregon and
about twelve miles south of Madison. It was found in the
till or boulder clay of the Kettle moraine. The residue of
this material after elutriation to free it from the more finely
comminuted matter, is found by microscopic examination to
be composed of rounded quartz grains of variable size with a
few oxidized grains of pyrite. -
Considerable interest attaches to this find when considered
in connection with other Wisconsin finds of diamonds. In
1876 a stone was found while digging a well on the farm then
owned by Dr. Tucker in the town of Eagle near Waukesha.*
In November, 1888, Mrs. Clarissa Wood sold the stone to Col.
S. B. Boynton, a Milwaukee jeweler, for one dollar, neither
party to the transaction knowing that the stone was a dia-
mond. When it became known that the stone was a valuable
diamond, suit was brought by Mrs. Wood against Col. Boyn-
ton for its recovery. The case was carried to the supreme
court of the state and decided in favor of the defendant.
The stone is still uneut in the hands of Col. Boynton, who
now resides in Chicago. Through his courtesy I have been
allowed to examine it. Like the Oregon stone, this diamond
isa rhombie dodecahedron with rounded faces. The faces
are sometimes vicinal, indicating a hexoctahedron of irrational
indices. The faces also occasionally exhibit peculiar circu-
lar markings and low elongated triangular protuberances not
altogether unlike those sometimes seen on the rhombohedral
faces of amethyst. The crystal is but little distorted, is very
transparent, and has a wine yellow color. On one side is a
small flaw, apparently superficial. The weight of the rough

*Min. Res. of U. S. for 1883 and 1884, p. 732. (1885.)

Cf. also Geo. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones, New York, 1890.
p. 39.

*)oges Senta meats Riad

tam .

On a Recent Diamond Find in Wisconsin,—Hobbs, 33

stone is about 16 carats. Col. Boynton has given me the fol-
lowing facts concerning the section of material penetrated by
the Eagle well in which this stone was found. Loose gravel
extends from the surface to a depth of 25 feet. This is fol-
lowed by 45 feet of clay. Below the clay is a layer 4 feet

- thick of hard yellow “matrix,’ which is doubtless gravel or

clay cemented by oxide of iron. It was in this material that
the diamond was found. Below it the well was sunk for two
feet through clean gravel. Two small diamonds are said to
have been subsequently taken from the well. There is alsoa
report of a stone that is said to have been found when the
well was begun in 1868. It was the size of a robin’s egg.
Parties who saw both this stone and the Eagle diamond claim
that the only noticeable difference was in size. This stone
may have been a diamond, but the evidence is insufficient.

While prospecting for gold in the summers of 1887, 1888,
and 1889, Mr. G. H. Nichols of Minneapolis and two compan-
ions found a number of small diamonds in the bed of Plum
creek in Rock Elm township, Pierce county.* Three of these
stones, weighing 25-32, 7-16, and 3-32 of a carat respectively,
were sent to Mr. Kunz for examination. All were found to
be hexoctahedra and either white or yellowish.

I am informed by Col. Boynton that a diamond very much
like the Eagle diamond was found in 1884 by Henry Endlich
on his farm at Kollsville near West Bend in Washington
county. Mr. Boynton describes this stone as wine yellow and
of the same form as the Eagle diamond. It was harder than
emery and weighed 214 carats. The same hard yellow fer-
ruginous “matrix” which is found in the Eagle well occurs on
Mr. Endlich’s farm at Kollsville. I learn by correspondence
that Mr. Endlich has since died and his family has moved
away from Kollsville. I have not yet succeeded in getting
into communication with any member of the family, but I
think there can be little doubt that the stone found by Mr.
Endlich was a diamond.; At the time Mr. Boynton examined
the stone he was in possession of the Eagle diamond, and he

*On the occurrence of diamonds in Ww isc oe ge Bull. Geol. Soc. ih,

vol. 2, p. 638. (1891.) Cf. also Min. Res. of U.S., 1889-90, p. 446. (1892. )
LSince the above was written, I have (eae mae ia: Louie Endlich
of Kewaskum, Wis., now has the stone, but [ have had no opportunity

to examine it.

B34 The American Geologist. July, 1894

tells me that after it came into his hands he gave considerable
attention to the properties of gems.

Diamonds have then been found at four widely separated
localities in the state. of Wisconsin, namely: at Eagle in
Waukesha county, at Kollsville in Washington county, at
Oregon in Dane county, and on Plum creek in Pierce county.
In the last mentioned locality the stones were found in the
bed of astream within the area of the older drift, perhaps
twenty miles from the Kettle moraine. The other localities
are on the Kettle moraine of the Green bay lobe of the ice-
sheet, as may be seen by reference to figure 1. Supposing

Fic. 1. Map of Wisconsin showing 1ocalities where diamonds have been found. The
location of the Kettle moraine and the margin of the older drift are based on Cham-
berlin’s maps. The directions of the glacial strie are taken from the same source.

that the diamonds which have been found in the Kettle mo-
raine have a common source, as is probable, they must have
been derived from some area in the northeastern portion of

Differential Faults.—Hobbs. a 35

¥\
a
.

the state or a region still farther to the northward, as is Clear;
ly shown by the glacial strie. The Pierce county diamonds,
are unlike the others described in that they are all small and
occur in hexoctahedral instead of dodecahedral crystals.
They could only be considered to have the same source as the
others by supposing that all are derived from some area well
toward the Hudson bay country in Canada.

It is interesting here to note that in the Menominee region
on the northeastern boundary of Wisconsin are basic intrusive
rocks which cut shales containing considerable percentages of
carbonaceous matter, thus reproducing the conditions which
obtain at the South African diamond mines. Very similar
conditions obtain in the Pigeon river region northwest of lake
Superior. The Pierce county diamonds may be easily con-
ceived to have come from the latter area. It is not at all im-
probable that productive diamond mines may sometime be
located in one or the other of these areas. In the meantime
diamonds will be found occasionally in the drift. There is
little to be hoped for in the systematic search for stones in
the moraine, as they are probably disseminated with consid-
erable uniformity through it. This would seem to be shown
by the occurrences that are known.

DIFFERENTIAL FAULTS.

By WinixL1Am H. Hopss, Madison, Wis.

The dislocations of the earth’s strata are generally classi-
fied, (1) according to the direction of the fault line with ref-
erence to the strike of the beds, into strike faults, diagonal
faults, and cross faults; and, (2) according to the direction
of hade with reference to dip, into vertical faults and faults
with inclined hade. The latter type is further classified, (a)
according to the direction of throw of the hanging wall, into.
normal and reversed faults or overfaults; and, (b) according
to the relation between the hade and the dip of the beds, into
faults which hade with the dip and faults which hade against
the dip. Margerie and Heim in their admirable resume of
our knowledge concerning faults,* distinguish two main types

*Margerie et Heim, Les dislocations de 1’ écorce terrestre. Essai de
définition et de nomenclature. Ziirich, 1888.

36 The American Geologist. July, 1894

of faults, namely, those resulting from vertical movements,
and those resulting from horizontal movements in the earth’s
crust.

None of the above classifications takes into account the in-
clination of the crest and trough lines, or in other words the
pitch, of folds of strata, and it is evident that a new type of
fault is found if the pitch of folds is different in the two
limbs of an inclined strike fault. An instance of this kind
IT have recently described from the southern extension of the
Green mountains in Massachusetts and Connecticut.* The
fault described is a strike fault and one resulting from hori-
zontal movements. Its course is roughly north-south, follow-
ing for a considerable distance the direction and approxima-
ting the position of the Housatonic river. It has an inclined
hade uniformly east, throughout the twelve miles that it has
been studied. Throughout this distance no noticable pitch
of the folds is observable to the eastward of the fault line and
consequently a single horizon—the Canaan dolomite—is ex-
posed. A steep northerly pitch, however, characterizes the
folds to the west of the fault line, so that not only the Canaan
dolomite but two superior beds—the Riga schist and the
Egremont limestone—appear along the fault line to the north-
ward, and two inferior beds—Cambrian quartzite and gneiss
—lie along it to the southward. For a part of its course Ca-
naan dolomite lies on both sides of the fault Hne. Some-
where within this stretch of the fault line is a point at which
there has been no displacement, but about which the western
limb of the fault has suffered a differential movement like
that of a lever about its fulerum. As the arm to the north
has been depressed, that to the south has been elevated. It
is therefore only to the northward of this point that the fault
is of the true reversed type. To the south of the fulcrum
point the relations observed to the north are reversed. The
eastern or hanging wall is downthrown and the western or
foot wall isupthrown. These relations correspond to those
of the normal fault, since a vertical line would penetrate any
given horizon but once. The amount of throw increases pret-

Seg SAY tec pwc. : : re

*\VWm. H. Hobbs, On the geological structure of the Housatonic val-
ley lvingeast of mount Washington. Journ. of Geol., vol. I, pp. 793-798.
(Nov.-Dec., 1893.)

SNA IDS ESE CCOE SANDRO

\ \\

AW
\ \

AYUDA Uta te EA AEA BATS SOO, =

\

\ Sw MTT
\\

MAMAN AAMg uaa angnaina

ZZ

\N

Pe Sa ee i

7) sr TT" ArT a F

The Early Stages of Bactrites.—Clarke. 37

ty uniformly in going either to the north or to the south from
the fulerum point.

The unique feature of this fault is the differential move-
ment of the western limb with reference to the eastern one,
and I therefore propose to call it a differential fold fault.
Mild eases of this type of fault are probably by no means
rare in mountain districts, but they would usually escape de-
tection on account of the low angle of pitch. As more atten-
tion is given to the pitch of folds in the study of mountain
structure, it may be expected that pronounced instances of
such faults will be occasionally discovered.

THE EARLY STAGES OF BACTRITES.
By Joun M. CLARKE, Albany, N. Y.
(PLATE IT.)

In a recent number of this journal* the writer took occasion
to describe the protoconch of a Devonian species of Orthoceras,
remarkable for its fullness and rotundity, without evidence of
distortion or shrinkage. In connection with this description
reference was made to the similarity of form existing between
this protoconch and that of the genus Bactrites, as repre-
sented by specimens from the same geological horizon.

The protoconch of Bactrites has been described by Brancot
from specimens derived from the Wissenbach slates. This
eminent cephalopodist mentions eight examples retaining this
initial shell, in material which had been furnished to him by
Privy-counselor E. Beyrich, and the figured examples show
this protoconch to be an elongate, egg-shaped body, the shell-
tube being attached at one of its extremities. The more com-
plete of these figures, which is here reproduced in outline,
shows this form as well as the narrowness and regular upward
expansion of the shell-tube, and also the lateral position of
the sipho, which has commonly been regarded as the principal
determinative feature of the genus.

The ovoid form of the protoconch is, as observed by
Branco, unlike anything occurring in the Ammonitine or the

*AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol x11, pp. 112-115, Aug., 1893.
+Zeitschrift der deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. vol. 37, pp. 1-9, figs. 1, 2,
1885.

38 The American Geologist. July, 1894

Goniatitine, except in the genus Mimoceras (Goniatites com-
pressus), Where, in addition to this peculiar form of the pro-
toconch, the initial portion of the shell-tube is straight, the
primary volution free and the umbilicus open. Before .the
record of this observation, considerable divergence of opinion
had been expressed by authors as to the phyletie position of
Bactrites,* many choosing to associate it with Goniatites
among the ammonoids. Beyrich (1851) regarded the genus as
an orthoceran with marginal sipho, and this view was shared by
F, Roemer, Owen and Quenstedt.. In 1877 Barrande figuredt
as Bactrites hyatti, what was believed to be the initial ex-
tremity of a specimen which had been found in the Munich
university collection, labelled B. gracilis Sandberger, and
duawings of which had been prepared for him by Hyatt.
These figures, however, show that the specimen bears no pro-
toconch, but begins with a tapering, conical chamber having
a cicatrix on its distal surface. Branco, in 1880 (Palzonto-
graphica, uf c/?.), while expressing some doubt as to the gen-
eric relations of the Munich specimen, stated his conviction
that, should this prove a genuine Bactrites, there could
then be no question of its close affinity to Orthoceras. The
description of the Wissenbach protoconchs a few years later
dispelled this view.

An anticipatory glance at the figures here given of proto-
conch-bearing specimens of Bactrites will serve to show not
only a difference in the form of this body and that ascribed
to the genus by Branco, but also the very close similarity be-
tween it and that of Orthoceras, as given by the writer, and
that of Belemnites as given by Branco.t These differences in
the initial stages of shells ascribed to Bactrites lead first to
the inquiry as to which of all these specimens really belong to
this genus, for it would seem that all cannot. Branco showed§
at some length and quite conclusively that the Munich speci-
men figured by Barrande could not be accepted as a repre-
sentative of this genus. With equal lucidity he indicated the
27, p. 49, 1880.

+Cephalopodes: Etudes Génerales, pl. 490, fig. 1; p. 120.

¢Zeitschrift der deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. vol. 32, p. 608, fig. 7, 1880:
also Paleontographica, wt cit.
SZeitschr., wt cit. vol. 37, 1885.

e |

The Early Stages of Bactrites.—Clarke. 39

points of agreement in his specimens with the diagnostic
characters of Bactrites. Though not venturing to determine
their specific characters, he felt that the evident marginal
position of the sipho was sufficient to establish their generic
relations. Against this interpretation the writer can urge
nothing, but only set forth the character of the material
which has passed under his own observation.

Bactrites, as defined by its founder, G. Sandberger (1841),
is based upon the species B. gracilis G. Sandb., the original
localities of which are Wissenbach and Bidesheim. The
shells of the genus are long, slender, slowly expanding tubes
having an elliptical cross section, gently oblique septa, some-
what expanded aperture and the surface covered with fine
concentric lines, which are more or less oblique and make a
slight retral bend above the position of the sipho. As speci-
mens are usually preserved, the sipho appears to be distinctly
marginal. Upon internal casts of the shell the sipho seems
almost invariably to make a distinct lobe in the margin of
the septum. The structure at this point, however, is delicate,
and such casts may readily convey an inexact conception.
The position of the sipho is not precisely marginal, but a very
narrow moiety of the septum lies between the tubular siphonal
collar or funnel and the wall of the shell. A very slight varia-
tion in the direction of this collar, which is often perfectly ap-
parent in any single specimen, will, in case of an outward in-
clination, attach the collar to the shell-wall, but if the diree-
tion be inward the collar may remain altogether free from the
shell. This structure is seen in the accompanying figure
(Plate II, fig. 3). The detachment of the shell-wall usually,
indeed almost invariably, carries with it the outer portion of
the collar, thus forming very distinctly an apparent dorsal lobe.
It is the presence of this lobe that Branco has taken as giving
the generic status to his specimens.

The material upon which the observations here made are
based has been derived from the Naples beds or the horizon
of the Goniatites intumescens fauna, in various localities in
Ontario and Livingston counties, New York. Its representa-
tion is abundant and its preservation exceptionally favorable.
A few of the specimens are preserved in pyrite, some are
in limestone and shale, but the great majority are exquisitely

40 The American Geologist. July, 1894

retained replacements in silica. These silicious fossils are

differently preserved, many of them are simple replacements -

of the shell in all its parts, without the filling of the inter-
spaces; others have the silicious shell retained in connection
with a silicious filling of the internal cavities, though the
depositions are discrete and were evidently successive; by
the breaking of the external shell the internal filling can be
readily removed. Again, the silicification of the shell has
frequently been continued into an internal thickening which
may more or less completely fill the chambers, though usually
leaving the siphonal cavity unclosed. In this material there
are twenty-four examples which retain the protoconch ; many
of these are not mere parts of mature individuals, but the
young shells themselves. These specimens represent at least
two distinet species of Bactirites, one a long, styliform shell,
with decidedly elliptical cross-section and comparatively dis-
tant septa; the other a more rapidly expanding shell, sub-
circular in cross-section and with closer septa. - The former,
Iam disposed to believe, includes the specimens from this
horizon which have been described as Orthoceras and Coleo-
lus aciculum Hall, probably also O. aciculoides Clarke, and
some portion of the specimens which, in the absence of deter-
minative material, have been referred to O. pacator Hall. The
latter is a species which is hardly distinguishable from Sand-
berger’s B. gracilis. Not only does it possess the contour and
proportions of the specimens described by him,* but it also
bears the characteristic surface sculpture over all the earlier
shell growth, ‘‘sehr feine schriig zum Ricken laufende Lin-
ien,’ and upon the later growth, especially the body chamber
are “‘verwaschene, wellig-heraustretende, schriige, breite Quer-
rippen auf den Seiten, welche zu einer stumpfwinkeligen Dor-
salbucht zusammenneigen.’’» Without entering into a more
detailed account of the specifie features of these specimens, it
will serve our purpose to regard them as representing B.
gracilis Sandb.t

Protoconch. This is a bubble-shaped body, frequently a

*Verstein. des rhein. Schicht. Syst, Nassau, p. 130, pls. xi, figs. 9a,
b: xii, figs. 2, a-f; xvii. figs. 5, a—-e, 1856.

+This species occurs at a corresponding horizon on the Iberg and else-
where in Germany.

The Early Stages of Bactrites.—Clarke. 41

little unsymmetrical or directed to one side, very broadly
sessile upon the end of the shell-tube, from which it is sepa-
rated by a sharp constriction. Its form is uniformly globose
or subspherical, without the slight diminution in diameter or
tapering, which is seen in the protoconch of Orthoceras des-
eribed from the same fauna, as well as in that of Belemunites,
as figured by Branco. In all these, however, the degree of
constriction at the base of the protoconch is the same. Fig-
ures 4 and 5, which represent the usual form of this body, are
taken from specimens in which the original shell has been
replaced; figure 6 is from a smaller individual and shows a
decidedly broader constriction at the first septum and a rela-
tively less diameter in proportion to that of the shell-tube.
This is a solid internal silicious cast, but the difference in re-
tention will not explain the differences in size and form.
Figures 4 and 6 have the same degree of enlargement, and
while specimens like figure 6 are not uncommon, they all have
a uniformity in size, at times the protoconch being even less
clearly defined than here. These differences may be specific,
or perhaps the smaller protoconchs and young shell-tubes may
be parts of more fully grown shells. and have suffered dimi-
nution in size from resorption.

First septum. Frequently the delicate protoconch is broken
and such specimens have afforded means of determining the
fact that the opening of the sipho in the first septum is dis-
tinctly lateral, as shown in figure 7. This is an important
distinction from the character of the first septum in Orthoce-
ras, where the opening of the sipho is central. None of the
specimens studied have afforded means of determining how
the sipho begins, or whether a cicatrix exists upon the distal
surface of the septum.

Initial Shell-tube. The Oncoceras- or Gomphoceras-like
swelling of the shell-tube directly above the protoconch is one
of the most striking features of these shells. In specimens of
B. gracilis it is highly developed and a persistent feature.
The increase in diameter from the first septum upward is
quite rapid for a distance of two air chambers, and thence
falls rapidly away. I speak of this as an Oncoceras-like ex-
pansion, for its form, usually unsymmetrical, suggests that
genus and may afford a key to its phyletic position. It may

42 The American Geologist. July, 1894

be observed that the last septa of Oncoceras crossing the ex-
panded portion of the tube are frequently crowded together
in a closer juxtaposition than elsewhere in the shell. Such a
rapid recurrence of the septa is construed by Hyatt as an
evidence of degeneracy or senility.

This expansion is less developed in B. aciculum, but its
presence is evident. In Branco’s figure, however, there is no
such feature, the tube in the vicinity of the protoconch being
narrower than at any other section.

Ornamentation. The fine, oblique thread-like lines which
cover the surface are readily distinguished to the very base of
the protoconch (figure 4). Toward the later parts of the shell
they become more distant, gradually less distinet, and near
maturity are lost or extremely obscure, becoming merged into
the low, oblique undulations of the surface over the body
chamber of the mature individual. In B. aciculum there are
periodie¢ internal annular thickenings of the shell substance,
which are even manifested on the minute example shown in
figure 9 (an internal cast in pyrite), but similar developments
have not been observed in B. gracilis.

Whatever may be the apparent discrepancies in Branco’s
determination of the Bactrites protoconch and that here given,
it may at least be said for the material here studied that it
corresponds, even to its specific characters, with that upon
which the genus was established. If the evidence presented
brings us to the conclusion entertained by many of the older
paleontologists, that Bactrites is closely related to Orthoceras,
this conclusion is attained, by means of data not before elab-
orated, namely, the existence in both of like protoconchs.
This fact, fortified by the decisive evidence that in Bactrites
the sipho is strictly intra-marginal, the formation‘of a dorsal
lobe wholly casual, leads to the conviction that Bactrites is
little else than an orthoceran nautiloid with a lateral sipho.
Both Branco* and Hyattt have suggested the probability of
Belemnites having been derived from orthoceran stock. Hyatt
demonstrates that the guard or rostrum in this genus is a hy-
pertrophie secondary deposition about the earlier parts of the

*Paleontographica, wt. cit.

+Proc. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., vol. 32, p. 337, 1884; and Science, vol.
3, p. 124, 1884.

Editorial Comment. 43

true conch, similar to the plug which is sometimes found fill-
ing the distal fractured extremity of the sipho of orthocera-
tites. The similarity of structure in the true conch of Belem-
nites, Bactrites, and Orthoceras, is now increased by the dem-
onstration of like protoconehs in all.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fie. 1. <A reduced copy of Branco’s figure of the protoconch of Bac-
trites, x20.

Fie. 2. Dorsal view of an internal calcareous cast of B. cf.
showing the usual appearance of the sutures, the undulations of the
body chamber and the expanded aperture. x3. Naples. N. Y.

Fig. 3. Interior of a portion of the shell of Bactrites cf. gracilis, show-
ing the intra-marginal position of the siphonal collar. x4. Honeoye
Lake, N. Y.

Fie. 4. <A shell retaining the protoconch and showing the expansion
of the initial tube and the ornamentation (B. cf. gracilis). x16. Hone-
oye Lake, N. Y.

Fie.5. Dorsal view of a shell with a fractured protoconch, the tube
itself being broken along the line of the sipho (B. ef. gracilis). x16.
Honeoye Lake, N. Y.

Fie. 6. Internal cast of a protoconch-bearing shell, probably B. aci
culum. x16. Honeoye Lake, N. Y.

Fie. 7. The distal surface of the first septum (somewhat broken),
showing the lateral position of the sipho. The margin of the septum on
the left is the line between light and shade. x50.

Fie. 8. A Bactrites broken along the dorsum, exposing ten septa, some
ot which retain the siphonal collar; also showing the expansion of the
shell just above the detached protoconch. x16. Honeoye Lake, N. Y.

Fie. 9. An internal cast in pyrite of a youne Bactrites (aciculum),
with body chamber and two air chambers. x16. Middlesex, N. Y.

gracilis,

BDITORIAL COMMENT.

DeatTH or Mr. Wm. PENGELLY.

To geologists and archeologists alike the news of the death
of Mr. Wm. Pengelly, of Torquay, England, will be cause of
regret. Mr. Pengelly was so well and so long known as the
patient and thoroughgoing explorer of Buxham cave and
Kent’s cavern, under the auspices of the British Association,
that it seems as if a conspicuous figure had disappeared from
the field of science, His strong personality and utter engross-
ment in the work to which he devoted the last thirty years of

44 The American Geologist. July, 1894

a long life combine to render him familiar and memorable to
all who shared his enthusiasm. To his labor science owes the
firm establishment of the doctrine of the antiquity of man on
a base which can never again be shaken. He went through
the storm that assailed him and his fellow workers when they
announced their then unpopular doctrine, and lived to see the
opposition dwindle down till it has now almost disappeared,
except where thought and reason do not hold sway. Hours
spent daily in Kent’s cavern for thirteen years are commemo-
rated by hundreds of boxes in his house, “‘Lamorna,” Torquay,
and piles of specimens exhibited in cases of the museum in
the town. But to the scientific world outside, his elaborate
yearly reports to the B. A. A. 8. will form his monument,
“more lasting than brass.” E. Ww. C.
THe CoL_umBiAN ExXposirion.
Eehibits of the Geology of Canada.

Besides the Geological Survey exhibit of minerals, rocks,
fossils, precious stones, and building materials, all of which
were from the Dominion as a whole, there were separate ex-
hibits from Canada representing the resources of British
Columbia, the Northwest Territories, Ontario, Quebec, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Each province had its mineral
exhibit by itself, whilst the Dominion Geological Survey oc-
eupied a limited amount of space not far from the other
Canadian products of the mine. There was exhibited, on be-
half of the Government Survey, an extensive series of rock
specimens illustrating the lithological characters of the Lau-
rentian, Huronian and subsequent systems down to Post-Ter-
tiary and recent deposits. There’ were no less than 1,411
rock specimens properly labelled, described and catalogued,
giving an excellent opportunity to see the nature of the for-
mations from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the interna-
tional boundary line to the Arctic ocean.

The paleontological collection consisted of 2,446 specimens
of fossils, representing nearly seven hundred genera. These
were classified both chronologically and zoologically, and
formed an attractive as well as interesting exhibit, by far the
most extensive and comprehensive collection of fossil remains
in the Mining building. The specimens were exhibited in
neat hardwood and glass cases, which we understand are to

*

Editorial Comment. 45

be used for the formation of a new museum at the Canadian
National Rocky Mountain Park at Banff in Alberta. There
was also the graphite exhibit by the Dominion Plumbago Co.,
besides the collection of Canadian precious stones and gems.
The collection of Hozoiin canadense Dawson formed a con-
spicuous feature of the paleontological series.

Then came the provincial exhibits. Quebec was conspicu-
ous with its admirable and attractive display of asbestus,
mica, and apatite, and of iron and copper ores.

British Columbia, with its gold, silver, lead, and copper-
bearing rocks, was conspicuous by the neatness and attrac-
tiveness of its exhibit. A tall pyramid of gold bricks (mod-
els), as a trophy, stood alongside the beautifully classified
ores of silver, lead, and copper. Each district was well repre-

sented, Kootenay, Kaslo, Lardeau, Big Bend, Kamloops, ete. ;

whilst the coal of the celebrated Nanaimo and Como collieries
was all that could be desired.

Ontario had a superb exhibit of nickel, its ores and prod-
ucts. Blocks weighing 6,000, 8,000, and 12,000 pounds, were
placed alongside the magnificent display of ore in the matte
of calcined and partially reduced nickel ores, along with the
refined metal and products therefrom. This was certainly the
finest display of nickel ore which the world has ever seen.
Ontario was also well forward with itsiron, apatite, and mica,
besides lithographic stones, petroleum, salt, and copper.

As to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, these two maritime
provinces were not as well represented as might be. Nova
Scotia with her coal, gypsum, iron ores, and other products,
could have made a much better showing. New Brunswick
had building stone and gypsum amongst its leading products
of the mine, besides ores of manganese.

The Northwest Territories of Canada, including Alberta,
Saskatchewan, Athabasca, and Assiniboia, had building stone,
coal, tar, and clays, as special products; but these were not
shown to great advantage.

Nevertheless, on the whole, Canada’s mineral wealth was
well displayed and showed not only that ores are plentiful in
many districts, but also, by accompanying notes of assays of
these ores, that many of them are of high grade and quality.

H. M. A.

46 The American Geologist. July, 1894

The Crystalline Rocks.

The descriptions already published in this series have given
some of the features of the exhibits of the crystalline rocks,
which might otherwise be mentioned here. The purpose of
this note will be to supply some interesting facts that have
not been noted

One of the largest collections of the products of the erys-
talline rocks was found in the exhibit of the Canadian Geo-
logical survey. It was under the care of Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn,
aided by several of the officers of that survey. It embraced
about 1,500 specimens illustrative of the Archean, from Nove
Seotia to the Pacific coast. A unique feature here was a full
series of all the forms of the world-famed Hozojn canadense,
which are preserved by the survey to illustrate a historical
episode in geological literature.

Another interesting series consisted of serpentine, of vari-
ous structures and colors, in many cases cut by asbestos veins,
in others produced by change from Eozoén limestone. The
former is from Thetford and the latter from Petite Nation.
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in his discussion of the Canadian serpen-
tines, divides them into two groups.* The older he consid-
ered non-chromiferous, and the latter carries much chromic
iron.

There was a very singular structure exhibited from the
Little Rapids and High Rock phosphate mines, Portland,
Quebec. Very many pyroxene masses, somewhat rounded, are

embraced in a granite; and sometimes these dark masses so.

penetrate the rock in sheets as to give it a stratified aspect.
These appeared to be exactly like those dark masses so fre-
quent in acid erystallines, which have been assigned some-
times to “concretionary” forees. But this structure is in
keeping with the idea that this rock was formerly a stratified
conglomerate.

Beautiful large slabs of white orthoclase containing garnets
were exhibited from Buckingham, and apatite and mica in
large crystals from the Lake Gerard mine, Wakefield. One
mica crystal was thirty inches in diameter and eight inches
thick. There were also tourmaline erystals six inches and

*Geology of Canada, 1£63, p. 608 et seq.

Editorial Comment. 47

more in length, largely changed to mica, also to pure quartz.
These were from Villeneuve, Quebec.

In the Canadian Survey exhibit was an instructive map,
which under the animated explanation of Dr. Selwyn was
made to point an interesting geologic fact. This map was
made by Mr. H. Fletcher, and covered an Arehean area in
Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, an area which is most thor-
oughly worked in respect to the relations of the parts of the
Archean. Dr. Selwyn is thoroughly convinced of the cor-
rectness of Mr. Fletcher’s view, that there is no possibility of
separating the Canadian Huronian from the Laurentian by any

‘stratigraphic distinction, such as a non-conformity. Mr.
Fletcher has despaired of making any fixed stratigraphic
separation. His map shows one color for both, but they are
marked by the letters A and B, meaning upper and lower Ar-
echean. The passage from one to the other is gradual when-
ever the stratigraphic succession is examined, but local irreg-
ularities occur.

Under “Laurentian,’ H. A. Ward had a show of Kozodn
and, strange to say, Cryptozodn proliferum, from Saratoga, N.
Y., labelled from the “Potsdam.” That isa well-known Cal-
ciferous fossil. The tendency to crowd the term Potsdam
upward, apparently to make it cover the western so-called
Potsdam, which is near the Calciferous, is absurdly exempli-
fied in this fossil, since its western analogue, Cryptozoon min-
nesotense, is found only in strata far above even those western
strata to which the term Potsdam has been applied. At that
rate, the whole of the northwestern Upper Cambrian must be
included under the term “Potsdam ;” and the Lower Magne-
sian, with its subdivisions, and the intervening sandstones,
will lose their significance as cotrdinate members of the
Cambrian. It would be difficult to extend the effects of a
stratigraphic misnomer to a greater extreme. The Cryplozodn
in Ward’s collection was very fine. some large lenticular
pieces being sliced and polished. These were put in juxta-
position with Hozojn because of their apparent structural
organic resemblance, and it was indeed quite obvious. It may
be said that the discovery of Cryptozodn furnishes a strong
argument for the original claim of Lozodn. N. H. W.

48 The American Geologist. July, 1894

REVIEW OF RECENT. GHOLOGICAS
LITERA DORE.

Report on Irrigation. By R. J. Hinton, Special Agent in charge.
Government Printing Oftice, Washington, 1898. This bulky volume is
made up of four parts. The first part contains a summary of the re-
sults and methods of irrigation on the great plains, with details of the
various elements that more or less directly affect the work. Then fol-
lows a review of the progress of irrigation in the various states that
practice it. Several papers accompany these reports, touching special
localities and special aspects of the problem, both in America and in
the Old World. Between forty and fifty maps and illustrations are in-
terspersed among the pages. showing the different methods adopted and
the results obtained.

The second part is the final report of the chief engineer, Col. E. 8.
NETTLETON, On artesian and underflow investigations. It contains
elaborate details on the engineering problems connected with the sub-
ject of artesian wells, the natural springs of the arid region, especially
along the Coteaus, and the legislation touching the various questions
that arise on this particularly western topic. It is illustrated with 28
profile maps and well records.

The third part contains the report of Prof. Roperr Hay, in 39 pages,
on the artesian and underflow investigations between the meridian of
97° and the foot-hills of the Rocky mountains. Here we find the geo-
logical details of the problem, so far as they pertain to the part of the
work under discussion,—the water-bearing rocks of the plains, their
elevation, the source of their supply in the mountains, the flow of the
rivers, the extent of the artesian area, and the cause of flow.

The fourth part is Prof. R. T. H1u’s report on the occurrence of arte-
sian and other waters in Texas. New Mexico, and Indian Territory west
of the 97th meridian. It contains a general account of the region and
its geographic features, with discussions of the artesian conditions pre-
vailing in the different portions. Nineteen sheets of illustrations, maps,
and sections, accompany this paper, which fills 165 pages.

Following the above four parts, which alone are mentioned on the
title page, comes a paper by Prof. L. E. Hicks on the underflow and the
geological structure of Nebraska, and their effect on the water supply.
A survey of the Loup valley is added, with especial regard to the hydro-
graphic features. It occupies twenty pages, with five plates. There is
also a paper by Prof. G. E. Cutver on the Dakota basin, in which the
author treats of the artesian borings, with especial reference to the
Black Hills water-supply. Appended is a preliminary geological map
of the Dakotas and a section across South Dakota. Last come the re-
ports of two special agents, Judge GreGcory and Mr. F. B. Corrixn. The
former writes of the underwaters of the great plains, and the latter of
certain artesian conditions existing in South Dakota.

It is not possible within the limits at our disposal to enter on anything

Tre
o ‘

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 49

like a careful and detailed account of the contents of this volume. We
can only dwell on a few points which will illustrate the nature, meth-
ods, and progress of the plans adopted for irrigating the arid region of
the west. Mr. Hinton says (page 19):

‘In the past seven years the actual area of reclamation by irrigation-
cultivation has increased from about 5,000,000 to at least 8,500,000 acres.
By the time of the opening of the Columbian World’s Fair, the United
States may expect the cultivation by means of irrigation of at least 17,-
000,000 acres of land that within the last decade have been declared by
learned authority to be wholly irreclaimable, worthless for agriculture,
useless for tree-planting, and hardly fit for even the grazing of scraggy
sheep and the broad-horned steer.”’

“The removal of the alkali from the land is one of the first require-
ments. This is to be accomplished by underdrainage wherever the soil
allows it. To flood the land till underdrains laid reasonable distances
apart shall have run for some time will end the trouble, not only for the
time being, but for centuries, provided only that solid beds of the alkali
salts do not underlie it. But this is the rare exception.”’

In those parts of the arid region which can be irrigated the streams
flow underground. These subterranean rivers exist in other parts of
the country, but where water is abundant no effort is made to trace
them. The Rio Santa Cruz in Arizona is an example of these. In the
upper part of its course the stream is of varying width and depth, ac-
cording to the season. Lower down it disappears altogether, but its
course is marked by mesquite trees to a width of from 500 to 2,000 feet.
The gravel of the valley has been tested at Tucson to a depth of 52 feet,
and is estimated to carry 370,000 irrigating inches every twenty-four
hours (page 75).

The various devices by which the hidden water is brought to light are
explained. Of course when a pump is required, as is often the case, the
work is expensive. But in those parts where the water is truly artesian,
or even where it rises to the surface, little or no expense attends getting
it except the sinking of the well.

The report of Col. Nettleton consists of a rapid survey along eleven
lines across the country on the Platte and the Arkansas rivers and in
the valley of the Loup, with an examination of the existing wells. in
order to ascertain the probability of getting water by boring. Some
curious statements are given regarding the so-called blowing wells,
which in certain states of the weather emit a blast of air and in others
suck air down the bore. On one of these he tells us that a brass whistle
has been set which announces a coming storm with a note audible a
quarter of a mile from the well.

Co]. Nettleton made some attempt to ascertain the rate of flow of the
underground water, but without success. He is, however, inclined to
accept the figures of the French engineers and set it down at about one
mile in the year or fourteen feet per day.

One of the strongest flows mentioned is in Beadle county, South Da-
kota. At 960 feet water was reached with pressure sufficient to furnish

50 The American Geologist. July, 1894

100 horse-power, and in quantity enough to flood a twenty-acre field six
inches deep in twenty-four hours. Many pages are occupied with simi-
lar details, indicating a simply enormous supply of artesian water in
South Dakota at a depth less than 1,000 feet. The water is found in the
Dakota sandstone, which outcrops along the eastern flanks of the Black
Hills. The supply therefore enters the stratum along that outcrop, and
doubtless also on the western border of the plains. Analysis shows that
it is a permanently hard water, as might be expected, containing in a
gallon fourteen grains of sulphate of lime, four grains of carbonate of
lime, and five grains of magnesic carbonate.

In the third paper, Prof. Hay says that the same Dakota sandstone is
the water-bearing formation in the Arkansas valley, and that it obtains
some reénforcement from the underlying Jurassic strata. Both crop
out around the Black Hills and in the upper Missouri river region. They
allow water to pass through them very freely, as is shown by the Giant
spring described by Lewis and Clark eighty years ago and still flowing
as in their day, with an estimated yield of one hundred cubic feet a
second or nearly 50,000 gallons a minute.

The great water-bearing stratum of large portions of the plains is a
Miocene grit of an exceedingly absorbent nature, underlying extensive
lacustrine beds of marly silt. At least half of the- rainfall, or five inches
yearly, is estimated by Prof. Hay to sink into the ground and tobe held
chiefly in this grit, from which it flows forth in copious springs: along
the river banks, wherever these have been cut down low enough to ex-
pose the grit. Water is also found in wells when sunk to its level, at
the depth of from 50 to 300 feet below the general surface. | Prof. Hay
points out that these artesian waters are not derived from the moun-
tains for the most part, because that source of supply is almost entirely
cut off by the outcrop of the water-bearing stratum before it reaches
the mountains.

The importance of the water problem is forcibly stated by Prof. Hill
in the fourth part of this volume, where he says:

“In the western half of the United States the water question is not’

only serious but paramount to every other consideration, for there are
vast areas, as large as all New England, such as the great Llano Esta-
cado, without a single brooklet, river, or permanent pond upon the sur-
face: while there are other areas, aggregating one tenth of the Union,
which together do not possess a stream of the volume of the Connecti-
cut or Mohawk, and are utterly lacking inthe accompaniments of fre-
quent laterals and springs. Great railway lines—the Southern Pacifie
for example—are obliged to haul water hundreds of miles for their en-
gines, and have spent millions in not always judicious experiments to
obtain an underground supply.”’

The Llano Estacado is described as one of the most remarkable geo-
logical features of the continent,—an area of 50,000 square miles, lying
more than one thousand feet above the sea, and surrounded with a pre-
cipitous rampart which is gashed here and there by river valleys cut
out of the nearly level strata of late Miocene or Pliocene date. No water

Review of Recent Geological Literature. jl
occurs on its surface, and we note that Prof. Hill takes a rather con-
servative view and speaks cautiously in regard to the existence of
artesian conditions generally in the Llano. He says: ‘*That the under-
ground water-sheet of the Llano beds can be struck throughout the ex-
tent of the mesa has been demonstrated. But it is also apparent that
since this water occurs in a surface formation—the Llano beds—there
can be no hydrostatic pressure to force a surface flow. But there are
other strata underlying portions of the Llano, beneath the Llano water-
sheet, and to these we have cause to look with much hope that they
may present favorable artesian conditions. . . . . . . Without
committing myself to prophecy, it is my opinion that, when the por-
tion of the Llano along the Texas-New Mexico line is thoroughly pros-
pected, somewhere in that region will be found an abundant artesian
supply from the underlying Dakota and Trinity sands.”

In regard to the Trans-Pecos region, in spite of the unpromising as-
pect of this high plain, Prof. Hill speaks much more confidently of the
existence of water at a moderate depth, about 200 feet, which, however,
does not rise to the surface and therefore is not artesian, except in
certain districts. Agriculture may therefore be possible to a limited
extent there.

Space forbids following Prof. Hill into the question of the water-
supply of the mountains, or Prof. Hicks into that of Nebraska. The
same may be said of Prof. Culver’s work on the Black Hills. There can
be little doubt that continued investigation and adventure will gradu-
ally extend the cultivable lands of the west far into what was formerly
called the Great American Desert, and that many thousand square
miles will be reclaimed. There will, however, probably always remain
large areas whose reclamation would cost more than they could ever
repay. Farming will press hard on the possibility of subsistence, and
occasional series of very dry seasons will from time to time set back the
surging tide of immigration with their ‘Thus far but no farther.”

Bowel:

The Colorado Formation and its Invertebrate Fauna. By T. W. Svan-
ton. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 106; 288 pages, 45 plates, 1893. The
formation here described comprises the Fort Benton and Niobrara di-
visions of the Cretaceous series made known by Meek and Hayden in
the upper Missouri region. Only some 25 or 30 species of invertebrates
had been definitely assigned to it previous to Mr. Stanton’s collections,
chiefly in 1890, of the fossils of Huerfano park and adjacent localities in
southern Colorado. These collections, and their comparison with equiv-
alent beds in other parts of the United States, bring the total known
invertebrate fauna of the Colorado formation up to about 150 species,
including 39 that are believed to be new. The fauna as a whole is
regarded as the approximate taxonomic equivalent of the Turonian in
Europe. W. U.

A Geological Reconnoissance in central Washington. By I. C. Russeun.
U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 108: 108 pages, 12 plates, 8 figures in the
text, 1893. This exploration was undertaken for the purpose of ascer-

52 The American Geologist. July, 1894

taining whether artesian water can be obtained for irrigation in the arid
region through which the Columbia river flows east of the Cascade
mountains. The area traversed embraces about 10,000 square miles. It
is in large part occupied by the great Columbia lava flows, which reach
thence far southward and eastward, having probably an average depth
of about 2,000 feet upon fully 200,000 square miles. Associated with this
formation is the John Day system of unconsolidated sand, clay, lapilli
and volcanic dust, which attains a maximum thickness of more than
1,000 feet. Fossil leaves of ten species from the John Day strata near
Ellensburg, Wash., are regarded* by Mr. F. H. Knowlton as of Upper
Miocene age. Seven of these species have also been obtained from the
Auriferous gravels of California. After the deposition of the John Day
system, the rocks of this area and of a vast region southward were di-
vided by many fractures, sometimes scores of miles in length, and the
resulting blocks were tilted, with displacements of 2,000 to 3,000 feet
along many of the faults. In a few instances the enclosed valleys form
artesian basins, but mainly the conditions of the geologic structure are
found to be unfavorable for obtaining artesian water. WwW. U.

The Work and Scope of the Geological Survey. By C. R. Keyes. (lowa
Geol. Survey, Vol. mr, Ann. Rept. for 18938, pp. 47-98, pls. 1-6, 1894.)
During the short time that the Iowa Geological Survey has been in
operation, two reports have been issued,* and the present paper is an ex-
tract from the third, which will be distributed shortly. The survey is
organized on a practical and economic basis, but at the same time it
is intended to be systematic and scientific,—the aim being to make a
complete economic and geological survey of the state. The publications
will be of a’single series, uniform in size and general style, and will con-
tain about 500 pages each. The unit of mapping will be the county: as
the counties of Iowa are approximately of the same shape and area, the
adoption of this unit will prove to be very convenient for a series of uni-
form maps. Among the results already accomplished, it may be stated
that coal deposits have ‘been investigated in fifty counties, clay indus-
tries in fifty-six, artesian and deep wells in forty-four; the mapping of
seven couties is practically completed, while in eleven others the map-
ping is partially done. Itis to be hoped that the next legislature will
see fit to make it possible for the work, already so well under way, to
be pushed more rapidly than the present appropriation allows.

Wags Ge

A Summary of Progress in Mineralogy and Petrography in 1893. By W.
S. BayLeEy. Geological department, Colby University, Waterville, Me.,
1894; price, 50 cents. In this pamphlet of about sixty pages are collect-
ed the various notes which the author has published in the American
Naturalist daring the last year. They consist in brief notices, abstracts
and reviews of work in mineralogy and petrography. An index of
authors and one of subjects furnish easy reference to the work of any
individual or to that on any particular subject. U.18..G:

* Reviewed in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. xii, p. 337; and vol. xiii, p. 353.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 53

An Orbicular Granite from Quonochontogue Beach, Rhode Island. By J.
F. Kemp. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 140-144, pl. 2, 1894. The
normal rock is a biotite granite in which are more basic spheroids two
or three inches across and of rudely elliptical outline. The center of
each spheroid consists almost entirely of plagioclase; toward the rim,
biotite becomes noticeable and the spheroid is more finely crystalline;
further out, the biotite assumes a concentric arrangement. After a very
decidedly darker zone, the inner part of the spheroid ceases abruptly;
outside of this is a zone, one-eighth to one-half inch wide, formed of
plagioclase crystals with their twin lamelle radiating from the inner
portion. The specimen is from a boulder which the author thinks has
not been moved far from its parent ledge. Les yex ee

On Argyrodite and a new Sulphostannate of Silver from Bolivia. By S.
L. PENFIELD. (Amer. Jour. Sci., 3, vol. 47, pp. 451-454, June, 1894.)
The new mineral is isometric and is almost identical with argyrodite in
all of its physical properties: the formulais Agg(SnGe)S,. Less than a
vear ago Prof. Penfield described as canfieldite a mineral of the same
composition as argyrodite, but isometric instead of monoclinic. Since
then the latter has been found to be isometric, so the name canfieldite
is Withdrawn and applied to this new species,—a sulphostannate of sil-
ver isomorphous with argyrodite. U. S. G.

The Kjected Blocks of Monte Somma. By H. J. Jonnsron-LAvis, Pro-
fessor of Vulcanology, University of Naples. (Trans. Edinburgh Geol.
Soc., vol. vi, pt. 5, pp. 314-351, pls. 18-15, 1893.) This is the first of an
intended series of papers on these ejected blocks, the minerals of which,
both for their beauty and variety, have made the region of Vesuvius
so well known to mineralogists. The present paper deals with the alter-
ations (metamorphism) to which the blocks of stratified limestone have
been subjected. There are three stages in the degree of metamorphism:
(1) carbonized limestone, (2) saccharoidal limestone with peridote, and
(3) limestone nearly or entirely replaced by different silicates, sulphides,
and fluorides. Briefly summed up, the changes are: first, the carboni-
zation of the bituminous contents and their conversion into graphite,
almost coincident with which recrystallization takes place; the recrys-
tallization seems to have gone on without the rock having been fused,
as delicate stratification, banding, faulting and contortion structure is
preserved; at this stage a few grains of peridote appear; with the disap-
pearance of the graphite, what remains is a more or less coarse-grained,
dazzling white, saccharoidal marble; this saccharoidal marble, contain-
ing more or less peridote, passes somewhat abruptly into a mass of peri-
dote and white pyroxene, wollastonite, or biotite. U. S. G.

Trenne nyupptickta svenska klotgraniter. By Heer BacksTROM. (Geol-
ogiska Féreningens i Stockholm Foérhandlingar, No. 156, Bd. 16, Hiifte
2, pp. 107-130. Feb., 1894. With « German résumé.) Two new spheroid-
al granites, at present known only in loose blocks, are described from
Kortfors and Balunegstrand, in central Sweden. The first (Kortfors)
consists of dark, well rounded, concentrically built spheroids in a sparse

54 The American Geologist. - July, 1894

groundmass of hornblende granite. The spheroids are more basic than
the groundmass. They contain four zones, the first or outer of which
is characterized by magnetite grainsin a mass of oligoclase; the second
has hornblende and biotite in large amount and oligoclase; the third is
the broadest and consists of radially arranged oligoclase with small
amounts of quartz and orthoclase; the center is almost free from dark
minerals and is essentially quartz and orthoclase. The second type
(from Balungstrand) has a coarse groundmass of microcline and quartz
and some idiomorphic biotite. The spheroids are characterized by large
oligoclase crystals; toward the periphery biotite is common, and the
center is composed of microcline and quartz. Some remarks follow on
the formation of the spheroids, especially in reference to the liquation
theory of differentiating magmas. Us. 82 Ge
The Feisselaer Grit Plateau in New York. By T. Newson DALE.
(Thirteenth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 291-340, pls. 97-101,
1894.) In this paper the geology of the eastern and central parts of
Rensselaer county, N. Y., is discussed. The author’s interpretation of
the general structure of the region is given in a section from Mt. Grey-
lock in Massachusetts, on the east, to the Hudson valley at Poestenkill
on the west. The broad limestone (Stockbridge) belt west of Mt. Grey-
lock dips westward under the Taconic range, which here is a synclinal,
with two anticlinals, composed of a thickness of about 2,000 feet of
Berkshire schists. The limestone again comes to the surface in the
Berlin-Stephenson valley, on whose west side it dips under a small
thickness of the Berkshire schists which are overlain by the Rensselaer
grits: these extend westward for about ten miles, when the Hudson
River shales (the equivalent of the Berkshire schists) emerge from be-
neath them. The Stockbridge limestone is stated to be Cambro-Silurian
in age, and the Berkshire schists Lower Silurian (Hudson River). The
Rensselaer grit occupies a plateau area, about 175 square miles in extent,
in central Rensselaer county. The plateau is composed of grits with
interbedded conglomerates and schistose and slaty rocks. In structure
it consists of a well marked synclinal along its east side, a compound
synclinal along its west side, and certainly one and probably several
folds in the intervening area. Fossils to determine the age of the rocks
of this plateau have not been found, but, on account of the areal rela-
tions of the grit to the Stockbridge limestone and the evidence of an

unconformity of portions of the grit mass to Cambrian if not to Lower

Silurian rocks, as shown by its pebbles, the grit is thought to be uncon-
formable on the Berkshire schists and is considered to represent the
Oneida conglomerate—the base of the Upper Silurian.

Mr. Dale’s paper is of special interest in giving the structure and geo-
graphic distribution of the rocks of the Taconic range along the Mass-
achusetts-New York line, and in giving details as to lithology and
probable age of the Rensselaer grit rocks. However, there are some
important points, especially in the stratigraphy, which it seems are not
fully established, or are simply assumed from insufficient evidence; we
have reference to the age of the Stockbridge limestone and the Berkshire

So spon reel a ko

Recent Publications. 55

schists. It is to be noted that under the term Stockbridge he has in-
cluded the Stockbridge proper and the western belt known as the Sparry
limestone; that the two limestones are the same is evidently an assump-
tion. Numerous Lower Silurian fossils have been found in the western
belt, but in the Stockbridge proper we know of none but Lower Cambrian
fossils. Moreover, it seems rather peculiar that one continuous lime-
stone should represent all the accumulation in this region from the
Lower Cambrian up to the Hudson River, while not far distant there is
known to be a great thickness of other fossiliferous rocks between these
two horizons. Again, Mr. Dale’s idea allows no place for the uncon-
formity which seems to exist at the base of the Potsdam. It, however,
must be admitted that his work in the Vermont valley,* in connection
with that of Dr. J. E. Wolff,t points to the Cambro-Silurian age of the
Stockbridge limestone; still, it seems probable that an explanation diff-
fering from that of Mr. Dale's can be applied to the relations of the
Lower Cambrian and the Lower Silurian limestones in the Rutland
region. The Silurian age of that part of the Berkshire schists adjoining
the Stockbridge proper does not seem to be established by fossils, and it
is not at all improbable, in fact it seems very probable, that at least
some parts of these schists are of the same age as the great thickness of
Cambrian schists and slates not far to the north in Vermont.

The placing of the Rensselaer grit at the base of the Upper Silurian
adds another feature of complexity to the original Taconic region. Mr.
Walcott’s map, published in 1888,{ makes all of the area mapped by Mr.
Dale as Rensselaer grit Lower Cambrian (Georgian), and now this grit
series is placed in the Upper Silurian on no evidence derived from fos-
Sils, and that, too, in a region in which the deciphering of the structural
geology is an extremely difficult task. N. H. W.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

Foreign.

Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, Vol. 3, Pt. 4,
1893, contains: Onasand from Bingera, G. W. Card; On the occur-
rence of Trigonia semiundulata M’Coy, in New South Wales, and its
sigaificance, R. Etheridge; On the occurrence of basalt-glass (tachylyte)
at Bulladelah, G. A. Stonier; On palatal remains of Palorchestes azael
Owen, from the Wellington Caves bone-deposits, W. S. Dun; Minera-
logical and petrological notes, No. 1, G. W. Card; Note on an aboriginal
skull from a cave at Bungonia, R. Etheridge; The Australian geolog-
ical record for the year 1892, with addenda for the year 1891, R. Eth-
eridge; A locality index to the Reports of the Geological Survey of

*On the structure and age of the Stockbridge limestone in the Vermont valley; Bul.
Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 111. pp. 514-518, 1892.

eee the Lower Cambrian age of the Stockbridge limestone; Ibid., vol. 11, pp. 331-388,
891.

tAmer. Jour. Sci., 3, vol. 35.

56 The American Geologist. July, 1894

New South Wales, from 1875 to 1892 inclusive, W.S. Dun; On the oc-
currence of Lepidodendron australe (?) in the Devonian rocks of New
South Wales, T. W. E. David; On celestine from the neighborhood of
Bourke, G. W. Card.

Zeitschrift fiir praktische Geologie, Dec., 1893, contains: Was kann
das Studium der dynamischen Geologie im praktischen Leben niitzen,
besonders in der Berufsthiatigkeit des Bauingenieurs?, F. M. Stappf:
Beitrage zur Erzlagerstittenkunde des Harzes, F. Klockmann; Die
wahrscheinlichen Resultate einer Tiefbohrung in J.emberg (Galizien),
R. Zuber. 3

Descriptions of two new species of Ammonites from the Cretaceous
rocks of the Queen Charlotte Islands. By J. F. Whiteaves. Reprinted
from the Canadian Record of Science, Oct., 1893.

The south-west Mayo and north-west Galway Silurian basin, with
notes on the old or metamorphosed rocks of West Galway. By G. H.
Kinahan. Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Society, Vol. 6, pp. 155-170. 1892.

Jahresbericht des Vereins fiir Erdkunde. zu Dresden, XXIII, 1893,
contains: Ueber Aktinitéts-Vergleichungen an verschiedenen Orten
der Erde, Herman Krone.

Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de L’Ouest de la France,
Tome 3, No. 3, 1893, contains: Sur la présence de |’ azurite dans
l’ argile de la Ville-au-Vay, prés le Pellerin (Loire-Inf.); Nouveau gise-
ment de grenat avec staurotide, Ch. Baret; Esquisse géologique de la
Basse-Normandie, A. Bigot.

Bihang till Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar,
Band 18, Afd. 2, contains: Studier 6fver Baltiska Hafvets Qvartara
Historia, Henr. Munthe. Band 18, Afd.3, contains Vaxtpaleontologiska
Undersékningar af Svenska Torfmossar, Gunnar Andersson. Band 18,
Afd. 4, contains: Ueber einige Ober-Silurische Cirripeden aus Gotland,
C. W.S. Aurivillus.

Zur Frage der Structurformeln der metasomatischen Zersetzungspro-
ducte, R. Scharizer: Zeitschrift f. Krystallographie, ete., XXII, 4, pp.
369-375, 1893.

Ueber den Unterschied zwischen der petrographischen und der geol-
ogischen Classification der Gesteine, J. v. Szabé: Verhand. d. Gesells.
Deutscher Naturf. u. Aertze, 1891, 5 pages.

Verzeichnis der mineralogischen, geognostischen, ur-(vor-)geschicht-
lichen und balneographischen Literatur von Baden, Wirttemberg, Hoh-
enzollern und einigen angrenzenden Gegenden, Heinrich Eck: Mitteil-
ungen d. grossherzoglich badischen geol. Landesanstalt, I Erganzung
zum I Bande, pp. 1-303, 1893.

Zeitschrift fir praktische Geologie, Jan., 1894, contains: Die geolo-
gische Untersuchung des Koénigreichs Bayern, A. Leppla: Die geolo-
gische Landesuntersuchung von Elsass-Lothringen, L. van Werveke:
Aphorismen tiber Zinnober, A. Schrauf: Die Kupfererzlagerstatten der
Serpentingesteine Toscanas und deren Bildung durch Differentiations-
processe in basischen Eruptivmagmen, B. Lotti: Die Bodensenkungen
in Schneidemiihl. W. Krebs: Die Bodensenkungen in Schneidemiih! und

Recent Publications. 57

die daraus zu ziehende Nutzanwendung, R. Wabner: Erdwachsbergbau
bei Boryslaw in Galizien: Vulcanische Asche aus Puerto Montt, F. M.
Stapff; Stein- und Braunkohlen in Holland: Schneidemiihl, R. Wabner:
Schwefelbildung, C. Ochsenius.

Zeitschrift fur praktische Geologie, Feb., 1894, contains: Ueber die
Kieslagerstatten vom Typus Roros, Vigsnés, Sulitelma in Norwegen
und Rammelsberg in Deutschland (I. Die Mineralogie der Kieslager-
statten vom Typus Rorés-Rammelsberg), J. H. L. Vogt; Das Vorkom-
men der devonischen Eisen- und Manganerze in Nassau, W. Riemann;
Bodensenkungen in Eisleben, W. Ule: Léslichkeit des Goldes, F. M.
Stapff.

Das Erdbeben in der Gegend zwischen Strassburg, Forbach, Haslack,
Kenzingen, Erstein und Westhofen am 11 Juni, 1887, H. Eck: 19 pages;
Stuttgart, 1892.

The Crinoidea of Gotland, Part I.—The Crinoidea Inadunata. By F.
A. Bather. Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, B.
25, No. 2, pp. 1-200, 10 plates; Stockholn, 1893.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1893, Nos.
2 and 3 contain: Die tithonischen Ablagerungen von Theodosia, Ein
Beitrag zur Paleontologie der Krim (6 plates), O. Retowski: A la mé-
moire de feu J. D. Czersky, Al. Lwanowski.

Geologiska Féreningens i Stockholn Férhandlingar, No. 152, Bd. 15,
Haft. 5, May, 1893, contains: Mineralogiska meddelanden, L. J. Igel-
strom: Om Litorinatidens klimat och vegetation, R. Sernander: Om
strandliniens forskjutning vid viira insjoar, G. De Geer; Mineralanaly-
tiskt, O. A. Sjostrom.

No. 158, Bd. 15, Haft. 6, contains: Om stoftfallet i Sverige och
angransande lander den 3 maj 1892, A. E. Nerdenskiold: Spodiosit fran
Nordmarken, G. Nordenskiéld; Tillage till uppsatsen ‘tom nagra min-
eral fran grénland,”’ G. Flink: Mineralogiska meddelanden,—Nya
mineral fran Sjégrufvan, L. J. Igelstr6m: Nagra jemforelser mellan
Sveriges och utlandets jernmalmslager med hansyn till deras genesis,
H. Sjogren: Om en profil fran skredet i Verdalen, A. Hamberg.

No. 154, Bd. 15, Haft. 7, Dec., 1893, contains: Om en fossilif6rande
leraflagring vid Skattmans6 i Upland, A. G. Nathorst: Pyrochlor fran
Alnén, P. J. Holmqvist: Om en kromhaltig vesuvian fran Ural, Sofia
Rudbeck; Om Falu grufvas geologi, A. E. Tornebohm: Meddelanden
fran Lunds Geologiska Faltklubb, 1.—lakttagelser fran gemensamma
excursioner i Fagelsangstrakten, K. O. Segerbere.

The Geological Magazine, Feb., 1894, contains: Coral in the ‘*Dolo-
mites” of S. Tyrol, Miss M. M. Ogilvie: On some Jurassic species of
Cheilostomata, J. W. Gregory; Notes on the composition of clays,
Slates, ete., and on some points in their metamorphism, W. M. Hutch-
ings: Ona tooth of Oxyrhina from the Red Crag of Suffolk, A. S.
Woodward: An ancient glacial shore, T. M. Reade: Post-Glacial man
in Britain, Wm. Shone: The horizon of the mammoth, Mark Stirrup:
Action of glaciers, Wm. Churchill: The submarine crust, O. Fisher.

The Geological Magazine, March, 1894. contains: Four theories of

58 The American Geologist. July, 1894

the age and origin of the Dartmoor granites, A. R. Hunt; Certain fos-
sils from the lower Paleozoic rocks of Yorkshire, S. H. Reynolds; The
rape of the chlorites, C. A. McMahon: Some notes on gneiss, T. G.
Bonney; Notes on the Skiddaw slates, J. E. Marr: Rapid elevations, a
self criticism, EK. Hill.

The Glacialists’ Magazine, vol. 1, no. 6, Jan., 1894, contains: On the
glacial sands and gravels at Heck station, Yorkshire, C. KE. De Rance;
The great submergence, Joseph Lomas; Theories of the cause of the
Glacial period: Current glacial bibliography; <A typical fjord-valley:
Prof. A. Krassnow, of Charkow, on his journey to the island of Sagha-
lien: Icelandic glaciers: Pressure of the Rhone glacier, Marshall-Hall.

CORRESPONDENCE:

A REPLY TO SOME STATEMENTS IN PROFESSOR TARR’S ‘‘LAKE CAYUGA
A Rock Bastn.”’** Under the title ‘Lake Cayuga a Rock Basin,”’ Prof-
Ralph S. Tarr, of the geological department of Cornell University, pre-
sented a paper before the Boston meeting of the Geological Society of
America (December 29, 1893), which has since been issued in its printed
form. In this paper he has quoted from an early publication of mine,
and, by the selection of a few sentences apart from their context, has
placed a misconstruction upon my work which I am unwilling to let
pass without correction.

The field work upon which my little article ‘‘The Geology of Itasca,
New York, and the Vicinity,’’+ was based, was that of a college under-
graduate, having been done during the winter and spring terms of 1874-
75 in the preparation of a thesis for graduation at Cornell University. I
do not offer this as any excuse whatever for the conclusions reached, for
I am still willing to be judged by them, but to emphasize the fact that,
after twenty years of progress in the study of glacial phenomena, it
would, indeed, be surprising should different interpretations not be
placed upon the same data. That my views, as then expressed, were in
accord with ‘‘the modern school of glacial geology,’ will, I think, be
apparent to those who read understandingly what I said upon the sub-
ject.

My thesis opened with a general account of the topography of the
region about Ithaca, incidentally mentioning Cayuga lake, but was
mainly devoted to the consideration of ‘Special Features on Six Mile
creek.”’) That it was well thought of by the Faculty is attested by the
award of the ‘*President’s First Prize in Geology.’’ Later, I was re-
quested to select from it:a portion of general interest for presentation to
the public on Commencement day, and this paper, in substance, was
sent to the American Naturalist, appearing in the issue of that magazine

*Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. v, pp. 339-356, March, 1894.
*The American Naturalist, vol. xt, pp. 49-51, January, 1877.

Correspondence. 59

for January, 1877, and from it Prof. Tarr has drawn certain couclusions.

-What he has quoted.and his comments, under the caption, ‘‘Reviews of
{ ]

Opinions of previous Writers,”’’ are as follows:

“Simonds shows that there are in this region two classes of valleys—
gorges, ‘true valleys of erosion,’ and rounded, smoothed valleys. Of the
latter he says: :

** Noting in addition [to their even slope] the depth at which the
water flows and the small number of-cascades and waterfalls, the con-
clusion is at once reached that these valleys have been acted upon by
some agency not now in operation.’

‘“He can easily understand the gorges, but cannot explain the broad
valleys by erosion, and therefore concludes that ‘these deep, well-worn
valleys are undoubtedly the work of glacial action.’ According to this
author the glacier divided near the present site of Ithaca, one lobe moy-
ing southward, the other carving out Six Mile creek.

‘This, which seems to be the first statement of the glacial origin of
Cayuga valley, is based upon the inability of the author to conceive of
the formation of a broad, deep valley by river erosion and transporta-
tion. It seems strange that he should not have noticed that this valley
was but one of a type which exists in that region with directions vary-
ing through all degrees of the compass, and hence, that all are not
capable of explanation by glacial erosion.’’*

Again, under the caption, ‘‘Observations and Interpretations,’’ he
Says:

** Evidence of Six Mile creek.—At the head of the lake, in the city of
Ithaca, the valley divides—one part, known as the Inlet valley, contin-
ues southwestwardly and then southerly; the other, called Six Mile creek
valley, extending in a southeastern direction. The latter is evidently a
tributary to the former, which was the preglacial main valley. These
two valleys are the ones which Simonds and Foote believe to be due to
ice action. They are both distinctly preglacial in form and are joined
by mature tributaries.’’+

What I did say upon the subject of valleys was as follows:

‘* At Ithaca there are two distinct types of river or creek valleys—the
one with rounded and well-worn sides, the other bordered by precipi-
tous walls of rock. To the latter class belong Cascadilla and Fall creeks,
which flow into the Ithaca plain from the east. Their valleys are true
valleys of erosion, having been formed since the withdrawal of the vast
ice-sheet which swept over this portion of North Americain Quaternary
time. With the exception of Six Mile creek valley and that of Cayuga
Inlet, which open into the lake basin from the southeast and south
respectively, all the streams of this immediate vicinity flow through
deep cuts or canons, in which they descend by numerous cascades and
water-falls to the lake. As their valleys are mere chasms, they make
no appreciable change in the general contour of the land. With val-
leys of the first type, however, the effect is of an entirely different char-

*Bulletin, G. 8. A., vol. v, p. 344,

tBulletin, G. 8. A., vol. v, p. 350.

60 The American Geologist. July, 1894

acter. They are distinctly marked. Their longer slope and greater
width make a prominent feature in the topography of Ithaca. Noting
in addition the depth at which the water flows, and the small number
of cascades and water-falls, the conclusion is at once reached that these
valleys had been acted upon by some agency not now in operation. We
can observe changes going on‘in Fall and Cascadilla creeks; we can
easily understand how their deep, rocky cahons could be formed and
are still being formed by the action of water and frost upon shale, and
we cau readily see that the conditions which obtained in the formation
of these valleys could never explain the deep, well-marked valleys of Six
Mile creek and the Cayuga Inlet, with their sloping banks and knolls
and terraces. These deep, well-worn valleys are undoubtedly the result
of glacial action. The mass of ice which filled the Cayuga lake basin,
dividing at its southern extremity, one part—the larger—flowed to the
south, wearing down the Inlet valley, and the other traversed the Six
Mile creek valley,both of which were occupied by preglacial streams.
The scratches on the polished surface of the underlying rocky table, as
seen at the quarry in front of the buildings of the Cornell University,
on the eastern edge of the basin, indicate that the glacier followed a di-
rection a little east of south, corresponding with that of the lake.
Among the drift accumulations are found bowlders of Oriskany sand-
stone, and masses of Hamilton shale, formations which occur to the
north, together with small granitic bowlders. The valley of Six Mile
creek furnishes some special examples of the drift phenomena. In sey-
eral places its old channel has been completely choked up with masses
of morainic débris about which the present stream has been obliged to
cut its way through deep canons.’**

In his comments Prof. Tarr says:

{1.] ‘‘ He (Simonds) can easily understand the gorges, but cannot ex-
plain the broad valleys by erosion, and therefore concludes that ‘these
deep, well-worn valleys are undoubtedly the result of glacial action.’ ”’

As will be seen, in the extract from my article given above, I reached
my conclusion not only for the reason ‘‘that the conditions which ob-
tained in the formation of these valleys [Fall and Cascadilla creeks]
could never explain the deep, well-marked valleys of Six Mile creek and
Cayuga Inlet,”’ but for other reasons. Thus I distinctly stated that
“the valley of Six Mile creek furnishes some special examples of the
drift phenomena. In several places its old channel has been completely
choked up with masses of morainic débris about which the present
stream has been obliged to cut its way through deep canons.” Hence
my conclusion, in this instance at least, was based upon the actual oc-
currence of morainic matter, with glaciation as the legitimate inference.

As a matter of fact, the presence of a glacier cannot be disputed; and
if present, does Prof. Tarr, for an instant, believe that it could have
forced its way through such a valley as that of the preglacial Six Mile
creek, excavated as it must have been in the thin-bedded Chemung

*American Naturalist, vol. xr, pp. 50-51.

Correspondence. 61

rocks, without great abrasion? He says: ‘‘The north and south valley
of lake Cayuga is several hundred feet below it [the rock bottom of Six
Mile creek], and its depth has withont doubt been caused by glacial
erosion.’’** But what of the evidence furnished by ‘‘the scratches on
the polished surface of the underlying rocky table, as seen at the quarry
[1874-76] in front of the buildings of Cornell University,” several hundred
feet above the present lake surface”

Again, that the ice moved in a general southerly direction, up the
Cayuga valley, into that portion of the basin which receives the modi-
fied valleys of Cayuga Inlet and Six Mile creek, is plainly indicated by
the presence, among the drift accumulations, ‘‘of bowlders of Oriskany
sandstone and masses of Hamilton shale, formations which occur to the
north.’’ And, further, I have a distinct recollection of collecting in
my student days, characteristic fossils of these formations from fragments
found in the valley of Six Mile creek.

[2.] ‘‘According to this author (Simonds), the glacier divided near
the present site of Ithaca, one lobe moving southward, the other cary-
ing out the valley of Six Mile creek.”’ What I did say, as shown aboye,
was this: ‘‘ The massof ice which filled the Cayuga lake basin, dividing
at its southern extremity, one part—the larger—flowed to the south,
wearing down the Inlet valley, and the other traversed the Six Mile creek
valley, both of which were occupied by preglacial streams.”

By this.it will be plainly seen that I meant that the valleys were
moulded by ice action, not ‘carved’ in the sense that Prof. Tarr would
have us understand. My idea was then and is now, that these pregla-
cial valleys served to guide the ice-sheet as it advanced toward the
south, and that by it they were broadened and worn, giving rise to their
present characteristic and distinctive shapes.

[3.] ‘*This, which seems to be the first statement of the glacial ori-
gin of Cayuga valley, is based upon the inability of the author [Simonds]
to conceive of the formation of a broad, deep valley by river erosion
and transportation.”’ Rather, my statement was based upon the pres-
ence of strie, not only in the locality mentioned, but in others: upon
the presence of drift resting directly on a polished and worn surface;
and upon the presence of masses of rock transported [by ice] from the
north, i. e., brought up the valley.

[4.]- Under ‘‘ Evidence of Six Mile creek,’* we find that ‘these two
valleys [Six Mile Creek and Cayuga Inlet] are the ones which Simonds
and Foote believe to be due to ice action, They are both distinetly pre-
glacial and are joined by mature tributaries.”’ Concerning this | have
only to say that I recognized their preglacial character and so expressed
myself in my article by saying ‘both of which*valleys were occupied by
preglacial streams.’’ In the conclusion of the original thesis occurs the
following significant statement: ‘*Six Mile creek we have seen to be a
preglacial stream whose channel has not only been traversed and worn

*Bulletin, G. 8. A., vol. v, p. 330.

62 The American Geologist. July, 1894

After all, it is not surprising that Prof. Tarr should misunderstand
me, for it appears from. his own statement that, at the time Dr. D. F.
Lincoln’s paper, ‘‘Glaciationof the Finger-Lake Region of New York,’’*
was published, he was so strongly convinced that the valleys were river val-
leys, unmodified by ice, that his | Lincoln’s| paper produced no impression,
It was only when the clearness of the evidence impressed itself so forei-
bly on his mind that he could be but convinced that he again looked at
his [Lincoln’s] paper, and found that he had the same kind of proof.
Therefore, although independently worked out, the facts in this article
[Tarr’s ‘Lake Cayuga a Rock Basin’’| are merely confirmations of Dr.
Lincoln’s study and deductions. + FREDERIC W. SIMONDS.

University of Texas, Austin, April 12, 1894.

THE NIAGARA GORGE AS A MEASURE OF THE PosTGLACTAL PERIOD.
In Nature for May 17th (vol. 50, p. 53) Mr. G. K. Gilbert expresses his
doubt that the past rate of erosion of the gorge below the receding falls
of Niagara can be so compared with the present rate as to afford any
approximate measure of the time which has elapsed since the Ice age.
His first study of this question (Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. xxxv, for 1886,
pp. 222, 223) gave about 7,000 years for the erosion of the Niagara gorge,
if it had proceeded with an average rate like the present. As this erosion
began at the time of retreat of the ice-sheet from that area and has
been in nj encase all the subsequent time, it has been regarded as
a geologic chronometer, like the similar erosion of the gorge below the
falls of St. Anthony, from which Prof. N. H. Winchell had previously
computed the length of the Postglacial period in Minnesota to be about
7,800 years.

The largest element of uncertainty (as hitherto supposed) in the esti-
mate drawn from the rate of recession of Niagara falls is shown by Mr.
Gilbert’s later and more full discussion (Sixth Annual Report of the
Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, for the year 1889,
pp. 61-84, with eight plates, also in the Smithsonian Annual Report for
1890) to consist in the probability or possibility that for some consider-
able time, next following the melting away of the ice upon the area
crossed by the Niagara river, the outlet of lakes Superior, Michigan and
Huron, may have passed to the St. Lawrence by a more northern course,
flowing across the present watershed east of lake Nipissing to the Mat-
tawa and Ottawa rivers. Since Mr. Gilbert’s writing his recent com-
munication to Nature, however, much new light on the Quaternary
history of the great lakes tributary to the St. Lawrence river has been
contributed in three papers by Mr. F. B. Taylor, published in the Bul-
letin of the Geological Society of America (vol. v, pp. 620-626, April 30,
1894),{ and in the May and June numbers of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.
Supplementing the earlier observations and studies of Whittlesey, New-
berry, Gilbert, Spencer, Lawson, Chamberlin, Leverett, Claypole,

*Am. Jour. of Science, III, vol. xxLrv, pp. 290-301, Oct. 1892. A later paper on this
subject by Dr. Lincoln is in vol, xLvu, pp. 105-113, Feb., 1894.

+Bulletin G. 8. A., vol. v, p. 348, foot-note.
tAbstract in the March AM. GEOLOGIST, p. 220.

Correspondence. 63

Wright, Baldwin, the present writer, and others, these latest explora-
tions and discussions by Mr. Taylor enable us to form a very definite
and closely connected historical statement of the relationship of the ice-
dammed lakes which preceded the present Laurentian lakes, and of their
dependence on the gradual departure of the ice-sheet and on the accom-
panying gradual uplift of that region.

Before pointing out the bearing of Mr. Taylor’s work on the history of
the glacial retreat and the volume of the Niagara river, we must note
that the view held by Taylor and Spencer, that the high shore
lines around the great Laurentian lakes are of marine formation, is in-
consistent with the total absence of marine fossiliferous beds overlying
the glacial drift throughout the basins of these lakes. So far as the sea
did extend. after the further recession of the ice-sheet permitted it to
come into the St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys and into the basin of
lake Champlain, such marine fossils abound: but none are found above
the Thousand Islands, which lie in the St. Lawrence at the mouth of
lake Ontario. We may therefore confidently accept the Niagara gorge
as a measure of all the time since that area was uncovered from the ice-
sheet. The shore lines described by Taylor, Spencer, and others, will
here accordingly be interpreted as records of the glacial lake Warren
and of earlier and later ice-bound lakes.*

Stated as concisely as possible, the highest shore at Duluth, 1,154 feet
above the sea, at Kimball, 1,170 feet, and at Marquette, 1,190 feet, seems
referable to the Western Superior glacial lake outflowing by the Bois
Brulé-St. Croix channel. To the lower lake Warren, outflowing at Chi-
‘ago, with which the Western Superior lake became merged, we may
refer the highest shores recorded by Taylor about the north part of
Green bay, about 600 feet above the sea, at Cook’s Mill, north of this
bay, 750 feet, at Houghton, 1,010 feet, at Sault Ste. Marie, 1,014 feet, and
at lake Nipissing, 1,140 feet. With lake Warren of this extent, the ice-
sheet had melted off from all the northern United States west of lake
Nipissing and of Buffalo, N. Y., but yet, to hold this glacial lake on the
east, it remained unmelted upon all the Niagara and lake Ontario or
Iroquois area. Thus we see that all the moraines within the limits of
the United States west of the great angle of the drift boundary near
Salamanea, in southwestern New York,+ are somewhat older than the
moraines east of that angle, in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Long Island, and New England. This difference in age, however, be-
tween the western and eastern moraines and drift was perhaps no more
than 500 to 1,000 years, as we may infer from the rate of retreat of the
portion of the ice-front forming the northern barrier of the glacial lake
Agassiz.

This unexpected view of the order of going of the ice-sheet finds me-

*Previous discussions of these glacial lakes by the present writer, with citations of
their literature, are in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 11, 1890,
pp. 258-265; vol. rir, 1891, pp. 484-487, and 508-511.

¥+Consult Prof. Chamberlin’s maps of the glaciated areas of the United States»
Y S. Geol. Survey, Third Ann. Rep., Plates xxvn and xxx111; Seventh Ann. Rep.,

ate VIL.

64 The American Geologist. July, 1894

teorological explanation as follows: The melting of the vast western
part of the ice-sheet in the United States, from North Dakota and Min-
nesota east to the lake Erie basin, would supply to our eastwardly
moving storms a very great amount of moisture to be precipitated
farther east. That precipitation I think to have been mainly snow as
these storms, moisture-laden from the western ice-melting, swept over
the more eastern part of the ice-sheet. Hence, the eastern great ice-
lobe from Salamanca to Long Island, Cape Cod, and the Gulf of Maine,
would be fed and fattened to be thick and spread in some places even-
beyond its previous limits, while all of the ice-sheet farther west in the
United States was being melted away.

Another unforeseen conclusion, relative to the volume of the Niagara
river while the ice-sheet was departing, is brought by our consideration
of the uplift of the northern side of the glacial lake Warren, which
along its extent of 600 miles from west to east was rapidly raised in
general about 350 feet, as compared with the Chicago outlet, before the
date of the Nipissing beach. This I think to be the first shore line
formed in that northern area after the Chicago outlet ceased and after
lake Warren was thereby succeeded by lake Algonquin in the basins of
Michigan, Huron and Superior, while lake Iroquois then began to exist
in the Ontario basin, outflowing by Rome, N. Y., to the Mohawk and
Hudson. But this Nipissing beach, at the present lake level at Duluth,
25 feet above lake Superior at Houghton and Marquette, and 50 feet at
the Sault Ste. Marie, rising to 140 feet above lake Superior or 748 feet
above the sea at lake Nipissing, is so high, 50 feet upon a width of more
than a mile, above the watershed east of that lake leading to the Mat-
tawa and Ottawa rivers, that I cannot believe a river of such depth and
width to have there outflowed. Instead. I believe that the ice-sheet then
still remained as a barrier upon the Mattawa and Ottawa areas: and
careful study of Prof. J. W. Spencer’s maps in recent volumes of the
Am. Jour. of Science (Dec., 1890; Jan. and March, 1891; March, 1894;
also Bulletin, G. S. A., vol. m1, pp. 465-476, April, 1891) of the Huron and
Erie shore lines convinces me that the outflow of lake Algonquin at the
time of the Nipissing beach went by way of the present St. Clair and
Detroit rivers and along the bed of lake Erie to the incipient Niagara
and lake Iroquois. Seven-eighths of all the uplifting of the Nipissing
area which carried its watershed above the hight at which it could be
an outlet of lake Algonquin had taken place before the Niagara river
and lake Iroquois began to exist. Later, while yet the ice was a barrier
on the Mattawa area, I believe that the continuation of that uplift fully
raised the Nipissing-Mattawa divide above lake Algonquin, for mean-
while the lake Iroquois area was undergoing a large differential uplift
of increasing amount from south to north. The Niagara river thus ap-
pears to have had a volume equal to the present during its entire his-
tory. If there was any time of diversion of the waters of the upper
Laurentian lakes to the Mattawa valley, it was of very brief duration,
and would require only an insignificant addition to the estimate of 7,000
years for the duration of the Niagara river and of the Postglacial period.

Personal and Scientific News. 65

In a recent paper in the Journal of Geology (vol. m1, p. 142, Feb.-
March, 1894), Mr. Andrew M. Hansen, of Norway, notes the approxi-
mate concurrence of about thirty independent measurements and esti-
mates of the length of the Postglacial period which have been made in
North America and in Europe, all coming within the limits of 5,000
and 12,000 years. He therefore says: ‘‘With full regard to a legitimate
calculation of probabilities, it may be predicated that the number of
7,000 to 10,000 years is as nearly an exact estimate of the duration of
postglacial time as can ever be expected.’ WARREN UPHAM.

June 11th, 1894.

P.S. Since the foregoing was written, I learn, by a letter of June
18th from Mr. Gilbert, that a narrower part (probably the original col)
of the valley leading from lake Nipissing to the Ottawa is situated
about ten miles east of the present water divide, where the Mattawa
river, outflowing from Trout lake, is enclosed, near the mouth of that
lake, by rocky hills. Mr. Gilbert also calls attention to the great depth
of the Niagara river (having a maximum sounding of 185 feet) at the
foot of the falls and for nearly two miles to the head of the Whirlpool
rapids. The deep excavation there below the river level, analogous to
pot-hole erosion, he attributes to a probably larger volume of the river
than that which previously formed the shallower and longer portion of
the gorge, excepting only at the Whirlpool, where the postglacial gorge
coincides with one’of preglacial age. Concerning the preglacial erosion
along the course of the Niagara, Dr. Julius Pohlman has written in the
Proc: A. A. A: S:. vol. xxxv,, for 1886, pp. 221, 222. The greater thick-
ness of the Niagara limestone at and near the falls than along the part
of the gorge beyond the Whirlpool may probably account chiefly for the
deeper excavation by the cataract now than during the early part of its
recession. W. U.

June 21st, 1894.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Tue GeoLogicaL Society or America will hold its sixth
summer meeting in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 18-15; and the
American Association for the Advancement of Science will
hold its forty-third meeting in the same city, Aug. 15-24.
Several excursions for geologists are planned, affording oppor-
tunities to study the Palisades of the Hudson, the Cretaceous
strata of New Jersey and of Staten and Long islands, and the
terminal moraine of the ice-sheet.

AT A MEETING OF THE GEOLOGICAL Society or FRANCE, May
7th, 1894, M. Cayeux presented a preliminary note on the radi-
olarians of the Pre-Cambrian of Bretagne. He finds that they
belong to the divisions Spumellaria and Nassellaria, the latter

66 The American Geologist. July, 1894

-

occupying the highest place in the classification of the radio-
larians. This fauna is characterized by a complexity and a
perfection which implies the pre-existence of several other
radiolarian faunas of a lower type. Certain of these Pre-
Cambrian genera persist to the present time. A more complete
accouut of these very ancient fossils will appear in the
“Notes et Mémoires” of the Society.

TorpoGRAPHICAL Survey oF Minnesota. Under the provision
of the state law for a Geological and Natural History Survey,
active work has just been inaugurated for the construction of
a finished topographical sheet of the region of the state Uni-
versity, including St. Pauland Minneapolis. For this purpose,
and the establishment of the necessary tertiary points for
plane-table draughting, assistant W. C. Hodgkins, of the U.
S. Coast Survey, has been detailed to carry on the triangula-
tion. Recent action of the regents in appropriating the
necessary funds has rendered this possible. For seven years
this connection between the State Survey and Coast Survey has
been sustained, but hitherto the expense has been incurred in
primary and secondary triangulation. The work is in charge
of Prof. W. R. Hoag, of the State University.

Tue Wisconsin ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS,
held a field-meeting at Beloit, June 7-9, 1894. The following
geological papers were read:

The Ancient Ice Invasions. TT. C. CHAMBERLIN.

Geology of the Conanicut island, R. I. G. 1. Counter.

Notes on Dikellocephalus crassimarginatus Whitfield. CHARLES J.
O'CONNOR.

On the petrographical character of some greenstones from the Lower Quin-
nesec falls, Wis. A. T. LINcoLn.

On the quartz keratophyre of the northern range of Baraboo bluffs. SAM-
UEL WEIDMANN.

Ancient volcanoes of the Yellowstone Park region. J.P. IDpINaGs.

Old Quaternary deposits in the Rock river valley. TRA M. BUELL.

The dells of the Wisconsin. ©. R. VAN Hise.

Tee ramparts of the Madison lakes. ©. R. VAN HIse.

Royat Sociery of Canapa. Following are the titles and
synopses of the geological papers of the late meeting, as given
in the announcement program. The meeting was held at Ot-
tawa, May 21-25.

Synopsis of the known Species of Land Animals of the Palwo-
zoie period in Canada, Sir J. W. Dawson,

The introduction to the paper contains some general remarks on Pal-
seozoic land animals and the questions relating to them, with the cir-
cumstances of their discovery in Canada. This is followed by a classified
list of the species, with their describers, discoverers, localities, geologi-
cal horizons, and the publications in which they have been described.
The paper also contains suggestions as to the collecting of specimens.
On the Classification and Systematic Position of the rock for-

mations about Quebec city, with special reference to the
Quebec group and its Fossils, H. M. Amt.
The paper deals chiefly with that extensive and interesting series of

up bed

Personal and Scientific News. 67

black bituminous graptolitic shales, etc., of the St. Lawrence and Hud-

son river valleys whose position in the scale of the geological formations

of North America has remained so long an unsettled problem. The ge-
ographical distribution of this formation throughout Canada and certain
adjoining districts of the United States, its fauna and faunal relations,
together with the bearing of the facts obtained to date in support of the
validity of Sir William Logan’s ‘‘Quebec group,’’ are also discussed.
An attempt is made to give this formation a resting-place in the lower
portion of the Ordovician of America.

The Potsdamand Calciferous formations in Quebec and east-

ern Ontario. R. W. Ents.

The paper describes the physical characters of these formations as
originally understood, and their distribution in Ontario and Quebec. It
indicates the intimate relation between the two, both from the strati-
graphical and paleontological standpoints, and discusses the relation of
the Podsdam sandstone to the underlying Cambrian and the propriety
of assigning this formation to the base of the Cambro-Silurian (Ordovi-
cian) system, rather than to the Cambrian.

Organic Remains of the Little River group. G. F. Marruew.

The first part is a brief review of the flora of this group as described
by Sir Wm. Dawson. The flora as an entity is compared with the sev-
eral floras ranging from the Upper Silurian to the Coal Measures that
have been found in the Middle States and northeastern America. Sir
Wm. Dawson’s genera are used for this purpose. The genera based on
fossil woods, chiefly from the middle division of the Devonian rocks, are
not considered, as they were investigated with the microscope. Of the
thirty-three genera of the Little River group, nine are found in the
Lower Carboniferons, and an equal number in the Upper and Middle
Devonian, respectively. On the other hand, the very remarkable fact is
brought in view that there are no less than twenty genera of the Coal
Measures. Yet it is quite certain that there was no direct or near con-
nection between the flora of the Little River group and that of the Coal
Measures, as will be seen from the data given in the former article on
this group. The explanation of the large number of genera Common to
the two formations probably is that the Little River time and group an-
ticipated the climate and soil of the Coal Measures in a way that did not
happen in northeastern America in any of the times referred to earlier
than the Coal Measures, so far as we know. The myriapods of the Lit-
tle River group number six and are of five different genera. The most
abundant fauna of a similar kind is that of the lower Coal Measures of
Mazon creek, Illinois. Several of the genera found there occur in the
plant bed of the Little River group. The most remarkable are those of
the genus Euphoberia.

The Fossil Cockroaches of North America. 8. H. Scupper.
Progress of Geological Investigation in southwestern Nova
Scotia. L. W. BAtILry.

The only existing publications referring to the geology of southwest-
ern Nova Scotia are the Arcadian Geology of Sir William Dawson and a
report upon the gold fields of the province by Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, 1871.
In each of these cases the observations recorded were based upon cur-
sory examinations only, and were for the most part confined to the sea-
board. During the last three or four yearsa much more systematic ex-
ploration of the region has been effected, under the auspices of the
geological survey, and the purpose of the present paper is to give a
summary of the results attained. The paper is accompanied by asketeh
map showing the latest results'in the delimitation of the formations
represented.

68 The American Geologist. July, 1894

Glacial Kettle-holes in Canada, Ropert BELL.

General description of these holes. Their positions with reference to
the physical features of the vicinity. Localities of kettle-holes in Can-
ada: Lake Superior; North Channel of lake Huron; Manitoulin island;
northeast shore of Georgian bay; Spanish, Wahnepiti and Severn rivers;
the Ottawa valley. Similar kettle-holes in California, Michigan, Nor-
way, Sweden, and Finland. Occurrence at many different elevations.
Great size and depth of some examples. Their occurrence in groups
and singly. Theories as to the general manner of their formation. Ex-
planations of the mode of excavation. Broggen’s and Renseb’s views.
Some constant features as to their local surroundings. Conditions
which would affect the ice of the glaciers at these localities. One-
sided recesses in the face of steep rocks. Materials filling the holes.
Geological data of their formation. Popular fallacies as to glacial ket-
tle-holes. Illustrated by photographs, drawings and sketches.

On the occurrence of a large area of Nepheline Syenite in the
townships of Dungannon and Faraday, eastern Ontario.
Frank D. ADAMS.

Description of the petrographical character or mode of occurrence of
a large area of this rock discovered last summer in the Laurentian of
eastern Ontario. The mass extends for a distance of over seven miles
in an east and west direction and is in places exceedingly coarse in
grain, nepheline individuals 24 feet in diameter having been obseryed.
Very large masses of sodalite have also been obtained. The rock pre-
sents many striking peculiarities of composition. The paper concludes
with a reference to the few other localities in the world where this rock
is known to oceur.

On Nepheline Sodalite and Orthoclase from the Nepheline Sy-
enite of Dungannon, Hastings county, Ontario. B. J.
HARRINGTON.

This paper presents the results of a chemical examination of the neph-
eline and sodalite, as well as of a secondary orthoclase from the rock
described in the last paper.

On some of the Cretaceous Fossils collected by Dr. (now Sir)
James Hector, during Captain Palliser’s Eaplorations in
British North America, in 1857-60, J. F. WHITEAVEsS.

These fossils, which were kindly lent to the writer by the Geological
Society of London, are partly from the Northwest Territories and
partly from Vancouver Island. They were reported upon provisionally
by Mr. Etheridge in 1861 and 1863, but the subsequent publication by
Mr. Meek of his ‘‘Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the
Upper Missouri Country,’’ and of an illustrated paper on the fossils of
the Cretaceous rocks of Vancouver and the Sucia Islands, has enabled
them to be determined with much more accuracy now than was possi-
ble then. Unfortunately, some of the fossils collected by Sir James
Hector cannot now be found.

Notes onsome Fossils from the Nanaimo formation of Van-
couver, Hornby, and Denman islands, J. F. WHITEAVES.

The specimens referred to in this paper are the property of the Pro-
vincial Museum at Victoria, B. C., and were obligingly lent by its
curator, Mr. John Fannin. Many of them were collected quite recently
by Mr. Walter Harvey, of Comax. They include a Gryphea not previ-
ously noticed in these rocks, remarkably fine and perfect examples of
Lytoceras jukesti Sharpe, and other interesting ammonitoid forms, three
of which are probably new; also three new species of decapod crusta-
cea. Two of these crustacea are crabs, and the other a long-tailed lob-
ster-like species, apparently referable to the genus Podorates,

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. Vou. XIV, Puate III.

$f *, EES ae
Wrs RiVy \ ‘. , . ;
os sie =a ‘ ‘ Sun Prajrie

Arena ®

Fig 1. ViciNITY oF MADISON, WISCONSIN.
2) Kettle Moraine

Z) Glacial Strie

(©) Drumlins in Madison

The course of the moraine and of glacial
striz, and the boundaries of the early and late
drift and of the driftless area, are from maps
by Prot. TC. Chamberlin and assistants on

e Wisconsin Geological Survey.
oleae as 10
SCALE OF MILES.

OBSERVATORY
“ HILL

UNIVERSITY *
_NIVERS 3

1
b HILL
if «=

mc
OLD

Fic.2. CAPITOL, LANGDON, UNIVERSITY, AND
OBSERVATORY HILLS, MADISON, WIS.

The areas of these drumlins are shown by outlines.

2000 FEET.
%% M4 Yo MILE.
SCALE OF DISTANCES

a

“SAND. AND. GRAVEL -- =>

Ta a ee BED AKER rae SRS A pe ED Ke
Fr¢.3. SECTION THROUGH THE MADISON DRUMLINS. Vertical scale, five times the horizontal scale.

THE MADISON TYPE OF DRUMLINS.

THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vor. XLV’. AUGUST, 1894. No. 2.

THE MADISON TYPE OF DRUMLINS.*

By WARREN UPHAM, Somerville, Mass.

(PLATE IIT.)

CONTENTS.
Page

Drumlins enclosing nucleal beds of sand and gravel, but mainly com-

posed of till, in Winthrop and Scituate, Mass......... ..69
Similar drumlins, with more nucleal stratified aan in Madizons ‘Wiss, .13
AMMMOeCs nH MaRaison and its, VICINIby:..22...225 66... be cdce cep ricwe nates cotd
Subglacial deposition of the nucleal beds...................... 0. ....-....78
MeCKinaniOn Of tHe OVEL VINE Tl si so. us one cae cece sc Vmecwnces ucizen ss 80

DRUMLINS ENCLOSING NUCLEAL BEDS OF SAND AND GRAVEL, BUT
MAINLY COMPOSED OF TILL, IN WINTHROP AND SCITUATE,
Mass.

The earliest publications known to me of observations of
drumlins structurally resembling those which form the sub-
ject of this paper are by Mr. W. W. Dodge, of Cambridge,
Mass.,t and by the present writer,t describing the oval hills
of till called Great Head in Winthrop and Third and Fourth
Cliffs in Scituate, Mass., each of which is nearly half washed
away by the sea. Great Head, having only a slight thickness
of basal and nucleal stratified beds, is one extreme of a series.
Its middle term is represented by the Third and Fourth

Cliffs. Its most full and complete expression is found in the

Capitol, University, and Observatory hills in Madison, Wis-

consin, consisting chiefly of a nucleal mass of sand and gravel

with a veneer of till, which I had opportunity to examine

*\ paper presented before the Ge ologic al Society of America at the
Boston meeting, Dec. 29, 1893.

tAm. Jour. of Se ruta: third series, vol. xxxv1, p. 56, July, 1888.

{Proceedings, Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxrv, pp. 127-
132, Dec. 19,-1888: and same vol., pp. 228-242, April 17, 1889.

70 The American Geologist. August, 1894

during attendance at the last summer meeting of this society.
We may best understand the structure and origin of this
peculiar class or type of drumlins, here named the Madison
type from the city where it is so finely displayed, by noticing
in the foregoing order its several gradations of development.

Great Head, five miles northeast of Boston, is an excellent
example of the many drumlins which form the islands of
Boston harbor and abound in all the surrounding cities and
towns to a distance of five to ten miles or more from the state
house. Other examples are Beacon hill in Boston; Bunker
hill in Charlestown; Prospect and Winter hills in Somerville:
the Observatory hill in Cambridge: Corey hill in Brookline ;
Chestnut and Institute hills in Newton; Bellevue hill in West
Roxbury ; Mt. Bowdoin in Dorchester; the Wollaston Hights,
Forbes, and President’s hills, in Quincey; Great hill in Wey-
mouth; Baker’s and Prospect hills in Hingham, all the hills
of the Nantasket peninsula; Scituate hill in Cohasset: and
First, Second, Third, and Fourth Cliffs, in Scituate.

These drumlins, which were formerly known by Prof. C. H.
Hitchcock’s designation as lenticular hills of till or unmodi-
fied glacial drift, attain hights varying from 30 to 200 feet
above their bases. Their crests in this district of Boston and
its neighborhood adjoining Massachusetts bay are at all alti-
tudes from very near the sea level up to 350 feet above it.
They have in most cases very smoothly oval, gracefully mould-
ed outlines, with steep slopes on each side, more gentle ascent
at each end, and a beautifully rounded top. In area they
range, in proportion to their hights, from a length of a few
hundred feet to about a mile, with usually half or two-thirds
as great width. Their longer axes here trend southeasterly
and vary in direction from south-southeast to east-southeast,
aking the courses of the latest currents of the ice-sheet up-
on this area. Though drumlins are distributed in profusion
on this part of our coast, they are also found in equal abund-
ance upon large inland tracts of Massachuseetts and south-
ern New Hampshire, to hights of 1,500 feet above the sea in
the vicinity of Monadnock mountain, on the watershed be-
tween the Merrimack and Connecticut rivers. Their numbers
mapped by me in New Hampshire, under the direction of
Professor Hitchcock for the Geological Survey of that state,

The Madison Type of Drumlins —Upham. 71

are nearly 700; and Mr. George H. Barton, mapping them in
Massachusetts, under the direction of Prof. N. 8S. Shaler, for
the United States Geological Survey, finds about 1,500 drum-
lins, counting, as in New Hampshire, the separate rounded
summits of compound drumlin aggregations, where two or
three of these hills, and sometimes more, are merged together
at their bases.

Nearly all of the many sections of drumlins shown in the
vicinity of Boston by artificial excavations, and more exten-
sively by the high cliffs where these hills are being worn away
and freshly undermined by the sea, reveal only till, very com-
pact and containing frequent or plentiful boulders up to five
feet or rarely ten feet in diameter, which, like the smaller
embedded stones and pebbles, usually have glaciated forms
and often preserve distinct glacial striw. This deposit is the
direct product of the ice-sheet. Any traces of assortment or
stratification by water are exceedingly rare. Instead, the till
derived from glacial transportation and deposition is seen in
numerous sections to extend quite from the base of these hills,
or from the sea level, upward through their central part to
their crests. The compactness of the till, its abundant gla-
ciated stones, the peculiar lamination of its clayey matrix,
due to the gradual surface accretion, and other characteristic
features, clearly demonstrate it to be an accumulation formed
beneath the weight of the overriding ice-sheet, whose current
moulded the growing drumlins in their smooth oval forms,
having their longer axes parallel with the latest movement of
the ice over them. Only a small amount of finally englacial
drift, apparently averaging no more than from one to three
feet in the neighborhood of Boston, was dropped on these
hills from the ice-sheet when its waning border retreated past
them.

After studying the drumlins of New Hampshire and eastern
Massachusetts more than ten years, I first learned of the ob-
servation of an instance with a nucleal stratified deposit by
Mr. Dodge’s description of the sea-cliff section of Great Head,
which rises by a steep newly undermined slope, and near the
top vertically, to a hight of 100 feet above the ocean. This
section consists of ordinary till, weathered yellowish above
but dark bluish below, from its top to within 20 or 15 feet

+I
~)

2 The American Geologist. August, 1894

above mean tide, where its base, more fully exposed several
years ago during the construction of a railroad than at the
present time, was observed by Mr. Dodge to be a somewhat
arched bed of “loose, clean, rather fine gravel.” This was
seen to be overlain by till, which exhibited traces of an im-
perfect stratification close to their line of separation but
above is entirely unstratified.

In the autumn of 1888 it was my good fortune to find two
other sections of drumlins which more amply display this in-
teresting structure, namely, the Third and Fourth Cliffs of
Scituate, Mass., about twenty-five miles southeast of Boston.

Fic. 4. Map of portions of Scituate and Marshfield, Mass.

These drumlins, respectively about 70 and 60 feet in hight,
consist of till upon their whole surface and to a depth that
varies from 15 to 25 feet and more, but below include beds of

_Fic. 5. Section of Third Cliff; length, about 3,000 feet: hight, 70 feet above the sea.
(The base of the section is at the top of the shore of boulders, 1o feet above the sea.)

modified drift that attain in Third Cliff a thickness of at least
30 to 40 feet, reaching to the boulder-strewn shore, and in
Fourth Cliff a thickness of 10 to 20 feet, being seen there to be
underlain by till and to be also in part interbedded with it.

The Madison Type of Drumlins —Upham, 73

Detailed descriptions of these sections, with figures of them
and a map showing the four sea-clitfs and a remarkable esker
called Coleman’s hill, extending a mile westward from the

Fic. 6. Section of Fourth Cliff; length, about 2,000 feet; hight, 60 feet above the sea.

drumlin of the Third Cliff, are given in the second of my pa-
pers in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History before cited. By the kindness of the secretary of this
society, I am permitted also to present here these figures and
map, for comparison with the Madison drumlins which are

edities Fe ees

Fic. 7. Part of the section of Fourth Cliff, on enlarged scale; length, about 4oo feet;
hight, 55 to 60 feet above the sea.
shown in Plate 1m. The extraordinary structure of the till-
covered hill of Third Cliff, and its topographic position in the
same east and west line with the esker of Coleman’s hill, con-
vince me that the two were formed rapidly and in close suc-
cession, the esker after the drumlin, during the retreat of the
ice-sheet, here withdrawing from east to west, at the end of
the Glacial period.

SIMILAR DRUMLINS, WITH MORE NUCLEAL STRATIFIED SAND, IN
Mapison. WISCONSIN.

Three hills of this class or type, each having a large central
mass of stratified sand and fine gravel. with a superficial
veneer, mostly 5 to 10 feet thick, of boulder-clay or till,
stand in an east to west series forming the most conspicuous
elevations of the city of Madison, Wisconsin. The state cap-
itol crowns the eastern one of these peculiar drumlins; the
oldest building of the state university is on the summit of the
second; and the crest of the third and most western, where
the president of the university formerly lived, is now, since
1878, the site of the Washburn Observatory and of the resi-

74 The American Geologist. August, 1894

dence of the astronomer, Prof. George C. Comstock. They are
accordingly known as the Capitol, University, and Observatory
hills. Madison lies about adozen miles east from the eastern
border of the large driftless area of Wisconsin, which there is
bounded by the outermost or Kettle moraine of the later drift.
Toward this moraine the ice-sheet in the vicinity of Madison
moved southwestward, as is shown by the courses of glacial
strie on the somewhat infrequent exposures of the bed-rocks.
Altitudes of these hills and others in Madison and of the
contiguous lakes, Mendota or Fourth lake, close on the north,
and Monona or Third lake and lake Wingra. close on the
south, I have received from the contoured map of the city in
the office of Mr. McClellan Dodge, the county and city engi-
neer, and in part from Prof. Nelson O. Whitney. Further
notes, as given in the following table, of the altitudes of the
avenues of drainage from this district southward to the Rock
river and from the watershed west of Madison and lake Men-
dota westward by the Black Earth river to the Wisconsin, and
the hights of the most prominent points within a score of
miles northward and eastward, from which directions the gla-
cial currents and drift of this area came, are derived from the
reports and atlas of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin by
Profs. Chamberlin and Irving and their assistants.

Altitudes in Madison and its vicinity.
Feet above

the sea.
Lake Michigan, mean surface above mean tide sea level... .58]
Rock river at Beloit, on the south line of Wisconsin........ 731
Rock river at the mouth of Catfish creek (Yahara river),

UOT He roast wk es cxe sk 1a eo OTeae Tether ose ice’ eI RICE ea eta T75
Malkke dkoshkonont a bOubs:. cre miei eke eneveloe isi en user nnivene tte enone 751
Lake Kegonsa, the First lake of the series tributary by Cat-

hish creek to tMe Roch tivetsnmen: semis cine cae eran teceisieleee S41
Lake Wiatibesa, the secondalakie awe cicleceveiinte iecatieiieeie S42
Lake Monona, the Third lake, low water, the datum of the

Madisonecity levels s.r: Jaoee cee ieee ie eleeest eens ie oe tacks $43
Lalse- Mendota.the Wt ourth lakes ais aco. cctteimentec cei temo 851
Lake Wingra, shallow. west of lake Monona and tributary

TOG siseocsta ce hate ce tam TCUR IST ote fay SUOLNG oe ce CREATOR RIC De PCM Re cna Recad ienic eee 847
Madison, theeasterm natlway depots. <\cien cts nee oe alae eres 549

hes eee Vera ec he i en S.
je? ted a ; :

The Madison Type of Drumlins —Upham. 15

Top of a higher drumlin about a quarter of a mile north-
west, at the residence of Senator William IF. Vilas

(called Langdon hill on a following page) .............. 928
Depression between the last and Capitol hill.............. 2890
Drumlin crest on East Gorham street, nearly a half mile

nortih-noriheast.trom: the ‘capitol... 2... ses. eh ee S80

Two drumlins, each rising about 25 feet above the adjoin-
ing land, a half mile and one mile east-northeast from

theyeastetmndepots, Crests:abOuts..c ee reais a lee cee ss S75
Low land crossed by Lake and Murray streets, at the eas-

tern base of the University hill, about................. 860
PITA RREVETELGY Ibs cj0 vier ann soe tea coe a oe ey Sx ak tyes 955
Depression between University and Observatory hills....... 920
SeeerenGevatory Nilh 2.) 02. oiler. oo once ewe eesa eh. 952

Dairy house of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station farm, on the western slope of Observatory hill. .902
Residence of Prof. F. H. King, about a sixth of a mile
SAINTE SE: OLE GT VE EC UE ae ee tone ee ale rea ee 875
Surface along the course of a south to north series of ex-
perimental borings by Prof. King, at the west end of
Observatory hill, passing about a dozen rods west of
(LID CRUMB? A MIO CRIS Se es ety Sh te ie A ae 867-872
Swamp two to three miles west of lake Mendota, on the
watershed between this lake basin and the Black
Earth river, tributary to the Wisconsin river, about... .935
Cross Plains, on the Black Earth river six miles farther
TOES. NOLES BLOT See ete ie Rape ee ae al eas Ua Re ey cen eRe 859
Mouth of Black Earth river, 27 miles west-northwest of
IAGIC SONY ORC ialiaeae a A PSN ie REE ons ele bar eae oe Sa 128
Highest points of the country within twenty miles to the
north, northeast, and east from Madison, consisting
partly of the crests of drumlins, but including quar-
ried rock outcrops up to nearly 1,050 ‘feet, situated
seven to twelve miles northeast from Madison..... 950-1125

Capitol hill, if bounded at each end by a contour line 15 or
20 feet above lake Monona, has a length of about 4,000 feet,
trending from northeast to southwest. On the shore of this
lake, along a distance of a quarter of a mile, the margin of
the hill has been eroded to a steep bank 20 to 30 feet high.
Measuring thence across the Capitol Park to the depression
separating this drumlin from that of Senator Vilas’ residence,
we find the width of the Capitol hill to be about 2,400 feet,
having a ratio to its length of 6:10. A large space on its top,
including most of the Capitol Park and some adjoining land
to the extent of fully a quarter of a mile from north to south

76 The American Geologist. August, 1894

and a sixth of a mile in width, is nearly flat, with a hight of
70 to 75 feet above lake Monona.

In the boiler room of the capitol building a well 1,015 feet
deep obtains water which rises from its lower portion to 60 or
70 feet below the surface. The section shown by this well is
boulder-clay from the surface to a depth of eight feet; strat-
ified sand, enclosing occasional boulders, reaches thence 60
feet; and gravel occupies the next twelve feet, to a total
depth of 80 feet, where the boring appears to have passed into
shaly beds of the Potsdam sandstone formation. Itis possible,
however, so far as the record indicates, that the next 46 feet
also are referable to the drift, being boulder-clay or till. Nu-
merous other sections on this hill, as for cellars and cisterns,
pass through the till in five to fifteen feet, coming to sand
beneath. At 80 feet, or less probably 126 feet, the capitol
well goes into the Potsdam sandstone, which extends to a
depth of 805 feet from the surface and is succeeded thence to
the bottom by Archeean crystalline rocks.*

The top of the bed rock under the center of the Capitol
hill, if reached immediately beneath the gravel, lies at a
greater hight than the beds of lakes Monona and Mendota,
the maximum depths of which, according to Prof. E. A. Birge,
are for the former. probably about 50 feet, and for the latter
75 to 80 feet. The greater part of the area of lake Mendota,
six miles long and two to four miles wide, seems, by Prof.
Birge’s two transverse series of soundings, to be a rather flat
tract, depressed 50 to 75 feet below the lake level. Probably
under these lakes a considerable thickness of drift overlies
the bed rock, perhaps as much as its average on the surround-
ing land.

Northwest of the Capitol hill, an equally long but narrow
drumlin reaches from the northeast end of East Gilman street
west-southwesterly along that street and Langdon street
nearly to Lake street. At its northeast end this drumlin rises
with the usual steep slopes, but toward the southwest it is
prolonged in a very slowly declining ridge. Its top is 85 feet
above lake Monona. Its surface and the eroded blutf, 20 to
40 feet high, where its northern side has been worn away by
lake Mendota, consist of till with plentiful boulders. Prof.

*Geology of Wisconsin, vol. ii, 1877, pp. 50, 605.

The Madison Type of Drumlins.—Upham. 77
G. E. Culver informs me that a well dug many years ago on
the upper part of the steep northeast end of this drumlin
reached the bed-rock nearly at the level of this adjoining
lake; and that another well 50 feet deep, on the southwestern
slope near the crest, is said to be wholly in till.

About a sixth of a mile of lowland till, only 10 feet above
lake Mendota, separates the western end of the Langdon hill,
as the last may be called, from the eastern foot of the Uni-
versity hill. Beginning close east of Park street and of the
Science and Library Halls, this hill,more nearly round than any
other in its series, extends about 1,600 feet from east to west
with a width of about 1,800 feet, not including the margin of
probably 100 feet which has been eroded by lake Mendota on
the north. The original ratio of the width to the length of
University hill was therefore approximately 7:8. The natu-
al section of its northern slope cut by the lake erosion shows
sand to a hight of 15 or 20 feet, enveloped by a superficial
deposit of about 8 feet of till, whose boulders are strown in
abundance on the shore. The top of this hill is 104 feet
above lake Mendota.

An excellent section to a depth of about 10 feet and 500
feet long, crossing the eastern slope of University hill about
midway between its foot and top, was supplied in 1892 by the
trench for laying a large steam pipe from the boiler house to
the new Law building. At each end this trench found the
till to reach from the surface to a depth of 5 to 8 feet, being
underlain by sand. Thence the till gradually diminishes in
thickness toward the central part of the section, where for a
distance of some 200 feet or more the sand rises quite to the
surface. This portion of the central sand mass, destitute of
its usual covering of till, forms a slightly protuberant swell,
one to five feet in hight above the general slope, from close
to the base upward for two-thirds of the hight of the hill.
Nowhere else on any of these drumlins does their nucleal mod-
ified drift have any natural exposure at the surface, being,
with this exception, everywhere veneered by the boulder-
clay or till.

From the capitol to the original main building of the Uni-
versity, that is, from center to center of the Capitol and Uni-
versity hills, is a distance of one mile in a due west course.

78 The American Geologist. August, 1894

Adjoining the west end of University hill, beyond an inter-
vening depression of 380 feet below their summits, rises the
Observatory hill, 101 feet above lake Mendota, about 1,300
feet long and two-thirds as wide, trending from east to west,
but with its western extremity slightly deflected southwest-
ward. The observatory is 57 rods west of the University
main building, and 39 rods from lake Mendota. A contour
line 70 feet above the lake, at the level of the sag between
the two hill tops, encircles an upper area of the Observatory
hill 450 feet wide and 1,100 feet Jong, having nearly the ratio
OF 225: :

An excavation for a cess-pool at the top of this hill close
to Prof. Comstock’s house, reaching a depth of 21 feet, found
the boulder-clay 7 feet thick, and all its lower portion was in
sand and gravel, the coarsest layers containing pebbles up to
six inches in diameter. Here and there a few boulders, up to
two feet in diameter, were encountered in the stratified drift.
Three to six rods southwest of the observatory, an excava-
tion in the southern slope to a depth of 20 or 30 feet was
worked many years ago to supply sand and gravel for masons’
use and road repairing. Much gravel and many boulders of
small and large size are embedded in the superficial till of this
hill, as seen by me on its surface and in excavations to the
depth of ten feet for the foundations of the Agricultural
College green-house, near the dairy house on its western slope.
On the very top, only about four rods west of the observatory,
a boulder of Archean gneiss, ten feet long, lies half or more
embedded in the till. Prof. R. D. Irving stated the depth of
the drift under the topof this hill to the bed rock to be 122
feet.* Under its western part, at the dairy house, according
to Prof. F. H. King, a well 48 feet above lake Mendota went
six feet in till, and all’ its remaining depth, to a total of 84
feet, in sand and gravel, not reaching the bed rock.

SUBGLACIAL DEPOSITION OF THE NUCLEAL BEDS.

In Madison, as in Winthrop*and Scituate, Mass., I regard
the nucleal sand and gravel of these drumlins as a subglacial
deposit, brought to its present place by streams flowing from
the melting surface of the ice-sheet during its final recession.
The sand and gravel were gathered, as I think, from englacial

*Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 1, p. 625.

The Madison Type of Druimlins.— Upham. ia

drift which had become superglacial, being exposed on the
ice surface by ablation. Loaded with these materials, the
superglacial streams encountered crevasses, down which they
plunged. Wholly beneath the ice-sheet, or within its lower
part, at the level whence the waters flowed away under or
within the ice, bearing their finer silt and clay onward, the
beds forming the center of these hills were accumulated. In
the case of the Madison drumlins, the avenue of outflow of
the subglacial or more probably englacial stream appears to
have been the col, now a swamp about 85 feet above lake
Mendota, which divides that lake basin from the Black Earth
river flowing into the Wisconsin river (figure 1, plate mr).

The locations of the three large drumlins in Madison which
are known to enclose stratified sand and gravel as their cen-
tral and chief masses, forming an east to west series, seem to
me to point very surely to their close relationship in origin.
When this Green Bay lobe of the ice-sheet receded from its
Kettle moraine, convergent slopes of its surface from the north
and south and from a considerable area eastward probably
turned the waters of its melting and of rains toward the east
to west line of these hills and toward the Black Earth col.
The principal stream of this depression upon the ice, falling
through crevasses during several or many summers, appears to
have amassed first the chief part of the Observatory hill, and
afterward successively the nucleal beds of the University and
Capitol hills (figures 2 and 3, plate 1).

Not only these great accumulations of sand and gravel were
so deposited, but alsosimilar beds were laid down on the low-
lands and overspread by till west of the Observatory hill and
east of the University hill. A series of eleven borings by
Prof. F. H. King on the Agricultural Experiment Station
farm, along a line one-fourth of a mile long from south to
north passing across the western base of Observatory hill,
found the till to range from 8 to 20 feet in thickness, attain-
ing its maximum at the end of the longer axis of the hill,
where a boring was stopped at 20 feet by a boulder. All the
other borings of the series passed through the till and went
several feet in gravel, which undoubtedly is continuous with
the chief mass of the hill. On the flat and slightly lower sur-
face within a sixth of a mile farther west the superficial de-

80 The American Geologist. August, 1894

posit of till contains notably fewer boulders and less gravel
than on the hill and close to its base, and its thickness is de-
creased to 5 feet or in some places only 3 feet. At Prof.
King’s house, 24 feet above lake Mendota, the till is 8 feet
deep, underlain by 12 feet of sand and fine gravel, to the bed
rock at the depth of 20 feet. Likewise on the lowland east
of the University hill, a well at Prof. Birge’s house, about 10
feet above lake Mendota, went 8 feet in till, and several feet
into sand below.

One reason for an exceptionally large proportion of sand
in the drift of this area is found in the underlying Potsdam
sandstone, which reaches five miles northeastward and twelve
miles northward from Madison. Prof. Irving suggested that
the basins filled by the lakes north and south of this city were
probably made chiefly by glacial erosion of this soft sand-
stone.

When the border of the ice-sheet had retreated so far as to
uncover the land here, much further deposition of sand and
gravel as hillocky and ridged low kames and eskers, occasion-
ally enclosing boulders but not overlain by till, took place on
the area extending from a half mile to one and a half miles
south of the University hill. The most noteworthy of these
deposits is an esker a half mile or more in length from south-
east to northwest and 30 to 60 feet high, which forms part of
the northeastern shore of lake Wingra and reaches southward
beyond Fitchburg street. Excavations in the southern part
of this gravel and sand ridge show an irregular stratification
with a prevailing northwestward dip, varying from 15° to
45°. The glacial river by which the esker was formed, walled
by ice on each side occupying the present areas of lakes Win-
gra and Monona, flowed to the northwest, transverse to the
previous direction of the glacial movement over this tract,
but toward the Black Earth col and the avenue of the some-
what earlier glacial drainage to which I think the accumula-
tion of the sand and gravel cores of the Madison drumlins
was due.

ACCUMULATION OF THE OVERLYING TILL.

Above the sand and gravel in these drumlins there is so
scanty a veneer of till that we may readily assign nearly all
of it to the probably somewhat-uniformly thick sheet of finally

The Madison Type of Drumlins. —Upham., 81

englacial and superglacial drift contained in the ice and ex-
posed on the surface when its boundary was withdrawn across
this area. On the lowlands adjoining the hills this sheet ap-
pears to have been from three to eight feet thick. Neither
there nor on the hills do I see need of supposing, with Prof.
R. D. Salisbury,* that some part of the fine silt of this till had
been blown upon the ice-sheet from the driftless area, unless
it may be so small an addition as the ‘‘eryoconite’” observed
by Nordenskiéld and Nansen on the western half of the Green-
land ice-sheet.

My observations, like those of Profs. Chamberlin and King,
find the till upon the Madison drumlins more plentifully
charged with boulders and smaller stones than the correlative
deposit on the lowlands. The transportation of these rock
fragments from the adjoining portions of the ice-sheet to the
drumlin hills I think attributable to convergent glacial cur-
rents flowing downward from contiguous higher tracts of the
ice to the depressions of its surface beneath which the sand
and gravel had been amassed.} In reference to the theory of
the origin of drumlins which I present in the paper here cited,
I may reply to the principal objection urged against it by
Prof. W. M. Davis,§ Mr. George H. Barton,|| and Prof. T. C.
Chamberlin,** namely, the local derivation of much of the
drift forming the drumlins, that Ihave partly considered this
objection in the original paper, as it seems to me sufliciently
for such drift as is derived from distances of one mile or more.
The upward moving basal currents of the ice probably carried
the drift up from the land to hights equal to that of the largest
drumlins within one or two miles of advance, as is shown by
the Pinnacle hills esker, Rochester, N. Y. Moreover, wherever

drumlin accumulation took place on a land surface, with no
ice beneath, as may have been the more common way, much

*Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xtr, p. 172, Sept., 1893.

+AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. Vill, p. 147, Sept., 1891.

{Conditions of Accumulation of Drumlins,’? AM. GroLogisr, vol. x,
pp. 139-162, Dec., 1892.

§Proceedings, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvi, pp. 17-23, Nov. 16,
1892.

|Ibid.. pp. 28-25.

** Journal of Geology, vol. 1, pp. 259-261, April-May, 1898; also see pp.
521-524, July-Aug., 1893.

82 >The American Geologist. August, 1894

drift from the land, carried forward subglacially while the
drumlin was being amassed, would be commingled with its
previously englacial drift. Especially where such a drumlin
appears to have been formed upon a rock knob, thereby con-
cealing it, as instanced by Chamberlin from observations of
Mr. Buell in Wisconsin, the englacial drift and many frag-
ments from the knob on which it was accumulated must be
intermixed in the growing drift hill. The idea of Prof. Davis
that the englacial drift in becoming superglacial by ablation
must be mostly or wholly washed, assorted, and stratified on
the ice surface by the water and streams produced in its melt-
ing, seems not to be supported by the prevailing character of
the drift covering the border of the Malaspina ice-sheet; and
it was not so supposed by me for the waning border of the
Pleistocene ice-sheet in the process of its concentration of the
drift to form these hills. After reading Prof. R.S. Tarr’s re-
cent paper on this subject,* I still believe the usual drumlins
consisting wholly of till to have been formed from englacial
drift which had become superglacial and was afterward
enclosed asa stratum of drift in the ice-sheet. By this view
I think that all the peculiarities of distribution and group-
ing of the drumlins may be best explained.

Upon a large region extending eastward from Madison
drumlins are very abundant, so that Mr. I. M. Buell, assisting
Prof. Chamberlin in the glacial field work of the United States
Geological Survey, has mapped nearly 2,500 of them in south-
eastern Wisconsin, finding in some tracts an average of
about seventy-five for each township six miles square.t The
country is a moderately rolling or hilly but nowhere very ele-
vated expanse of the Cambrian and Silurian bed rocks, upon
which the drift is spread as a somewhat uniform sheet. Above
the general drift sheet its drumlin hills comprise usually only
asmall part of its entire amount. They occupy, even where
grouped most closely, perhaps a quarter or third of all the
area, rising 50 to 150 feet above the intervening low grounds.
It will be a most interesting question to determine whether
the Madison type of drumlins has any large representation in
this region. Conversations with Profs. Chamberlin and Sal-

* Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xt, pp. 398-407, June, 1894.
+Am. GroLoarst, vol. xt, pp. 172, 176, Sept., 1893. °

Geology of the Rocky Mountains.—Coleman, $3

isbury, Mr. Frank Leverett, and Mr. Buell, who all have spec-
ially studied the drift around Madison, lead me to think it
more frequent there than in New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
and New York, where also drumlins are magnificently devel-
oped, among which, however, the Madison type certainly is
very rare,

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE ROCKY MOUN-
TAINS BETWEEN THE SASKATCHEWAN
AND THE ATHABASCA.

By A. P. COLEMAN, School of Practical Science, Toronto, Can.

During the summers of 1892 and 1893 some explorations
were made in the Rockies between the headwaters of the Sas-
katehewan and the Athabasca. The region lies between two
fairly well known passes, the Howse pass, leading from the
Saskatchewan to the Columbia, and the Athabasca pass, fol-
lowing up Whirlpool river from its junction with the Athabasca
and following down Wood river, a tributary of the Columbia.
The tract of mountains lying between the two passes, though

‘including some of the grandest mountain scenery in North

America, has been almost wholly neglected by scientific ob-
servers, and the maps hitherto published represent it very in-
correctly.

In 1892 the expedition consisted of Mr. Stewart, of Toronto,
Dr. Laird, of Winnipeg, Mr. Pruyn, Mr. L. Q. Coleman, of
Morley, Alberta, and the writer: with two Stony Indians as
guides. In 1893 the party was limited to Mr. Stewart, Mr.
L. Q. Coleman, and the writer. Guides were dispensed with,
having been found useless beyond their own hunting grounds.
A white man, Frank Sibbald, was employed as packer, and
proved very efficient.

The object of the expeditions was mainly topographical, to
explore an interesting unexplored region and especially to de-
termine the hight of Mt. Brown, reputed the highest mountain
in Canada. The topographical results and a map showing
several new lakes and rivers, as well as the general mountain
features, will be published elsewhere. It may be mentioned,
however, that Mt. Brown was found to be only 9,000 feet in
hight, instead of nearly 16,000, as generally stated. There .

S4 The American Geologist. August, 1894

were many higher peaks in the region explored, but probably
none rising above 18,500 feet.

Observations were made on the geological features of the
region, and a small collection of fossils was obtained. These
were submitted to Mr. B. E. Walker, of Toronto, for determi-
nation, and my heartiest thanks are due to him for the care-
ful work bestowed upon them. A few fossils which Mr.
Walker was in doubt about were referred to Sir Wm. Dawson
and some others to Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, paleontologist to the
Canadian Geological Survey. I wish to express my thanks
to these gentlemen for their kindness in examining and report-
ing upon the specimens sent.

The region examined les between latitude 52° and 58°, and
between longitude 116° 15’ and 118° 380’. The mountain
ranges have the usual northwest-southeast trend. Minor val-
leys lie generally between the ranges, but the more important
ones are apt to be transverse. The most important river val-
ley between the Saskatchewan and the headwaters of
the Athabasca is that of the Brazeau, a tributary of the
former river. This fine valley, thirty miles northwest of
the Saskatchewan, forms an excellent natural section from
the prairies southwest nearly to the Pacific watershed.
The Saskatchewan emerges from the main range at lat. 52° 15’,
long. 116° 18’. Between this point and the Brazeau the foot-
hills consist of grey Laramie shales and sandstones with some
conglomerates, largely made up of chert pebbles derived from
the Paleozoic rocks. No fossils were obtained from these
rocks, but seams of coal were observed at the crossing of a
small tributary of the Saskatchewan, the Atiko-sipi, the
largest about three feet in thickness. Shaly impure coal was
observed near a still smaller stream a little southeast of the
Brazeau gap.

A few miles to the northeast of the Rockies proper there is
a discontinuous range of isolated mountains with the usual
trend. They rise to 7,000 or 8,000 feet, and are of tilted and
folded rocks, probably Paleozoic. The Cretaceous foothills
have in general the same northwest and southeast trend and
dip of 45° or less to the southwest or the south-southwest that
are observed in the mountains, with a steep escarpment to-
-ward the northeast. Usually, however, the dip is much gen-

Geology of the Rocky Mountains.—Coleman. 85

tler than 45°, and from the softness of the materials the forms
of the hills are softened and covered with forest or sod.

Entering the “gap” of the Brazeau and following up the
river to its sources, we pass a succession of “tilted block”
mountain ranges, seven in all. Our work was confined to the
left bank of the river.

The first mountain was wholly of limestone, somewhat fos-
siliferous. The specimens obtained were poorly preserved,
but are described by Mr. Walker as “a ramose F'avosites, the
impression of a brachiopod (Productus?), and three sections
of gastropods not in condition for further determination,
probably Devonian.”

~The next mountain climbed, a few miles farther up the
river, was of highly fossiliferous limestone. A stratum near
the bottom yielded the following species, as determined by
Mr. Walker:

Atrypa reticularis LINN.; several specimens, all of the small variety
found in the Chemung group of the Devonian.

Spirifera disjuncta SOWERBY.

Spirifera cyrtineeformis H. and W.

Spirifera orestes H. and W.

Orthis iowensis Haun. This, in common with some other Devonian
species of Orthide, is doubtless only a variety of O. striatula
SCHLOTHEIM. *

Rhynchonella castanea Meek; young individual.

Productus subaculeatus Murch.

Diphyphyllum (Eridophyllum) strictum E. and H.

The corallites are smaller than in eastern specimens, being
only two lines at the widest, with the usual periodic constric-
tions. In size and arrangement of interior this species agrees
with D. simcoense Billings, but the calicular gemmation is
distinctly shown. The second, third, fourth and fifth species
belong, in the east, to the Chemung group of the Upper De-
vonian.

From the next mountain to the southwest only one fossil
was obtained, a coral, described as follows:

Cyathophyllum, sp.? Externally it presents the appearance of Cya-
thophyllum (Blothrophyllum) decorticatum BiLLINGs, and doubtless. it
belongs to that group. The central area, however, has no flat trans-
verse diaphragms. The epitheca is removed, and the outside area pre-
sents at irregular intervals the extensions of the arched vesicular plates
asin Blothrophyllum. In cross-section there is the typical appearance

*Cont. Can, Pal., vol. 1, pt. 111, p. 218.

ae oy) 4b Bae
‘ Py
?

86 The American Geologist. August, 18£4

of Cyathophyllum, surrounded by an unoccupied area, which again is
surrounded by the edges of the arched, vesicular plates. It is much
larger than Cyathophyllum athabascense WHITEAVES, but appears to be
closely related to it.

The next mountain up the Brazeau forms a sharp ridge of
limestone with a little slate, dipping 40 degrees to the south-
west. The fossils collected are all Upper Devonian, as deter-
mined by Mr. Walker:

Spirifera disjuncta SOWERBY; long-winged variety.

Strophomena rhomboidalis Wilckins.

Streptelasma rectum Hall.

Fenestella sp.

The next ridge has a gentler slope and consists of yellowish
brown clay slate, partially covered by a thick bed of rough
cherty limestone. No fossils were found.

Then follows a small group of mountains just southwest of
Brazeau lake, having a dip of 28° to the northeast, the reverse
of the usual tilt in the region. The rocks observed are some-
times o@dlitic limestones, but often they appear to be con-
glomerate beds, containing thin, shaly pebbles and cemented
by more ferruginous material which weathers yellow. Weath-
ered surfaces often present a marked concretionary structure
and form shell-like hemispheres, from a few inches to a foot
or more in diameter. The chief fossils observed are trilobites,
Mr. Walker describing the specimens brought back as ‘‘sey-
eral small slabs covered with glabelle of a Proetus closely
allied to P. nevade Hall, of the Devonian.”

Near the foot of this mountain a cut bank of shale beside
the north fork of the Brazeau is quite fossiliferous and is ap-
parently a small outlier of the Cretaceous. Specimens of
plant remains from this place, which were submitted to Sir
Wm. Dawson, proved too fragmentary for determination.
Mixed with them he found some scales of animal origin,
probably remains of fishes and arthropods. Of some brachio-
pods from the same place, sent to Ottawa, Mr. Whiteaves re-
marks:

The three specimens from Cut Bank (Camp 18) contain, as you say, a
small Lingula, but Lam not sure by any means what Lingula it is.
Taken in connection with your statement that the specimens occur with
fossil plants, it seems not at all unlikely that they belong to the Koota-
nie series of Sir William Dawson.

At the headwaters of the south fork of the Brazeau, a moun-

Geology of the Rocky Mountains.—Coleman, ST

tain more than 10,000 feet high consists of limestone, odlitic
in part, with a dip of 30° to the southwest. Beneath the
limestone, in the valley, thick beds of flesh-colored quartzitic
sandstones and conglomerates crop out. No fossils were ob-
tained either from the limestones or sandstones.

Two passes were traversed between the Brazeau and the
Kooetnay plains on the Saskatchewan, an eastern one follow-
ing up Job’s creek and down Rock creek, and a western one
along Cataract river. Along the former pass there were
mountains of limestone with some slate, tilted 45°-50° to the
southwest. Reddish quartzite crops out in the lower part
of the Rock creek valley. Some of the tilted mountains to
the southwest of the pass have folded foothills in front.
Corals were collected at the summit of the pass, but by acci-
dent were lost.

Southwest of the Cataract pass several mountains are but
slightly tilted and take on cathedral shapes. The rock ob-
served is chiefly pink or purplish quartzite, often with trans-
verse bedding.

Near the head of Cataract river isa small sheet of water
which we named Pinto lake. The rocks surrounding it are
chiefly limestone; and from Plateau mountain, just west of
it, numerous fossils were obtained, which have been deter-
mined by Mr. Walker as follows:

Atrypa reticularis: several specimens, mostly above the average size.

Pleurotomaria ”’

Diphyphyllum arundinaceum Brnirmes. In the size of the corallites
and the manner of gemmation these specimens agree with D. arundi-
naceum. They may be only a larger variety of D. stramineum Br-
LINGS: and, if so, one of the many varieties included by Rominger un-
der Diphyphyllum (Eridophyllum) simcoense BILures.

Pachyphyllum woodmani WutreE; one very perfect specimen.

Slab with weathered branches of Trematopora, etc.

P. woodmani indicates that the rock is Upper Devonian.

Near the ford of the Saskatchewan on the Kootenay plains,
and not far from the left bank of the river, a mountain form-
ing a sharp anticlinal fold was ascended and named Triangle
peak. Mr. Walker determines the fossils found there as:

Spirifera disjuncta SOWERBY: several specimens, with the usual va-
riations in shape.

Athyris (ef. A. cora Hau). The few specimens are all so exfoliated

88 The American .Geologist. August, 1894

that the exterior characters cannot be determined. They are larger
than those illustrated by Hall.

Part of a valve of a Productus, showing numerous spines.

Cast of a Bellerophon.

Zaphrentis prolifica BrLLINes: a single specimen.

Syringopora perelegans BILINGs.

These are all from the Upper Devonian. The first is found in the
state of New York only in the Chemung group; but elsewhere it ranges
from the Middle to the Upper Devonian, inclusive. The next to the
last species is found in the east in the Upper Helderberg and Hamilton
groups. The last appears to be confined to the Upper Helderberg in the
east, but Walcott states that in Nevada it is found throughout the
whole Devonian series.*

Turning northwest from the headwaters of the Brazeau, we
find along Jonas pass steep quartzite mountains dipping in
the usual way; and the same continue along the right bank
of the Sun-wapta, the eastern branch of the Athabasca, and
more or less along the main river as far as to Athabasca falls,
a distance of about fifty miles. Above the mouth of Jonas
creek, on the west bank of the Sun-wapta, a mountain rising
above 10,000 feet is of limestone.

Southwest of the Sun-wapta and of the Athabasca below
the junction of the former river, the mountains no longer have
the regularity observed in the northeastern portion of the
Rockies. The subordinate ranges lose the uniform northwest
and southeast trend so characteristic farther east. The river
valleys can no longer be divided into two sharply defined di-
rections, one parallel to the strike of the tilted blocks and the
other transverse to it. Many of the mountains, such as For-
tress and Quincy, near Fortress lake, are of the castellated or
‘athedral type with nearly horizontal strata and very steep
walls, the result of erosion. The rocks observed east and
north of Fortress lake are purplish quartzites and quartzitic
conglomerates. South of the lake, along Misty creek, bluish
grey limestones with yellowish streaks occur, and the strata
dip toward the south, while the mountains present a bold front
northward.

Misty mountain, 10,000 feet, in lat. 52° 20’, long. 118°, con-
sists chiefly of limestones showing bluish grey and yellowish
bands or concretions. The moraine of a glacier descending

*U.S. Geol. Survey, Monograph vir, 1884, Paleontology of the Hureka
District, p. 9.

Geology of the Rocky Mountains.—-Coleman. 89

from its flanks consists of a variety of rocks, including lime-
stones, sometimes containing chert, sometimes odlitic, and at
times having curious concretionary structures; greenish
slate; and black shales with white veins of quartz or calcite,
the latter often satin spar of the fibrous variety. A few fos-
sils obtained from moraine blocks were examined by Mr.
Whiteaves, who writes:

One of the specimens contains numerous valves of a species of Obo-
lella, with fragmentary portions of a trilobite, probably Olenellus. The
other contains an imperfect trilobite, possibly Ptychoparia. These
give me rather the impression of belonging to the Lower Cambrian or
Olenellus zone.

Along the Athabasca below the falls and near the mouth of
the Miette, slates crop out, dipping at one point 45° to the
southwest, and at another nearly vertically, with an east and
west strike. These slates and some obscure schistose rocks
appear to underlie somewhat metamorphosed conglomerates
with interbedded chloritic layers. In the conglomerate angu-
lar fragments of slate are sometimes included. Along the
lower portion of the Miette, which enters the Athabasca from
the west, nearly vertical beds of somewhat metamorphosed
conglomerate form the prevailing rocks.

Ascending Whirlpool river from the Athabasea, the rocks
fora few miles up are quartzites and conglomerates, both
showing scales of mica. The mountains have the usual tilt
for the greater part, though a few present nearly horizontal
strata. Fifteen or twenty miles up the river the mountains
show fine examples of folds and the rock changes to limestone
with some slate. Near the summit of the pass dark grey
slates appear, along with shiny, wrinkled sericite schist. On
Mt. Brown the rock observed was chiefly slate with a shim-
mer of sericite, some specimens containing cubes of pyrite.
At the Committee’s Punch-bowl, the summit of Athabasea
pass, the prevailing rocks, chietly boulders, are slates and
quartzitic sandstones. The schistose rocks of this pass are
evidently of metamorphic origin, modified sediments, by no
means perfectly crystalline. They resemble somewhat the seri-
cite schists of the Columbia valley, near Surprise rapids and
lake Kimbasket. They are the only schistose rocks which I]
have observed in the Canadian Rocky mountains. Eruptives

90 The American Geologist. August, 1894

do not, so far as I have observed, occur at all, and the sehis-
tose rocks are not found east of long. 118°.

Comparing our observations with the admirable work of
Mr. McConnell in Bow pass, we may conclude that the chief
fossiliferous beds observed, Upper Devonian according to Mr.
Walker’s determination of the fossils, correspond to the Banff
limestone of Bow pass, there considered Lower Carboniferous
or Upper Devonian. The species of fossils referred to by
McConnell, “a Rhynchonella like Rocky-Montana, another
like 2. metallica, Atrypa reticularis, a Spirifera like S. whit-
neyt, also species of Athyris, Productus, Lichas, Eridophyllum,
and Diphyphyllum,’* are in general like those obtained along
the Brazeau and neighboring streams, but they do not appear
to agree very closely. Whether the odlitic limestones found
at several points in our region correspond to McConnell’s
Castle Mountain group, which is Cambrian,+ cannot be settled
until fossils are found. The only instance where fossils do
occur, not in the odlite but near by, is near Brazeau lake,
about 8,000 feet above the sea level, where a Proetus closely
allied to P. nevade is found, probably Devonian.

McConnell describes the shales associated with the Banff

limestone as passing into sandstones and quartzites. Whether ©

the thousands of feet of similar rocks observed by us, forming
independent mountain ranges, as along the Sun-wapta, or un-
derlying the limestones in other parts, are of the same age, it
is impossible to say.

We found no equivalent of MeConnell’s Halysites beds.
The structural features described by McConnell in Bow pass
correspond in general to those along the Brazeau, but of
course details are entirely different.

It will be of much interest to compare the region described
in this paper with that along Howse pass traversed by Me-
Connell in 1892. His work will doubtless afford material for
connecting and completing our fragmentary investigations.

A brief reference should be made to the superficial geology
of the region traversed. Evidence of glacial action is wide-
-*Geol. Sur. fi tanada, Annual Report, new series, vol. 11, for 1886, p.
19 D.

HIbid., pp. 24-29 D.-

fIbid., p. 21.

Geology of the Rocky Mountains.—Coleman, 91

spread in the shape of moraines, lakes dammed with loose
materials, polished and striated rock surfaces. In fact the
Ice age still exists in a shrunken condition in the hundreds,
perhaps even thousands, of glaciers to be found on the higher
summits. A score may often be observed from a single point,
e. g., any summit along the Sun-wapta. A glacier traversed
by us on Misty mountain is nearly three milesin length, with
a magnificent ice fall. Many others are much longer and
larger than this, especially east and west of Fortress lake;
but all appear to be shrinking, as proved, in some instances,
by a series of terminal moraines below the present ice foot,
the lowest tree-covered, the higher ones still bare. The low-
est level of permanent ice observed was at the foot of a large
glacier which comes down to the level of the valley, 4,400
feet, on Whirlpool river near the summit of the Athabasca
pass.

Since the retreat of the ice from the lower levels there has
not been time, e. g. along the Brazeau, for the formation of
very high terraces, though most of the river valleys show
traces of terracing. North of the Saskatchewan nothing at
all like the fine terraces of Bow river was observed. The
many lakes, ranging in size from Fortress lake, eight miles
long, to mere ponds, indicate also a comparatively recent re-
treat of the ice. The wearing away of a small amount of
rock would drain Brazeau lake, which is separated from a
violent rapid by only a few feet of quartzite. The fine water-
falls of the Sun-wapta and Athabasca have cut their way
back through cafons, sharp-walled but only a few hundred
yards long, indicating only a short period of action under
present conditions.

To sum up the geological features of the region examined,
we may describe the southeastern portion, well displayed
along the Brazeau river, as consisting of a series of seven or
more minor ranges, each striking northwest and southeast,
and tilted 25°-45° toward the coast line of the Pacific. These
blocks, consisting of thousands of feet of quartzite and con-
glomerate, often overlain by thousands of feet of Devonian
limestones, appear to have been thrown into their present
attitudes by a series of reversed faults, as described by Me-
Connell in Bow pass. The rare folds observed in this portion

92 The American Geologist. August, 1894

of the mountains perhaps represent the dying out of such
faults. Though no Cretaceous rocks have been proved to
overlie the Devonian strata, it is probable that the faulting
which produced the mountains took place since Cretaceous
times, for the foothills of Laramie sandstones give evidence
of parallel faulting and tilting.

On approaching the watershed of the Rockies west and
northwest of the region just referred to, the regularity of
structure largely disappears. The direction and amount of
dip vary, folds are not uncommon, and the rocks become
more or less micaceous and metamorphosed; slates and seri-
cite schists underlie the quartzites and conglomerates; and
fossiliferous beds were not observed. The apparent absence
of eruptive or plutonic rocks is a feature worthy of note in a
region where faulting has taken place on so huge a scale.

The evidence of the action of Dr. George M. Dawson’s Cor-
dilleran ice mass is distinet; the time which has elapsed
since the Ice age has been comparatively short; and the innu-
merable glaciers of the region represent the shrinking rem-
nants of the ice-sheet.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE COAST RANGES
OF CALIFORNIA.

By H. W. TuRNER and T. W. STANTON, of the U. S. Geological Survey.

The following fragmentary notes were made some years
ago during the investigation of the quicksilver deposits of
the Pacific slope by the U. 8. Geological Survey. With the
exception of those given in the notes on Yolo county, all the
determinations of the fossils have been made by Mr. T. W.
Stanton, of Washington, D. C.

THE Cuico-TEJON SERIES.

It was stated by Prof. Whitney and Dr. Gabb that the up-
per Cretaceous (Chico) beds of California and the Téjon beds
(now known to be Eocene) are conformable; and Dr. Gabb
gives a list of species of mollusks said to be common to the
two formations. In 1882 Prof. Angelo Heilprin* published a
review of Gabb’s work in a paper, “On the age of the Téjon
rocks of California and the occurrence of ammonitic remains

*Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci., 1882, pp. 196-214.

Coast Ranges of California .—Turner and Stanton, 98

in Tertiary deposits,’ in which he showed that there is con-
siderable doubt as to some species given in Gabb’s list being
found in both the Chico and the Téjon formations. Mr. G.
F. Becker* confirmed the work of Whitney and Gabb, as did
also later Dr. C A. White. However, neither Mr. Becker’s
party nor Dr. White found any fossils common to the two
formations. Lately Mr. J. $8. Diller and Mr. Stanton have
found evidence of the unconformity of the Téjon on the Chico
in Oregon and northern California. A doubt therefore arises
as to whether the conformity of the Chico and the Téjon in
central California is real or only apparent.

The most important paper supporting the position of Dr.
Gabb is that by Dr. C. A. White.t The locality visited by
Dr. White, where the conformity seems best shown is New
Idria, in Fresno county, concerning which he writes as follows :

Although this New Idria series is understood to be practically an un-
broken one, there is near its middle a recognizable change in the aspect
of the strata, sothat * * * * the upper half differs from the lower
half. It is upon this indistinetly definable horizon that Dr. Becker di-
vided the series into two groups, for the purpose of arranging the results
of his studies of them. So far as can be determined, this indistinct line
accords with the necessarily artificial division that has been made of
the series into the Chico and the Téjon groups, since this series is rec-
ognized as containing only these two groups, and the line of demarca-
tion between them, as before shown, Cannot be expected to be distinct.
Fossils were collected by Dr. Becker’s party from various horizons in
the series, but in a large portion of it none were found, and those from
the lower or Chico portion are very few. These latter, however, are of
characteristic types, being species of Ammonites, Baculites, Trigonia,
TInoceramus, and Lima. It is proper tomention that in this New Idria
series of strata no commingling of the Cretaceous species above referred
to with Tertiary types of fossils was actually observed: but very few
fossils of any kind were obtained at this locality, especially in the lower
portion of the series. Still the intimate relation of the Chico and Té-
jon groups for this particular locality is well shown by the unbroken
character of the series of strata which here constitutes both groups.

The Chico strata at New Idria, as measured on the ridge
west of San Carlos creek, have an average dip} of about 45°-

*Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 19.

+Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 15.

{The Chico beds in this section near the contact with the metamor-

1 e . . . 2 af
phic rocks to the south dip at high angles varying from 609-90°, and the
dip gradually becomes less going north, away from the metamorphic
area and upward in the geological horizon. Near the contact with the
Tejon sandstones the dip is 80°-45°.

94 The American Geologist. August, 1894

50° to the north and a vertical thickness of about 5,000 feet.
The thickness of the Téjon strata cannot be less than 1,000
feet and is probably much more. The lower portion of the
Téjon beds consists of white sandstones, sometimes much red-
dened by iron oxide, and overlying the sandstone is a consid-
erable body of white shale. This shale is beautifully exposed
on the north side of a canyon which extends in an approxi-
mately east and west direction, draining westerly into San
Carlos creek. This east and west.canyon was named De los
Reyes canyon.

The Chico strata contain some conglomerate at the base of
the series, the pebbles of which are of various rocks, quartz-
porphyry pebbles being abundant. We did not detect this
rock in place, however, in the area of older rocks to the south.*
There are also some dark shales with limestone nodules in
San Carlos creek above the New Idria P. O.; but tawny sand-
stones comprise the bulk of the Chico strata at New Idria,
and the line of contact of these tawny sandstones with the
overlying white sandstones was usedias the line of demarea-
tion between the Chico and Téjon formations on the geologi-
al mapt of the New Idria district. The only determinable
fossils in the Chico beds, however, came from near the base of
the series, as stated in the quotation from Dr. White. The
line of division is therefore an arbitrary one, but it is certain
that the white sandstone is of Téjon age, since it contains
characteristic fossils. As stated by Mr. Becker and Dr. White,
the Chico and Téjon strata at New Idria are apparently con-
formable, and this is likewise the case at Mount Diablo.t

The following lists of fossils, collected chiefly by H. W.
Turner, will aid the future student of the Chico-Téjon series
there. All of them are from Téjon strata, overlying with ap-
parent conformity the Chico series:

De los Reyes canyon.—This drains into the canyon of San
Carlos creek from the east at a point one mile north, by com-

=The abundance of quartz-porphyry or quartz-porphyrite pebbles in
the conglomerate of the Chico formation at New Idria and at Mount Dia-
blo, and in the Knoxville beds at Knoxville, is rather remarkable, inas-
much as no quartz-porphyry was found in place in the areas of older
rocks at any of these points.

tAtlas accompanying monograph NIIL, U.S. Geol. Survey.

tBull. Geol. Soe. Am., vol. 11; H. W. Turner’s paper on Mt. Diablo.

Coast Ranges of California.—Turner and Stanton, +95

pass, from the New Idria Post Office. At the time that the
fossils were collected (1884) a Mexican named De los Reyes
lived at the mouth of the canyon, and his name was given to

the canyon for use in notes.

Localities 160-165 Coast Range collection. These are all near together
on the north side of De los Reyes canyon, about 4,800 feet northeast of
the mouth.

Ostrea idriaensis GABB. Amauropsis alveata (CoN.).

Neyerita globosa GABB. Cardium, undet. cast.

Rimella canilifera Gaps. Cardium cooperi GABB.

Cylichna costata GABB. Turritella, fragment.

Morio (Sconsia) tuberculatus Meretrix uvasana Con.
GABB.

Locality 167 C. R. is about one mile up stream from the mouth of the
canyon. The sandstone bluff here on the north side has curiously
eroded cavities, some of which are inhabited by little owls.

Amauropsis alveata (Con.). Meretrix uvasana Con.

Localities 170 and 171 C. R. are about one and two-thirds miles up
stream from the mouth of De los Reyes creek, and about two and a half
miles northeast of the New Idria P.O. The fossils were collected by
W. A. Raborg.

Neverita globosa GABB. Cylichna costata GABB.
Amauropsis alveata (CON.). Mactra sp. undet.
Cardium cooperi GABB. Rimella canilifera Gass.

Just north of De los Reyes canyon is another canyon ex-
tending likewise in an easterly to westerly direction. This
joins San Carlos creek at a point about 1,600 feet north of the
mouth of De los Reyes creek.

Localities 166, 168 and 169, C. R. coll., are all close together in this
canyon and are about 4,500 feet up stream (east) from the mouth, and
about two and a third miles N. 25° E. from the New Idria post office.
The strata here dip 209-30° toward about N. 50° W.

Ostrea idriaensis GABB. Modiola ornata GABB.
Pecten interradiata GABB. Lucina’ cretacea GABB.

About one and a half miles northeast of the New Idria P.
O., and about 3,500 feet west of San Carlos creek, is a bed of
dark flinty shale in the Téjon formation. This weathers to
a buff color. It contains abundant fish scales and spines, and
one nearly perfect fish about three or four inches long was
obtained. This is now in the collection of the State Univer-
sity at Berkeley, Cal. Dark shales, not so much hardened as
at the above locality, occur along San Carlos creek farther to
the north, also containing abundant fish scales. None of
these fish beds have as yet been investigated.

96 4 The American Geologist. August, 1894

About three miles northwesterly from the New Idria P.O.
is a coal bed which has been prospected for coal by means of
a tunnel. The following fossils, collected within fifty feet of
the coal seam, show the coal tobe of the same age as at Mount
Diablo, namely, Téjon.

Solen (Hypogella) diegoensis Small lamellibranch, undet.
GABB. Neverita, sp. undet.

The following fossil localities are grouped according to
counties :

FRESNO COUNTY.

Outside of the New Idria fossil localities, which are likewise in Fresno
county, the following are given:

Locality 186 C. R. Twelve miles north of New Idria, on San Carlos
creek. Age, Chico.

Baculites chicoensis TRASK. Corbula.
Pecten. Nucula.

Locality 187, C. R. Big Panoche creek, east of the mouth of San Car-
los creek, and just where the creek leaves the hills and enters the plains.
of the San Joaquin valley. Age, probably later than Téjon.

Pecten, sp. undet. Fish scales.
Dentalina and other foraminifera.

Locality 189, ©. R. By a creek called Dry Arroyo on Whitney's six
miles to the inch map. This creek runs parallel to San Carlos creek
and about two to three miles east of it. The locality is six miles east of
north from New Idria. Miocene or later.

Nucula, probably N. castrensis H1nps.
SAN BENITO COUNTY.

Locality 178, C. R. On the ridge between San Bartola creek and the
San Benito river, and ten miles southwest of New Idria. Age, probably
Miocene.

Arca. Mactra.

The same strata are exposed on San Bartola creek.

Locality 195, C. R. San Benito river, near the 49th mile post from
Hollister, and about twelve miles south of west from New Idria. Chico
eroup.

Coralliochama orcutti Warre? Weathered fragments, probably
of this species. Pectunculus veatchi GABB?

Locality 196, C. R. West bank of the San Benito river, near the 37th
mile post from Hollister, and about four miles southeast of San Benito.

Crushed echinoid, probably Miocene or later.

Locality 200, C. R. In heavy bedded sandstone on the San Benito
river, about one-fourth mile down stream from the Park mills. Age,
Miocene or later.

Scutella-like echinoid.
SONOMA COUNTY.

>

Locality 889 C. R. On the seacoast, about four miles north of Timber

Coust Ranges of California.—Turner and Stanton. 97

Cove, is a bed of conglomerate forming part of the Wallala beds* (Cre-
taceous). In this conglomerate was found a 7'vrrite/la that may belong
to T. seriatim-granulata GABB (not ROEMER).

LAKE COUNTY.

Locality 358, C. R. About seven miles northeast of Mt. St. Helena
and about two miles southwest of Round Valley, near a branch of Buck-
snort creek, is a small area of little altered beds, which contain poorly
preserved fossils. .Mr. Stanton considers the beds of Cretaceous age,
but is uncertain as to the exact horizon.

Mactra (Cymbophora) ashbur- Helicoceras breweri GABB 7?

neri GABB 7 Ammonites, a fragment of a
Caryatis nitida GABB ” young specimen, possibly A.
Solemya 7 sp. undet. brewerl GABB.

Locality 35, C. R. South side of Cache creek, about one mile east of
Lower Lake village.

Crassatella uvasana CONRAD Leda, sp. undet.
(Téjon group). Natica, sp. undet.

The following are from the same series of beds as 35 C. R., and are
from Herndon creek, near Lower Lake:

Cucullea mathewsonii GABB. Turritella 7
Crassatella, sp. undet.
YoLo COUNTY.

Along Oat creek, just west of the alluvium of the Saecra-
mento valley, are a series of low hills, composed of little
consolidated material, which are interesting since they contain
vertebrate remains and other fossils. The locality is near
Black’s station on the railroad to Colusa. The place was vis-
ited by the writer some years since and some of the fossils
collected. An elk antler three and one-third feet in length,
pine cones, decomposed wood of more than one sort, a tooth,
and some shells, were found in place.

The shells were referred to Dr. W. H. Dall, of Washington,
D. C., who reported upon them as follows:

The fossils from Oat creek, Yolo county, California, comprise:

Planorbis trivolvis Say. Planorbis parvus Say.
Anodonta sp.”: fragments, probably A. fluviatilis L.

They are not characteristic of age; might be anything from Pliocene
to Recent, and are all found living in the same region.

In the higher hills west of these early Pleistocene strata,
silicified wood and fossil bones are said to oecur. A large
tooth and some large bones, probably of a mastodon, were
found in the bed of Oat creek: but whether they came from

*Bull. 22, U. S. Geol. Survey,

98 Lhe American Geologist. August, 1894

the low Pleistocene hills or from the probably Pliocene hills
containing silicified wood, was not determined.

Fossil bones are also said to occur along Bird creek, north
of Oat creek and to the west of Dunnigan’s station.

GROWTH OF KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING THE
TEXAS CRETACEOUS,

By JuLEs MARcou, Cambridge, Mass.

In a paper by Mr. R. T. Hill entitled “Geology of parts of
Texas, Indian Territory and Arkansas adjacent to Red River”
(Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 5, pp. 297-838, Rochester, May,
1894), there is an attempt to show “the progressive evolution
of knowledge concerning the Cretaceous formation of Texas,”
and at the same time the author gives what he calls his
“final classification of their succession and nomenclature” (p.
316) ina table called “Progressive Devélopment of Knowl-
edge of the Texas Cretaceous” (p. 317).

The views expressed by Mr. Hill need many corrections, ad-
ditions and suppressions to show truly with exactness the
evolution of knowledge of Texas Cretaceous. I have elsewhere
given repeatedly my appreciation of the work done by Mr.
Hill in Texas and Arkansas; that he means well, there is no
doubt; that he has the talent to make good stratigraphical
observations is undeniable; but somehow he does not always
give credit where credit is due, and is inclined too often to
pass unnoticed over the observations and criticisms which in-
terfere more or less with his preconceived views. Mr. Hill is
generally obscure and unsteady in his descriptions, conelu-
sions and classifications, seeming to have no conception of
different facies for the same group of rocks, which leads him
to create subdivisions neither wanted nor truly real. With
these reserves and remarks I will point out the corrections
and additions necessary to show the evolution of knowledge
of Texas Cretaceous.

Ferdinand Roemer is the first geologist who worked at
Texas geology. He came into Texas at the end of 1845, dur-
ing the month of December, and left it in April, 1847. In 1849
he published his volume of travel (Texas, 8vo, Bonn), con-

> Lg gayle inlets ee ae

*
‘a 4

f

The Texas Cretaceous.—Marcou. 99

taining a chapter ‘“Gesteine der Kreideformation,”’, pp. 373-
387, and a “‘“Geognostische Karte von Texas”; and in 1852 he
completed his publication by the issue of a quarto volume,
Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und thre organischen Einsch-
liisse, Bonn. On page 25 of the last work he gives his conelu-
sions and general section of the Cretaceous strata of Texas as
follows: (1) The Cretaceous formation is composed exclu-
sively of limestone. (2) In the plains at the foot of the
Texas plateaus the Cretaceous strata are composed of white
limestone, more or less marly, of small thickness; while on
the plateaus the rocks are very thick, hard limestone, alter-
nating with beds of silex and marls. (3) The Cretaceous of
Texas belongs in totality to the deposits posterior to the
Gault and corresponds to the White chalk (étage Sénonien,
@Orbigny) and the upper part of the Chloritic chalk (étage
Turonien, d’Orbigny ).

Roemer does not seem to have seen anywhere the superpo-
sition of his two groups of Cretaceous rocks, called by him
Cretaceous of the plains (the Cretaceous at foot of highlands,
of Hill) and Cretaceous of the plateaus (Cretaceous of high-
lands, of Hill), although he inclined toward the idea that the
chalk of the plains is older than the chalk of the plateaus, a
rather grave error. On his geological map Roemer colors, as
Cretaceous, parts of Texas which do not contain Cretaceous
rocks, but are covered by the Carboniferous, the Dyas, the
Trias, and the Jura; the three last great formations having
entirely escaped his researches.

In 1852, Dr. G. G. Shumard accompanied, asa surgeon and
naturalist, Capt. R. B. Marcy, in an “Exploration of the Red
river of Louisiana.” He repeated the conclusions of Roemer
in regard the Cretaceous formation of Texas, referring it to
the Ltage Senonien VOrbigny.

In 1853, I explored the 35th parallel of latitude, with Lieut.
A. W. Whipple’s expedition, for a Pacific railroad survey.
In my two reports, printed in 1855, and dated July and Sep-
tember 1854, in House Documents 129, Washington, I recog-
nized the Neocomian at Comet creek, Fort Washita, and on
the Elm fork of the Trinity river, showing for the first time
in North America the existence of the Lower Cretaceous as
in Europe. I developed my observations and published sey-

100 The American Geologist. August, 1894

eral Cretaceous fossils, with their exact position in the strat-
igraphical scale, and also a general geological map, besides
a detailed geological map of a part of New Mexico and the
“panhandle” of northwestern Texas, in my quarto volume, Geol-
ogy of North America (Zurich, Switzerland, 1858). These
are my conclusions: “I have seen and studied the strata of
the Upper Greensand and the Marly Chalk in the bed of Lit-
tle river, one of the affluents of the Canadian, and also on the
Elm fork of Trinity river; further, I have recognized the
Neocomian resting in discordant stratification on the New
Red sandstone on the left bank of the False Washita, near
Comet creek; and, finally, I have found in the beds of white
sandstone and gray marl of the environs of Albuquerque and
Galisteo, New Mexico, fossils that have led me to consider
those strata as the equivalents of the White chalk of Europe.”
In my paper: ‘Résumé explicatif dune Carte géologique des
Etats-Unis et des Provinces anglaise de l’Amerique du Nord”
( Bull, Soc. Geol. France, 2d series, vol. x11, p. 883, Paris, May,
1855), I gave a long description of the Cretaceous of Texas,
with lists of fossils and correlations with the great European
formations of (1) the Neocomian, (2) the Greensand and
Marly chalk, and (3) the White chalk. That classification
and discovery was a great step toward a rational and exact
definition of the Cretaceous rocks of Texas, and it gave posi-
tive knowledge instead of the very vague and erroneous gen-
eralities of Roemer.

But my observations, instead of being accepted and used
for further improvement of our knowledge of the Texas Cre-
taceous, were on the contrary opposed systematically; and
the first geological survey of Texas, instituted in August,
1858, under the direction of Dr. Benjamin F. Shumard, pro-
posed, in 1860, a classification of the Cretaceous strata of
Texas, so extraordinarily erroneous that it became a matter
of duty to science to criticise and rearrange the section given
by Shumard as the standard of the classification of Texas
Cretaceous. I did it in 1861, under the title, ‘Notes on the
Cretaceous and Carboniferous rocks of Texas” (Proc.,;Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vin, pp. 86-97).

In Mr. Hill’s table, my classification of 1853-58 is passed
over entirely, and Iam placed after Dr. Shumard’s work of

els UL, Sl ea

The Texas Cretaceous.—Marecou. 101

1860, just as though what I had done several years before Dr.
Shumard came to Texas did notexist. My answer to Shum-
ard was only in order to maintain my classification and dis-
coveries of 1853, and to try to put a little order in one of the
most confused and erroneous sections of strata ever published.

Ishall not refer to the geological report of the United
States and Mexican Boundary commission, in which Mr.
James Hall declared that the entire Cretaceous strata of
Texas were the prolongation and representatives of his Ne-
braska section Nos. 1, 2 and 3, that is, the Dakota, Fort Ben-
ton and Niobrara formations.

In 1886 Mr. Hill began to classify the strata of a part of
Texas, between Fredericksburg, Austin, and the southwestern
side of Arkansas. I was glad to see that he did not fall into
the great mistakes made by Roemer, the two Shumards, and
James Hall. His report on “The Neozoiec geology of south-
western Arkansas,” published in 1888, showed me that he
mistook the division called by him Trinity, as belonging to
the Cretaceous, when it is plainly a Jurassie group of strata,
containing a Jurassic fauna, without any mixture whatever of
Cretaceous forms. I revised his whole list of fossils and
proved that his Trinity division of Texas and Arkansas be-
longs to the Jura (“Jura, Neocomian, and Chalk of Arkansas,”
in the AmMerIcan Gero oaist, Dec., 1889, pp. 357-367). Mr. Hill
has never paid any attention to my paper; and, without tak-
ing the trouble to refute my determination of his fossils, he
has continued to place his Trinity division in the Lower Cre-
taceous. Not knowing personally any part of Texas except
the northwest corner of the state, I was inclined at first to ac-
cept the classification and synchronism of Mr. Hill, believing
that he possessed suflicient ability to give with exactness all
the details of the formation. Only I was badly impressed by
his frequent changes for the subdivisions of the Lower Creta-
ceous, and thought that he had placed too high the horizon of
what I have called “the Gryphwa pitcheri zone or limestone of
Comet creek,” which for me is, with the “Caprina limestone,”
the lowest bed of the Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous of
Texas.

Now I have no doubt that he has made serious mistakes in
regard to half of his Lower Cretaceous or Comanche series,

102 The American Geologist. August, 1894

as he sometimes calls it. The “Caprina limestone” cannot be
separated from the “Gryphaa pitcher’ limestone” at Comet
creek and is the basal bed of the Lower Cretaceous. All the
strata below do not belong to the Cretaceous, but to the Jura
or New Red sandstone. There is a great break of the strata,
with a complete change of geographical distribution in north-
ern Texas between the group of strata containing the Capro-
tina texana Roem. and the Gryphwa roemer?’ Mare. (formerly
‘alled by Roemer and Marcou the Gryphwa pitcher’) and what
has been called by Mr. Hill the Fredericksburg and Trinity
divisions, and by me at the Tucumeari area the Jurassic
formation of North Ameriea.

The subdivision introduced at different times in the Fred-
ericksburg seems to be local, simply different fac/es of the
upper part of the Trinity. Correlations between the Jurassic
strata of the Tucumeari and the Trinity and Fredericksburg
divisions have not yet been established. It is a good field to
work in. The fauna of the upper part of the Jurassic strata
of Pyramid Mount at the Tucumeari, thanks to the collection
made there in 1889 by Prof. A. Hyatt, is now well known;
and with sueh characteristic fossils as Gryphwa dilatata, var.
tucumcarié and Ammonites belknapii, it must be easy to define
with exactness and distinguish in Texas the Jura and the
Neocomian. All the strata that exist. below the zone of
Gryphwa tucumcarii and Ammonites shumardi, and that zone
itself, are older than the Cretaceous system and belong to the
Jurassic system. All the strata above, containing Caprotina
tevana and Gryphewa roemeri (formerly the Gryphaa pitcheri
of Roemer and Marcou), belong to the Cretaceous. The Lower
Cretaceous in Texas is composed of what Mr. Hill calls
the Washita division (including in it his “Caprina limestone” )
and is what I have called, since 1853, the American Neocomian.

One word more, about a question of priority which seems
to have eseaped Mr. Hill, although I have privately called his
attention to it. Mr. Hill refers the species described and fig-
ured by Roemer, in 1852, and by me in 1855-58, under the
name of Gryphwa pitcheri to a species figured twenty-five
years later, in 1880, by Dr. C. A. White under the name Gry-
phoa forniculata, as a new species, confounded before with the
G, pitcher’. Roemer made the mistake to refer a Gryphaa

The Texas Cretaceous.—Marcou. 103

that he had found abundantly in the vicinity of New Braun-
feld, to the G. pitcheri of Morton. As he had the opportunity
to show his specimens, when passing through Philadelphia in
1847, to Dr. 8. Morton, I thought he was right, and, following
in his steps, I called the Gryphaa found by me in such abund-
ance at Fort Washita and at Comet creek Gryphaa pitcher of
Roemer and Morton. When endless discussions, started by
Messrs. James Hall, Shumard, Meek, and Gabb, on the iden-
tification of Texas Gryphaa, all referred by them to the typi-
cal G. pitcheri, showed plainly that mistakes had been made
all around, in order to keep intact my observations at Comet
creek, I took care to print in a foot-note of my paper, ‘‘Notes
on the Cretaceous and Carboniferous rocks of Texas” (Proc.,
Boston Soc. Nat. History, vol. vim, January, 1861, p. 95),
the following remark: “Thus we shall have three species of
Gryphwa: 1, the G. tucumcarii of the Jurassic rocks of Pyra-
mid Mount (New Mexico): 2, the false G. pi/cheri of Roemer
and Marcou, or the false G. pitchers var. navia of Conrad and
Hall, of the Cretaceous rocks of the False Washita river
(Texas), which may be called G. roemer/ in honor of its first
discoverer, Mr. F. Roemer; and 38, the true G. pitcher’ Mor-
Lick Sena

It is evident from that quotation that Dr. C. A. White
ought to have ealled the Gryphaa pitcher’ of Roemer,
Gryphea roemeri; and that his name of G. forniculata can-
not be accepted, according to rules of priority, American
paleontology has been saddled with such numbers of incor-
rect determinations of Mesozoie fossils, that if we do not re-
turn to the question of priority, as an immutable rule, then
nothing is left but fancy and consequently inextricable and
systematic confusions. Happily, I have given such excellent
figures of the Gryphwa found by me at Comet creek, drawn
by the great fossil artist, Hubert, that doubt is not possible.
After calling it in 1854 and 1858 Gryphwa pitcheri, I did not
hesitate, as far back as 1861, to say that it was a new species
which I called then Gryphwa roemeri, a determination fully
justified since by every observer. Consequently Mwogyra
Jorniculata White, not Gryphaa as Mr. Hill says by mistake,
has to go into synonymy and be dropped.

The accompaning table of the growth of knowledge of the

Avigust, 1894

Geologist.

The American

104

*SUOI
-STAIp anbsog 10 441
-ULL], PUR SINQGsyol
-dopod yy, oy} Sutstid
-W0d ‘DIN AT

“TU “ay Jo Souors
-ouTy BVuLdRy pur
‘spaq UOJSoTgq ‘VUO0IS
-OULT] UO AY PLOT

UPVULOD
-0aT pun unydy
LO SNOIIDIIA) Lavo

‘JJRy pure
[[LE[ ‘Sasso Jo ‘spoq
ULLUOAD(T PUR ‘Sspoq
BVULOLLY ‘oU0]SoUL]
Yoodd,) [BOYS LO BIO A
oy. sutpnypour ‘uol
-SIAIP BILYSBR AA 9}
jJojyard aoddn oy,
*PUDSWIILE)
PUD UpUNUMWOWA?Y
LO SNOPDPLY YPPUV

recognize

not

Texas, regard-

ing the whole series as the

two lowest

d
divisions of the

Ss
Texas Cretaceous.

»

clot

Hill

the Jura in

“UOISTATP AY LULL,
‘(oUOSoUUT] YUAN
SUIpNOUL) WOLSTATD
OANQSMOILO Pod
‘(SARTO RIPLUR
“1M Surpnypout) uot
-STAIP BILYSR AL
‘SNODWD IL) bdNO'T

“BION
“A(T ot Jo osRq ol}
JVAOGL BIBS [LV
“UDO
“NJ PUD UPUOdUadS
LO TSNMOIIVD IIA) Wald

“UOISTALD BIO RC]
“UO!
OPRALO[O)
“ULOISTA
-Ip oljtuooneypy
‘snoappdy wddy

-SIALD

|

are
2 Es
5 mE .
Sis eee
a 8% .2
— _
As, >
Sea)
so nM
“OUOTS
OUT, pugjzoudny
“OU0 YS
-OUIT, BILTYSB AA

UDUULODOI NT
pup unyjdy 40
‘SMOWD IIA) danoT

“TIRUL
puri pdilihousg
"YR IUOURULOL)
“QUOISOULL] V2)
‘dnods JAN poy

“UDWUOLN, [

PUD PUDSUDILE) LO
‘SMODDPA) AYAPPUL

PIRUL ON]

“pod UST

“OUOFSOUTT, ULSNY
“UDUOWIY LO

‘snonvjad) daddy

“EGS ‘NOOUVIN “[°

'€6-988T TMH LU

"T98L AOOUVN “f

He

referred the Jura, Trias,

ind Dyas, to the Dako-

Shumard added later

the Ripley group and

Dakota division.

ta division.

.
«

‘ANOS LOATY Poy
*poeq YS]

‘dnNOAS SHOVDRUAY
SNOWDPIL) LONOT

“OUOFTIS
purjoLdyy
‘TIRU ONT
“gUOIS
BITYSe M
“poq
DUYNMD DANG Ow
“poeq YSty]
“QUOJSOUT] ULNSNY
“yVod oOuRWO,)
“QUO JSOULL] YALA)
[OJUL Poplal(]
‘snovonjady daddy

-o9 WI |

-OUT]

the

ace)
a SS & Ss
— -
Py
fa; Res
5 alas,
a By
Cie res
= ae
a eral =a
— ~~ *F
2 a)
ave,
a a
re a
~ =
=)
gee
meses
)
4
4 aes
a ieee
Fl a SS
~ @
> eH
~
fal
a
©
=
=
=)
LL
=

Marcou recognized,
‘

Neocomian,
New Mexico.

and
Tex

r

“VILYSB AL JOO]
PUY odd JOUO,)

JO UDIMOIOIN “{[
“URIPRUR,)
oO} JO AVAL of]
“Vy pur AULA,
oy} JO YAOF UH]
OU} JO PUPSWALY

pur yoyo hn -%
‘OOTST[RY)

JO Ypya aUAL °¢

a ere «6a
—=—-meade
Peal ate
mica 4
Sa >
=aa3%
— x
= op
pe)
< eye
~~ ree fo 0)
Se Se ort
Le an i OR |
~~
Bicep eee
a ae tS
Sia ~ Rog
Sar=| =
sete ie OPO
=e ee
Sc 2 Ee.
ces ca
2 CS. Oe
ie Seyret ed
7 Schr et |
oer YPN 5
HOR 2
a eee a ee
E
D 5 @
2 Pp
O <
Po 4
=| + @
. rx
ra fay
Bi tes || Rigs
i. =
= ae et ee
ano »
As Per Wr eo be ore)
Ae pd Se et
Sn ee Se)
£S2o8
St Ouhe oe eS
D Ga etn NG
Oo Ve O X
mae ~~
Moc ge
BS) ONE
Oo sa a *

“URTUOd
“ug ao. ‘sured
oY} JO SNOVIBJoA)

“URTUO
-UvG 10 ‘SNR "[d
ayy Jo Snoovd¥yod,)

‘OORT AUVINOANY “Tg

"8G-GCRT “NOV ]T

‘SQOMOVLAM) SVXAT, SILL AO ADAH TIMONY AO NOLLATOAGT AO ATHY,

‘C)SG-CERT ‘UANAOY “yl

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. Vou. XIV, PLATE IV.

Fra.1. Map oF GEORGIA.

5 Tertiary.
IW Cretaceous.
E Paleozoic.

(Lis
AAA
LA An Ad)

Unclassitied Crystalline hacks,
+ ,1.Atlanta,
SS. 2. Stone Mountain.
3, Kenesaw Mountain.

40 60 8 loo
Scarce of Mices.

>?
pod

|
|
|

|

id

|
|

|

}

l
|

ee
_————————————

|

¢
_—————— —\
Sz
_——-
—— os
—v, Ni
= SSSSSSSSSzzEEE=——— gd a
zt Pee
%
N.wW Atlanta ° Ey yisse
M . a! 2 eS & Sea B

K Paléozci ‘Crystallune Schists Cretaceous and Tertiary
Fig. 2. Section across’ Georgia adong tte Line AB.
Length, 300 miles; vertical scale, —~1000 feet.

Yooo fect NM ee —_—___———~ Size
Gneiss
EF: ig-3. Section through Kenesaw Mountain.
m™N =1 mile.

10 00feet KEES SN
Gneiss Granite Gneiss
Fig. 4.. Section through Stone Mountain.
=I mile.

MAP OF GEORGIA, WITH SECTIONS.

The Region About Atlanta, Georgia,—Purington. 105

Texas Cretaceous is clear enough without explanation. It
differs mainly from the table published by Mr. Hill in group-
ing the Caprina limestone of his Fredericksburg division with
the Washita division, and in the addition of the Jurassic
formation in Texas. I shall publish, by and by, a history of
the Texas Jura.

GEOLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
OF THE REGION ABOUT ATLANTA, °
GEORGIA.

By CHESTER WELLS PURINGTON, Boston, Mass.
(PLATE IV.)

During the past winter opportunity came to me, while in
the vicinity of Atlanta, Georgia, to make a few observations
on geological features of the region which appear to deserve
notice.

As may be seen, by reference to the accompanying map,
forming figure 1, plate 1v,* central Georgia is a region of crys-
talline rocks, gneisses and schists for the most part, in con-
tact on the northwest with Paleozoic rocks, and overlain on
the southeast by the superimposed beds of the Cretaceous and
Tertiary. ,Although little has yet been done in the way of
attempting to correlate this area with others, it is safe to say
that these gneisses and schists are of Archean age, in the
broader use of the term. Indeed, itis probable that the rocks
about Atlanta belong to that limited and lowest divisfon of
geologic time to which the more restricted term Archean has
recently been applied.

The region is one where much erosion has taken place, and
the red clays and soils resulting from the disintegration of the
rock lie undisturbed over the gneiss. The redsoils are famil-
iar to all who have been in the southern Appalachians. They
have been well described by Russell.t The products of decay
are in some Places fifty feet thick, as can be well seen in dee Pp

*Prepare d from the bulletins of the U nite d States Geologic al Survey,
containing the correlation papers of the Archean, Cretaceous, Eocene,
and Neocene: and from Prof. J. W. Spencer’s report on the Paleozoic
eroup of Georgia.

tSubaérial decay of rocks. and the origin of the red color of certain
formations; by Israel Cook Russell. Bulletin 52, U.S. Geol. Survey.

106 The American Geologist. August, 1894

railroad cuts. Prof. Russell says that this weathering extends,
in some cases to a depth of one hundred feet, but I saw none
which went so deep in this area. So different in appearance
are these red beds from the unweathered rock, that I at first
took them to be the representatives of a superimposed
formation of clays. But on closer examination, the similarity
in strike and dip of the clay and of the underlying rock, the
occurrence in the clay beds of parallel mica plates and other
minerals of the gneiss, and the continuity of quartz veins
through the rock and the overlying soils, convinced me that
the clay was but the weathered phase of the rock. |

It is my purpose to describe a few peculiar topographic
forms brought about by the long-continued action of the at-
mosphere on the formation under consideration. The gen-
eral dip of the rock is to the southeast, but. many local folds
oceur of considerable extent. In many places, especially on
the sides of the low hills, the weathered material has been re-
moved, leaving large, bare outcrops of rock. These outcrops
are of two kinds, (1) flat areas, sometimes several acres in
extent, and (2) smaller masses which project from the ground
with the dip of the rock-bed. These projecting ledges are in
some cases 16 feet long, are from 5 to 15 feet broad, and have
a thickness of 4 or 5 feet. The average dip of the formation,
and consequently of the ledges, is about 40°, although it is
sometimes nearly vertical. In the ease of a small fold, near
Austell, an anticline plunging to the northeast, it was possi-
ble, in a ploughed field a half mile in extent, to trace the turn-
ing of the strike from southeast, through east, northeast, and
north, and this all from one point of view, by means of eight
of the projecting ledges arranged in a long curving line.

By the examination of the contoured maps, Atlanta and
Marietta sheets of the United States Geological Survey, it
will‘be seen that this region shows the general characteristics
of a dissected peneplain, the upland sloping gently toward
the southeast, having an average hight above sea level of
1,000 feet on its northwestern edge, and 750 feet on the south-
eastern. Ona very small scale, a section crossing this area
and continuing to the sea is shown in figure 2, plate rv.
The surface is a rolling hill country in which the streams run
in two well defined directions. The Chattahoochee follows the

The Region About Atlanta, Georgia.—Purington, 107

longitudinal trend of the Appalachian folds,in a southwest
direction; while a number of smaller streams, farther east,
flow southeast, in accordance with the slope of the peneplain.
Hayes and Campbell, in a recent paper,* have traced out the
development of the separate Cretaceous and Tertiary pene-
plains in the southern Appalachians, and have stated that the
region of central Georgia is that of least differentiation be-
tween the two. According to this, the denudation of the pene-
plain is the joint product of Cretaceous and Tertiary time,
and its dissection must be chiefly referred to late or post-
Tertiary agencies.

The maps, however, show that certain parts of the area
have not submitted to the general base-levelling process.
The most noticeable examples of these extra-resistant masses
are Kenesaw and Lost mountains and Stone mountain. The
two first are near Marietta, and the latter is about sixteen
miles east of Atlanta. The two first mentioned have their
longer axes in the direction of the prevailing folds. Kenesaw
mountain is a great monocline, its beds of gneiss having a
general dip to the southeast of-40°. Lost mountain I nave
not examined. but its structure is probably not different.

In looking at Stone mountain on the map, one is surprised,
at the first glance, to see that its longer axis lies in a direc-
tion at right angles to the strike of the crystalline schists.
In a geomorphological sense, all these elevations, Lost, Kene-
saw, and Stone mountains, can be classed under the head of
monadnocks,¢t but while Kenesaw is only a massing of ex-
tremely resistant beds of the country rock, Stone mountain
must be different.

The first view of Stone mountain from the train fixes it as
an object worthy of notice. On a near approach, its shape,
that of an immense dome, its abrupt and towering hight, its
steep sides of solid rock, bare of all soil and vegetation, and
streaked by the rain with long white lines, make it a truly
remarkable sight. The mass rises directly from the surround-
ing gneiss, and no talus encumbers the base. It is composed

*Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, by C. W. Hayes and
Marius R. Campbell. Nat. Geographic Magazine, May 23. 1894.

+A term suggested by Prof. W. M. Davis, in allusion to Monadnock
mountain in New Hampshire, and used by Messrs. Hayes and Campbell
in the paper referred to above.

108 The American Geologist. August, 1894

of a fine-grained, gray muscovite-granite, homogeneous
throughout, and appears to be, as far as can be judged from
its present features, an eruptive plutonic body,a true lacco-
lite. The only variation from the even fineness of crystalliza-
tion is the presence of crystals of tourmaline porphyritically
developed, and intergrown with other minerals. These erys-
tals are usually an inch and a half in length. They do not
occur at a distance of more than three feet down from the
surface of the granite, as I was able to observe in the exten-
Sive quarries now being worked upon the mountain.

Since tourmaline is a mineral whose presence in granite
usually denotes a contact with other rock, the presence here
of crystals of tourmaline near the surface, and nowhere else,
is evidence in favor of two things: (1) That Stone mountain
has been covered with beds of rock, probably with gneiss like
that which surrounds it. The holocrystalline nature of the
stone itself bears out this theory. (2) That, although the
cover has been removed, little of the granite has been eroded.
Indeed, I think it probable that the shape of the mass has
been but little changed since the granite cooled. Hence it
may be referred to as a stripped laccolitic mass. The moun-
tain reaches two and a half miles in its long diameter, and
nearly a mile in its shorter one. The slope of the sides varies
from 80° on its southeast side to as high as 70° on the north-
east. A granite mass similar to Stone mountain, but much
smaller, comes up through the plain twelve miles to the south-
east.

The difference in structure between Kenesaw and Stone
mountains is roughly shown in the accompanying cross-see-
tions (figures 3 and 4, plate rv).

EDITORIAL COMMENET.

THE CoLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.
Some special State exhibits of the crystalline rocks,
Of the New England States Massachusetts excelled, although
Connecticut and Maine also had suites of dressed granite
cubes four inches on the edge, the labels of the latter express-

re * a
; ’

= aa

Editorial Comment. 109

ing where and what buildings have been erected of the various
granites exhibited, a feature which was not seen on any other
similar exhibit. The most interesting portion of the Massa-
chusetts exhibit was in the gallery of the Mines and Mining
building. It was collected by Dr. W. H. Hobbs, ©. L. Whittle
and Geo. E. Ladd, and displayed many interesting rock struc-
tures as well as a large number of minerals. There were many
fine samples of margarite, with its divergent cleavage plates,
of steatite, with its wavy or step-ladder structure. Margarite,
chloritoid and emery were from Chester, the steatite from
Blandford.

A polished slab of mica schist, from Great Barrington,
loaned by Dr. Hobbs, illustrated the formation of a secondary
“banding” transverse to the sedimentary structure. This,
however, is hardly a banding, but a schistosity, although it
has been mistaken for a sedimentary structure by several
geologists. This isthe same slab as that used to illustrate
Dr. Hobbs’ paper on this subject in the Bulletin of the Geo-
logical Society of America (vol. iii, p. 460). A mica schist con-
glomerate, from near the base of the Taconic, from the Hoosac
tunnel, contained pebbles of granite and gneiss, and illustra-
ted the manner in which the old fragmentals approximate the
petrographic characters of a true crystalline rock. There was
also a very nice polished slab of lilac and iridescent scapolite
from Bolton. This is associated in a limestone with a variety
of minerals, such as diopside, beryl, nuttallite, ete. By Dr.
Wolff the conglomerate has been found to pass into gneiss,
the pebbles having a micaceous matrix.

A building stone that has acquired some notoriety was ex-
hibited from Somerville. This is a decomposing diabase.
Prof. N. 8S. Shaler protested against its going into “memorial
hall,’ Cambridge. and prevented it. The owners, who lost the
contract, brought suit against him for “defamation of prop-
erty.” but as there was no difficulty in proving that the rock
is subject to rapid disintegration and has decayed to the
depth of twenty feet along the joint planes, they recovered
no damages. This stone has, however, lately been used in the
foundations of Hastings hall. This collection demonstrated
the superior qualifications of practical geologists in getting
together such exhibits. It was not wholly “industrial,” but

110 The American Geologist. August, 1894

rather educational and scientific. Too many of the state ex-
hibits were prepared by gentlemen who cared only for the
economie interests involved, and they got together large quan-
tities of various ores which confronted the visitor on every
side ad nauseam.

Adjoining the Massachusetts mineral exhibit was that of
New York, which had all the variety and volume which might
be expected from that state. One of the most striking objects
here was a case of green fluorite from McComb, St. Lawrence
county. In the collections of the New York State Cabinet
was an Obelisk made up under the direction of Mr. F. J. H.
Merrill, consisting of cut blocks from all the formations of the
state, taken from quarries or other sections. It was thirty
feet high and four feet square at the base. The cap and top
course were of trap and Triassic sandstone, and the base of
Archean granites and gneisses. The four sides of the column
showed the occurrence of the formations in the respective
quarters of the state, each formation being represented by one
or more courses, according to its relative thickness. Above
the Arehean was the “Cambrian,” which was divided into
Georgian and Acadian, the Georgian being the thickest for-
mation represented in the column, having six courses. |The
Acadian had two. The Hudson River, including the Utica
slate, had five courses. The Potsdam was put at the base of
the Lower Silurian and had one course. It did not cover the
Calciferous, which also had one course.

The magnetic iron ores from Orange, Essex and St. Law-
rence counties, New York, and the Clinton red hematite were
well represented; while in the gallery were 102 four-inch pol-
ished cubes of the granites and other crystalline building
stones.

The Michigan exhibit of crystalline rocks was under the
direction of Hon, Peter White, of Marquette, assisted by Jul-
ius Roper and by others. Here was a drawing showing the
geological suecession through the iron districts of the Ish-
peming basin, a distance north and south of over seven miles.
This brought out the structural relations of the ore deposits
and of the associated rocks. The formations concerned were
represented by 50 or 60 rock samples. This was made by
Julius Roper. There were also 720 specimens of the Archean

Editorial Comment. H 1a Ua

rocks, accompanied by a manuscript descriptive list, and a
general account of the various ore basins represented in Mar-
quette county. It seemed a great mistake that this was not
put into print for the use of visitors, as it was a key to the
whole exhibit. From the copper mines there was a large dis-
play. The largest mass of native copper on exhibit was from
the Central mine, Keweenaw county, and weighed 8,500 Ibs.
Another had a weight of 6,200 lbs. Two samples of hematite,
from the Republic mine, together weighed 10,375 lbs. and
were accompanied by the following analysis, showing their
average composition :

Ea ICMINON Ae Heiney: shears es Ste wom. Se Se eiey oh eke bate es 68.050
SUNG Ag ie lank es ees Re es ia ois oe Ee ee Saat ee 1.150
Bes SIAN US Arey eC eR egTY «oy cs sak fogs Mente Miter es whe, sities castes O40
LANUSRATITE HS Bus EOS ais eee ae le ae eel ite gee eet aa le a 998
BUMS eer oe) Sea ots An Ae Ry stores, os cde tice d wack 072
JEP SHIRES Wo hh ek SAN a ie a EAA RR 127
“LTS EAA TPO ays eceedt ek MER EI hae eA eR a Pi em aia .022
SIL ONT 12 PUR a ie pee, Fed ae Reta eR eee .036
ines ANC VOLAGIIG 6 =. 0h Seis eye en ler cian eee edema es .290

There was also an admirably constructed section of the
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company’s Lake mine, Ishpeming, made
in the actual material, showing three levels, and another of
the Cliffs Shaft mine. These exhibited the general relations
of the ore to the depth of 500 feet, and a horizontal width of
750 feet. Their dimensions were 12 feet high and 18 feet by
18 feet horizontal. Another section illustrated the formation
east and west of the Calumet lode, exhibited by the Calumet
and Hecla Company. There was also a fine display of verd
antique and serpentine marble from the region west of Ishpe-
ming.

Wisconsin exhibited, besides granites and various kinds of
building materials, the iron ores of the Penokee range. <A
large piece of metallic (float) copper was exhibited, found in
Jefferson county, having a weight of 1,800 lbs. The most
striking object in the Wisconsin exhibit were the four mono-
liths of lake Superior red sandstone standing at the four cor-
ners of the pavilion.

Minnesota had an exhibit of the iron ores of the state, and
a series of rock samples from the crystalline rocks, prepared
by the state survey. There was also a model of the great

112 The American Geologist. August, 1894

Chandler mine at Ely, whieh has produced more iron ore, for
the time it has been operated, than any other mine in the
world.

In the South Dakota exhibjt was a natural section of the
Homestake gold mine, at Lead City. This is the largest gold
mine in the United States, employing 1,800 men. The section
consisted of a perpendicular column of seven blocks of rock
taken from the mine at intervals of 100 feet, showing the
distribution of the ore in the reck. The cheapness of the
smelting allows a good profit on the very low grade ore which
is taken out. It has an average of $3.75 per ton, varying from
$1.00 to $25.00 per ton, the annual output being about $4,-
000,000.

The crystalline rocks of Missouri were illustrated by 200
hand specimens, collected by Messrs. Haworth and Lonsdale,
of the Geological Survey, and by dressed blocks of granite
from the granite companies. The specular ores were also ex-
hibited by specimens. The Archean area of the state was
shown by a relief map covering an area of 250 square miles,
the horizontal scale being 1:48,000; vertical 1:24,000. This
area rises 1,500 feet above the sea. The line of the limestone
areas surrounding it is 500-600 feet above the sea. The Ar-
chean therefore rises from 900-1200 feet above the adjacent
Cambrian areas, and about six square miles of this reaches
1,800 feet above the sea. The rocks represented do not seem
to belong to the true Archean, but resemble more in fou? en-
semble the crystalline rocks of the Norian.

Other exhibits of crystalline rocks and associated minerals
were seen from New Jersey, North and South Carolina and
other states, but the writer happened to visit them when they
were closed.

Ward’s systematic rock collection in the gallery of the
Mining building, was by far superior to anything else of its
kind seen in the exposition. This contained several thousand
specimens dressed regularly to museum size, from all parts of
the world. There was “petrosilex” from Dannemora, Sweden,
appearing like the jaspilyte of Minnesota. There was every
variety of voleanic rock as well as plutonic, including “quartz-
porphyry tufa,” from Zeiskywald, Ruchlitz and Wiesa, Sax-
ony, and voleanie bombs two feet in diameter from Monte

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 113

Somma, Italy, Auvergne, France, and from New Zealand,
These are lenticular generally, but some are much elongated.
N. H. W.

Pes avy OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
PITE RAP URE:

Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Sec-
retary of the Interior, 1890-91. By J. W. Powrun, Director. Part I.
Geology; pp. xiii 675, with 58 plates, and 81 figures in the text. Part II.
Irrigation; pp. xviii, 576, with plates 54-146, and figures 81-270 in the
text. Washington, 1891.

These valuable large volumes reporting the progress of our national
survey during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, were distributed to
colleges and universities, public libraries, and the workine geologists of
the country, nearly three years after that date, although bearing the
imprint of 1891. In the first volume the director’s annual report and
the administrative reports of the chiefs of divisions of the survey form
210 pages. These are accompanied by four geological papers, as re-
viewed in the following pages, forming the remainder of this volume.
The second, devoted to the surveys and plans for the improvement of
the arid lands of the western half of the United States by irrigation,
contains three reports: first, upon the location and survey of reservoir
sites, by A. H. THompson, comprising 212 pages, with four plates and
142 figures: second, Hydrography of the arid regions, by IF. H. Neweuu,
149 pages, with 49 plates and seven figures; and third, Irrigation in
India, by HerBert M. Winson, 199 pages, with 40 plates and 41 figures.

In topographic, geologic, paleontologic, chemical and physical work,
compilation of statistics of mineral products, the departments of en-
graving and printing, the library, and disbursements, thirty-two sum-
mary reports of the progress of the survey are presented.

Up to date of June 30, 1891, the number of topographic sheets of the
United States atlas which had been engraved was 473, comprising about
481,000 square miles. These sheets are on three different scales, accord-
ing to the character of the country, the proportion of population, and
the importance of geologic features to be noted. Thus, 177 sheets have the
scale of 1:62,500, or about one mile to an inch, usually with contour in-
tervals of 20 feet, these being mostly in the New England and Atlantic
States south to the Potomac river; 287 sheets are on the scale of 1:125,-
000, or about two miles to an inch, usually with contours for each 50 or
100 feet; and 59 sheets, mostly in the mountainous or desert Cordilleran
belt, are on the scale of 1:250,000, or about four miles to an inch, with
contours for each 200 or 250 feet. The areas of the sheets for these sey-
eral scales are bounded respectively by ares of 4, 4, and 1 degree in lati-
tude and longitude.

.

114 The American Geologist. August, 1894

The investigations relative to irrigation include (1) the systematic
mapping of the arid regions in order to show the location and altitude
of the irrigable lands, their position with regard to the rivers from
which the water is to be obtained, and the area, altitude, and character
of the catchment basins from which the rivers receive their waters; (2)
measurements of the amount of water flowing in the most important
streams, with computations of the quantity available for each day of
the year, either for immediate irrigation or for storage purposes; and (3)
engineering examinations of such localities as the knowledge of the to-
pography and of the water supply seem to indicate as favorable for
great irrigation developments. At these places careful surveys are
made to test the practicability of diverting the waters of some river and
carrying them out by large canals to command extensive areas of arid,
though fertile, land, or of holding the flood waters in great reservoirs so
that the flow of the streams can be increased in time of drought. These
surveys are in each case carried to the degree of testing the feasibility
of the schemes from a financial standpoint. This report gives descrip-
tions of 147 reservoir sites. with accompanying hydrographie data, illus-
trated by maps and diagrams. During the year here reported 21,475
square miles were mapped for this department of the survey, in the
states of Montana, Idaho, Kansas, Colorado, Nevada, California, Texas,
and New Mexico. The total areas segregated for the reservoir sites are
165,932 acres; and the areas of the reservoirs, at their proposed stages
of high water, amount to 108,850 acres. Their contents would be ap-
proximately 2,847,815 acre-feet, which, allowing two feet of water for
irrigation during the growing season, will supply half as many acres.
This is nearly equal to the irrigation crop area shown by the census of
1890 in Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, and
Arizona. Most of the sites selected for reservoirs are high in the moun-
tains at elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 feet, where the loss from evapora-
tion will be less than it would be down nearer to the irrigated lands.

Mr. Wilson’s paper on irrigation engineering in India gives abundant
details relating to economy and permanence which have been there de-
veloped through long practice, whereby American engineers may reap
the results of much costly experience. He shows the benefits, financial
and political, derived from the canals of India, and points out how in
many localities the topography, climate and water supply resemble
those of our arid West: but with our lower mountain ranges and smaller
rivers it is not needful nor possible for us to construct so large canals
and reservoirs. WwW. U.

The Origin and Nature of Soils. By NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER.
Pages 213-345; plates -xxx1, and figures 1-27. (Accompanying the
Twelfth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey.) In this admirably illus-
trated memoir Prof. Shaler treats, in a style suited to ordinary unpro-
fessional readers, the interesting conditions of soil formation: diverse
kinds of soils: causes-of the treelessness of prairie areas: the beneficial
action of earthworms, ants, the larger burrowing animals, and deeply

ee

¥5

pie

.*
be:

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 115

penetrating roots: the deterioration or exhaustion of cultivated lands by
faulty methods of farming: and the precautions needed to insure per-
manent productiveness. The pressure of the plow on the part of the
soil beneath that which if overturns is shown to be unfavorable for the
best tillage, and the invention and substitution of some machine capa-
ble of working over and thoroughly loosening the soil as when it is
spaded by the gardener are strongly recommended. An outline of this
subject had been presented by the author in the final essay of his vol-
ume, ‘‘Aspects of the Earth,’’ a year or two previous to its elaboration
for this report. W: U-

The Lafayette Formation. By W J McGre. Pages 347-521: plates
XXXII-XLI, aa figures 28-72. (Accompanying the Twelfth Annual Re-
port, U.S. Geol. Survey.) Upon an area of about 100,000 square miles
of the tae plain in the Atlantic and Gulf states and of the Mississip-
pi valley, extending north to the limits of the glacial drift in northern
New Jersey and southern Illinois, the loam, sand, and gravel beds of
the Lafayette formation constitute the present surface: and upon areas
aggregating twice as much more this formation has been removed by
erosion, or lies concealed beneath the Columbia deposits. In thickness
the Lafayette beds are described as ranging from a mere veneer over
many interstream tracts to 200 feet or more about the mouth of the
Mississippi, the variation being in general directly proportional with
the volume of neighboring rivers and inversely with the extension in-
land. Instructural relation the Lafayette is separated from the newer
Columbia formation by the strongest unconformity of the coastal region,
representing the erosion of probably half the volume of the Lafayette
formation and profound trenching of subjacent formations along the
larger waterways: while the contact with all the underlying formations
indicates that during pre-Lafayette time the coastal plain was a land
surface and was wrought into a configuration much like that existing
to-day. As to their manner of deposition, Mr. MeGee holds that the
Lafayette beds were laid down in the shallow borders of the Atlantic
ocean and Gulf of Mexico, being brought by rivers which are still in ex-
istence, when the land stood from 200 to 800 feet lower than now, and
when the sea and gulf extended from 50 to 500 miles inland of the pres-
sent coast. In age this formation is regarded as many times older than
the earliest known Pleistocene and glacial deposits, but much newer
than any other well defined formation of the coastal plain. To account
for the deposition of the Lafayette beds, the author supposes their areas
to have been depressed beneath the sea. It is noteworthy, however,
that no definite beaches, marine fossils, or other proofs of the presence
of the sea have been discovered: and the great amount of erosion follow-
ing the Lafayette deposition required an important continental uplift.

A simpler view of the epeirogenie movements, closing the Tertiary
era and inaugurating the Quaternary, seems to the present reviewer to
be found in ascribing the Lafayette formation to deposition on land
areas by flooded rivers descending from the Appalachian mountain

116 The American Geologist. August, 1894

region and from the Mississippi basin, spreading gravel, sand, andloam
over the coastal plain and along the great valley during the early part
of a time of continental elevation. The land had lain during the long
Tertiary periods at lower altitudes, and its surface was largely enveloped
by residual clays and by alluvial sand and gravel. With the elevation
of the continent, increased rainfall and snowfall and resulting river
floods swept away these superficial materials from the higher lands and
spread them on the coastal plain and along the Mississippi valley, where
the streams expanded over broad areas with shallow and slackened cur-
rents. As the elevation increased, however, the rivers would attain
steep slopes and finally erode much of the deposits which they had pre-
viously made. During the culmination of the uplift, which the re-
viewer thinks to have produced the northern ice-sheet, Chesapeake and
Delaware bays were excavated and erosion was in progress at a far more
rapid rate than with the present low altitude of this region. Prof. E.
W. Hilgard, by whom the formation was first studied and named, be-
lieves that during Lafayette time the Mississippi valley had a greater
descent and stronger currents of its river floods, the increased altitude
of the interior of the continent having been apparently 4,000 to 5,000
feet, sufficing probably, in its culmination, to bring the cold climate
and ice accumulation of the Glacial period. According to this view the
Lafayette period may be considered, as by Hilgard, Spencer, and Smith,
to be early Quaternary or Pleistocene, representing the initiation of the
conditions which resulted in the Ice age. Ww. U.

The North American Continent during Cambrian Time. By CHARLES D.
WatcoTr. Pages 5238-568; plates xLi-xLv, and figures 73-78. (Accom-
panying the Twelfth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey.) The conclu-
sions reached in this paper are stated by the author as follows: 1. The
pre-Cambrian Algonkian continent was formed of the crystalline rocks
of the Archean nuclei, and broad areas of superjacent Algonkian rocks
that were more or less disturbed and extensively eroded in pre-Cambrian
time. Its area was larger than at any succeeding epoch until Mesozoic
time. 2. On the east the Paleo-Appalachian system of mountains was
outlined by a high and broad range, or system of ranges, that extended
from the present site of Alabama to Canada, and subparallel ranges that
formed the margin of seas and straits to the east and northeast of the
uorthern Paleo-Appalachians or the Paleo-Green mountains and their
northeastern extension toward the pre-Cambrian shore line of Labrador.
3. On the Pacific side the eastern mass of the Paleo-Rocky mountains
formed a broad mountain barrier that extended from the present region
of Arizona and New Mexico to Montana, and toward the Arctic circle,
upon the western side of an interior land area. To the west the primi-
tive Sierra Nevada protected the Nevada sea and extended far to the
north. 4. The interior continental area was, at the beginning of Cam-
brian time, an elevated, broad, relatively level plateau between the
Paleo-Appalachian sea on the east and the Paleo-Rocky mountain bar-
rier on the west. 5. At the beginning of Cambrian time three principal

Review of Recent Geological Literature. TAF

areas of sedimentation existed: (@) the Atlantic Coast province, including
various narrow seas between the several pre-Cambrian ridges; ()) a
narrow sea extending along the western side of the Paleo-Appalachian
range from the present site of Labrador to Alabama; (¢) a broader sea
on the western side of the continent, west of the eastern Paleo-Rocky
mountain ranges, that extended from the southern portion of the present
site of Nevada northward into British Columbia and probably toward the
Arctie circle, and south to the Paleo-Gulf of Mexico and thus connect-
ing with the Paleo-Appalachian sea. 6. Sedimentation probably began
in the Paleo-Appalachian and Paleo-Rocky Mountain seas before Cam-
brian time, and it continued without any known unconformity to the
close of Lower Silurian (Ordovician) time in the northern Paleo-Appa-
lachian sea, and with relatively little interruption to the close of Paleo-
zoic time in the Paleo-Appalachian sea south of New York, and in the
Paleo-Rocky Mountain sea. 7. The Cambrian sea began to invade the
great Interior Continental area in Middle Cambrian time, and extended
far to the north toward the close of the period. 8. The depression of
the continent in relation to sea level began in pre-Cambrian time and
continued with a few interruptions until the close of Paleozoic time. 9.
The relative positions of the continental area and the deep seas have not
changed since Algonkian time. 10. The sediments of Cambrian time
were accumulated to a great extent in approximately shallow seas, ex-
cept in portions of the Paleo-Rocky Mountain and Paleo-Appalachian
seas. 11. The Lower Cambrian fauna lived in the seas of the Atlantic
coast province, the Paleo-Appalachian and the Paleo-Rocky Mountain
seas. 12. The Middle Cambrian fauna of the Atlantic basin is not
known to have penetrated into the Paleo-Appalachian or Paleo-Rocky
Mountain seas, except in the case of a few species now found in Ala-
bama and probably eastern New York. The portion of the fauna occu-
pying the same relative stratigraphic position in the group is essentially
the same in the Paleo-Appalachian and Paleo-Rocky Mountain sections.
13. The Upper Cambrian fauna was distributed over the broad Interior
Continental area and in the Paleo-Appalachian and Paleo-Rocky Moun-
tain seas, but it has not been recognized by the same genera and species
in the Atlantic coast province, the fauna of the latter being more closely
allied to that of the Upper Cambrian of the eastern side of the Atlantic
basin. We. Ue

The Hruptive Rocks of Electric Peak and Sepulchre Mountain, Yellow-
stone National Park. By Joseru Paxson Ipprncs. Pages 569-664; plates
XLVI-LIN, and figures 79-81. (Accompanying the Twelfth Annual Re-
port, U.S. Geol. Survey.) The study of the chemical composition of
the intrusive rocks of Electric peak and of the volcanic rocks of Sepul-
chre mountain proves that these two groups of rocks have identical
chemical compositions. The varieties that have been analyzed are
mineralogical and structural modifications assumed by the magmas on
cooling, and the analyses serve as indications of the range of their
chemical variability. From the geological structure of the region, the

118 The American Geologist. August, 1894

correspondence between the orders of eruption of the two series of rocks,
the resemblance of a large part of the rocks of both series, macroscop-
ically and microscopically, and the chemical identity of all the rocks
of both groups, it is conclusively demonstrated that (1) the volcanic
rocks of Sepulchre mountain and the intrusive rocks of Eleetric peak
were originally continuous geological bodies; (2) the former were forced
through the conduit at Electric peak during a series of more or less in-
terrupted eruptions: and (3) the great amount of heat imported to the
surrounding rocks was due to the frequent passage of molten Java
through this conduit. The remnant of a volcano, fractured across its
conduit, has been faulted and considerably eroded, so that it presents
for investigation, on the one hand, the lower portion of its accumulated
debris of lavas, with a part of the upper end of the conduit filled with
the final intrusions, while, on the other hand, a section of the conduit
is exposed within the sedimentary strata upon which the voleano was
built. Recognizing the wide extension of similar intricacies in the
geological and physical relations of volcanic eruptions, Prof. Iddings
thinks it ‘‘advisable to base the classification of igneous rocks on that
character which may be determined with certainty from the rocks
themselves, namely, the crystalline structure, and which, at the same
time, is toso high a degree an exponent both of the chemical composi-
tion of the magmas and of the physical and geological conditions at-
tending their solidification. ”’ Ww. U.

Popular Lectures and Addresses. By Str WiLi1aAM THomson (BARON
KELVIN): in three volumes. Vol. II. Geology and General Physics. Mac-
millan & Co. 12mo., 600 pp., $2. 1894.

Lord Kelvin’s addresses on physical geology in connection with the
live question of the length of time the earth may have existed, have
such a degree of simple mathematical expression and exactness that they
have had much influence in recent calculations by different geologists.
In this volume are included also addresses on various subjects of physi-
cal science, such as geological climate, the condition of the interior of
the earth, the earth’s magnetism, the theory of polar ice-caps in rela-
tion to changes of the sea level, sound and imperfect harmonies, the
heat of the sun, the aurora, etc. N. H. W.

A manual of the study of documents. PERSIFOR FRAZER. J. B. Lippin-
cott & Co., Philadelphia; pp. 218, 1894. ‘

One of the editors of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST has produced a book
on a branch of study which, being entirely new, he has named biblioties.
It is the study of writing and writing materials with the view either to
establish the character of the writing or to discover fraud, The former,
again, he calls grammapheny, and the latter plassopheny.

This curious volume follows the subject into many lines of research.
The physical characters of a specimen of penmanship are minutely ex-
amined into, both through ocular inspection and by microscopic meth-
ods, and by composite photography. It is wonderful how far these
methods have already been employed prior to any attempt to define and

Review of Recent Geological Literature, 119

group them. The various methods of making chemical examination of
inks used in writing, for the purpose of comparing a genuine with a
spurious signature, are given in detail. Then follows a digest of the
laws and judicial opinions bearing on the use of expert testimony on
handwriting.

Altogether this little manual will be of use in legal and financial cir-
cles where the critical examination of all signatures is a necessity. — It
brings into small compass for the first time just the information often
wanted by penmen and experts, which usually is scattered and difficult
to use. ING Evan yy

Die Fauna des unteren Devon am Ostabhange des Ural. By Tu. Tscumr-
NYSCHEW. (Mémoires du Comité Géologique, Vol. IV, No. 3, pp. 1-221,
pls. I-XIV, 1893.)

This isa work of more than local interest. The author, especially
distinguished for his researches upon the Devonian of the Russian Em-
pire, has described in detail a somewhat peculiar faunal assemblage
from neighboring limestones on the Asiatic slopes of the Urals, which
are treated of as a whole and as of common age.

The American student of paleozoic faunas, after a diligent scrutiny
of the fourteen finely executed plates of fossils and of their descriptions,
can hardly fail of being impressed with the conspicuous predominance
of normal Silurian (Niagara) types in this fauna, here regarded as of
lower Devonian (Hercynian) age; and in such a mind the query at once
arises: By what construction is a fauna so constituted to be referred to
the Devonian? The leading elements of the fauna discussed, briefly
Stated, are as follows: Among the Trilobites, Youngia, a ceraurid like
2seudospherevochus, and of which the only other known species is from
the Silurian: Calymene (fragment), Aristozoe (A. regina, Barrande, A.
hercynica, nov.) Of the gastropods, Platyceras (1 species), Orthonychia
elongata Hall, O. cultellus, noy., Pleurotomaria lindstrami, a pauci-spi-
raled shell with large, ventricose body-whorl; P. ventricosa, with angular
whorls, high spiral and contracted body-whorl; large Murchisonias with
high spirals: large broadly umbilicated Bellerophons (cf. Zrematonotus,
Hall; Salpingostoma F. Roemer), sharply carinated species (Ovrydiscus)
and small, non-umbilicated forms of typical structure; well defined
Subulites (S. wralicus, nov.) The leading element of the fauna is the
brachiopod, which includes spirifers of the type of S. radéatus (S. tur-
gensis, noy., S. robustus, Barrande) and S. plicatellus (S. indifferens, var.
transiens, Barrande); multiplicate lineate species like S. néagarensis (8.
tiro, Barrande), dupliciplicate radiate forms represented by S. nobilis,
Barr. var. arbitensis, nov. Species of the unicispinate fimbriate type (S.
orbitatus Barr., S. vogulicus, nov., 8. pentameriformis, S. kuschvensis), Of
the considerable number of species referred to Merista and Meristella, the
critical generic characters are demonstrated in none. Compared with
similar shells in American faunas it may safely be said that these bear
in respect to form, size and general external expression, a far more pro-
nounced similarity to species of Whitfieldella and Meristina of the Silur-

120 The American Geologist. August, 1894

ian, than to the Meristas and Meristellas of the Lower Helderberg and
Oriskany. Indeed among the identifications we find that of WZ. ( Whit-
fieldella) nitida Hall, a Niagara species. Numerous small Rhynchonel-
las occur, of the type of R. whitiiand R. indianensis, of the Niagara; one
large form, Wélsonia pila, var. irbitensis, noy. is like W. saffordi Hall.
It is the pentameroids that put the Devoniam conception to the severest
strain. Here we meet a remarkable development of genera which one
is wont to regard as eminently Silurian: great plicated Conchidiums of
the type of P. knighti (P. pseudoknighti, nov., P. vogulicus Vern., P.
rossicus Karpinsky, P. karpinskii, noy., etc.): P. taltiensis, a smooth
shelled, true Pentamerus of the type of P. pergibbosus, Hall and Whitfield
and P. striatus Eichwald, a form which, in some of its phases, shows
the passage of Pentamerus to shells with the completely reversed con-
vexity of the valves possessed by the recently described genus Capellinia,
from the Niagara dolomites of southeastern Wisconsin. This reversal
of convexity and predominance of the brachial over the pedicle-valve
are well shown on pl. 12, fig. 5. The type of P. linguifer Sowerby, P.
ventricosus Hall (= Barrandella; smooth shells with median fold on the
brachial valve) is represented by P. krasnopolskiz, noy.

Among other Silurian forms may also be counted the genus Pasceolus,
Billings.

Turning to the elements of the fauna which may be regarded as rep-
resentatives of the American lower Devonian (Lower Helderberg, Oris-
kany), we Shall find them conspicuously few. Isolated species, Proetus
uralicus, nov., Orthonychia elongata Hall, O. eultellus, nov., present a De-
vonian aspect. Schizodus ? uralicus, noy., (hinge unknown) has the pe-
culiar form of Palaeoneilo leda Hall, of the Hamilton fauna. <Atrypa
sublepida Vern. has the introverted spirals of Atrypina: while it bears
the external aspect of Coelospira. The species identified as Pentamerus
acutolobatus Sandberger, is a similar shell to the Lower Helderberg
species commonly identified as P. galeatus, though more sharply plicate.
Strophomena wagranensis Gruenewaldt, is a Stropheodonta with the in-
terplicate crenulated surface of S. varistriata of the Lower Helderberg
and S. patersont of the Upper Helderberg. Orthis subcarinata of the
Lower Helderberg is present in the Siberian fauna. More distinctively
Devonian types are found among the corals; Amplecus, Cystiphyllum,
Diplochone (Frech’s genus), Favosites goldfussi, F. polymorpha, Alveolites
goldfussi.

The determination of this assemblage as a Devonian fauna seems the
logical outcome of recent analytical studies of heterotope faunas, which,
beginning with Kayser’s, of the oldest fossil-bearing rocks of the Hartz
(1878), have been productive of important modifications in the current
interpretation of various local faunas. Kayser’s detailed investigation
of the Zorge and Wieda Schiefer of the Hartz, which A. Roemer had
declared to be of Silurian age, demonstrated a predominance of Devon-
ian types: the correlations instituted by him between this fauna and
those of the Bohemian étages F,G and H of Barrande, led him to argue
the early Devonian age of the latter also. Novak, Katzer, Barrois,

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 121

Frech, Tschernyschew, and several others, have, by contributions direct
or indirect, endorsed and fortified these determinations, until to-day the
post-Silurian age of these and equivalent faunas, including the Lower
Helderberg of New York, is no longer debatable. All of these so-called
“Hercynian”’ faunas, so far as they had been previously studied, were
originally determined as Upper Silurian. Barrande’s conception of the
age of his upper étages applied to them all; admitting the correlation
of the normal Upper Silurian with his étage KE, he regarded the super-
jacent étages F, G, H, as a continuation of the Silurian not represented
in the typical sections of Great Britain, thus a post-typical-Silurian.
The inclusion of all such faunas within the limits of the Devonian is
simply the placing within the latter time-division a series of faunas
more or less highly impregnated with derivatives of the normal Silurian.
This Silurian element is evident in the Hartz faunas, decidedly more
conspicuous in the Bohemian étages and emphatically less pronounced
in the Lower Helderberg fauna. In the correlation of newly discovered
faunas with these Hercynian faunas, there may be a predominating
agreement with the major Devonian or the minor Silurian element.
Thus, in Tschernyschew’s list of 140 species from this east-Ural Herey-
nian, subtracting first 58 new, and 9 undetermined species, there are 35
out of the 61 remaining which are regarded as identical with species
occurring in the Bohemian étages F and G, and of these 35 there are 13
which also occur in the étage E, or normal Silurian. This 35 is certainly
a large Commonty between so distant faunas, but the large third of
these, which embodies the specific continuations from the Silurian, in-
dicates what is perfectly clear from a consideration of the other two-
thirds of the Bohemian element, that this fraction does not represent
the Devonian element of the Bohemian faunas, but rather its more dis-
tinetly Silurian or neutral elements.

Comparison of the fauna with that described by the same author as
Hercynian on the west slope of the Urals, shows a contingent of 28 com-
mon species, and this element is, as a whole, more Devonian in aspect
than the Bohemian contingent. This fact, together with the Devonian
affinities which are otherwise indicated in the fauna itself, shows that
the east-Ural fauna, if properly regarded as a single faunal assemblage,
is as weak in Devonian types and as strong in Silurian types as a Devon-
ian fauna can well be; that is, it indicates, if Devonian age, a Devonian
stage that has heretofore been unrecognized.

While the conventions of geology, the lapses in our knowledge of the
geological record and the finitude of human comprehension render nec-
essary the employment of such time divisions as Silurian, Devonian,
etc. (and we are disposed to believe that some few years will have
elapsed before such terms can be dispensed with, notwithstanding the
evident impatience of them manifested by some of our twentieth cen-
tury geologists), our conception of the limitation of such time divisions
and their faunas must be materially influenced by the limitation of
their original definition. As a series of rocks the upper limit of the typ-
ical Silurian section was clearly defined, and time has shown that this

122° - The American Geologist. August, 1894

limit was not only one of a geological series, but the dead-line of a large
number of organic types. In the typical Devonian sections, however,
the lower boundary was never defined, and English geologists to-day
concede that the earliest members of the Devonian series are absent or
unexposed in these sections. The Devonian system was founded upon
one of the most unfavorable and incomplete developments of that series of
rocks and faunas known in any part of the globe: a more precise scope
-was given to it by the work of its founders, Murchison and Sedgwick,
in the Rhineland, but even there no determination of its lower limit was
made. This admitted hiatus in the typical succession of Devonian to
Silurian, is the parent of the prolific discussions over ‘‘post-Silurian’’
and *‘Hercynian’’ faunas. Nosuch discussions could arise ina country,
if there be any such, where the interval is filled by a complete succes-
sion. In America, in particular the state of New York, where the
Lower Helderberg fauna is typically exhibited, there is an absence of
physical disturbance in the succession except that indicated by the
presence of an extensive local accumulation of gypsum, salt, and water-
limestone, toward the close of the Silurian, but the meager fauna of
these beds is followed by the exceedingly prolific one of the Lower Hel-
derberg, where but wondrous few of the Silurian species appear. There
may be a Silurian expression in many generic elements in the Lower
Helderberg, but the entire combination is by no means so early in its
general expression, or indicative of so close complications with the Si-
urian, as that of the Siberian fauna which we have just considered ,*

The early geologists of the state of New York, working out the clas-
sification of its rocks independently of preconceived notions and alien
nomenclatures, applied to the formations now embraced under the terms
Lower Helderberg, Oriskany and Upper Helderberg, the name Helderberg
division (Mather, Vanuxem), or [Helderberg Series (Emmons, Hall): the
most sharply defined and widely extended geological terrane in the state.
There was, indeed, some divergence of opinion as to what should con-
stitute the basal member of this division, Hall and Vanuxem including
the Onondaga Salt croup, Emmons omitting it and beginning the series
with the Pentamerus limestone. The original definition of the J/elder-
berg division was Mather’s and was essentially based upon determina-
tions made by John Gebhard, jr., in the valley of Schoharie creek. This
limitation of it begins the series at the bottom with the ‘‘Manlius water
limestones,’ and terminates it above with ‘‘the Seneca limestone of Mr.
Hall.’ The approximate accuracy of this lower limit as a line of division
between the Lower Helderberg and the subjacent formation was after-
ward established by Prof. Hall. The continuity of the great series of
waterlimes constituting the upper part of the Salt group and the lower
part of the Lower Helderberg, makes a division upon lithological
erounds somewhat uncertain, but the line is fixed, as shown by Hall
and emphasized by comparison with the succession in Great Britain and
Russia, at the disappearance of the Hurypterus fauna.

~ *For a review of the Lower Helderberg fauna with especial reference to its Silurian
and Devonian elements, see Clarke: The Hercynian Question, 42d Rept. N. Y. State
Mus. Nat. Hist., pp. 408-487, 1889.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 123

The fauna of the Helderberg division is as sharply defined as the ter-
rane which bears it. It is more prolific in species than the Silurian be-
neath or the faunas above it to the base of the Carboniferous in the state
of New York. As an organic complex the interrelations of its compo-
nent faunas are extremely close and yet they are all characterized by the
acmic development of organic groups which give the fauna, taken as a
whole, an expression as fundamentally distinct from that which pre-
cedes (normal Silurian) as from that which follows (normal Devonian).
We would be understood as saying, and the truth of the remark must
be apparent upon even a cursory study of these faunas, that any ques-
tion raised in regard to the age of the Lower Helderberg fauna must
concern with equal force the faunas of the Oriskany and Upper Helder-
berg. Inthe brief space to which these remarks must be restricted,
attention may be directed to such distinctive features as the brilliant
outburst of the genus Dalmanites or Odontochile and its multitude of sub-
generic and specific variations (28 species), their high ornamentation
and great proportions. Foreshadowed in the Silurian by a few simply
dressed species, this great group becomes, to our present knowledge,
totally and finally extinguished (except so far as represented by a single
species and variety of Crypheus) with the disappearance of the fauna
of the Corniferous limestone. No such remarkable group of Trilobites
appeared elsewhere in Paleeozoic history, in no other group is such di-
versity of form, such extravagance of size and ornament (save in the
Lichads of the same fauna), and none can be said to more emphatically
characterize a period in faunal succession than this. Highly distinct-
ive features are exhibited by the representatives of other trilobitic
genera: Ceratolichas, Conolichas, Dicranurus, Terataspis, Aneyropyge,
Homatonotus, Phacops, and Cordania, showing that this crustacean ele-
ment is in a pre-eminent degree characteristic and indicial, absolved in
a truly remarkable manner from entanglement with the trilobitic
representation in the faunas preceding and succeeding, more strongly
individualized, more prolific, more extravagantly and peculiarly char-
acterized than that element in either.

Barrois, in speaking of the prolific development of Platyceras or Cap-
wus in the Caleaire a’ Erbray, in Brittany, the equivalence of whose
fauna with that of the J/e/derberg division he has fully established, has
remarked that if the old practice of naming faunas from the presence
of certain generic types (Astartian, Virgulian, etc.), were to be contin-
ued, the term Capulian should, par excellence, be applied to that. Of the
‘apulids in the Helderberg fauna there are nearly one hundred de-
scribed forms, presenting great diversity in structure and ornament.
Nowhere else and at no other period does the development of these gas-
tropods in any degree approach this. P

Of distinctive and exclusive brachiopod generic types there are Many;
Orthostrophia, Hipparionyx, Leptenisca, Chonostrophia, Anoplia, Metapla-
sia, Merista, Charionella, Rhynchospira, Plethorhynchus, Stenoschisma, Un-
cinulus, Hatonia, Leptocalia, Amphigenia, Rensscleria, Beachia, Orishania,

124 The American Geologist. August, 1894

Selenella; a significant list even when stated in this brief form without
reference to the culmination of other generic, subgeneric and specifie
types, or to the important evidence afforded by the inception, or absence
or decline here of types distinctive both above and below.

The lamellibranchs show series of interesting transition forms: the
cephalopods, sparse in the early stages but abundant in the later, pos-
sess many highly distinctive genera.

These suggestions may be taken simply as indicative of the constitu-
tion of the fauna as a whole, as evidences of an individual expression
which closer analysis would only serve to strengthen. There are local-
ities known wherein the fauna of each of the component stages of the
Helderberg division is complicated with that immediately succeeding:
the Lower Helderberg with the Lower Oriskany, the Lower Oriskany
with the Upper Oriskany, and the Oriskany with the Upper Helderberg.
So, also, there are a few places recorded (e. g., Cass county, Indiana),
where the Upper Helderberg fauna is involved with that of the Hamil-
ton group: more will undoubtedly be found: anything else would. be
unnatural with an uninterrupted succession of strata and faunas. There
is likewise, in some respects, a palpable approximation in the later
fauna of this division, to that of the Hamilton and typical Devonian.
It would be surprising were there not. Who will draw the line betweem
the faunas of the Cambrian and Ordovician? between the Devonian and
Carboniferous %

That the fauna of the /Zelderberg division is not Silurian is demon-
strated; that it is consequently Devonian is a non sequitur. The Devonian
is a geological and paleontological entity which has never been defined.
As it was originally simply a name for the interval between the Silurian
and Carboniferous, so it is to-day. But the faunaof the Helderberg di-
vision, or the HELDERBERGIAN, is as distinctive from thatof the overlying
Devonian as it is from the Silurian, and, as already stated, its represen-
tation in species is quite as prolific as either of the others. The name
proposed by the state geologists of New York has passed into desuetude,
giving way to the procrustean adaptation of a European nomenclature
by Europeans (Bigsby, de Verneuil, Lyell); but it isa question worthy of
consideration whether it may not profitably be revived to express a
definite geological and biological quantity; not alone as a distinctive
geological term, but as even more distinctive of a series of faunas which
in their entirety form a body as integral and homogeneous as any other
of the large divisions in the organic history of the Paleozoic. It is not
alone in New York or North America that this //e/derbergian fauna is so
clearly developed. Its correlates have been found throughout the world,
in Belgium, France and Spain, Germany, Bohemia and Austria, Russia,
Siberia, South Africa, Brazil and Bolivia,

European writers have employed the term Jlereynian for faunas
equivalent in whole or part to those of the IHelderberg division. The
name isan unfortunate one, for it has never been clearly defined, has»
been applied to faunas of widely different geological age or to certain

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 125

facies of different faunas, and it may almost be said that no two writers
have fully agreed as to its significance or scope. It has, moreover, not
the prestige of priority, and, unless its usefulness can be more fully dem-
onstrated, should gracefully yield to the more venerable term.

J. M. CLARKE.

Highteenth Annual Report, for 1893; Indiana, Department of Geology
and Natural Resources. S$. S. Gorsy, State Geologist. 3856 pages: with
natural gas and oil map, and 12 plates of fossils. Indianapolis, 1894.
Indiana is a state where the peculiarity exists of electing the state geol-
ogist by popular vote as the governor or mayor or county surveyor is
elected. It is, therefore, a more or less political office, and we see in
this a reason for the frequent changes the office has undergone. Since
KE. T. Cox left the position in 1879, it has been filled by professors Col-
lett, Thompson and Gorby, and the last named will, we presume, be
superseded by some one else in the near future. This fact is in striking
contrast with what obtains in some other states. In New York, for
example, Prof. James Hall has been connected with the survey since
1835, and after an interim of several years has been in charge of a new
survey since 1881. In Minnesota Prof. N. H. Winchell has been the
state geologist for the past 22 years; in Pennsylvania Prof. J. P. Lesley
has been at the head of the survey for about 20 years; in New Jersey
Prof. Geo. H. Cook was in charge from 1863 until his death in 1889; and
in Alabama Prof. E. A. Smith has been in service 21 years as the state
geologist. It cannot be said that frequent Changes in this office are con-
ducive to the best scientific work, for a change in the head frequently
results in a change in the subordinates, and when this Sweeping change
occurs the new incumbents must frequently relearn much that the
former officials were perfectly familiar with.

In the present instance, as has occurred before in geological reports,
the chief geologist furnishes an introduction to the volume. Here it
occupies 8 pages and the remaining 340 are filled by reports from the
assistants. Mr. Chas. R. Dryer discusses the geology of Noble and La-
grange counties and the drift of the Wabash-Erie region. W. B. Van
Gorder gives a catalogue of the plants of Noble county. Thos. Me-
Quade reports as inspector of mines; N. J. Hyde reports as inspector of
oils; E. T. J. Jordan as supervisor of natural gas. Here cognizance is
taken of the fact that the supply has been wantonly wasted and rec-
ommendations are made for the .conservation of the precious fuel.
Many of the wells show a decrease in pressure and volume, many others
are already exhausted, and the new ones that are being drilled do not
show anything like the pressure or volume of the great ‘‘gassers’’ so
common at first. KE. P. Cubberly discusses the structural features of
the state as revealed by the drill in a series of sections made in various
directions across the state; and finally S. A. Miller supplies the paleon-
tology.

There was a time when the pages of the Journal of the Cincinnati So-
ciety of Natural History were largely used by Mr. Miller in his deserip-

126 The American Geologist. August, 1894

tions of new species, but of late vears he has been contributing largely
to the publications of the States of Indiana and Illinois. In the present
instance he has 100 pages devoted to fossils. This section was issued
as a separate in September, 1892, separately paged. There is no men-
tion of this fact in the present volume, which is to be regretted, since
there may be in time, when the species come to be referred to, some
difficulty about ascertaining the date of first publication. Many persons
will see this volume who will not know of the separates, and errors of
reference are likely to result. There are 76 new species described, and
it is interesting to note that of these less than one-half (86) are from
Indiana, most of the others being from Missouri. It is also noticeable
that only 12 out of the 76 are in the state museum at Indianapolis, the
other types being in the collections of Mr. Miller and other gentlemen
who have collected them. Joie

RECENT POUBLICATIONS.

I. Government and State Reports.

Iron Ores of North Carolina. By H. B. C. Nitze. North Carolina
Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 1, 239 pages, 20 plates, 1893.

Eleventh Annual Report of the State Geologist (N. Y.), for the year
1891, contains: Report of the State Geologist, James Hall: Catalogue
of the collection of geological and palteontological specimens donated by
the Albany Institute to the State Museum, J. M. Clarke: List of the
original and illustrated specimens in the paleeontological collections:
Part I, Crustacea, J. M. Clarke: On Cordania, a proposed new genus of
trilobites, J. M. Clarke; An introduction to the study of the Brachiopo-
da, intended as a hand-book for the use of students, James Hall, as-
sisted by J. M. Clarke.

Twelfth Aunual Report of the State Geologist (N. Y.), for the year
1892, contains: Report of the State Geologist, James Hall; Report of the
Assistant Paleeontologist, J. M. Clarke; List of the original and illustra-
ted specimens in the paleontological collections: Part II, Annelida and
Cephalopoda, J. M. Clarke: Notes upon two boulders of a very basic
eruptive rock from the west shore of Canandaigua lake, and their con-
tact phenomena upon the Trenton limestone, B. K. Emerson; The De-
vonian section of central New York alone the Unadilla river, C. S.
Prosser.

The Trap Dikes of the Lake Champlain Region. By. J. F. Kemp
and V. F. Marsters. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 106, 62 pages, 4 plates,
1893.

The Eruptive and Sedimentary Rocks on Pigeon Point, Minnesota,

Recent Publications. 127

and their Contact Phenomena. By. W.S. Bayley. U.S. Geol. Survey,
Bull. 109, 121 pages, 8 plates, 1893.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1892, contains: Geolog-
ical change and time, Archibald Geikie: Geological history of the Yel-
lowstone National Park, Arnold Hague: Soaping geysers, Arnold Hague:
Continental problems of geology, G. K. Gilbert; Crystallization, G. D.
Liveing; The rejuvenescence of crystals, J. W. Judd.

The relation of biology to geological investigation. By C. A. White.
Rept. U.S. National Museum for 1892, pp. 245-368.

Note on a blue mineral, Supposed to be ultramarine, from Silver City.
New Mexico. By R. L. Packard. Proc. U.S. National Museum, vol.
17, No; 978. :

Forty-fifth Annual Report of the Regents of the New York State
Museum, for the year 1891, contains: Report on a deposit of marl and
peat in the town of New Baltimore, W. B. Marshall: Report on the de-
velopment of the Salt industry of central New York for the year 1891,
I. P. Bishop: also the papers listed under the 11th Report of the State
Geologist.

Forty-sixth Annual Report of the same, contains: Papers listed un-
der the 12th Report of the State Geologist.

Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, Pt. I
(Geology), contains: Report of the Director, J. W. Powell; Administra-
tive Reports; The origin and nature of soils, N. S. Shaler: The Lafay-
ette formation, W J McGee; The North American continent during
Cambrian time, C. D. Walcott; The eruptive rocks of Electric peak and
Sepulchre mountain, Yellowstone National park, J. P. Iddings. Part
Il is devoted to Irrigation.

II. Proceedings of Scientifie Societies.

Annals of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, nos. 6-12, March,
1894, contains: The granite of Mounts. Adam and Eve, Warwick, Or-
ange county, N. Y., and its contact phenomena, by J. F. Kemp and
Arthur Hollick, with an appendix containing a list and bibliography of
the minerals occurring in Warwick township, by Heinrich Ries.

Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 5, pp. 515-665,
contains: Eastern boundary of the Connecticut Triassic, W. M. Davis
and L. 8. Griswold; Pleistocene problems in Missouri, J. E. Todd; Pro-
ceedings of the sixth annual meeting, held at Boston, Dec. 27, 28 and
29,1893, H. L. Fairchild; Geological writings of Alexander Winchell:
Geological writings of Charles Albert Ashburner, F. A. Hill: Geological
writings of David Honeyman, J. G. MeGregor; Geological writings of
George H. Cook, J. ©. Smock: Geological writings of Richard Owen, J.
Stanley-Brown; Fossil flora of Alaska, Frank H. Knowlton; Johann
David Schoepf, and his contributions to North American geology, G.
H. Williams; the later Tertiary lacustrine formations of the West, W.
B. Scott; Voleanite, an anorthoclase-augite rock chemically like the
dacites, W. H. Hobbs; Geographical work for state geological surveys,

128 The American Geologist. August, 1894

W. M. Davis: the ancient strait at Nipissing, F. B. Taylor: Microscopic
structure of silicious odlite, E. O. Hovey.
ITT. Papers in Scientific Journals.

American Journal of Science, 8, vol. 47, May, 1894, contains: Obser-
vations on the derivation and homologies of some articulates, J. D.
Dana: Crystallization of herderite, S. L. Penfield; Additional note on
leucite in Sussex Co., N. J., J. F. Kemp: Phonolitic rocks from the
Black Hills, L. V. Pirsson: General structure of the main axis of the
Green Mountains, C. L. Whittle: Notes on apparatus for the geological
laboratory, J. E. Wolff: Diversity of the Glacial drift along its bound-
ary, Warren Upham: Gases in Kilauea, W. Libby, Jr.; Presence of wa-
ter in topaz, P. Jannasch and J. Locke: Chemical composition and re-
lated physical properities of topaz, S. L. Penfield and J. C. Minor, Jr.:
Restoration of Elotherium, O. C. Marsh: New Miocene mammal, O. C.
Marsh.

American Journal of Science, 3, vol. 47, June, 1894, contains: Notes
from the Bermudas, Alex. Agassiz: Discovery of Devonian rocks in Cal-
ifornia, J. S. Diller and Chas. Schuchert; Beaver Creek meteorite, E
E. Howell, W. F. Hillebrand, and G. P. Merrill; On allanite crystals.
from Franklin Furnace, N. J., A. S. Eakle: On argyrodite anda new
sulphostannate of silver from Bolivia, 8. L. Penfield; Notes on the gold
ores of California, H. W. Turner: A recent analysis of Pele’s hair and
a stalagmite from the lava caves of Kilauea, A. H. Phillips.

The Journal of Geology, vol. 2, No. 8, April-May, 1894, contains: The
oil shales of the Scottish Carboniferous system, H. M. Cadell; The Cre-
taceous rim of the Black Hllls, L. F. Ward: On Diplograptide, Lap-
worth, Carl Wiman: Geological Surveys in Alabama, E. A. Smith: The
superficial alteration of ore deposits, R. A. F. Penrose, Jr.: Studies for
students: Erosion, transportation and sedimentation performed by the
atmosphere, J. A. Udden.

American Naturalist, June, 1894, contains: A glacial ice dam and a
limit to the ice-sheet in central Ohio, W. G. Tight.

National Geographic Magazine, vol. 6, pp. 68-128, May 28, 1894, con-
tains: Geomorphology of the southern Appalachians, C. W. Hayes and
M. R. Campbell.

IV. Eecerptsand Individual Publications,

The work and scope of the Geological Survey. By C. R. Keyes. lowa
Geol. Survey, vol, II], Ann. Rept. for 1893, pp. 47-98, 1894.

Sketch of the coal deposits of Iowa. By C. R. Keyes. Mineral Re-
sources of the United States for 1892, pp. 138-144, 1893.

Natural gas and oil in lowa. By C. R. Keyes.

Cretacious formations of northwestern Iowa (abstract). By C. R.
Keyes. Proc. lowa Acad. Sci. for 1893, vol. I, pt. 4. pp. 24, 25.

Derivation of the Unio fauna of the northwest. By C. R. Keyes. Proce.
Iowa Acad. Sci. for 1898, vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 26-29.

Vertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas. By F. W. Cragin. Fifth
Annual Publication of the Colorado College Scientifie Society: 4 pages,
1894.

ete wee
pear

Recent Publications, 129
Structure of the Mystic coal basin. 3v H. Foster Bain. Proc. lowa

Acad. Sci. for 1893, vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 33-36.
Sigourney deep well. By H. Foster Bain. Proc. Acad. Sci. for 1893,
‘ vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 36-38.

Muir Glacier. By S. P. Baldwin. The Lehigh Quarterly, vol. I, no.
1, pp. 3-12, Jan., 1892.

Noteson the lower strata of the Devonian. series in ORS Bye oH.
Norton. Proc. lowa—Acad. Sci. for 1893, vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 22-24.

The zine-ore-deposits of southwestern New Mexico. By W. P. Blake.
Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, Virginia Beach meeting, Feb.,
1894: 9 pages.

Memoir of Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden. By C. A. White. National
Acad. Sci., pp. 395-413, 1894: with portrait.

Additions to the paleontology of the Cretaceous formation on Long
Island. By Arthur Hollick. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. 21, pp. 49-65,
7 plates, Feb. 1894.

Some furthur notes on the geology of the north shore of Long Island.
By Arthur Hollick. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 13. pp. 122-132, 1894.

The Rensselaer grit plateau in New York. By T. Nelson Dale. 13th
Ann. Rept., U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 291-340, pls. 97-101, 1894.

am Facetted pebbles on Cape Cod, Mass. By W.M. Davis. Proce. Boston
Soc. Natural History, vol. 26, pp. 166-175, 2 plates.
A summary of progress in mineralogy and petrography. By W-.S.

Bayley. From monthly notes in the American Naturalist: Geological
Dept., Colby University, Waterville, Me., 1894: price 50 cents.

An orbicular granite from Quonochontogue Beach, Rhode Island.
By J. F. Kemp. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 140-144, pl. 2
1894.

Notes on the Lower Coal Measures of western Clearfield county, Penn-
sylvania. By J. F. Kemp. School of Mines Quarterly, pp. 349-353,
July, 1893.

A Pleistocene lake-bed at Elizabethtown, Essex county, New York.
By Heinrich Ries. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 107-109, Nov.,
1893.

The old Telegraph mine, Bingham Canon, Utah. By Clarence Fen-
ner. School of Mines Quarterly, pp. 385-360, July, 1893.

Illustrations of the fauna of the St. John group, No. VILL. By G. F.
Matthew. Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, Sec. LV, 1893, pp. 85-129, 2 plates.

Growth of lowa’s coal gag sv C. R. Keyes. Iowa Weather and
Crop Service, vol. IV, no. 12, pp. 5-7, Dec., 189%

What the lowa tea Survey hag ban ‘n doing. By C. R. Keyes.
lowa Weather and Crop Service, vol. V, no. 1, pp. 4-7, Jan., 1894.

The geological mapping of lowa. By C. R. Keyes. lowa Weather and
Crop Service, vol. V. no. 2, pp. 4-6, Feb., 1894,

Southern extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa. By E. H. Lonsdale.
Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. for 1893, vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 89-43.

Topography of the granite and porphyry region of Missouri. By E.
H. Lonsdale. Proc. lowa Acad. Sci. for 1898, vol. 1, pt. 4, pp. 43-48.

130 The American Geologist. August, 1894

Process of formation of certain quartzites (abstract), By C. R.
Keyes. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. for 1898, vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 29-81.

lowa gypsum deposits. By C. R. Keyes. lowa Weather and Crop
Service, vol. IV, no. 3, pp. 2-4, March, 1893.

The geology of the proposed tunnel under the Northumberland Strait.
By R. W. Ells.. Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, Sec. IV, 1893, pp. 75-84.

Popular Lectures and Addresses. By Sir William Thomson (Baron
Kelvin). Vol. m. Geology and General Physics. 599 pages, 12mo: Mac-
millan & Co., 1894: price $2.

V. Foreign Publications,

Sveriges Geologiska Undersdkning, Ser. C, Afhandlingar och Uppsat-
ser, contains: No. 112, Sveriges kambrisk-Siluriska Hyolithide och
Conulariidee (with an English summary), pp. 1-169, 6 plates, Gerhard
Holm; No. 116, Om kvartsit-sparagmitomradet i Sveriges sydliga
fjelltrakter, pp. 1-20, A. G. H6gbom:; No. 117, Bidrag till kannedomen
om de glaciala foreteelserna i Norrbotten, pp. 1-38. 1 map, K. A. Fred-
holm: No. 118, Skotska byggnadssaétt f6r naturlig sten, pp. 1-16, 1
plate, Hjalmar Lundbohm; No. 219, Agronomiskt botaniska studier i
norra Dalarne aren 1890 och 1891, pp. 1-60, A. G. Kellgren; No. 120,
Untersuchungen tiber fossile Hélzer Schwedens, pp. 1-99, 11 plates, H.
Conwentz; No. 121, Om mynningen hos Lituites, pp. 1-46, 3 plates,
Gerhard Holm: No. 122, Méddelanden om jordstétar i Sverige, LI, pp.
1-22, E. Svedmark: No. 128, Anteckningar fran en i praktiskt syfte
foretagen geologisk resa i Vesterbottens lan, pp. 1-14, Albert Blomberg;
No. 124, Studier 6fver de glaciala aflagringarna i Upland, pp. 1-24, 1
plate, A. G. Hégbom: No. 125,Om skiffern med Clonograptus tenellus,
dess fauna och geologiska alder, pp. 1-16, 1 plate, J. C. Moberg; Om en
nyupptackt fauna i block af kambrisk sandsten, pp. 1-18, 1 plate, J. C.
Moberg; Om nagra nya graptoliter fran Skanes undre graptolitskiffer,
pp. 1-18, 1 plate, J. C. Moberg: Till fragen om pygidets byggnad hos
Ctenopyge pecten, pp, 1-5, J. C, Moberg: Om dem af Trinucleus cos-
cinorrhinus Ang. karakteriserade kalkens geologiska alder, pp, 1-4, J.
C. Moberg; No. 126, Om berggrunden i Norrbottens lan och utsigterna
till brytvairda apatitforekomster derstédes, pp. 1-48, 1 map, Fredr.
Svenonius; No. 127, Apatitforekomster i Norrebottens malmberg, pp,
1-38, Hjalmar Lundbohm; No. 128, Om miarken efter isd&émda sjéar
i Jemtlands fjelltrakter, pp. 1-22, 2 plates, A. J. Hégbom: Om inter-
glaciala aflagringar i Jemtland, pp. 1-17, A. G. Hégbom; No. 129,
Om stenindustrien i Férenta staterna, pp. 1-32, Hjalmar Lundbohm:
No. 130, Bidrag till kinnedomen om lagerf6ljden inom den kambriska
sandstenen, pp. 1-17, N. O. Holst; No. 131, Praktisk geologiska under-
sokningar inom Hallands lin: Beskrifning till geologisk jordartskarta
ofver Hallands lin, Gerard De Geer, J. Jénsson, P. Dusén and Th.
Palmbere: Beskrifning 6fver berggrunden inom Hallands lan, pp. 1-16,
KE. Svedmark: No. 132, Om Bergerunden i Vesternorrlands kusttrakter,
pp. 8-8, Hjalmar Lundbohm: Om _ postarkéiska eruptiver inom det
svenskfinska urberget, pp. 9-40, 1 plate, A. G. Hégbom:; Om des. k.

Recent Publications. 131

urgraniterna i Upland, pp. 41-74, A. G. Hégbom; No. 133, Om de por-
fyriska eanebergarterna i 6stra Smaland, pp. 1-28, Otto Nordenskj6ld;
No. 134, Om hasselns forntida och nutida utbredning i Sverige, pp. 1-
32, Herman Hedstrém.

The Glacialists’ Magazine, vol. 1, no. 7, Feb., 1894, contains: Sec-
tions in the drift at Shelton, Hanley, F. Barke: The cause of the ice
age, abstract of paper by Marsden Manson; The great submergence,
Edward Hull.

Mathematische und naturwissenschattliche Mittheilungen aus den
Sitzungsb. der k. preussischen Akad. der Wissens. zu Berlin, Heft viii,
Oct., 1893, contains: Die Gliederung der ober Kreide in Friaul, Karl
Futterer.

The same, Heft ix, Noy. 1893, contains: Sulfoborit, ein neues krys-
tallisirtes Borat von Westeregln, H. Biicking.

The same, Heft x, Dec. 1893, contains: Ueber die Gliederung der
Fl6tzformationen Helgolands, W. Dames: Mittheilungen zur Kennt-
niss der regular krystallisirenden Substanzen, Ludwig Wulff.

Viertel jahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich,
Jahre. 38, Heft 3-4, 1893, contains: Ueber Neocomian-Versteinerun-
gen aus dem Somali-Land, C. Mayer-Eymar.

Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin, Band 38, 1895,
No. 5. contains: Devonische Versteinerungen von Lagoinha in Mato
Grosso (Brasilien), Ludw. v. Ammon.

On the sequence of perlitic and spherulitic structures, a rejoinder to
criticism, Frank Rutley. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 50, pp. 10-14,
1 plate, 1894.

Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo, I, 1894, contains: Mem-
oria geolégica sobre la formacién del Rio de la Plata, D. A. Larranhaga.

Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de VOuest de la France,
Tome 8, No. 4, contains: Additions a la flore é0céne du Bois-Gouét,
Ed. Bureau and N. Patouillard; Notice explicative de la Feuille géol-
ogique de Vannes, Ch. Barrois.

Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 3 Sér., T. 21, 1893, No. 2,
contains: Note sur les phénomeénes de recouvrement des environs de
Toulon, Ph. Ztrcher: Recherches sur le Lepidodendron selaginoides,
Sternb., Maurice Hovelacque: Sur le Tertiaire supérieur de |’ Algérie,
M. Peron; Allocution présidentielle, Michel Lévy; Rapport sur le’ prix
Fontannes, Marcel Bertrand; Note sur un gite cuivreux d'origine vol-
canique du Caucase méridional, M. Chaper: Notice gévlogique sur les
environs de Menton, G. Baron: Note sur les genres Trillina et Linderina,
C. Schlumberger; Sur le Permien du massif de la Vanoise, P. Termier;
Le Quaternaire du maz d’Azil, M. Tardy.

The same, 3 Sér., Tome 21, 1893, No. 4, contains: Sur un gisement
@ammonites dans le Lias calcaire de VOisans, P. Termier and W.
Kilian; Sur la géologie des environs de Bugarach et la craie des Cor-
biéres, A. de Grossouvre; La fauna de Pikermi a Ambérieu (Ain), M.
Boistel; Sur le gisement et la signification des fossiles Albiens des Pyreé-
nées oecidentales, M. Stuart-Menteath; Note sur le Cambrien de I’ Hé-

132 The American Geologist. August, 1894

rault (Cambrian anglais), P. G. de Rouville; Notes paléontologiques, J,
Bergeron.
Geologiska FoOreningens i Stockholm Férhandlingar, Band 16, No;
155, Jan., 1894, contains: Om biologisk undersOdkning af leror o. s. ¥.;
Henr. Munthe; Om nordvastra Kamerunomridets geologi, P. Dusén.

The same, Band 16, No. 156, Feb., 1894, contains: Knopit, ett
perowskit néarstaende, nytt mineral fran Alnon, P. J. Holmquist; Flott-
holmen i sjon Ralangen, Victor Oberg: Tviinne nyupptickta svenska
klotgraniter, Helge Backstrom: Gangformiga malmbildningar i Norr-
botten, G. Lofstrand: Om kentrolit och melanotekit, G. Nordenskidld.

Zeitschrift fur praktische Geologie, March, 1894, contains: Geolo-
gische Specialaufnahme von Italien, Augusto Stella: Die Zink- und
Bleierzbergbaue bei Rubland in Unter-Karnten, R. Rosenlecher: Setze
die Saarbricker Steinkohlenformation unter dem pfalzischen Deckge;
birge fort’, LL. Rosenthal.

Natural science in Japan. By F. A. Bather. Natural Science, vol;
IV, pp. 19-26, 98-111, 183-198.

Notes on the occurrence of mammoth-remains in the Yukon district
of Canada and in Alaska. By G. M. Dawson. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc,
vol. I, Feb. 1894, 9 pages.

Lunds Universitets Ars-Skrift, tom, XXIX, 1892-93, contains: Obser-
vations on the structure of some Diprionidie, Sy. Leonh. Tornquist.

The Geological Magazine, April, 1594, contains: On the structure
and affinities of the genus Solenopora, together with descriptions of new
species, Alex. Brown: On the sand-grains in micaceous gneiss from the
St. Gothard tunnel, and on some other difficulties raised by Prof. Bon-
ney, F. M. Stapff: The Mammoth age was contemporary with the age
of the great @laciers, H. H. Howorth; Further remarks on the Tertiary
(Kocene) insects from the Isle of Wight, and on others from the ILias
and Coal-Measures, P. B. Brodie; Cordierite in the Lake district, Alfred
Harker: Jurassic ammonites, noteson a pamphlet by Dr. Emle Haug,
S:S. Buckman: Preservation of fossil plants, A. C. Seward: The great
Japanese earthquake, Joseph Prestwich.

Report on Mount Morgan gold deposits. By R.L. Jack. Reprinted
for the Mount Morgan Mining Company, Limited, from an_ official
report ordered by the Legislative Assembly:to be printed, Noy, 21, 1854,

VI. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories, ete.

The Kansas University Quarterly, vol. 2, No. 3. Jan.; 1894, contains:
Report on field work in geology for the season of 1893, by the depart-
ment of physical geology and mineralogy, University of Kansas (Pre-
fatory notes, E. Haworth: Relative value of limestone, sandstone and
shale for stratigraphic work in Kansas, E. Haworth; A geological see-
tion along the Neosho river from the Mississippian series in the Indian
Territory to White City, Kansas, and along the Cottonwood river from
Wyckoff to Peabody, EK. Haworth and M. Z. Kirk: A geologic section
along the Verdigris river from the state line to Madison, E. Haworth
and W. H. H. Piatt: A geologic section along the A. T. & 8. F. R. RK.
from Cherryvale to Lawrence, and from Ottawa to Holoday, KE. Haw-

Correspondence. 133

orth: Resumé of the stratigraphy of eastern Kansas, E. Haworth; The

topography of eastern Kansas, EK. Haworth; Surface gravels in’ eastern

Kansas, E. Haworth). <A geological reconnoissance in southwestern

Kkansas and No Man’s Land, E. C. Case: Traces of a glacier at Kansas

City, Mo., E. C. Case; New genera and species of Dolichopodidie, J. M.

Aldrich: Descriptions of North American Trypetidee, with notes, Part —
I, W. A. Snow. :

The School of Mines Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 2, Jan., 1894, contains:
Acanthite from Colorado,.A. H. Chester: Index to mineralogical litera-
ture, A.J. Moses and L. Mel. Luquer.

Johns Hopkins University Circulars, yol. 13, No. 112, May, 1894, con-
tains: On the attractions of crystalline and isotropic masses at small
distances (abstract), A. S. Mackenzie: Notes on crystals of seapolite,
eypsum and fayalite recently acquired by the University cabinet, G.O.
Smith: Note on an apatite crystal from Alexander county, N. ©., LL.M.
Prindle.

CORR ESLON DENCE.

TRILOBITES IN THE ‘Orn-Rock’? Horizon OF THE TRENTON LIMESTONE.
The Upper Blue limestone member of the Trenton group in the lead re-
‘gion of Wisconsin is generally highly fossiliferous. There are, however,
considerable local differences in the grouping of genera and species, and
especially as to quantity and condition of preservation. At one of the
mines of lead and zine ore of the Wisconsin Lead and Zine Company in
the township of Shullsburg, Lafayette county, | have recently found
several species of trilobites in a remarkably good state of preservation,
and showing details of structure not usually seen. Thus, aside from the
interest attaching to the discovery of so many of these organisms in
close association. with lead and zine ores, the locality promises to afford
valuable material to the specialists who are now investigating the strue-
ture of trilobites, and who have of late so greatly extended our knowl-
edge of it.

The genus Ceraurus is the most frequently represented. = In most of
the specimens the shell remains in the rock, but in an extremely soft
and fragile condition, white and chalk-like, much resembling eee shell,
but not so hard or tough.* But all the minute details of the shell are
well preserved and may be seen not only upon the shell, when it can be
saved, but upon the casts in the rock, both above and below. — It is not
possible to obtain complete individuals, but in) breaking up the rocks
where many of the fossils are grouped together some fragments exhibit
one portion and some another, so there is little difficulty in making out
the entire structure.

The cephalic portion of Ceraurus is the most abundant. There ap-

*Fragments are rapidly dissolved with effervescence by hydrochloric acid.

134 The American Geologist. August, 1894

pear to be two species: one of them is probably C. pleureranthemus: the
other species, Which remains undetermined, is smaller and less abun-
dant. It is not certain to which of these species the caudal spines found
associated with them should be referred.

There are two other trilobites: one is a small species, apparently a Dal-
mania, of which the pygidium alone is found; and the other is supposed
to be a species of Hncrinurus, also in fragments. Another form differs
from any described in the Wisconsin reports, being less rotund and
showing the three lobes by slight depressions in the smooth surface of
the pygidium. The outline is parabolic. The axial or medial lobe is
fully one-third of the breadth, anteriorly, but it tapers rapidly posteri-
orly, with the sides incurved. This axial lobe is only slightly convex,
but the lateral lobes slope downward steeply toward the margin, thus
presenting an outline in cross-section very different from any figured in
the Wisconsin reports. Possibly these should be referred to Asuphius.
The form of some of the fragments of the cephalic shield favors this
view.

Amongst the other associated fossils in a good state of preservation are
two or three species of Orthis and Murchisonia; one of Orthoceras; Cypri-
cardites, Raphistoma, Hyolithes, Streptelasma, and encrinal stems, These
may not all be from one stratum, but they are thrown out from the
same mine and are at least in neighboring layers and contiguous to a
deposit of galena in a layer with calcite in a blue clay. The horizon of
all the fossils is the ‘‘oil-rock’’ or bituminous shale series of thinly bed-
ded limestones, at the top of the Blue limestone of the Trenton and at
the base of the Galena dolomite.

I have not been able to find any traces of antennae in connection with
the trilobites. There are many obtuse conical fragments, beautifully
facetted, supposed to be the eyes of the species here referred provision-
ally to Hieerinurus or Asaphus, supported on gracefully shaped peduncles
rising from the smooth surface of thin plates.

The specimens I have collected need examination by competent au-
thority, and it will give me pleasure to submit the collection to any
specialist who will undertake to describe the species for publication.

Wm. P. BLAKE.

Helena Mill, Shullsburg township, Wisconsin, June 20, 1894.

THe Rock BAstn OF CAYUGA LAKE. <A paper on this subject by
Prof. R. 8. Tarr, was read before the Geological Society last December,
and is published in the Bulletin of the Society. As it touches upon my
investigations, I have a word or two of comment at present. He bases
his conclusions on certain lateral phenomena, and compares the former
slope of the drainage with the present lake level. In this paper he says
that the greatest depth of the lake’is 485 feet, being near the southern
end. Now, Mr. McGee has shown that the late terrestrial deformation
along the upper Susquehanna river is three feet to the mile to the north.
I have shown the same to occur in the Niagara district, and Mr. Gilbert
and myself have shown this or greater amounts at the eastern end of

Correspondence. 135

lake Ontario. Prof. Tarr ignores this tilting,.yet it has backed the Ca-
yuga water to a depth of over 100 feet at the southern end of the lake.
Therefore his data for comparing the ancient slope of the valley will not
stand. With this warping removed, the lake would be reduced to a
maximum depth of about 300 feet. I have been informed by well-borers
that north of the lake they have penetrated to a depth of 200 and 300
feet without reaching rock. This statement I do not think Prof. Tarr
has denied. Under these conditions there is no known rock basin at all,
to have been excavated by glaciers. If his evidence of glacier erosion
holds good, he must amend his thesis to glacial ‘‘erosion of valleys”’
not ‘‘basins.”’

Prof. Tarr also concludes that lake Ontario may be a rock basin, be-
cause he thinks Cayuga basin to be one. This I am willing to concede,
although his present proofs do not make it sure that lake Cayuga occu-
pies a rock basin. But again let me call attention to the fact that in
places the St. Lawrence river channel is filled with drift to a depth of
240 feet, so that the nearest rocky barrier closing the lake is only 500
feet above the deepest sounding of the lake. Now the recent warping
of the earth’s crust in this region far more than accounts for such a
barrier. Consequently, when the cause of a barrier is known, and can
be demonstrated as often as necessary, there is no need to appeal to the
glacial excavation of the basin, even if the old valley had been chan-
nelled by ice, the course of which was oblique to the southern walls of
the lake. J. W. SPENCER.

July 5th, 1894.

and

Tue AGE oF Nracara Fauris. This note is written simply as a pro-
test against anyone forming a conclusion as to my work on the history
of the great lakes, or forming judgments of the history of the lakes
themselves, upon the strength of Mr. Upham’s citations (Am. GErOoLO-
Gist, July, 1894) from my writings. It was I who first surveyed the Al-
gonquin beach and found that it proved that there was no connection at
that time with the Erie basin, but that there was a northeastern outlet.
From the present outlet of the lake [surveyed this beach for about 500
miles, and in my papers [ not only stated that the Algonquin beach
crossed what is now the outlet of lake Huron below the present lake sur-
face, but also mapped it. Yet Mr. Upham now says: ‘‘Careful study of
Prof. J. W. Spencer’s maps .... of the Huron and Erie shore lines con-
vinces me that the outflow of laké Algonquin at the time of the Nipis-
sing beach went by way of the present St. Clairand Detroit rivers..... 4
The very opposite is shown in my papers, and, if not, field observation
not only of the Algonquin but several lower beaches would show the
northern outlet adopted by Gilbert and myself, who were the first ob-
servers in the region.

This is not the first time that I have had reason for replying to Mr.
Upham when using my work, although it is the first time I offer a
printed criticism. His method of reasoning is @ priord to maintain that
the discharge of the Niagara has always been equal tothat of the present,

136 The American Geologist. August, 1894

against which he can find plenty of proof in the field. He also writes
of the Chicago outlet of the great lakes, and here again, had he studied
my papers, he would have seen that several beaches are lower than the
present surface of the head of lake Michigan,—submerged, in short,—
at levels higher than the drowned Algonquin or Nipissing beach (as he
calls it). Also he says that seven-eighths of the Algonquin uplift in the
Nipissing region took place before the birth of Niagara. I should like
to know the grounds for this calculation, for my computations, based
on the actual surveys of beaches show that only one-fifth of that uphft
was before the birth of Niagara, and that the age of the Niagara falls
is indicated to be about 82,000 vears. Mr. Upham ’s paper is misleading,
so far as anything I have done in surveys of the lakes is concerned; but
I dislike to criticise any writer, and especially before all the results are
published, for there are other phenomena that cannot be explained away
by «@ priori reasoning.

One word more: around the northeastern flanks of the Adirondacks
beaches extend at high levels into the Champlain valley (and contain no
shells). The position of these beaches disproves any glacial dam at that
locality. J. W. SPENCER,

July Sth, 1894.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEW:

GeorGE Huntincron Wiiiiams, Professor of Inorganic Ge-
ology in Johns Hopkins University and vice president of the
Geological Society of America, died of typhoid fever at his
father’s house, Utica, N. Y., July 12th; aged 38. Prof. Wil-
liams graduated from Amherst in 1878 and studied under
Rosenbusch at Heidelberg, where he took the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in 1882; the next year he became connected
with Johns Hopkins and was associate professor there from
1885 to 1892 when he was appointed to the chair he held at
his death. A number of the younger geologists of the coun-
try have studied under him and to them, as well as to all who
knew him, the news of his death comes with special sadness.
In an early number of the GroLocisr we hope to give a more
extended account of the life and work of Prof. Williams, who,
both by his publications and his teaching, has done more
than any other individual to advance the knowledge of pe-
trography in America.

Ar tHE Kansas Srare University the whole subject of
stratigraphic and physical geology has been assigned to Prof.
Haworth, leaving only paleontology to Prof. Williston. A
collecting expedition to the ‘bad lands” of Dakota has been
made under the direction of Prof. Williston.

“NVIHOV 14S MAN V ‘SNOISINOVIN ~€SNdGOaQV19

Melty episuy BRE. “7 Lam0T fo snumy yybry
¢ bu 77 fo 23729 '% ‘odhwa 7 SUI IUD DUL SUPOPY) Yeu pus22t fo mol fo worpapy

“you. a aug

—_—_.,

‘A DLVTd “ATX “OA

“LSIDOTONY NVOINANY aH,

THE
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vor. XIV. SEPTEMBER, 1894. No. 3.

[PALEONTOLOGICAL NOTES FROM BUCHTEL COLLEGE.—NO. 7.]
CLADODUS ? MAGNIFICUS, A NEW SELACHIAN.
By E. W. CLaypote, Akron, Ohio.

(PrLate V.)

Among the latest discoveries which have rewarded the per-
sistent search of the veteran collector, Dr. Clark, is a jaw, or
‘ather, a pair of mandibles whose characters are remarkable
enough to deserve description, even though we at present
know almost nothing, except by inference, of the animal which
it represents.

I have figured the inner surface of one of these in the ac-
companying plate. The other is, unfortunately, broken across
and incomplete, yet abundantly sufficient for recognition.
They were found lying almost free on the surface of a slab of
shale, in the valley of the Rocky river on the same horizon—
the Cleveland shale—that has already yielded us so many
kindred fossils.

The right ramus, which is the best preserved, and whose in-
ner face is here figured, will form the basis of the following
description. So far as it affords characters, these are clear
and determinate, but, unfortunately, no trace of teeth was
found, so that it is not possible to aftirm whether or not the
jaw belongs to a cladodont fish.

It is of very large size, measuring fifteen inches in length
by three inches and a half in greatest depth. It is a flat, thin
plate of bone corrugated along the edge, but generally not
exceeding one-eighth of an inch in thickness, though in places
it may be double this. A well marked but shallow fossa for
the reception of the condyle is present, which faces slightly
inward as well as upward. In front of this and behind it are
processes for the attachment of the connecting ligaments,

138 The American Geologist. September, 1894

much resembling those which may be seen on the jaws of the
existing sharks. From the hindmost point and along the
lower edge runs a strong corrugation, formed rather by a
folding than by a thickening of the bony plate, and this ex-
tends forward at least two-thirds of the length of the jaw and
gradually fades away. Outside of this and on the same inner
face is a furrow corresponding to a strong ridge on the outer
side, extending forward in the same manner and to about the
same extent.

The upper edge, however, shows the most obvious charae-
ters. Ata point about one-third from the hinder extremity
commences a strong shelf or corrugation in the bony plate on
its inner face, which is equally conspicuous on the outer side
and may be well seen in the two sections given in the plate.
The outer wall of this shelf has been crushed in to a small ex-
tent, but not so as in any way to disguise its form. Evidently
_it was the base on which was set the epithelial membrane
that carried the teeth, and the recess in the jaw above the
-horizontal shelf served the same purpose as the similar recess
in the jaw of an existing shark, to protect the young teeth
and to keep them out of the way of the functional ones, The
close resemblance between the two, Devonian and recent, may
be seen by looking at the section of the latter given in the
plate where the teeth are shown in place.

The symphysial articulation is distinct, about one inch and
a half in length, straight and retreating below.

There are in the perpendicular wall of the dentiferous mar-
gin of the jaw six or seven very slight undulations or recesses
of the bone which may and probably do mark the position of
as many series of immature teeth. In that case the teeth must
have been of large size and distant. Probably they were both.
The intervals average about one inch each, but the vertical
wall is rather less than an inch high. The teeth were there-
fore limited in hight to probably about an inch.

The reference of this fossil to Cladodus is of course pro-
visional in the absence of teeth. But its general structure
establishes its selachian affinity, and its resemblance in gen-
eral to other fossils from the same stratum warrants a clado-
dont association, at least for the present.

The only other fragment which was found in close proxim-

Cladodus? magnificus, a New Selachian.—Claypole. 139

ity to it was a small bony plate or scute, represented in the
figure, nearly two inches in length by one inch wide, with
vermiculated surface and evidently external. If this is really
a part of the same fish, as seems highly probable, it indicates
a much coarser dermic armor on at least a part of the animal
than the ordinary shagreen of the sharks; but in the existing
uncertainty on this point it would be useless to pursue it
further.

Taking the present fossil in connection with its related
forms which have been described in previous numbers of the
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, We can gather one or two important
facts in regard to the fishes of the Devonian era in Ohio. While
their kinship with the existing sharks is obvious, they yet show
considerable difference. In the first place, the position of the
mouth is strikingly different, so much so as to deprive them
of the very peculiar and characteristic aspect which we asso-
ciate with the shark at the present time. The mouth in all
the recent genera is not terminal but occupies a position con-
siderably behind the snout on the ventral surface, indicating
on the part of the animals a habit of feeding on the ground
or on prey that lies below them. So marked is this feature
that, as is well known, the shark cannot seize an object on the
top of the water or above it without turning belly-upward.
But the Devonian sharks, at. least the cladodonts, had a ter-
minal or nearly terminal mouth, as indicated plainly in the
fossils, and were not therefore specially adapted for ground-
feeding. In a few specimens the mouth appears to be slightly
ventral. In the second place, the jaws of existing sharks are
strongly curved and twisted, the upper often forming a com-
plete semicircle, whereas those of the Cladodonts from the
Devonian of Ohio are straight and flat, and, so far as known,
the upper jaw was of a similar form.

It is not necessary to contrast the narrow elongated phase
of the tooth of the recent forms with the wide though one-
sided base of those of Cladodus, since it is well known to
every ichthyologist.

If we may infer'the size of the fish to which the fossil here
described belongs, from the analogy with other Ohio clado-
donts, we may safely predicate a shark not less than ten feet,
and probably more, in length. So far it is by much the larg-

140 The American Geologist. September, 1894

est of its family that has come to light, the longest previously
known searcely exceeding one-half of this size. Dr. Clark is,
however, in possession of one or two cladodont teeth too large
to correspond with the dimensions of the smaller specimens,

whieh have for some time indicated to him the existenee of.

larger forms hitherto unknown, the first of which is described
in this note.

These researches and discoveries have established the exis-
tence of an abundant selachian fauna in the Cleveland shale,

with the general form of which we are now much _ better-

acquainted than we are with those later ones from the Car-
boniferous limestone wliose spines and teeth have long been
abundant in our museums, but of which themselves we have
yet but the merest glimpse in one or two ill preserved speci-
mens in European collections.

THE NIOBRARA CHALK.*
By SAMUEL CALVIN, Iowa City, lowa.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Avéal-Distribwiiony sooo cae eee ae gee oe ee aa Peake 8
Physical Characteristics........ ne dale ly See Weare ce ete Sea
Stratigraphical and Bathyniebrical Relations es See ere eA a
Characters of the deposits in different localities come ee ea 1
Paleontology of the Chalk.. sihess See rns ot @ (0°
Hesitancy of American deolupists to recognize Pile Nokes

deposits as Chalke i 25.0es s tae Gan Soto Cane ERE tere eee 147
What is Chalk?.. ete Pas Se ct
Some References bs 1! Weagite. | in PeniGlt eiitter te Chalky

Character or Foraminifera! Origin of the Niobrara depos-

its is recognized... S cisWtite ake sicelsyseetcle ciniens oi ieehs ae eet e Tete 149
Composition of the Nisbrara Chalk i in ‘the Sionk TIVER FEDION = 5 oo ae 153
The Micro-paleontology of the Chalk.. Bice baat eee 154
The Foraminifera, with Observations on ‘their Distubution. woes alow PLS
Probable cause of the differences observed.........- LER Path een 4 Se AE SO)
Comparison with English Chalk.. ro 160

It was my originai purpose ‘to take ‘for ‘the subject of this
discourse some geological problems in northeastern Iowa, but
certain circumstances made it seem more desirable to transfer
attention to the northwestern part of the state and discuss the
more striking features of the Niobrara chalk.

*Vice- presidential address before the section of Geology and Geogra-
phy, American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 16,
1894.

“tiie eae eae

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 141

_ The Niobrara stage of the Upper Cretaceous is well repre-

sented along the Missouri from the mouth of the Niobrara
river to the mouth of the Big Sioux. East of the Sioux, beds
of the same stage are found at various points in Iowa as far
eastward as Auburn in Sac county,* while fossils distributed
through the drift indicate the former existence of Cretaceous
strata at points many miles farther east than any localities

where they are now known to occur in place.t
AREAL DIsTRIBUTION.

The general distribution of the Niobrara deposits, it need not
be said in this presence, covers an area reaching from western
Iowa to the Rocky mountains, while north and south it
stretches from Texas to Manitoba and probably northward to
the Arctic ocean. It is not my intention to extend the dis-
cussion of the formation so as to cover more than a very small
fraction of this magnificent area. I purpose rather to limit
myself to some of the characteristiés of the Niobrara chalk
exhibited in the somewhat restricted region lying between the
mouth of the river from which the formation takes its name
and the most eastern exposure of the beds at present known,
near Auburn, Iowa. Within these rather narrow limits all the
typical phases of the Niobrara formation are perfectly exem-
plified, and ample facilities are afforded for the satisfactory
study of its composition. Furthermore, it will be remembered
that the shore line of the Niobrara’sea passed through Towa,
and during the culmination of the conditions that gave us the
peculiar deposits of this portion of geological time the sea
margin was probably not very far east of Auburn. Indeed it
may be shown that the shore line was subject to many move-
ments of advance and retreat, and that during the early part of
the Niobrara age the sum of the movements was eastward and
the ocean gradually encroached upon the land; while later
the reverse was true and the waters retreated toward the
west. For these reasons the region to which the discussion is
limited affords facilities for determining the effects of vary-
ing depths of water and varying degrees of proximity to the
shore upon the composition and origin of its sedimentary de-

ACK: Keyes, Proceedings lowa Acad. Sci., Vol,..I, part: 1V,;p. 2a
1894.

tC. A. White, Proceedings A. A. A. S., Vol. 21, p. 187, 1872.

142 The American Geologist. September, 1894

posits. In the eastern part of the region we may look for
marginal beds of Niobrara age, and farther west we should
find contemporaneous beds that accumulated off shore in the
clear open sea.

PuysicaL CHARACTERISTICS.

The Niobrara sediments are unique among the geological
formations of the Northwest. Where typically developed they
are wholly calcareous, or nearly so, and yet they are altogether
unlike the limestones that are so common and so characteris-
tic a feature of the geology of the upper part of the Mississ-
ippi valley. They lie indeed in massive strata, varying from
six inches to more than two feet in thickness, as do some of
the limestones, but the material is chalky in appearance and
correspondingly soft in texture. The color of freshly ex-
posed surfaces varies from white through shades of gray and
yellow. In some instances the weathered surfaces become
reddish owing to the final oxidation of the small amount of
iron which the beds contain. The material composing what
anyone studying the region under consideration would call
the typical deposits, may be excavated with pick and spade;
it may be carved with the pocket knife; the massive blocks
into which the layers are readily quarried may be shaped with
the saw with greater ease even than if they were blocks of
wood; the material is so soft, indeed, that it cannot be han-
dled without soiling the fingers; it may be used for writing
on the blackboard; the mechanic might use it on his chalk
lines; in a word, these typical. beds to which our attention
will be chiefly directed are nothing more nor less than chalk.

It is not to be understood, however, that all the Niobrara
deposits of our somewhat circumscribed region are chalky.
Some would have to be described as soft calcareous shales,
while others are made up of thin-bedded, fissile limestone,
sometimes more or less earthy and impure, but composed
chiefly of valves of Znoceramus problematicus cemented to-
gether. It is only the beds that represent what we may call
the perfect and ideal product of the conditions that prevailed
during Niobrara time that are massive, soft and chalky.

STRATIGRAPHICAL AND BATHYMETRICAL RELATIONS.

Allow me to traverse familiar ground long enough to say

that the Niobrara chalk is a part of the Missouri Cretaceous

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 143

series that was long ago made classic by the labors of Meek
and Hayden. The work of Hill and others in Texas enables
us now to refer the beds in question to the Upper Cretaceous,
as distinguished from the Comanche or Lower Cretaceous
series of the Southwest. In the region we are considering the
Cretaceous begins with the Dakota sandstone, a formation in-
dicative of shallow seas and moderately high contiguous
shores. During the deposition of the Dakota beds the water
over what we now call Sioux City was shallow and vexed
sometimes with contlicting currents, as is shown by the cross-
bedded sands with oblique planes inclined in many different
directions. That the land was high enough to enable the
drainage waters to carry coarse mechanical sediments, that it
was covered with semi-tropical forests of deciduous trees, and
that its surface was watered with a most generous rainfall,
are clearly recorded in the material composing the deposits,
in the taxonomic relations of the leaves and other organs that
make up the profusion of fossil plants which some of the beds
contain, and in the brackish-water types composing the rather
meager molluscan fauna of the earlier layers. Moreover the
region was part of a great area of subsidence. If we limit
attention to some given point, for example the bluffs above
the mouth of the Sioux river, we shall find certain facts
clearly recorded. During the entire time represented by the
Upper Cretaceous there may have been many alternations of
elevation and subsidence, but at first the waters were gradu-
ally deepened and the shore line became more and more re-
mote. As these processes went forward the coarser sediments,
together with the leaves and twigs of the magnificent forest
flora clothing the land, all came to rest in the beds laid down
near the constantly receding shore, and only the finer clays
were carried seaward as far as the point we have selected for
consideration. With progressive subsidence the land stood
lower, the drainage streams became more sluggish, erosion was
less energetic, and it is probable that at this stage even in the
marginal sediments the materials were fine clay with little
admixture of siliceous sand. At all events, at a short dis-
tance from the shore we have the transition from Dakota
sands, with some alternating beds of shales, to the purer Fort
Benton clays, which represent the second phase of sedimenta-

144 The American Geologist. September, 1894

tion in our selected area during Cretaceous times. The Benton
shales are not very thick in this region, probably not more
than 40 feet altogether. While they were accumulating the
process of subsidence went on, as before, at arate more rapid
than the upward growth of the sedimentary deposits. The
lands, that during the Dakota stage had stood high above the
sea, were by progressive subsidence reduced in altitude until
finally base level was reached, and the sluggish drainage
streams discharging into this part of the Cretaceous basin
failed to carry even the finer clay and at last mechanical sedi-
ments gave place to those of organo-chemical origin. When
these conditions were reached, the region witnessed the be-
ginning of the third phase of sedimentation in the Cretaceous
seas, and the Niobrara stage, with its peculiar beds of chalk,
was inaugurated. Reviewing for a moment the conditions
prevailing in that portion of the region that now lies west of
the Sioux river, we may note that the water was clear, moder-
ately deep, and unpolluted by mechanically derived earthy
detritus; that the shore line, a portion of the time at least,
was a hundred miles to the eastward; that the body of land
contiguous to the shore was low and _ flat, and drained by
streams with currents too feeble to bear any contributions
from the land to the sea. It was in such asea and under such
conditions that the Niobrara chalk was deposited.

Before the Niobrara age came to a close, the upward move-
ment of the region began. Step by step the sea receded from
its line of farthest advanee, somewhere east of the middle of
Iowa. Progressive elevation of the land quickened into life
the practically dead streams of the Niobrara age, and mechan-
ical sediments appeared once more in the Cretaceous sea and
settled down upon the surface of the chalk to become the
lower beds of the Fort Pierre shales. The Fort Pierre shales
are found as far east as Yankton, South Dakota, and recently
Keyes claims that they have been identified in northwestern
Iowa.* In the latitude of Sioux City they may have origin-
ally extended beyond the Sioux river. Our region during
Cretaceous times witnessed, therefore, a fourth phase of sedi-
mentation. With the incursion of mud that inaugurated the
work of building the strata of the Pierre group, the condi-

*Proceedings Iowa Acad. Sci., Vol. Part IV; p: 25, 1894.

;

3 The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 145

tions that made the Niobrara chalk possible were brought to
anend. The swarming life that furnished the organic skel-
etons of which the chalk is constructed was unable to maintain
existence under the changed environment.

It will be noted that in the Sioux river region the condi-
tions that gave us successively the Dakota, Benton, Niobrara
and Pierre deposits passed one into the other by practically
imperceptible gradations. While in the Black Hills the tran-
sition from the Dakota sands to the Benton shales is very ab-
rupt, along the Sioux river the transition is so gradual that
any line of separation would seem to be purely arbitrary.
Indeed it might seem as if any lines dividing a system of
strata that have resulted from a process of continuous depo-
sition under very gradually changing conditions must be more
or less arbitrary. In the Sioux river region the Niobrara beds,
however, stand out distinctly and sharply defined from all the
rest both lithologically and micropaleontologieally, and if di-
visions are recognized, these must rank as a separate forma-
tion. The features that distinguish this group of strata from
the Dakota-Benton below and the Pierre above depend upon
the fact that when the subsidence that affected the bottom of
the Cretaceous sea and the adjacent shores was at, or below, a
certain stage, mechanical sediments failed, and the absence
of such sediments favored the enormous expansion of certain

types of microscopic life endowed with power to protect their
soft protoplasmic bodies with shells of carbonate of lime.
The dead skeletons of successive generations of such organ-
isms, unmixed with the grosser products of land erosion, con-
stitute practically the only sediments that accumulated during
the Niobrara phase of the Cretaceous. It is upon the nature
of these skeletons and their mode of aggregation that the very
unusual characteristics of the rocks belonging to this particu-
lar stage depend.

CHARACTERS OF THE DEPOSITS IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES
‘ COMPARED.

As has already been said, the Niobrara deposits are not
uniformly chalky; neither have they had everywhere exactly
the same origin. They differ in these respects at different lo-
calities, and, to some extent, at different levels in the same
exposure. Along the Sioux river certain portions of the for-

146 The American Geologist. September, 1894

mation consist of thin-bedded, brittle, shelly limestones with
chalky partings between the lamine. In such eases the
crowded valves of Jnoceramus problematicus leave no doubt
as to the principal source of the material composing the
strata. Near Ponca, Nebraska, the Inoceramus-bearing beds
are more compact than on the Sioux, and they are associated
with heavier and more typical beds of chalk. <A little farther
up the Missouri, at Saint Helena, there are no Inoceramus
beds. Traces of occasional valves may be found here and
there in the uniformly massive layers that rise one above the
other in a vertical wall of almost snowy whiteness; but there
is nothing corresponding to the immense aggregations of indi-
viduals that we find farther east. ‘There are some small
colonies of Ostrea congesta, but, on the whole, mollusk shells
make up a very insignificant part of the deposit. The thick-
ness of the chalk at this point is about 90 feet, and it rests on
a foundation of Benton shales that rise to a hight of 40 feet
above the level of the water in the river. From Saint Helena
to the mouth of the Niobrara the exposures of chalk on both
sides of the Missouri present about the same general appear-
ance. At Yankton, South Dakota, the chalk is used on a large
seale in the manufacture of Portland cement. The beds
worked for this purpose, embracing a thickness of about 60
feet, lie geologically above those seen at Saint Helena, but
there are no essential differences in macroscopic characters to.
be noticed.
PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CHALK. :

It is aside from the purpose of this paper to discuss the
general paleontology of the chalk, in the region we are de-
scribing, with any approach to fullness. A few general state-
ments, indicating in a broad way the biological relations of
the deposit, are all that can be undertaken. Vertebrate
remains are not common, and the few that are known belong
to fishes. The sharks were represented by the genera Ptycho-
dus, Otodus, and Lamna, and of each there are indications of
but a single species. Bony fishes were present, but by no
means numerous. Among invertebrates the only forms at all
conspicuous are Jnoceramus problematicus and Ostrea congesta.
The former flourished best in the eastern half of our area, the
Ostrea is most common west of Ponea. But while forms large

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 147

enough for macroscopic study were comparatively few in
number both as to individuals and species, microscopic life of
wonderful beauty and of the highest scientific significance was
developed in incomprehensible profusion. The characteristic
faunas and the floras of the Niobrara must be studied with
the microscope.

HeEsiraAncy oF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS TO RECOGNIZE THE
NIoBRARA DEPOSITS AS CHALK.

Before discussing the microscopic life of the Niobrara age,
it may be worth the while to notice an interesting mental
attitude of leading American geologists to the question of the
existence of chalk on this side of the Atlantic. Notwithstand-
ing the fact that the earliest travellers up the Missouri river,
and every one who has since followed in their footsteps, must
have been convinced that the beds in question present, out-
wardly at least, all the physical characteristics of chalk, and
notwithstanding the further fact that professor Bailey point-
ed out the foraminiferal origin of the material as long ago as
1841, there yet grew up a very firmly rooted notion that the
peculiar earthy material we call chalk is not foynd in any of
the geological formations of this continent. For example,
professor Dana, in the second edition of his Manual, speaks of
the beds of sand, marl, and loosely aggregated shell limestone
in the Cretaceous strata of America, but he adds with inten-
tional emphasis that “they include in North America no
chalk.’ In the third edition of the Manual the statement is
modified so as to read that ‘“ they include in North America
no chalk, excepting in western Kansas, where, 350 miles west
of Kansas City, a large bed exists.” In the second edition of
Le Conte’s Elements of Geology we are told that chalk occurs
“nowhere except in Europe;” but in the third edition it is
stated that “recently good chalk composed of foraminiferal
shells, and containing flints, has been found in Texas.” In
the Geological Studies of Dr. Alexander Winchell, the author,
after discussing chalk, tells us on page 64, that ‘it does not
occur in America ;” and the impression is thought to be worthy
of repetition in nearly the same words on page 4383. In the
Canadian Naturalist for 1874 Dr. G. M. Dawson has an arti-

148 The American Geologist. September, 1894

cle on the Cretaceous rocks of Manitoba,* in which, referring
to the Cretaceous of America in general, he says that “this
formation contains no beds of true chalk.” At the meeting
of the Association of American Geologists in April, 1841, Nic-
ollet gave an account of the geology of the regions covered
by his explorations along the Upper Mississippi and Missouri.
In this account the Cretaceous strata along the Missouri are
noticed, and the statement is made that no true chalk or flint
was observed. Lyell also encourages the notion that there is

no chalk in America; but it will not be necessary to make °

further quotations in illustration of the attitude referred to.

While some of theleaders of geological thought on this side
of the water have been slow to acknowledge the presence of
chalk in the American Cretaceous, the plain people who are
not geologists, not governed by conventionalities nor influ-
enced by authorities, have never hesitated to call the material
composing certain parts of the Niobrara deposits “chalk.” At
Saint Helena, Yankton, and wherever, indeed, the formation
outerops in massive layers, the material is constantly referred
to as “chalk,” “chalk-rock,” or “chalk-stone.” The use of one
or another ofthese terms in common speech is more than fifty
years old, for in 1841 professor Bailey received from the far
northwest a sample of what was locally known as “prairie
chalk.” +

Wuat Is CHALK ?

Whether the material composing the Niobrara deposits is
chalk or not may depend somewhat on our definition of the
term; but if in England the name is applicable to a soft
whitish calcareous rock that accumulated on a sea bottom
lying beyond the reach of mechanical sediments, and was com-
posed of multitudes of practically entire shells of Foramini-
fera imbedded in an imperfectly indurated matrix of coeco-
liths and comminuted foraminiferal débris, then the term
may be justly applied to a very large portion of the deposits
of the Niobrara age along the Missouri river. For, in the
first Place, a very casual examination of the material would

*Note ou the occurrence of Warhueiniere ( anealtand etc., in ‘tas Cre-
taceous Rocks of Manitoba, Canadian Naturalist, vol. vu, No. 5, 1874.

+Amer. Jour. Sci. and Arts, first series, vol. xir, p. 400, 1841.

5 The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 149

establish its physical identity with much of the English chalk.
In the second place,.one-needs only the cheapest of compound
microscopes to demonstrate that it is surprisingly rich in the
most perfectly preserved specimens of Foraminifera that in a
large number of cases are specifically the same as those so
long known in the chalk of Europe. In the third place, a
better microscope will show that every cubic inch of the Nio-
brara chalk contains many millions of the minute cireular or
elliptical, disk-like bodies called coccoliths, which cannot be
distinguished from similar bodies occurring in similar num-
bers and in similar relations in typical chalk on the other
side of the Atlantic.

Some REFERENCES to LITERATURE IN WHICH EITHER THE CHALKY
CHARACTER OR FORAMINIFERAL ORIGIN OF THE NIOBRARA
DEPOSITS IS RECOGNIZED.

In view of the widely prevalent impression that the Ameri-
can Cretaceous contains no chalk, some references to the lit-
erature in which the chalky character or foraminiferal origin
of the beds in question is recognized may not be without
interest. In the American Journal for 1841* Prof. J. W.
Bailey describes the sample of “prairie chalk” already noted
as being very rich in beautiful forms of the “elegantly little.”
The “elegantly little’ are Polythalamia (Foraminifera) and of
these he gives four excellent figures which, although un-
named, are readily recognized as common species composing
a large proportion of typical chalk, whether we collect it in
England or along the Missouri river. In the same note it is
stated that professor Bailey has also found very interesting
forms of Polythalamia in the specimens collected by Mr. J. N.
Nicollet from the “far west.”

In 18483 Ehrenberg published his Memoir on the Extent and
Influence of Microscopic Life in South and North America.
Most of the work is devoted to diatoms and desmids, but a
few pages are given to the discussion of Foraminifera, includ-
ing forms from the Cretaceous chalks and marls along the
Missouri river. The abundance of foraminiferal species and
the identity of some with species occurring in the chalk of
Europe are among the facts established.

*LL0c. cit.

150 The American Geologist. September, 1894 -.

An extended notice of Ehrenberg’s memoir by professor
Bailey was published in 1844.* Copious extracts from the
memoir are incorporated in the notice, and in a foot-note
there is a figure of what is supposed to be Vexrtularia ameri-
cana, A year later there is another paper by professor Bai-
ley, which appears in the 48th volume of the same Journal,
and in the course of which the author says, concerning Fo-
raminifera in specimens from the Missouri river, that “they
are remarkably abundant and beautifully preserved.’’+

Between 1853 and 1861 Meek and Hayden’ worked out the
succession of Cretaceous strata along the Missouri. Numerous
papers were published under the joint authorship of the geol-
ogists named. The chalk of the Niobrara is frequently
mentioned, sometimes as “chalk marl,’ and sometimes as ‘“‘cal-
careous marl weathering to a yellowish or whitish appearance
above; and in their detailed section, published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
December, 1861, the “calcareous marl” of Formation number
3 is said to contain “several species of Textularia.”

The beds to which professor Dana refers in his Manual as
the only known example of American chalk are doubtless the
ones described by Mr. D. C. Collier in 1866.+ Of the material
forming these beds, which extend for a distance of over one
hundred and fifty miles east and west, Mr. Collier says: “On
one oceasion, in company with a companion, I was able to
climb to the top of a bluff of pure chalk, so soft that I could
cut and carve it with the knife I carried in my belt, and so
fine that it covered my clothes as thoroughly as when in my
college days a classmate wiped the blackboard with my back.”

In his first Annual Report of the United States Geological
Survey of the Territories, Dr. Hayden takes occasion to say
concerning the Niobrara division of the Cretaceous: “Its prin-
cipal character is a gray or light yellow chalky limestone ;
much of it so pure as to make a good chalk for commercial

purposes.’’§

*Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, first series, Vol. xLv1, p. 297, 1844.

tIbid., Vol. xivim, p. 341, 1845.

tAm. Jour. Sci., second series, Vol. xut, May, 1866.

SFirst Ann. Rep. of the U. 8. Geol. Survey of the Territories, embrac-
ing Nebraska, by I. V. Hayden, U.S. Geologist, p. 54, 1867.

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 151

In 1870 Dr. Charles A. White, in discussing the Inoceramus
beds along the Sioux river, which are in Iowa the equivalent
of the Niobrara of Meek and Hayden, tells us that, among
other fossils, ‘minute Foraminifera (probably Globulina) are
sometimes met with in great numbers.”*

The article by Dr. G. M. Dawson, already cited as appear-
ing in the Canadian Naturalist for 1874, marks a very impor-
tant step in advance of all previous publications in the matter
of investigating the origin and composition of the Niobrara
chalk. The strata of Manitoba that were the subject of in-
vestigation are the northward continuation of the chalk beds
of our Sioux river region, and Dr. Dawson was able to com-
pare microscopically the Manitoban with Nebraskan material.
The article is illustrated with figures of Foraminifera, and
speaking of this group of organisms he says: “The general
facies of the foraminiferal fauna of the Cretaceous rocks of
Manitoba and Nebraska singularly resembles that of the ordi-
pary English chalk. Both abound in Textularine and Rotaline
forms of similar types.”

Dr. Dawson’s paper, however, owes its chief importance to
the fact that it is the first, so far as J know, that recognizes
coccoliths as agents in the formation of American chalk. Coc-
coliths, in my judgment, are much more characteristic of chalk
than Foraminifera. Individually they are thousands of times
more numerous, and collectively they make up a much larger
proportion of the bulk of true chalk than do the larger and
more obtrusive foraminiferal shells. Chalk composed of Fo-
raminifera, either broken or entire, is harsh and rough and
unsuited to many purposes to which this substance is applied.
Coecoliths on the other hand rarely exceed the one-hundredth
of a millimeter in diameter, and chalk formed out of such
minute bodies is soft, works smoothly on blackboard or chalk
line, and may be ground between the fingers to an impalpable
powder. Dawson’s paper is illustrated with a number of

‘figures showing the characteristic appearance of coccoliths
under a high amplification, and along with the coccoliths
there are illustrations of a number of the minute calcareous
rod-like objects to which the name rhabdoliths has been ap-
plied. Relatively speaking, rhabdoliths are not common in

*Geology of Iowa, Dr. C. A. White, Vol. 1, p. 294, 1870.

152 The American Geologist, September, 1894

the beds we are considering. They have contributed only a
small percentage of the bulk of the material making up the
deposit. It must be said, however, that the paper under con-
sideration has the further distinction of being the first to
announce the presence of these interesting and curious strue-
tures in the fossil condition.

In Texas, professor Hill recognizes two chalk horizons, one
in the Lower Cretaceous, the other in the upper series of the
same system. We are only concerned here with the chalk of
the Upper Cretaceous, for that alone corresponds in age to
our Sioux river beds. That this formation abounds in Fo-
raminifera such as Textularia and Globigerina, and that it is
in reality chalk, professor Hill urges with pertinent force ina
number of publications;* and it is to the writings of Hill
that professor Le Conte refers when he acknowledges the
presence of true chalk in Texas.

Hill's work on the geology of Arkansast+ is the subject of
an admirable review by professor Marcou,t in the course of
which Marcou calls attention to his discovery of frue chalk
near Sioux City (Iowa) and in Nebraska in 1863. Speaking
of his paper on the Cretaceous formations in the vicinity of
Sioux City, ete., read before the Geological Society of France
in 1866, Marcou says: “I took the precaution to carry with
me pieces of rough chalk taken near Sioux City, and I drew
on the blackboard with them the three sections that accom-
pany the paper.”

Prof. S. W. Williston, in 1890, announced that the chalk of
Kansas ‘“‘appears to be wholly composed of organic forms very
readily visible under a comparatively low power (a one-fifth
or a one-sixth objective and a © eye-piece)§.” The forms
seen by professor Williston are the minute cocecoliths and
rhabdoliths whieh Dr. Dawson so well described in 1874, and

*Ann. Rep., Geol. Survey of Arkansas, Vol. m, for 1888. © Check List
of Invertebrate Fossils from Cretaceous Formations of Texas, 1889. An-
notated Check List, ete., Bulletin No. 4, Geol. Survey of Texas, 1889.
Foraminiferal Origin of certain Cretaceous Limestones. etc., AM. Gr-
oLocist, Sept., 1889. Geelogy of parts of Texas, ete., Bulletin, Geol.
Soc. Am., March, 1894.

+Report cited.

{AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. IV, p. 397, Dec., 1889.

SChalk from the Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas, Science, Vol. xvi, p
249, Oct., 1890.

) 5

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 1538

at the time of writing the note under consideration the com-
paratively large Foraminifera, which may be seen with a good
pocket magnifier, seem to have been overlooked. <A few
months later, however, Williston renewed his observations on
the chalk of Kansas, and his report of these later investiga-

tions contains the statement that “the deposit seems wholly

formed of coceoliths, rhabdoliths and Foraminifera, with,
perhaps, radiolarians and sponges.’’*

The foregoing references selected from the mass of litera-
ture appearing between September, 1841, and March, 1894,
while incomplete as a bibliography relating to the physical
characteristics and foraminiferal origin of American chalk,
may yet help to make clear the successive steps whereby geol-
ogists have been led from complete skepticism regarding the
presence of chalk on this side of the Atlantic to the convic-
tion that considerable portions of the Niobrara beds along the
Sioux and Missouri are, in all the particulars relating to
composition and origin, identical with the chalk of Europe.

CoMPOSITION OF THE NIOBRARA CHALK IN THE SIOUX RIVER

REGION.

The characteristics of the Niobrara chalk are such that ex-
haustive investigations with the microscope may be carried
out with very little difficulty. In thin sections from selected
typical beds the unbroken shells of Foraminifera are very
conspicuous. They lie in close proximity to each other, and
their inflated chambers, filled with crystals of calcite, some-
times occupy more than one-third the area of the entire field.
It is certain that more than one-fourth and in some instances
probably one-third of the volume of the chalk is composed of
foraminiferal shells still practically entire. The matrix in
which the shells are imbedded is made up of a variety of ob-
jects, the most numerous, and the most conspicuous under
proper amplification, being the circular or elliptical calcareous
disks known as coccoliths. The small rod-like bodies to which
the name rhabdoliths has been applied are not very common,
although their presence is easily detected with a moderately
high power objective.

Mingled with the coccoliths and rhabdoliths are numerous
fragments that are evidently the débris resulting from the

*Proc. Kansas Acad. Sci., Vol. xu, p. 100, 1891.

154 The American Geologist. September, 1894

comminution of foraminiferal shells; while standing out con-
spicuously amid the remains of these minuter organisms are
comparatively large calcareous spicule-like bodies, which, on
investigation, turn out to be the disassociated rods that made

up the external prismatic layer of shells of Inoceramus. This’

outer layer in Znoceramus problematicus seems invariably to
have become detached from the inner nacreous layer, and, al-
most without exception, it has become completely disintegra-
ted into its constituent prisms. And so it happens that, in
the Inoceramus-bearing beds of the deposit, the soft matrix
in which the only remaining portions of the shells, the na-
creous portions, lie imbedded, is composed very largely of
these rod-like prisms mingled with skeletal parts of the ordi-
nary chalk-forming organisms. Even in the typical, massive,
chalky beds that bear no outward traces of mollusk shells of
any kind, these same prisms, while greatly diminished in
numbers, are by no means uncommon; and so in any consid-
eration of the constituent elements of the chalk these sepa-
rated units from the external layer of valves of Inoceramus
must be reckoned as no unimportant factor.

When the chalk is treated with acid there remains a small
amount of insoluble matter consisting of clay, fine grains of
sand, a very few minute pebbles, none of which, so far as ob-
served, exceed five millimeters in diameter, and a small num-
ber of internal casts of the chambers of Foraminifera. Nearly
all the foraminiferal shells have the chambers filled with cal-
cite; a few have these cavities still empty or filled simply
with air; but in a small number of cases the chambers were
filled with an opaque, insoluble mineral, probably silica deeply
stained with iron oxide, that remains as perfect internal casts
after the shell has been dissolved in acid. The amount and
composition of the residuum varies with the purity of the
chalk. In the purer samples it scarcely exceeds one per cent.,
in others, of course, the percentage ranges very much higher.

Tur Micro-PALEONTOLOGY OF THE CHALK.

In all the chalk examined the Foraminifera are very numer-
ous. Many are large, vigorous looking specimens of the types
to which they belong, and an unusual number of the shells
remain perfect. They are easily separated from the finer par-
ticles constituting the matrix by carefully grinding the chalk

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 155

under water in a shallow dish, decanting and renewing the
water as long as gentle rubbing of the heavier residual mate-
rial produces any traces of milkiness. The particular genera
and species that will be found after the washing process is
complete will depend somewhat on the locality from which
the specimen under investigation was derived. Even at the
same locality samples of chalk from different beds will be
found to differ ina marked degree so far as relates to the
presence or absence, the association, or the predominance, of
certain types. It would be very tedious, unprofitable and
altogether aside from my purpose, to give you a catalogue of
the genera and species of the foraminiferal fauna. Indeed,
according to Carpenter, Brady, and other authorities, species
in the sense of constantly differentiated races do not exist
among Foraminifera, and it is almost impossible to define
genera; but some general statements, which may lead to sci-
entific considerations of some importance, may be possible and
permissible under the circumstances.
THE FoRAMINIFERA, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION.
Saint Helena, Nebraska, seems to me to be the most typical
locality in the region under consideration. In samples of
chalk from this locality large forms of TVextularia globulosa of
Ehrenberg are the most common and the most characteristic
fossils. Here the species presents its ideal characteristics.
The chambers are inflated and spherical, and the shell is ro-
bust and widens rapidly toward the larger end. This same
shell, be it remembered, ranges throughout the Niobrara of
America from Texas to Manitoba, and it is one of the most
conspicuous forms at certain horizons in the chalk of Europe.
Associated with Vextularia globulosa is a smaller shell that is
proportionately thinner and narrower and every way less ro-
bust. In some places this smaller form is the prevailing type.
It has beenregarded as a distinct species, and was figured by
Dawson, in the paper already cited, under shename of Jewtu-
laria pygmea. While these two forms grade into each other
perfectly when a sufficient number of specimens is examined,
it will be profitable for the present to keep them apart, inas-
much as the distribution of the two types presents some facts
worthy of consideration. Recall for a moment the geograph-
ical and bathymetrical conditions of the region while the chalk

156 The American Geologist. September, 1894

was forming. ‘The shore line of the Niobrara sea extended
northeasterly from near the southwest corner of Iowa. From
that shore line the sea spread away westward to beyond the
Rocky mountains. The site of Saint Helena was many miles
from shore, and was covered by moderately deep, clear water,
unpolluted by detritus washed in from the land. It was in
this pure, clear sea that Vextularia globulosa found the eon-
ditions most favorable to its existence. Here it multiplied
beyond all calculation, here the individuals show all the
symptoms of normal health and vigor, and here they attain
their ideal symmetrical form. As, however, we approach the
shore, it becomes evident that the conditions, so far as Textu-
lariais concerned,became more and more adverse, for the chalk
from Sioux City, Hawarden, Auburn, and other points east of
the Sioux river, contains but few of the vigorous forms we
have noted. On an average the textularians do not attain
more than half the size reached by the larger individuals from
Saint Helena. At Auburn, the most easterly point at which
the chalk is known to occur in place, only the smallest forms
of Textularia pygmea occur. In this connection there is an-
other very striking fact worthy of notice. The textularians
from the more easterly localities are often very unsymmetri-
eal and irregular in their mode of growth. It would seem
that they were not only starved and stunted, but they were
frequently deformed by the unfavorable environment prevail-
ing in regions approximate to the shore.

In some of the beds at Sioux City, which is one of the in-
termediate points between Auburn and Saint Helena, the
diminutive forms of Textularia are very numerous, but min-
gled with them are a few conspicuously large individuals
recalling those from the great chalk cliffs farther up the Mis-
souri. There is one very marked difference, however, between
these and the specimens from Saint Helena. Like the smaller
individuals of the same region they are more or less distorted.
What is more, the later formed chambers of the larger speci-
mens often depart from the biserial type, and the shell may
terminate in various irregular ways. There may be at last
but a single series of cells, but it is more common to find
three, four, or even five series. Sometimes groups of extra
chambers protrude from the sides of the shell like unhealthy

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 157

excrescences, and again the later chambers may be simply
heaped together in inextricable disorder. Everything suggests
abnormal, if not positively diseased, conditions. The depau-
perating effects of unfavorable environment seem to have
acted in three ways: first, to retard growth and thus produce
the pygmean type; second, to cause deformity by unsymmet-
rical growth even when the biserial arrrangement is main-
tained; third, to interfere with the biserial arrangement of
the later formed chambers among the more vigorous individ-
uals, and to produce all possible types of departure from
normal regularity.

In all the thousands of specimens examined I have seen
nothing corresponding to Bailey’s figure of Vextularia ameri-
cana, nor have I been able to recognize as many species as
Ehrenberg described from the region along the Missouri.
There are endless variations, many of which would doubtless
have been formerly regarded as of specific value; but, after
all, I can see no reason for regarding all the textularians of
the region, with their countless variations as to size and _ pro-
portions, including departures from symmetry and biseriality,
as other than varieties of a single species which for the pres-
ent we may ¢all Vexrtularia globulosa Ehrenberg.

While Textularia seems to have flourished best in the
deeper and purer waters remote from shore, the reverse is true
of another group of forms that have usually been identified
with Ehrenberg’s Rotalia globulosa or Rotalia aspera. Ac-
cording to Brady, these may all be referred to the genus
Globigerina and represent a single species, the Globigerina
cretacea of @Orbigny. The forms in question present a wide
range of variation among themselves, but the average or ideal
consist of one or two spirally arranged whorls of rapidly in-
creasing globular chambers the walls of which are thin and
perforated by relatively large foramina. Among the depart-
ures from the average type there are some with few, large
chambers, agreeing well with G. bulloides; while in slides from
Saint Helena there are occasional individuals in which the
last chambers are curiously elongated so as to impart to the
entire shell an aspect identical with Brady’s species, Glob/q-
erina digitata. The earlier formed chambers are in all re-
spects like those of the typical Globigerina cretacea, and it

158 The American Geologist. September, 1894

will be in perfect accord with biological conceptions to regard
the peculiarities of the individuals in question as due to acci-
dental variations in the form of the terminal chambers, and
not as permanent characters indicating a distinet species.
The young of the Globigerine float at the surface, but as the
shells, with age, increase in size and thickness the animals
sink through the water and their minute tests become mingled
with those of other species that spend their entire life in the
ooze at the bottom. Now Brady’s specimens of Globigerina
digitata came from bottom dredgings. The species was never
taken with the tow-net at the surface. It is probable that in
each case the abnormal chambers were added after the organ-
ism came to final rest amid the bottom ooze; and itis at least
possible that the abnormality noticed may be due to the fact
that amid this ooze the restrictions to normal growth are very
much greater than those affecting the animals when floating
freely near the surface. We have seen in the deformed and
otherwise abnormal textularians that the simple protoplasm
making up the bodies of Foraminifera responds to changes of
environment in such a way as profoundly to affect the form
and proportions of the shell; and it is quite possible that, in
the crowded conditions existing upon the sea bottom, some
individuals were so unfavorably situated as seriously to inter-
fere with normal, symmetrical growth. It is an interesting
fact that the deformed specimens of Globigerina are associa-
ted with the vigorous symmetrical types of Textularia at
Saint Helena. Nearer the shore, as indicated by the material

laid down at Sioux City, Hawarden, Auburn, and other points .

east of the Iowa boundary, the Globigerine flourished in
greater profusion than farther west, and evidence of distor-
tion, or any interference with normal growth, among the
multitudes of vigorous looking individuals that crowd the
strata in this marginal part of the Niobrara basin, are ex-
tremely rare.

While Textularia and Globigerina are the predominent
types in the region under consideration, there are other genera
that show similar peculiarities of distribution. For example,
a very beautiful species of Trunecatulina, or probably Anoma-
lina, is somewhat common at certain levels in the exposures
at Saint Helena and Yankton, but there is not even a trace of

ae

The Niobrara Chalk.—Calvin. 159

it in the deposits east of the Sioux river. Specimens of Buli-
mina are not rare, and Polystomella, Cristellaria, and Frondi-
cularia, oecur occasionally at the western localities named,
but farther east they are so far unknown. On the other hand,
there are some genera peculiar to the region east of the Sioux,
but it would scarcely add anything to the force of the facts
already stated to enumerate them.
PROBABLE CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCES OBSERVED.

Is it possible to assign any cause for the observed differ-
ences in the foraminiferal faunas of the eastern and western
portions of the Sioux river region? Remember that from the
beginning of the Dakota age to near the close of the Niobrara
the region was practically one of progressive subsidence.
There are evidences that we cannot now discuss of numerous
oscillations of level, but on the whole the tendency of the sea
bottom and the adjacent lands was downward. During the
culmination of the peculiar conditions characterizing the
Niobrara, the sea was clear and had considerable depth, but
not abysmal, over the present sites of Yankton and Saint
Helena; while farther east the waters were shallower and
may sometimes have been polluted by rock detritus to a slight
extent during the upward phases of oscillation, or during pe-
riods of excessive rainfall. All the evidence suggests a clear
peaceful sea with its bottom gradually sloping away from the
shore to only moderate depths. Upon the bottom of this sea
the textularians flourished, while floating near the surface
were the younger individuals of the globigerine forms already
noticed. Either floating in the water or resting upon the
bottom were the peculiar coralline plants of which the bodies
called respectively coccoliths and rhabdoliths were constitu-
ent parts.

Now, the differences noted between the textularians at
Saint Helena and those at Sioux City and Auburn are in some
way connected with differences in physical conditions at the
points mentioned. The only differences that are readily sug-
gested are the differences in the depth and in the amount of
earthy sediments over different portions of the area.

No one ean tell how such slight differences of environment
would react on the simple living matter of Textularia, but
that they did affect it profoundly becomes obvious upon

160 The American Geologist. September, 1894

comparing the shells of the beautiful, symmetrical thrifty-
looking specimens from Saint Helena with those of the starved,
impoverished, deformed specimens from Sioux City and Au-
burn. In the case of the globigerine forms that during most
of their lives float near the surface, the condition of the bot-
tom was not a matter of somuch moment. The water at the

surface was doubtless clear enough for their purpose, for even

the small amount of sediment discharged into the sea by the
sluggish, nearly base-leveled streams must have been limited
to the lower strata of the water. Near the surface, too, food
was doubtless even more abundant than it was at the same
depth farther west, and thus it happened that near the shore
the Globigerinz flourished, and their full grown shells, bear-
ing every indication of life under most favorable conditions,
settled down among the unhealthy and depauperated textulari-
ans to which life had been a perpetual struggle with adverse
surroundings. The shallow-water chalk contains large num-
bers of shells of vigorous Globigerine mingled with many small
and deformed shells of Textularie, while the deep-water
chalk abounds in robust textularians with relatively few
Globigerine. Among the globigerine shells of the deeper
water are a few rather remarkable monstrosities.

COMPARISON WITH ENGLISH CHALK.

- An attempt was made to compare our American chalk with
that of England, but the opportunities for getting the desired
number of examples from abroad were not good and the re-
sults are not altogether satisfactory. Enough, however, was
determined to demonstrate the presence in English chalk of
the same species of Textularia and Globigerina that are so
common along the Missouri; there are closely allied species
of Frondieularia, Bulimina, and Truneatulina; there are also
prisms from the outer layer of Inoceramus shells; while en-
closing and imperfectly cementing together all the larger
objects are minute, dust-like coecoliths that cannot be distin-
guished from those making up so large a percentage of the
deposits of the Niobrara. The conclusions so long ago reached
by Ehrenberg and Bailey* as to the identity of European and
Missouri river chalk seem to be fully established. The water

*Reports of the First, Second and Third Meetings of the Association
of American Geologists and Naturalists, p. 357, 1843.

White Limestones of Sussex County, N. J.— Nason. 161

in which the English chalk was deposited was probably deeper
than the Niobrara sea between the present site of Yankton
and the eastern shore, somewhere near the middle of Iowa.
Neither sea was necessarily very deep. As to our Sioux river
area of deposition I conceive that the lands draining into it
had subsided practically to base level, and that therefore
chalk may have been deposited within a few miles of shore.
The singular absence of corals, sea-urchins, and all the higher
forms of marine invertebrate life, except one species of Ino-
ceramus and one of Ostrea, requires explanation, but at
present there is none to offer. The seas of the English chalk
were somewhat richer in respect to such types of life than
ours; but, compared with many other seas, their striking
poverty in all but lowly organized microscopic forms must be
acknowledged.

The practical identity of conditions in the two widely sep-
arated regions we have been comparing remains a fact of
much scientific interest. While, in the forms of coccospheres
and Foraminifera, the lowly and the obscure of earth’s or-
ganic hosts were revelling in peaceful and unpolluted seas in
the longitude of the first meridian and contributing their
dead skeletons to form the chalk of Europe, far away to the
west, beyond the 90th meridian, more than a quarter of the
way around the globe and separated from the first area by an
abysmal ocean and a continental mass of land, there was
another clear sea with low flat shores in which the same or
very similar humble types of life were contributing material
to form the chalk beds of Iowa, South Dakota and Nebraska.

’

SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING THE CAMBRIAN
AGE OF THE WHITE LIMESTONES OF SUS-
SEX COUNTY, NEW JERSEY.

By FRANK L. NAson, New Brunswick, N. J.

In the prolongation of the Appalachian system through
northern New Jersey, eastern New York and beyond, there
exist areas, some portions of which are white, highly crystal-
line limestones, while others are blue and more or less unal-
tered; the former have generally been assumed to be of

162 The American Geologist. September, 1894

Archean age. The basis of this assumption as to the age of
these rocks is evidently due to their association with the
gneisses and highly metamorphosed rock which form so prom-
inent a feature of this region, together with their highly
crystalline condition, and to the general absence of fossils.

Upon such evidence, their Archean age has not only been

generally accepted, but considered so positive a fact by many
authors that such features as they present have been used as
a factor in determining the supposed Archean age of lime-
stones elsewhere, and, in general, as proof positive of pre-
sedimentary limestones.

This determination of these and other crystalline areas was
quite natural and consistent at the time it was first made in
New York and New Jersey; for then the whole sedimentary
series was terminated below by the Potsdam sandstone, and
everything older was considered as belonging to the Azoie.
With the progress of geological science, and after the estab-
lishment of the Cambrian or Taconic system of rocks, one by
one these pre-Potsdam sedimentaries have been rescued from
the Azoic or Archean and their Cambrian age established by
means of fossils. In general there remain undetermined at
the present time only the more crystalline and metamorphie
regions generally not directly connected with unaltered sedi-
ments of known age. In many cases the crystalline areas
shade off into fossiliferous strata in undisturbed regions and
their correlations have been determined.

It thus appears that many areas of altered sedimentary
rocks, such as crystalline limestones, schists and quartzites
still remain in the Archean, simply because they cannot yet

be correlated with any known horizon. This is in itself no

evidence of their true relationships, and is inconsistent with
proper methods of geological correlation. It is a curious fact
that the assumption having once been made that these rocks
were of Archean age, the lithological features that they dis-
played, especially in the presence of chondrodite, gradually
came to be regarded as proof in itself of their Archean age.
These crystalline limestones have, since 1864, been de-
scribed in the various reports of the Geological survey of New
Jersey as members of the series of crystalline rocks of Azoic
or Archean age. In 1888 and 1889 the writer was engaged

White Limestones of Sussex County, N. J.—Nason. 163

in studying the limestone area in northern New Jersey, and
the facts observed in the field led to serious doubts as to the
correctness of the views previously held. This led to a de-
tailed investigation of the area, especially in the vicinity of
Franklin Furnace, which resulted in accumulating a series of
related facts which prove conclusively the post-Archean age
of all of the limestones and quartzites in this region. These
results were published by the writer in 1890,* but owing to
the great length of time during which the former view had
generally been held, and during which it had come to be con-
sidered as a positive fact, these conclusions met with a tardy
acceptance and are still doubted by some. Additional papers
on this subject have been published by the writer;+ and re-
cently Kemp and Hollick, in an excellent paper? on the north-
ern portion of the same area extending into New York state,
reach the same conclusions as a result of their very careful
work in the field and in the laboratory. It therefore seems to
be an appropriate time for a concise summary of the facts
which prove that the white limestones of Sussex county, N.
J., including the deposits of franklinite and zinc ores, are of
Cambrian age. This it is proposed to do by establishing the
truth of the following statements:

1. The white limestones are continuous with the blue limestones (now
accepted as of Cambrian age) and every degree of transition may be
found between them.

2. Both have the same dip and strike.

3. Both are conformable with a quartzite also containing Cambrian
fossils.

4. Both are unconformable with the gneiss upon which they rest.

5. Both have in sum total the same chemical composition and are
MmMagneslan.

6. The altered crystalline condition of the white limestone is due to
the intrusion of igneous masses and to regional metamorphism, while
the blue limestone never contains such igneous injections.

7. The presence of certain minerals. especially chondrodite, is not in-
dicative of geological age.

1. The continuity. In crossing the strike of the limestones
from the white to the blue, where there is a continuous expos-
ure, one of two things is always to be observed: either (@)
~ *Ann, Rep. State Geol. of N. J., 1890. Te ee

+AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, April, 1891; Sept., 1891; March, 1894. Trans.
Am. Inst. Min. En., Feb., 1894.

tAnn. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. vir, 1893.

164 The American Geologist. September, 1894

4
there is a continuous but gradual transition in color and erys-
talline texture; or (%) there isa brecciated zone.

(a) In many loealities where the white and blue limestones
lie in close proximity, it is to be observed that the former has
lost its most striking characteristics. It is nolonger coarsely
crystalline; its color is neither white nor yellowish white, but
has rather a bluish tinge. The graphite, which, in the coarser
rock, occurs in bright crystalline scales, appears rather as a
dull earthy mineral, with occasional bright flecks. The rock
has usually a pressed appearance, and in many instances a
distinct slaty cleavage. At this stage the graphite, perhaps,
would even yet suggest that the limestone should be classed
with the crystalline series; but within a few feet these char-
acters change, the rock becomes less and less crystalline, the
graphite loses the last trace of crystallization and shows as
cloudy carbonaceous aggregations, and then comes the wholly
unchanged blue dolomite. This transition is to be seen ina
score or more of localities; but to make sure that there was
no possibility of error, the writer had a trench dug across the
strike of the rocks showing a continuous exposure. The only
result of this trench was to disclose more detail which served
to verify the conclusions reached in other localities.

(>) In another phase of the observed transition, as has al-
ready been stated, the rocks are brecciated at the point where
contact should be observed if they belonged to different hori-
zons. Instead of the pressed appearance, with consequent de-
velopment of slaty cleavage, one passes quite suddenly from
the coarse white limestone to a zone of breccia. This is made
up in places of practically unchanged, angular blue limestone
fragments, with interstitial filling of coarsely crystalline,
white, graphitic limestone. Breccias also occur in the midst
of large white limestone belts; and distinct fragments of
limestone are frequently found which are less white, less erys-
talline and less graphitic than the enclosing mass. If the
white graphitic limestone is older than the blue, how ean it
contain fragments of it?

2. Dip and strike. There are many places which show ex-
posures of both the blue and white limestones. Their dip is
the same, and also their’strike. Instances may be found
without number, and the details of many of them are given in

White Limestones of Sussex County, N. J.—Nason. 165

the publications cited. Along anticlinal axes one side may be
wholly white limestone, while the other may be part blue and
part white, both the latter having the same dip and strike, as
is shown in one instance in the Rudeville quarries, and simi-
lar facts have been observed elsewhere.

3. Conformability with quartzite. The blue limestone has
been shown (loc. cit.) to contain Obolella crassa, and is there-
fore referred to the Lower Cambrian. The quartzite. which
generally underlies the limestones of the region, contains
abundant remains of Olenellus and other fossils, and its age

is thus positively determined to be Lower Cambrian.

Wherever studied, both the white’ and blue limestones are
found to be conformable with and above this fossiliferous
quartzite or sandstone; and therefore they cannot be of Arch-
wan age. A good illustration of this may be seen in Hardis-
tonville, where the graphitie fossiliferous quartzite in contact
with the granite is conformably overlaid with a coarsely crys-
talline graphitic limestone which gradually passes out into a
fossiliferous blue limestone overlying the same quartzite. The
white limestone is continuous with that of the region and is
everywhere filled with intrusives.

These relations are diagrammatically represented in the ad-
joining figure. The sandstone being less affected by meta-
morphic action than the limestones, retains its fossiliferous
contents up to the line of contact with the dike.

SE Possift fepbus,!
a, ae Bi a aie a

Blu Litnestpn
Be et
a ey
jp

Oleuellus’ Sandstone

Fic.1. Effects of a granite dike on Cambrian limestone and sandstone,
Hardistonville, N. J.
4. Unconformability with the gneiss. In spite of the fact
that there is apparent conformability with the franklinite and
zine beds of Franklin Furnace, the conformability is only ap-

166 The: American Geologist. September, 1894

parent and not real. The fossiliferous blue limestones and
sandstones, dipping to the northwest lie on the upturned edges
of the series a few hundred feet to the west. But following
along the strike of both outcrops, the white and the blue, the
two come together and completely cover the gneiss just north
of the Trotter mine.

Instances have been mentioned in this paper where anti-
clinal axes, one flank being blue and the other white, at one
end of a hill, have both flanks white at the opposite end. No
gneissic anticlines have been observed in the valley, while
anticlinal structure is very common in the white limestones
and with white and blue, as mentioned.

The statement that gneisses occur interstratified with the
white limestone is erroneous. There is no phenomenon of the
kind to be observed. Granite, greenstones, and scapolite dio-
rite are of frequent occurrence, but they are doubtless erup-
tives; the granites are certainly so.

5. Identity in chemical composition. It has always been
considered that while the blue limestone is magnesian, and
therefore a dolomite, the white is purely caleareous; and this
has been used as an argument for considering them as distinct.
Asa matter of fact, however, as the writer has shown by an
extended series of chemical analyses,* the white limestone is
also dolomitic, and it was further shown that the percentage
of magnesia varies from place to place ineach, and that spee-
imens of both can be obtained which have the same compo-
sition.

It is true, that in the immediate contact with igneous rocks,
the carbonate that is present is essentially that of lime, and
that the rock often shows a decreasing content of magnesian
carbonate as the eruptive is approached; but this may be
readily explained by a consideration of the following facts.

The white limestones are well charged with crystallized
minerals; the blue limestone is free from them. The transi-
tion zones show mineralization in a decreasing degree fron the
white to the blue. The chemical composition of the white
and blue rocks does not vary essentially. Magnesia is not
present in a fixed percentage in dolomitic limestone, and it is
certainly not constant in the blue one of Sussex county. The

*AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, March, 1894.

White Limestones of Sussex County, N.J.—Nason. 167

range of magnesia is very great, but it is never absent from
either variety as shown by the analyses. In considering the
chemical composition of these rocksas a whole. the composi-
tion and distribution of the minerals contained in the white
limestone must also be taken into account. These are con-
fined to the vicinity of eruptive rocks, especially the granites
and scapolite diorites: and it will be there found that the
earbonate rock which contains them is now low in magnesia.
It will also be observed that the principal minerals are those
high in magnesia, such as phlogopite, biotite, pyroxene, horn-
blende and especially chondrodite, which is the most abundant
of all and contains over 50 per cent. of it. Considering, then,
the foregoing facts, itis impossible to escape the conciusions
that the magnesia in the minerals has been derived wholly
from the rock in which they are now found, and that the con-

taining limestone was formerly a dolomite and has become

de-dolomitized by the metamorphic action of the intruded
granites and other eruptives. Were the magnesia now locked
up in these minerals re-distributed in the form of a carbonate
through the containing limestone, the result would be a dolo-
mite in no way distinguishable from either the white or blue
dolomite.

6. Present condition of the white limestones due to igneous
rocks. Vhe white limestones and the blue as well are not
isolated, the one from the other, but they lie in the same val-
ley, shifting from side to side with the appearance of granite
or other intrusive rocks. Moreover, the white limestones are
never found outside of a greatly distuched belt, and never
far distant from igneous masses. This point has been touched
upon so many times that it is hardly necessary to repeat it,
but the fact is so patent to a field observer that it cannot be
emphasized too strongly. The crushing, heat, and pressure,
resulting from this great complex of intrusions, were amply
sufficient to completely metamorphose much more refractory
sediments than these.

7. Chondrodite not indicative of geological age. The min-
erals associated with the white limestones have long been
used as an argument in support of its Archean age. So many
of them, however, have been shown in various localities to be
merely the result of metamorphic action of intruded igneous

168 The American Geologist. September, 1894

masses, that this point has almost wholly lost the significance
it once possessed. By some, however, the mineral chondro-
dite is still used in this way with the foree and rank of a
characteristic fossil, since it occurs abundantly in certain
phases of the white limestone.

Prof. J. D. Dana* has well observed in a paper on certain
rocks of the Connecticut valley: “What reason is there in
chemistry or geology why crystals of andalusite and stauro-
lite should have been made only in pre-Silurian time? Anda-
lusite consists simply of alumina and silica, and staurolite of
the same along with iron. These three ingredients are now
and ever have been the most abundant of all the mineral con-
stituents of the globe.”

To these chondrodite might well be added, along with all
other minerals, since their production depends upon a union
of certain chemical elements under the proper physical con-
ditions and is in no wise a function of geological age.

In regard to chondrodite, composed as it is of silica, alum-
ina, magnesia, iron and fluorine, no one would claim that its
elements were Archean or restricted to Archean formations,
unless, possibly, it might be the fluorine. This latter element,
however, along with boric acid, is well known to be one of
the most constant accompaniments of igneous magmas, re-
vealing itself in the composition of various minerals formed
by fumarole action. Many instances of this might be given,
but, as geological literature is full of such, it will be sufficient
to cite the well known occurrence of topaz in the cavities of
rhyolites in Colorado and Mexico; while the actual presence
of hydrofluoric acid in gaseous emanations from the fuma-
roles in the crater of Vuleano has been shown by actual
chemical tests by Seacchi,t and various volatile fluorides are
known to oceur after eruptions as efflorescences at Vesuvius.

Moreover, the fact that chondrodite is not always of Ar-
chean age is proved by its well known occurrence at Mt.
Vesuvius in cavities of the ejected blocks of the Cretaceous
dolomite which forms the pediment of the voleano. Its forma-
tion there is evidently due to the action of mineralizing vapor,

~ *Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. v1. p. 350, 1873.
+Att. Acc. Napoli, 6, 1878, Cont. Min. II, 1874.

och

St. Peter Sandstone in N. W. Illinois —Hershey. 169

under great heat and pressure, upon the limestone blocks, and
it is, therefore, a marked instance of contact metamorphism.

Chondrodite is in fact a mineral resulting from the contact
action of igneous magmas on magnesian rocks, and, far from
being a function of their geological age, it is most certainly
indicative of the close proximity of intruded igneous rocks.

In conclusion, from the establishment of the continuity of
the white and the blue fossiliferous limestones in New Jer-
sey; their conformability with the fossiliferous Cambrian
quartzite; their unconformability with the underlying
gneisses; their identity of chemical composition; their dif-
ferentiation only through igneous action; and their similar-
ity of dip and strike—the writer has proved their Cambrian
age and that their reference to the Archean is: no longer
tenable.

THE ELK HORN CREEK AREA OF ST..PETER
SANDSTONE IN NORTHWESTERN
ILLINOIS.

By Oscar H. HERSHEY, Freeport, III.

In the various reports of the Illinois Geological Survey we
find mentioned and described only three areas of outcrop of
the St. Peter sandstone in the state, namely, along Rock river
from Grand de Tour to Oregon, along the Illinois river in La
Salle county, and at the Cap au Gres bluff in Calhoun county.
Nor have I been able to learn from any other published source
of the surface exposure of this characteristic formation in
any but the above tracts. So when, some months ago, I acci-
dentally discovered a considerable outcrop of the sandstone
in a valley in the extreme western part of Ogle county I made
a somewhat detailed study of it, which study has resulted in
bringing to light several perhaps not unimportant facts.

As indicated by the accompanying map, the outcrop under
discussion occupies the valley of the Elk Horn creek and
tributary streams, in Ogle county, about one to seven miles
southwest of the village of Foreston. It reaches the Carroll
county line at several points, at the most northern of which it
extends into that county about half a mile.

The topography of the tract is essentially that of the drift-

170 The American Geologist. September, 1894

less area, modified but slightly by glacial action. The ice
seems to have passed over the country without abrading the
rock surface, except on the crests of the highest hills. The
amount of till or boulder clay deposited in the region is in-
significant, but the chief obstacle to an examination of the
stratified rocks is presented by a mantle of loess, which,
though rarely exceeding 8 or 10 feet in thickness, is continu-

1
> | [ |
| 3 = | GALENA LIPESTONE }
ats ). 1
eel Popbey ee | 36 | 34
ss \ A |
Sis | \
/ GD \~ |
pe =e = Ee i = ;
| “Oy Bue | eS Y\, Limestone dl /
[Sh SS Kae CL
pep OSS oo oe s ;

| ;
a t
aC
es
SF
|

> ae i
ae How. 5eee 8! 10

“KyIS st
in?

; TRENTON ~

|
|
|
|

wo
Titiwons CENTRAL RALROAD

aeeit : ]
re == c:
ip DEER 16 5
“ l GALENA LimesTONe
3 7]
7 bk | : 4 |
z S | rhe
Pad 7
~-<.> vz / JA
g7S4 474 |
| 3
oS AS Zo _@, | y .
A € a .
Be ae Baogxvicig sf, ae ~ ss
oT eB WR ek « | oa 30 29 23 27
if ood evs ( | " ES Lower MAGNESIAN KIMESTONE.
] ES ; Direction jor Dip.

} . |
} ° | | (0G Oasenveo Txicxwess dy St PETER SANDSTONE

Fic. 1. Map of the Elk Horn creek area of St. Peter sandstone.

ous over hilltop and valley bottom alike. Here and there,
however, modern erosion has removed this loess on steep hill-
sides, especially on the slopes underlain by the sandstone.

The geographical extent of the outcrop of each formation,
especially of the sandstone, can be largely determined by the
topography alone. Beginning with the Galena limestone rim
of the basin (resembling a basin when viewed from surround-
ing hights), we find it characterized by an undulating topog-
raphy with comparatively gentle slopes. This has been
effected by glacial action. Descending to the Trenton lime-
stone we find the ravines narrower, with steeper slopes, and
outcropping rocks more numerous. Still lower, we can readily
determine the situation of the sandstone by comparatively
narrow, very steep-sided valleys, with all the angles beauti-
fully rounded off, instead of being sometimes sharp and an-
gular as on the surrounding limestone areas. In short, the

i

St. Peter Sandstone in N. W. Illinois.—Hershey. 171

sandstone presents the singular phenomenon of resisting ero-
sion well en masse, but yielding very readily on angular
projections. This is characteristic of the St. Peter sandstone
throughout its extent, and it has been commented on by many
writers.

It is here proposed to give a short description of the differ-
ent formations observed in the area covered by the map. But
it is presumed that the reader is already well acquainted with
their general characteristics as exposed in other outcrops, so
that only those features which seem peculiar to this vicinity
will be mentioned.

DESCRIPTION OF THE Rock FoRMATIONS.

Lower Magnesian limestone. Extending for several hun-
dred yards along the south bank of Elk Horn creek, where it
crosses the Freeport and Sterling road two and a half miles
southwest of Foreston, there is exposed a formation which is
essentially different from the overlying St. Peter sandstone.
It reaches a hight of 10 feet above the creek level and pre-
sents the following section, in descending order:

1. Brecciated siliceous dolomite apparently broken and neh
RE-GEMMEM TEC OM Gy SGHSIN ONC 4 6c occ ase slete.« © o gilele ciere videtevns cle |
2. Greenish and yellow-brown, argillaceous dolomite, and
LiMnaminated siliceous:shales.:. v.)).02 Mace es. cence ces os 3
3. Thick, light-butf or yellow stratum of subcrystalline
WOE RTI ee oe EAS ODIO Oe Donne CORTE CATR ORR TT Re EEE ae ]
4. Very thin-bedded siliceous dolomite and chert............ L
5. Heavy-bedded dolomite, like No. 38, exposed to the
GALOIS GAGS: OOD T I Be a> a eC Se Lee I

The brecciated limestone at the surface of the formation is
perhaps the most interesting of all. A stratum of dolomite
which was originally laid down and lithified to a compact
condition, has been broken up into angular fragments of vari-
ous sizes reaching as much as one foot or more in length,
which have been thrown together in a confused mass and re-
cemented, apparently by the same dolomitic substance. The
breccia as here exposed averages one foot in thickness, but it
reaches as much as several feet in some other places. The
contact with the overlying sandstone is not well exposed, but
it is presumed to be unconformable. Now of the three chief
processes by which limestone breccias may be produced,
namely, (1) by pressure, chiefly lateral, as in the Devonian

172 The American Geologist, September, 1894

limestone in Iowa, (2) by the dissolving of some portion of
the stratum subsequent to the formation, lithifiication, and
elevation of the rocky strata above sea level, brecciation of
the remainder, and recementation, by percolating waters, as in
the dolomites of the Ozark series in Missouri, and (3) by the
breaking up of a stratum by the waves on a rocky sea shore
previous to the deposition of the overlying formations, as in
the Lower Magnesian limestone in Wisconsin, the last is
considered (after having studied the matter as closely as pos-
sible with the very limited outcrop) as the only process by
which the breccia under discussion could have been produced.

The two heavy-bedded dolomitic strata, numbers 3 and 5,
resemble the Galena limestone and still more strongly the Buff
limestone underlying the Trenton proper. But they are more
compact, finer grained, and lighter colored than the Galena,
and are a purer dolomite than the Buff, which always contains
considerable argillaceous material. Furthermore, there is a
tendency to develop exfoliation or something similar to it, by
No. 5, on erosion. The very thin-bedded silicious dolomite,
No. 4 of the section, is characteristic of this formation, no-
where appearing in any of the formations above or below.
Enclosed between two heavy-bedded pure dolomite strata, its
white, cherty, one inch layers are in strong contrast to them.
There are also thin layers of pure sand.

There are indications of fossils, mostly the almost obliter-
ated casts of gastropods, in the dolomite. One imperfect
specimen was secured, but the formation may be considered
as only slightly fossiliferous.

With what formation of neighboring states may this be
correlated? Of the few wells in the immediate vicinity, one
at least penetrates the limestone, but not to any considerable
depth. So the only means of determining its thickness is the
outerop, which has a vertical extent of 10 feet. It is very
probable, however, that it extends down many feet below the
creek level. From the outcrops and well sections of the St.
Peter sandstone in Illinois and neighboring portions of Wis-
consin, no intercalated stratum of limestone or shale has ever
been reported. Nor does it at all seem probable that here in
this one small spot in the early Silurian sea, dolomite and
shale would be deposited, while sandstone was being laid

St. Peter Sandstone in N. W. Illinois —Hershey. 1738

down for hundreds of miles in every direction. On the con-
trary, whenever, in passing downward through the St. Peter
sandstone, the limestone is reached, it is classed as Lower
Magnesian or Calciferous limestone, and the sandstone beds
which are intercalated with it as Calciferous sandstone. I
shall follow this classification here for the following, in addi-
tion to the above reasons. The dolomite, shale, chert, and
breccia here discussed, are an exact imitation of portions of
the Lower Magnesian of Wisconsin and Missouri. Moreover,
the same erosion interval appears to be present here as has
been shown to exist in Wisconsin between the Lower Magne-
sian limestone and St. Peter sandstone. A slight nonconform-
ity is doubtless proven by the phenomena of the breccia: but
a greater unconformity is inferred from the following facts:
Over the highest part of the dolomite exposure the sandstone
is about 75 feet thick. To the south and west the sandstone
sometimes reaches 100 feet or more above the creek, and yet
the creek bed shows sandstone. Also, a short distance east of
a6 foot exposure of the dolomite it was only reached in a
well at 30 feet below the creek level, although both dolomite
and sandstone are apparently nearly horizontal at this place.
Furthermore, the St. Peter sandstone is 207 feet thick in
Stephenson county to the north, and about 200 feet thick at
the outcrop on Rock river. It is evident that there is consid-
erable variation in the thickness of the sandstone in this por-
tion of the state. But the upper surface of the sandstone
appears to be nearly even; hence it must be the lower surface
whose unevenness produces this variability in thickness. This,
of course, is caused by a very uneven surface of the Lower
Magnesian limestone, which was most probably produced by
subaérial erosion in northwestern Illinois, as in Wisconsin. It
must be acknowledged that the evidence supporting the
hypothesis of a Cambro-Silurian land surface in Ogle county,
Illinois, is very weak; but there must have been one small
spot on the site of the present Elk Horn valley that was an
island over which the waves broke just previous to the depo-
sition of the St. Peter sandstone.

The altitude of the top of the Lower Magnesian limestone
in the Elk Horn valley is about 800 feet above the sea, mak-

174 The American Geologist. September, 189¢

ing this the highest point, so far as known, reached by this
formation within the state of Illinois. |

St. Peter sandstone, This formation, as the map shows,
underlies about ten square miles in the valley of the Elk Horn
creek and its tributaries. Beginning in the valley of the
main stream a short distance southwest of Foreston, it fol-
lows the creek to Brookville on the Carroll county line. North
from Brookville it occupies the valley of a smaller creek for
several miles, and at two or three points passes into Carroll
county. From the main body of the outcrop near the Free-
port and Sterling road, one broad arm runs west three and a
half miles reaching a half mile into Carroll county. The exact
boundary of the area is very sinuous, as it is dependent on
the ravines and valleys and on small faults which have been
detected in various parts of the tract although obscured by
the overlying loess.

The St. Peter sandstone has been too often described to re-
quire a minute description here. There are, however, some
features which may be peculiar to this region. The iron con-
eretions, “like broken iron pots,” found in the Wisconsin and
Rock river outcrops, are absent. The entire mass has been
stained with oxide of iron by percolating waters and is
brightly colored, red and yellow predominating. The lowest
exposed strata are heavy-bedded and tolerably solid; but the
great mass of the formation is laminated and loose. There is
a six foot stratum of light green shale near the top, which is
persistent throughout the area and is overlain by one or more
heavy-bedded, partially lithified strata of white or light gray
sandstone, constituting the top of the formation. About the
center of the northwest arm of the outcrop there is an expos-
ure in a bluff of 65 feet thickness of sandstone. This locality
is interesting because of the beautiful false-bedding. The
strata dip rapidly in all directions. One portion may dip
south as much as 380°, and the sandstone immediately above it
may dip north, east or west at the same rate. This confused
stratification could not have been produced except near the
surface of the sea, and from the fact that the dip is in all di-
rections, it is considered very probable that here was a very
shallow spot, perhaps at times a low island or sand bank in
the midst of the Silurian sea. Other places also show false

ae. ,

St. Peter Sandstone in N. W. Illinois —Hershey. 175

bedding, dipping, however, more decidedly in one given direc-
tion. Resting upon the upturned edges of these layers, there
is generally one thick horizontal layer of sandstone near the
top of the formation. Evidently the subsidence was in
progress which resulted in the deposition of the Buff lime-
stone. As already intimated, the thickness of this formation
in this area is only from 75 feet to somewhat over 100 feet,
while in all directions from it in northwestern Illinois the
thickness is not less than 200 feet. It attains an elevation
above sea level of nearly 900 feet, a little less than in the Rock
river outcrop.

The Buff limestone. 'This underlies a narrow strip skirting
the sandstone on its southern and western side. It is a mod-
erately thick-bedded, buff or light brown dolomite, argilla-
ceous, and nearly free from fossils. Its thickness is about 20
feet, thinning out to the northeast. It passes, by insensible
gradations upward into the Blue limestone and downward into
the St. Peter sandstone. Hence its lower portion is very sandy
and sometimes shaly. Its designation as Buff limestone is
deceptive, for under cover it is just as frequently blue as the
Trenton above it. Perhaps the term Pecatonica limestone
would be more appropriate, as it is best exposed in the Peca-
tonica valley, near the Wisconsin line, and northward.

Trenton or Blue limestone. This surrounds the sandstone
outerop and is exposed in four quarries and a number of
smaller excavations. When drilled through, it is of a deep
blue color; but generally on outcrop it is a thin-bedded, light
blue-gray or light brown, very fossiliferous limestone and dol-
omite, with a few very thin layers of shale. In the vicinity
of the small fault marked on the northern portion of the map,
it is characterized by the vast amount of fossils with which
it is thickly packed.

What makes this locality doubly interesting is that, besides
the small fault above mentioned, it shows an unconformity or
hiatus between the St. Peter sandstone and the Trenton lime-
stone. The very fossiliferous thin-bedded Trenton limestone
rests directly on the sandstone, the Buff limestone, which sep-
arates them around the south and west boundary of the area,
being here absent. The upper stratum of the sandstone is a
loose, unstratified mass, about two feet thick, which is com-

2 fv oe ee

Li6> -- Lhe American Geologist. September, 1894

posed of sand and clay. with no calcareous material. Now,
the St. Peter sandstone in this region is always distinctly
stratified and free from clay. This particular stratum is more
like the geest or residual material which has collected over
the sandstone in the Driftless Area. Moreover, it contains
reddish brown oxide of iron in patches, which iron stain re-
sembles that found in surface clays at the present day, and
differs decidedly from the iron stains so common in the sand-
stone. Overthis loose sand there are a few inches of dark
brown stratified clay, which would be exactly imitated were our
present black soil washed away and redeposited by currents
of water. Over this lies the fossiliferous Trenton limestone.
«Nowhere in this region have I found such strong evidences of
a land surface and soil in Silurian times. The Trenton lime-
stone is here about 40 feet thick. The Buff limestone is
present as indicated by outcrops and well sections, in all di-
rections from this locality. As there is no stratigraphic break
between the sandstone and Butf limestone when it is present,
the land surface here shown to have existed must have been
small, probably an island a few square miles in area. Similar
spots of absence of the Buff limestone have been reported
from the Rock river area and other places in northwestern
Illinois, and there thus seems to have been a slight but ex-
tended disturbance in this region during the earlier portion of
the Trenton period.

The Galena limestone. This underlies all the higher upland
country, but it is scarcely anywhere exposed. Its thickness
here is not over 100 feet, while in Stephenson county to the
north it is 160 feet, and about Galena and Dubuque 350 feet.

DEFORMATIONS OF THE AREA.

The area whose geology is under discussion is crossed by
three anticlinal axes. The main axis trends from northwest
to southeast and is a continuation of the Grand de Tour—La
Salle anticlinal, which is the chief axis of northern I}linois.
This anticline in the Elk Horn district is not very prominent,
the strata dipping in both directions from the crest at a rate
not exceeding 30 feet per mile. This alone could not have
brought the St. Peter sandstone to light; but it is the inter-
section of this with two east and west anticlinals which
has so elevated the formation that stream erosion has laid it

St. Peter Sandstone in N. W. Illinois —Hershey. 177

bare. These two secondary axes are so close together that the
synclinal trough between is almost imperceptible. It is rath-
er to be described as a flat-topped uplift from one to two
miles wide, with a slight axis or ridge at either side of it.
But from the fact that these two bordering ridges diverge and
become more easily distinguishable to the west, I prefer to
consider them as two anticlines. They sweep across the dis-
trict in slightly curved lines, trending in a general east and
west direction, and concave to the north. On a line directly
south from the city of Freeport, the curvature is rather more
decided than further east or west, the axes there turning from
a slightly south of east to a slightly north of east direction.
It has been observed that all the deformations of this portion
of Illinois which come in by gently curved lines from Iowa
turn rather abruptly toward the east-northeast on or near this
same north and south line. From this fact, and because there
was sometimes a small island and always an ascent to an ele-
vated part of the sea bottom on the site of the present Elk
Horn valley, it is inferred that this line occupies the position
of the crest of a southern prolongation of the ancient area of
uplift which has been frequently denominated the “Isle of
Wisconsin.” This, in the subsequent reélevation and corru-
gation of the territory, would determine the position of the
most southern point of the various anticlinals which Chamber-
lin, McGee, and other geologists have shown to sweep around
the Isle of Wisconsin in approximately concentric courses.
Of the two east and west anticlines crossing this area, the
northern one is the most prominent. The dip on the north
side is about 100 feet per mile, or 1.7°
to about 40 feet per mile and so continues six miles to the

. This is soon decreased

axis of the next synelinal, which lies on the Stephenson and
Ogle county line. This synclinal is occupied by an upland
ridge, underlain by Niagara limestone, the edge of which is
only four miles distant from the outcropping sandstone, and
less than 100 feet higher. The westward prolongation of the
anticline is occupied by the valley of Carroll creek, where
Hon. James Shaw, in his “Geology of Northwestern Illinois,”
describes a slight axis. Eastward from this area, the posi-
tion of the valley of Leaf river was probably largely deter-
mined by this anticline; for it is the rule in this part of the

178 The American Geologist. September, 1894

state that the streams occupy the anticlinals, and the larger
upland ridges the synclinals.

As already intimated, the dip between the two secondary
axes of the area is very slight. But on the south side of the
southern anticlinal the dip averages 120 feet per mile or
2.04°. This, however, is not continued far, as the strata soon
rise into another anticlinal.

Besides these regular deformations, there are numerous
local disturbances, the chief of which are small faults. One
only will be described. This is two and a half miles south-
west of Foreston, and the exposed portion shows the disloca-
tion of the St. Peter sandstone and Trenton limestone. The
strike is northwest to southeast. The dip is about 30° to the
southwest. The downthrow is on the southwest side (on the
anticlinal side), and amounts to 40 feet. This small fault is
noteworthy, from its being the only one in this portion of the
state where the actual contact can be observed.

SUMMARY.

The history of this area, and its features of special inter-
est, may be summed up as follows:

History. (a) Deposition of the Lower Magnesian or Cal-
ciferous limestone. (b) Probable elevation above sea level
and erosion of valleys. (¢) Existence of a small island lying
off the southern point of the Isle of Wisconsin. The waves
beat about this island and over it, forming a thin breccia.
(d) Deposition of the St. Peter sandstone. The sea in the
vicinity of the now submerged island was shallow, and at
times one or more sandy islets may have existed to the west
of the old island site, as indicated by the irregular stratifica-
tion. (e) Deepening of the sea and the formation of the
Buff or Pecatonica limestone, accompanied by a slight eleva-
tion in the northeastern portion of the area, forming a small
island. (f) Slight erosion and slight soil production on this
island. (g) Decided submergence of the entire region, and
deposition of the Trenton, Galena, Cincinnati, and Niagara

strata over it. (h) Last elevation above the sea level, accom-,

panied by the formation of slight anticlinals and many small
faults. (i) Erosion of the present valleys.

Features of special interest. (a) The parallelism of the
Lower Magnesian limestone of Wisconsin and the Elk Horn

Geology and Paleontology in Germany.—dZittel. 179

area in their superior member consisting of breccia, and in
there being a well marked erosion unconformity at its surface
in Wisconsin and an inferred one (supported by some facts as
noted) in northwestern Illinois. (b) The similarity, in litho-
logical constitution, between the Lower Magnesian limestone
outcrops seen by the writer in Missouri and in the Elk Horn
area, both displaying several features peculiar, as I believe,
to this formation. (c¢) False-bedding is rare elsewhere in the
St. Peter sandstone, but is common in this area. (d) Depos-
its at the contact of the sandstone and Trenton limestone
which seem to indicate conditions of soil formation. (e) The
confirmation of Mr. W J McGee’s suggestion, in his memoir
on the “Pleistocene History of Northeastern Iowa,” that the
elevation of the strata to such a degree as to permit the St.
Peter sandstone to outcrop at several points in Illinois is due
to the intersection of different members of a system of paral-
lel undulations, developed in Iowa and continued eastward in
Illinois, with the Grand de Tour-La Salle anticlinal.

‘

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTION IN GEOLOGY AND
PALAZONTOLOGY IN GERMAN
UNIVERSITIES.*

By KARL A. VON ZITTEL, Munich, Bavaria.

In the fundamental researches of the preceding and the beginning of
the present centuries, by virtue of which Geology and Paleontology
rose to the dignity of independent natural sciences, German institutions
bore only a very insignificant part. The higher academies of that pe-
riod could boast as a rule of but a single professor of natural history,
who usually combined instruction in botany and zoology, and sometimes
also in mineralogy. The work of the modern field-geologist and topog-
rapher was carried on in those days merely by mining engineers, to
whom, indeed, we are indebted for the first truly scientific reports on
the areal geology of a region. Lehmann (1736) and Fuchsel. (1762) pub-
lished as long ago as the last century the results of theirobservations on
certain mining districts in Thiiringia, established and defined the idea
of ‘‘formations” (as for example the Kupferschiefer, Zechstein, Roth-
liegendes, etc.), and worked out the stratigraphy for the Thiringer
states. Fiichsel even went so far as to attempt a cartographical deline-
ation of his observations, and this, the first geological map ever con-
structed, he proceeded further to elucidate by means of profiles. The

*Translated. with permission of the author, from Die deutschen Universitaten (ed-
ited by Prof. W. Lexis, Berlin, 1894), by Charles R. Eastman, Ph. D., Saint Paul, Minn.

180 The American Geologist. September, 1894

practical significance of these investigations, however, was not fully
appreciated until Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817), professor of
mineralogy in the Freiberg School of Mines, extended Fiichsel’s con-
ception of a geological formation and used it as a basis for his theory of
the composition of the earth’s crust. Werner's remarkable ability and
magnetism as a teacher were the means of kindling an enthusiastic in-
terest in the new science all over Germany: and from the little mining
town in Saxony there emanated a new intellectual movement which
spread even into foreign countries, where it met with strong and tal-
ented supporters in such men as Hutton, William Smith, Dolomieu,
Cuvier, Brongniart, de Saussure and others, who had devoted them-
selves to the study of geology and paleontology. Although Germany
justly prides herself on possessing in the first decade of the present cen-
tury three of the greatest and most illustrious minds in geology, Werner,
Alexander von Humboldt, and Leopold von Buch, nevertheless neither
they nor their able coadjutors (von Freiesleben, Heim, von Hoff, von
Schlotheim, Count Minster, Heinrich Credner, Hermann von Meyer
and others) belonged to university circles, but were either independently
sit@lated or were engaged in other pursuits as well.

Not until the second and third decades of the century, after the fun-
damental principles of geology had become well established, did the
universities begin to participate in the further development of the sci-
ence; they soon took the lead, however, and have maintained their
precedence ever since. The first chair devoted exclusively to mineral-
ogy (held by Ch. Weiss) was founded in 1808 in Berlin, and this example
other universities were not slow to follow. Instruction in geology de-
volved entirely on mineralogists, while paleontological investigations
remained in the hands of zoologists and botanists. That Berlin, in
consequence of the powerful influence of Alexander von Humboldt and
Leopold von Buch, should have stood so long in the very foremost po-
sition, was really less due to the efforts of the University itself than to a
younger body of highly gifted, enthusiastle workers, who, stimulated
and directed by the two great masters, pushed out in all directions in
geology, and founded in Harsten’s Archives a valuable organ for their
communications.

It was not long, however, until nearly every higher academy in Ger-
many was provided with a full professor in mineralogy, and pains were
taken to secure all sortsof aids to instruction; especially suites of rock
specimens, ores, and fossils; and at the same time, owing to the rapid
strides being made in geology, a division of labor became necessary.
After the physiography of the various minerals had been investigated
with some degree of thoroughness, mineralogy sided over more nearly
in line with chemistry and physics; while geology was understood as
applying more particularly to paleontology and lithology, together with
the problems of vulcanism, mountain-making, and general dynamic ge-
ology. The difficulty of properly directing the steadily augmenting
numbers of geological disciples became more and more serious, so that
first in Munich (1843), then in Berlin, and before long even in the smaller

’, > ee

Geology and Palwontology in Germany .—Zittel. 181

universities, a second either full or assistant professorship in geology
and paleontology was established in addition to that in mineralogy.
At present there are three full professors in Berlin and two in Bonn,
Gottingen, Leipzic, Marburg, Munich. and Strassburg; most of the other
universities retain a full professor in either geology or mineralogy, and
an assistant professor in paleontology. On the individual accomplish-
ments and the special services rendered to science by many of the occu-
pants of these chairs is based the claim which German universities have
to make on the building up and furtherance of geology and paleontol-
ogy.

Among the older institutions of Prussia, Berlin was from the first
the best equipped in facilities for instruction, in rich collections and li-
braries, and in a strong corps of teachers. The researches of Gustav
Rose, Rummelsberg, and Justus Roth in lithology, chemical geology,
and vuleanism, the fruitful inquiries of E. Beyrich in the. department
of structural and historical geology, together with his geological recon-
naissance of Silesia and the base of the Hartz, the pioneer investigations
of Ehrenberg on microscopic rock-building organisms, both recent and
fossil, as well as the unfortunately too scantily recognized work of
Oschatz in the construction of microscopic sections of minerals and rocks,
all contributed to make Berlin, even after the death of Leopold von
Buch, a leading center of geological and paleontological research. In
December, 1848, the Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft sprang into being:
and with it a periodical was founded, which down to the present mo-
ment has continued to exercise a most powerful influence on the growth
of geology and paleontology.

Bonn vied for a long time with Berlin for the precedence. By a for-
tunate coincidence there was gathered here, about the middle
of the century, a notable company of scientists, such as Nogger-
ath. Bischof, Goldfuss, Ferdinand Roemer, Mohr, Gerhardt vom Rath,
Volgelgesang, Zirkel, and von Dechen, director of mining industries,
all of whom were highly prominent in their various specialties. Von
Dechen’s geological atlas of the Rhine country and Westphalia, which
appeared in 35 sheets on a scale of 1: 80,000, and was accompanied by
two volumes of text, was the first geological map of a considerable part
of Germany executed on a large scale. It remains to-day a remarkable
instance of precise observation, and builds the foundation of all subse-
quent surveys. The publication of von Dechen’s Geognostische Neber-
sichtskarte von Central Europa, in 1869, rendered the results of geological
investigations universally accessible. Ferdinand Roemer’s Rheinisches
Schiefergebirg, and Goldfuss’s Petrefacta Germanie, will endure as noble
monuments tothe patient industry and accuracy of German investiga-
tors: while G. Bischof’s renowned Lehrbuch der physikalischen und chem-
ischen Geologie opened up in an original manner a new and quite unex-
plored territory, and affected a permanent modification of the current
theories of volcanic action and the origin and metamorphism of rocks.
In Bonn also originated the modern reform in petrography. The light
thrown by H. Clifton Sorby’s investigations into the microstructure of

182 The American Geologist. September, 1894

rock-forming minerals was first recognized in its true significance by
Ferdinand Zirkel (now of Leipzic), whose further development and
refinement of the subject put an end to the long period of stagnation in
petrography. At the head of the modern school of petrographers
stands first of all Zirkel, alongside of whom Rosenbusch and Cohen (of
Heidelberg and Strassburg) are none the less conspicuous, not only on
account of their penetrating researches, but also for having devised
most skillful means for bringing the principles of physics and erystal-
optics to bear on the microscopic analysis of rocks.

The University of Halle, Prussia, where Germar, Fr. Hoffman, Kefer-
stein, Girard, and von Fritsch were engaged as geologists, and Giebel
and Burmeister as paleontologists, lays claim to important services in
the advancement of geology and paleontology. Breslau, since its call-
ing, in 1855, of Ferdinand Roemer, the leading authority on Paleozoic
formations, to a professor’s chair, has been the training school of a large
number of Germany’s ablest and for the most part still living geolo-
gists and paleontologists, such as von Seebach, Schliter, Hermann
Credner, Eck, Dames, Tietze, and numerous others. i

The beginning of the present century found a vigorous scientific life
pulsating in Gottingen University, Hannover. The ideas of Werner, Al-
exander von Humboldt, and Leopold von Buch fell here on fertile soil.
While Blumenbach had early: grasped the important significance of
fossils as means for identifying different strata, his successors, Haus-
mann, whose investigations were by no means confined to mineralogy
alone, Sartorius von Waltershausen, and C. von Seebach, rose to a still
higher degree of influence among German geologists. Sartorius in par-
ticular, through his monographs on Etna, on the physical geography of
Iceland, and on the climatic conditions of former periods, enriched sci-
ence with works of rare learning and of permanent value.

Among the universities of central and southern Germany, those in
Heidelberg, Leipzic, Munich and Tubingen are the most important.
Heidelberg commanded, as early as the third decade of the century, an
advanced positionin the lines of geological and paleontological progress.
In the person of C. C. von Leonhard, compiler of the Mineralogisches
Taschenbuch and founder of the Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie,
und Petrefaktenkunde (which, together with the Zeitschrift der deutschen
geologischen Gesellschaft, is the most important of all periodicals in geol-
ogy and paleontology), the university posessed a lecturer of charming
eloquence, and a brilliant student of voleanic action and eruptive rocks.

3v his side stood H. G. Bronn, professor of zodlogy and paleontology, a
man of prodigious scholarship; his Lethea Geognostica is one of the bul-
warks of geological and paleontological literature, while his Geschichte
der Natur and Index Palwontologicus were for many years most indispen-
sible requisites for every worker in paleontology. The petrographical
studies of R. Blum also occupy an enviable position in the geological
literature of Germany.

In Leipzic, beginning with 1842, C. F. Naumann lectured in mineral-
ogy and geology for thirty consecutive years, after having already

Geology and Palwontology in Germany —Zittel. 183

served sixteen years as professor of crystallography and geognosy in the
Freiberg School of Mines, where he won renown for his excellent erys-
tallographic and mineralogical researches. While at Freiberg, also, he
had been engaged with Bernhard von Cotta in the construction of a
geognostic map of Saxony. which was published on a scale of 1:120,000
and exercised an immense influence on the growth of the mining indus-
tries, especially in the coal regions of Saxony, and rivalled in point of
accuracy von Dechen’s map of Rhineland and Westphalia. But Nau-
mann’s crowning geological work is his Lehrbuch der Geognosie, univer-
sally recognized as the most thorough and comprehensive treatise on the
subject and which remained for decades the one ideal handbook for
every student of geology. Naumann’s exceptional ability as a teacher
made Leipzic an important center for training in mineralogy and geol-
ogy: nor were the old traditions swept away at Naumann’s death, which
occurred in 1873, since his mantle fell on two such worthy successors as
I. Zirkel‘and Hermann Credner, the latter of whom is the authorof the
best shorter textbook on geology that exists, and is director of the Saxon
Geological Survey. In the study of paleontology, however, Leipzic
offers but few advantages, although the botanist Schenk, together with
Schimper, Geinitz, Weiss and, more recently, Count Solms-Laubach
(Strassburg), has rendered most valuable service in enlarging our knowl-
edge of fossil plants.

Of the three Bavarian universities, Munich led the way by beginning
in the second half of the century to take a lively interest in geological
and paleontological discoveries. The rich collections of the Royal
Academy of Bavaria, after the removal of ‘the university from Land-
shut to the capital, were placed in the custodianship of a university
professor, with the privilege of their being used for educational and
other scientific purposes. Schafhiéutl was the first full professor of ge-
ology appointed (1843), who devoted himself chiefly to the investigation
of the then almost wholly unknown geology of the Bavarian Alps, while
A. Wagner, professor of zodlogy, took charge of the paleontological
work. Later, however, as W. Giimbel began his career as scientist,
university instructor, and director of the State Geological Survey, and
little by little as the results of his forty years’ experience in the exhaus-
tive study of the geology of Bavaria were published in his great work
( Geognostische Beschreibung der bayerischen Alpen, des ostbayerischen Grenz-
gebirges, des Fichtelgebirges, und frdnkischen Jura), and as at the same
time Alb. Oppel entered upon his brief but most successful period of in-
struction, Munich became more and more prominent asa training school
in geology and paleontology, and during the last thirty years has turned
out a goodly number of some of the ablest younger geologists and palie-
ontologists, such as Benecke, Waagen, Schwager, Schl6nbach, Neu-
mayr, von Sutner, Branco, Naumann, Vacek, Pohlig, Bohm, Steinmann,
Penck, Rothpletz, Walther, Gottsche, yon Ammon, Schlosser, Reis, von
Wohrmann, Jaekel, Eberhard Fraas, and others.*

[*The extreme modesty of the author forbids even the bare mention of his name in
connection with the University he has served so well. It is, however, scarcely necessary
to add that the pre-eminence which Munich enjoys to-day, among European training-
schools in geology and paleontology, is due almost wholly to the rare ability and influ-

ence of our master in these sciences.—-TRANS. |

184 The American Geologist. September, 1894

In Tiibingen, F. A. Quenstedt (1809-1889), one of the most original,
broad-sided and capable of German geologists and paleontologists,
taught for over half acentury. His tireless energy in investigating the
geology of Wurttemberg, and in particular the Schwiibian Jurassic, his
rare talent for instruction, and his reputation as an exceedingly close
observer, created for him such respect, not only on the part of his hear-
ers and special students, but of a far wider circle as well, that his name
attained a wonderful popularity and the general interest in geology ex-
tended even to social Classes which in all other respects hold nothing
in common with science. In many a neighborhood in the Schwibian
Alps one meets with common peasants who are fond of collecting fossils,
are perfectly familiar with Quenstedt’s subdivisions of the Jurassic and
with a variety of other geological facts. Quenstedt’s career is an elo-
quent example of what truly valuable service a single enterprising
spirit can render, although commanding but the most limited resources:
nor isis example by any means unique in Germany. Nearly all the
universities above mentioned, not excepting eyen the smallest, can
boast of at least one Or more professors in geology, such as Duncher, von
Klipstein, Fr. Sandberger, Pfaff, Streng, Kayser, von Koenen, Laspey-
res, Johann Lehmann and others, who have especially signalized them-
selves either as educationalists or as investigators.

During the last three decades geological bureaus have been instituted
in nearly all the states of Germany, and in consequence a large share of
the practical work formerly carried on in connection with universities
has been absorbed. At the same time, however, these bureaus are as a
rule placed under the direction of university professors, to whom in
fact their initiation is usually due. The chief field of usefulness which
modern universities subserve consists in the giving of instruction, in
the higher theoretical training offered to younger specialists, and in the
opportunities for conducting original research work. With the ever
widening scope of the science, with the fairly overwhelming amount of
working material and with new and, refined methods of research, the
necessity of changes and improvements in the mode of instruction be-
comes self-evident. The functions of the modern university professor
are by no means restricted to lectures and excursions, but it is also of
the utmost importance that the beginner should have the actual work-
ing material and the literature placed in his hands, should gain practi-
‘al experience in various methods of research, and should be entrusted
with original research work under the instructor’s direction. The
proper fulfillment of these conditions presupposes, of course, a thorough
equipment in libraries and museums, and the introduction of some such
arrangement as one finds in chemical laboratories for example, where
both beginners and advanced students find an opportunity for engaging
in individual laboratory work. Institutions of this character are to be
found in connection with most German universities of the present day, all
differing more or less from one another, however, according to the means
at disposal and according to the various scientific specialties of the indi-
vidual instructors. While, for instance, in Leipzic, Heidelberg and

’

Editorial Comment. 185

Greifswald the petrographical side is more especially cultivated, on the
other hand the universities of Munich, Berlin, Strassburg, Breslau,
Bonn, Gottingen. Halle and Tubingen, partly because of their rich col-
lections and partly on account of their excellently organized and well
equipped special Institutes, offer the best advantages for palwontologi-
cal training. In the smaller universities, where the number of geologi-
cal students is naturally limited, laboratory accommodations may be
reduced to one or two rooms, and in some cases the students’ working-
collections are also placed here. In the larger institutions students in
the elementary and in advanced courses work apart from one another,
and the amount of space occupied is necessarily much larger. The in-
strumental outfit consists mostly of microscopes, various kinds of saws,
grinding and polishing machines, and other necessaries for the construc-
tion of microscopic sections.

If one will compare the advantages offered by German universities
for the special pursuit of geology and paleontology with those existing
in similar foreign institutions, the conclusion cannot be avoided that
our institutions are by no means behind the others in point of excel-
lence, but, on the contrary, that they and their methods may well serve
as models for other countries to pattern after.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

“THe MINERAL INDUSTRY.”

The Scientific Publishing Company has recently issued its
second volume under the above title. Aside from its title,
which is a misnomer, the work is very ¢reditable and valuable.
Such a title would lead a geologist to look for the statistics
and methods of dealers in minerals, such as Geo. L. English or
A. E. Foote, who have been known for many years as leading
mineralogists and who have sent their consignments to nearly
every college in America. But their names are nowhere to be
found in the volume, at least they are not in the index. It
has to be explained that this volume is not devoted to miner-
als, but to the mining of such minerals as are of economic
value, and to the methods of getting them into the markets,
either in a raw state, as ores, or in a refined state suitable for
the hand of the manufacturer.

In the early years of a new country the energies of the set-
tler are devoted necessarily to the quickest and easiest means
of winning a comfortable subsistence, and that makes him a
tiller of the soil. He becomes a manufacturer and a trader
later, and last of all he becomes a miner. ‘The.United States

186 The American Geologist. September, 1894

is just entering upon this last stage and has made considerable
progress init. This development of the economic side of ge-
ology has been very rapid in America within the last fifteen
years, and it foretells for the future such changes from our
present methods of industrial economy that when they are
fully established they will revolutionize many of the conven-
tional ways of modern society. The discovery of the means
to control electricity will lead directly to the employment of
water power to execute most of the costly work at the mine.
With a cheapening of the work will go an extension of the
product of the mine, and this will extend the mining industry
in all its ramifications.

The American Institute of Mining Engineers has been the
head and front of this rapid growth of the mining interests
amongst the practical geologists of the country. It represents
the best organized system for bringing together for compari-
son and for preservation the results and methods of the scien-
tific miners of the United States. Its establishment marked
an epoch in scientific mining in America. Its published vol-
umes are among the most valuable geological works of the
day. Here the theoretical systematist in geology will find his
theories put to the unfailing test of practice. It is not too
much to say that to the miner, and hence to the mining indus-
try, geology must look for most of its future progress, at least
in the United States. In Canada the economic side of geology
has always been put to the front and systematic geology has
been comparatively neglected. The reverse has been the case
in the United States. The example of New York State, which
has entirely neglected, officially, its economic resources and
has spent much upon the technical and paleontologic aspects
of geological science, has been followed by too many of the
state surveys and too closely by the United States survey.
Economic geology has made headway in spite of this indiffer-
ence. Speculative and technical geology has had the field for
many years, but it becomes more and more apparent that
room must be made for an extension of that phase of the sci-
ence which directly concerns the greatest number of people.

The second epoch-marking event in this progress is the es-
tablishment of the publication which is above referred to.
The United States Geological Survey has made an effort to

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 187

publish the statistics of mining in the United States from
year to year, and its annual reports on statistics have fur-
nished a record of a mass of information which is valuable
and must be preserved for future use, but they have been
published so late that they have been cheated out of their
chief value, which centers in the present use that can be made
of such information. They are like the reports of the Smith-
sonian Institution, coming after the information which they
convey has become old, and has been seen and used by the
need of the times long before. The tortuous and time-taking
“red tape” of the government is in this volume cut into frag-
ments and a result is reached before the government fairly
begins its task. ‘Belated statistics are ancient history, of
little practical value in the active affairs of an industry, or as
a guide for legislation affecting it.” Private interests were
therefore the first to feel this defect and the first to remedy it.
The result is sufficient testimony to the need of such earlier
publication, and a sufficient warrant for the U.S. Geological
Survey to withdraw entirely from this field unless it be in
terms ordered by law to continue. The decennial census would
supplement this publication sufticiently, and would correct
such errors as may be found incident to hasty work.

The volume, however, is not made up of statistics. It isa
first class treatise on economic geology. Its writers are ex-
perts in the lines in which they have contributed information,
and have treated fully of the ores, as to mode of occurrence,
means of extraction, geographic distribution, metallurgical
processes, values at the markets, exports and imports, uses,
and total production. The various mining schools of the Uni-
ted States are described and the value of geological surveyse
is indicated briefly. The work emanates from New York,
that throbbing heart of the continent’s commerce. N. H. W.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John group, No. VIIT G.¥.
MATTHEW. (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1893, sec. tv, pp. 85-129, 2 plates.)
The long and highly interesting and successful researches of Mr. Mat-

thew into the fauna of the St. John group are in this paper brought to

’

_
io 4)
(0 6)

The American Geologist. September, 1894

a formal close. It includes a survey and summary of the work from
the beginning to the end, the fossils being all named in tabular arrange-
ment and referred to their stratigraphic positions in the series. The
strata that contain these fossils are composed of four main parts, viz:
|< ABER
Basal series (Etcheminian) at Hanford brook, St. Martins.1,200
Division 1 (Acadian) at the Alms House, Simonds........ 650
Division 2 (Johannian) at King’s square, Carleton........1,000

Division 3 (Bretonian) at Straight shore, Portland........ 7
Total thickness ........2... Aan (RAO Ene obi oe 3,990

Of these the Etcheminian, which is below the St. John proper and
separated from it by some evidence of a plane of erosion, is perhaps the
representative of the Olenellus horizon. From it, however, only a very
sparse fauna has been obtained. The strictly primordial trilobites are
confined to division 1; of the St. John group proper, in which bands ¢
and d are characteristically a Paradoxides horizon. No species of Olen-
ellus is listed. Division 2 is practically non-fossiliferous, having afforded
only tracks, burrows and trails. Division 8, however, has in one of its
bands near the top, a large number of graptolites which are thought to
ally the beds of this division with the Lower Silurian (Ordovician) hor-
izon (AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, XII, pp. 193,340). With these are brachio-
pods and a number of trilobites, the latter being Agnostus bisectus, and
A. trisectus, Parabolina spinulosa, heres, and grandis, Parabolinella
posthuma, Protopeltura acanthura var. tetracanthura, Peltura scarabe-
oides, Cyclognathus rotundifrons, Leptoplastus latus and spinosus,
Ctenopyge flagillifera, acadica and pecten, Spherophthalmus alatus var.
canadensis, and Conocephalites contiguus, and two unknown species. It
may be questioned whether this fauna should not be kept within the
Upper Cambrian, as that term is used by most American geologists,
rather than extending the term Ordovician or Lower Silurian down-
ward so as to cover it. The term Ordovician was devised to cover those
beds which were in dispute between Sedgwick and Murchison, and they
were the Bala and Llandeilo, the American Hudson River and Trenton,
and to these it would seem legitimate to confine the term. The above
fauna is lower than the true Ordovician, and comes more nearly at the
horizon of the St. Croix, or Upper Cambrian. N. H. W.

Contribution to the Knowledge of the Preglacial Drainage of Ohio. By W.
G. Ticgur. (Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison Univer-
sity, vol. vit, pp. 35-62, with five plates, June, 1894.) In this article
Prof. Tight has published the results of some of his observations on the
glacial geology of the district near and around Granville and Newark,
Ohio. It would not be easy to find a more complicated spot than the
gorge of the Licking river between Newark and Zanesville; and the au-
thor’s explanation of the history of the changes that have produced this
gorge, or rather these gorges, seems natural and necessary. He traces
three distinct and successive channels of the river consequent on the
conditions caused by the presence of the ice-sheet and of the morainic
matter left.on the surface when the ice retreated. The ponding back

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 189
of the water of the Muskingum by the eastern edge of the Scioto lobe of
the continental glacier caused that river to desert what the author re-
gards as its preglacial channel and to take a new one along its present
course. The deposit of huge moraines across the same preglacial chan-
nel produced a lake covering the site of the present Licking reservoir,
which was ultimately drained by the cutting down of its eastern. bar-
rier. The figures accompanying the paper will enable any glacialist to
comprehend the author's reasoning, but only a visit to the spot can
show its full force and significance.

In the second part of the paper the author ranges over a much wider
field and attempts a reconstruction of the preglacial hydrography of
Ohio which is both novel and striking, but which, in spite of some
strong points, geologists will be slow to adopt, at least in full and with-
out modification. He traces the preglacial Muskingum from its present
channel at Dresden southwestward to Newark along a wide abandoned
valley and then through Fairfield county into the Scioto basin. Thence
he carries it to the west and northwest through Madison and Cham-
paign counties into the Wabash drainage system in Indiana. This view
certainly affords an explanation which no other has done of the very
deep drift-filling along the line in question, and especially of the im-
menseé mass of drift at St. Paris, where it is more than 500 feet thick.
But it compels the blotting out of the Ohio as a continuous channel], and
renders necessary the adoption of the view that the present valley of
that name is made up of parts of several preglacial valleys united by
glacial and postglacial cross-cuts. This will scarcely commend itself to
glacial geologists without very strong evidence. The task is too vast
for postglacial time. Possibly some modification, however, may remove
the difficulty and allow the abandonment of the Wabash channel at a
earlier date and the establishment of an Ohio before the Glacial period
began. We should like to suggest to the author a consideration of some
of the possibilities along this line. Change of level in the peneplain
during Tertiary time may have been sufficient to produce such an effect,
and of this some amount of evidence is already attainable.

Professor Tight quotes the fact that the valleys of the present Mus-
kingum, the Scioto, and other streams of the same region, narrow to the
southward, in support of his opinion that their flow has been reversed.
The argument is good, but would apply as well to that above suggested.

BR W...C:

On the occurrence of a large area of Nepheline Syenite in the township of
Dungannon, Ontario. By Frank D. ApAMs. (Amer. Jour. Sci., 3, vol.
XLVI, pp. 10-16, July, 1894.) The area described is in Hastings county,
in the midst of Laurentian rocks, and this is the first discovery of neph-
eline syenite in the Laurentian system of Canada. The essential con-
Stituents of this rock are nepheline, which often makes up almost the
entire rock, albite, and some little brown mica and hornblende. Ortho-
clase, which is common in rocks of this class, is not found as an original
mineral. <A noticeable feature of the rock is the occurrence of scapolite
and calcite, both rather common and having the appearance of original

190 The American Geologist. September, 1894

constituents. The origin of the calcite is difficult to determine: it is
not a decomposition product in the ordinary sense, and it does not seem
to fill microlitie cavities. In an accompanying paper Dr. B. J. Harring-
ton gives analyses of some of the minerals of this nepheline syenite.

U. Ss. G.

Second Expedition to Mount St. Elias, in 1891. By IsrakL Cook Rus-
SELL. Pages 91: plates MI-xxxt, and six figures. (Advance extract
from the Thirteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, for 1891-
‘92; Washington, 1894.) The observations made by Prof. Russell, in
his two expeditions to Mount St. Elias, concerning the transportation
and deposition of till by the Malaspina glacier or ice-sheet and the sup-
ply of large amounts of modified drift to the streams of its melting by
which they are deposited as eskers, kames, and extensive flood-plains,
have greatly stimulated the researches of American glacialists to de-
termine the proportions of the Pleistocene drift borne along respective-
ly in the mass of the ice-sheet and beneath it, and how it acted to heap
up the drumlins of New England, New York, Wisconsin, Ireland, and
Scotland, and to form the conspicuous esker ridges of Maine and Sweden
and, in less abundance, of all glaciated areas. These and similar ques-
tions, relating to the genesis or methods of formation of the glacial and
modified drift, at present enlist the attention of workers in this field as
never before; and for the advancement of knowledge in these directions
Profs. Chamberlin, Wright, and others, are now absent in exploration
of the borders of the Greenland ice-sheet. By these studies of living
glaciers analogous in all their phenomena with the Pleistocene conti-
nental ice-sheets, we may hope to attain a much clearer conception of
the history of the Glacial period and the origin of its widely diverse and
complex drift formations.

A map of the Malaspina glacier and St. Elias mountains shows Prof.
Russell’s routes in 1890 and 1891. In the second expedition he ascended
to a hight of 14,500 feet on the northeastern slope of St. Elias, and ex-
plored the western central portion and forest-covered front of the gla-
cier, taking very interesting notes of the streams outflowing from it,
named the Yahtse river, Yahna, Fountain, Manby, Osar, Kame, Kwik,
and Esker streams. The glacier or ice-sheet covers an area of about
1,500 square miles, having an extent of some 70 miles from east to west
along the coast, with a breadth of 20 to 25 miles, and a general eleva-
tion of about 1,500 feet five or six miles from its outer border. At Icey
cape its Guyot lobe pushes boldly forward into the ocean, and, with its
front constantly breaking off to form icebergs, terminates in magnifi-
cent ice cliffs estimated to be at least 300 or 400 feet high.

Seen from a distance of several miles, the cliffs of Icey cape appeared
to contain no drift, though the surface of the ice there, as all along its
borders adjoining the sea, is drift-covered. The surface of the central
parts of the ice-sheet, however, is free from drift, excepting along mo-
rainic lines streaming downward from spurs and foot-hills of the moun-
tains. Near its border the ablation of its surface seems to uncover
much drift which had been borne along in the middle and basal por-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 191

tions of the ice-sheet. Therefore it may be found by closer inspection
of Iey cape that much englacial drift, although too small in relative
amount to be observable from the east side of the Yahtse river, occurs
within the ice-cliffs, such as has become exposed on the surface by pro-
gressing ablation. In the vicinity of the Yahtse and of ley cape, how-
ever, the superficial moraines of the Chaix hills are mingled with the
less plentiful englacial drift, which latter seems to be the chief source
of supply at the Sitkagi bluffs and thence eastward twenty-five miles
to the Kame stream.

Professor Russell and his parties in both expeditions braved many
dangers and well performed their tasks of geographic and geologic ex-
ploration. The narrative and the discussion of scientific results are
presented in a most modest and entertaining manner. They mark a
stage of great progress in our knowledge of the conditions of the Ice
age. W. U.

On Certain Astronomical Conditions favorable to Glaciation. By Gro. F.
Becker. Am. Jour. of Science, III, vol. xuvim, pp. 95-113, Aug. 1894.
From a mathematical investigation of the effects of the unequal
amounts of solar heat received by different portions of the earth’s sur-
face under varying astronomical conditions, the author sums up his
results, differing widely from the well known views of the late Dr. Croll,
as follows: “‘I began this enquiry without the remotest idea as to what
conclusion would be reached. At the endof it [ feel compelled to as-
sert that the combination of low eccentricity and high obliquity will
promote the accumulation of glacial ice in high latitudes more
than any other set of circumstances pertaining to the earth’s orbit. It
seems to me that the glacial age may be due to these conditionsin com-
bination with a favorable disposition of land and water. This theory
implies, or rather does not exclude, simultaneous glaciation in both
hemispheres. It does not imply that the ice age should last only ten or
twelve thousand years. If the conditions here suggested are correct,
variations in the disposition of land and water may have determined
intervals of glaciation, not necessarily the same ones in New England
and the basin of the Mississippi; and there may have been considerable
time differences in the inception or the cessation ef glaciation in various
regions. It is not needful to assume that the glaciation of the Sierra
Nevada either began or ended synchronously with the ice age in New
England. The date at whicha minimum of eccentricity last coincided
with a maximum of obliquity can almost certainly be determined.
According to Stockwell, the obliquity has been diminishing for the past
$,000 vears, and was within 21 minutes of its maximum value at the
beginning of that time. According to Leverrier, the eccentricity passed
through a minimum 40,000 years ago. the value being then about two-
thirds of the present one. So far as | know, the obliquity has not been
computed beyond 8,000. This can of course be done for Stockwell’s
value of the masses of the planets, or for newer or better ones. All the
indications seem to be that within thirty or forty thousand years con-

192 The American Geologist. September, 1894

ditions have occurred, and have persisted for a considerable number of
thousand years, which would favor glaciation on» the theory of this
paper.”’ Dr. Becker’s conclusion is thus closely harmonious -with the
present reviewer's estimates, as noted in the last May AMERICAN GEOL-
oGist (page 364): and it appears that he regards the causes of ice accu-
mulation to consist more in geographic changes, as land elevation, than
in the varying astronomice conditions. Weare:

CORRESPONDENCE,

A Repry To ‘CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF GLACIATION.”** ‘*The oc-
currence of .... late Carboniferous and Permian glaciation .... is
inconsistent with Falsan’s+t and Manson’s views. which have no place for
general glaciation before the Pleistocene period.’*$

It is true that, in the interpretations rendered in Geological and Solar
Climates,there is no place for general glaciation before the Pleistocene
period: nor has it been proved that such general glaciation has occurred.
Widely distributed glaciations during Paleozoic time have been shown,
but the evidence adduced is such as to warrant the conclusion that such
glaciations were local and not general.

According to the principles and views set forth in the writer’s work,
local glaciation could have occurred at any time during the Paleozoic
era, provided the conditions were favorable. That local favorable con-
ditions could have existed, is in no way inconsistent with the views
therein advanced. Indeed, such local glaciation is corroborative of one
of the prime ideas of the argument, which is, that prior to the Quater-
nary era surface temperatures were independent of latitude, which in-
dependence is distinctly proved by the wide range of Paleozoic glacia-
tions. Had the early local glaciations been dependent upon solar heat,
they would have been governed by the same laws of distribution as the
glaciations of to-day; and had any general ‘‘period’’ of glaciation
occurred, it would have been accompanied by arctic types of fossil life,
such as accompanied the general Quaternary glaciation, the distinguish-
ing test between local and general glaciation being fossil marine life of
a cold temperate or arctic character. All the evidences of early glacia-
tion vet discovered are mechanical, i. e., boulder transportation, striew,
ete.: and they occur in such varying latitudes as to distinctly prove that
the climates were absolutely independent of latitude. Therefore the
Permian and Carboniferous glaciations corroborate the view set forth
in Geological and Solar Climates, that prior to the Quaternary era surface
temperatures were independent of latitude, being controlled by local
conditions of elevation and conductivity of the crust.

Again, on page 17, there occurs this objection: ‘‘Another obstacle

*AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, July, 1894, pp. 12-20.

Tltis unnecessary to call attention to the difference between the views of Falsan and
those of the author.

tLoc. cit., pp. 16, 17.

, Correspondence. 193

to Manson’s hypothesis* of a continuous cloud envelope till after the
Quaternary glaciation, Consists in the extensive deposits of rock salt
and gypsum found in strata as old as the Silurian and Cambrian, since
these beds could only be formed by evaporation of lagoons shut off from the
sea, or of saline lakes, under a drying atmosphere.’ (Italicised by the
present writer.)

The physics and chemistry of this objection are defective. Even
upon the assumption that the vast beds of gypsum, rock salt, or other
minerals deposited from aqueous solution, were solely the result of evap-
oration, it does not follow that such deposition was the result of an ab-
solute, nor even partial, desiccation of the basin containing the solution.
The deposition of soluble salts goes on from saturated solutions under
any evaporation at all, and if the water flowing into the basin had been
already saturated at a higher temperature, the deposition of the salt
would go on even with increasing depth of water in the basin, by the
cooling effeet of evaporation.

It is at least possible that vast beds of gypsum were precipitated by
the commingling of solutions of a more highly soluble salt of lime with
a solution of sulphuric acid or of an alkaline sulphate: in which case
the precipitation of gypsum would go on independent of evaporation,
and drainage eutering the body of water from different areas might
have supplied the solution necessary to continue the precipitation for
Some time. In the same way other salts could be formed to such an ex-
tent as to be present in greater quantities than would saturate the solu-
tion, and hence they would be precipitated or crystallized out.

The precipitation of sulphate of lime would go on in the Pacific
ocean to-day, provided there were discharged into its waters any soluble
salt of lime and an alkaline sulphate sufficient to chargeits waters with
more than about 1-400 of sulphate of lime.

Many of the compounds of sulphur and chlorine with the non-metal-
lic elements are volatile, and they may have been, and doubtless were,
present in the atmosphere during earlier ages to a greaterextent than at
present. In that case, such compounds would be washed out of the
atmosphere by rains, and coming in contact with solutions of the alka-
line earths and alkalies would form and precipitate or crystallize out
the more stable salts now in existence. The formation of sulphate of
lime, common salt, ete., would then proceed from abundant rains rather
than from a period of dryness and excessive evaporation: the less soluble
salts would be precipitated as formed, and the more soluble ones would
crystallize out from saturated solutions. It therefore does not follow
that ‘‘these beds could ovly be formed by evaporation of lagoons shut off
from the sea, or of saline lakes, under a drying atmosphere.”

Another argument, used more to show that the Ice age was caused by
{the upheaval of temperate land areas than as an objection to the eriti-

*The writer disclaims any attempt to advance an hypothesis or assumption of any
kind, but simply endeavors to make an interpretation of natural facts upon the basis of
known and admitted laws. He does not even assume that the cloud envelope was re-
moved, but that its removal was geologically and physically recorded. Geol. and Solar
Climates, pp. 39 and 49.

194 The American Geologist. September, 1894

cized interpretations, is that the submerged channels off the mouths of
certain rivers are evidence that such submerged channels are the re-
sults of erosion, and therefore that they marked periods of upheaval
and depression of adjacent lands. Whilst this may be true in some
instances, it by no means follows for all, nor for the deeper of these sub-
merged channels.* Channel-building by bank elevation goes on as well
under water as under air.f The sediments which these rivers have
borne to the ocean during their entire existence (and particularly during
the “Diluvial’’ and ‘‘Terrace’’ epochs) must have been deposited more
upon the flanks of the outhowing fresh water than in the direct lines of
swiftest flow. If any one will take the pains to plat to natural seale the
sections of many of these deeply submerged channels. he will find that
the slopes of the banks are not upon lines of erosion, but that they cor-
respond more nearly to lines of sedimentation. Besides, before a sub-
merged channel shall be decided to be one of erosion, not only should
the form of the channel correspond to proper lines, but the material of
its banks should be determined, and the eroded materials should be ac-
counted for either in the extension of the bank lines or in the construe-
tion of a bar at the eroded mouth. Therefore, the existence of a sub-
merged channel is not always a proper and conclusive proof that the
channel was formed by erosion and hence is evidence of great upheaval
and depression of adjacent lands. MARSDEN MANSON.
San Francisco, Cal., July 24th, 1894.

LAKE CayuGa A Rock Bastn. Replying to Dr. Spencer’s comments
on my paper which states the evidence at hand pointing toward the
conclusion that lake Cayuga is a rock basin, I would say that my fail-
ure to include the continental tilting of the land was due to the fact
that it would not essentially modify the argument, and that I have not
considered the conclusions reached as definite enough to be accepted.
Some tilting has taken place, but much needs to be done before we can
determine its amount in Central New York. The problem is complex
and requires a knowledge of the preglacial and the glacial attitude of
the land, as well as the postglacial changes.

I do not deny that rock exists at a considerable depth near the outlet
of lake Cayuga: indeed, I should be surprised if this were not the case.
I cannot, however, agree with Dr. Spencer that this would force me
from the use of the term rock basin to valley erosion. Valley erosion
by ice means rock basin formation. The ice erodes, according to my
argument, in broad north arid south valleys; and when one of these val-
leys turns to the east or the west, or when it joins an east and west main
stream, the marked ice erosion ceases. If, for instance, Cayuga river
flowed northward and was tributary to an east and west Canadian
stream, the ice erosion deepened the valley of Cayuga but failed to
deepen the east-west valley to a great degree; so that the north and south

*The following argument has been communicated to the editor of Zhe Glacialists’
Magazine in a recent contribution by the writer.

tSee Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army, 1882, pp. 2521, 2522, Appendix MM; or
Ex. Doc. No. 93, 46th Congress, 3d Session, pp. 7, 8.

Personal and Scientific News. 195

valley became by valley erosion a rock basin. 1 should expect, therefore,
to find valley erosion north of lake Cayuga as far as the broad pregla-
cial valley extended northward. My conception of rock basin erosion

is this, and not local concentration of energy to scoop out a depression.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. ¥., July 30, 1894. RaAupu S. TARR.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

THE SUMMER MEETING OF THE GEOLOGICAL Society of Amer-
ica was held at Brooklyn, N. Y., August 14 and 15. The
attendance numbered thirty-eight. Vice President N.S. Shaler
presided, and on opening the session feelingly referred to the
great loss to the Society sustained in recent death of its
first Vice President, George H. Williams, of Baltimore, and of
Amos Bowman, of Anacortes. The Council fixed upon Balti-
more as the place for the winter meeting, Dec. 27, 28 and 29.
Eleven new fellows were elected. The programme showed
twenty-six papers to be read. The following abstracts have
been furnished for the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST :

The Nickel Mine at Laneaster Gap, Pa., and the Pyrrhotite Deposit at
Anthony's Nose, on the Hudson... J. ¥. Kempe, New York city. The paper
described with maps, sections, lantern views and specimens, these two
deposits of nickeliferous pyrrhotite. The former is on the contact be-
tween a great intruded lens of some original, basic, intrusive rock that
is now altered to a mass of coarsely crystalline, green hornblende (i. e.,
is an amphibolite) and its walls of mica schist and pegmatite. The
latter is a lens or pod, of the type familiar in the iron mines of the
highlands of New York and New Jersey, and is in acidic gneiss of the
composition of granite. The question of origin was discussed with
especial reference to magmatic separation, and with comparisons with
nickel ores elsewhere in America and in Norway.

A Connection between the Chemical and Optical Properties of Amphiboles.
ALFRED C. LANE, Houghton, Mich. Mr. Lane alluded to the frequent
occurrence of zones of different colors and optical properties in uralitic
and other amphiboles, the bluer ones probably containing more soda,
and showed a diagram which indicated that with the increase in soda
the birefraction on the orthopinacoid decreased, becoming 0 for about
64% of soda and then increasing, but with position of the greater and
less axes reversed. He urged the ease and importance of making obser-
vations on the orthopinacoid section on all those who have to investi-
gate amphibolites.

On a Basic Rock derived from Granite. C. H. Smyru, Jr., Clinton, N.
Y. The paper described a dark colored, massive rock associated with
the hematite of the Old Sterling mine in Jefferson county, N. Y. The
rock has always been called serpentine, but its origin has been uncer-
tain. Examination in the field and with the microscope shows it to be
derived from granite, but greatly altered from its original condition.
The character of the changes which the rock has undergone was briefly
outlined; and it was suggested that the alteration is due to crushing of
the rock by regional disturbances, together with the infiltration of solu-
tions derived from decomposed pyrites.

196 The American Geologist. September, 1894

The process of Segregation as illustrated in the New Jersey Highlands.
Raupu 8. Tarr, Ithaca, N. Y. The various theories offered to account
for the New Jersey iron ores were stated and objections pointed out. -
The process of segregation was then discussed and the banding of some
of the New Jersey gneisses and limestones described. An instance of
segregation was given. where blue dolomitic limestone has been altered
to calcite with bands or impurities, sometimes crystallized, though orig-
inally disseminated in minute grains through the dolomite. This pro-
cess was studied in the slide and the resulting banding was in all respects,
except in size, likethe coarse banding of the white limestone. The
possible application of this to gneissic banding was then pointed out.

Alunogen and Bauxite of New Mexico, with notes on the geology of the Up-
per Gila region. Wn. P. BLAKE, New Haven, Conn. The deposits of
alunogen and bauxite are found in the upper Gila river region, about
forty miles from Hanover. At Hanover the rock formations are Paleo-
zoic metamorphic limestones and syenites of greater age, characterized
by large deposits of iron and zine ores. Further north the country is
covered with a thick deposit of volcanic sediments and lavas, filling the
ancient valleys. The alunogen occurs in these formations and exudes
from the cliffs in places where there has apparently been solfatarie ac-
tion by which the rocks have been altered and left without much silica.
This may have been removed by hot water and steam, but iron pyrites
appears to have been an important factor in the changes and in the pro-
duction of the alunogen, which is remarkably pure and free from iron.
Bauxite is the result of the alteration of the voleanic rock in place and
is, like the French bauxite, a residual product and not deposited from
solutions.

A study of the cherts of Missouri. By EpMuNb Ot1s Hovey, New York
city. The paper gave the results of work on some thirty-eight speci-
mens of chert from various localities in the Lower Magnesian and
Lower Carboniferous strata of the state. The cherts from the former
series are non-fossiliferous, while those from the latter are usually
crowded with the remains of crinoids and other calcareous organisms.
The cherts vary very much in color, texture and state of preservation.
A petrographic discussion occupied a large part of the article. It was
shown that the cherts were composed essentially of chalcedony, though
quartz and opal are present in some specimens, the latter to a very lim-
ited extent in this series. The chalcedony is usually in the form of a
granular mosaic (in polarized light), but some of the material is aggre-
gated into concentric spherules showing characteristic negative double
refraction. Careful search for sponge spicules was made, but nothing
whatever of the kind was found, with one extremely doubtful exception.
Five regular siliceous oélites were noted from the Lower Magnesian. A
table of eighteen chemical analyses accompanied the paper, in which it
was brought out that in cherts not bearing calcareous fossils

The Si Os, ismsnadlyes AAS. eee oe eee > 98.004
a Og + Fes Og is: usually....: < 1.00%

* Ca O-+ Me Ois uStalya ao ae =< .20%
iS Hy O: (ign) asisiallyic ys 286A. - Me etic

Determinations on four of the samples showed only comparatively
small percentages of Si Og soluble in caustic potash. This fact, to-
gether with the small amount of water present and the microscopic
characters, shows that very little opal or amorphous silica occurs in
these cherts. The author gave a brief resumé of the theories which
have been propounded to explain the origin of flint, hornstone and chert,
und gave it as his opinion that the Missouri cherts which he studied
were due to chemical precipitation from the ocean at the time of the
deposition of the strata in which they occur.

Personal and Scientific News, 197

Platyenemic Man in New York. Wit H. SHeRzER, Ypsilanti, Mich.
An account of the discovery in July, 1893, at Canandaigua lake of a well
preserved skeleton of this ancient and interesting type of man; showing
besides the cranial development of low order, the compression of the
femur, the flattening of the tibia and the perforation of the humerus.
An explanation was attempted of the presence of these simian charac-
ters in early man and their occasional occurrence, especially in negroes,
at the present day.

Dislocations in certain portions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain strata and
their probable causes. By ArtHUR HOLuick, Staten Island, N.Y. Indi-
cations of faulting, folding, and other forms of dislocation have been
mentioned by several observers in the coastal plain region of the south-
ern states, notably by McGee and Dall. In general, however, the obser-
vations point to a system of folding or dislocation in a north and south
direction, as previous experience in mountain-making principles would
cause us to expect for the region,

Further north, extending from Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard
through Block island, Gardiner’s island, Long Island, Staten island and
northern New Jersey, there isanother line or areaof disturbance having
a general east and west direction. It is with this that we have now to
deal.—The facts in connection with it are so different from those with
which we are familiar elsewhere in America, that but for the cireum-
stance of one portion having been utilized by N.S. Shaler as an exam-
ple of mountain-making forces, it would not have received considera-
tion by me in such connection. In his report on the geology of Martha’s
Vineyard, Prof. Shaler argues for the hypothesis of mountain-making
forces in order to account for the dislocations of the Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata there, and the same views were reiterated in papers read
before the Geological Society. Observations made on Long Island and
Staten Island forced me to the conclusion that similar dislocations on
these islands were to be accounted for on the hypothesis of ice action
above, and I subsequently came to the same conclusion for the Martha’s
Vineyard dislocations, thus following the opinions of both Merrill and
Upham.

Further investigations on Long Island and northern New Jersey have
greatly strengthened the views previously expressed and we are now in
a position to state, as beyond question, that the line of disturbance is
coincident with the line of the moraine from Nantucket to northern
New Jersey; that the phenomena of dislocation are only to be found
where the moraine crossed some portion of the former coastal plain; and
that these phenomena Cease abruptly where the moraine bends away
from or finally leaves the plain.

The phenomena are identical throughout, and any theory advanced
to account for them in one portion of the area must also account for
them in every other portion. One series of Cause and effect has been
instrumental throughout, and it merely becomes a question as to which
series—ice action or mountain-making forces—is the most probable.

The general type of a section through any part of the region, in a
north and south direction, shows a core of contorted Cretaceous and
post-Cretaceous sands, gravels and clays, flanked on the north and
sapped on the top by boulder till, which gradually merges into water-
assorted material on the southern flanks and plains beyond.

The Gay Head escarpment is the most extensive section which is any-
where exposed, but a Similar structure is seen to exist wherever there is
an exposed section through the moraine on Long Island, and if we could
imagine that island separated into parts by means of convenient north
and south erosion channels Gay Head would be reproduced indefinitely.
On Staten Island the moraine crosses a portion of the coastal plain near
the Narrows, then bends northward and rests on the Archiean axis and

198 The American Geologist. September, 1894

again enters upon the plain a few miles further west. In that part near
the Narrows upon which the moraine rests the underlying strata are
folded and tilted exactly as they are on Long Island and Martha’s Vine-
yard. Uptothis point the evidences of disturbance are continuous.
As soon, however, as the line of the moraine leaves the plain and bends
around over the Archean axis the indications of disturbance cease ab-
solutely and they are not again met with until the moraine once more
enters upon the plain.

The dip and strike of the disturbed strata are generally too erratic to
be of any stratigraphic value. The prevailing strike, however, follows
the general trend of the moraine and the strata are either bent into over-
thrust folds, tilted with the dip towards the north, or folded into north
and south anticlines. East and west dips are also to be seen, especially
on the sides of the inlets and harbors of the north shore of Long Island
and on Gardiner’s Island. These are probably due to the lateral thrust
of tongues of ice in advance of the main mass.

The effects produced by the advaneing ice front have been wonder-
fully paralleled by a series of experiments on the compression of plastic
strata recently made by Bailey Willis, the resultsof which are published
in the 13th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey.

One of the objections to the theory of mountain-making, which ap-
pears to be the most serious, is that if the disturbance was preglacial it
must have taken place subsequent to the time when the Lafayette or
even later formations had been laid down, as we find these gravels in-
cluded in the distorted strata. This would leave but a very short pe-
riod of time in which to develop the line of hills upon which the moraine
rests, and would imply a sudden disturbance rather than a gradual
mountain-making process, and the facts at our command do not warrant
the assumption that such conditions prevailed.

Again, any such development of force would inevitably result in the
disturbance of strata below as well as upon the surface, and this we do
not find to be the case. At Cold Spring the superficial strata are beau-
tifully crumpled and folded, but where the lower strata are exposed
these are undisturbed. Finally, in this theory we should have to dis-
miss as unworthy of serious thought the coincidence of the disturbed
strata with the line of the moraine and their absence elsewhere, and to
regard this as a coincidence only. [The paper was illustrated by charts
and sketches. |

Faults of the region between the Mohawk river and the Adirondack moun-
tains. N. H. Darron, Washington, D. C. An account of structural re-
lations and general stratigraphy of the Lower Paleozoics in the region
extending from the Mohawk valley to the southern edge of the Adiron-
dacks and eastward to lake George. The series of faults are the most
salient features and their relations. distribution and extent were des-
cribed.

Review of our Knowledge of the Geology of the California Coast Ranges.
By H. W. Farrpanks, Berkeley, California. The Coast ranges were
defined geographically and pronounced a mountain system separate from
the Klamath mountains and the Sierra Nevada. They are shown to be
not a new range, but rather an old one, with an axis along which dislo-
cation has taken place repeatedly from pre-Cretaceous times until post-
Tertiary. Their stratigraphy was discussed in detail, and they were
shown to be made up of (1) a metamorphic pre-Cretaceous core, rang-
ing in age probably from Carboniferous to late Jurassic; and (2) a later
non-metamorphic series, Composed of Cretaceous, Tertiary and post-
Tertiary rocks. The lithology and structure of the Coast ranges were
compared to those of the Sierra Nevada.

Personal and Scientific News, 199

Tertiary and early Quaternary Baseleveling in Minnesota, Manitoba, and
Northwestward. WasARREN Upnam, Somerville, Mass. The great north-
western plains have an approximately flat surface which has been low-
ered by Tertiary baseleveling 500 to 3,000 feet below the original surface
of the Laramie and Montana strata as they were at the end of the Cre-
taceous period. Measures of this general erosion are supplied by the
Coteau des Prairies, the Turtle mountain, and numerous other isolated
hill and mountain areas upon the country reaching thence west to the
Rocky mountains.

Near the end of the Tertiary era and in the early Quaternary, the
eastern part of this vast baseleveled expanse was deeply eroded and
newly baseleveled, the resulting lower plain being the flat area of the
Red river valley, averaging 50 miles in width, and of the wider Manitoba
lake region. The depth of this later immediately preglacial erosion was
300 to 1, 000 feet, as shown by the Pembina mountain and the Manitoba
escarpment, which extends thence northward along the west side of the
great lakes of Manitoba to the Saskatchewan river. The chief topo-
graphic features of Minnesota and Manitoba have been produced by
these cycles of baseleveling, especially by the latter which was due to a
great uplift of the region terminating in the Glacial period.

Departure of the Ice-sheet from the Laurentian Lakes. Warren Urp-
HAM, Somerville, Mass. Beaches and deltas observed in the vicinity of
Duluth are referred to (1) the Western Superior glacial lake, outflowing
southwestward across the divide between the Bois Brulé and St. Croix
rivers in northwestern Wisconsin: (2) the glacial lake Warren, outflow-
ing southward by Chicago to the Des Plaines, Illinois, and Mississippi
rivers; and (3) the glacial lake Algonquin, outflowing by the St. Clair
and Detroit rivers, and along the bed of lake Erie, to the incipient Ni-
agara river and glacial lake ‘Troquois. The extent of high stages of lake
W arren, Shown by beaches around lake Superior and eastward to lake
Nipissing and to the east end of lake Erie, traced and mapped by Tay-
lor, Gilbert, Spencer and others, implies that the ice-sheet had retreated
from the northern border of the United States as far eastward as to
the angle of the drift boundary near Salamanca in southwestern New
York, while yet the great lobe of this ice-sheet east of Salamanca re-
mained upon New York, northeastern Pennsylvania, northern New
Jersey, and New England. This unexpected view of the order of reces-
sion of the ice-sheet is found explainable by the meteorologic conditions
of abundant snowfall at the east brought by storms saturated from the
melting ice surface at the west. The paper also traced the history of
the Niagara river, which is thought to afford a measure of the Postela-
cial period as about ' 7,000 years, and called attention to the expansion of

lake Iroquois northward and northeastward until its w aning ice-barrier
was finally melted away from the St. Lawrence valley near Quebec, then
admitting the sea to the St. Lawrence, Champlain, and Ottawa valleys.

The Hutension of Uniformitarianism to Deformation. By W J McGmer,
Washington, D.C. Many shores, like that of Holland, are subsiding at
a considerable rate; yet no horizontal movement accompanies the sub-
sidence. Many coasts, like that of Scandinavia, are skirted by elevated
beaches indicating recent emergence; yet there is nothing to indicate
and everything to disprove coincident lateral movement. Many dis-
tricts, like that of the Laurentian lakes, are traversed by ancient
strands, proving not only vertical movement but decided warping in the
earth’s crust; yet no record of accompanying horizontal movement
is found. The coastal zones of the continents are made up of series of
formations and unconformities recording wide vertical oscillation of the
land with respect to the sea; yet little evidence of horizontal movement
has been detected. About one-fourth of the land of the earth is moun-

200 The American Geologist. September, 1894

tainous and the rocks are deformed therein—this is the aberrent frac-
tion of the eartherust:; about three-fourths of the land area is non-moun-
tainous, the rocks not deformed—this is the normal portion of the earth-
crust; and throughout the normal continents, as throughout the coastal
zones, there is a succession of formations and unconformities recording
profound vertical oscillation, with no concurrent horizontal movement
save that of extension in normal faulting. So, excluding the mountain
regions in which the rocks are crumpled, it may be affirmed that the
prevailing movements of the earthcrust are essentially radial, only
subordinately tangential. In the beginning of geology attention was
confined to the rare and the remote among phenomena, to the analogie
only in reasoning; in that branch of geology dealing with particle
movement attention has long been given to the common and the near
and the reasoning has risen to the plane of homologizing processes, and
uniformitarianism has resulted: but in the geology of corporeal earth
movement inference is still based on the abnormal, reasoning is still an-
alogic: and thus the current philosophy remains on the borderland of
science. A strong plea was made for study of the known vertical move-
ments of the earthcrust and for reasoning from the known to the un-
known by direct homology.

Trias and Jura of Shasta county, California. By JAMES PERRIN SMITH,
Stanford University, California. The columnar section of the metamor-
phic series of the Klamath mountains was given; this is made upof strata
from Devonian to Jurassic age. The presence of Middle Trias was shown
by fossils. This is overlain conformably by slates and limestones with
a rich fauna of Upper Triassic age, directly comparable to that of the
zone of Tropetes subbullatus and Trachyceras aon of the Karnic in the
Tyrolean Alps. This fauna is shown, by its affinities to Himalayan and
Alpine species, to belong to a prolongation of the Mediterranean and
Indian Triassic provinces, and not to the Arctic-Pacific province. The
occurrence of Jurassic fossils was mentioned and new localities given.
The widespread Jura-Cretaceous unconformity in the Coast Range, the
Klamath mountains, and the Sierra Nevada, was considered a proof that
these three ranges belong to one great mountain system in which the
disturbances were closely associated.

Restoration of the Antillean continent. By J. W. SPENCER. There has been
a general impression that the Antilles were atsome time connected with
one or both of the American continents, which extension some thought
could not have obtained. This is the first study in which definite evi-
dence of such connection has been proved, and also the date of the con-
nections. The investigation is the outgrowth of enquiry into the
changes of level which the continent has undergone, but now greatly
advanced, both in detailed proofs and in the philosophical inductions.
The geomorphy of land valleys, both of mountain regions and across
plains, is investigated with the conclusion that all the valleys with
gradual descent and enlargement are the products of atmospheric ero-
sion, where the same are kept open by drains. The land surfaces are
deformed by terrestrial undulations of unequal degree, but not such as
to obliterate the drainage features: yet these epeirogenic movements
may produce transverse barriers which turn the valleys into lake or sea
basins, or which may be further deformed by orogenic movements. The
submarine shelves bounding the continent and portions of the West In-
dian shores were described, as also the fjords which traverse them for
hundreds of miles in length, with depths of more than two miles, con-
tinuing to the margin of the continental plateaus and floors of the An-
tillean seas. These fjords all connect with modern or buried land val-
leys, which are now silted up to from 200 to more than 900 feet. The
structures of the drowned valleys and those of the land valleys are in
every respect identical,-and the conclusion is that the continent was as

Personal and Scientific News. 201

much higher than now as is the measure of the greatest depths of the
submerged canons, less some considerable correction for exaggerated
coastal deformation, the maximum amount of which in many cases can
be determined, Accordingly the southern states and the West India
islands formerly stood from 8,000 to 12,000 feet higher than now, with
the floor of the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea low plains extend-
ing and draining to the Pacific ocean. The first Antillean continent,
deeply sculptured by erosion, existed in the earlier and middle Pliocene
period, followed by a subsidence, so that the West Indies were reduced
to a few small islets, and the sea encroached upon the continent to the
extent of 250,000 square miles. Again, there was another continental
bridge betwen the two Americas.during the first half of the Pleistocene
period, after which time the continent was lost, and marine Pleistocene
formations were accumulated, followed by terrace epochs and several
minor oscillations. The Pacific ocean was cut off from the Mediterra-
nean waters for the last time in the Pleistocene period, when the Atlan-
tic currents were admitted.

The physical phenomena set forth in this long paper were supported
by the biological, both of land and of water, and again they react so as
to explain the distribution and extinction of life. The geological bear-
ings of this paper are far reaching. Not only do they show the mobility
of the earth's crust so that quiet but enormous changes of level, ranging
vertically through two miles and a half both ways, have taken place in
recent times, but they may lead to the discovery of a real Atlantis. In
the north they willhave a bearing upon the glacial features, and involve
fundamental conditions not yet considered. So, too, in the distribution
of animals, we should find much light from the extension of the studies
already begun in this paper.

Other papers presented before the Society at this meeting,
several of them being read by title in the absence of the
authors, are as follows:

The drumlinoid hills near Cayuga, N. Y. Raupws. Tarr. <A descrip-
tion of some of the parallel drift hills south of lake Ontario, with some
inferences concerning their origin. The evidence points toward origin
by a process of glacial erosion acting upon a preéxisting sheet of till.

Drumlins in the vicinity of Geneva, N.Y. WD. F. Lixcoun.

Channels on drumlins, caused by erosion of glacial streams, GhorGE H.
Barton. (This paper, presented last winter before the Society by title
only on account of lack of time at the last session, was read at this
meeting. An abstract of it appeared in the Am. GroLoGIsT for last
March.)

Cenozoic history of a portion of the middle Atlantic slope. N. HW. DARTON.

Use of the aneroid barometer in geological surveying. CHARLES W. ROLFE.

Oil and Gas in Kansas. WRAsMuUS Hawortrn.

Heidences as to the change of sea-level. N.S. SHALER.

The geological history of Missouri, Arrvniur WINSLOW.

The Magnesian series of the Northwestern States. C. WW. HALL and F.
W. SARDESON.

The Stratigraphy of the St. Louis and Warsaw formations in southeastern
Towa, CHARLES H. GORDON.

The Permo-Carboniferous and Permian rocks of Kansas, Cuar.es 3.
PROSSER.

The Trias and Jura of Shasta cowuity, California, JAMES PERRIN SMITH.

202 The American Geologist, September, 1894

THe AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCI-
pence, holding its meeting under the presidency of Dr. Daniel
G. Brinton, in Brooklyn, N. Y., August 15th to the 22d, had an
attendance of 477 members and associates; and 213 new mem-
bers were elected. In Section E (Geology and Geography )
the address of the vice president, Prof. Samuel Calvin, was on
“The Niobrara Chalk,” as presented in the foregoing pages.
A list of the papers read before this section is as follows, with
brief notes or abstracts which have been received for some of
them. It is expected that several of the papers will be given
in full in our future numbers.

Water resources of the United States. J. W. Powreuu. The ultimate
development of the vast arid and subhumid regions in the western half
of the United States was shown to depend on the thorough utilization of
the water resources for irrigation. A large part of the work of the
United States Geological Survey, under the author’s direction, has been
given to investigations of theamount of available water supplies in these
regions, and to the extent of their fluctuation, by which their value for
agriculture is determined.

The National Domain. FV. H. NEwRUL.

Geographical development of China, Korea, and Japan. GARDINER G.
HUBBARD.

A miniature extinct volcano. W J McGrErE.
A Paleozoic eruption in Missourt. Arrmur WINsLow.

The Zine mines at Franklin Furnace and Ogdensburg, N. J. J. ¥.K Emp.
The history of the mines was first sketched, with notes of their chief
ores and minerals. The general geological questions involved in the re-
gion followed, and the problems of the blue and white limestones and of
the intruded granites were considered. The ore bodies were then de-
scribed by means of maps and sketches. The Ogdensburg one was
shown to be asteeply pitching syncline; and the Franklin Furnace one,
a low pitching syncline with a collapsed anticline on the eastern limb.
The ore bodies were not regarded as having ever been continuous, but
rather as each a local deposit along nearly the same geological horizon.
The unique geological and mineralogical character of the deposits was
commented on, with references to somewhat similar deposits elsewhere.
A list of the minerals of these localities, sixty-five in all, was written
on the blackboard: a series of specimens, illustrative of the paper, was
exhibited: and hints were given regarding the proposed excursion to
these mines.

Notes on the Atlantic Miocene. W.H. Daun. An examination of the
invertebrate fossils of the strata at Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, here-
tofore regarded as Miocene, confirms their Miocene age and allows them
to be referred to the Upper Chesapeake formation, between the St.
Mary’s and Yorktown horizons. <A list of the species was included and
two new forms described. Another horizon, unconformable with both
the Miocene below and the glacial drift above, afforded a few molluscan
remains which indicate a Pliocene age for this bed.

The phosphatic rock of the Ashley river region, near Charleston, 5.
C., is found to be of upper Miocene age. It has previously been called
Kocene or Postpliocene. The phosphatization may have been in Plio-
cene times or the late Miocene. This rock contains no Eocene types:
and it was shown that the Eocene age of the associated Ashley river
marl bed rests upon very unsatisfactory evidence. It may also prove to
be Miocene.

Personal and Scientific News. 203

A new fossil Liriodendron from the Laramie at Walsenberg, Colo. and
dts significance. ARtHUR Houuick. This new species of Liriodendron
was found while overhauling a quantity of material which was sent to
the late Prof. J. S. Newberry by Mr. R. ©. Hills. It was never described,
but a manuscript name was attached which will be retained when ‘the
description is prepared. The most striking feature is the wing-like ap-
pendages to the petiole of the leaf. Appendages of a somewhat similar
character are known in other genera, and we are indebted to Prof. L.
F. Ward for having worked out their apparent significance in the case
of Platanus (Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. xt, 1888, pp. 39-42). The
evolution of the genus Liriodendron is also an exceedingly instructive
study, which has been ably presented by Newberry (Bulletin Torr. Bot.
Club, vol, xtv, 1887, pp. 1-7, with two plates). The new material en-
ables us now to consider this genus in the same light as that in which
Platanus was cousidered, namely, that these appendages may represent
basilar expansions of the leaf blade which separate and finally become
merely stipular appendages at the base of the petiole. (The paper was
illustrated with drawings of fossil forms of Liriodendron and Platanus,
and with dried specimens of ZL. tulipiferu and P. occidentalis.)

The age of the Gulena limestone. N. AH. Wrxcuenn, This paper was
based on extended paleontological studies carried on by the Minnesota
survey recently, which show that the Galena limestone is essentially of
the age of the Trenton limestone, instead of Hudson River or Utica. It
was accompanied by tables showing the relative prevalence of various
fossils in the several parts of the Lower Silurian concerned.

The Carboniferous strata of Shasta county, California. James PERRIN
Smirn. The general structure of a portion of the Klamath mountains
was briefly discussed and the systems of faults and folds indicated. The
oldest strata of the region are of Devonian age, overlain by the Baird
shales, which belong to the Lower Carboniferous. The latter have a
fauna analogous to that of the Eureka district of Nevada, and thus
have many Devonian species commingled with the Carboniferous.
faunally they are thought to be homotaxial with the Waverly, but
stratigraphically they belong higher in the section. Above the Baird
shales lie about 2,000 feet of limestone with a Carboniferous fauna
probably equivalent to the Coal Measures. Above the limestone are
talcareous Shales, with a fauna equivalent to that of the Robinson beds
of Plumas county and thus probably of Permo-Carboniferous age.

The later geological changes in Cuba. J. W.SpeNcER. (See the fore-
going abstract of Dr. Spencer’s paper before the Geological Society. )

Quaternary time divisible in three periods, the Lafayette, Glacial, and Re-
cent. WARREN UpHam. The Quaternary era is thought to have in-
cluded a long time of preglacial uplift of the areas which became ice-
covered, as indicated by the deposition and erosion of the Lafayette
formation. The Lafayette period was followed, at the time of culmi-
nation of its continental clevation, by the Tee age or Glacial period,
whose geologically short closing stage, induced by the sinking of the
ice-loaded lands somewhat below their present level, has been named
the Champlain epoch. The ensuing Recent period, extending to the
present day, is learned by numerous independent means of estimate to
have comprised some 6,000 to 10,000 years; and the ratio of the dura-
tion of the three Quaternary periods is estimated to be approximately
as 10:3:1, giving for this entire era probably about 100,000 years.

The Columbia formation in northwestern Illinois, Oscar H. Hersury.
The Florence gravel, Valley loess, and Upland loess, successively depos-
ited in the valley and drainage basin of the Pecatonica river, are shown
to be equivalent with the Columbia formation of the lower Mississippi

204 The American Geologist. September, 1894

valley. The loess was deposited apparently long after the earliest sheet
of the glacial drift, but it is bordered eastward by a later drift sheet
with which it seems to have been contemporaneous. The Columbia
and loess deposits therefore are thought to represent a somewhat late
stage of the Glacial period.

Progress in the geological survey of the Great lakes. J. W. SPENCER.
The great lakes tributary to the St. Lawrence river are ascribed to dif-
ferential movements of subsidence and elevation during the Pleistocene
period, whereby portions of preglacial river valleys have been trans-
formed into lake basins. Previous to that period the upper Ohio, the
Allegheny, and other riversof northwestern Pennsylvania, flowed north-
ward to what is now the bed of lake Erie; from the southern part of the
area of lake Michigan a river flowed east across the lower peninsula of
Michigan to lake Huron: and drainage from the Georgian bay area
passed eastward to lake Ontario, whose bed was a part of the upper
course of the preglacial St. Lawrence.

Duration of Niagara falls. J. W. SpENcER. During the earlier and
longer part of the history of the Niagara river, itis thought to have re-
ceived only the outflow of the Erie basin, the three upper lakes mean-
while outflowing by the way of lake Nipissing and the Ottawa river.
Computations from the changing conditions of the Laurentian lakes in-
dicate about 32,000 years as the time which has been occupied in the

erosion of the gorge below the falls.

Drainage of the Great lakes into the Mississippi river by way of Chicago,
J. W. SPENCER.

On standard sizes for trays, drawers, and cases for mineralogical and mi-
croscopical cabinets, W. G. LEvison and D. S. MARTIN.

A prehistoric relic, with extracts from a survey of lands in Monroe and
Ontario counties, N. Y., which were under the ancient lake of Ontario, C.
H. JENNER.

Exhibition of « microscope made of aluminum for portability, and modi-
fied in construction to adapt tt for searching over the surface for large min-
eral specimens, WALLACE G. LEVISON.

Exhibition of map and photograph of a peat bed in Prospect Park, Brook-
lyn, N. Y., made in 1867, when the peat was removed and the excavation
Jilled. WaAwLAck G. LEVISON.

The geological atlas folios issued by the U.S. Geological Survey. ¥F. A.
NEWELL.

The minerals of Paterson, Upper Montelair, and the Palisades, N. J.
JosEpH H. Hunt. An interesting collection of these minerals was ex-
hibited by the local committee.

On the age of the St. Clair limestone of Arkansas. S. H. WILLIAMS.

The report on progress in Geology from the Centennial to the Columbian
expositions, JED. HOTCHKISS.

Oil and Gas in Kansas. ERAsSMUS HAWORTH.

Some alteration phases in the granitic rocks of the Northwestern States. C.
W. Habu.

San Francisco was chosen as the place of meeting of the
Association next year, for which Prof. Edward W. Morley, of
Cleveland, Ohio, was elected president. The officers of Sec-
tion E, elected for that meeting, are Maj. Jed. Hotchkiss, of
Staunton, Va., vice president, and Prof. J. Perrin Smith, of
Palo Alto, Cal., secretary.

‘

OF) Ae eerie ot oe eat-in oo rene

on .

PLATE VI.

Vou. XLY.

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

~

Lhe. EIA 4)

NANNO, A NEW CEPHALOPODAN TYPE.

Gere tee
5

¥
a.

THE
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

Von. EV. OCTOBER, 1894. No. 4.

NANNO, A NEW CEPHALOPODAN TYPE.*
By J. M. Ccrarke, Albany, N.Y.
(Plate VI.)

The material representing this remarkable type of cephalo-
pod structure was collected by Messrs. E. O. Ulrich, Charles
Schuchert, and the late W. H. Scofield from various localities
in the Trenton series of Minnesota. The novel character of
the fossils was recognized and closely studied by the first two
of these gentlemen. When, therefore, the specimens were
placed in my hands for description I was able to avail myself
of these previous observations, especially those by Mr. Schu-
chert.

The usual aspect assumed by these bodies is somewhat that
of a small Belemnites. The apical and posterior portion has
a rounded and evenly tapering surface which would give it
the form of a true cone, were not one side, when the body is
viewed laterally, quite oblique, while the other is nearly verti-
eal. Thus viewed the shells are asymmetrical laterally, but
as seen from the dorsal and ventral side they are bisymmetri-
cal. After the conical expansion has continued for about, or
less than, one-half the length of the body, there is a rather ab-
rupt contraction on the oblique side and the shell becomes

*Published with the consent of the State Geologist of Minnesota.

206 The American Geologist. October, 1894

much smaller and more circular in cross-section. Thus toward
the upper extremity of the shell a cylindrical tube is formed.
Upon comparing the bodies as thus described with the single
specimen which represents more nearly the structure of the
entire shell, it appears that the orientation above assumed is
not strictly correct. The normal position of the conical pos-
terior portion is such that the straight and the oblique side
converge at nearly the same angle to the vertical axis; this di-
verts the cylindrical or upper portion of the body to one side.

These peculiar bodies are siphones;those represented on plate
VI, figs. 2and 8,show the oblique impressions left by the septa
upon the surface of the cylindrical portion, and fig. 1 affords a
conception of the relation of these siphones to the septate part
of the shell. Inthe latter is seen the central and symmetrical
position of the apical cone with reference to the entire shell,
its abrupt contraction and the deflection of the cylindrical
part of the sipho to one side. At the point where the con-
traction of the sipho begins, its diameter is that of the shell,
and from the apex to this point there is no trace of septa.
With the appearance of the septa begins the contraction of
the sipho. That the septa did not completely encircle the
sipho is shown by several of the specimens which present a
smooth surface on the dorsal or outer side, the marks of the
septa being there interrupted (figs. 2,3). One of the speci-
mens has the thin wall of the conch adhering to the siphonal
wall along this surface.

Upon examination of the internal structure of these siphones
they are found to be completely solid in the apical portion for
usually about one-half the length of the preseptal cone, but in
some examples this solidification extends for the entire length
of the cone and into the cylindrical part of the tube. The
‘avity of the sipho above this filling is a narrowly conical
chamber whose walls gradually become thinner from the apex
upward, their upper edge appearing to be rounded off and fin-
ished.

The substance of the siphonal cone and walls is invaria-
bly very compact, radially crystalline calcite, indicating, inas-
much as all the specimens have been found in ealeareous
shales and clayey limestones, a simple modification of the

Nanno, a New Cephalopodan Type.—Clarke. 207

original organic deposit; the internal cavity is filled with the
mud of the sediment. Cross-sections of the cone in both direc-
tions indicate that thisis not a simple body, but is composed
of at least two invaginated and consolidated sheaths, the line
between which is represented only by a faint streak or differ-
ence in the texture. This evidence, though obscure, is indis-
putable that the sipho enclosed or was composed of siphonal
sheaths, as in Piloceras, Vaginoceras and Endoceras. The
sections afford no evidence of an endosiphon or tube connect-
ing the apices of these sheaths.

The addition of the septate portion of the shell gives the spe-
cies a fusiform and symmetrical appearance, broadest below
the aperture, the sipho seeming to extend nearly, if not quite,
the entire length of the shell. The septa are gently and reg-
ularly concave over most of their surface, but abruptly de-
flected immediately about the sipho. There were apparently
about twelve in the length of the shell as preserved. The first
septum seems not to conform to the contracted surface of the
cone, which has a much greater obliquity, and there thus ap-
pears to be an irregular wedge-shaped cavity between these
two surfaces, but there is no evidence whatsoever that the
conical end of the sipho was in any way involved in this cav-
ity except at its upper surface.

The apical solid cone was unquestionably external, except
so far as ensheathed by a mere coating or film of the shell-
tube.

All the specimens indicate that these shells were of small
size; a nearly complete sipho has a length of 36 mm.; its
greatest width is at 19 mm. from-the apex and measures 10
mm. in major, and 8.5 mm. in minor axis; its apertural diam-
eters are 8and6 mm. Another and more splendid specimen
measures 40 mm. in length and is broken at the aperture.
Here the length of the apical cone is 22 mm. The most com-
plete example has a length of 58 mm.; the apical cone meas-
ures 15 mm.; the entire diameter of the shell is 18 mm. at its
widest part and 16 mm. at or near the aperture.

The shells thus described represent but one species, which it
is proposed to term Nanno aulema. From their structure it
is evident that their relations are closest to Ploceras, but

208 The American Geologist. October, 1894

with noteworthy differences. The initial parts of the shell of
Piloceras are still undescribed, but we may assume that were
it possessed of such a solid apical sipho as is Vanno, that
would be the part most readily preserved, as in this case.

The sheathing of the sipho, its great size and its relation to.

the septa are structural points allying these two genera. The
presence of the apical siphonal cone may indicate the exist-
ence of Vanno for a considerable period in the young state
simply as an aseptate body, and with such evidence the genus
would seem to be a degree more elemental than our present
knowledge ascribes to Péloceras, inasmuch as the septate con-
dition in the latter genus is of earlier occurrence. It may be
suggested that the solidification of the preseptal cone is to
some extent due to such secondary causes as have produced
the solid guard in Belemnifes. The appearance of these
siphones and the erystalline structure of their substance
strongly suggests that genus, even though there is little super-
ficial similarity in the relations of these parts to the sep-
tate portions of the shell in the two genera.

Geological horizon. The material studied consists of seven
specimens obtained from the Trenton shales of Minneapolis
and from the Galena shales at Chatfield, Minnesota.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.
Nanno aulema.

Fie. 1. The most complete example observed; showing the form of
the entire shell, the apical cone, position of sipho and some of the septa.
ako:

Fie. 2. The prieeseptal cone with a portion of the annulated siphonal
tube; a lateral view. X 1.3.

Iie. 3. A fragment of a sipho, showing only the cylindrical portion
to which a part of the smooth external shell adheres. X 1.3.

Fie. 4. A cross-section of the apical cone: showing at @ the filling of
the internal cavity, at 4 the line of subdivision of the sipho into siphoual
sheaths. The radial structure of the substance of the body is also indi-
cated. X 2.6.

Fie. 5. Lateral view of a sipho as usually found, with smooth cone
and cylinder. X1.3.

Fics. 6and 7. Ventral (anti-siphonal) and dorsal (siphonal) aspects of

the same specimen.

Fic. 8. A vertical longitudinal section of a sipho, showing at @ the
form of the internal cavity, and at } the line of division between the
sheaths. X 1.3.

Nh eee

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution — Woodworth. 209

THE RELATION BETWEEN BASELEVELING AND

ORGANIC EVOLUTION.*
By. J. B. Woopwortn, Cambridge, Mass.

CONTENTS.
PAGE,
PMR ELC TWA MEAN et Dyer ae Yan FETs nai See Ta SOS SSG ciclo Salare dors Sas cejesla ste Pelee ccaies's armel OOD
Synopsis... ; Bee tela a tarie cite aoe Pa ae tae ate ee Cue vaphcl Pare ded Gab ccaoe a ehO
Part I, el aaieirey tio te fk Bret ty te eng AL
Views of the British School.. Se ECE ats AEE eae ake Nate ts Soess coool Pee
Rewaet tie Asiorican School. a ee SEER SE a emer cay A |:
Part II. See nifeck bE River Changes Seer antes Ma Chao rie Ne Cane pte Lk
Pare MLE AON ALEI CAVETSION ci) .tecsete bs Gulp sce og ae os cence parce hits ec eacwees SLD
MulEteT EAT CCCOENE SELCAIMIS). ano. iscele tse cfaola ote ae hulee an tetas sbaelowiclewacnbee va BID
Peak aren bam dtme SEL OL MINCRELCLEN Sci- ta, V2 chs) cyt eee ares vic Wintaiatea® vic Pa wNwine Sede kelp tiers ea Pae aces ate, BAB
Through slight ediaieirences, re me aettiaraet etalstal fats osetensbape Tae a etaaieie.ciodiate whe eae
Through elevation and revival ot Sieaaind BS Be gic a ee Se aii ey) (i
Effect of baseleveling of a mountainous region........0.05. 00.202 cccececeescreveee 217
eer pan er ee one 218
Degradation of uplands.. eet clens ee isers aed hoy NTS ssa ase hea Aaa ettde gael ots on) LAD
Gareadint lavdand conditions. nate AG ae OOO OO EE OOS AE at cr yd
Ber ee ell anapen eld! far land life.. halt Seika alc sok lem Deceit ee eran foe
Uplift and dissection of the peneplain.. See SEE, EAE oe Seas RES er Aaa 7) |
Part III. The Jura-Cretaceous Peneplain.. ot POS ee RYE
Non-marine beds rest on the peneplain adhe Aeesaie! ntact, Se aceite inset OR
Post-Cretaceous history Behe atneneen ee a Pan 223
The coast shelf the correlative of the peneplain........002...5.....-0cccececcee ces 228
te ees eters Bey ben i aap ts sede crea hats See ea AO
Freshwater mollusca.. OETA CC BOD SOCAN oe CPM OL ERIE A OE NT SACL A ER 7
Fishes and Misia nee Set AT ase SOL ee
Reptiles correlated in dev eisiuikenk ar hes gr camih aE ‘Gis ereniniee a hes SOR
Objections arising from extent of peneplain.. Pose ation vepuaiers se Ape atest Y ODO
Objections arising from distribution of alilnad. PS? AP taact et ee Pom
Mammalia unfavorably affected by the peneplain ae age & Et Besta az)b ee
Dinosaurs and peneplain disappear at close of Mesozoic......................... 229
ine Mesazoic flora: exhibits marked) changes... c.... 4. 0c .descteavedscedssscee>) 291
Recapitulation........ JAS chiseee Met ose eS RaOe
Extension of es inquiry a bihier eyeles ot Roe Se taketh a eee Mone
Comparison of baseleveling with glaciation and Sahaeaenoes NOE AA Aen dame |

INTRODUCTION.
The considerations here presented have grown out of the

studies of river history and denudation which form the newly
developed branch of geology known as geomorphy, geomor-
phology, or simply physical geography. It is one of the ten-
ets of this school of geologists that certain plains of denuda-
tion now traceable over wide areas have resulted from
subaérial erosion. Nota few geologists, however, still main-
tain the view of marine erosion which Ramsay was the first
to advocate regarding these ancient, tilted and now generally

*An address read before the Harvard Natural History, Society at its
April meeting, 1894. The paper in its present form has been partly re-
written, but it still retains a strain of the lecture style in which it was
conceived. It is published with the view of promoting inquiry into this
subject, with which it deals in a preliminary and necessarily superfi-
cial manner.

210 The American Geologist. October, 1894

deeply dissected plains.- The contrast between the old and
the new views when carried to their consequences in the or-
ganic realm is so striking that it is thought the following
discussion will be acceptable both to those who do and to
those who do not grant the competency or opportunity of me-
teoric denudation to account for these baseleveled areas or
peneplains,
SYNOPSIS.

The object of the paper is to discuss the effect, on organ-
isms, of the changes in physical geography which arise in the
process of baseleveling. Part I presents a cursory review of
the history of opinion regarding land erosion, including the
speculations of some ancient writers. Part II deals with the
general effects of river changes on organisms, and aims to set
forth the manner in which these changes have influenced the
dispersion of freshwater species. Part III has to do with the
Jura-Cretaceous peneplain of North America in particular,
with the determination of the time of development of the
peneplain, and with the development of the fauna and flora
of the Mesozoic era which lived upon its surface. It is in-
ferred that the production of this lowland was favorable to
the reptilian class, and that it was a factor in securing to
them the dominance which they enjoyed even after the mam-
malia had made their appearance. In conclusion, baseleveled
lands or peneplains and the periods of their elaboration are
compared with glacial epochs and marine invasion in their
effect as the environment of organic life.

PART I. HISTORICAL SKETCH.

In reviewing the rapid strides which the new school of to-
pographic geologists have made in interpreting the history of
erosion alone, we are in danger of overlooking the fact that
the idea of a land reduced to an essential plain by erosion is
far older than anything like a demonstration of the existence
of a surface of this nature. Ina work entitled, “The Scrip-
ture Theory of the Earth,’* published in London in 1773, the
anonymous author, after instancing numerous cases of the fall
of mountains, erosion by snowslides, ice, rains and rivers, pre-
sents the following conelusion:

*The full title reads: *‘The Scripture Theory of the Earth throughout
all its revolutions and all periods of its existence, from the Creation to
the final Renovation of all things.*’ See pp. 365-6.

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.— Woodworth, 211

From these observations we are led.to conclude that it is possible, if
not probable, that, in a course of ages, the mountains and vallies may
be brought nearer to an equality with each other; there being, from the
co-operation of somany causes, a tendency in nature to this end, without
anything to oppose or counteract it. The only objection that occurs to
me is that, in this case, it may be thought the earth would be in dan-
ger of being overflown by the sea: And the possibility of this conse-
quence hath been alledged. But there is no such dead level of the earth
supposed, that there would not be eminences and inequalities enough
left to keep out the return of the sea.

In this quotation we find the essential features of two char-
acteristics of the Jura-Cretaceous peneplain as it occurs in
North America,—the nearly level surface of the time, and the
eminences or monadnocks which had resisted with partial suc-
cess the denuding forces. Thissame writer continued his dis-
quisition upon this subject, “supplying as little as possible
from reason, or hypothesis,’* in the fashion of the Mosaic
writers of his time, tracing to Plutarcht the records of a tra-
dition, “that the time would come, decreed by fate, when the
earth would be reduced to an even plain, and mankind should
all live under one happy policy, and be all of one language.”
The poet Prior, quoted by the same writer, conceived of the
leveling of lands and building up of the correlated plain,
when he says:

Disparted streams shall from their channels fly;
And deep surcharg’d by sandy mountains lie,
Obscurely sepulehred. By eating rain,
And furious winds, down to the distant plain,
The hill that hides his head above the skies,
Shall fall. The plain by slow degrees shall rise
Higher than erst had stood the summit-hill:
For time must nature’s great behests fulfill. s
Views of the British School.

The first recognition of baseleveled lands is due to the work
of Sir A. C. Ramsay in Wales, and it was there he formulated
the conception of their origin by marine erosion. In his ter-
minology, they are ‘plains of marine denudation,’ marking
great unconformities in the older strata, or giving rise to the
even-topped hills of the existing surface. Surrounded on all
sides by the tidal waters of an active sea, in a region where the

*Tbid, Introduction, p. 12.
+In Iside.
tPrior’s Solomon, Book I.

212 The American Geologist. “October, 1894

existing rivers are relatively insignificant or impoverished ex-
amples of their kind, the British geologists early found in
their environment an easily comprehended incentive to ascribe
the shape of the land to the action of the sea. Although this
inference was a consequence of the insular position of the
British school, we find among its founders, in Hutton and
Playfair, a keener sense of the efficiency of rivers than ap-
pears to have been enjoyed by our later great teacher, Lyell.

It may be permissible in this connection to present the re-
markable diversity of forms claimed for this agency by Jukes,
who stands as anextremist of this school. Jukes’s views, it
must be said, accord pardonably with his opportunities for
geological observation, since his lot was cast first in Ireland
and then in Newfoundland, two insular fields ill calculated to
inculcate those comprehensive ideas regarding the interaction
of existing and now locally inoperative causes which it is the
privilege of the wider ranging continental geologist to recog-
nize, with the assignment of its due importance to each in the
economy of geological work. It was partly owing to this cir-
cumstance and partly perhaps to the influence of the thought
of his contemporaries, that Jukes wrote as he did: °

But when we feel ourselves entitled to take for granted that all cliffs
at the foot of which the sea is now beating have been produced by the
erosive action of the wayes, it Only requires us to admit that the land
may have stood formerly at lower levels, so as to allow the sea to flow
over the lower parts of it, for us to see the probability that all inland
cliffs, crags, precipices, valleys and mountain passes, may have been
produced in the same way. .... And speaking generally, the prin-
cipal features in the forms of the ground in all lands have been pro-
duced by this widespread action.* .

The same author states dogmatically, as late as 1862:
“Rivers form their own beds, but not their own valleys.’’+
These quotations are directly opposed to the views of to-day,
as they are to the earlier and clearer understanding of the
competency of rivers shown in Playfair’s “Illustrations of the
Huttonian Theory.” The studies of continental geologists
within the past two or three decades have done much to revise
opinion upon this subject. Indeed, the work of reconstruct-
ing the marine theory of baseleveled lands was begun by Ram-

*T. B. Jukes, The Student’s Manual of Geology, second ed., Edin-
burgh, 1862, p. 101.
Op. cit., p. 105.

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.—Woodworth. 2138

say himself, in his contribution to our knowledge of the work
of meteoric agents in England. This awakening of the En-
glish school in regard to the work of rivers has gone on until
now the reduction of lands to baselevel by meteoric agents is
almost admitted.*

4

Views of the American School.

Powell, Gilbert, Davis, McGee, and others, have established
much in the history of the larger rivers of America. Asa
result of these studies, it is held that rivers and their valleys
pass through a cycle of existence, ranging from youth in a
country newly elevated above the sea as a plain or mountain
belt, through adolescence, maturity, and so on into old age,
when, if the land remain tolerably stable, the country will be
flattened down into a plain of subaérial erosion, or a peneplain.
Renovation of the land by uplift, and the consequent revival
of stream work, will introduce a new cycle. From the point
of view of organic life, which it is proposed to exploit in this
paper, the complete cycle may be assumed to begin and to end
in uplands of sufficient relief to be characterized as a mountain-
ous habitat, although the first topography may be construc-
tional and the last wholly subsequent and polygenetic, the
peneplain occupying the middle and culminating part in this
series of progressive geographical changes.

It has been shown by these river studies that in the reduc-
tion of a region, either partially or completely, to baselevel,
mutual adjustments of streams take place, whereby consider-
able changes in course and direction are brought about.
Systems are dismembered, the headwaters of one being cap-
tured and diverted into another through the shifting of
divides. By changes in level, some streams have been reversed.
In some eases, an axis of uplift has developed across the path
of a master river, but the uplift has gone forward so slowly
and regularly thatthe stream has been able to maintain its
course across the completed mountain chain. In other instances,
changes in the relations of streams have arisen from the pro-
cess of alluviation in the lower course of a river. It remains
now to treat of the bearing of these streams on the dispersion

*Consult Sir Arch. Geikie’s Text-Book of Geology, third ed., 1893, pp.
466-470; The Scenery of Scotland, second ed. Also see H. B. Wood-
ward’s Geology of England and Wales, first ed., 1876, ch. x11.

214 The American Geologist. October, 1894

of freshwater mollusks and fishes, these groups being taken
for the reason that they record the clearest dependence on
river history in their distribution.

PART II. THE GENERAL EFFECT OF RIVER CHANGES ON
FLUVIAL FAUNAS. s

It has been shown that fishes and mollusks are dispersed by
a number of means, some of which, unless actually observed,
otfer to the investigator no evidence whereby they may be
detected in after times. On the contrary, river changes, the
topographic etfects of which are still retained in the features
of a country, afford, when studied in connection with the dis-
tribution of its fishes and mollusks, a set of phenomena which
it seems likely will at least in some instances prove instruct-
ive.

It has been customary to explain the phenomena of distri-
bution in some of the following ways. Giinther,* noting that
some freshwater fishes are able to migrate into salt water,
supposes that the passage from one river to another may have
been accomplished in this manner, or that there may have
been a témporary passage opened across a watershed by a
flood. Lyell} quotes Gmelin as authority for the statement
that freshwater fish-spawn are distributed by anseres; and
he states further that scattered lakes are stocked by minute
eggs, entangled in the feathers of the waterfowl, and that
the water beetles (Dycticide ), which are amphibious and fly
in the evening, may transport minute ova to distant pools, as
when the fry of fish appear in rainpools. Darwin writes on
this subject as follows:

On the same continent freshwater fish often range widely, and as if
capriciously; for in two adjoining river systems some of the species
may be the same and some wholly different. It is probable) that they
are occasionally transported by what may be called accidental means.
Thus fishes still alive are not very rarely dropped at distant points by
whirlwinds: and it is known that the ova retain their vitality for a con-
siderable time after removal from the water. Their dispersal may,
however, be mainly attributed to changes 1n the level of the land with-
in the recent period, causing rivers to flow into each other. Instances
also could be given of this having occurred during floods, without any
change of level. The wide difference of the fish on the opposite sides of

*An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880, pp. 211,
el2.

+Principles of Geology, eleventh Am. ed., I, p. oi4.

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.— Woodworth. 215

most mountain ranges which are continuous, and which- consequently

must from an early period have completely prevented the inosculation

of the river systems on the two sides, leads to the same conclusion.*
Through headwater diversion.

Darwin had in mind evidently those changes which a care-
ful study of rivers has established as a part of their history.
It is unnecessary here to refer to particular instancest in
which by changes in the headwaters of a river, some portion
of its drainage has been diverted into another system, carry-
ing with it of course a representatiou of its fauna and a
change of condition in the whole life of both streams. It has
been further shown that. at successive times, the headwaters
of a river system have been diverted into a contiguous basin,
so that, since the changes are slow and gradually accom-
plished, each new capture may introduce into the fauna of a
river basin new varieties, which would find themselves in
close contest with allied species already introduced, as well as
with the older species peculiar to the river system. Dispersal
may in this manner be accomplished across a main summit of
land, such as that now dividing the waters of the Mississippi
basin from those of the Atlantic slope, or it may be limited to
interchanges of fauna between parallel streams occupying the
same continental slope.

Through antecedent streams.

The not altogether acceptable case of the Green river,
which flows through the Wahsatch range in Utah, may be
taken as an example of rivers of this class, where the uplift
of a mountain barrier has been successfully resisted by the
river. So long as unsurmountable rapids or falls do not in-
tervene, there is a free communication across the range.
Even where falls of considerable magnitude occur, certain
fishes have acquired the habit of leaping them in their at-
tempt to reach the headwaters during the spawning season.
If, at a late date in the history of an antecedent river, its
headwaters be tapped and led to the sea in another direction,

*Origin of Species, sixth (Am.) ed., New York, p. 844.

+W. M. Davis: A River Pirate, science, x1, 1889, p. 108.

R. DeC. Ward: Another River Pirate, Science, x1x, 1891, p. 7.

H. L. Harris: A new instance of stream capture. Science, Xx, 1898,
pp. 36, 37. :
Collier Cobb: A recapture from a River Pirate, Science, xxi, 1898, p.
195.

216 The American Geologist. October, 1894

abandoning the pass through the range, we may have pre-
sented the phenomenon of two streams in headwater opposi-
tion with identical species; but the “wind gap” will remain
as a monument of the time when the streams were part of the

Same system.
Through alluviation.

Changes of less significance, but often throwing light on
the dispersion and consequent modification of fluviatile life,
occur in the deltas and alluvial plains of river basins. By
increasing alluviation in the delta region, the tributaries of
the main stream are often forced aside to flow in the lower,
back levels of the plain, along which they may find their way
to the sea many miles distant from the vagarious mouth of
the master river. In this manner a fauna once common tothe
main stream and its tributary may be divided except for the
occasional communication established by floods in the delta
district. But if the separation thus initiated be continued by
favorable geological conditions, the isolation of the two fau-
nas may be so complete that any subsequent intermigration
between the two river systems must take place through the
salt water along the coast, or by one of the interstream
changes already described. The Red river of Louisiana is
now in this initiatory stage of separation from the Missis-
sippi river.

Through slight submergence.

Where submergence takes place, the lower courses of rivers
become converted into arms of the sea. Drowned river valleys
of this origin now abound in the northern hemisphere. Where
this has occurred the freshwater fauna common to the master
stream and its lower tributaries may be cut off from each
other by the invasion of salt water, as in the case of those
rivers which discharge into the present Chesapeake bay.

Through elevation and revival of streams.

Opposed to the preceding action on organic life, is the up-
lift of a region like Hudson’s bay, whereby the streams would
be made to continue their courses seaward and frequently be-
come confluent, thus bringing into contact species before liv-
ing in separate basins. Whereas, in the case of submergence,
the freshwater species are crowded back into a constantly
lessening domain and thus are affected unfavorably, in this

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution— Woodworth, 217

case the same species have a more extended range towards the
sea to which the salt water is withdrawn.

Asa consequence of uplift of the land and the revival of
streams which have attained their baselevel of erosion, rapids
and falls may be introduced in their beds. Glaciation may
induce the same effect through the irregular deposition of
glacial drift. Some fishes before capable of occupying the
greater portion of a river basin may thus be limited in range.
Essentially marine organisms, capable of enduring temporarily
fresh water, may be excluded from ranging above the falls.
Anadromous fishes of the families Clupeidw and Salmonide,
including the shad and salmon, have the habit of ascending
large rivers into fresh water to breed. Shad ascend the riv-
ers in the spring, their ascent being limited by unsurmount-
able falls and unfavorable temperature. It is probable that
this habit of leaping falls has been acquired, and it points to
a time when the practice of ascending to the headwaters of
rivers did not require the exercise of this function. These
fish seem then to afford us an instance in which a geographic
change, common to the rivers of the northern, glaciated
lands, has been met by the acquirement of a habit of leaping
falls, introduced into the streams by recent uplift or glacial
derangement. Without this habit, the uplift of the land, or
the formation of an axis of warping across the path of a
stream, or even differential wear on the bed rock so as to form
a fall, might have proved destructive to a species. Instances
of this kind incline us to be cautious in speculating on the
extent to which geographical changes of a minor kind exercise
a life and death influence on particular species of animals.

EFrrect oF BASELEVELING OF A Mountrarnous REGION. ‘

Mr. Alfred R. Wallace has recently considered the effect of
geographic vicissitudes on organisms, under the title of
“Changed Conditions.”* After enumerating the ordinary
modifications of land and water and dependent climate in
their action upon vegetation, and so on herbivorous animals,
he notes that: ‘When such physical changes as these have
taken place, it is evident that many species must either be-
come modified or cease to exist.” He further draws the con-

*Darwinism, chapter v.

218 The American Geologist. October, 1894

clusion that “whenever the physical or organic conditions
change to however small anextent some corresponding change
will be produced in the flora and fauna, since, considering the
severe struggle for existence and the complex relations of the
various organisms, it is hardly possible that the ehange
should not be beneficial to some species and hurtful to oth-
érs.>.

In any land which has undergone degradation from a moun-
tainous topography to a peneplain, we ought to find a marked
change in the organisms at the close of the eyele of denuda-
tion. In the first stages of change from original construe-
tional topography, effects will be discernable. Seulptured
slopes with ravines, sharp divides and peaks, cradle species
and varieties by barriers which oppose ingress and egress
With the development of the umbrella-shaped topography of
the island of Oahu, the land snails have varied from a com-
mon ancestral, coastal type to valley-cradled, differentiated
varieties, in the upper and disjointed valleys of this disman-
tled, voleanic island cone.*

In the progress toward fina] baseleveling,the repeated diver-
sion of streams or the reversals of drainage are a constant
‘ause of changed conditions. The cycle begins in a moun-
tainous tract with the least facility for migration of species,
and ends in broad lowlands which favor the easy migration
and wide distribution of plants and animals.

Fading away of divides.

If we follow the surface of the lands downward from an
original high relief to the completed baseleveled plain, we
note first that the fading away of divides will throw animals
and plants before separated by barriers into one field, and
that thus new adaptations between species will be enforced.
Leveling off a mountain system and throwing the life of its
opposite slopes into the same field would now in many parts
of the world bring together species which must contest for
survival.

Darwin} states that he was struck with the remarkable dif-
ference between the vegetation, the quadrupeds, and in a less
degree the birds and insects, of the eastern valleys of the

*J. T. Guliek: Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxrv, 1890, pp. 166-7,
+Journal of Researches, etc., chap. xv, Am. ed., pp. 826 and 327.

* y fs ,eroke

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.— Woodworth. 219

Andes and those on the Chilean side, although the climate as
well as the soil was nearly the same, upon which he comments
as follows:

This fact is in perfect accordance with the geological history of the
Andes; for these mountains have existed as a great barrier, since the
present races of animals have appeared; and, therefore, unless we sup-
pose the same species to have been created at two different places, we
ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on
the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite sides of the ocean.
In both cases we must leave out of the question those kinds which have
been able to cross the barrier, whether of solid rock or salt water.

If this divergence of character has developed with the up-
lift of the mountain barrier, we ought, on the other hand, to
expect further mutations when the barrier disappears by de-
nudation; and the tendency of the change will be in part
towards intermigration and the consequent unification of the
fauna and flora. Thus on the eastern side of North America,
on the two slopes of the Appalachian chain, which has been
once baseleveled, the fauna and flora differ as little as possi-
ble,* yet, when this mountain system was in an Andesian
youth and very high, the life of its opposite slopes must have
been as strongly marked as those of the southern cordilleras
at the present time.

Degradation of uplands.

Organisms suited to steep slopes and high altitudes with
low temperaturest must vary. migrate up the remaining mo-
nadnocks, or keep their stations at a disadvantage as the
surface sinks by denudation beneath them. The artificial
transference of some species from uplands to lowlands is at-
tended with difficulty. Thus with alpine plants transplanted
in the plains, “whether from a change of atmospheric pres-
sure or mean temperature,’ says Mary Somerville, “all at-
tempts to cultivate them at a lower level generally fail; it is
much easier to accustom a plant of the plains to a higher
situation.”

*The chain still acts as a barrier to the Unionidie, for instance. See
Chas. T. Simpson, Proc. U.S. National Museum, vol. xvi, 1893. pp. 591-
5; also Am. Naturalist, vol. xxv, p. 353.

+Dr. C. Hart Merriam has shown the importance of temperature con-
trol in the geographic distribution of mammals. Smithsonian Report
for 1891 (pub. 1893), p. 400.

tPhysical Geography, second Am. ed.,1850, p, 805.

220. —- The American Geologist. October, 1894

Spread of lowland conditions.

Since baseleveling by meteoric agencies does not necessarily
bring about the drowning out of lowland species by the en-
croachment of the sea, those forms which originally possessed
the coastal belt will find a wider field opened to them by the
degradation of the interior. If they migrate into this wid-
ening field, they may be brought into contention with those
forms which have followed the surface downward. Other
things being equal, the endemic lowland forms will have an
advantage over those organisms which are living under the
trial of altered environment with the added stress of a con-
test against hitherto unmet species. The new conditions
comprising wider range will affect the lowland fauna and
flora; it seems as if these forms should dominate over the less
favored species forced down from the fading uplands.

The peneplain an open field for land life.

We have here to note perhaps the most important respect
in which the new view of the origin of the ancient plains of
denudation differs from the hypothesis of marine erosion. So
long as it was held that plains of denudation and the great
uneconformities in the geological section were formed alto-
gether or essentially by the action of the surf-mill advancing
over their surface, animals and plants inhabiting the land
must have undergone extermination or have sought refuge on
islands, on the remaining territory, or have migrated to some
land before unoccupied by them. Such even are the effects
of bare submergence without actual baseleveling, stated by
De La Beche* as early as 1837. By submergence, he says,
“the area of dry land would be much diminished and the same

amount of animals could not find roomin it; there would be ’

a considerable collision of species against species...... The
weaker would give way, and thus some species might be ex-
terminated so far as the islands were concerned.”

Where the process of planing off the lands was complete in
the old view all land life must have been extinguished. The
new view leaves the land open as a theater for land life; and
the slow, gradual change in environment brought about by
erosion is mueh more nearly in accord with the rate of alter-

*Researches in Theoretical Geology, New York, 1887, p. 217.

a

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.—Woodworth. 221

ation in organisms than are the rapid changes which attend
submergence.

Uplift and dissection of the peneplain.

With the revival of erosion through the elevation of the
land and the consequent entrenchment of the rivers in the
surface of the uplifted peneplain, the subtle organic coating
will feel again the changed environment. Valleys and divides,
eradles, barriers, and a choice of location, will again be offered
to animals and plants as a change from the monotonous con-
ditions of the completed peneplain. Following the altered
environment will come the modified organism, varied by rea-
son of migration or isolation and the multitude of causes
which geographic vicissitudes originate in the organic realm.
In this change from a lowland, interrupted only by monad-
nocks, to a dissected upland, the lowland species will find the
scales turned against them in favor of the survivors of the
old highland life stiil clinging to the elevated monadnocks or
some adjacent region of continued uplift.

PART III. THE JURA-CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN.

From these general considerations we now turn to a period
of baseleveling which is particularly well marked in North
America in the existing topography and also, as I hope to
show, in the organic history of the Mesozoic, the era during
which the Jura-Cretaceous peneplain, was elaborated. This
peneplain forms the most conspicuous topographic feature in
eastern North America, and traces of a plain of denudation of
this date are not wanting on the Pacific coast* and over the
interior of the continent. While it is yet too early to state
that this peneplain was so widespread as to affect the atti-
tude of the continent as a whole, the evidence points to this
conclusion and so to the effects in the organic world which
would follow from such a condition of geography in the mid-
dle Mesozoic,

The peneplain is well developed in the middle Atlantic
statest and southern New England, as it is also in the south-

*Mr. J. S. Diller’s generalized section across the Sierra Nevada range
exhibits the outline of an uplifted, tilted and faulted peneplain. See
fig. 1, Bulletin 83, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 13.

+Prof. W. M. Davis, Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, Nat. Geo-
graphic Magazine, vol. 1, 1889.

222 The American Geologist. October, 1894

ern Appalachians.* It forms the even crests and sky-lines of
the mountainous ridges in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and
thence it declines beneath the sea level, forming the plane of
unconformity between the upturned edges of the Jura-Trias
or Newark group and the Potomac and higher beds which
rest upon it. So conspicuous is this feature in the landscape
of the eastern United States that it has generally attracted
the attention of observant travellers. Thus, in the valley of
the Ohio, we find the following description given by Bourne :+
Perhaps the best idea of the topography of this region may be obtained
by comparing it to a vast elevated plain, near the center of which the
streams rise and in their course wearing down a bed or valley, whose
depth is in proportion to their size or the solidity of the earth over
which they flow, so that our hills, with some few exceptions, are noth-
ing more or less than cliffs or banks made by the action of the streams,
and although these cliffs or banks on the rivers or large creeks approach
the size of mountains, yet their tops are generally level like the remains
of an ancient plain.
Non-marine beds rest on the peneplain on the Atlantic Coast.

It is a curious fact that immediately succeeding the period
of erosion in which the peneplain was in great part formed,
there comes, along the Atlantic coast in southern New En-
gland, New Jersey, and some of the states farther south, a
series of non-marine beds, the Potomac and the lower portion
of the Upper -Cretaceous or Raritan group in New Jersey.
These beds preclude the idea of marine erosion as the cause
of the denudation which preceded them. It was at a later
time in the Upper Cretaceous that the sea encroached upon
the area and deposited sands and marls. The Potomac beds
are referred to the border line between the Jurassic and the
Cretaceous; and, if we admit their earlier age we must sup-
pose that the Piedmont portion of the peneplain was essen-
tially reduced to baselevel before the close of the Jurassic
period,

The plant-bearing Raritan clays in New Jersey dip ocean-
ward, according to Prof. W. B. Clark,+ at a rate somewhat

*Hayes and r ‘ampbel, Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians,
Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. v, 1894.

ee Weal Dey ls La feriee s Western Tourist or Emigrant’ s Guide. New
York, 1846, pp. 10-11.

tA Preliminary Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of
New Jersey,Ann. Report N. J. Geol. Survey for 1892 (pub. 1893), p. 182.

Piet a 9

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.— Woodworth 223

steeper than that of the overlying marine Cretaceous. This
fact supports the conclusion arising out of the absence of
other than a few brackish water molluscan fossils in the group,
that a barrier existed at this time eastward of the present
shore-line, whereby the sea was partly excluded from the
Piedmont area. This would make the Raritan and the older
Potomac groups. probably of lacustrine or estuarine origin de-
posited in basins formed by the warping of the baseleveled
plain.
Post-Cretuceous history of the peneplain.

At the close of the Cretaceous, the peneplain and the upper
Cretaceous deposits which covered its submerged seaward
margin were elevated and tilted. Streams began to cut down
valleys and to undergo those adjustments which had _previ-
ously been outlined in the initial stages of baseleveling. Great
changes in geography were made in the western or cordilleran
portion of the continent. By the end of Eocene times in
eastern North America, the streams had almost worked out
another or Tertiary baselevel; renewed uplift caused them ta
sink their valleys still deeper.

The coast shelf the correlative of the peneplain.

Denudation has its counterpart in deposition. The growing
coastal shelf of the Atlantic coast, including the formations
newer than the Jura-Trias and older than the Tertiary, is the
structural complement of the adjacent portion of the merely
superficial peneplain. If the one influenced the character of
the land life during its topographical development, the other
had its due effect on the marine fauna. Hayes and Campbell*
have recently called attention to the correlation between the
sediments and cycles of baseleveling in the southern Appala-
chians. With the decline in the grade of the rivers debouch-
ing on the shore, the sediments became finer and finer; when
baselevel was reached the stream contribution was inthe form
of chemical rather than mechanical waste. With the progressive
shallowing of the continental submerged margin the scour of
currents and efflux of tides would spread farther out from the
shore-line the conditions which on deep water shores are con-
fined to a narrow fringe below the littoral. The shoaling of

*Geomorphology of the southern Appalachians, Nat. Geog. Mag., vol.
vi, 1894, pp. 128-126.

224 The American Geologist. October, 1894

the coast through the growth of the coastal plain would
tend to increase the temperature of the water on the new
soundings, as W. F. Ganong* has noted as the effects of mod-
erate uplift in recent geological times. Shoaling and straight-
ening out of the shore-line diminish the tides, and these being
less do not so much perturb through the admixture of the
deeper cold water the surface waters warmed by the sun.

With the developmentof the coast shelf synchronously with
the peneplain there was brought into existence a population
of marine reptiles, the mosasaur and its allies. Just as land
mammals, as we first know them, are paralleled by representa-
tive marine cetacean species, so, in the abundance of reptil-
ian life, forms were adapted to existence inthe sea and on the
and |

THe LIFE INHABITING THE PENEPLAIN.

Turning now to the more familiar account of the fauna and
flora of the Mesozoic, we find both of these productions at the
apparent opening of the era remarkably dissimilar to the Pal-
eozoie forms. During the sueceeding secondary periods
equally noteworthy changes took place. Along with this
rapid advance in the higher vertebrate ranks, we have the
seeming fixity in some of the invertebrates after the comple-
tion of the peneplain.

The freshwater mollusca attained their present characteristics

before the close of the Cretaceous.

We have to note that the freshwater mollusca of North
America attained approximately their present characters dur-
ing the period of evolution of the baseleveled lowlands, and
that they have undergone little modification in the succeeding
periods until now. “To so great a degree had this differenti-
ation then attained,” states Dr. C. A. White in his report on
the Cretaceous invertebrates of the Plateau Province, “that
the species of Unio, Helix, Physa, ete., seem to have been as
diversified and well developed as they are at the present time.
Indeed the species of these genera are so closely like some of
those now living that they need only the fresh condition of
recent shells to. remove all suspicion of their great antiquity
One of these genera,

99

from the mind of the casual observer.

*Southern Invertebrates on the Shores of Acadia. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, § Tv, 1890, (pp. 167-185) p. 184.

id

/

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.—Woodworth. 225
Physa, has been found in the ancient freshwater fauna of the
Lower Coal Measure limestone of the Eureka district in Ne-
vada,* a discovery which shows for how long a time the ex-
isting mollusca of the land waters have held their own on the
American continent. In what has been said concerning the
mutations of the drainage of the inland waters, the attempt
has been made to point out the manner in which their differ-
entiation may have been brought about. These mollusca
survived the geographic changes which at the close of the
Mesozoic destroyed the function of the peneplain as a low-
land; in this respect the mollusca differ widely from the rep-
tilian group, which, as we shall see, pass out as the peneplain
was uplifted and dissected,

Changes of the fishes and amphibians not well understood in
relation to the peneplain of this date.

While it is among the vertebrates that the most obvious al-
terations are found, not all of the changes are readily traced
to the bearing which the Jowlands of the Mesozoic might have
had upon their particular groups. Among fishes the ganoids
held sway as late as the culmination of the peneplain in Cre
taceous times, but they gave way then to the teleosts and have
now buta scanty representation in our rivers. That there
was a marked change in the character of the fishes in known
areas at this time is well known, but how far the differentia-
tion of the fishes had been accomplished through these river
changes is difficult to determine, particularly for the reasons
that freshwater fishes are rarely found, and that these, like
the mollusea, are invariably lacustrine species. We must be
content with pointing out, in this place, the manner in which
the river changes may have operated to modify the species.

Of amphibians, the labyrinthodonts, the first of which ap-
peared as early as the Carboniferous, survived the Appala-
chian revolution, attained their grandeur in the Trias, and
apparently disappeared in North America before the Upper
Cretaceous. The exact cause of their decline is probably to
be sought in the development of the more powerful reptilia.

*A. Hague, Geology of the Eureka District, Monog. xx, U.S. Geol.
Survey, 1892, p. 87..

226 The American Geologist. October, 1894

Reptiles and particularly the dinosaur group ave correlated in
development with the growth of the peneplain.

Reptiles proper are the best indices we have of the influ-
ence of the peneplain on organic life. “This class,” says Le
Conte,* ‘seems to have culminated about the end of the Juras-
sic orthe beginning of the Cretaceous period. If their re-
mains are more abundant in the Jurassic in Europe, they are
far more abundant in the... . . Cretaceous in America. In
fact,’ continues this lucid writer, ‘‘we had here in America
during that time an extraordinary abundance and variety of
reptilian life, including all the principal orders.” With the
abundance of land reptiles we find also the greatest variety of
marine forms. “The reptilian type,” states the venerable
Dana,t “was unfolded in its complete diversity: the sea, air
and earth had each its species; and there were both grazing
and carnivorous kinds, of large and small dimensions.” The
chief of these in our interest are the Dinosaurs. ‘This great
group of reptiles,” says Marsh,* “were the dominant land an-
imals of the earth during all Mesozoic time. According to
present evidence, the dinosaurs were confined entirely to the
Mesozoic. They were abundant in the Triassic, culminated
in the Jurassic, and continued in diminishing numbers to the
end of the Cretaceous period, when they became extinct.”

Reptilia are characteristic lowland forms. They will endure
the cold of high altitudes and latitudes only by falling into a
state of torpidity. In the development of the peneplain from
the high relief of the Permian, and again, at the close of the
Jura-Trias, the widening out of the lowland, with plains and
jungles near tide-level, followed by depression of the land,
must have highly favored the water-loving reptilia. It is to
these geographic circumstances, I think, that we must look
for an explanation of the remarkable history of this class in
Mesozoic times.

Objections arising from imperfect knowledge of the extent of
the peneplain, The most serious objection which, as it appears
to me, can be raised against the view that the production of
broad lowlands in the middle Mesozoic favored the domi-

*Elements of Geology, third ed., 1891, p. 484.
+Manual of Geology, third ed., 1880, p. 485.
tAm. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xxxvi, 1889, p. 331.

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.—Woadworth, 227

nance of the reptilian group, arises from the imperfection as
yet of our knowledge concerning the extent and distribution
of the plain of meteoric denudation of this date. It seems
now clear that the baseleveling of the North American conti-
nent was so widespread as to be admitted as capable of exert-
ing the control which is here claimed for it.* In the case of
western Europe the evidence is also good, if we interpret the
records in the light of our present understanding of the part
played in denudation by land waters.t These two fields are
so far best known for their reptilian remains. The geology of
South Africa is as yet too little known to attempt a correla-
tion in that geological province. While the present evidence
would seem to correlate the distribution of the dominant
dinosaur group with the lowlands of the Mesozoic about the
North Atlantic, future discoveries may not only modify but
controvert this opinion.

It was not until this paper was written that I became ac-
quainted with the work of Neumayr on the geography and
organic life of the European Jurassic and Neocomian periods.
The fact pointed out by him that the upper Jurassic rocks
extensively overlap those of the lower Jurassic, so that “the
Lias was not deposited over an enormous part of the earth’s
surface,’ is paralleled by similar conditions on the North
American continent in the middle Mesozoic:§ but in this
western world the subsidence which followed these broad con-
tinental conditions did not come until the upper Cretaceous.
It is pretty clear that the period of development of the Jura-
Cretaceous peneplain was one also of broad continental condi-
tions, a circumstance evidently favorable to baseleveling. It

*See W. M. Davis: The Osage River and the Ozark Uplift. Science,
vol. xxir, 1893. pp. 276-279.

Dr. C. A. White: Correlation Papers—Cretaceous, Bulletin 82, U.S.
Geol. Survey, [time-hiatus before Lower Cretaceous] p. 136: also pl. 11,
ibid., ‘‘A Summary of the published Cretaceous Sections for each re-
gion’’ of the United States, showing time-breaks in Lower Cretaceous
contrasted with deposition.

S. F. Emmons: Orographic movements in the Rocky Mountains, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 1, 1890, pp. 269-279 (Jurassic land).

+H. B. Woodward: Geology of England and Wales, first ed., 1876, pp.
399, 400.

tSir Arch. Geikie, Text-book of Geology, third ed., 1893, pp. 895-897.

SDr. C. A. White, Correlation Papers, Bull. 82, U. S. Geol. Survey, p.
199.

—

228 . The American Geologist. October, 1894

is probable also that this broadening of the lands by elevation
and coast building, by extending the field for land organisms,
was favorable to the great group of reptiles. We find a par-
allel development of the group of mammalia when in the sue-
ceeding Tertiary periods the lands again became the present
massive continents.

Objections arising from lack of knowledge of the distribu-
tion of the Mesozvic reptiles. It is not too much to say that
existing reptiles are lowland forms. While a few species
range to great altitudes they are so few in numbers individu-
ally and specifically as to detract nothing from the generali-
zation. It is, however, much more difficult to substantiate
this claim for the class in Mesozoic times. With the great
diversity of reptilian life which then existed it is highly
probable that forms were adapted to life in mountains as well
as on the plains. We should expect from the aftinities of the
dinosaurs and what can be learned of their habits that they
were water-loving forms, and hence ranged along the rivers
and lake basins. Professor Marsh speaks of the Atlantosau-
rus as inhabiting the shores of the mountain lakes; but the
bulk of this and other animals of the order makes their dwell-
ing in a strictly mountainous region quite improbable. It
seems more likely that the kangaroo-shaped dinosaurs, par-
ticularly such forms as Claosaurus, Ceratosaurus, or even
Anchisaurus of the Jura-Trias, were adapted for progression
over plains. But although the variety of forms was carried
to such an extent, with adaptations to every habitat and sta-
tion, there is little question, it seems to me, that the class was
then as now mainly distributed in the lowlands.

Mammalian life unfavorably affected by the peneplain and
reptilian life.

The weak marsupials or low mammals, which first appear

in this country with Dromatherium in the tolerably high relief .

of the Trias, were apparently driven to the uplands by the
more puissant and numerous reptilia of the peneplain. Their
development seems also to have been retarded. This restraint
of the higher class by the reptilia we may fairly attribute to
the advantage which the latter derived from favorable geo-
graphic conditions. “It is a most remarkable fact,” says
LeConte, “that although marsupial mammals have been found

i]

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution.—Woodworth, 229

in the Jurassic and probably existed in considerable numbers
then, yet not one has been found in the Cretaceous,” to which
he adds, “It is probable, therefore, that during the Cretaceous
the marsupials which doubtless existed had been driven to
some other portion of the earth, where we shall yet find their
remains when our knowledge of the geology of the globe is

more complete.’* Professor Marsh, with the aid of Mr. J. B.

Hatcher, has found, since this statement was made, the abun-

dant mammalian remains of the Laramie beds in Dakota and

Montana,f¢ thus fulfilling a long made conjecture; but these

mammals, though living at the close of the Cretaceous, are of

old, lowly types, and with them were found the bones of the still
dominant dinosaurs. On the east coast of North America
mammalian remains are as yet unknown in the Cretaceous.

If these animals existed in the region at that time their range

was doubtless limited to the monadnocks. These cradles for

the mammalia offered an escape from the lowland life, but
presented no opportunities for preserving fossils, except
where great interior lakes existed.

The close of the Mesozoic attended by the extinction of the di-
nosaur group and the uplift and erosion of the peneplain.
The break in organic life which occurs in the interim be-

tween the Cretaceous and the lower Tertiary is generally wide-

spread; in a few areas such as that of the interior district of

North America the passage is well recorded. There the di-

nosaur group passes out and gives place to new life which came

in as by a bridge from some land before separated from the
habitat of the reptilia. It has long been recognized that the
geographic changes of this time were concerned in this or-
ganic revolution. Professor Verrill, in a lecture at Yale col-
lege, regarded lack of parental care as a probable cause of the
extinction of the large and powerful reptiles of the Mesozoic
age and of the large mammals of the Tertiary;+ and Prof.

Marsh has pointed out the fact, true of these reptiles as of

the gigantic brutes of the American Tertiaries of which he

particularly speaks, that they had} brains of diminutive pro-

portions. ‘The small brain, highly specialized characters and

*Elements of Geology, third ed., 1891, p. 492.
+Am. Jour. Sci., II], vol. xxxvru, 1889, pp. 81-83.
{Quoted by E. W. Morse, Science, vol. x, 1887, p. 75,

230 The American Geologist. October, 1894

huge bulk rendered them incapable of adapting themselves to
new conditions, and a change of surroundings brought ex-
tinction.’’*

The late Mr. 8S. V. Wood attempted to adduce an explana-
tion of the break in the character of the faunas of the Creta-
ceous and Tertiary periods in the European province from
the geographic changes which then occurred.t He supposed
that ‘the disappearance of the marine saurians was conse-
quent upon that of the cestraciont fishes, the destruction of
the latter having proceeded from the failure of the tetrabran-
chiate cephalopods which supplied their food,” these in turn
owing their extinction “to the entire change which took place
in the position of the shores at the close of the Cretaceous
period.” ‘This change,’ he thought, “‘was so complete that
such of the shore-followers as were unable to adapt themselves
to it succumbed, while the others that adapted themselves to
the change altered their specific characters altogether.’+ The
ammonites and other chambered cephalopods of the Mesozoic,
he pointed out, we have reason to believe were, like the Nau-
tilus, bottom-feeders, and therefore shore-followers. | Wood-
wards supposed that the chambered cephalopods could not
exist in depths exceeding 20 or 30 fathoms. The geographic
change which Mr. Wood invoked was one from the littoral
conditions of the Lias, Oolite and Cretaceous formations of
England and northern France to the exclusion of the sea by
the uplift and western extension of the European continent,
so as to confine the waters of the Eocene nummulitie sea to a
gulf such as that of Arabia or Persia.

In North America, the completion of the peneplain was fol-
lowed first by the submergence of the later Cretaceous, then
by the reversed movements of the succeeding Eocene. In the
Sierra Nevadas the faulted surface of the peneplain forms
the even tops of the western slopes of the range; and in east-
ern North America the peneplain has been differentially ele-

Ibid. yeti Mee Male ee af eS

4On the Form and Distribution of the Land-tracts during the See-
ondary and Tertiary periods respectively; and on the effeets upon Ani-
mal Life which great changes in Geographical Configuration have
probably produced. Philosophical Magazine, fourth series, vol. Xx1it,
1862, pp. 160-171, 269-282, 382-393.

tIbid., p. 384.

SManual of Mollusea, second ed., 1871, pp. 184, 185.

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution —Woodworth. 231

vated so as to stand at various hights, many of them mountain-
ous. On the Pacific coast, the correlated coastal shelf was
built into the Coast Range; on the east coast, the continental
shelf has been slightly uplifted in the south and somewhat
depressed in the north.

The Flora of the Mesozoic underwent alteration.

The change in the animal life of the Mesozoic was equalled
by the alteration and advance in the character of the flora.
The flattening down of the peneplain was attended by the
incoming of the higher vegetable types. ‘‘Even with the Ju-
rassic epoch, the next in succession to the Trias,” says Sir
J. William Dawson,* “there are clear indications of the pres-
ence of the endogens, in species allied to the screw-pines and
grasses; and the palms appear a little later, while a few exog-
enous trees have left their remains in the Lower Cretaceous,
and in the Middle and Upper Cretaceous these higher plants
came in abundantly and in generic forms still extant, so that
the dawn of the modern flora belongs to the Middle and
Upper Cretaceous.”

Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace+ follows Ball’s hint as to the
cause of the late appearance of exogens. The suddenness of
their appearance, he notes, must be only apparent, being “due
to unknown conditions which have prevented their preserva-
tion (or their discovery) in earlier formations.” Mr. Ballt
has supposed that the monocotyledons and the ferns, equise-
tums, cyeads, and conifers inhabited the lowlands, while the
dicotyledons grew in the uplands, where there were less pres-
sure, heat, moisture and CO, in the air; and on this Mr.
Wallace remarks that, in the Rocky mountains ferns and
monocotyledons are scarce in comparison with dicotyledons,
dryness and rarity of the atmosphere being the cause. Ele-
vated plateaus and mountains, he states, are more favorable
to dicotyledons than to monocotyledons, and we may well sup-
pose that the former originated within such elevated areas
and were for long ages confined to them.

If we suppose that the earlier Mesozoic uplands were the

*Geological History of Plants, pp. 177, 178.

(Darwinism, Humboldt Library ed., p. 270.

$On the Origin of the Flora of the European Alps, Proc. Roy. Geog.
Soc., vol. 1, 1879, pp. 564-588.

232 The American Geologist. October, 1894

seat of the existing dicotyledons, then by the lowering of the
surface by gradual consumption of the interstream areas,
these forms must have been brought into conflict with the an-
cient flora of the lowlands and thereby forced into a contest
for supremacy. The uplands which still remained in the form
of monadnocks rising above the baseleveled plain served as
reservoirs for replenishing any weakening in the cohorts of
the endogenous species.

We should expect to find the influence of baseleveling dis-
advantageous to the upland flora and hence favorable to the
continuation of the old Paleozoic types. The fact that the
endogens prevailed in spite of this geographic change would
makeit seem that the upland mainly endogenous forms were
hardier and accommodated themselves to the lowlands, ex-
cluding the older flora. Thus, at the base of the Upper Creta-
ceous on the east coast of North America, we find the dicoty-
ledonous forms ator near sea-level in the Raritan group in the
period following the baseleveling of the Piedmont plateau.

RECAPITULATION.

To sum up the faunal history of the Mesozoic alone, we
have seen that pari passu with the creation of broad lowlands
there was brought on to the stage a remarkable production of
reptiles, a characteristic lowland life; and we note that the
humble mammalia were excluded from the peneplain or held
back in their development, so far as we know them by actual
remains, during this condition of affairs until the very high-
est Cretaceous. At the close of the Mesozoic, the area of the
peneplain was uplifted and there came into it the new life.
Not only the changed geographic conditions, but the better
fitted mammalia also were probably factors in exterminating
the life of the peneplain. It would be more satisfactory if we
could go farther in the correlation than to point out the bare
correspondences in organic and geographic development
which seem to be related so closely in time. In tracing these
related changes attention has necessarily been called away
from other perhaps equally cogent means of dispersing and
modifying life. There were numerous changes of level and
climate which tended to qualify and perhaps locally to nullify
the effect of the peculiar geographic conditions of the Middle
Mesozoic; but after admitting all these, it still seems fair to

Baseleveling and Organic Evolution— Woodworth, 233

draw the conclusion that the peneplain gave the reptilian
class an advantage over the marsupials and as yet lowly or-
ganized mammalia of higher types. This may have retarded
for a time the mammalia in their conquest of the lands.
Without the occurrence of the conditions which produced the
broad peneplain, the ongoing of the mammals might have
been more quickly accomplished, but on what lines?
EXTENSION OF THE INQUIRY TO OTHER CYCLES OF DENUDATION.
If we admit the principle which I have endeavored to derive
from the history of the reptilian group in Mesozoic times, we
ought to be able to apply it to other fields in other times.
The great unconformities which occur in the Paleozoie and in
the earlier terranes of the Algonkian are, at least in part, ge-
netically peneplains. Unfortunately our knowledge of land
life prior to the Carboniferous is exceedingly meager. It is
only when the processes that formed the peneplain have
ceased to act upon it, through the incursion of the sea or the
warping of its surface to form lakes, that the records of ter-
restrial life are embossed upon these monuments of erosion.
In the Carboniferous period there is reason to believe that
land life was strongly influenced by geographic conditions
peculiar to that remarkable epoch. There were lowlands with
swamps and jungles ad Jibitum, and these were tenanted by
the precursors of the reptiles of the Mesozoic, the early am-
phibians; but the lowlands of this period which are preserved
to us were submarine platforms built up to the baselevel of
meteoric erosion, rather than old lands worn down to that level.
Prior to the Carboniferous and probably also to the later
Devonian epochs, a baselevel of erosion was worked out in the
highlands of Scotland.* The Old Red sandstone lies almost
horizontally on this ancient floor. But though we know much
concerning the flora and fishes of the Devonian, and a little
regarding its insects, there is not enough well known to afford
a satisfactory correlation of the kind we seek to make. It is
interesting to note in the Old Red sandstone another case of
apparently freshwater or lake beds+ resting upon what ap-

*Sir Arch. Geikie, Scenery of Scotland, second ed., London, 1887, p-
137, et seq.

+Consult Sir A.C. Ramsay, ‘On the Red Rocks of England of older
date than the Trias,’” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, vol. xxvur, pp.
241-256; Sir Arch. Geikie, Text-book of Geology, second ed., 1885, p.
711; and I. C. Russell, Bulletin 52, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 47 et seq.

234 The American Geologist. October, 1894

pears to be an ancient peneplain, suggesting, as before noted,
a confirmation of the hypothesis. of meteoric denudation, fol-
lowed by warping of the earth’s surface.

Of the still greater unconformities in the Algonkian, the
vast period anterior to the Cambrian and succeeding the now
reconstructed Archean, nothing can be said.

CoMPARISON OF BASELEVELING WITH GLACIATION AND
SUBMERGENCE,

It remains to compare the action of the conjoined condi-
tions which permit the formation of a peneplain with the
effects produced on organic life by glacial periods on the one
hand and by extensive oscillations of the land with reference
to the sea, on the other.

Croll* and Darwint have amply considered the effects of
glacial periods. Ice-sheets are potent in compelling rapid
migrations, the crowding of indigenous and immigrant spe-
cies within narrow limits in the extraglacial territory, and in
causing the annihilation of the forms which cannot escape.
When the ice disappears, an unoccupied and mostly deforested
field is open for all comers.

The etfects of submergence and elevation of the land have
been elaborated by Sir Charles Lyell in his “Principles of Ge-
ology.” Submergence drowns out the land forms, or causes
them to migrate; and baseleveling by marine erosion accom-
plishes the same result, so far as it goes.

Baseleveling by stream erosion differs from both submerg-
ence and glaciation in keeping the field open for the occupa-
tion by organisms and for those changes whiclr are promoted
by the ordinary adjustments between species. It induces
change through the tendency to lower and broaden the area
of lands. As this baseleveling advances in a region, the like-
lihood of submergence increases, since, the coast being lower,
a less depression will cause the sea to flow far inland; it de-
creases the chance of glaciation, for, the land being lower, the
surface is farther removed from the snow line.

Periods of baseleveling are characterized by relative stabil-

*On Geological Time, Part Il]. Inquiry into the effects of Icebergs,
Interglacial Periods, etc, Philosophical Magazine, Noy., 1868.
+Origin of Species, ch. X11.

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling.—Upham, 235

ity, periods of glaciation, by relative instability, of the land
with reference to the sea.

Baseleveling of itself is not destructive to land life; both
glaciation and marine invasion are sterilizing in their effects.

The theory of the subaérial origin of plains of denudation
helps our conception of the conditions which have favored the
continuity of land life on the earth: the theory of marine de-
nudation compels us to adopt for the same time and place the
conclusion that land life was driven out. The former, newer
view is in accord with the fact that the fauna and flora of a
country is more closely related to antecedent fossil forms
than to exotic life; it is also consistent with the theory that
the existing continents have long stood as dry lands, though
temporarily invaded by the sea.

TERTIARY AND EARLY QUATERNARY BASELEV-
ELING IN MINNESOTA, MANITOBA, AND

NORTHWESTWARD.*
By WARREN UPHAM, Somerville, Mass.
CONTENTS. PAGE.
Baseleveling of the Cretaceous northwestern plains during the Tertiary era........ 235
Areal and vertical extent of this Baseleveling......... . 236
Renewed Elevation and partial Baseleveling at the Bios ee fc Tertary Bee yeas
the early part of the Quaternary era. 7 ... 238
Origin of the Red river valley and the Rianne ecqupmene By me ater erosion... 240
Outlying remnants of Cretaceous formations east of the Manitoba and Pembina es-
carpment.. Sob oe . 241
Topographic Beaiures a Miencsatn oud Mamita: SREY to pines cycles ne Baselevel
ing . a ep’e cae Meroe naharsieyee eee pica agherkes
BareGan fae the Terttary resnah ete: Gatteeanes names Bet TR CED ott Mee! 3 OAD
Relationship of the later Baseleveling to the Ice age. anys . 244

Comparative estimates of the Amount of Erosion in ee region en ee ePectiany
. time and during the Lafayette, Glacial, and Recent periods of Quaternary time.. 245

BASELEVELING OF THE CRETACEOUS NORTHWESTERN PLAINS DUR-
; ING THE TERTIARY ERA,

From the valleys of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers,
the Red river of the North, and lake Winnipeg, a broad area
of plains ascends gradually westward to the foot of the front
ranges of the Rocky mountains. The first ascent from the
Minnesota and Red river valleys and from the flat country en-
closing lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and Winnipegosis is mainly
by an abrupt escarpment, eroded in the Cretaceous strata

*Read before the Geological Society of Ame rica at the Brooklyn meet-
ing, Aug. 15, 1894.

236 The American Geologist. October, 1894

forming the eastern border of the plains. The altitude of
these valleys and of the Manitoba lake region ranges from 1,-
000 to 750 feet above the sea; and the escarpment, which, as
viewed from the lowlands on the east, is named in its sueces-
sive portions from south to north the Coteau des Prairies, the
Pembina, Riding, and Duck mountains, and the Porcupine and
Pasquia hills or mountains, rises from 200 or 300 feet to 1,000
feet within a few miles, its crest being mostly 1,500 to 2,000
feet above the sea level. Thence westward the expanse of the
plains, broken here and there by eroded valleys and tracts of
sometimes very irregular denudation, has nevertheless for the
greater part a very uniform nearly flat or moderately rolling
surface, which rises on the average four or five feet per mile,
to a hight somewhat exceeding 4,000 feet above the sea at the
foot of the Rocky mountains in Montana and Alberta on the
opposite sides of the United States and Canadian international
boundary.

The geologic strata of this northern portion of the great
plains are the Dakota, Colorado; Montana and Laramie for-
mations of late Cretaceous age, whose deposition took place
during the closing part of the Secondary or Mesozoic era.
Southward, in the United States, the plains comprise exten-
sive deposits of Tertiary lacustrine beds, representing the
continuation of the brackish water and finally lacustrine con-
ditions which prevailed over large areas of the plains during
the Laramie period; but in the northern region considered by
this paper no Tertiary beds are found. Since the beginning
of the Tertiary era this region has been a land surface under-
going denudation. When its marine and lacustrine deposits
were first raised to be dry land they had a monotonously flat
surface. <A very long cycle of baseleveling ensued, beginning
as soon as this northern part of the plains was uplifted at the
end of Cretaceous time and continuing nearly er quite to the
end of the Tertiary era. During this time the surface was
gradually lowered by the action of rains, rills, rivulets, creeks
and rivers, until it was mostly reduced to a baselevel of sub-
aérial erosion.

AREAL AND VERTICAL EXTENT OF THIS BASELEVELING.

Across an area 700 or 800 miles wide from east to west on
the international boundary, and of much greater extent from

-

ot

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling.—Upham, 237

south to north, the processes of baseleveling were at work
through the vast duration of Tertiary time, cutting down the
plains far below their original surface. But here and there
isolated areas of hills and even mountains remain, consisting
of remnants of the horizontal Cretaceous strata which else-
where have suffered erosion.

The most noteworthy eastern highland area of this kind is
the Turtle mountain, lying in the north edge of North Da-
kota and the south edge of Manitoba, its extent on the inter-
national boundary being about 40 miles, with two-thirds as
great width. This high tract, diversified by many subordi-
nate hills and short ridges, 50 to 3800 feet above adjoining
depressions, rises with a massive general form suggesting, as
seen from some distant points of view, the rounded back of a
turtle; but as seen from the south or north, its many hills
and buttes present a serrated outline. Its altitude above the
surrounding country is 300 to 800 feet, the summits of its
highest hills being about 2,500 feet above the sea. Beneath a
veneering of glacial drift, which is in large part morainic and
generally strown with many boulders, averaging perhaps 50
to 75 feet in thickness, Turtle mountain consists of nearly
horizontally bedded Laramie strata, chiefly shales, with very
thin seams of lignite. At or below the base of this highland,
the freshwater Laramie formation rests on the marine series,
which comprises the Fox Hills sandstone and Fort Pierre
shales, the two great shale formations being separated by a
sandstone stratum which outcrops in North Dakota on Ox
ereek and Willow river and on the Souris river between Minot
and its most southern bend. A thickness of not less than 500
to 1,000 feet of the Laramie and Montana (Fox Hills and
Fort Pierre) strata has been carried away from the surround-
ing eastern part of the plains.

Westward the depth of the Tertiary baseleveling was
greater. Around the Highwood and Crazy mountains, in
central Montana, according to Prof. W. M. Davis* and Dr. J.
E. Wolff,+ the erosion of the plains has a. vertical extent of
3,000 to 5,000 feet. Perhaps the most striking evidence of

*Mining Industries of the United States, Tenth Census, voi. Xv, pp
T10, 737, 745.

+Bulletin, Geol. Society of America, vol. 1, 1892, pp. 445-452.

~

238 The American Geologist. October, 1894

this great erosion is afforded by the range of the Crazy moun-
tains, which lies immediately north of the Yellowstone river,
near Livingston, and is conspicuously seen from the Northern
Pacific railroad. These mountains trend slightly west of
north, and extend about 40 miles with a width of 15 miles,
attaining an elevation of 11,178 feet above the sea, and 5,000
to 6,000 feet above the prairies at their base. Their structure
has been thoroughly studied by Wolff, who finds that they
consist of late Cretaceous strata, soft sandstones, nearly hor-
izontal in stratification, intersected by a network of eruptive
dikes. The more enduring igneous rocks have preserved this
range, while an average denudation of not less than one mile
in vertical amount reduced all the adjoining region to a base-
level of erosion. The Highwood mountains, about 25 miles
east of Great Falls, having a hight of 7,600 feet above the sea
or about 8,500 feet above their base, are described by Davis as
displaying the same structure and therefore similarly testify-
ing of great denudation.

The uplift at the beginning of the Tertiary era appears to
have raised this portion of the plains to a hight above the sea
as great as the vertical extent of their Tertiary erosion, that
is, to a hight of at least 1,000 to 5,000 feet, increasing from
east to west. Toward the end of this era the baseleveling
had reduced the country mostly to a plain which was proba-
bly only a few hundred feet above the sea, lying much below
its present altitude.

RENEWED ELEVATION AND PARTIAL BASELEVELING AT THE CLOSE
OF THE TERTIARY AND DURING THE EARLY PART OF THE QUA-
TENARY ERA.

Between the general Tertiary cycle of baseleveling and the
Glacial period; there intervened a second great epeirogenic
uplift, as shown by a return of the conditions of vigorous
stream erosion and a new cycle of partial baseleveling, by
which wide flat valleys were cut in the eastern part of these
Cretaceous plains. In Manitoba the northeastern border of
the formerly baseleveled expanse was removed, the Creta-
ceous beds being eroded to the underlying Archean and Pa-
leozoic rocks upon a large area bounded on the west by the
escarpment before mentioned as now forming the eastern
limit of the plains.

fg Fe Oa)

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling—Upham. 239

The duration of the earlier baseleveling apparently coin-
cided, as to both beginning and end, with the Tertiary or
Somerville cycle of partial baseleveling which Davis and
Wood have studied in Pennsylvania and northern New Jersey
and believe to have affected a large area of the other eastern

‘states.* The termination of the denudation forming the

western plains, and their uplift to undergo the erosion of the
Red river valley and of the present Assiniboine and Saskatch-

ewan valleys, were probably also contemporaneous with the

great epeirogenic movement which in California, according to
Mr. J. S. Diller, ended a long cycle of baseleveling that had
extended through the whole of Cretaceous and Tertiary time,
and raised a part of that baseleveled district at the beginning
of the Quaternary era to form the lofty Sierra Nevada.t
Again, the same record of long continued baseleveling, fol-
lowed by uplift and a new cycle of rapid valley-erosion, is
found by Powellt and Dutton§ in the plateaus and Grand
eanyon of the Colorado. The broad denudation above these
plateaus, when compared with the studies thus noted in other
regions, and with the total erosion of the canyon seems to have
required not only the Eocene and Miocene periods, but also
most of the Pliocene; for the ratio of the denudation to the
canyon-cutting must be nearly or quite as great as that between
the duration of the entire Tertiary era and the comparatively
short time since its close. Instead of referring the division
of these parts of the history of the Grand Canyon district to
the beginning of the Pliocene, as was done provisionally by
Dutton, it may therefore mark the final stage of the Pliocene
period and the inauguration of the Quaternary era. In the
southern and eastern United States, according to McGee, a
similar great uplift of the land, with very extensive erosion,

*Proceedings, Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxrv, 1889, pp.

365-423. National Geographic Magazine, vol. 1, 1889, pp. 188-2538: vol.
Il, is pp. 81-110.
+U.S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Annual Report, for 1886-'87, pp. 428-482

Toueaal of Geology, vol. Tl, pp. 32-54, Jan.-Feb., 1894. Compare also
articles by Prof. Joseph Le Conte, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xrx, pp. 176-
190, March, 1880; vol. xxx, pp. 167-181, Sept., 1886; vol. XxXxvII, pp.
257-263, Oct., 1889.

tExploration of the Colorado River of the West, 1875. Geology of the
eastern portion of the Uinta Mountains, 1876.

SU. S. Geol. Survey, Monograph u, ‘‘Tertiary History of the Grand
Canon District,’ 1882.

240 The American Geologist. October, 1894

intervened between the deposition of the Lafayette formation

and the Ice age; and, in a recent paper before this Society, I

have shown that the successive Lafayette epochs of deposition

and erosion are also recognizable in this more northern area

drained principally by the Nelson river.*

ORIGIN OF THE RED RIVER VALLEY AND THE MANITOBA ESCARP-
. MENT BY THIS LATER EROSION.

East from the foot of the Pembina, Riding, and Duck moun-
tains and the hills farther north, together called the Manitoba
escarpment by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, of the Canadian Geological
Survey, Cretaceous strata have not been found, so far as I
have learned, in Manitoba, nor in the region north and north-
east from lake Winnipeg to Hudson bay. It seems quite cer-
tain, however, that Cretaceous beds continuous from this es-
‘arpment extended eastward at the end of the Tertiary base-
leveling so far as to cover the area of lake Winnipeg. As
Hind and Dawson have well pointed out, it was by the erosion
of the eastern portion of these beds, after the great western
expanse of the plains had received nearly its present form,
that this steep escarpment was produced.t At the time of
uplifting of the plains near the beginning of the Quaternary
era, this great baseleveled region appears to have stretched
from the Roeky mountains to the Archean hills on the eastern
border of the area of the later glacial lake Agassiz. The east
margin of the soft Cretaceous strata was then anew subjected
to rapid erosion, with the result that it was almost wholly
worn away to the floor of the Archean gneiss and granite and
Paleozoic limestones upon a width of 100 miles or more and
toa depth westward of 300 to 1,000 feet as shown by the hight
of the Pembina mountain and Manitoba escarpment.

In Minnesota and North Dakota the flat Red river valley
plain, averaging 50 miles wide, with a depth of 200 to 500
feet below the country on each side, and extending more than
200 miles from south to north, opening into the Manitoba Jake

+H. Y. Hind, Report of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring
Expedition, Toronto, 1859, pp. 168, 169; Narrative of the Canadian Ex-
ploring Expeditions, London, 1860, vol. m1, pp. 48, 55, and 265. G. M.
Dawson, Geology and Resources of the Forty-ninth Parallel, 1875, pp.
253, 204.

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling—Upham, 241

eonspicuous Pembina mountain escarpment of Cretaceous
shales, overspread by drift, on the west side of this valley,
deep wells penetrating through the drift to Cretaceous beds
and older strata along the low valley plain, and the topograph-
ic features of the land rising eastward from it with nearly the
same rate of ascent as:on the west, lead to the belief that
the eastern like the western border of this wide valley is
formed by an escarpment of Cretaceous shales beneath the
drift. The baseleveled plain of the Tertiary era has been
broadly and deeply channeled during a later time of high
continental uplift, contemporaneously with the erosion of
canyons in the western and southwestern United States, and
with the excavation of the lower Mississippi valley, of the
Delaware and Chesapeake bays, and of other estuaries on our
southern Atlantic coast.

OUTLYING REMNANTS OF CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS EAST OF THE

MANITOBA AND PEMBINA ESCARPMENT,

Although no Cretaceous beds have been reported on the
north side of the international boundary east of the Manitoba
escarpment, it may be expected that their remnants will yet be
found in central and eastern Manitoba. Southward in central
and southern Minnesota, frequent Cretaceous outcrops are
known, and in numerous places deep wells, after passing
through the thick covering of glacial drift, encounter Creta-
ceous shales and sandstone, which in some instances are found
to reach to a thickness of several hundred feet. Further evi-
dence of the eastward extent of Cretaceous formations in this
state is afforded inits northern part by Mr. H. V. Winchell’s
discovery of Cretaceous shales in place on the Little fork of
the Rainy river* and on the high Mesabi iron range.+ Lignite
fragments, probably derived from the erosion of Cretaceous
strata, are also occasionally found in the glacial drift upon
the country south of the Lake of the Woods and between
Rainy lake and Vermilion lake. Next beneath the drift, a
considerable depth of Cretaceous beds probably still exists
upon the greater part of the western two-thirds of Minnesota.

*Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Sixteenth Annual Report,
for 1887, pp. 408-9, 481, 484.
+AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. XII, pp. 220-228, Oct., 1893.

242 The American Geologist. ~ October, 1894

Concerning their eastern limits, Prof. N. H. Winchell, the
state geologist, writes:

A line drawn from the west end of Hunters’ island, on the Canadian
boundary line, southward to Minneapolis, and thence southeastwardly
through Rochester to the Iowa state line, would, in general, separate
that part of the state in which the Cretaceous is not known to exist from
that in which it does. It is not here intended to convey the idea that
the whole state west of this line is spread over with the Cretaceous, be-
cause there are many places where the drift lies directly on the Silurian
or earlier rocks; but throughout this part of the state the Cretaceous
exists at least in patches, and perhaps once extended continuously.*

TopoGRAPHIC FEATURES OF MINNESOTA AND MANITOBA DUE TO
THESE CYCLES oF BASELEVELING.

Cretaceous deposits originally overspread all of Minnesota
and Manitoba, excepting possibly portions of their eastern
borders. The long Tertiary cycle of baseleveling greatly re-
duced the thickness of these beds, but their part remaining at
the end of the Tertiary era appears to have still formed a
general envelope, with mostly a nearly level surface, above the
older rocks for a distance of 100 to 200 miles eastward from
the Manitoba escarpment, the Pembina mountain and the Co-
teau des Prairies. Occasional tracts of hills, as the Turtle
mountain, ora great highland ridge, as the Coteau des Prai-
ries,t rose 500 feet or more above the general level.

With the ensuing epeirogenic uplift which marked the
transition from the Tertiary to the Quaternary era, the
streams again began a vigorous work of erosion. The broad
Red river valley, with its enclosing escarpments, and the low
lake district of Manitoba, with the great escarpment on the
west, then were sculptured to nearly their present forms.

In various parts of Minnesota, as Langhei and the vicinity
of Glenwood in Pope county,{ conspicuous highland tracts
and the depressions occupied by lakes seem attributable to the
contour of the Cretaceous beds beneath a somewhat uniform
mantle of the glacial drift. Another district of similar fea-
tures is the neighborhood of Pokegama lake on the upper
Mississippi and all the country thence westward to lake
Itasca. The Pokegama lake, with its irregular arms, proba-

*Bulletins of the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. 1, p.
348. Compare also Geology of Minnesota, Final Report, vols. 1 and 1,

tGeology of Minnesota, vol. i, 1884, pp. 598, 601, ete.

tIbid., vol. ii, 1888, p. 492.

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling—Upham, 248

bly fills the hollows due to the valleys of a preglacial river
and its tributaries, not wholly concealed by the overlying
drift. Within a few miles southwestward, a ridge several
miles long and about 300 feet above the lake, singularly prom-
inent in contrast with the surrounding moderately undulating
or somewhat hilly surface, is reported by Prof. G. E. Culver,
in his exploration of that district for the Minnesota Geologi-
eal Survey, to consist probably of Cretaceous shales beneath a
deposit of till which has partly a smooth surface but on the
northern slope presents a profusion of morainic knolls and
hillocks. In a third and larger area, north and northwest of
Red lake, where an extensive island arose above the highest
stage of lake Agassiz, the grand topographic features seem
likewise due to the prominence of the Cretaceous beds, there
deeply drift-covered.*

In North Dakota and Manitoba, west of the Cretaceous es-
carpment, hills and buttes of the Cretaceous shales, thinly
covered by drift, occur rarely along the Sheyenne river; in
the vicinity of Devil’s Jake, one of especial prominence being
the Big butte, about ten miles west-northwest of this lake;
and near the Pembina river, where Star mound and _ Pilot
mound in Manitoba are examples. Proceeding farther west-
ward, and especially northwestward in Assiniboia, such com-
paratively small hills, besides also large hilly tracts similar to
the Turtle mountain, are found more frequent.

DrreEcTION OF THE TERTIARY AND EARLY (QUATERNARY DRAINAGE,

The early Quaternary epeirogenic uplift causing the erosion
and baseleveling of the Red river valley and Manitoba lake
district must evidently have occupied a long period as meas-
ured by thousands of years. Its duration may well have been
coextensive with the Lafayette period, embracing the deposi-
tion and erosion of the Lafayette formation, which in my
previous paper already cited I estimate to have comprised to-
gether some 60,000 to 120,000 years.t During this period the
drainage from the entire area of the present Nelson river basin
probably passed, nearly as now, toward the north and north-
east. With the greater continental altitude of that time a
river system much longer than that of the Nelson and its feed-

*Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xi, pp. 423-425, June, 1893.
+Bulletin, Geol. Society of America, vol. v. pp. 97, 99.

244 The American Geologist. October, 1894
ing streams, the Rainy and Winnipeg, Red and Saskatchewan
tivers, flowed northeasterly through a vast nearly flat plain
and thence eastward along a great valley bounded by high-
lands, where now we have the Hudson bay and strait.

The drift-covered Cretaceous highland tract called the Co-
teau des Prairies, terminating at the north, about twenty-five
miles west of lake Traverse, in a bold headland, surrounded
on all sles excepting the south by a nearly level expanse 800
feet lower and about 1,200 feet above the sea, appears to have
stood, during both the Tertiary and Quaternary cycles of
baseleveling, in the angles between confluent streams which
flowed to the north. Both the Tertiary and early Quaternary
rivers from this part of the continent probably had their
mouths on or south of the area of Davis strait; for the ab-
sence of marine Tertiary formations from the coasts of the
northern half of North America testifies to their having held
a greater altitude throughout that era than now.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE LATER BASELEVELING TO THE ICE AGE.

Flowing so great distances before reaching the sea, the riv-
ers of both these cycles of baseleveling may have denuded
their areas of drainage, during the first cycle very completely
and during the second partially, to broad plains, while yet the
altitude of the Manitoba lake region equalled or exceeded
that of the present time. Lake Winnipeg is 710 feet and lake
Manitoba 809 feet above the sea. Newly uplifted as a high
plateau during the early portion of the Quaternary era, this
north part of the continent, rising probably somewhat faster
in the Arctic region than farther south, may have continued
to present favorable conditions for the baseleveling of the
Red river valley and the district of the great Manitoba lakes
until the mean altitude of the area which became covered by
the North American ice-sheet and its drift was 3,000 to 5,000
feet higher than now, as indicated by the fjords and subma-
rine valleys of our northern Atlantic, Aretic, and northern
Pacific coasts. The culmination of this uplift appears to have
brought so cold and snowy climate that a vast sheet of snow
and ice was gradually accumulated, under whose weight the
land finally sank mostly somewhat below its present hight,
causing the ice-sheet to be melted away, with deposition of
its glacial and modified drift. |

Tertiary and Quaternary Baseleveling.— Upham, 245

CoMPARATIVE EstiMATES OF THE AMOUNT OF EROSION IN THIS RE-
GION DURING TERTIARY TIME, AND DURING THE LAFAYETTE,
GLACIAL, AND RECENT PERIODS OF QUATERNARY TIME,

Along the distance of about 800 miles from the Lake of the
Woods west upon the international boundary to the Rocky
mountains, the depth of the Tertiary denudation ranged from
500 feet to 3,000 feet or more. Its average amount may there-
fore be estimated as 1,500 to 2,000 feet, or about a third of a
mile, so that the cross-section of the strata removed along this
line would be represented approximately by 267 square miles.

During the early Quaternary or Lafayette period of re-
newed epeirogenic elevation, the denudation on a width of
about 100 miles, extending across the Red river valley to the
Pembina mountain, ranged probably from 100 feet or less to
400 or 500 feet, with increase from east to west, and its aver-
age was apparently as much as 250 feet, giving a cross-sec-
tion approximately equivalent to five square miles. On the
area of the plains, for the 700 miles fromthe Pembina esecarp-
ment to the mountains, the contemporaneous erosion may be
estimated to average 25 feet in depth, giving about two and a
half square miles as the measure of its vertical section.

The material eroded during these baseleveling cycles was
borne far away into the North Atlantic ocean ; but the erosion
effected by the ice-sheet in the Glacial period subtracted
nothing from the land surface as a whole. The ice-sheet sim-
ply wore off the superficial beds of preglacial alluvium and
residuary clay and portions of the bed-rocks over which it
was amassed, bore these commingled materials onward with its
motion, and deposited them at various distances southward
from their preglacial sources. In this process many small
hillocks and tower-like masses of the Cretaceous and older
strata, similar to the fantastically eroded hills, plateaus, and
pinnacles of the driftless area in Wisconsin, were worn down
and leveled by the overriding ice, and the deep valleys of
preglacial erosion were partially or wholly filled with the gla-
cial drift. The mean thickness of the drift along these 800
miles of the international boundary may probably be about 50
feet, its maximum thickness, which is deposited in the Red
river valley, being 150 to 3800 feet. ‘Taking its average as 50
feet on an extent of 800 miles, the vertical section of the gla-

246 The American Geologist. October, 1894

cial erosion and deposition will be represented by about eight
square miles. i

During the geologically short Postglacial or Recent period,
which has been shown by the independent but well agreeing
observations and measurements of N. H. Winchell, Gilbert,
Andrews, Wright, and many others, to have comprised only
some 6,000 to 10,000 years, the material eroded here has been
again undergoing transportation to the sea or tothe Manitoba
lakes or lower portions of the great avenues of drainage. In
this period the amount eroded from the surface along these
800 miles probably has not averaged more than two or three
feet, its total section therefore being represented by about
two-fifths of a square mile.

These approximate measures of the denudation along the
international boundary during the successive divisions of time
since the Cretaceous period seem consistent with the estimates
presented in my former paper, that the duration of the Terti-
ary era was probably between two and four million years: of
the Lafayette period, between 60,000 and 120,000 years; of the
Glacial period, perhaps 20,000 to 30,000 years; and of the
Recent period, between 6,000 and 10,000 years.

|

INTERRUPTION DURING THE DEPOSITION OF
THE BURLINGTON LIMESTONES.

By FRANCIS M. Futtz, Burlington, Iowa.

The lithological characters of the different strata of the
Burlington limestones are quite generally the same. Even the
upper division does not differ materially from the lower. Of
course some of the layers are more compact than others, a few
even being massive and crystalline enough to resemble mar-
ble. Yet whether massive or not they have a common origin.
They are all crinoidal. With the exception of a very few lay-
ers you could searcely find a cubic inch of rock that does not
plainly show its crinoidal origin. Between the beds of lime-
stone are found a few layers of shales, clays, etc., but they
form but a comparatively small part of the whole.

It has generally been conceded that the deposition of the
whole Lower Carboniferous group in southeastern Iowa was

Deposition of the Burlington Limestones.— Fultz, 247

uninterrupted. I quote from White, Geology of Iowa, 1870,
Vol. I, page 202: “The accumulation of the strata of the sub-
Carboniferous group in southeastern Iowa, from the Lower
Burlington limestone to the St. Louis limestone inclusive, was
evidently uninterrupted.” And this seems to have been the
generally accepted belief. I question the truth of the state-
ment and think evidence can be furnished to show that there
were disturbances and cessations of deposit within the pe-
riod indicated. It is quite probable that there was some dis-
turbance at the close of each of the subdivisions; but the
instance I shall bring forward occurs well within the limits
of one of them. .

Evidence of disturbance and cessation of deposit is three-
fold, viz.: more or less abrupt changes in fossil forms, change
in lithological characters, and erosion with consequent uncon-
formity. At present I shall confine myself exclusively to the
Jast mentioned evidence, although elsewhere* I have given my
views on each of the three and discussed their bearing on
each other.

Almost everywhere in the vicinity of Burlington, where the
upper division of the Burlington limestone is exposed, there
occurs, somewhat below the middle, a stratum of heavy bed-
ded white limestone about 6 ft. in thickness. Generally un-
derlying this there is either a thin stratum of blue clay or
a yellow sandy limerock. Immediately overlying there is
uniformly found a bed of tough blue shale. The abrupt
change in the lithological character of the deposit, coupled
with a somewhat marked change in fossil forms, led me to
believe that there must have been some disturbance and possi-
bly a cessation of deposit. This belief was strengthened by
the fact that the surface of the limestone at various places
exhibited a somewhat water-worn appearance.

In the southern part of the city limits of Burlington, at a
locality known as “The Cascade,” there are several quarries
in which nearly the whole depth of the Upper Burlington
limestone-is worked. The massive white layer spoken of fur-
nishes a goodly part of the rock taken out. It was in one of

*Paper read at the meeting of the lowa Academy of Science, Decem-
ber 26 and 27, 1893.

248 The American Geologist. October, 1894

these quarries that I came across the most conclusive evidence
of erosion.

The Cascade ravine is about half a mile in length and en-
ters the Mississippi river at right angles. About one-fourth
of a mile back from the mouth of the ravine these quarries
occur. One of them is on the south bank and is situated on
both sides of a short, but deep lateral ravine, the bottom of
which is several feet lower than the stratum of white lime-
stone. In working off the corner between the main and lat-
eral ravines the white limestone layer was found to be much
eroded and the blue shale was uniformly deposited directly

Fic. 1. UNconrgormity or Upper BURLINGTON STRATA.
{The white patches in the shale are marks made by the quarryman’s pick. |

upon the water-worn surface, and conforming to all of its ir-
regularities and inequalities. The erosion is lateral more than
vertical and the inequalities are quite abrupt, one bench
amounting to fully two feet; and yet the blue shale covers
this without a break. The shale is itself capped with fairly
well-bedded limestone. The contact of the shale with the
limestone is well shown in the accompanying figure.

This is direct evidence of erosion in the first half of the
Upper Burlington epoch, An interesting fact which necessa-
vily follows is that the present system of drainage must have

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 249

had its origin at that time. ‘The position of the eroded sur-
face of the limestone and the inclination of the directly super-
imposed strata both seem to indicate that the lateral ravine
had its beginning at that early date. Of course the principal
ravine must have existed to furnish an outlet. Along its
banks the white limestone layer is not exposed, being covered
with a heavy mantle of drift. In all the quarries worked at
this point the upper strata show a decided dip towards the
main ravine, which goes to confirm the theory as to the early
origin of the drainage system.

At other localities in this county I have noticed evidence of
erosion, but in no case was it so pronounced as in the instance
just given. I expect to find further evidence of disturbance
in the line of unconformity.

Pave VV OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
AAAS Wale.

The Lower Silurian Laumellibranchiata of Minnesota. ~ By FE. O. UnLRtcn.
(Chapter vt of volume tr of the Final Rept., Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey
of Minn., pp. 475-628, plates 35-42; June 16, 1894.) The strueture and
affinities of the early Paleozoic lamellibranchs have been but meagerly
exploited. The stupendous work of Barrande upon these and later
forms of the Bohemian: Paleozoic has perhaps overwhelmed as much as
aided students of other Silurian faunas, aud as far as pertains to the
American species Mr. Ulrich has had a fair field, a magnificent oppor-
tunity, and has acquitted himself admirably and with signal credit to
the Geological Survey of Minnesota.

After a few instructive introductory pages on the general relations,
nomenclature and preservation of these fossils, the author gives a scheme
of classification for all Paleeozoic genera (in which, however, we observe
none of those introduced by Freeh and Whidborne). Then follows the
systematic part of the work, the principal innovations of which we
briefly notice.

The familiar genus Anibonychia, Hall, usually construed from the well
known form A. radiata Hall, is here strictly limited to shells having the
structure of the type, A. bellistriata, that is, without lateral teeth or bys-
sal opening and with an internal anterior lobe set off by a thin vertical
internal plate.

Clionychia, Ulrich (type, Ambonychia lamellosa Hall), is an elementary
form without cardinal or lateral teeth or the vertical plate of Ambony-
chia.

250 The American Geologist. October, 1894

Byssonychia, nov. (type, Ambonychia radiata Hall), possesses a byssal
opening and both cardinal and lateral teeth.

The genus Modiolopsis, Hall, is carefully restricted and its close generic
relation to the Devonian Modiomorpha pointed out.

Eurymya, nov., is founded upon Hall's species Modiolopsis plana, and
is distinguished by its posterior ala and striated ligamental area.

Actinomya, changed inthe errata to Whiteavesia, noy. (type, Modiolopsis
cincinnatiensis Hall and Whitfield), bears surface radii, is without cardi-
nal teeth, and has a short ligamental groove on each side of the beak.

Modiolodon, nov. (type, Modiolopsis oviformis Ulrich), is similar to Modio-
lopsis, but has cardinal teeth on each valve.

Colpomyd, noy. (type, C. constricta noy.), has the external form of Modi-
vlopsis, but possesses a strong rostral tooth-like process in each valve.

Aristerella, noy. (type, A. nitidula, noy.). Similar to Actinomya, except
in its inequal valves.

Hndodesma, nov. (type, H. cuneatum, noy.). These are ventricose but
edentulous shells with well defined lunule and extremely faint muscular
scars.

Psiloconcha, nov. (type, P. grandis Ulrich), embraces elongate, com-
pressed shells with edentulous hinge and linear ligamental groove.

Prolobella, noy. (type P. striatula, noy.).. The author considers Con-
rad’s Avicula trentonensixs x member of this new genus, but this is a
species which Jackson has placed among the probable members of his
genus Rhombapteria, the generic radicle of the aviculoids.

Whitella, Ulrich (type W. obliquata Ulrich); short, ventricose shells
with prominent umbones, sharply defined escutcheon, and two to five
oblique teeth in front of the beaks.

Plethocardia, Ulrich (type, P. umbonata Ulrich): tumid shells with en-
rolled beaks. ‘*A strong and large process projects forward and down-
ward from the under side of the hinge beneath the beak of each valve,”’
and the shell bears a strong linear lateral tooth.

Ctenodonta, Salter (a name which the author adopts in preference to
Hall’s earlier term TVellinomya), is divided into six groups, designated not
by subgeneric terms, but by the names of characteristic species.

Allodesma, Ulrich (type, Modiolopsis subellipticum Ulrich), is applied to
small shells with anterior beaks, strong anterior adductor scars mar-
gined within by an elevated ridge, hinge with cardinal, posterior lateral,
but no anterior Jateral teeth.

Rhytimya, nov. (type, R. producta, noy.), is regarded as a pholad and
allied to Pholadella, Cimitaria and Allorisma.,

Saffordia, nov. (type, S. ventralis, noy.). Smallshells similar to Gram-
mysid, With sharply defined lunule and very large external ligament
groove.

The total number of species described is 130, divided as follows: Am-
bonychia 4, Clionychia 5, Byssonychia 2, Modiolopsis 11, Hurymya 1, Acti-
nomya ( Whiteavesia) 2, Orthodesma 4, Modiolodon 2. Colpomya 1, Arister-
ella 1, Endodesma 5, Psiloconcha 1, Prolobella 1, Cyrtodonta 16, Vanuxemia
15, Matheria 1, Whitella 12, Plethocardia 2, Ctenodonta 26, Clidophorus 2,

“

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 251

Lyrodesma 3, Teehnophorus 4, Allodesma 1, Rhytimya 1, Cuneamya 2,
Sphenolium 2, Saffordia 3.

One cannot but admire the astuteness of observation manifested
throughout in the treatment of the subject-matter, and appreciate the
service rendered by the author toward a better. comprehension of these
fossils. The illustrations are in photo-engraving, but are eminently
satisfactory. Juan C

The Tron-bearing rocks of the Mesubi: Range in Minnesota. By J. Ep-
WARD SPURR. pp. VII, 268, with 12 plates and 22 figures in the text.
(Bulletin No. 10, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
1894.) This monograph is by far the most important contribution so far
made to the geology of this recently discovered lake Superior iron ore dis-
trict. The result of only one year’s work in the field and laboratory, it
contains some new facts bearing on the genesis of these iron ore depos-
its and many suggestive ideas applicable to iron ores in general.

To the student of the geology of lake Superior iron ranges the most
interesting portion of the bulletin is that which goes to prove that the
original form of the iron ore was not a Carbonate of lime and iron min-
gled with more or less silica—the cherty carbonate of Irving and Van
Hise—but that it was a ferrous silicate and that the cherty carbonate
isin all instances an alteration product from this silicate and only
one stage in its change to the final form of oxide of iron.
Still more interesting is the suggestion that this ferrous silicate was in
all probability the product of Foraminifera and existed as the mineral
glauconite. The chemical analysis and petrographical study of the iron-
bearing rocksseem to harmonize in support of this view, which, although
not entirely original as an explanation for possible iron ore deposits, is
yet new in its application to any particular deposits of great extent and
especially in rocks of such great geologic antiquity as those of the Me-
sabi. It must be admitted that the demonstration will not be complete
until the actual discovery of organic remains. But the author is per-
haps deserving of so much the more credit for working out so strong a
‘ase before the discovery has been made.

The stratigraphy of the Mesabi is found to be substantially as given in
the Twentieth annual report of the Minnesota Survey. Certain faults
are described in the central portion of the range which had not been
previously noticed and for the existence of which the evidence given
does not yet appear to be conclusive. The author argues that the’ ore
deposits have been produced along lines of fracture and weakness, and
because he finds ore deposits in a certain locality he straightway assumes
the presence of a fault plane there, and explains the accompanying phe-
nomena accordingly.

The different phases of the iron-bearing rock and their transition
from one to another are described with such elaborate fullness as to be
rather confusing to any but a careful reader and studentof the text; but
it is in such full statements of the evidence that we find the basis for
the conclusions drawn as to the original nature of the rocks.

252 The American Geologist. October, 1894

Undue stress seems to be laid upon the idea that none of the banding
of the taconyte is due to sedimentation. It is admitted by the author
that the rocks were water-deposited—chemical and mechanical—and it
would be extremely surprising if all the banding now so beautifully dis-
played in the ore and rock alike were due to secondary segregation
and none of it to the original separation by specifie gravity or the con-
tingencies of sedimentation.

The specimens examined by the author exhibited a smaller percent-
age of fragmental material than would be expected from a macroscopic
examination. Indeed, it is difficult to conceive that the taconyte with
a thickness of 800 feet can be so completely due to chemical deposition
as our author would have us believe.

The ore deposits are believed to owe their existence to chemical solu-
tions which percolated from the surface downward. The rules deduced
are that in regions of comparatively free oxidation chalybeate waters
deposit iron and remove silica; while in regions of scant oxidation silica
is deposited and iron is carried away in solution. The principal solvents
are believed to have been oxygen and carbonic acid, with sulphuric acid
and alkalies as secondary reagents.

Plates X, XI and NII are double-page maps, showing the geology and
topography of the central portion of the Mesabi. The area occupied by
the various rock formations and the location of the ore bodies already
found are shown quite accurately. These maps furnish the best guides
for future explorations that can be found, but the report itself is too
technical to be of usesto the ordinary prospector.

As a geological study of the range, this report is of the highest value
and reflects great credit upon its author. H. V. W:

The nickel ores of Sudbury, Canada, By Joun D. Frossard. pp. 61,
Geo. Philip and Son, London, 1893. Chiefly a compilation from vari
ous articles on the subject without discrimination as to their value and
accuracy, this little book presents little new information. Its chief
merit lies first in its practical data referring to the average cost of pro-
duction and quality of the ore at Sudbury, and second, in the fact that
it isa sortof a little monograph on nickel ores in general. It is aso
useful in giving references to the literature from which more detailed
and exact information may be gained. BH. Vow.

Mining Royalties, their practical operation and effect. By CHas. A.
JAMES. pp. 277, Longmans, Green & Co., London and New York, 1893.
As stated in the preface, this essay is based wholly on the various vol-
umes of evidence published by the Royal Commission on Mining Royal-
ties of Great Britain: and the royalties referred to are chiefly those paid
to the owners of coal mines. The relation of the fee-owner to the lessee,
that of royalties to strikes and wages, and their effect on competition
with other countries, together with many kindred subjects, are discussed
from the English standpoint. Although not directly appertaining to
this country, the volume is interesting to the student of labor questions
so far as they affect the miner, and gives a coneise view of how such

Review .of Recent Geological Literature. 253

questions are considered in England where so much more experience has
been acquired than in America. ; HAV iW.
On the Origin of certain Novaculites and Quartzites. By FRANK Rut-
LEY. (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. L, pp. 377-892, pl. 19, Aug., 1894.)
The author shows the possibility of the derivation of some fine-grained
quartzites and of the novaculites of Arkansas, so well known through
Mr. L. 8S. Griswold’s ‘‘Whetstones and Novaculites of Arkansas,’’? from
limestones by siliceous replacement. The irregular and rhomb-shaped
cavities in these rocks represent crystals of a rhombohedral carbonate,
probably dolomite, and Mr. Rutley regards them as the remains of part
of the original rock, in this case the replacement of the carbonate by
quartz being not entirely completed. This explanation of the original
nature of the novaculite differs from that of Mr. Griswold, who regards
the quartz as original. The same or similar apparent replacements of
limestone by quartz are seen in other rocks, often of coarser grain than
the novaculites. Mr. Rutley thinks that itis needful to separate the rocks
termed quartzites into two groups, including in the one indurated sand-
stones or true quartzites (‘‘detrital quartzites’’), and in the other the
siliceous replacements of limestones which at times simulate detrital
quartzites; the latter can be called “infiltration or metasomatic quartz-

39

ites. Us SeiG:

Willyamite—a New Mineral from Broken Hill. By Ke. F. PrrrmMan.
(Records Geol. Survey, N.S. Wales, vol. tv, pt 1, pp. 21-22, 1894.) This
mineral is a sulph-antimonide of nickel and cobalt, with the formula
CoS». CoSby:NiS 9. NiSbyg. Itisisometric in crystallization and is very
similar in its physical properties to the sulph-antimonide of nickel, ull-
mannite. Two analyses are given and each shows that nickel and co-
balt are present in approximately equal amounts (over 18 percent.), thus
justifying its separation from ullmannite. Us pee Gs

Papers and Notes onthe Glacial Geology of Great Britain and Treland,
By the late Henry Carvinn Lewis; edited from his unpublished MSs.
by Henry W. Crosskby. Pages Ixxxi, 469, 8vo, with ten maps, and 83
illustrations in the text. (London and New York: Longmans, Green, and
Co., 1894.) This magnificent volume is the fulfillment by Mrs. Lewis of
her husband’s dying request, that the notes of his glacial observations
in Ireland and Great Britain should be published, with the aid, in edi-
torial revision, of his friend, Rey. H. W. Crosskey, who also has since
died. (For a biographical sketch of Prof. Lewis, with a review and a
bibliography of his scientific work, see the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol.
I, pp. 871-879, with portrait, Dec., 1888: and for an obituary notice of
Dr. Crosskey, vol. xu, p. 75, Jan., 1894.) The work has been very care-
fully edited and places on record for all students of glacial geology the
observations and opinions of a most enthusiastic, industrious and suc-
cessful investigator in that field, where he reaped much and well, al-
though taken from us while yet his plans and hopes were opening with
promise of more abundant fruitage after years of further exploration.
Attempting to state very concisely some of the chief points in which

254 The American Geologist. October, 1894
‘

Carvill Lewis contributed to more full and true interpretation of the
drift formations of Britain, in the light of his previous work in the
United States, we note the substitution of ice transportation instead of
marine submergence to account forthe drift with fragments of many
species of sea shells at great hights on Moel Tryfaen and in other locali-
ties: exact tracing of the boundaries of the glaciation: the recognition
of many areas of ice accumulation and dispersal of boulders; that the
Scandinavian ice-sheet extended to England, becoming confluent with
the British ice-fields; doubt of interglacial epochs: and the discrimina-
tion of till formed beneath the ice, moraines on its margin, and boulder-
clay, supposed to have been borne by floe and berg ice beyond the bor-
der of the ice-sheets on the surface of large extra-morainic lakes. The
whole work will be of great value in stimulating further investigations
of the many and difficult questions which still remain to be altogether
convincingly answered, so that at length a general unanimity of view
shall be reached concerning the origin of the glacial deposits and the
sauses of glaciation in the British Isles and in all other drift-bearing

regions. WwW: U.

The Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar year 1898. Wavyip
T. Day. Pages vii, 799: Washington, 1894. (U.S. Geol. Survey). This
volume appears with unusual promptness, probably under the stimulus
of competition with ‘‘*The Mineral Industry,”* published by the Scien-
tific Publishing Co., of New York, of which a notice appeared in the
last number of the Gkonocist. This is, in the main, of the same char-
acter and scope as the nine preceding reports from this department of
the survey. The statistics which it presents are obtained from the
most reliable sources, and the various mining products are reviewed
separately by statistical experts. The chapters on petroleum, natural
gas and asphaltum are especially full and valuable. N. H.W.

RECENT) PUBLICATIONS

IT. Government and State Reports.

Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 1898, Atlas Summary Final Report,
contains: Maps of the state, bituminous coal mines and quarries, Leb-
anon, Bucks and Montgomery counties.

Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 1893, Atlas contains: Geological maps
of Schuylkill, Carbon, Berks and Dauphin counties: topographical map
of the Blue mountain at Port Clinton.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, for 1892, contains: The
relation of biology to geological investigation. A series of essays dis-
cussing the nature and scientific uses of fossil remains and the necessity
for their systematic collection and permanent conservation in public
museums, Charles A. White.

jt

bo
or

Recent Publications.

U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral resources of the United States, 1593,
by David T. Day; 1894, 8vo, pp. vii, 799.

ITI, Proceedings of Scientific Societies,

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
1894, pt. 1, contains: Observations on the geology of adjacent parts of
Oklahoma and northwest Texas, E. D. Cope; Re-exploration of Hart-
man’s cave, near Stroudsburg, Pa., 1893, H. C. Mercer: Volcanic pro-
ducts from the Hawaiian islands, fH. Goldsmith.

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, vol. 17, No.
1, April, 1894, contains: New species of fossils from the Hudson River
group and remarks upon others, 8S. A. Miller and C. L. Faber: The pet-
rified forest of Arizona, S. A. Miller; The granites of Cecil county in
northeastern Maryland, G. P. Grimsley.

Proceedings of the Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society, vol. 4,
No. 1, 1894, contains, Analysis of limestones and dolomites of the Bir-
mingham Alabama district, C. A. Meissner: On the phosphate rock of
Tennessee, W. B. Phillips:

Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. of Sci., 2nd ser., vol. 1, pt. 3,
contains: Notes on the Miocene Tertiary rocks of the Cypress hills,
Northwest Territory of Canada, T. C. Weston; The Pictou coal field—
a geological revision, H. S. Poole.

Proc. of the Iowa Acad. of Sciences. for 1893, vol. 1, pt. 4, 1894. con-
tains: On the geological position of Bennettites ducotensis Macbride, with
remarks on the stratigraphy of the region in which the species was dis-
covered, Samuel Calvin: Notes on the lower strata of the Devonian se-
ries in Iowa, W. H. Norton; Cretaceous formations of northwestern
Iowa, C. R. Keyes; Derivation of the Unione fauna of the Northwest, C.
R. Keyes; Process of formation of certain quartzites, C. R. Keyes; Ori-
gin of the present drainage system of Warren county, J. L. Tilton:
Structure of the Mystic coal basin, H. fF. Bain: Sigourney deep well, H.
F. Bain; Southern extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa, E. H. Lonsdale
Topography of the granite and porphpry region of Missouri, E. H. Lons-
dale; Occurrence of zinc in northeastern Lowa, A. G. Leonard; Satin
spar from Dubuque, A. G. Leonard: Occurrence in lowa of fossiliferous
concretions similar to those of Mazon creek, A. C. Spenser; Evidences
of disturbance during the deposition of the Burlington limestones, IF.
M. Fultz; Coal Measures in Poweshiek county, A. J. Jones; Cardiocar-
pus in Iowa, A. J. Jones; North American cyeads, T. H. M’Bride.

IL. Papers in Scientific Journals.

The Journal of Geology, vol. 2, No. 4, May-June, 1894, contains: The
Norwegian coast plain, Hans Reusch: Glacial canons, W J McGee
Fossil plants as an aid to geology, F. H. Knowlton; Wave-like progress
of an epeirogenic uplift, Warren Upham: The occurrence of Algonkian
rocks in Vermont and the evidence for their subdivision, C. L. Whittle:
Summary of Pre-Cambrian North American literature, C. R. Van Hise.

The Journal of Geology, vol. 2, No. 5, July-Aug., 1894, contains: The

256 The American Geologist. October, 1894

origin of the oldest fossils and the discovery of the bottom of the ocean,
W. K. Brooks: The Amazonian Upper Carboniferous fauna O. A. Derby:
Geological surveys of Ohio, Edward Orton: Proposed genetic classifica-
tion of Pleistocene glacial formations, T. C. Chamberlin.

The American Journal of Science, ILI, vol. 48, No. 1, July, 1894, con-
tains: Occurrence of a large area of nepheline syenite in the township
of Dungannon, Ontario, F. D. Adams; Nepheline, sodalite and ortho-
clase from the nepheline syenite of Dungannon, Ontario, B. J. Harring-
ton: Tertiary changes in the drainage of southwestern Virginia, M. R.
Campbell; Upper Vicksburg Eocene and the Chattahoochee Miocene of
southwest Georgia and adjacent Florida, A. T°. Foerste: Gabbros in the
southwest Adirondack region, C. H. Smyth, Jr.; Footprints of verte-
brates in the Coal Measures of Kansas, O. C. Marsh: Typical Ornitho-
poda of the American Jurassic, O. C. Marsh: Eastern division of the
Miohippus beds, with notes on some of the characteristeric fossils,
O.'C. Marsh.

The American Journal of Science, ILI, vol. 48, No. 2, Aug., 1894, con-
tains: Certain astronomical conditions favorable to glaciation, G. F.
Becker; Mineralogical notes, S. L. Penfield; Alunite from Red Moun-
tain, Ouray county, Colorado, E. B. Hurlburt; Mineralogical notes, 5.
L. Penfield and D. A. Kreider; Carboniferous fossils in the Norfolk
county basin, J. B. Woodworth; The stratigraphic position of the
Thomson slates, J. E. Spurr; Miocene Artiodactyles from the eastern
Miohippus beds. O. C. Marsh.

The School of Mines Quarterly, July, 1894, contains: The optical rec-
ognition and economic importance of the common minerals found in
building stones, L. Mel. Luquer: On the occurrence of Cretaceous clays
at Northport, L. I.. Heinrich Ries.

IV. Excerpts and Individual Publications.

On some new forms of wollastonite from New York state, Heinrich
Ries. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 146-147, 1894.

Note on the petrography of certain basaltic boulders from ‘Thetford,
Vt., E. O. Hovey. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 161-164, 1894.

A comparative study of the chemical behavior of pyrite and marca-
site, A. P, Brown. Proce. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 38, 1894; pp. 19.

Some New Red horizons, B. S. Lyman. Proce. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol.
33, pp. 192-215, 1894.

The mineral industry, its statistics. technology and trade in the Uni-
ted States and other countries. By Richard P. Rothwell. Pp. i-xl, 1-
894: New York, The Scientific Publishing Co., 1894.

Further notes on Cripple creek ores, Richard Pearce. Proc. Colo-
rado Sci. Soc., Apr. 5, 1894; 7 pp.

The sanitary chemical character of some of the artesian waters of
Denver, W. C. Strong. Proce. Colorado Sci. Soc., May 7, 1894; 9 pp.

An analysis of jadeite from Mogoung, Burma, O. C, Farrington. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. 17, pp. 29-31. 1894.

On the formation of stalactites and gypsum incrustations in caves, G.
P. Merrill. Proe. U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. 17, pp. 77-81, pls. 2-5, 1894.

bs A ~

a ... % °%
4 ‘

Correspondence. 257

The formation of sandstone concretions, G. P. Merrill. Proce. U.S.
Nat. Museum, vol. 17, pp. 88-89, pl. 6, 1894.

Notes on the invertebrate fauna of the Dakota formation, with des-
criptions of new molluscan forms, C. A. White. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mu-
seum, vol. 17, pp. 131-138, pl. 7, 1894.

Ancient myriapods, G. F. Matthew. Canadian Record of Science,
pp. 93-99, April, 1894.

Historical sketch of the discovery of mineral deposits in the Lake Su-
perior region, H. V. Winchell. Second Ann. Rept. of the Proc. of the
Lake Superior Mining Institute: 46 pp., 1894.

A review of the fossil flora of Alaska, with descriptions of new spe-
cies, F. H. Knowlton: Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. 17, pp. 207-240,
pl. 9, 1894.

Geology of the Cripple creek gold mining district, Colorado, Whitman
Cross. Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., June 4, 1894; 18 pp.

The ore deposits of Cripple creek, Colorado, R. A. F. Penrose, Jr.
Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., June 4, 1894; 5 pp.

A classification of economic geological deposits based on origin and
original structure, W.O. Crosby. Technological Quarterly, vol. 7, pp.
27-48, April, 1894.

The origin of parallel and intersecting joints, W. O. Crosby. Tech-
nological Quarterly, vol. 6, pp. 280-236, Oct., 1893.

The new geological cross sections of Keweenaw point, L..L. Hubbard.
Second Ann. Rept. of the Proc. of the Lake Superior Mining Institute;
18 pp., 1894.

The hydro-geology of the upper Mississippi valley and of some of the
adjoining territory, D. W. Mead. Journ. of the Association of Engi-
neering Societies, vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 880-386, July, 1894.

Description of some Cincinnati fossils, S. A. Miller and C. L. Faber.
Journ. of the Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 187-158,
pls..7 and 8, Oct., 1894.

V. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories, ete.

The Kansas University Quarterly, vol. 2, No. 1, July, 1894, contains:
Vertebrate remains from the lowermost Cretaceous, 8. W. Williston; A
new turtle from the Benton Cretaceous, S. W. Williston; Notes on Uin-
tacrinus soctalis Grinnell, B. H. Hill: Restoration of Platygonus, S. W.
Williston; A chemical examination of the waters of the Kaw river and
its tributaries, E. H. 8. Bailey and E. C. Franklin.

CORRESPONDENCE.

NOTE ON THE GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW York. In the
“Twelfth Annual Report of the State Geologist for the year 1892,"° Al-
bany, 1893, we read at p. 28, that in the geological map published in
1842, by the Geological Survey, ‘‘no attempt was made to represent the
age and relations of certain of the formations on the east side of the
Hudson river.”? On the contrary, all the three thousand copies distrib-

258 The American Geologist. October. 1894

uted represent the age and relations of all the formations on the east
side of the Hudson river as ‘‘Hudson river group or Lorraine shale”’
above the ‘‘Utica slate,’? with long bands and isolated patches of Tren-
ton limestone, called on the map ‘‘Black River and Birdseye limestone,’”
so the statement is incorrect.

At p. 29 we read: ‘‘At a later period, 1844, Prof. Emmons published
an agricultural and geological map of the state to accompany his agri-
cultural report. This map was published upon the same base as the
original geological map of the state. The coloration was almost pre-
cisely the same on all parts of the map west of the Hudson river. From
the northern limit of the state and the adjacent part of Vermont, ex-
tending along the east side of the Hudson river and crossing to the west
side below Rhinebeck, a belt of color was introduced to show the sup-
posed limits of the ‘Taconic system’ of rocks, although no mention of
the name is made nor any indication in the colorlegend of the map. The
map, however, is fully described on page 361 of volume I of the ‘Agri-
culture of New York.’ A description and discussion of the rocks of the
Taconic system and of its individual members occupies chapter five,
pages 45-112 of the volume. Since 1844 this map has been the only geologi-
cal map of the state of New York accessible to the student and to the public.”
The italicising of the last paragraph is mine.

Dr. Emmons, in a published letter (Proceedings American Academy
Arts and Sciences, vol. xu, p. 188, Boston) says: ‘‘l made and pub-
lished with my Report while in the Survey of New York a modified map
of the state, which showed the extent of the Taconic rocks in New York.
The three: thousand copies were stolen or destroyed by persons un-
xnown, so that they were never issued with the proper volume.’ So,
instead of being accessible, the geological map showing the extent of the
Taconic system in New York was tnaccessible, even to its author, profes-
sor Emmons. Lyell, de Verneuil, Agassiz, colonel Jewett, Barrande,
ete., never saw it. No student of the geology of New York ever saw
that map until about 1877, when a few mutilated copies began to be
distributed by the state librarian at Albany.

Instead of being accessible to the student and to the public, as it is
claimed, the map of 1844, paid for by the State, disappeared mysteri-
ously until 1877, during a period of thirty-three years: and during all
that time ‘tthe only geological map of the state of New York accessible
to the student and to the public’? was the geological map of 1842, on
which all the strata containing the primordial fauna are placed above
the Utica slate, that is to say, above the second fauna.

Mr. James Hall, the state geologist and state paleontologist, adds, at
p. 29: ‘*This agricultural and geological map of Dr. Emmons, following
so soon after the publication of the state map accompanying the reports
of the four geological districts, doubtless prevented any immediate effort
to secure the means of preparing and publishing a more accurate geo-
logical map of the state.” How a map unknown and absolutely inac-
cessible may have prevented to prepare and publish a more accurate geo-
logical map of the state of New York is a material impossibility. If an-

Correspondence. 259

other map has not yet been published, notwithstanding that several times
one has been announced as being on the point of being issued, it is sim-
ply because the state geologist is at a loss how to deal with his previous
opinion of the non-existence of the 25,000 feet of strata of the Taconic sys-
tem; for even now, notwithstanding all ‘tour accurate knowledge of this
region,’’and ‘“‘that at the present time comparatively little remains to
be done to complete the work’? (loc. cit., p. 31), he knows less about all
the strata east of the Hudson river than Dr. Emmons did fifty years ago.

Cambridge, Mass., June 24, 1894. JULES MArRcovu.

THE SIXTH SESSION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS.
The excursions which were announced for the two weeks preceding the
opening of the congress were carried through with a fair number of
participants. The trip over the Jura, managed by Prof. Golliez, with
the assistance of some of his colleagues, began on August 15, Wednes-
day, at Geneva, in somewhat inauspicious weather, the first expedition
being up the Grand Saléve, the largest mountain near Geneva, from
which an exceedingly beautiful view of the Mont Blane series can be
had and on which an exceedingly bad luncheon is obtained at the res-
taurant of the Treize Arbres. The weather wasrainy and cold and no
view was obtainable, though there was no lack of enthusiastic travellers,
including one woman. In the evening the president of the council of
the canton of Geneva and Colonel Turitini. the mayor of the city, re-
ceived at a banquet the proposed participants in the congress and their
wives. That is to say, the wives were invited, and under the impres
sion that others were to be present, one of these ladies attended, but
was alone, to her great mortification.

The guests of this august invitation were not remarkable for any par-
ticular style of dress. Some had dark coats, but the majority had light
colored suits and boots which were singularly dusty, considering the
amount of rain which had fallen. The hosts, however, knew what was
due to the respect of themselves and their guests, and their, bearing
was irreproachable.

Their idea of the speaking part of a dinner was, however, slightly
different from that of other parts of the world. After the addresses
of welcome had been made by the governor and the mayor, the field
was left free to anyone who chose to occupy it without invitation.
The old Carl Vogt availed himself of this privilege and made a violent
intransigeant speech, taken good humoredly by the hosts. The room
was the foyer of the Geneva theater, and one of the most beautiful of
its kind in Europe, having much in common with that of the Grand
Opera in Paris.

The next day the party of Jura students started off on their trip,
for which they had beautiful weather. <A few days later a similar
dinner was given by the authorities of the canton of Vaud and the
city of Lausanne, the residence of the chairman of the committee on
organization and the president of this session, E. Renevier. This
was given in the modest dining room of the café of the theater and
was in all respects less imposing than the initial dinner at Geneva.

260 The American Geologist, October, 1894

Nevertheless the hosts showed appreciation of the objects of the con-
gress and a perfect hospitality.

The congress proper was opened at 9a. m., Tuesday, Aug. 28, in the
council hall of the Polytechnikum, of Ziirich. The published proces ver-
bauv of the sittings of the council lack the local coloring which would
explain how the propositions were accepted. The session was opened
with Renevier, president of the committee of organization, in the chair.
He proposed to call over the names of the different countries, and asked
all the members from those countries to give their names. This very
clumsy method resulted in the list first given on the procés verbal. On
proceeding to the choice of president of the congress, Golliez named
Renevier, who at first stated that he ought not to be expected to ask
for the vote for himself and immediately thereafter gave thanks for
his election without any vote at all.

This was the keynote to the subsequent proceedings, which included
the reading of a list of representatives of different countries, selected
by the committee on organization, as vice presidents. The first obsta-
cle it encountered was from Senior Cortazar, who naturally objected to
having Spain and Portugal lumped together and represented by the Portu-
guese colonel Delgado. This objection being sustained or at least not
opposed, Senor Cortazar was named vice president from Spain and Col.
Delgado from Portugal.

The next country, alphabetically, was the United States. M. Rene-
vier declared that there were two delegates from the U.S. Geological
Survey present, and that, one of them having declined the nomination,
he asked the council to recommend the other, Mr. Lester F. Ward, as
the vice president representing the United States. There were thirteen
geologists present from the United States. The extraordinary principle
was then announced that a subordinate department of a government
said to transact a certain kind of work can, without the knowledge or
consent of that government, send two representatives to a congress of
experts in that kind of work and can decide between themselves,
without reference to the other representatives from the United States,
which of the two shall be the representative of the nation from which
he came. This question is entirely independent of the character of
the nominee and nothing herein contained is intended to reflect on the
suitability of the appointment of Mr. Ward, but the principle is vi-
cious and entirely subversive of those on which the congress is founded.
Suppose, for instance, the architectof the capitol at Washington chose
to send two of his salaried subordinates to an international congress of
architects, and that these should decide between themselyes, to the ex-
clusion of any or all architects who might have formed integral parts
of past congresses, who should represent their country. This piece of
“diplomacy” is simply a notice served to the geological world that
henceforth the congress is simply to be the creature of the official bu-
reaus of the different countries, some of whose chiefs. having leagued
together at first to strangle it, without success, are now content to use
it to serve their Own purposes.

Correspondence. 261

The secretaries and treasurer haying been chosen without opposition,
the council proceeded to the order of the day.

Two former presidents, Capellini and Beyrich, being present, the
question which should open the session was postponed till the following
day.

The president then brought up the question of what language should
be employed, and based upon the action of the last council of the congress
in Washington the proposal that German should be admitted equally with
French as the laneuage of the congress. M. Renevier, as presiding officer,
distinguished himself in the discussion by continually misstating the
proposition which was submitted to vote, and finally declaring adopted
what he pleased, not at all what was decided. Thus the final form of the
proposition was that in all oflicial statements or discussions of routine
work French should be used, ora French translation of what was said
shall be offered, but that German should be admitted for scientific ex-
positions.

The following sections were then created and their officers elected by
the council:

Section I. Géophysique, Géotektonique, Géologie générale. President,
A. de Lapparent, France; vice president, T. McK. Hughes, England.

Secrion IT. Stratigraphie et Paléontologie. President, Albert Gau-
dry, France: vice president, K. A. von Zittel, Germany.

Section Ill. Petrographie et Mineralogie. President, Michel-Levy,
France; vice president, P. Groth, Germany.

Section 1V. Géologie appliquée. President, Hauchecorne, Germany;
vice president, Posepny, Austro-Hungary.

Wednesday, Aug. 29, 1894,

The first general session of the congress was held in the aula of the
magnificent école scolaire for females. It is in the upper story, a very
fine room, showing the rafters, and having decorations of fruits run-
ning along the ridge and extending in two arms to reach it from each
gable end of the building. Behind the desk of the chairman, where it
was of light wood and covered with gray, coarse drapery, is a large map
of the region on a seale of 1:25,000, to illustrate the paper of Prof. Heim
later. <A fine longitudinal section of the Zurich lake bed on a scale of 1:
125,000 lineal and 1: 25,000 vertical is displayed on the east wall, while
on the west (the right of the presiding officer’s desk) is a section across
Zurich lake on a scale of 1:2,000 linear and 1:1,000 altitude. At the
hour of opening, 2 p. m., there were about 100 persons present.

Capellini, taking the chair, reported the presidents, vice presidents,
and secretaries of the congress, and the presidents and vice presidents
of the sections. M. Capellini then yields the chair to Renevier, the
president, who makes an address in which he says he is penetrated by
two thoughts, the one of gratitude for the honor conferred on him, and
the other of his insufficiency. He is sure he owes this honor to his reg-
ular attendance at the meetings of the congress. He was very much
astonished when the cable informed him, three years ago, that Switzer-
land had been chosen us the site of the next congress, and he was at

262 The American Geologist. October. 1894

first somewhat intimidated, but the little country has done its best. It
has laid more than usual stress upon the excursions, and it hopes that
the warmth of the reception may make amends for what may seem
lacking. Since the first congress at Paris in 1878, many eminent geolo-
gists like Sterry Hunt, Sella, Newberry, and recently, G. H. Williams,
have died, The primary object of the congress was uniformity, but it
was pushed too far, and the result was a protest on the part of its Anglo-
Saxon members, and the reaction in turn has gone too far, and thrown
the opposition entirely over the saddle. We should seek to unify the
lariguage and the methods of the science only, and thus we shall not do
injury to the science. By teaching a rational and not a traditional ge-
ology, we shall by degrees attain the end sought.

The president then introduced M. Schenck, the member of the federal
council, who addressed a welcome to the congress in a most extraordi-
narily theatrical manner. Learning that this session of the congress
was to be held here, the federal council determined that it was an inter-
national duty to entertain their guests. Everything possible has been
done to make the members of the congress feel at home. He greeted
the members in the name of the Bundesrath. Their labors were not
confined to cabinets and laboratories, but extended over a space as wide
as the world. While this little country cannot offer the wonderful ob-
jects of the United States, yet for a small land there was much to inter-
est geologists. There is a little salt, a little iron ore; but no quick—nor
commercial—silver is found here. [Laughter.] The land is geologically
rich. but in a mining sense poor. You are not here to look at the outside
butthe inside of the land. Allow me to say that of all human industries
and occupations geology is the noblest. What the earth has to do in
space geology teaches, and how in the changes of ages it came to occupy
its present form and situation. From its teachings we learn the infinite
smallness of man. Wonderful is the work which geology has performed,
but there is many a riddle yet unsolved. Nothing can so tend to solve
these as a mecting of so many able men. May the sixth session of the
congress do much toward this end, and may Switzerland be remembered
as the place of its labors. [Applause. ]

President Renevier then reported the decision of the council in regard
to language, as follows:

1. La langue officielle est le francais.—Toutes les affaires administra-
tives se feront en francais. Dans le cas ot un exposé ne pourra étre fait
en francais, il en sera donné une traduction.

2. Les communications scientifiques dans les assemblées eénérales, et
dans les sections, pourront @6tres faites en francais et en allemand. — Si
M@autres langues interviennent, il sera donné, de ces communications, un
petit résumé francais comme traduction.

The president then introduced Prof. Suess, who addressed the con-
gress on “conformation of surface by horizontal forces.”’ The speaker
said that it had been many years since he had addressed a public as-
sembly in Zurich on this subject, which had been one claiming his at
tention for many years. <A brief digest of the substance of this paper

Correspondence. 263

from the pen of its author, has been furnished for the AMERICAN GEOL-
oGcisT, and will be used at a future writing. The paper was illustrated
by maps of the mountain systems of Asia and Europe. The gist of the
paper was that the Carpathians and the Ural range were modeled by
horizontal movements, unlike in direction but similar in character to
those which had exercised a change in Europe when the Alps and the
Pyrenees were involved. <A great horizontal movement in the north of
Scotland is indicated before the Devonian age. He summed up a most
interesting memoir by declaring that what we call deformation is really
conformation of the crust of the earth and is but a step in the gradual
progress which is towards a final contour far from being reached yet.
[ Applause. |

Prof. Heim then gave a very clear statement of the geology in the
neighborhood of Ziirich, declaring his old professor, A. Escher, whose
bust overlooked the scene, was right when he declared in 1846 (7) that
Ziirich is built on a moraine, and that the hills or mountains in its
neighborhood are moraine phenomena. The key to this geology is the
erosion of the Molasse of Uetliberg and Zirichberg (lower Miocene) and
the invasion of this depression by glacial drift. On the summits of the
mountains near the town over 60 meters of moraine covers the Molasse
in place. The best arable lands are found on the upper moraine. The
strongest springs are found in the lower grund moraine and are fed by
water which has trickled through the upper moraine. The Ziirich lake
bottom was not ploughed out by glacial action, because (amongst many
other reasons given) there are islands at one end of it with a depth of
120 meters of water between them, and, by reason of the direction from
which the glacier must have come, they could not have remained had a
great force been employed to dig out the lake bottom. Nor can the basin
be explained by a fault or crack, because the strata of the Molasse on
the two sides give evidence against any dislocation. The basin is due
to a depression or sinking of the strata on the end nearest to the Alps
and is doubtless connected with the sinking of the entire Alps system.
There are also clearly marked three separate glacial epochs.

This lecture commenced witha eulogy of the speaker’s former profes-
sor (Escher) and of a young pupil of his named Wettstein, who lost
his life by a fall in the mountains. Both of them were said to have
contributed much to the clear understanding of the geology of Ziirich.

In the evening the restaurant of the Ziirichhorn, situated on the east
bank of the lake and about a kilometer from Ziirich, was indicated asa
place of informal meeting for the purpose of dining, and most of the
members of the congress went there and chatted till 9 or 10 o’clock, re-
turning either on foot, in the tram car, or in the boat.

Thursday, Aug. 30, 1894.

The council met at 8 o'clock in the Polytechnikum. The president
offered the compte-rendu of the previous session, and was about to with-
draw it as accepted, before it was discussed, when Sir Archibald Geikie
moved an amendment to the effeet that the rule about language applies

264 The American Geologist. October, 1894

only to the Ziirich session. It was declared by the president approved.

An invitation from the Geographical Society of Lisbon was received,
inviting the congress to meet there in the year 1897, when the discovery
of a route to the Indies by Vasco da Gama will be celebrated. The
president remarked that the council at Washington had promised that
the next congress after the present one should go to Russia. Dewalque
wanted to know how one congress could fix the places of the succeeding
two. Renevier replied that of course this congress can ratify a decision
of the preceding congress. Col. Delgado, of Portugal. said that the
offer was not from the Government of Portugal, which would have com-
municated any such offer through him, whereas he, being absent wheu
the communication was sent, knew nothing about it.

Renevier asked what to do in the case of a so-called geologist who had
wished to join the pedestrian tour of Heim and was told that he was
too late, as others had been refused, and then wanted his cotisation
money back. The council, rather staggered that such a petty matter
should be brought to its notice, murmured various things, and the
president stated that he should inform the person that the proposition
was inadmissible, and then added in an audible tone to Prof. Heim, ‘‘L
would not take him anyhow.”

The eternal and unanswered proposition of the marquis de Gregorio to
found an international geological journal, was taken up and played with
for a while, being finally referred to the bibliographical committee. It
is Strange that the marquis, who has seen this projeet of his similarly
treated for nine years, beginning at the congress of Berlin, is the only
member of the congress who fails to note its amusing features, and ac-
tually seems to believe that perhaps his grandchildren may see it
adopted. Naive marquis!

Professor Heim inquired whether the work sent to Bologna in
competition for the prize offered by the king of Italy, in 1881, is the
property of the congress or of the university of Bologna. Capellini said
the funds were given by the king and that the work should remain in
Italy, especially as there is no place of deposit owned by the congress for
taking care of such objects. Further discussion was postponed and the
meeting was adjourned.

The several sections met in the halls provided for them and papers
were presented as follows:

SECTION I.—GEOLOGIE GENERALE.

Prince Roland Bonaparte-—Periodic variations of French glaciers.

Marshall Hall (vead).—Glaciers of New Zealand.

Van Calker.—\nvestigation of erratics.

St. Meunier.—Geological energy attributed to ancient glaciers.

Warren Upham (vead).—The Quaternary era and its divisions.

Charles Tardy.—Perturbations of the magnetic field.

Albrecht Penck.—The last dislocation of the Alps.

Rothpletz.—Failles de recouvrement.

Craff.—Peculiar contact relations between the crystalline nucleus and
the sedimentary covering.

Correspondence. 265

F. A. Forel.—Propositions relative to the variations of glaciers
throughout the world.

SECTION I].—STRATIGRAPHIE ET PALEONTOLOGIE.

Sacco.—Classification of the Tertiary terranes of Europe.

Ch. Mayer-Eymar—Tertiary terranes of Switzerland.

G. Bihm.—Age des niveaux a Rudistes de la Venetie.
Rollier.—The Malm of the Jura and of the Randen.
Wéhrmann.—Upper limit of the Muschelkalk.
HE. Hull.—Geology of Arabia Petreea and Palestine.
Mercerat.—Geology of Patagonia.
Renevier.—Formations of Facies.

Winchell (read).—L’extension de Vouest du systeme Taconique.
Pavclow.—The Neocomian of the northern type.
Gregorto.—Nomenclature of parts of shells of gasteropods and pelecy-
pods.
otefunescu.—The fossil camel in Roumania.
rregorw.

Some remarks on the orderand method of geological works.
W. Kiltan.—On the limit of the Jurassic and Cretaceous in the Alps
and Jura.
BE, Haug.—On the discovery by Caralpe of ammonées in the Permian
of the Pyrenees.
SeEctTion I1].—MINERALOGIE ET PETROGRAPHIE.

Lepsius.—Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of Greece.

Hogbom.—Effects of contact of Nepheline Syenite of Sweden.

P. Groth.—Description of an apparatus for the graphic determination
of the directions of vibration in any thin sections of biaxial crystals.

Viola,—On the Diabases and Gabbro rocks in the Basilicata (lower
Italy).

Dupare.—The erystalline eruptive and metamorphic rocks in the
first Alpine zone.

Schmidt.—TVhe crystalline rocks of Switzerland.

SecTION [V.—GEOLOGIE APPLIQUEE.

Posepny.—TVhe relations between industry and geology.

J. H. L. Vogt.—Occurrence of ores through processes of magmatic
differentiation.

The occurrence of carbonic acid in the Rhine region.

An informal midday meal was had from 12 to 3, at the Plattengarten
and an equally informal dinner in the evening in the Tonhalle restau-
rant, which is entirely enclosed in the Industrial Exhibition of the can-
ton now being held here.

Following are partial minutes of the remaining sessions of the
council and of the general meetings of the congress.

The hour of meeting for the council was 8 a. m., and that of the gen-
eral assembly 9a. m. Those who make no boast of their early hours
were to a large extent on time; but those, including the president, whose
devotion to science and taste for primitive simplicity raise them above

266 The American Geologist. October, 1894

their colleagues, were to a great extent late. This was perhaps the
reason why the business was conducted without that full discussion and
opportunity for deliberation to which the Anglo-Saxon element is accus-
tomed.,

The French, who are the most systematic people in the world in spite
of their excitability, have their own way of dealing with legislative and
judicial assemblies. We consider their methods somewhat arbitrary,
especially in the latter class where the judge interrogates the accused,
and in the course of his remarks attributes to him a motive and a com-
plete chain of acts before any proof of either has been produced. Still,
this tendency is the result of the French desire to ‘‘trancher’”’ the
complication, to cut the Gordian knot instead of trying to untie it; and
it must be said that generally the ‘judge’? has a righteous cause, and
generally justice is meted out to the criminal more rapidly than it
would be under English and American laws.

In parliamentary debate the French method is also different from
that expounded in Cushing’s Manual, Robert’s Rules of Order, ete., but
in the main, up to the moment when the presiding officer puts on his hat
as a result of too much complication or too general infraction of order,
everyone has a moderately fair chance to be heard. The rules applied
by M. Renevier, however, were of the most arbitrary character and
seemed to proceed from his desire to accomplish some, to him, desirable
end. Thus, when the council:was called together at 8:20 or8:25 and the
official minutes of the meeting were distributed among the members,
they were declared adopted before anyone had an opportunity to read
them, in default of any specific objection. It is true that a member of
the council interposed to prevent the arbitrary subversion of the funda-
mental laws of the congress adopted at the Bologna session, making
French the official language, and requiring communications presented
in other languages to be résuméed in French, from applying to any but
the Zurich session; but asa rule the statements which appeared in the
report remained there, though a careful examination would have doubt-
less led to many corrections.

A most extraordinary proposition was made by the president that the
minutes of the assemblée générale could be approved by the council
and adopted, without giving the opportunity to those members of the
congress who were not in the council to modify or object. This propo-
sition was opposed by nearly half the members of the council, but was
carried by a majority of two votes.

Another matter came up which could not but greatly astonish the
members. At the séance of the congress held in Bologna in 1881, Prof.
Capellini induced the king of Italy to offer a prize of about 6,000 francs
for the best competitive treatise on certain geological subjects. A num-
ber of works were forwarded, and a committee was appointed to inspect
them, which finally reported that in its judgment none had fulfilled the
conditions which would entitle the competitor to the first prize. Nev-
ertheless a prize of about 1,100 francs was awarded to the contribution
adjudged the best, and on opening the envelope containing the name. of

, Correspondence. 267

the contributor it was found to be Prof. Heim, of Ziirich: and the prize
was duly sent to and acknowledged- by him. Shortly afterward Prof.
Heim requested Prof. Capellini to loan him the manuscript of his work
¢which, by the way, appeared in the Bologna volume), promising to re-
turn it. Prof. Capellini. relying upon the perfect good faith of his col-
league, at once took the manuscript from the archives and forwarded it.
As time rolled by without its return, Capellini wrote to Heim about it
and received assurance that it would be sent in a few weeks. Thirteen
years have elapsed and the manuscript is still here, and what is more
remarkable, Prof. Heim asked the council of the congress to declare
whose property it is. Commentis unnecessary. M. de Lapparent extri-
cated the council from an exceedingly difficult position by proposing a
resolution, which was fortunately adopted, that the council could not
interfere in a matter which concerned the competitors for a prize offered
by the Italian king.

M. Forel proposed the nomination of a committee to study the changes
which occur in glaciers. After some discussion the following were ap-
pointed on this committee, with power toadd toitself others from Italy,
Norway and Russia, viz: Ricurer, Austria: FINTswALDER, Germany:
Rep, United States: BONAPARTE, France: Haun, Great Britain: FORE,
Switzerland. Prince Roland Bonaparte offered to bear the costs of this
committee, which was received with applause by the council.

M. van Calker, of Holland, had the idea of appointing a committee
to study the distribution of erratics, and there was. some friction as to
whether the same commission should undertake both subjects. It was
finally decided to adopt the glacial committee and to recommend the
members of the congress to organize a society for the study of erratics.

It was mentioned previously that when the bureau of the congress
was under contemplation the president, M. Renevier, stated that there
were only two ‘delegates’? from the United States, namely, those sent
by the U. S. Geological Survey. As one of them refused to serve as vice
president and recommended that the other be elected vice president to
represent the United States, M. Renevier recommended this course to
the council and it was adopted. The only member from the United
States present judged it inopportune at that time to protest against the
principle thus tacitly admitted, more especially as the nominee, Mr.
Lester F. Ward, was eminently worthy of the honor. He conceived it to
be his duty, however, not to allow such a subversion of the fundamental
objects of the congress to pass unnoticed, and consequently presented to
the council the following proposition for determination and report by
the bureau in time to govern the constitution of the next congress:

“The bureau of the congress will consider the following questions and
will reach a decision in time to apply it to the organization of the next
congress:

“1. To what extent does the congress recognize the right of govern-
mental bureaus as such, of societies, or of any kind of organizations, to
send representatives to the congress”

“2. Within what limitations does the congress recognize the right of

268 The American Geologist. October, 1894

such representatives, or of only a portion of the members of the con-
gress coming from the same country, to choose who shall be the vice
president representing their country, or to take any other steps (in the
name of their country) without consultation with all their countrymen
members of the congress? ”’

The words in parenthesis do not appear in the printed procés verbal,
but the omission will doubtless be corrected in the official volume.

A warm friend of this proposal, who has great influence in the coun-
cil, proposed that it should be settled by the next day: but the proposer
preferred that it be left to the careful deliberation of the bureau, insist-
ing only that it be not pigeon-holed, which from its terms it cannot be,
since the bureau, which consists of that part of the present council who
are officers, has engaged itself unanimously to consider it and apply it
to the next organization.

The abuse is a flagrant one. If there isan object above all others for
the congress to fulfill, it is to open its doors equally to all geologists
without distinction or favor. Should the congress decide that those
who hold positions in the departments of the various governments enjoy
exclusive privileges, and, amongst others, that of constituting their
permanent organization which keeps the congress alive between its reg-
ular sessions, then it is a proclamation to the world that this body has
been transformed into a servant of officialism. It is simply an interna-
tional geological survey trust, whose mission is to extenuate the errors
and preserve the power of its constituent geological survey directors. It
is merely a play upon words to call it an organization of nations, for the
representatives of the nations have nothing to do with the appointments
and forthe most part are quite in ignorance of the persons who act in
their name. It is a means of disposing of the always troublesome ‘‘in-
dependent geologists’’ who owe allegiance only to theirscience, and who
are taxed at home to provide the salaries of those who would thus deny
them equal rights in an international institution. These independent
geologists in all countries are an important factor in the establishment
of facts, and, apart from the fact that they usually form the large ma-
jority of those whose work is geological, they act as a check upon hasty
conclusions and imperfect work. But it is better that the bureau should
have full time and liberty to declare itself than that any hasty coneclu-
sions on the questions submitted to it should be made.

If, as some of the more influential and older members of the Congress
think, the congress has been diverted from its original excellent pur-
pose and has fallen into the hands of those who, if they cannot use it
for their own selfish purposes, intend to destroy it, the sooner this inten-
tion is apparent the better. If, on the contrary, it is to be the highest
tribunal of appeal on purely scientific matters, if it is to be outside of
the influence of partisans, time servers or even governments, it will ad-
mit to its counsels without distinetion all who have earned the right to
be considered geologists: nor will the decision be embarrassed by the
adoption of a rule which would give to every nation represented only
one vote. At least all the representatives of each nation would enjoy

Correspondence. 269

equal rights. Let the bureau decide these questions and we shall know
what to expect.

M. Karpinsky, of Russia, submits the invitation of the Russian geolo-
gists that the congress meet in Russia in 1897, which is adopted. The
committee of organization is named, with power to add to its number.

An interesting incident of the second general session of the congress
was the good wishes offered to Prof. Beyrich, on behalf of the congress,
by Prof. Heim, on the occasion of his eightieth birthday. The good
feeling was very hearty and spontaneous, but the recipient seemed
somewhat embarrassed by it; perhaps for the reason, which he explained
to your correspondent, that he does not attain his eightieth birthday
until next year.

The addresses of Suess, von Zittel and Michel-Levy at these general
assemblies were very interesting and worthy of the occasion.

The last session of the council but one took place on Saturday morn-
ing, when, after the reading of the minutes, Nikitin (Russia), Oldham
(English India), Penck (Germany and Austria), and Sacco (Italy) were
added to the committee on bibliography. Gilbert, the president, having
resigned, Nikitin was elected president in his place.

The final session of the council (the fifth) was held at the Polytechni-
kum at 2 p. m., after the final session general at the female seminary.

The nominations of the members of the committee on organization
for the next congress in Russia were completed.

The members of a committee were appointed, at the instigation of
Michel-Levy, for the unification of the nomenclature of rocks. Follow-
ing is a partial list of this committee: Knop, Zirkel, Rosenbusch (Ger-
many); Golliez, Hutenmal, Schmidt (Switzerland); Renard, de la Val-
lée Poussin (Belgium); Behrens, Wichmann (Holland); Macpherson,
Gonzalo y Farin (Spain); Bensaude (Portugal); Michel-Levy, Barrois,
La Croix (France); Teall, A. Geikie, Judd (England); Brogger (Norway):
Zujovie (Roumania); Lowinson-Lessing (Russia); Tietze, Tschermak
(Austro-Hungary); Iddings, Cross, Van Hise (United States); Barcena
(Mexico).

Dr. Tietze asserted that he was not a petrographer and if retained
could only bring general geological knowledge to bear on the subject.
He also claimed that theorigin of the idea of making an international
geological map of Kurope was in the Reichsanstalt of Vienna and read a
passage from its proceedings anterior to the Bologna session of the con-
gress in corroboration of his point. Hauchecorne claimed that it was
made anterior to the session at Paris.

M. Pellati (Italy) proposed (1) that there should be a permanent com-
mittee appointed with authority to regulate the affairs of the congress
between sessions; (2) the seat of the committee should be Paris: (3) this
committee shall consist of all the officers; (4) those contributing 10 franes
a year shall be considered members; (5) this committee shall issue a pub-
lication which shall be the organ of the congress.

Here a scene occurred which will present a just view of the manner
in which president Renevier conducts the business of a deliberative as-

270 The American Geologist. October, 1894

sembly. M. Golliez, general secretary, proposed that a committee con-
sisting of the past presidents and general secretaries should be requested
to consider and draw up a report to the next congress on the advisabil-
ity of such a permanent committee being appointed. M. de Lapparent
drew the attention of the council to the fact that this was a total sub-
version of the idea of the congress and its transformation into a geolog-
ical society, and that the council had no authority to take such a step
of its own initiative. The president, who could not conceal his strong
approval of Golliez’s plan, finally declared that he would not permit dis-
cussion on the merits of the proposition, but only on the question
advanced by M. de Lapparent. Nevertheless he consumed more than
half the time in discussing it himself in all its bearings, and finally de-
clared, *‘We have three propositions before us: that of M. de Lapparent,
declaring that the council is incompetent to decide the question (though
for my part I do not see that it will be more competent in 1897 than it is
now): that of M. Golliez, appointing a committee to examine the ques-
tion and report at the next congress; and, finally, that of M. Heim,
which declares that we shall not consider the subject at all. As Mr,
Heim’s motion is the most radical, we shall consider it first.’’ It re-
ceived nine votes. Second, the proposition of M. de Lapparent received
eleven votes; and that of M. Golliez only two votes. There were perhaps
fourteen members voting in all, and M. de Lapparent’s proposition was
adopted. In order to be absolutely perfect, Golliez’s proposition should
have read: All previous presidents whose names commence with an R,
and all general secretaries whose last names commence with aG. But
imagine the new parliamentary departure, when three contradictory
resolutions are entertained at the same time and yoted for in succession,
some of the voters casting their ballots for two or for all! Thus, by a
very harrow majority, another attempt to destroy the congress failed.

While M. Gregorio is speaking on his favorite topic, that of the ad-
vantage of having a congressional journal, the president politely roars
that the séance is closed, and the members disperse, although the mar-
quis is still on the floor struggling with his temper and his French.

Thus ended the sixth session of the International Congress of Geolo-
gists. It was a notable gathering of many eminent men, and an object
lesson in the employment of caucus primary methods in the elevated
sphere of high science. An impartial judge would probably prefer to re-
vert to the old period of smiling Italian diplomacy, where appearances
were preserved while the ‘tmachine’’ worked even more effectively,
though not in the direction of suicide.

A word in regard to the collation offered by the town of Ziirich to the
members of the congress. Uetliberg is a station some 1,200 feet above
the town, on the summit of the moraine hills and in a most command-
ing position. An ordinary railway conducts thither through sinuous
courses, the locomotive taking up three loaded cars on a gradient (as the
engineer informed me) of about 10 per cent., or more correctly 8 in 100,
When we were all there anumber of the members followed Prof; Heim in
an exciting chase up and down hill in search for outcrops of Decken-

OME, WL ee Nc re et ve ' ‘ x
rites \ Pies it is -
Rests ea ye. ‘

Personal and Scientific News. 271

schrotter and other moraine deposits. Some of the Roumanians came back
looking as if they had been over the course of a glacier in a sitting
position, with the glacierin their laps. We took seats at four long
tables, the fifth being reserved for the Burgomeister and the congress
dignitaries with many others. The Burgomeister began an interminable
speech in which he complimented the science of geology and showed
his knowledge of Latin. M. de Lapparent replied in hisalways happy
style, stating, among other things, that the congress was now sixteen
years old: that, according toa very general European custom, when a
young man who has applied himself diligently to his studies reaches
that age he is rewarded by a trip to Switzerland; and this the congress
was now taking.

The collation was of cold meats with jelly, and the wine at first on
the table was gratuitous. Further refections were charged to the con-
sumer. In the afternoon an excursion of members of the congress and
their wives started to make a tour of the lake. As a violent downpour
of rain and hail occurred, however, it is to be feared that the pleasure
of the trip may have been marred. One of the most vivid electrical
storms which your correspondent ever saw, accompanied by hail and
rain, occurred during the night. The hail stones struck the Venetian
blinds with reports like rifle shots, while the lightning and thunder were
incessant.

Prof. Golliez gives in the livret-guide (prepared to explain the geology
of the regions visited by the members taking the excursions) certain
explanations of a district particularly studied by Prof. Baltz of Berne.
The latter has printed a sheet and distributed it to the members, contro-
verting the statements of Golliez. But the language and manner in
which this is done gives evidence that the amenities are less considered
in certain countries than they are with us. PERSIFOR FRAZER.

Liirich, Sept. 3, 1894.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

AT THE MEETING OF THE BritisH AssocIATION FOR THE AD-
VANCEMENT OF ScIENCE, held in Oxford from August 6th to the
15th, the address of L. Fletcher, president of Section C (Ge-
ology), was on recent progress in mineralogy. Forty-three
papers were presented in this section. Monday, the 13th, was
devoted to Pleistocene geology, which had ten papers. One of
these, by E. P. Culverwell, was “An examination of Croll’s
and Ball’s theory of ice ages and genial ages,” in which he
stated that mathematical investigation proves the inadequacy
of the astronomic theory as at present formulated. He there-
fore ascribed the Glacial period to geographic changes or to
variations in the sun’s supply of heat. A joint discussion on

272 The American Geologist. October, 1894

the plateau stone implements of Kent, held by Sections C and
H (Anthropology), was opened by Prof. Rupert Jones, who
agreed with Prestwich that they afford evidence of a great
antiquity for man in Britain, “when the physical geography
of the Weald was very different from its character to-day.”
Mr. Whitaker, on the other hand, thought that these recent
discoveries and investigations bring ‘no evidence to connect
men with preglacial or even glacial times.”

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY oF INpIA has issued a second edi-
tion of its “Manual of the Geology of India,” forming a vol-
ume of 540 pages, with a general geological map, a special
map and sections of the Himalayas, a map of the Indo-Gan-
getic alluvium, seventeen plates of typical fossils, and twenty-
seven figures in the text. This work gives the results of the
survey to the present time. It includes the greater part of
the first edition, which was prepared by Medlicott and Blan-
ford fifteen years ago, to which Mr. R. D. Oldham, the com-
piler of this edition, has added largely, wholly rewriting the
chapters on the age and origin of the Himalayas and on the
geological history of the Indian peninsula.

THE TWO ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS OF THIS SUMMER FROM THE UNI-
TED States have returned within the past month. Their chief
contributions to geology are the observations on the border of
the Greenland ice-sheet by Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, in the
Peary relief expedition on the Falcon, and by Prof. G. F.
Wright, in the Cook expedition on the Miranda.- The former
arrived at St. Johns, Newfoundland, Sept. 15th, having coasted
along the west side of Greenland, with landings at numerous
places and special explorations of the glaciers and ice-sheet
on and near Inglefield gulf, in the vicinity of Peary’s winter
station. Lieut. Peary, with a small party, remains in Green-
land for another year, hoping thereby to complete his map-
ping of its northern coast. The Miranda, on her way north,
collided with an iceberg in the strait of Belle Isle, causing
delay for repairs in a harbor of Labrador and afterward at St.
Johns. Again advancing north, this party first landed for
three days’ exploration at Sukkertoppen. Shortly after leav-
ing this harbor, the Miranda was disabled by striking on a
submerged reef, causing her to return to Sukkertoppen for a
further stay of twelve days. After transfer of the scientific
party, numbering forty-one, to the Gloucester fishing schooner
Rigel, the Miranda, with the Rigel in tow, started on her re-
turn to St. Johns, but after steaming about 800 miles was
abandoned in Davis strait August 28rd, in a sinking condi-
tion, her crew being all transferred to the schooner. Having
stopped in Labrador to take twelve others of the Miranda’s
original party, who had remained there, the Rigel arrived at
the port of North Sydney, Cape Breton island, Sept. 5th.

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. Vou. XIV, PuatE VII.

SKETCH MAP

PART OF ONTARIO.
BY FB. TAYLOR.

5 SS
—
: Share :
) S =

aN f
Vi re oe
Fe, ii SUMDRIDGE
XK

al
\
AKES

2SLAK

Or
JOT
SS),

ld BOBCAYG EDN

| LIMIT OBSERVED oo
| CONJECTURAL _
| BY DR.JT.W. SPENCER o——oO-——

LIMIT OF POSTGLACIAL SUBMERGENCE EAST
OF GEORGIAN BAY.

THE
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.
Vou. XIV. NOVEMBER, 1894. No. 5.

THE LIMIT OF POSTGLACIAL SUBMERGENCE IN
THE HIGHLANDS EAST OF GEORGIAN BAY.
By F. B. TAytor, Fort Wayne, Ind.
(Plate VII.)

The region described in this paper extends from the south-
west end of lake Simcoe through the highlands east of Geor-
gian bay to the hills south of lake Nipissing. After making
some preliminary observations at points farther south, but
which do not relate to the particular subject of this paper, the
exploration was begun at Barrie on the shore of lake Simcoe.
Most of the observations were made in August, 18938, when I
was accompanied by Dr. Pearce, who had been with me in the
previous trips to Green bay and the coast of lake Superior
(described in the last May and June numbers of the AmMprIcAN
GroLocist). I returned alone in September on my way to the
Adirondacks and revisited some of these places and also
explored some new ones.

Barrie. Within the limits of this town and the village of
Allandale, which adjoins it on the south, the Algonquin beach
of Dr. J. W. Spencer* was found clearly developed. In the
eastern part of Barrie the beach is a cut terrace at the back
of the lots on the north side of Blake street. It extends in
this form westward through the town to a point east of the
court house, where a valley opens to the northwest. Here it
changes to a gravelly beach ridge and projects about an eighth
of a mile westward along the north side of Collier street as a
high, narrow spit. This spit isin the old part of the town,

* “Deformation of the Algonquin Beach, and Birth of Lake Huron,’’
Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xu1, pp. 12-21, with map, Jan., 1891.

274 The American Geologist. November, 1894

.

and is covered with houses. Two churches are also built upon
it. In some places it has been cut away, but it continues as
2a prominent feature as far as Clopperton street. Where
excavations have been made the composition of the ridge is
shown to be of characteristic beach material,—rounded gravel
and pebbles with sand. Near its outer end this ridge is about
20 feet above the general level of the town. The altitude of
lake Simcoe is stated by Dr. Spencer to be 722 feet: above sea
level. The shore line in Barrie, measured on the beach ridge
where it is crossed in the eastern part of the town by the
Penetanguishene road, is about 60 feet above lake Sim-
coe, or approximately 780 feet above the sea. Westward
from the spit the ground is lower and for some dis-
tance west of the town itis a rolling sand plain. Between
Barrie and Allandale there isa low trough extending west-
ward from the lake. Along the base of the hill south and
west of Allandale the beach was found rather lightly devel-
oped. We ascended the first point of the hill on the Cooks-
town road, from which a wide view over the surrounding
lowlands was obtained. Toward the west in the trough,
which divides the highlands of the north from those on the
south, the extension of the beach could be seen for a mile or
more; but whether the water at the time of submergence ex-
tended clear through the trough to Colwell so as to make an

island of the highlands north of it, was not seen. Eastward -

from Barrie the shore line was found beautifully developed
all the way to Orillia. It may be seen plainly from the train
nearly all the way. Just east of Barrie the railroad cuts the
beach, making a fine cross-section, and then rises to a higher
level for a few miles, leaving the beach between it and the
lake. Through this stretch it is a finely formed gravel ridge
with a lagoon hollow behind it. In some places there are
several lower ridges with intervening hollows. But beyond
that, for most of the way to Orillia, it is a cut terrace with a
low bluff at its back and a gentle boulder slope in front. It
is well formed at Oro and Hawkstone. Within a few miles of
Orillia the beach passes out of sight in a forest.

Orillia, Along the face of the high bluff back of this place
the shore line was found clearly developed as a cut terrace
with a few beach ridges at lower levels. It is particularly

OT Nig 24. Set .
Bae eto hes 8 (

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay.—Taylor. 275

well marked just above the main road for two or three miles
north of the town. It is nearly as prominent in the town
itself, and may be seen to good advantage on West, Coldwater
and Penetang streets, and in several other places. Toward the
south the ancient coast line becomes deeply indented by a
valley, and into this the shore line gradually fades away.
During the second visit to this place I drove to McDon-
ald’s hill, about two miles northeast of Atherly, a village
which is about two miles east of Orillia, on the opposite side
of the river. This hill is about 85 feet above the lake and its
crest, which is a wide, bouldery beach ridge, extends ina.
northeast and southwest direction, and appears to have been
heavily washed by waves. Extensive excavations have been
opened in the western slope of the hill near its top for ballast,
and they show its composition to be almost entirely of lime-
stone boulders of small size, and grading from this down to
the fineness of coarse sand. The quantity of small boulders or
cobbles of a diameter averaging from four to eight inches is
enormous. All the material is thoroughly rounded. The hill
faces northwestward over lake Couchiching and the valley of
the Severn river, toward Georgian bay. This hill is not quite
high enough to record the highest beach, and there is no higher
ground on that side of the river within a distance of six miles
or more. The altitude of the beach in Orillia, measured at the
back of the terrace in the town, is about 110 feet above lake
Simcoe, or 830 feet above the sea level. Both here and at
Barrie we explored the higher ground without finding any
evidence of submergence.

Lorneville. In going from Orillia to Lindsay the Algonquin
beach was again crossed at a point about a mile and a half
west of Lorneville. At this place a series of well formed, but
rather low and light sandy beach ridges rests upon an open
country, sloping gradually toward the southwest. The upper
ridge is about 815 feet above sea level, and appears to mark
the upper limit of postglacial submergence.

Midland, Ata point about two miles and a half south of
this place the highest shore line was found very plainly de-
veloped against the north and east face of a high hill, at an
altitude of about 820 feet above the sea. Between the town and
this locality fragments of beaches were observed in two or

276 The American Geologist. November, 1894

three places, and the terrace itself is flanked below by a very
marked boulder pavement. We ascended the hill to an alti-
tude of about 150 feet above the beach, but saw no further
evidences of submergence. Marks of submergence are also
plain for two or three miles east of Midland. The small lake
which lies south of the road, and which has its outlet south-
ward and then northward by a circuitous route, was probably
cut off from its former direct connection with Georgian bay by
shore drift when the water was at a higher level.

Many impressive evidences of submergence were seen on a
drive from Midland to the town of Penetanguishene, which is
at the head of another bay about ten miles farther west. In
the edge of Midland the road passes through a tract that is
covered by an enormous quantity of large boulders, mostly
erratics of northern origin, which must have been carried by
the ice-sheet across a part of Georgian bay. Half a mile or
more beyond this there begins a series of terraces which ex-
tend two or three miles along the northwest face of the hill.
They are situated upon a very steep slope and are narrow, but
they are strongly and clearly formed. At one place there are
five of these terraces arranged like steps on the steep hillside.
The lower one is much wider than the rest, and is, in fact, a
narrow sandy plain. The upper terraces are composed mainly
of pretty coarse material. Farther on, the hill east of Pene-
tanguishene rises about to the level of the shore line observed
south of Midland, but we did not succeed in finding the beach
on the south slope, which was the only side we examined.
From the upper edge of the town looking toward the south-
west we could see a distinct mark along the face of a high hill
about two miles away. This mark appeared to be a terrace
and is not far from the level of the beach at Midland.

Thus far all the observations made were within a field for-
merly explored by Dr. Spencer, although he does not mention
observations at any of the points here described.

Parry Sound. From Midland we went to Parry Sound by
steamer through the wonderful archipelago which lines the
coast of the Georgian bay. The smaller, outer islands are
mostly bare, but the larger islands are in some places covered
with the coarser kinds of sediments. Hardly anything was

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay.—Taylor. 277

seen, however, which would tend to establish the fact of sub-
mergence.

The village of Parry Sound is built upon a gravelly delta
deposit which is about 50 feet above the sound. Across the
river I ascended the rugged hill back of Parry Harbor to an
altitude of about 150 feet, but found no distinct evidence
of postglacial submergence. Our exploration, however, was
too limited at this place to give much value to this negative
result.* From Parry Sound we went by stage 18 miles across
the country to Port Cockburn, at the head of lake Joseph. At
two or three places evidences of general submergence were
seen. On the west side of Horseshoe lake, there are some ter-
races which are evidently the product of wave action. They
were about 60 feet above the lake, and about 210 feet above
Georgian bay. About the head of lake Joseph there are some
suggestive features about 50 feet above its surface, but none
that were distinct and clear. Nor were any noticed on the
trip down lakes Joseph and Muskoka.

Gravenhurst. At this place our time was too short to ad-
-mit of thorough examination. In the upper part of the vil-
lage, however, there is a wide sandy and gravelly ridge which
faces westward over Muskoka lake and is undoubtedly in part
the work of waves. But we did notsee any evidence which
showed whether it is the highest ridge or not. Its altitude is
about 825 feet above sea level. In going northward by train
we saw abundant evidence of submergence within two to four
miles, at levels 75 to 100 feet higher, but the upper limit was
not distinctly made out.

Bracebridge. At this place we found magnificent remains
of the great submergence. They are of two kinds: one is the
product of wave action, and the other of still-water deposi-
tion. The latter, especially, is developed on a grand seale.
The beaches are clearly defined, and the still-water sediments
are fine-bedded or laminated silts and clays in horizontal lay-
ers, forming a deposit 75 to 100 feet thick.

Taking the main road northeast from Bracebridge we
crossed the river just below the station and climbed the steep

found terraces which we did not see.

278 The American Geologist. November, 1894

a mile, dunes and sandy ridges began to appear. One of these,
in a field about 40 rods east of the road, is a long and very
evenly formed beachridge. Farther to the northeast the road
crosses a few faint ridges and then ascends a series of three
or four low gravelly terraces, which face like steps toward the
southwest over the sandy plain. The first road to the_right,
_ which follows the seventh and eighth concession line of Ma-
eaulay township, leads across a series of ridges of gneiss, with
intervening hollows of considerable depth. Across these we
drove about three miles to an abandoned farm which ap-
peared to be near the top of a fifth principal ridge. On the
east side of the first ridge and nearits top there isa large
terrace of water-worn gravel and pebbles. Its composition is
well shown ina ballast pit. At the top of the third ridge,
which is about two and a half miles northeast of Bracebridge,
the most marked evidences of wave action were found. The
crest of this ridge is flanked on both sides by gravel terraces.
The one on the east is small and narrow, and the ground is
not well cleared for observation, but the one on the west is
much heavier and easier to see. Ina lot just south of the
road it has the form of a wide, low ridge with a slight depres-
sion behind it. North of the road the terrace extends at
about the same width, and the farm buildings of Mr. Leeder
are built upon it. From the field south of the road the ter-
race extends southward as a short spit ridge, forming a con-
nection with a rocky ledge, which was formerly a reef with
water off its precipitous front 60 to 70 feet deep. Excavations
for postholes show the composition of the spit and the terrace
in the field to be characteristic beach gravel. This terrace
faces southwest over the valley of the Muskokariver, and
Muskoka lake and Georgian bay. Its altitude is about 975
feet above sea level. In passing over the other ridges to the
eastward we did not discover any evidence of submergence at
higher levels. The second ridge, which lies next west of the
third, is not so high and did not record the upper limit of
wave action. The first ridge lacks only 20 or 25 feet of being

as high as the third one, but we saw nothing to show whether

the terrace on its east side marks the highest level of submer-
gence or not. Looking eastward from the top of the second
ridge, the terrace at Leeder’s farm, on the third, is seen to

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay.—Taylor. 279

extend in a great curve around to the north and join the sec-
ond. From the first ridge the long level of the terrace extend-
ing for two or three miles to the north is plainly seen.

Returning to the lower ground, we found that the sandy
plain which forms the banks of the riverat Bracebridge is the ©
top of a great deposit of silt and clay, and that the town itself
is situated upon an eroded slope of this great bed. Several
excavations in the streets showed its character very well. The
banks along the river are steep and, below the falls, 90 to 100
feet high. In some places this whole depth is composed of
the laminated beds. It is plain that the extent of this deposit
was once considerably greater than now; for the numerous
deep ravines which have been cut into it since the recession of
the water show how much has been removed.

We drove also about seven miles southeast, past the falls of
the south branch of the Muskoka river, to a point about two
miles above. For the first mile the road is over the deeply
gullied surface of the silt plain. Then the road passes over
a hill, at an altitude of about 90 feet above the railroad sta-
tion, and on the top of this hill are several well formed beach
ridges of water-worn gravel with depressions between them.
Beyond this the road descends through a very deep and steep-
sided valley which has been cut out of the silt by a small
stream. Both sides show the laminated fine sediments to a
depth of over 100 feet. The beaches mentioned are on the top
of the north bank, and the contact between them and the silt
may be seenin the ditch by the roadside. Between this gully
and South falls the road passes over some higher ground which
is pretty heavily covered with dune sand, and is at about the
same level as the sandy tract northeast of Bracebridge, but
considerably below the highest beach.

From Bracebridge to Muskoka lake, the Muskoka river is a
navigable stream flowing with a sluggish current through a
great expanse of swampy flats. After the maximum sub-

_ mergence, during which the upper part of the former estuary

of the Muskoka was filled with the silts and clays, the reces-
sion of the waters was accompanied by a restored activity of
the river, which then commenced the re-excavation of its bed.
We have in consequence the level plain of the silts at Brace-
bridge cut by the narrow, deep gorges of the river and of sev-

280 The American Geologist. November, 1894

eral creeks, and below, toward the lake, the wide flats built
up largely with the silt brought down from above.
Huntsville. As it passes northward from Bracebridge the
railroad climbs up out of the gorge of the Muskoka river, and
toward Huntsville passes over ground mostly at or near the

level of the beach at Bracebridge. At several points heavy

deposits of water-worn gravel and pebbles are crossed. At
its highest point the railroad appeared to pass somewhat above
the level of these sediments. But on the descent toward
Huntsville the gravels are particularly conspicuous, choking
up the beds of all the small streams and forming long, narrow
gravel plains. At several points these deposits have been

excavated for ballast.. At Huntsville station the evidence of,

postglacial submergence is very clear, although it is not
strongly developed. The station is on the east shore of an
arm of Vernon lake and its altitude above the sea is 960 feet.
A steep hill rises back of the station to a hight of over 350
feet, and along the base of this hill, almost within a stone’s
throw of the station, the highest shore line is sharply and
clearly marked as a cut terrace. Its altitude above the sta-
tion is about 40 feet. For over half a mile along the western
face of this hill the shore line is plain and continuous, and it
was easily recognized for about a mile farther each way. At
the back of the terrace the old bluff rises ten or fifteen feet
more steeply than the general slope of the hill above. I
climbed to the top of the hill, starting up opposite Cook’s ho-
tel, and reached a point over 300 feet above the shore line, but
saw no further evidence of submergence. The top of this hill
commandsa grand view over most of the country around. Sev-
eral lakes are in sight at once, Vernon lake toward the north-
west, Fairy lake and Peninsula lake toward the east; lake
Mary toward the southwest was not in sight, but the water
from the other lakes passes down through it and the north
branch of the Muskoka river to Bracebridge. The shore line at
Huntsville is notin a place exposed to a wide sweep of waters
like Georgian bay, but marks the shore of a former sound or
long inlet, which reached from the inland valleys to the open
water at Bracebridge. The valley is wide and open all the
way from the head of Vernon lake. Steamers ply from Hunts-
ville to all these lakes, and by a portage of less than a mile

Postglacial Submergence eust of Georgian bay.—Taylor, 281

they connect with the Lake of Bays, which empties into the
south branch of the Muskoka river and formed another of the
many ancient inlets of this region. The fine bedded silts were
found at several places in Huntsville close up to the level of
the beach. I have no doubt that this shore line is a part of
the highest beach of postglacial submergence and is one with
the main beach on the more exposed coast outside.

Burk’s Falls. Our observations at this place were some-
what disappointing. We failed to find any distinct beach
which might mark the upper limit of submergence. Probably
this was because of misinformation with regard to the proper
roads to take to reach favorable high ground. Many inter-
esting remains of submergence, however, were observed, nearly
all of them belonging to the fine sedimentclass. The laminated
silts and clays of Bracebridge are in some respects equalled,
if not excelled, by those at Burk’s Falls, where also they at-
tain a depth of about 100 feet. The Maganetawan river has
cut a deep ravine through the silt bed, and its little tributa-
ries have cut numerous gullies in the remaining mass. The
general appearance of the formation is the same as at Brace-
bridge. We drove about three miles and a half southeast of
Burk’s Falls toa point on the hills near Katrine. The cleared
farms of that vicinity are mostly on the gullied surface of the
silt deposit. At one point the road rises to a level of about
135 feet above the station and cuts a bed of water-worn gravel
which may be related to the submergence, but we saw nothing
which would establish that fact. Between the village and the
station gravel beds were observed in two places resting on the
top of the silt. One of these is south of the road near the
Presbyterian church, the other is on the opposite side near the
top of a low hill. It seems probable that these gravels mark
a level not more than 30 or 40 feet below the maximum hight
of water during submergence. We also drove about four
miles west from the village toan old winter ford of the Ma-
ganetawan. The road is mostly at lower levels, and, for the
first mile or two, crosses the gullied surface of the silt. Some
interesting sections of the deposit were seen here with the
laminations beautifully displayed and in several places very
much disturbed by faults and folds, which appear to be due
to landslides and slippings on the steep sides of the gullies.

282 The American Geologist. November, 1894

The hills about Burk’s Falls are high, and if the submergence
attained the hight which seems to be indicated by the depos-
its, the ancient channels were deep, and varied in width from
a half mile to three or four miles. Dr. Spencer puts the alti-
tude of the submergence at this place conjecturally at 1,171
feet. Steamers run from Burk’s Falls to Ahmie Harbor, 40:
miles west, down the Maganetawan, but our limited time did
not permit this trip.

Sundridge. This place is situated on the north shore of
Stony lake, which empties through Stony creek towards the
southwest into the Maganetawan river. The lake is five or
six miles wide, and it fills only part of the trough in which it
lies. Near the station there are several light terraces and
beach ridges of sandy composition; and about a half a mile
north there is a heavy glacial ridge, on the south side of which
is a tolerably distinct shore line at about 100 feet above the
station. On the slope below are several distinct terraces.
This beach, like that at Huntsville, might be supposed to be
of local origin, but it isalso on one of those long inlets which
connected with the wider water outside.

South River. At this place we have crossed the divide to
the region of the streams which descended the steep slope
northward to lake Nipissing. Part of the drive from Sund-
ridge was entirely above the level of the beaches of this
vicinity and over unmodified drift. About a mile west of
South River a distinct cut terrace was crossed at the foot of
a steep hill. But it was so obscured by a heavy forest growth
that the character of the ground in that vicinity could not be
seen to advantage. There appeared to be a gradual slope,
about a quarter of a mile wide, with occasional boulders and
an appearance of low ridges. At its edge the road comes out
upon a sand plain with dunes, and then descends through the
ravine of a small stream. In this ravine the fine-bedded silts
and clays again appear, and from this place to the town, half
a mile distant, the road passes over the surface of a level
sandy plain. Measured from the station at South River the
altitude of the cut terrace is about 1,220 feet above sea level.
At another point, about two miles south of South River, two
terraces are found ona sandy hillside at altitudes of about
1,190 and 1,195 feet above the station, and on another isolated

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay—Taylor. 288

hillatan altitude of about 1,215 feet. From the top of this last
hill there is a wide view over the surrounding country and it
could be seen that the flats at South River are continuous
through to Stony lake, and they also extend a long way east-
ward up the valley of South river. In that direction the hills
bordering the flats appeared to be terraced at 50 or 60 feet
above the flats, agreeing closely with the level of the shore line
west of South River station. Half a mile north of the station are
Dunbavr’s falls, where the river was diverted to one side of its
former valley and thrown upon a rocky ledge. From this it falls
more than 100 feet and has excavated a deep ravine towards
the north. It is apparently certain that the whole sandy plain
at South River is the surface of a great silt bed. Ata point
about three miles north of South River the railroad crosses a
marsh about two miles wide. This is the top of the grade of
the railroad, and its altitude on the profile is given as 1,202
feet. The west side of the swamp is bounded by a great
gravel ridge, which looked from the distance like a beach, but
which, on close examination, proved to be a glacial moraine.
Its summit rises about 80 or 90 feet above the marsh, is very
_ uneven and covered with many pits and hollows. It has been
excavated for ballast by the railroad, showing it to be cam-
posed of all grades of material from fine sand to large boul-
ders. About half a mile north of the gravel pit the moraine
slopes rapidly northward down into the deep ravine of South
river, and looking from the edge there may be seen at a
distance of three or four miles to the north a very conspicuous
shelf which appears as a long horizontal line extending along
the east side. This shelf is very close to the level of the ‘beach
at South River. and I have no doubt that it represents the
highest line of submergence. It was near the mouth of the
ravine and was exposed to the northwest over lake Nipissing.

Trout Creek. The high terrace just mentioned must be
close to the station of Trout Creek, probably within a mile or
two to the south, but it did not appear to be accessible in the
short time at our disposal. Our efforts to explore the vicin-
ity of this place were rather unfortunate. We arrived only a
little before dark and it began to rain immediately. We drove
westward about two miles over a sandy plain to the bridge
over South river, where we found a fresh excavation in the

284 . The American Geologist. November, 1894 !

high bank on the east side, which showed a splendid section
of the fine-bedded silts and indicated that the whole plain
over which we had passed is of that composition. There are
also several dunes on the plain. Southeast of the station
along the base of the hill there is a cut terrace about 20 feet
above the flats. The flats themselves extend about two miles
southward to the south end of the long trestle. They are ap-
parently perfectly level, and just under the south end of the
trestle there is a terrace in the same relation to them as that
near the station, and it is probably a continuation of the
same. In September, when I revisited Trout Creek alone, it
rained harder than before; but Iwalked half amile up the hill
to the east and reached a point about 110 feet above the level
of the station. At that place there appeared to be a sort of
shelf facing the northwest and covered with a great number:
of boulders of large size. There were so many of them five to
six feet or more in diameter that the road had to be crooked
about to finda way among them. The altitude of this place
is about 1,145 feet above the sea. On the basis of the obser-
vations at Sundridge and South River the boulders on the
hillside are probably somewhat less than 100 feet below the
leyel of the highest beach. Considering the very exposed
position of this hillside, I should expect to find the highest
beach strongly developed. From this point the hills at the
supposed hight of the shore line extend slightly north of east
to the valley of the Ottawa river and also toward the west-
southwest 80 or 40 miles. Pawassan, seven miles north of
Trout Creek and about 175 feet lower, is also an interesting
locality. Besides fragmentary beach ridges of gravel, the
silt beds are extensively developed and lie apparently in a
more exposed position than usual. Of the other localities far-
ther north, which were visited on these excursions, a separate
account has been given in another article,* which is virtually
a continuation of this although it was earlier in publication.

*“The Ancient Strait at Nipissing,’’ Bulletin, Geol. Soc. of America,
vol. v, pp. 620-626, with maps, April 30, 1894. Mention should have
been made in this paper of the fact that Prof. G._ Frederick Wright and
party, including Prof. A. A. Wright, visited some of the gravel pits
east of Cartier in the autumn of 1892. See Prof. G. F. Wright’s paper,
“The Supposed Postglacial Outlet of the Great Lakes through Lake
Nipissing and the Mattawa River,’’ Bulletin, Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. Iv,
pp. 423-5, with Dr. Robert Bell’s remarks in discussion, pp, 425-7.

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay.—Taylor. 285

The highest shore line was found on the hills north of North
Bay at an altitude of about 1,140 feet above the sea level, and
again eight miles east of Cartier on the Canadian Pacific rail-
way at about 1,200 feet.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

The altitudes of the beaches observed are summarized in the
following table. The measurements were all made by aneroid

from points of known altitude near by. The letter r stands

for beach ridge and the letter ¢ for ferrace.

Barrie (AER SEM Oe gh nS A Rae cae 780
Lorneville LP oi B by cette ce MA APS ae 815
Orillia Las Pee ate Marat toed none 830
Midland RT STRSOUS OE ee CRS 820
Gravenhurst [Hey ts Ac oP tes Me pe we SE 825+ 7?
Bracebridge LIB Saree Lt ESE ROM ODE
Huntsville SAAT, oe) Sates 0, Pe eatin 1}000
Burk’s Falls (Spencer). . snes. a se hea?
Sundridge Treats nomic oom aris 1,205
South River NA RMR, ope tear on piston oO
Trout Creek Bia Nsth spa Pn More Be, Neat ote cdots 1,145+ 7
Or Enwbaiye (atUNGISOM’S)icPick oats auloriads aie Axis aisiale s 1,140
Cartier Uinrsl Ge a ahah ORV ee ieee eee 1,200

The facts show clearly that the same water that filled the
ancient channels in the southern highlands extended far to

the north and west. It evidently covered all the lowlands of

this region and, as indicated by the altitude of the shore line,
made a strait over lake Nipissing atleast 25 miles wide and
500 feet deep, and probably another farther north over the
hight of land to Hudson bay. There is also much reason for
supposing its extension down the Ottawa valley to the lower
plains of Ontario and the area of well established marine sub-
mergence. But it seems probable that the highest shore line
has not yet been recognized in those parts. I am, therefore,
much more confident of the truth of a statement made in a
previous paper,* that the upper beach of the Nipissing region
is one with the Iroquois beach of the Ontario basin. The coun-
try through which the connecting link probably passes is ex-
tremely rough and the difficulties of exploration will be great,
but probably not greater than those of some other regions
where good results have rewarded persevering explorers.

*“The Highest Old Shore Line on Mackinae Island,’’ Am. Jour. Sci.,
III, vol. xi, pp. 210-218, March, 1892.

286 The American Geologist. November, 1894

At several of the places mentioned the shore lines are in
long valleys between the hills, and must have been many miles
from any large open water. This is the case especially at
Huntsville, Burk’s Falls, Sundridge, and South River. On
this account it might be thought that these evidences of sub-
mergence were not produced by the wider waters which filled
the basin of the upper lakes, but were due to lakes of the gla-
cial recession, or to some other local cause. But I am quite
certain that such is not the case. These valleys are wide and
have open connection with the broader lake basin outside, and
the plane of the shore lines in them appears to be the sameas
that of the greater outer beaches. These valleys open to the
southwest and west, away from the probable direction of ice
retreat. The one which passes Sundridge and South River
opens both to the southwest and north. The magnitude of the
phenomena also comports well with the strength and charac-
ter of the outer lines. At the time of the great submergence
this coast was somewhat like the present coast of Georgian
bay, except that both. channels and islands were on a much
larger scale. The highest part of the highlands hes 30 or 40
miles to the east of Burk’s Falls, and is comprised in the Al-
gonquin Park lately projected by the Canadian government.*
From all that I have been able to gather concerning the char-
acter of that region it seems probable that nearly the whole
tract was intersected by channels which cut it up into islands.
The highest lakes reported in that region have an altitude of
about 1,405 feet above the sea.

In the Simcoe region and to the west Dr. Spencer found a
marked rise of the Algonquin beach toward the east. Our
observations in the same region were less extended and less
precise than his, but so far as they go they show the same re-
sult. For instance, the locality near Lorneville is about 30
miles east from Barrie and only two or three miles north. But
the beach at the former place is about 35 feet higher than at
the latter, showing an eastward rise of nearly one foot per
mile. Orillia is about 18 miles east and the same distance
north from Barrie and the beach is about 50 feet higher, show-
ing a rise of more than three and a half feet per mile to the

*Report of the Commission on Forest Preservation and National
Parks, etc., 1893.

Postglacial Submergence east of Georgian bay.—Taylor. 287

northeast. The beach near Midland is about 22 miles west
and ten north from Orillia. But its level is ten feet lower.
This probably does not mean a northward descent from Oril-
lia, but rather a strong eastward rise from Midland. From
the locality near Lorneville to that near Midland is about 40
miles west and 20 miles north; but the beach at Lorneville is
five feet the higher. The beach at Barrie, however, is 40 feet
below that at Midland, showing that the apparent absence of
the northward rise is due to the obscuring effect of the east-
ward rise. The same is probably the case between Midland
and Orillia. The value of a comparison where the differences
are small, however, is considerably impaired if it depends on
measurements made by aneroid barometer, as is the case with
our work.

From Orillia to North Bay the direction is nearly due north,
and the intermediate places deviate but little from that line.
The measurements of altitude are probably fairly accurate at
all the places except Bracebridge, where the weather condi-
tions were not good, and the margin of error may be somewhat
larger. Taking the figures as we have them, the northward
rise from Orillia to Bracebridge is a trifle over 4 feet per mile;
from Bracebridge to Huntsville, lessthan 14 feet; from Hunts-
ville to Sundridge, about 6 feet and 2 inches; from Sundridge
to South River, about 3 feet; and from South River to North
Bay, a northward descent of about 24 feet per mile.

Perhaps the most interesting result of these excursions was
the finding of the great silt beds. When we take into ac-
count all their relations to the adjacent glacial and postgla-
cial deposits, the wideness of their distribution, and their
remarkable uniformity of composition in all places, it seems
impossible to miss their meaning. These deposits were found
not only in the highlands east of Georgian bay as here de-
scribed, but also at several other distant places. They were
found at Superior opposite Duluth, and at Sault Ste. Marie;
at many points along the Spanish and White Fish rivers north
of lake Huron; all along the north side of lake Nipissing,
and up the valley of the Veuve; at Pawassan, Trout Creek,
South River, Burk’s Falls, Huntsville and Bracebridge, on the
line of the Northern and Pacific Junction railway; in the
valley of the Oswegatchie river near Edwards and South Ed-

288 The American Geologist. November, 1894

wards, N. Y.; and again in the valley of the Missisquoi river
in northern Vermont. In all these places this deposit presents
not only the same general appearance and relation to other
contiguous deposits, but also a remarkable uniformity of finer
details. Take, for example, the silt beds at Braéebridge.
The whole set of phenomena at this place is extremely in-
structive. The laminations of clay and silt are associated in
pairs which are almost without exception about half an inch
in thickness. On weathered surfaces the principal part of
each layer is a greenish gray clay, and this is separated from
the next layer of clay in each case by a layer of white silt, an
eighth to a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. There are some
variations in the composition of the deposit at each locality,
but they are confined chiefly to varying proportions of the
two materials. In a few places I found the clay almost ab-
sent and the silt layer thicker than usual. In other places
the variation was reverse of this. It seems plain enough that
the silt and the clay must represent two slightly different
conditions of sedimentation; and the orderly way in which
the layers alternate shows that a layer of silt and a layer of
clay taken together constitute one complete round of change.
This points to recurrence and almost certainly to periodicity.
Tides, storms, and the annual round of the seasons, are the
only recurrent variations liable to affect sedimentation. Of
these the tides and the seasons are periodic, but storms are
irregular. Neither tides nor storms afford a satisfactory ex-
planation. For the one is much too short in its period, and
the other too irregular. It seems impossible that the pairs of
layers can represent anything but annual periods of deposi-
tion, and if this be the case several important conclusions
follow. Considering the great thickness of the whole deposit,
the length of time which must be allowed for its formation
san hardly be less than several thousand years. Indeed, if
we suppose the laminations to be uniform, and the maximum
depth of the whole original deposit to have been 100 feet, the
time of deposition would be about 2,500 years. And this, it
should be noted, would be not the whole time of the submer-
gence, but only the time during which the conditions of still-
water sedimentation existed at that level, not counting the
two periods unfavorable to this kind of sedimentation, one as

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 289

the water was rising and the other as it was receding, during
both of which shallow water conditions prevailed. The gravel
beaches and silt beds, with the intervening zone of dunes and
sand ridges, complete the testimony that the submergence
was not only of long duration, but that it was an invasion of
waters of great extent. Taken alone the silts prove only
long duration of time, such as might characterize the depos-
its of a small lake. But the gravel spits and beaches were
made by waves, which came in from Georgian bay over the
basin of Muskoka lake, and these forms prove the wide ex-
tent of the water.

It has been held by many that all the abandoned relies of
submergence found within the St. Lawrence basin are due to
ice-dammed lakes formed during the glacial recession. But
the shore lines have now been traced so far northward toward

_ the center of the glacial radiant of the Laurentide plateau

that this view seems no longer plausible. The inference near-
est at hand is that the submergence was an invasion of the
sea and that the Great Lakes were connected with it through
a strait over lake Nipissing. It is not more than 25 miles
from the Nelson beach northeast of North Bay to the nearest
point on the Ottawa river above Mattawa. There is much
reason to expect that exploration will ultimately prove that
the upper silts and gravel beaches of the highlands of all the
upper Great Lakes are of the same age as the higher postglacial
marine deposits of the lower Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys.

A REVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT

LAKES.*
By J. W. SPENCER , Ph. D., F. G. SS. (L. and A.).
(Plate VIII.)

CONTENTS. Rage.

1. Problems and Progress.. SAS ens 290

2. Former High Continental Elevation... . 290

3. Character of the Lake Basins.. j Sc ereOr

A exGlacidtiom Of they RePION.......02 5 conus. eves eaeecde oe ont pee 202

5. Buried Laurentian Valley.......... SAC HBAS, OO Ott Oreste!

6. Buried Tributaries ..... aay aos

7. Reversal of the Drainage ‘of the U pper ‘Ohio and other rivers......... 294

8. Closing of the Valleys into Lake Basins ... Eames 200

g. Deserted Beaches in the Lake sea and their Deformation ........ 205

1o. Warren Water ..... satera Mair. crrs stew ences Mate uae yt niet es oe (200
11. Algonquin and L undy Waters.. Fic amet eee NES OT,
12, Iroquois Water and Birth of the Modern L akes. 207

13. History of the Niagara River and Changes of the Outlets of the Lakes 298
14. Recurrent pas of the Great Lakes into the rp Son Lore River by
VAUE: CNIGADLINE TIES acs cleavaduren vaaumateesinte tmatas Bite extent OK

*Read before Section E of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, at the Brooklyn meeting, August 20, 1894.

290 The American Geologist, November, 1894

1. Problems and Progress. ‘ Problems settled in the
rough and ready way by rude men, absorbed in action, de-
mand renewed attention and show themselves to be still un-
read riddles; when men have time to think .... doubt...
refuses to be cast out.” In such a condition was our knowl--
edge of the history of the Great Lakes, tributary to the St.
Lawrence, when the writer commenced his fragmentary studies
fifteen years ago. In these studies of the lakes some of the
most interesting and important questions in dynamical, agri-
cultural, and artistic geology are involved. Even if the Great
Lakes had attracted the attention due them, their study would
have been impracticable at an early date, at least until after
numerous soundings had revealed their character; and until
the railway surveys were made, for these furnish data for
quantitative measurements. Many deep well-borings were
needed to discover the buried valleys; and the surveys of the
deserted shores have delimited the boundaries of the shrink-
ing lakes, and made known the deformation of the earth’s
crust.

From intimate familiarity with the topographic features of
the southern states, and by comparing them with those of the
lake region, one can easily see that there would be very little
difference between the features of the two areas, if the super-
ficial drift at the north were removed and the country were
then compared with that at the south where there is no such
mantle. Accordingly the meteoric origin of the great St. Law-
rence basin suggests itself; but the basin has been obstructed
and several great lakes now occupy what were once broad
rolling plains. Before men had time to study the lake history
we were told that the lakes were valleys of erosion, but how
they were made was hardly a question worthy of considera-
tion. Later, it was an equally rough and ready method to tell
us that the basins were excavated by glaciers.- Their whole
history is not yet written, but many chapters are now before
us. Extracts of these will be given in their natural order
(not in that of the discoveries), so that a short story of the
lakes can be told.

2. Former High Continental Elevation. As will be shown
in the next paragraph, the basins of the lakes are more or less
like erosion valleys. The deepest sounding of lake Ontario is

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 291

491 feet below sea level; of lake Michigan, 262 feet: of lake
Huron, 168 feet; and of lake Superior, more than 400 feet.
Consequently, if these were erosion valleys, they must have
been formed at such an altitude that the drainage of the
region could have descended to the sea. As collateral evi-
dence of the high elevation, we find that the lower St. Law-
rence river and the Gulf are only a deeply submerged river
valley, with tributary canyons, having a general depth increas-
ing from 1,200 feet to 1,800 feet, but much deeper at the edge
of the continental plateau. Hudson strait, the Gulf of Maine,
New York harbor, and other points along the continental mar-
gin, reveal great submerged canyons that were once river
valleys. Indeed, portions of the continent were once very
much higher than now, especially in the south. where the
coast and the Antillean region appear to have sunk from one
and a half miles to two and a half miles during the Pleisto-
cene period. These changes of level have been in undulations,
with the greatest subsidence along the coastal regions, and
more particularly in the south than in the north. But this

forms a separate and partly written chapter, in which much

progress has recently been made. It is sufticient to know that
the lake region has stood at a high elevation during most of
the time from the Carboniferous to the Pleistocene days,
which were followed by changes of level resulting in the
present altitude of the Jand.*

3. Character of the Lake Basins.. The valley-like charac-
ter of the lake basins appears to be challenged when the casual
observer finds that some of the outlets are mostly obstructed
by rocky barriers. This condition gives rise to the hypothe-
sis of the glacial origin of the basins, for the theorist did not
stop to compare the course of the basins and the escarpments
with the direction of the glacial strie. However one might
doubt the correctness of the fluviatile hypothesis, the futility
of the glacial origin could only be confirmed when the causes
of the barriers closing the lakes were discovered, which will

*Previous papers on this subject by the present writer are: ‘*High
Continental Elevation preceding the Pleistocene period,’’ Bulletin Geol.
Soc. Am., vol. 1, 1889, pp. 65-70; *‘Post-Pleistocene Subsidence versus
Glacial Dams,”’ Id., vol. 11, 1890, pp. 465-476; ‘Terrestrial Subsidence
southeast of the American Continent,’’ Id., vol. v, 1893, pp. 19-22. Each
of these papers is accompanied with a map.

292 The American Geologist. November, 1894

be shown to have been the drift filling the old valleys and the
warping of the earth’s crust. But the basins are river-like
and broad submerged valleys. Lake Ontariois 247 feet above
the sea, but its greatest depth is 738 feet; and throughout a
considerable portion of it, the southern side is bounded by
high vertical but submerged walls, which for long ages formed
bluffs along the ancient river.* Besides the longitudinal
trough, another deep channel crosses the basin east of Toronto.
Lake Erie is 578 feet above tide, but it is generally less than 100
feet deep, except over a small area where it is 210 feet; but
beneath the waters of the shallow basin there are many buried
channels, the deepest of which, at Cleveland, is 228 feet
(Newberry). Lakes Michigan and Huron and Georgian bay,
are at one altitude, 582 feet above the sea. Georgian bay is
generally less than 200 feet deep, but at its southwestern side
a channel reaches to a depth of 510 feet. in front of the foot
of a very high escarpment, part of which is submerged. An-
other submerged escarpment crosses lake Huron. This has a
descent of more than 400 feet. The deepest sounding is 750
feet. The two basins of lake Michigan (respectively 864 and
576 feet deep) have vertical submerged escarpments adjacent
to them. Also there are some deep channels and fjords, one
of which is 612 feet deep. Lake Superior has been studied
less. More or less drift is known to occur between the lake
basins, like that filling the submerged channels under lake
Erie. The buried valleys will explain the connection between
the lakes.

4. Glaciation of the Region. The strive are nowhere par-
allel to the direction of the escarpments, whether these be
submerged or above the level of the lakes, where they form
bold topographic features. Nor are the vertical walls of the
limestone escarpments polished by lateral glaciation. In
short, the striw are at considerable angles, even at right angles,
to the rocky escarpments. Thus it appears that the valleys
were not shaped by glacial action.

**Notes on the Origin and History of the Great Lakes,’’? by the writer,
Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. xxxvit, 1888, p. 197; ‘‘Origin of the
Basins of the Great Lakes of America,’’ by the writer, Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc., London, vol xuvi, p. 523 (also in AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. VII,
pp. 86-97, with map of the ancient Laurentian river system, Feb., 1891);
and earlier papers.

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 298

5. Buried Laurentian Valley. Below the outlet of lake
Ontario, the valley is covered to some extent with drift, but
the greater part of the barrier closing the lake is rocky. Be-
- tween Georgian bay and lake Ontario, the writer discovered a
deep buried valley (by a series of borings, for there’ was no
superficial evidence of it, although parallel to the Niagara es-
carpment), beneath the great drift ridges intervening between
the two waters. The full depth has not been reached, although
not less than 750 feet beneath the higher ridges, and it is prob-
ably very much deeper, as indicated by the fjords at both
ends (in lake Ontario and in Georgian bay); so that here is
the connecting valley between the submerged channels of the
upper lakes and lake Ontario. The fjords of northern Mich-
igan and the buried channels continue the evidence that from
lake Michigan to the outlet of lake Ontario, the ancient Lau-
rentian river flowed partly through the basins and partly
across the country north of Toronto. The ancient river is
thus named to distinguish it from the modern St. Lawrence
river. The connection of the valley of Superior with the Lau-
rentian river has not been determined; but judging from
soundings in lake Michigan, we may suppose it to have been
by way of the northern end of that valley.*

6. Buried Tributaries. A branch of the Laurentian river,
now buried beneath 500 feet of drift, extended from the
southern basin of lake Michigan across the Michigan penin-
sula and the southern end of the Huron basin. This large
tributary, which has been named the Huronian river, is of the
Same age as the Laurentian river.

Through the Erie basin flowed the now buried and sub-
merged Erigan river. Niagara river was not then in exist-
ence. But the Erigan passed from the Erie basin across the
province of Ontario to the great canyon at the head of lake
Ontario, thus descending to the lower basin.

Many branches and smaller tributaries are known to have
joined these greater rivers, as revealed by the borings. In
some cases there were no changes in the direction of the an-
cient and modern drainage. In other cases the streams have
locally left the original waterways and again returned to the

*“Origin of the Basins of the Great Lakes,’’ cited before; also ‘‘Dis-
covery of the Preglacial Outlet of the Basin of Lake Erie into Lake
Ontario,’’ by the writer, Proc Am. Phil. Soc., Philadelphia, 1881.

294 The American Geologist. November, 1894

old valleys. A characteristic of the former drainage is the
filling of the ancient channels, above which the modern streams
flow upon the accumulation of drift. The ancient valleys are
relatively much shallower but broader than the modern, with
sides more sloping and other marks of greater antiquity than
the modern streams, where they have cut new channels in
place of reopening the buried valleys.

7. Reversal of the Drainage of the Upper Ohio and other
rivers. Among the earlier studies on buried valleys were those
of Dr. J. S. Newberry, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, and Mr. J. F. Carll.
To Mr. Carll] belongs the credit of first working out the re-
versal of the drainage of western Pennsylvania, where he dis-
covered that the upper Allegheny and some other streams
flowed into the Erie basin before the Pleistocene period. In
1881 the writer, following Carll, pointed out that there is ev-
idence that the whole upper Ohio river, above the Beaver
tributary, flowed to the Erie basin. This hypothesis was am-
plified by Dr. P. Max Foshay, and later the observations have
been extended by Prof. T. C. Chamberlin and Mr. Frank Lev-
erett, confirming the change in the direction of the drainage.
The streams south of lake Erie generally drain a much smaller
basin than formerly. So in New York, the upper waters
of the Susquehanna, and of its tributaries, drained to the
north into the Ontario basin, by way of the Finger lakes,
which now oceupy the old river courses, partially closed up
by drift deposits and by terrestrial warping or deformation
towards the north.

S. Closing of the Valleys into Lake Basins. The old Lau-
rentian valley was more than a hundred miles wide, but it was
interrupted by the deposition of drift in many places, most
notably between Georgian bay and lake Ontario. To some
extent the modern St, Lawrence river is flowing over a drift-
filled valley. This obstruction has caused the modern drain-
age to be changed from the old directions and often to pass
over rocky barriers. But in addition to the drift obstruction,
we find that the recent terrestrial uplift has been greatest
toward the northeast, producing barriers and forming basins.
The warping has been measured and is found suflicient to ac-
count for all the rocky barrier below the outlet of lake Onta-
rio. Moreover this northeastern elevation has caused all the

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 295

lakes to rise and flood their southern and western ends, since
the modern lakes wtre established. The quantitative charac-
ter of this change will be explained in the next paragraph,
and the effects upon the modern drainage beyond.

9. Deserted Beaches in the Lake Region and their Deforma-
tion. The Laurentian lake region abounds with the remains
of deserted beaches, terraces, sea-cliffs, and other evidences of
former shore lines. The writer has made an extensive sur-
vey of these phenomena in Canada, across Michigan, in
the Adirondacks, and in the Green and White moun-
tains.* Mr. -G. K. Gilbert did the first systematic work
south of lakes Ontario and Erie.t Mr. F. B. Taylor has
more recently extended the surveys north of lake Michigan
and northeast of lake Huron:{ and Dr. A. C. Lawson,
north of lake Superior.§ There has been very little systematic

12)

work in the lake region upon these problems except by the
named observers. Some of these old shore lines, after form-
ing highways known as ridge roads, have been surveyed for
hundreds of miles; others are broken or interrupted. Gener-
ally speaking, the northeastern extensions are unknown, owing
to the want of surveys; to the changes in the topography,
rendering their surveys difficult; to our ignorance of the phe-
nomena; to ourignorance of suspected modern faults; and to
our further ignorance as to how much the phenomena are ob-

***Notes upon the Origin and History of the Great Lakes,’’ cited be-
fore; ‘‘Deformation of the Iroquois Beach and Birth of Lake Ontario.”
Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xu, 1890, pp. 448-451; ‘‘Deformation of the Al-
gonquin Beach and Birth of Lake Huron,”’ id., vol. xn1, 1891, pp. 12-
21; ‘‘High Level Shores in the Region of the Great Lakes and their
Deformation,’’ id., pp. 201-211; ‘‘Deformation of the Lundy Beach and
Birth of Lake Erie,” id., vol. xLvi1, 1894, pp. 207-212; ‘*The Lroquois Shore
north of the Adirondacks,’’ Bulletin, Geol. Soc. Am., vol. tr, 1891, pp.
488-491. Each of these papers, excepting the one last cited, is acecompan-
ied with a map.

+**The History of Niagara River,’ Sixth Annual Report of the Com-
missioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, for the year 1889, pp.
61-84, with eight plates (also in the Smithsonian Annual Report for
1890); Proc.-A..A. A. S:, vol. xxxv, for 1886, pp. 222; 223.

t ‘‘Reconnaissances of the Abandoned Shore Lines of Green Bay and
of the South Coast of Lake Superior,’> AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. XII,
pp. 316-327, and 365-383, May and June, 1894; ‘‘The Ancient Strait at
Nipissing,’’ Bulletin, Geol. Soc. Am., vol. v, pp. 620-626. Each of these
papers has a map.

‘Sketch of the Coastal Topography of the North Side of Lake Su-
perior, with special reference to the Abandoned Strands of Lake War-
ren,’’ Twentieth Annual Report, Geol. Sury. Minnesota, for 1891, pp.
181-289, with map and profiles.

296 The American Geologist. November, 1894

literated by ice action, his last question involves the prob-
lems of subsidence of the region and of*the character of ice
dams. The writer regards the beaches as substantially formed
at sea-level (as some of the beaches unquestionably were),
although the outlines may have been obstructed by, glaciers,
floe-bergs, or local ice accumulations, or perhaps the north-
eastern continuity of the beaches is obliterated by recent
faults. These are unsettled questions. Much is still to be
done in the survey of the ancient lakes, yet we have some in-
teresting contributions to record concerning them, even with-
out inquiry here as to the still unread history. :

Fragments of beaches occur in the peninsula between lakes
Ontario, Erie and Huron, up to altitudes of about 1,700 feet;
and terraces are found in the Genesee valley at a much
greater hight, besides others at high levels elsewhere in the
lake region. But when we descend to an altitude of 778 feet,
at the head of lake Erie, we are at a beach of great extent (to
the northeast this rises several hundred feet); and one still
more extensive is reached by descending to 653 feet. All
the higher shore developments are the remains of the first
waters that covered the drift at the close of the Pleistocene
period, whether they were ice-bound arms of the sea, or held by
glacial dams, or by undiscovered land barriers since deformed
by terrestrial movements. The beaches were water-levels, but
now they rise toward the north and east in increasing ratio.
At the head of lake Erie they are nearly level; at the eastern
end of this lake the northeastern rise is between three and two
feet per mile, according as we take the uplift on the higher or
lower beaches. East of Georgian bay the deformation is four
feet; and near the outlet of lake Ontario it is from five to six
feet per mile towards the northeast, but increases onward to
seven and a half feet per mile. These rates of ascent are re-
corded in shores not the highest; and there were many lower
stages of the lakes.

10. Warren Water. The contracting waters of the Great
Lakes region, represented by the succession of beaches, the
writer named the Warren water,—the ancestor of all these
lakes; and its lowest strand is the Forest beach, which at the
head of the Erie basin has an elevation of 653 feet above the
sea. This lake, during part of its history, covered 200,000

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 297

square miles. But to the east it has not been defined, and its
old margins have been very considerably tilted. With the
continued rise of the land, the waters sunk to a lower level,

dismembering Warren water and producing :—

11. Algonquin and Lundy Waters. When the level of the
water fell about 150 feet below the level of the Forest beach,
the upper three lakes were enclosed within the Algonquin
beach, and Erie within the Lundy beach, which latter extend-

ed to the Ontario basin, At that time the waters of the lakes

did not reach to their western and southern boundaries of to-
day. Toward the northeast they connected by straits with
the waters in the Ontario basin, but their eastern limit has
not been surveyed. .

12. Iroquois Water and Birth of the Modern Lakes. The
waters gradually subsided to 300 feet below the planes
of the Algonquin and Lundy beaches when the Iroquois shore
commenced to be formed. Thislevel has been proved to have
been that of the sea, although it is now 363 feet above tide
at the head of lake Ontario, 750 feet near the outlet of the
lake, and nearly 1,500 feet at the northeastern extension of
the Adirondacks. The old water plane is recognizable, by

either continuous or interrupted portions of its shore line, all

the way to the depression of lake Champlain, but it is not yet
fully known, especially as to its location north of the Ottawa
river. Lower beaches are also known in the Ontario basin.
With the subsidence of the waters to the Iroquois level, the
upper lakes shrunk within their narrow limits, and the Niag-
ara river had its birth, at first draining only the Erie basin,
whilst the three upper lakes outflowed by way of the Ottawa

valley. Indeed, the Iroquois waters sunk more than 220 feet

below the Iroquois beach, thus greatly reducing the area of
that lake. The waters of the upper lakes also sunk so as to
form sheets of very contracted proportions. By the continued
rise of the land towards the northeast, the rims of the lakes
were raised, backing the waters in the basins and extending
the modern lakes as we see them. ‘This rise was intermittent,
but, for the average of the secular episodes of movement and
repose, the warping in the Niagara district appears to have
been a foot and a quarter in a century, and it was double that

298 The American Geologist. November, 1894

amount at the outlet of lake Ontario, but almost zero at the
head of lake Erie.

13. History of the Niagara River and Changes of the Out-
lets of the Lakes. From a recently written paper I make the
following extracts, concerning the changes and recession of
Niagara falls (Plate VIII). Upon the dismemberment of
Lundy water, the Niagara river came into existence, and for
a time (taken as 1,000 years) drained the infant lake Erie
without cascading over a fall. The waters of the lower lake
slowly sunk so that the total hight of the fall was 200 feet,
with only the drainage of the Erie basin, or about 3; of the
modern volume of the water. The early falls are almost ex-
actly reproduced in the magnitude of the American falls. The
duration of the first episode is computed at about 17,200
years. Again the waters subsided in the Ontario basin (80
feet lower than now) so that the total descent was 420 feet.
At that time the falls receded by three cascades (like the Gen-:
esee of to-day), at first with only the discharge of the Erie
basin and afterwards with the drainage of all the upper lakes.
This condition is computed to have lasted 10,000 years. Then
succeeded one united fall of 420 feet, which lasted 800 years.
Finally the northeastern part of the Ontario basin rose so that
the descent of the river waters was reduced to 365 feet and
afterwards to about 320 feet (the downfall from the head of
the rapids above the falls to the lake below). This adds 3,000
years to the age of the falls. Thus, it can be seen that the
age of the Niagara river is computed to be 32,000 years. It is
now well established that the three upper lakes have dis-
charged only a comparatively short time into the Erie basin,
having formerly sent their waters to the Ottawa river. This
change in the direction of the outlet is calculated at 8,000
years ago, when the northeastern terrestrial tilting turned the
drainage into the Erie basin.

About fifteen hundred years ago, the differential uplift in
the Niagara district and the recession of the falls through the
Johnson ridge, a short distance below the present site of the
falls, were competing for the mastery, and in the meanwhile
the four upper lakes rose so high as to commence to send their’
waters to the Mississippi river. But the ridge was cut through
and the waters were lowered to the exclusive Niagara drain-

Tur AMERIGAN GEOLOGIST,

OF

EXPLANATION.

A. Brow of escarpment and original site of the fall.
7. Iroquois beach and level of that water.
B,b, 1. Gorge or chasm at the end of the first episode.
cades; but from / to g the slope was extended over a dist

Falls retreating in three cas
Cataract and gorge at the end of thes
Development of the gorge at the end o

Gacwine.

D, d,m, &. econd episode.

{ the third episode.

Bt y8
F. Present site of the falls.
I, f,m,g. The present gorge from the falls to lake Ontario, by which its lower portion is p
g. Level of the lowest lake stage during the Niagara river history (80 feet below the
L. Lundy beach, capping the drift.
J. Johnson ridge.

ence of drift on the west bank only, with

Broken shading about the whirlpool shows the occurr
The bottom of the river is abou

dotted, sandstone; broken lines and unshaded portions, shales.
the figure.

tHe NraGarna GORGE, SHOWING THE

ance

Vou. XLY, Puate VIII.

RETREAT

AND THE GEOLOGICAT, STRUCTURE.

of twelve miles be

artially submerged.
present lake level).

the rock on the eastern;
t 80 feet below the prese

yond the

escarpment.

block shading represents limestone ;
nt surface of lake Ontario, as shown in

| ES ek ne OI ee
ECESSION OF NIAGARA FALLS.

R

‘ Rens
c thie’

vite ba Pak

Review of History of the Great Lakes.—Spencer. 299

-age. If the terrestrial elevation of the land shall continue as
for the last 1,500 years, the barrier across the outlet of lake
Erie must rise so high as to turn the drainage of the lakes into
the Mississippi, by way of Chicago; and it is computed that
the end of the Niagara river and falls, under such conditions,
will be about 5,000 years hence.

All these estimates are based upon the rate of recession of
the falls and the amount of work done in each episode, as dis-
covered in working out the history of the lakes. In 1842,
Prof. James Hall made the first instrumental survey of the
falls. The next wes made in 1875 by the Coast Survey. In
1886, Prof. R. S. Woodward made the third; and in 1890 Mr.
Aug. 8. Kibbe made the last. From these four surveys, the
mean rate of recession of the falls (that is, the mean elonga-
tion of the gorge) was found to be 4.17 feet a year. But the
river in the region of the falls is now crossing a pre-Pleisto-
cene valley, where the hard surface rocks have been removed
for 80 or 90 feet in depth beneath the rocky ridge crossing
the course of the canyon a short distance below the present site
of the falls. Thus the amount of work now being done by the
river is much less than the average demand upon the stream
during the greater part of the life of the river. Before 1875
all statements as to the age of the river were pure conjectures,
but that of Lyell was nearly correct. The estimates made
upon the retreat of the falls alone have proved to he not even
so accurate, although the method was better as far as it went;
but it stopped short of the history of the falls. Again, spec-
ulations as to the ancient Niagara flowing down by the Whirl-
pool-St. David’s valley have been disproved by the rock which
crosses that course hundreds of feet above the lake level; in-
stead, the Niagara here touches a little buried tributary of an
ancient stream to the west.

In conclusion, the Niagara falls serve as a chronometer of
geological time, as they give some idea of the epoch of the
lakes. If the Ice age ended with the birth of Warren water,
then we can roughly estimate it to date back some 50,000 or
60,000 years. At the birth of the Niagara river and falls, and
long before, there was no ice barrier in the Niagara district.
Lastly, if we regard the Iroquois water as at any time ob-
structed by ice, such conditions have not existed since the

300 The American Geologist. November, 1894

close of the episode which ended 14,000 years ago. Whilst,
however, the date of the decadence of the Ice age in this region
is told, the falls do not necessarily record its termination in
other and distant regions.

14. Recurrent Drainage of the Great Lakes into the Mis-
sissippi River by way of Chicago. Long ago, Dr. E. Andrews
described the deserted beaches south of Chicago, and found
that the highest reaches an elevation of 45 feet above the
lake. For many miles around the head of the lake, the de-
serted shores are found far inland. There are other raised
beaches near the lake. The different sets form an apparent
succession, but in reality there is confusion between the old
water-margins and the very recent beaches. The low plain at
the head of the lake rises so gradually that at the divide be-
tween it and the Mississippi drainage southwest of Chicago it
is only eight feet above the lake, with a rocky floor a foot or
two lower (canal survey). In proceeding northward along
the margin of the Michigan basin, beaches are found emerg-
ing from beneath the waters. From the measured deformation
of the various sets of deserted shores, the depth to whieh
the tilted beaches are depressed beneath the lake can be
ealculated.* These record the shrinking of thelake from the
highest level south of Chicago to others even hundreds of feet
beneath. ‘

The Ridgeway beach extends from the Erie basin across
southern Michigan, by way of Saginaw bay and the Grand
river valley, and southeast of lake Michigan it descends and
is lost in the sand dunes of that region; but, with the meas-
ured rate of deformation, it is computed to pass about 40 feet
beneath the surface of the water. The Forest beach, the last
strand of Warren water, is about 100 feet lower. The still
lower Algonquin beach (the great shore line of the dismem-
bered upper lakes) occurs well defined about the northern
half of the lake (Andrews and Taylor); but if produced to
the southern end of the basin, it would be submerged between
250 and 300 feet. There are other lower and less important
deserted shores; but all these represent the subsiding of the
lakes during the time of discharge of the waters of lake Huron

*“Hieh Level Shores in the region of the Great Lakes and their De-
formation,’’ before cited.

Drainage of Carboniferous area, Michigan.—Mudge. 301

by way of the Ottawa river, which is found to have drained
the Huron, Michigan and Superior basins for about 24,000
years.

The highest of the beaches about the head of lake Michigan
(at 45 feet) has been regarded as the equivalent of the Mau-
mee beach, or not a lower strand, and therefore the oldest well
defined beach of the region, although itis only a few feet
above the present and recently deserted shores.

Owing to the terrestrial deformation, the Ottawa outlet of
the Huron basin was closed by the rim being raised so highas
to turn the overflow into the Erie basin. This northeastward
uplift also affected the outlet of the Erie basin, and on ac-
count of the presence of the Johnson ridge, abouta mile north
of the present site of the falls of Niagara, caused an actual
overflow of the drainage of all the upper lakes into the tribu-
taries of the Mississippi. At that time the lacustrine silts
upon the prairies at the head of lake Michigan were laid down.
But the Niagara falls were receding at the rate of about four
feet a year and completed the incision through the Johnson
ridge about 1,500 years ago,* thus overcoming the terrestrial
uplift of the Niagara district (which is about a foot and a
quarter a century ), and then the level of lake Erie was lowered
to about 17 feet below the Chicago divide. The slightly raised
beaches about the head of lake Michigan mark this late sub-
siding of the waters. The lowering of the waters by the
recession of the falls has preserved the present outlet of the
lakes for a further period, but if the late rate of terrestrial
deformation shall continue in the future, the drainage of the
upper lakes will be diverted from the Niagara into the Missis-
sippi in perhaps 5,000 or 6,000 years, so that this result will
be reached before the falls shall have receded to Buffalo.

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS
AREA OF MICHIGAN.
By E. H. MupGE, Belding, Mich.
The rock formations of Michigan commonly referred to the
Carboniferous period, include the Subcarboniferous limestone

*Deformation of the Lundy Beach and Birth of Lake Erie,’’ before
cited.

302 The American Geologist, November, 1894

and the Coal Measures proper. The former is of limited de-
velopment and often entirely wanting. The area occupied by
these formations is roughly circular in form and is located in
the central part of the lower peninsula. It covers not far
from 10,000 square miles, including fourteen entire counties
and parts of as many more.

BounDARY OF THE DistTRICcT.

The surface is so generally covered with drift that its exact
limits cannot be readily ascertained. Much of the boundary,
however, may be located with reasonable accuracy from the
presence of occasional outcrops. According to Prof. Romin-
ger (Geol. Survey of Mich., vol. mr, 1876), the boundary is
about as follows: Commencing at a point on Saginaw bay,
in the northern part of Huron county; thence southwesterly
ina gentle curve to the southern part of Jackson county,
within about 30 miles of the southern state line; thence north-
west to the vicinity of Grand Rapids, about 25 miles from
lake Michigan; thence north, northeast and east with a sweep-
ing curve, to the north shore of Saginaw bay, opposite the
place of beginning. From Grand Rapids to the vicinity of
Saginaw bay the location of the boundary is largely guess-
work, owing to the heavy drift with which the region is covy-
ered.

TopoGRAPHY. .

A marked depression crosses the peninsula from Saginaw
bay to the mouth of Grand river, dividing the Carboniferous
area into two nearly equal parts. Its direction is southwest
from Saginaw bay to the mouth of the Maple river, in Ionia
county, thence west to lake Michigan. According to the late
Prof. A. Winchell, one may cross the state along this line
without reaching an altitude greater than 72 feet above the
lakes. The highest point isin Gratiot county, probably in
North Star township (T.10N., R. 2 W.), where the waters
flowing into the Bad and Maple rivers separate. The northern
and southern portions of the district incline gently to the
central depression. The point where this depression crosses
the western margin of the Carboniferous area is but a few feet
above lake Michigan, the site of the union depot in Grand
Rapids, having an altitude of only 20 feet. Theeastern end
of the depression merges into Saginaw bay. From these two

Drainage of Carboniferous Area, Michigan.—Mudge. 303

low-lying points the boundary rises in each direction. The
northern rim attains an altitude of about 500 feet, reaching
well up toward the high northern plateau. The elevation of
the southern margin is perhaps a little greater.

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS.

An inspection of a geological map reveals at once an inti-
mate coincidenée between the drainage areas of the district
and the limits of the district itself. The boundary as above
described, except where it crosses the central depression,
marks, approximately, the watershed between the streams
draining the district and those flowing in various outward di-
rections. ‘This peculiarity is more particularly noticeable
along the southern margin of the territory. From the vicinity
of Grand river on the west, to Howell on the east, a distance
of about 150 miles, the coincidence is nearly continuous, the
only notable exception being in Calhoun county, where the
northern branches of the Kalamazoo, rising some distance
within the district, flow outwardly across the border. From
Howell northeast to Saginaw bay, the boundary is some dis-
tance west of the watershed, the eastern members of the Sagi-
naw river system rising outside the district and flowing in-
wardly. On the northwestern border for a distance of seven-
ty-five miles, the Muskegon river is within the boundary and
only a few miles from it, thus apparently contradicting the
rule laid down above. Nevertheless the rule isin some de-
gree applicable, as will be seen later on.

There are two principal river systems in the district, the
Grand and the Saginaw, which carry off nearly all the water
falling within it, and but very little from outside territory.
The line of separation between them runs from the margin of
the district in Livingston county in a general northwest di-
rection to Mecosta county. The territory drained by each is
broad and irregular in shape, whilenearly every other stream
of importance within the state occupies a more or less elongated
valley. The only remaining river worthy of mention within
the district is the Muskegon, which drains a narrow strip on
the northwestern margin.

GENESIS OF THE RIVER SysTEMS.

That the history of all the streams in this region dates

from the close of the Glacial period is quite apparent. For

304 The American Geologist. November. 1894

the most part there is no evidence to show that they occupy
the sites of preglacial river valleys. With few exceptions
their courses were determined by the conditions existing
during the period of the disappearance of the ice-sheet. To
understand those conditions clearly, a brief glance at the pre-
glacial aspect of the Carboniferous area will prove of value.

The close of the Devonian found this area isolated from the
main ocean, having been entirely surrounded by deposits of
that age. It, however, retained one or more outlets through
which its surplus waters were discharged. During the nu-
merous oscillations to which the land was subjected during
Carboniferous time this area was alternately an open sea in
which heavy sandstones were deposited and an extensive
swamp sufticiently stable to support a luxuriant flora. In
either case there was always a large amount of surplus water,
and hence the existence of the outlet was probably continu-
ous. Now, when this inland sea was finally filled by the con-
tinued formation of off shore deposits the central part was
presumably the newest and hence the lowest, giving aslightly
concave form to the surface; the concavity being broken
through at the points occupied by outlets. It seems probable
that these outlets were two, one to the east discharging its
waters through the St. Lawrence valley, the other flowing to
the west for some distance and then south to the ocean.
Starting in this condition the area was subjected for some
millions of years, during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, to un-
interrupted erosive influences. The result was a transforma-
tion of the circular concave surface to a trough-like configu-
ration; the main drainage channels occupying the line of
least elevation across it, and the northern and southern por-
tions sloping to the center. At this stage of the erosive
process the country was overwhelmed by the glacial invasion.
It is already obvious to the reader that the present configura-
tion is not particularly different from that just outlined. The
central depression is still a marked feature, and the two lat-
eral portions incline gently towards it. The glacial forces
modified it, but could not obliterate it. Its origin therefore
dates from the close of the Devonian age. We are now pre-
pared to consider intelligently the origin of our river systems.

Glacialists are generally agreed that the direction of ice

Drainage of Carboniferous Area, Michigan.— Mudge. 305

movement over the lake region was from northeast to south-
west, with local variations caused by river valleys or other
already existing surface irregularities. Thus, it is presumed
that lakes Huron and Michigan mark the sites of former im-
portant streams, in the valleys of which the erosive force
exerted was necessarily much greater than on the highlands,
and hence the formation of the broad lake basins. This in-
tense erosive force was also felt in the valley of the eastern
Carboniferous outlet, and Saginaw bay was the result. When
the continental glacier receded and thinned out, its margin
took the form of great lobes which occupied the lower por-
tions of the land. A branch of the great lake Erie lobe occu-
pied Saginaw bay and valley and extended far across the
country to the southwest. In its retreat it gave rise to two
whole families of rivers.

The origin of Grand river was fully described by the writer
in the American GroLocist for November, 1898. It was briefly
as follows: The Saginaw glacial lobe having retreated over
the watershed near the southwestern boundary of the Carbon-
iferous district the accumulating waters flowed to the north
and west along its front before rising high enough to pass
over the watershed.

Retreating to the northeast down the gentle slope of the
country, the waters were again unable to rise to their recent
outlet, the Grand, and a second river, the Cedar, was formed.
It flowed to the west, uniting with the Grand near Lansing.
Leaving the Cedar in an established channel, the glacial lobe
continued its recession down the slope, and ina similar man-
ner gave birth to the Looking-glass river. This also flows to
the west, reaching the Grand at Portland. Still later that part
of the Maple south of the central depression was formed,
probably in the same manner. All these streams flow at
an angle with the natural inclination of the surface.

Though these conclusions have not been reached through a
personal visit and examination of all the streams, it is be-
lieved that they are entirely warranted. The problem in brief
is this: Given a glacial lobe retreating slowly down a gentle in-
cline, and hemmed in at one side and in front by an elevated
ridge, to determine the direction of flow of the waters result-
ing from its waste. It is clear that they would escape in the

306 The American Geologist. November, 1894

lateral direction remaining open to them. Now these are ex-
actly the conditions existing here. The circular form of the
watershed skirting the southwestern boundary of the district
made it impossible for the waters to escape in any other di-
rection than that taken by the rivers mentioned.

The second family of rivers originating in connection with
this glacial lobe was the Saginaw system. This consists of
the Cass, Flint, Shiawassee and Tittabawassee rivers, which
unite into a single stream some fifteen or twenty miles above
the head of Saginaw bay, and not more than six or eight feet
above its level. To make out their origin in detail would re-
quire further careful investigation, but some conclusions or
inferences may be safely drawn. These streams, as a system,
flow in the direction of glacial retreat, that is, down the val-
ley. It may, therefore, be inferred that they did not originate
in the escape of glacial waters. The courses of the Cass and
Tittabawassee are, however, a little abnormal. The former
rises to the southeast of Saginaw bay, while the latter has its
source far to the northwest. Instead of flowing directly down
the slope to the bay, both of these streams take a course at an
angle with the inclination of the surface and meet at Saginaw
City, together forming a semicircle about the head of the
bay. Small streams rising near them flow direct to the bay.
The natural inference is that their peculiar courses are due
to a line of morainal embankments formed about the circular
front of the glacier.

It seems to me hardly probable that the great Erie-Huron
glacial lake ever occupied this valley, or that it ever had an
outlet through the pass to Grand river, as some have inferred.
Such a body of water, remaining for a considerable time,
would have so leveled and modified its bottom that the
streams would not, after its disappearance, have taken the
abnormal course above described. It is more likely that the
Saginaw valley was at that time still blocked with ice. <A
smaller lake may have existed in front of the Saginaw lobe.

One more important stream, not related in origin to those
just described, remains to be mentioned. The Muskegon rises
in the north central part of the peninsula and flows directly
southwest to lake Michigan, draining an area 125 miles long,
with an average width of only about 25 miles. The form of

‘ea « 1 a. a see

Drainage of Carboniferous Area, Michigan.—Mudge. 307
this valley is rather flat, the center being depressed about 200
feet below the marginal portions, The northwestern Carbon-
iferous boundary is within this elongated valley for a distance
of 75 miles. Our conclusions in regard to the origin of this
valley and river are of a somewhat more speculative nature
than the foregoing. Nevertheless, some interesting generali-
zations may be drawn.

It is worthy of notice, in the first place, that this valley oc-
cupies exactly the place where one would naturally expect to
find the backbone of the peninsula—the line of water-parting
between the streams flowing west to lake Michigan and those
flowing southeast to Saginaw bay and the central depression.
It is as though the original watershed had been for many miles
longitudinally cleft by the river into two roughly parallel
watersheds. To learn the origin of these remarkable condi-
tions is the problem before us, to which the circumstances
suggest two possible solutions.

The first is that the line of first separation between the
eastern and western ice lobes was along the line of highest
elevation; and upon this highest ridge, flanked by the sepa- -
rating lobes, the river was formed by the glacial waste and
established its permanent course. ‘This theory is, in effect, a
modification of that applied by Mr. McGee to certain rivers of
northeastern Iowa (Eleventh Annual Report, U. 8. Geol. Sur-
vey, pp. 218, 219, 236). While this theory applies very nicely
to the river, it seems quite plain that the valley did not orig-
inate in this manner. The time since the Glacial period has
been too short to permit the formation of so wide a valley;
and besides, its surface is now covered with drift materials
and dotted with small lakes, many of them being near the
stream channel, indicating that it was ice-covered after its
present form was attained.

The second theory is more complex and difficult to work
out in detail. It is suggested by the fact that for so long a
distance the valley coincides with the Carboniferous bound-
ary. If this valley is of preglacial origin we naturally assume
that it was the result of stream erosion. The question then
arises, Why should the ancient stream follow so persistently
the strike of the undisturbed Carboniferous strata, rather
than their natural inclination? This is a most difficult prob-

308 The American Geologist. November, 1894

lem to shed light upon, but I would suggest that along this
shore of the ancient sea a long line of sand bars may have
been built up of the sediments brought in by inflowing
streams. The channel between these and the mainland may
have served in later time, when the swampy land had further
extended itself, as a watercourse, conducting the surplus
water around the margin to the western outlet. Such astream
might finally establish itself and excavate’a valley. In sup-
port of this it is worthy of mention that at the present time a
very slight deflection of the Muskegon river in Newaygo
county, just before it leaves the Carboniferous area, would
cause it to continue within the boundary until it reached
Grand river and the central depression just above Grand
Rapids through the valley now occupied by the Rouge river.
The latter heads in Rice lake, within three miles of the Mus-
kegon and at about the same or a slightly lower level.

In closing we wish to acknowledge our indebtedness for the
elevations and general surface configuration, on which this
paper is based, to a most excellent contour map of the state,
prepared with much labor by the late Prof. Alexander
Winchell.

THE MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CERTAIN
NEW JERSEY LIMESTONES.

By Lewis G. WEsTGATE, Evanston, IIl.

It is the aim of the present paper to describe briefly the
mineralogical characters of certain of the white or crystalline
limestones occurring in Warren county, New Jersey. These
limestones occur along the eastern border of Jenny Jump
mountain, near its northern end. They are here associated
with Archean granitoid gneisses, and are cut by dioritic
eruptive rocks.

The rocks under consideration are crystalline limestones.
In grain they vary between a rather fine-grained crystalline
limestone, not unlike ordinary marble, and a coarse rock in
which the faces of the calcite grains are relatively large. In
color the rock varies from a pure white, through shades of
gray, to red. Where foreign material is present in abund-

New Jersey Limestones.— Westgate. 309
ance the rock locally takes on other colors. With regard to
the chemical composition of these limestones the writer has
nothing new to offer. The crystalline limestones in other
parts of the state show all gradations from a pure lime-car-
bonate to a typical magnesian limestone, and the rocks of the
area under consideration probably have much variation in the
amount of magnesia present. Below is an analysis* of a
sample of crystalline limestone from the east side of Jenny
Jump mountain :— ;

Lime..... SoS Sate ve Sater NP cis CETTE MELTS wetataheks Nave 42.45
EROS UN ara ae vase eiclihe ot Ne Ris Sra shes Dial shave She tone 10.23
ride Of iron aug alumina s..< te c-6 + «ede asa ve ve 1.00
BPM MGC LOL aan sas \o2a5< ec ene ee eo ago Se He Ble, whe esalye 44.67
SU CRCE AGC ACCUM EL 4. 444 282 soe, ole met caters 1.95

This indicates an intermediate rock between a pure limestone
and a magnesian limestone.

Lithologically the rock varies greatly, but mainly in the
presence and character of the accessory minerals. Crystal-
line calcite is usually the principal and sometimes the only
mineral present. The rock is then composed of an aggregate
of irregular grains of calcite. The rock is rarely, however, a
pure limestone, but almost always carries a greater or less
amount of accessory minerals, and it is with these that this
paper is chiefly concerned. In the field the limestone is often
seen to be streaked with greenish or black irregular masses or
concretions. When examined under the microscope these are
seen to be composed mainly of pyroxene, hornblende, magne-
tite and biotite. Other accessory minerals are often present
in the limestone, such as quartz and, more rarely, tourmaline
and apatite. Graphite and garnet were seen in the rock in
certain places in the field, but were not present in any of the
slides examined.

Pyroxene is perhaps the most abundant of these accessory
minerals, and occurs in greenish patches in the limestone.
Under the microscope it is monoclinic, has a well-developed
prismatic cleavage, is colorless or very pale green, and non-
pleochroic. It is probably closely related to malacolite, which
agrees with it in optical properties and place of occurrence.
It occurs in large, sometimes irregular, but more generally

*Geology of New Jersey, Cook, 1868, p. 402.

310 The American Geologist. November, 1894

rounded grains, either scattered through the rock or collected
into aggregates. It does not possess well-developed crystal
planes. The pyroxene has very frequently altered to serpen-
tine. Limestone is often found, hand-specimens of which are
speckled with small greenish rounded masses of serpentine.
Under the microscope these greenish masses are seen to be
aggregates of serpentine, generally associated with granular
magnetite and sometimes other decomposition products.
Often, however, undecomposed fragments of pyroxene are
seen embedded in the midst of the serpentine aggregate, show-
ing that the serpentine has originated in the decomposition of
the pyroxene. When serpentine occurs in the white lime-
stone it is generally in such small masses, derived from the
alteration of isolated grains of pyroxene.

Brown biotite occurs frequently in the limestone in large
rounded grains, often beautifully fresh. Green monoclinic
hornblende occurs, sometimes very abundantly. It is dark
green in color and is present in irregular grains in the basic
concretions in the limestone. Quartz is abundant. Apatite
is frequently present in irregular grains. Tourmaline occurs
rarely. Graphite was sometimes seen in the limestone in the
field, but is not a widespread mineral. In one or two outcrops
considerable quantities of red garnet were seen in the lime-
stone.

In some places quartz is an abundant accessory mineral in
the limestone. It usually occurs in small grains or masses,
and the limestone then has the appearance of holding small
pebbles of quartz. Sometimes these pebble-like masses of
quartz are an inch or more in diameter. Under the microscope
the quartz of these masses is seen to occur in very irregular
grains, with a wavy extinction, and having the appearance of
vein quartz. There isnothing to suggest that they may have
had a detrital origin. They are probably metamorphic.

There are two special types or varieties of rock associated
with the white crystalline limestones of Jenny Jump moun-
tain which eall for special mention. These varieties are :—

(1) Pyroxene-rock.

(2) Quartz-rock.

The typical pyroxene-rock consists wholly of irregular or
rounded grains of colorless monoclinic pyroxene. Very fre-

ei. v. T

tated Saito)

New Jersey Limestones.— Westgate. 311

quently quartz is associated with it and in one slide consider-
able amounts of biotite. In the hand-specimen itis a uniform,
light-green, medium-grained rock.

Quartz-rock also occurs abundantly within the limestone
area. In the hand-specimen it is simply gray massive quartz.
Microscopically, it consists wholly of extremely irregular and
interlocking grains of quartz, usually with a wavy extinction.
Pyroxene, graphite and magnetite occur in greater or less
amounts associated with quartz in this rock. The term
quartzite, which is applied to bedded quartz rock of detrital
origin, is inapplicable here, for the rock under consideration
is of an altogether different origin, as will be shown below.

In typical examples these two rocks are wholly distinct and
consist of pure aggregates of pyroxene and quartz respect-
ively. But practically the rocks grade into each other by a
complete series of intermediate forms. The pyroxene-rock
generally carries more or less quartz which locally increases
in amount until it makes half the rock. From this interme-
diate quartz-pyroxene-rock there are all gradations to a pure
quartz rock, owing to the gradual relative increase in the
amount of the quartz over the pyroxene. In considering their
origin they may be treated together, for they are the two ex-
tremes of a single continuous series.

These two rocks are explained as being: local phases of the
limestone due to the local development, on a large scale, of
the common accessory minerals, pyroxene and quartz. ‘This
is shown by the following facts:— (1) Near the north end
of the mountain a dike of diabase cuts across the limestone
area in an east and west direction. On the south side of the
dike the rock at the contact is a quartz-rock holding patches
of greenish pyroxene; further away it is a greenish pyroxene-
rock without quartz; still further south it is crystalline lime-
stone. These three varieties grade into each other. The
relation of the quartz-rock to the diabase dike is accidental,
for at many other points in the limestone the quartz-rock and
pyroxene-rock occur at a distance from any eruptive. Other
examples of the gradual passage from crystalline limestone
into quartz-rock and pyroxene-rock can be given from the
same region. (2) The accessory pyroxene of the normal
crystalline limestone is the same in external appearance and

312 The American Geologist. November, 1894

microscopic characters with the pyroxene of the pyroxene-
rock. (8) Graphite scales are found in the quartz-rock as
well as in the crystalline limestone.

The pyroxene-rock and quartz-rock appear to result from
the development, on a large scale, of accessory minerals which
are common everywhere in the limestone. The reason for
their development is not known. It doesnot appear to be due
to local metamorphism by eruptive rocks, but is rather a result
of the general metamorphism which the limestone has under-
gone.

Magnetite, as has already been shown, is one of the most
abundant accessory minerals of the limestone and oceurs in
irregular grains and aggregates. In some places this magne-
tite increases in proportion to the calcite until it forms the
whole, or nearly the whole, of the rock, the calcite then being
wholly absent or occurring in small amounts between the
grains of magnetite. The rock is then frequently mined as an
iron-ore. There are all gradations between a pure crystalline
limestone and a typical limestone iron-ore. The origin of the
limestone iron-ore is the same as the origin of the accessory
magnetite which occurs in scattered, irregular grains in the
white limestone. It seems most probable that both are de-
rived from iron included in the limestone as an impurity at
the time of its formation. The magnetite occurs in the lime-
stone in scattered grains and in masses, and in beds. Where
it forms beds it differs from its occurrence in isolated grains
only in its relative abundance, and the beds of limestone iron-
ore grade into the pure limestone beds above and below. These
beds may be due to primary deposition as beds, or, as seems
more probable, to a later segregation of isolated grains into
planes, either bedding-planes or planes of secondary origin
due to dynamic action.

It is not purposed here to enter into a discussion of the
origin of these accessory minerals of the crystalline limestone.
The limestones are cut by numerous eruptive rocks, mainly
diorite and pegmatite, and, in a less degree, diabase. It does
not seem probable that the accessory minerals are the result
of local metamorphism by these eruptives, for the minerals
occur widely and uniformly disseminated throughout the
limestone and at a distance from the eruptives. Further, they

THE AMERIOAN GEOLOGIST. Vou. XIV, PLATE IX.

Inches.

VENTRAL ARMOR OF DINICHTHYS.

The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys—Wright. 313

“do not occur more abundantly where the white limestone is
cut by the eruptives than they do elsewhere. The more prob-
able explanation of their presence and abundance lies in the
general metamorphism which the region has suffered, result-
ing in the complete crystallization of the limestone and in the
production of the abundant accessory minerals from the im-
purities which it contained.

THE VENTRAL ARMOR OF DINICHTHYS.
By ALBERT A. WRIGHT, Oberlin, Ohio.
(Plate IX.)

The reconstruction of the great placoderm Dinichthys still
lacks much of completion. Although many important points
have been made out, through the enthusiastic labors of the
collectors, Hertzer, Gould, Kepler, Terrell, and Clark, and the
descriptions of Newberry and Claypole, all of which consti-
tute one of the most interesting and important chapters in
American paleontology, it is still true that much yet remains
to be done, owing to the scattered and often fragmentary
condition of the material upon which reconstruction depends.
Every year that field work is continued brings to light some
new evidence as to the relative position of the plates and skel-
etal elements of this fish.

It is owing to the existence, in the museum of Oberlin col-
lege, of some new and more perfect material than was in the
hands of Dr. Newberry, that I am enabled to present a recon-
struction of the armor that defended the ventral surface of
Dinichthys. A description of this material was prepared in
April, 1898, for the (now) forthcoming volume of the Ohio
Geological Survey; and it is through the courtesy of the di-
rector, Dr. Edward Orton, that I am enabled to present the
plate and cuts which accompanied that description here, in
connection with this briefer summary of the facts,

The only accounts of the ventral armor of Dinichthys which
have hitherto been published are those by Dr. Newberry in the
report of the Ohio Survey* and in his monograph upon the

*Ohio Geol. Survey, Paleontology, vol. a.

‘B14 The American Geologist. November, 1894

Paleozoic fishes of North America.* In the first of these he
gives an outline figure of Pander’s restoration of the ventral
armor of Coccosteus, which is here reproduced (fig. 1), ac-

Fic. 1. Ventral armor of Coccosteus decipiens Ag. Natural size.
(Pander’s restoration.)

companied by a similar outline of the ventral armor of Dinich-
thys, also herewith reproduced (fig. 2). In both these figures
it will be seen that there is an anterior pair and a posterior
pair of ventral plates. On the median line there is, in the
case of Coccosteus, a lozenge-shaped bone in the center, over-
lapped by both pairs of ventral plates, while anteriorly there
is a triangular bone, the “‘antero-ventro-median.” On the me-
dian line of the Dinichthys armor there is apparently only one
elongated bone which corresponds in position with the two
medians of Coccosteus. The ventral armor of Dinichthys was
thus supposed to consist of these five bony plates:

One pair of anterior ventro-laterals,

One pair of posterior ventro-laterals,

One ventro-median.

*U. $8. Geol. Survey, Monographs, vol. xv1.

The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys.—Wright. 315

At the time the monograph was written it was thought by
Dr. Newberry that he had material representing two addition-
al pairs of plates which protected the under side of the head.
These were considered to be the “jugulars” and the ‘“post-
jugulars” or “hyoids,” the latter pair overlapping the former
pair where the extremities met. In all, therefore, nine bones.
have hitherto been referred to definite positions upon the

Fic. 2. Ventral armor of Dinichthys terrelliN., one-twelfth natural size.
(Dr. Newberry’s first restoration.)
under side of the fish, a jugular series of four and the above
mentioned ventral series of five. This, I think, was Dr. New-
berry’s latest conception of the arrangement of these plates,
although he himself made some alterations in his first identi-
fications of the bones.

Prior to the publication of the monograph, specimens had
been obtained which showed that the pair of supposed poste-
rior ventral plates really belonged upon the sides of the head;
and in that work they are figured in their true position and

!

316 The American Geologist. November, 1894

more fully described as the suborbitals. The vacancy thus
created in the ventral shield was not positively filled by any-
thing described in the monograph. The subject is alluded to
as follows: ‘No figure is given of the plates which are sup-
posed to have formed the posterior half of the plastron, be-
cause no perfect ones have been found; but I have numerous
fragments of relatively large plates which must have been
oblong in form and had the moderate and uniform thickness
and plainness of surface which characterize the plates that
defended the under side of the body. As they are apparently
assignable to no other place in the armor of Dinichthys, I
provisionally locate them here.”* Specimens of each of the
other bones, except the median, are figured in the mono-
graph, that is to say, the anterior ventro-lateral of two spe-
cies, a single hyoid? and a single jugular; but these are all
isolated and no diagram or figure is given which groups them
in their relative positions in the armor as a whole.

A careful study of the new and well preserved material in
my hands convinces me that the ventral armor of Dinichthys
must be reconstructed as follows:

1st. The anterior ventro-laterals should remain in the posi-
tion to which they were first assigned by Dr. Newberry.

2d. The bone figured as “hyoid” with an interrogation
mark in the monograph was probably assigned to its position
on insufficient evidence, and its true relations are still prob-
lematical.

3d. The arched “jugulars” must be transferred to the pos-
terior end of the ventral shield, where they constitute the
posterior ventro-laterals, the arched border being directed
backwards instead of forwards. They thus fill the vacancy
caused by the removal of the suborbitals to the sides of the
head.

4th. The median plate or plates should doubtless retain
their place as previously described by Dr. Newberry. I have
seen no specimens of these, but the rearrangement proposed
will scarcely affect them.

By these changes the “jugulars” and “hyoids” disappear,
and the armor or other structures upon the under side of the
head remain to be discovered.

*Op. cit., p. 138.

The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys—Wright. 317

The facts which compel this reconstruction are as follows:

Ist. The so-called “jugulars” and the anterior ventro-lat-
erals were certainly contiguous and overlapping plates. Their
natural relative position is that shown in plate IX, in figures
1 to 7, in which 1, 2 and 5 represent anterior ventrals and 3,
4 and 7 the so-called ‘“‘jugulars.” This relation is proved by
the perfect fitting of the overlapping portions. Upon each of
the “jugulars” there is a triangular, depressed area, shown in
the upper portion of fig, 9, for the reception of an overlapping
bone, and into this depression the thin, triangular extremity
of the anterior ventral fits perfectly. The bones represented
in figs. 1 to 4 are known to have belonged to a single individ-
ual, of which the cranium, mandibles and other bones to the
number of eighteen were found together at one time and
place. Numbers 5 and 7 of the plate were also found together
at a different point. Here then are three cases in which the
perfect overlapping proves that the so-called “jugulars” were
the companions of the anterior ventrals. The case is so clear
that I have no hesitation in saying that this relation of the
plates in question is demonstrated.

2d. The “hyoid” ? bone which was figured in the mono-
graph and believed to overlap the “jugular,” is not shown to
have the shape necessary for filling the depressed area in the
jugular, nor is it indicated which end of the plate occupied
this area. It is excluded from the association assigned to it
by the facts already stated; and while it may have occupied
a position in the hyoid region, the grounds for assigning it to
such a position seem now to be uncertain.

3d. The size of the so-called “jugulars” is rather large, and
the curvature of their outline rather strong, for the position
to which they were first assigned. In the first case here fig-
ured (plate IX, figs. 3 and 4), the “jugulars” measure 16 inches
in length. The curved border also measures 16 inches to the
lateral angle, that is, along the margin which is supposed to
have lain against the inner side of the mandible. The mandi-
ble of the same individual, however, was only 144 inches in
total length. Other specimens of the “jugulars’” have been
found of enormous size. For instance, one was discovered
near Columbus, Ohio, to which my attention was drawn by
Dr. Claypole, who kindly furnished me a tracing of it. This

318 The American Geologist. November, 1894

plate was fully 80 inches in length, a length greater by six
inches than that of any mandible known. It is, of course,
possible that the jugular may have exceeded the mandible in
length, but we know that the mandibles of Dinichthys were
capable of the freest and most vigorous action.

In the large “jugular” just referred to, the curvature of the
outer margin was strong, and similar to that of figs. 3 and 4
of the plate, where, with a length of 16 inches, we have a
breadth (of the pair) of 14 inches. The curvature here is far
greater than that of any mandible which I have ever seen.
The curvature of the mandibles, indeed, is very slight. The
single “jugular,” however, of which Dr. Newberry figures the
inner and outer aspects,* is of the type shown in fig. 7, where
the curvature of the outer border is much reduced. It is
aside from my present purpose to discuss the question whether
the two types of plates here shown belong to the same species
or not. I will only remark, in passing, that the plate figured
by Dr. Newberry is referred by him to D. terrelli; while those
shown in figs. 8 and 4 of the present paper are known to be-
long to DPD. terrelli by the structure of the dentition upon
which the species was founded, and which was preserved
along with the plates in question.

As we consider, therefore, the large size and the strongly
curved border of the plates which have been called “jugulars,”
we may be the more willing to see them transferred to the pos-
terior portion of the ventral armor, where they are freer from
limitations as to size and shape.

4th. This rearrangement of the plates brings the “‘plastron”’
of Dinichthys. into more striking agreement with that of Coc-
costeus (fig. 1 in text) than did the first reconstruction by Dr.
Newberry. To the harmonies which he pointed out,t the fol-
lowing may be added:

(a) The overlapping of the posterior plates by the extremi-
ties of the anterior plates.

(b) The overlapping of the right posterior plate by the left
posterior plate along the median line.

(c) The sinuous line of overlapping between the posterior
plates in both genera.

*Monograph, Pl. v1.
tOhio Geol. Survey. Paleontology, vol. 0, p. 9.

The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys.—Wright. 319

(d) The less breadth of the posterior plates behind than in
front.

The foregoing facts seem to furnish a good basis for the
rearrangement of the ventral plates of Dinichthys. It is to
be regretted that we are not yet able to bring the ventral
armor into positive connection with the cephalic or dorsal
armor, or with the position of the pectoral fins. The anterior
ventro-lateral plates have their outer margins rabbeted for a
certain distance, along which they were probably sutured to
some other plate not yet identified. A large number of plates
are in the hands of collectors and museums, for the correct
location of which no sufficient clues have yet been found.

Concerning the structure of the bones represented in the
plate, it may be well to explain that figures 6 and 8 represent
the inner aspect of the respective bones, and the radiating
lines show the direction of the grain or fibrous structure,
which is more distinctly seen upon the inner than upon the
outer surfaces. Fig. 8 represents a magnificent anterior lat-
eral, the largest and most perfect, I think, which has yet been
found. Several cross-sections of it are given to show the
thickness and the structure of the border. In figure 8 (and 9)
a remarkable device is seen by which it interlocks with figure
4 in such a manner as to prevent longitudinal displacement.
A strong, transverse, tooth-like ridge stands out on number 38
which is received into a corresponding channel in the over-
lapping number 4. In number 7 (which corresponds to num-
ber 4) it would seem that the tooth to be received must have
been much weaker. This device gives one more bit of evi-
dence as to the turbulent life which was lived by these tyrants
of the Paleozoic seas, and of the force of the attacks against
which they were provided by their interlocking armor.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Figures 1 to 4 represent the paired bones belonging to the ventral
armor of a single specimen of Dinichthys terrelli Newb., in their natural
relative positions.

ies. land 2. Right and left anterior ventro-lateral plates.

Fries. 8and 4. Right and left posterior ventro-lateral plates.

Pies. 5 and 7. The left anterior and posterior ventro-lateral plates of
another and larger individual, in their natural relations. The dotted
lines at the anterior end of fig. 5 denote five very shallow, transverse
channels, on the inner surface of the plate, which indicate the imping-
ing border of a median ventral plate.

320 The American Geologist. November, 1894 .

Fie. 6. Theinner surface of the major portion of fig. 7.

Fic. 8. The inner surface of the left anterior ventro-lateral plate of a
third individual. a, b, c, and d, cross-sections of fig. 8, at right angles
to the margin, at the points correspondingly lettered.

Fie. 9. The same as fig. 8, with the overlapping plates removed.

All the bones here figured were collected by Mr. J. Terrell from the
Cleveland shale in Lorain and Huron counties, Ohio.

PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF A NEW SPECIES OF
TEMNOCYON AND A NEW GENUS FROM THE
JOHN DAY MIOCENE OF OREGON.

By JoHN EYERMAN, F. Z.S., F.G.S. A., Easton, Pa.

The collection made by the Princeton Scientific Expedi-
tion of 1889 in the John Day *‘bad lands” of Oregon contains,
among many other interesting forms of Carnivora, an unusu-
ally large form of Temnocyon, quite distinct from those de-
scribed by Prof. Cope in his Tertiary Vertebrata. Almost
the entire skeleton is preserved. I am under many obliga-
tions to Dr. Scott for the free use of material from his mag-
nificent collection, and still greater for very many valuable
suggestions.

Tremnocyon, Cope.

Talon of inferior sectorial trenchant; inferior molar 2 with
trenchant crown and with no internal cusps.

T. altigenis, the type of this genus, is described by Cope in
his Tertiary Vertebrata (vol. 1, book 1, p. 908).

TEMNOCYON FEROX, sp. nov.

Larger than the type species; cranium unusually well de-
veloped, being longer than in the type; palate curved and of
less diameter than that of 7’. altigenis; small antero-posterior
development of the true molars. Superior premolars equal in
antero-posterior diameter to and greater in transverse diam-
eter than in the type. Unusual development of cingulum on
superior molar 1, and the position of superior molar 2 with
reference to molar 1. In the inferior dentition, the weak de-
velopment of premolar 4 in hight, and in the antero-posterior
diameter as compared with the transverse. The small size of
the metaconid of molar 1, and the regular contour of its
crown.

Editorial Comment. 321

: HYPOTEMNODON, ven. noy.

Talon of inferior sectorial trenchant; internal cingulum
greater and more pronounced than in Temnocyon. Inferior
molar 2 tubercular, with internal cusps equalling in size those
of the external side.

H. corypHzvus Cope (Temnocyon corypheus Cope). From
the above it seems necessary to remove Cope’s species, 7,
corypheus (Tert. Vert., vol. 11, book 1, pp. 906-912) from the
genus Temnocyon and to erect a new genus to which is given
the name Hypotemnodon. The specimen under considera-
tion is the left ramus, collected by Dr. J. L. Wortman in the
John Day “bad lands” and described by Prof. Cope in his
Tertiary Vertebrata under the genus Temnocyon.

The above new species and new genus will be described
more fully in a memoir now in course of preparation.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

THE ORIGIN OF SPHEROIDAL BASALT.

The eruptive rocks of Point Bonita, F. Lestrzr RANSoME.
(Bulletin of the Department of Geology, University of Cal.,
vol. 1, pp. 71-114, Dec., 1893.)

The author presents a map of the region, which is the pe-
ninsula and point which, on the north, shut in a part of San
Francisco bay and terminate on the north side of the “golden
gate.’ The most of this area consists of the San Fran-
cisco sandstone, but along the western edge the country rises
abruptly from the Pacific ocean, this elevation consisting of
a ridge of basic eruptive rocks. ‘These are terminated toward
the east by a supposed fault which runs north and south but
a short distance east of the ridge of eruptive rock. The ridge
descends toward the north, ceasing at about four-fifths of a
mile from the “golden gate.”

The eruptive rocks show three facies in the field, which are
also equally evident in making a microscopic examination.
The author enumerates spheroidal basalt, pyroclastic rock and
diabase. In a section through these parts the diabase is
shown as rising highest, and as intrusive through the others,

322 . The American Geologist. November, 1894

the pyroclastic layer being above the spheroidal basalt.. The
diabase and the basalt, although they differ remarkably, are
considered to be equally basic eruptive rock, the former cool-
ing as an intrusive in older rocks and the latter as a surface
flow. The pyroclastic stratum reposes upon an uneven sur-
face of spheroidal basalt. It is composed of fragments of a
light gray aphanitic amygdaloidal rock similar to that form-
ing the spheroids below it, and ranging in size from the frac-
tion of an inch to a foot or more in diameter, the average size
being about three inches. ‘These fragments are finely com-
minuted voleanic ejectamenta. In general the fragments are
more or less rounded, but sharply angular fragments are also
abundant.”

In the spheroidal basalt are some curious and interesting
features. The large spherules are sometimes elongated, bale-
like masses, whose longer axes are about parallel and extend
obliquely downward. They sometimes weather out near the
center, leaving a shell. They are amygdaloidal porphyritie,
with feldspar, and in some cases the same rock embraces many
fragments of red jasper. The interstices between the spher-
oids are filled with comminuted fragments of rock of the same
kind, but decayed and crumbling, or with secondary products.
In one ease a block of sandstone four feet in diameter was
seen resting partly imbedded in the voleanie rock. In thin
section these spheroids display simply a uniform, finely crys-
talline. or porphyritic and amygdaloidal rock, composed of
lath-shaped feldspars and a considerable proportion of glass,
with secondary formation of much calcite and chlorite, and
sometimes quartz. In the large spheroids the center is less
amygdaloidal than the rest of the rock.

The author considers the evidence warrants the conclusion
that the spheroidal portion of these rocks was ejected as a
surface flow and that the rounded spheroids are an incident of
flowage after ejection. The pyroclastic layer he regards as of
the nature of voleanie ash, projected from a crater which was
probably at some distance to seaward.

Nore. This paper throws considerable light on some prob-
lematic features seen in connection with the greenstones of
the Archean in the lake Superior region. It appertains to
the spheroids and to the jaspers of the sandstones. Spheroidal

Editorial Comment. 323

masses have been described by Lawson, Williams and Winch-
ell in the oldest greenstones, and they have been referred re-
spectively by them, to “concretionary structure,” to breccia-
tion and subsequent rubbing under “dynamic pressure,” and
to “agglomeratic accumulation” under the surface of the
cotemporary ocean, in the near vicinity of an active volcano.
Two of these theories require a surface origination of the
rock, from voleanoes, and the other demands a plutonic, or
deepseated, intrusive origin. It appears that, with the facts
that Mr. Ransome gives, the superficial origin of such forms
is proved, and it remains to determine whether the sea were
present to receive the ejected material or whether it was
evenly and rather slowly ejected upon a land surface and sub-
sequently fowed in such manner as to produce these forms.
Without calling in question here the close "resemblance exist-
ing between these forms and the forms to which they are
compared in the voleanic rocks of the Hawaiian islands, we
desire to mention some considerations that seem to point
toward the cotemporaneity of the “spheroidal basalt’ and the
jaspers of the San Francisco sandstone, and thus also indi-
cating oceanic conditions for the accumulation of both.

1. The author considers that the San Francisco sandstone
is separated into two parts, by the intervention of a bed of
considerable thickness of jasper rock, called phthanite by
Becker, showing that something affected the ocean in the vi-
cinity of San Francisco bay which caused the rapid precipita-
tion of silica, which at the same time was stained by a little
iron. The author refers to various places, at a distance from
San Francisco, where red jaspers also occur, saying “the rock
[i. e., spheroidal basalt, N. H. W.]| is always associated with
the red jaspers, and with what is apparently the San Fran-
cisco sandstone” (p. 110), admitting that this association in-
dicates ‘‘a contemporaneous rather than a Sep Esanont origin
for the basalt.” (p. 109.)

2. The rock of the spheroidal basalt is found to contain, at
least in one instance noted, blocks of sandstone four feet in
diameter (p. 78) which shows that some force was in action
which could rend and transport solid rock, and mingle the
fragments with the spheroids. It may be questioned whether
flowing lava could do it. Was the force voleanic explosion?

324 The American Geologist. November, 1894

and was the fragment from the lower member of the San
Francisco sandstone?

3. The bounding surfaces are perfectly sharp and definite
“and entirely enclose each separate spheroid.” It may be
questioned whether flowage could thus entirely separate them
from each other, for there seems to be no exception to their
individual isolation. This rather indicates an individual his-
tory for each mass, involving separation from some parent
mass, transportation to its present position and consolidation
with its neighbors under the action of some later cementing
agency. Had flowage produced these spheroids it is impossi-
ble that they would not somewhere show gradations into each
other and finally into a simple lava sheet where they would be
less and less distinct; the mass of the rock in general could
nothave so flowed éverywhere in so uniform and yet so pecul-
iar a fashion.

4. Judging from the descriptions the spheroidal basalt is
not essentially different from the pyroclastic layer which
overlies it. It seems to be allowable to suppose that they had
a common origin, viz.,as voleanic ejectamenta, the coarser
bombs appearing in great profusion at the first eruption of
the voleano, and the finer tuffs falling later. The lack of
stratification in these deposits characteristic of oceanic agency
may be due to the rapidity of the accumulation and the shel-
tered location of the voleanic area to the eastward of the vent
where waves and currents could not readily act upon the de-
bris, or it may be due to the fact that the debris fell upon a
land surface instead of into the ocean, as presumed by Mr.
Ransome. It is hardly possible, however, that at that place
some of these materials, whether bombs or tuffs, should not
have fallen into the ocean, and if the jaspers were deposited
in the ocean on the eastern side of Point Bonita, as shown
by their being embraced in the fragmental San Francisco
sandstone, the tutfs at least may have fallen into the ocean
over a large area and mingled with, or entirely displaced, the
usual accumulation of that sandstone. If the phenomena here
are comparable with the features that have been described in
the greenstones of Minnesota, jasperoidal accumulations will
be found intimately mingled with the tuffs and also closely

Editorial Comment. - 325

associated with the spheroidal basalt, being contemporaneous
formations.

5. There are internal features ascribed to the spheroidal
basalt which are apparently incompatible with the supposi-
tion that it was a surface flow of lava. (a) The spheroids are
conspicuously porphyritic (p. 82) and the spaces between
them are not, but are occupied by a secondary layer of im-
pure calcite (p. 79) and chlorite. Had these forms been pro-
duced after eruption as a lava stream there would have been
porphyritic crystals as frequent in the material filling the
interstices as in the spheroids. (b) There is a zonal arrange-
ment apparent in the spheroids (p. 82), and this indicates for
each an individual, isolated history. This zonal arrangement
began to be formed before the consolidation of the mass,
since it caused a zonal distribution of the amygdaloidal struc-
ture. (¢) Each spheroid seems therefore to have been inde-
pendently under influences which not alone would produce
amygdaloidal structure, but which operated on the surface of
each in such a way as to distribute the amygdaloidal cavities
most numerously about the periphery. When one considers
the layering of igneous rocks due to successive eruption, and
the succession of amygdaloidal beds between non-amygdaloi-
dal and the fortuitous scattering of amygdules over the ex-
posed surfaces of smaller lava layers, it is apparent that this
zonal arrangement of amygdaloidal structure may have been
formed by the contemporaneous exposure of each spheroid
throughout its entire surface to a common cooling action. It
seems very questionable whether such exposure could have
been experienced when they were embraced in a common lava
stream having a thickness perhaps of fifty to a hundred feet.

6. The general structural relations will allow the following
successive steps in this history if the fault plane, which is
assumed by the author rather than demonstrated, be dis-
carded. (1) Deposition of the San Francisco sandstone, lower
portion. (2) Eruption from a volcanic vent in the near vicin-
ity, forming volcanic bombs, pyroclastic matter and finally
molten lava streams. (3) The effect of this eruption was to
substitute locally volcanic and chemical strata for strata
formed by erosion. This area and this epoch of eruption may
have been extensive. (4) Subsidence of the area affected be-

326 The American Geologist. November, 1894

neath the sea and the deposition of the upper part of the San
Francisco sandstone, thus bringing the upper member into con-
tact with the diabase near the golden gate. N. H. W.

Marcu WEATHER ON THE GREENLAND ICE-SHEET.

Lieut. Peary started on the 6th of last March from his win-
ter station on Bowdoin bay, near latitude 78°, with the plan
of traveling northeast over the Greenland ice-sheet a distance
of about 650 miles to Independence bay, the limit of his pre-
vious expedition, on the northeastern coast at latitude 82 .
The party comprised 8 men, 12 sledges, and 90 dogs. Upon
reaching Independence bay, which Peary hoped to do early in
April, the party was to be divided for exploration both north-
ward and southward. The time of his setting out, however,
was much too early, being at the very beginning of the cir-
cumpolar half year of constant daylight. After a journey of
two weeks on the ice-sheet, reaching an altitude of about
5,000 feet, the party experienced, on March 20th to the 28d,
an “equinoctial storm” of blinding snow, fierce wind, and very
low temperature, probably unequalled in the experience of any
former Arctic expedition. _The self-recording anemometer
showed that the wind during thirty-four hours had an aver-
age velocity of 48 miles an hour; and the thermograph showed
an average temperature of 50° F. below zero. Exceedingly
cold weather and other very severe storms followed, the tem-
perature being mostly 40° to 50° below zero, with almost con-
tinual wind. Some of the men had their feet and hands frozen;
the dogs, enduring in the snow outside the tents the full
hardships of the storms, were in a few instances frozen to.
death, and the others were attacked by a fatal disease; and
some of the sledges were broken in being drawn over the
sharply ridged snow drifts. The party was soon diminished
to half its original number by the return of frost-bitten and
sick men, until the expedition, after having advanced in total
about 125 miles, was reluctantly abandoned by Peary on April
10th, that he might save a sufficient reserve of his provisions,
sledges, and dogs, for another attempt next year. The sum-
mer was spent in explorations of the Greenland coast, glaciers,
and border of the ice-sheet, in the neighborhood of the winter

Editorial Comment. BAt

station, and south to Melville bay. The intrepid Peary re-
mains in Greenland with two comrades, intending again to
attempt the same journey across the ice-sheet during the sum-
mer of 1895, with the hope of having considerable time for
exploration on the eastern and northern coast. The severe
weather found in the early spring indicates that travel on
either the ice-sheet of Greenland or that of the Antarctic
continent, where a distance of 850 miles lies between the most
southern indentation of the shore line and the pole, will be
practicable only during a few months in the middle and later
part of the circumpolar summers. Ww. U.

NATIONAL REPRESENTATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS
oF GEOLOGISTS.

On this subject, in connection with the questions proposed
by Mr. Frazer at the Zurich session (AMERICAN GeEoLoaist for
October, page 267), he spoke as follows:

M. le Président: Ja proposition que je viens de lire n’est presentée qu’
a-cette avant-derniére séance pour plusieurs raisons. D’abord, comme
tous ceux qui connaissent les travaux du Vice-Président actuel qui rep-
résente les Etats Unis & ce congrés, je ne saurais que féliciter ce der-
nier du choix admirable que ]’on a fait de sa personne pour ce poste
d’honneur. M. Ward mérite bien la distinction qui lui a eté decernée.

Ensuite il m’aurait été difficile de m’opposer a l’acte du conseil dans
sa premiére séance ou j’étais le seul membre présent accrédité aux
Etats Unis sans courirle danger d’étre mal compris. La question est
beaucoup plus grave que ne le serait simplement le choix d’une personne
quelconque pour seryir comme officier de ce congrés. Pour la bien
saisir, il importe de s’élever au dessus du niveau des ambitions et des
préférences personelles, et pour mieux y réussir, je suis satisfait de la
voir laissée aux mains du bureau afin qu’il puisse la resoudre & loisir et
quand il lui conviendra, pourvu que sa décision soit dounée assez a temps
pour la constitution du prochain conseil.

De cette maniére la question perd tout lien avec la session actuelle, et
ne concerne qu’ exclusivement le bien du congrés dans l’avenir.

M. le Président, la raison d’étre du congrés géologique, c’est la néces-
sité d’un tribunal scientifique international assez élevé pour ne pas étre
influencé par les conflits d’opinion et par les préjugés qui sont insépa-
rables des organisations nationales.

Il n’y a pas de classe privilégiée dans la science, et ceux qui sont
chargés de certaines fonctions et de certains travaux par un gouverne-
ment ne sauraient prétendre Aun privilége queconque.

En dehors des sociétés savantes et corps relevant du gouvernement, il

328 The American Geologist. November, 1894

existe dans chaque pays un grand nombre d’hommes qui se sont devoués
a la science uniquement pour elle-méme.

De ceux 1A viennent souvent les plus précieuses decouvertes, et, ce qui
est encore plus important, ces géologues independants fournissent le
seul contrdle dans leur pays des conclusions posées par les géologues of-
ficiels, et ce contrdle s’est souvent montré de la plus grande utilité
pour le progrés de la science.

C’est pourquoi, sil’ on accepte sans protestation le principe qu’une
lettre du chef d’un bureau gouvernemental, preseutée par un de ses em-
_ployés au congrés international constitue un titre de membre supérieur
en quelque sorte & celui que créent les travaux et les services des partic-
uliers: si l’on déclare la représentation, dans le congrés, d’un bureau
qui pourrait avoir intérét & modeler & sa guise les arréts du congrés en
vue d’un but tout particulier, comme étant plus importante que celle
des nombreux sayants sans affiliation aucune: si, enfin, deux ou trois de
ces employés, & l’insu du chef de VEtat, ou méme du ministre dont ils
relévent, peuvent décider entre eux et sans consulter leurs confréres du
méme pays, quelle doit étre la personne qui doit représenter le dit pays,
je pretends formellement, si tout cela est permis, que le congrés loin
d’offrir un asile & la vérité scientifique pure, risque de devenir un in-
strument pour consolider le pouvoir ou les doctrines de ces chefs de bu-
reaux, et pour supprimer du méme coup la liberté des géologues indé-
pendants.

L’existence du congrés a eu toujours une influence entiérement salu-
taire sur les services nationaux, dont les chefs ont été forcés de respecter
en Jui le tribunal le plus élevé dans leur science. I] serait regrettable
de ne pas laisser le congrés ace role utile celui de gardien pour tous de
la liberté scientifique absolue, c’est & dire en dehors de toute doctrine
officielle et de toute pression administrative.

Mountain Systems or AsIA AND EUROPE.

Prof. Eduard Suess, of Vienna, has supplied a short ab-
stract of his address before the International Congress of
Geologists, as noted in our last number (page 263), of which

the following isa translation:

The plicated mountains (falten Gebirge) of Asia are so arranged that
they appear prominently in large curved masses (Bogenstiicken) toward
the south, and these marginal curves (Randbogen) also embrace Europe
so that they reach from New Guinea to Gibraltarand to the Wadi Draa.
The eastern curves of Asia, from Kamtschatka down to beyond the
Philippines, are the similarly backward bent ends of the inner Asiatic
chains, and are located behind the southern marginal curves. The
whole of Asia, with the exception of the Indian peninsula, shows such
a structure, produced in northern China, and to beyond lake Baikal, by
very ancient, partly pre-Cambrian movements, but in other parts, for

* on pas

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 329

instance, in the Thian-Shan, and along the marginal curve, forexample,
on the south flank of the Himalaya, by recent plication. The impression
remains that, since pre-Cambrian time, the movements of Asia have had
the same character, namely, that of flow, especially toward the south,
but also toward the southwest, west, southeast and east, which reminds
one of the flattening of the poles.

In Europe it is different. The oldest movements are represented by
the pre-Devonian, Scottish and Scandinavian ‘‘floor’’ (Schuppe); there
follows toward the south and east the Carboniferous and Permian floor-
rim(Schuppenrand) with many later folds, and then the Miocene floor-rim
of the Alps. The movements are also from a very ancient period in the
same direction; but they are contrary to those of Asia, and have the
character of confluence toward the north and especially toward the
northwest. Here also recent movements (namely, the Alps) occur near
the outside.

The similarity of the Asiatic movements in taking a general south-
erly direction, and of the European movements in being prevailingly
northwestward, with their continuance in these directions during long
geologic ages, indicates that these movements have been due to original
heterogeneity of the carth’s mass.

What we call deformation of the earth should be named conformation,
namely, the gradual approach to a condition of equilibrium of weight
as well as of form, which is as yet not fully reached.

meVlE VW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
| GA We aly ae Be Gee

The Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States. By W. B. CLARK,
(U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 97, pp. 207, with 50 plates, 1898. Price,
20 cents.) Sixty-one species are described here as the entire known
Mesozoic fauna of this class in the United States. Fifty-one had been
before described in many scattered publications, and ten appear for the
first time. They include 5 crinoids, 4 asteroids, and 52 echinoids. <All
are well figured, and a full bibliography is given, making the work ex-
ceedingly convenient and valuable for paleontologists both at home and
abroad. The author thinks that many South American echinoderms,
though described under different names, are identical with the North
American species; but he doubts that any Kuropean Mesozoic species
are truly identical, and regards only a few as very closely allied. In
this opinion he differs from Dr. J. W. Gregory, of the British Museum,
who, reviewing the echinoid faunas of North and South America and
the West Indies: and comparing them with the corresponding European
faunas (Bulletin, Geol. Soc. Am., vol. m1, for 1891, pp. 101-108), consid-
ers these two faunas on opposite sides of the Atlantic to have been,

330 The American Geologist. November, 1394

almost identical during the Urgonian and Aptian epochs of early Cre-
taceous time. Continuing into the Tertiary era, Dr. Gregory finds that
the two faunas became widely and increasingly divergent, until in the
Miocene and Pliocene periods intermigrations took place: and he regards
these relations in the evolution of the echinoids of the two continents
as incompatible with the theory of the permanence of the Atlantic
ocean basin. But even without much change of the deep ocean, suffi-
cient room for the early Cretaceous and later Tertiary migrations prob-
ably existed along the shores of the Far6e islands, Iceland and Green-
land, during uplifts of these far northern regions and of the compara-
tively shallow intervening portions of the sea bed, by which the streams
were enabled to cut the deep fjords. The culmination of the later
uplift appears to have brought the cold climate and ice accumulation
of the Glacial period, which was ended by the subsidence of these
regions, partly drowning the fjords, and widely separating the islands
that during late Tertiary and early Quaternary time probably almost
united the northern parts of the continents. Ww. U.

Insect Fauna of the Rhode Island Coal Field. By S. H.Scuppmr. (U.
S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 101, pp. 27, with two plates, 1893. Price, 5
cents.) Fifteen species of insects, mostly cockroaches, are here described
from the Rhode Island coal measures. AJ] the species, and two of the
six genera, are new. The earliest discovery of any of these fossils was
by Rey. Edgar F. Clark. It is hoped that this publication will stimu-
late additional search in these strata and result in more extended discoy-
eries. The two new genera are quite unlike any others in this country,
but are rather allied to some that occur in the richly fossiliferous beds
of Carboniferous age at Commentry, in France. Ww. U.

A Catalogue and Bibliography of North American Mesozoic Invertebrata.
By C. B. Borne. (U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 102, pp. 315, 1893. Price,
25 cents.) The first part of this work, filling 13 pages, isa list of authors,
with titles. notes of the number of pagesand plates under each and date
of publication. Part LI, filling the remainder of the volume, gives an al-
phabetic list of ‘‘allthe names that have been applied to the genera and
species of invertebrates obtained from North American rocks and re-
ferred by any author to the Mesozoic,’’ with the place and date of their
publication, the author, and the formation and locality or district
where the fossils were obtained. WwW. U.

Tlistorical Sketch of the Discovery of Mineral Deposits in the Lake Superior
Region. By Horace V. WINCHELL. (Pages 46; from the Second Annual
Report of the Lake Superior Mining Institute, 1894.) The progress of
the discovery of the valuable copper and iron deposits of northern Mich-
igan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, is here concisely reviewed from the
time of the early Jesuit missionaries to the latest development, within
the past four years, of the surprisingly rich Mesabi iron range. The
explorations of Douglass Houghton, C. T. Jackson, Foster and Whitney,

fo) Al a et ; f

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 381

Charles Whittlesey, I. A. Lapham, and later geologists, are shown to
have given very important guidance toward the establishment of the
present great mining industries of that region. A portion of this sub-
ject was presented to the readers of the AM. GEOLOGIST by Mr. Winchell
in the last March number. The present memoir includes, in an appen-
dix of eight pages, a useful bibliography of the history of mining on
lake Superior. WwW. U.

Alaska: its Physical Geography. By IsrabL C. RussELL. (Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine, vol. x, pp. 393-418, with map; August, 1894.)
Within the compass of twenty pages, Prof. Russell gives a_bird’s-eye
view, aS we may Call it, of this extensive country, in which he explored
the course of the Yukon river in 1889, and the district of Mt. St. Elias
and the very instructive Malaspina glacier or ice-sheet during the sum-
mers of 1890 and 1891. The river systems, mountain ranges. volcanoes
and hot springs, tundras, islands and ocean currents, glaciers, subsoil
ice, the forests, the fauna, and the Eskimo and Indian tribes, are themes
of successive portions of this essay. The finely colored map, on a scale
of about 175 miles to an inch, shows the approximate area of forests,
mostly below the altitude of 1,000 feet; of the tundras below the same
1,000 feet level; of the barren uplands; and of known glaciers, which
occur along the southern coastal mountain ranges for a distance of 1,400
miles, from Sitka northwest to St. Elias, west to the Kenai peninsula,
and southwest to Unimak island.

Describing the mountains, Prof. Russell writes: ‘‘The vast cordilleran
system which follows the west coast of both South and North America
traverses southern Alaska, and, bending westward, follows the coast to
the end of the Alaskan peninsula. The partially submerged continua-
tion of the same system forms the Aleutian islands, more than a thou-
sand miles in length. The culminating points of this great system in
North America are two rival peaks, Mt. Logan, 19,500 feet high, [*] and
Mt. St. Elias, 18,010 feet high......In the neighbourhood of Mt. St.
Elias the ranges are monoclinal, and agree in general structure with the
Great Basin system more closely than with any other mountain type
now known. In common with all lofty mountains, St. Elias is young.
The foot-hills near the ocean have been elevated at least 5,000 feet dur-
ing the existence of species of marine molluses now living in the adja-
cent waters, and it is probable that the main uplift received an import-
ant increment at the time the foot-hills were raised above the sea. Since
the mountains were uplifted, ordinary stream erosion seems to have had
but little to do with their sculpturing; glaciers took possession of the
depressions as soon as they were raised above the ocean, and the subse-
quent modifications of their forms have been largely due to ice-action.”’

W. U.

Paleontology of Missouri, Part I. By Cuarnes Rouurs Keyes, State

Geologist. (Missouri Geological Survey, vol. rv, 340 pp., 33 plates, 1 map.

(*#The discovery and naming of Mt. Logan, with the determination of its altitude as the
highest on this continent, were noted in the AM, GEoLoaisT for last April, p. 292.—Eps. }

332 The American Geologist. November, 1894

Jefferson City, 1894.) The first installment of the report on the fossils
of Missouri is a thick volume of some 350 pages, besides 30 plates and a
large geological map of the state. The work shows a marked, as well
as happy, departure from most official reports on the subject. Instead
of devoting all energies towards multiplying species and giving long,
detailed descriptions of the fossils, Dr. Keyes has attempted, and very
successfully, too, to make it the foundation of a broad stratigraphic
study of the entire Mississippi basin and a guide to the future develop-
ment of mineral wealth, thereby giving the report an economic twist.
The work is fourfold in its character. Briefly, it comprises: (1) An
index to the fossils of the state, through means of which the forms now
known to occur within the limits of the region under consideration may
be recognized readily without recourse to great libraries; (2) a bibliog-
raphy of Missouri paleontology, bringing together all that has been
written on the subject, now so widely scattered and practically inacces-
sible; (3) a summary of what has been done up to the present time in
this branch of science, in so far as it pertains to the state of Missouri:
and (4) an introduction to more comprehensive faunal studies, tending
toward a solution of stratigraphical problems at present more or less
obscure.

The general plan of treatment of the different species enumerated
has been to give under each a more or less complete bibliography, by
reference to which additional information or good illustrations of the

forms not here figured may be found. In the diagnoses it has been the

aim to give a rather full description of some leading representative of
each genus, accompanied by a suitable figure; and to make the sketches
of the other members of the group brief and ina great measure com-
parative. By this manner of dealing with the subject it is thought that
the characterizations of all the species would be sufficiently ample for
intelligent comprehension and for the particular uses to which the work
will be put. At the same time, the bulk of the report was reduced very
greatly—to one-fourth, at least, of what it would otherwise have been.
The horizon and some of the leading localities of each species are also
given. The matter of localization has had to be rather general, allusion
being made to the nearest postoffice usually, or in a few instances, as
when the fossil is common and the distribution wide, merely to the
county. With the greater portion of the material the exact bed, with
reference toa particular section, has not been-made known.

It is astonishing what a vast array of fossils is represented in Mis-
souri, and this state must certainly be one of the most favored provinces
in all the great Mississippi basin for the study of ancient forms of life.
The wide range of geological formations present, from the Cambrian to
the top of the Paleozoic, makes the record exceptionally complete, prob-
ably nowhere surpassed in any state of the great interior basin.

Something of the vastness of the present undertaking may be inferred
when it is learned thatin the two volumes on the subject—the second,

it is understood, will be issued in the course of a few weeks—there is.
condensed material which if it were written up after the manner of the-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 333

Illinois reports, for example, would. probably exceed in size the nine
large volumes of that state.

“On account of their varying value for classificatory purposes, the
treatment of the different zoological groups has not been the same. In
order to carry out the main intent of the work, and still have it included
within the limits originally planned, it has been necessary to condense
greatly the consideration of many of the sections. The most character-
istic forms of the various geological horizons, and the species which are
little known, have been considered more in detail than other forms
equally interesting and perhaps even more important. Certain large
groups have consequently been very briefly alluded to. Such are the
polyzoans, vertebrates, and various sections of lower taxonomic rank.

Accompanying the paleontological portion of the report is an intro-
duction of nearly 100 pages. on the general stratigraphy of the state,
which contains much new information.

The illustrations are largely zine etchings, and for their kind could
scarcely be excelled. They are works of art, perfectly clear in every
detail, and entirely free from that ‘‘muddiness’’ which is almost always
apparent in work of this kind. The drawings were chiefly the work of
Dr. McConnel, of Washington, D. C., of M. Westergren, who for thirty
years was draughtsman in the National Museum of Sweden, and of the
author. H. F. B.

The Lower Silurian Ostracoda of Minnesota. By KB. O. Utricn. (Chap-
ter VII of vol. m1. Final Report, Geological and Natural History Survey
of Minnesota, July, 1894, pp. 629-698, pls. xliii-xlvi.) The crustacean
order Ostracoda attracts but few paleontologists, although their remains
appear to be as abundant as the trilobites. This lack of interest is prob-
ably due to the usually small size of the carapace of these animals,
though some Silurian and Cambrian species have a length of nearly two
inches. Geologically younger specimens never attain anything like this
size. Miller in his ‘‘North American Geology and Paleontology, 1889,”’
catalogues one hundred and twenty-seven species in eleven genera. In
1890 Mr. Ulrich described or identified ninety-eight additional species
and twenty-one genera. In the present work fifty-four species and seven
genera more are added, making in all about two hundred and eighty-
five American species of Paleozoic ostracods distributed in forty genera,
a growth since 1890 doubling the known species and nearly quadrupling
the genera. Collectors will do well to give attention to washing shale
and other soft friable strata and thereby obtain many forms of Ostra-
coda, Bryozoa, and the younger stages of Brachiopoda, Mollusea, Crusta-
cea, etc.

In this chapter are described sixty-eight species, of which fifty-four
are new. These are grouped under twenty-two genera, of which Leper-
ditella, Primitiella, Dicranella, Dilobella, Ceratopsis, Macronotella and
Krausella are new.

“In the Lower Silurian deposits Ostracoda occur in such great num-
bers and variety, that it is doubtful if the representation of the order at

334 The American Geologist. November, 1894

any subsequent time exceeded them in these respects. The predomi-
nant types, Leperditiide and Beyrichiidw, moreover, after holding their
own perhaps through the Upper Silurian, were greatly reduced during
Devonian and Carboniferous times and are now totally extinet. Some
recent families and genera, on the other hand, are sparingly represented,
but, taken as a whole, the Silurian Ostracoda fauna is decidedly pe-
culiar.

“The Ostracoda are everywhere poorly represented in the Triassic and
Jurassic. But in the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of Europe certain
genera, Cythere especially, develop an astounding variety and wealth of
species. The forms are all small, and this may in part account for the
fact that so few have been discovered in American deposits of these
ages.”’ Cus:

Hléments de Paléontologie. Par Fruix BERNARD; seconde partie (pp. 529-
1,168) avec 251 figures dans le texte. Paris. Bailliére et fils, 1895. The
reader is referred to vol. x1, p. 410, AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, for a notice of
the first part of this work. With this part the volume is closed. Al-
though it is especially addressed to French scientists, in whose litera-
ture it certainly must constitute a valuable contribution to the philos-
ophy of paleontology, it will be closely scanned by many in other
countries who may be seeking for a concise presentation of the evolu-
tionary steps and the structural relations through which life upon the
globe has passed to its present stages. The author’s chief aim is to
exemplify the relations of paleontology to the biological sciences, rather
than to set forth the special characters of numerous species or genera.
He dwells, therefore, on the morphology and the internal structures and
on the embryological development of fossil forms. The march of life,
therefore, as presented is a grand panorama of evolution. The > work
covers both animal and vegetable paleontology. It is specially full in
the discussion of the mammifers and reptiles, and many American dis-
coveries in the development of these classes, are credited to Cope and
Marsh. With this exception recent American paleontological work is
not so fully recognized. N. H. W.

Principes et Méthodes d étude de Corrélation au moyen des Plantes Fossiles.
By Lester F. Warp. Congrés Géologique International, Compte Rendu
de Ja 5me Session, Washington, 1891 (published 18938), pp. 77-109. This
paper admits fully the view propounded by Huxley that the successive
floras of different regions should be regarded as homotaxial rather than
contemporaneous, that is to say, their contemporaneity should be meas-
ured rather by their general aspect than by strict identity of species.
Following this principle, Prof. Ward lays down, as rules of practice in
paleeobotany, (1) that any striking deviation from homotaxis implies a
wide difference of date, quoting the discovery of a few Carboniferous
fossils in strata from the High Alps supposed by de Beaumont, in 1828,
to be of Mesozoic age, as absolutely conclusive; and (2) that stronger ey-
idence is needed when the difference of age is much less, as in the case
of the Gay Head strata, pronounced by Shaler to be of Tertiary date,

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 335

but now proved by David White, on the evidence of a large collection of
plants, to be Middle Cretaceous.

Prof. Ward next discusses the influence of geographical distance in
lessening the identity of species in floras while the general aspect of re-
semblance continues. Contemporancity of date may be inferred from
identity of species, especially in the more recent and not geographically
remote strata; yet as we recede to a greater distance the forms are ex-
tinct and their exact relationship is difficult of determination, especially
among the cryptogams. Hence more stress must be laid on close alli-
ance than on identity, because the latter is frequently a matter of
opinion of the paleontologist. The essay isa valuable contribution to
exactness in this department of geology. E. W. C.

Fossil Plants as an aid to Geology. By F. H. KxNownton. Journal of
Geology, vol. 11, pp. 865-382; May-June, 1894. Prof. Knowlton takes up
the same points as the foregoing paper and quotes largely from it regard-
ing the use of plant fossils in the widest sense. As to their value in a
more restricted area, he cites the remarkable case of the Dakota group
which has yielded 460 species of plants, with only ten invertebrate and
no vertebrate fossils. Of the plants 394 species are peculiar to that hor-
izon, and many of these are so characteristic as to settle any question
of the age of other beds in which they occur. As an instance of this,
the author quotes the mistaken reference of a so-called specimen of
Sterculia draketi from the Big Tucumcari beds of New Mexico as the
only known dicotyledon from the Trinity sands of the Comanche series.
It is, he says, Sterculia snowtt of the Dakota group and at once deter-
mines the age of the stratum in which it is found. Several other in-
stances are given of the importance of plants in determining the age of
Cretaceous strata in the west, such as the Colorado and Middle Park or
Denyer beds, the Livingston beds, and the Great Falls beds in Montana.
Economically, Prof. Knowlton shows the value of paleeobotany in quot-
ing the case in which Zeiller predicted the discovery of a bed of coal in
France on palzobotanical grounds. A shaft was sunk, and at the depth
of nearly 2,400 feet coal was found, having a thickness of about fifteen
feet.

In writing of fossil plants as a test of climate, the author says, ‘‘the
absence of rings of growth in the Carboniferous conifers shows, as long
ago pointed out by Witham, that the seasons, if such they could have
been called, were either absent or not abrupt.’ With this view it is
not quite easy to coincide, because, not to discuss here the somewhat
doubtful case of conifers, there were undoubtedly other Carboniferous
plants whose remains exhibit distinct rings of growth.

In conclusion the author justly remonstrates against the too frequent
practice of expecting the palceobotanist to determine mere fragments of
plants uncritically collected and ill preserved. As well might a botan-
ist be called on to name scraps of living plants badly dried and sundered
from each other. In both cases the task is often impossible or the re-
sult is useless. . W. C.

The Post-Pliocene Diastrophism of the Coast of southern California. By

336 The American Geologist, November, 1894

ANpDREW ©. Lawson. University of California, Bulletin of the Depart-
ment of Geology, vol. 1, pp. 115-160, with two plates and a section; Dec.,
1898. The term diastrophism, proposed by Powell for the collective
processess of deformation of the earth’s crust, includes orogeny (moun-
tain-making) and epeirogeny (continent-making). The last of these
terms, as proposed and defined by Gilbert, embraces the uplifts and
subsidences of large areas producing continents and plateaus, ocean
beds and continental basins. Both these classes of orogenic and epei-
rogenic earth-movements have produced important changes on the
Californian coast since the beginning of the Quaternary era.

Marine wave-cut terraces of post-Pliocene age are described by Dr.
Lawson in this paper at numerous places along the distance of 450 miles
from San Francisco southward to San Diego, near the Mexican bound-
ary. They show an epeirogenic uplift of these parts of the coast (and
the author thinks the upward movement to have been continuous for
all this distance), during post-Pliocene time, to an extent of from 800 to
1,500 feet. In the vicinity of San Diego the successive terraces marking
stages in the emergence of the land are approximately 800 feet, '700, 600,
520, 340, and 160 feet above the sea. Pleistocene marine fossils have
been collected there by Dall at the altitude of 600 feet and twelve miles
distant from the sea. At San Pedro hill, a projecting point of the
coast about 100 miles northwest of San Diego, the appproximate alti-
tudes of the old shore lines are 1,240, 1,040, 960, 860, 700, 550, 400, 300,
240, 160, and 120 feet. The terrace at 1,240 feet has abundant water-
worn gravel; and the limestone of this shore, as of several others lower,
displays plentiful borings made by lithodomous mollusks. On San Cle-
mente island, about 75 miles west of San Diego, twenty-two terraces
were noted, the highest being 1,500 feet above the sea. Santa Catalina
island, however, lying midway between San Clemente and the San
Pedro headland, shows no such elevated strand lines and appears even
to have been sinking while the areas south and north of it were rising.
Probably other islands of this group also stood higher than now and
even had connection with similarly higher adjacent portions of the
mainland during late Tertiary and early Quaternary time, as Le Conte
concludes for Santa Rosa from the occurrence of elephant bones on
that island and for Santa Cruz from peculiarities of its flora. These is-
lands lie opposite to Santa Barbara and are about 100 miles northwest
of those examined by Dr. Lawson, whose opinion that all the coast
shared in the Pleistocene uplift needs therefore to be tested by further
exploration, especially through Santa Barbara county,

At Carmelo bay, 800 miles northwest of San Clemente and Santa Cat-
alina, and about 80 miles south of San Francisco, abundant evidences
of post-Pliocene submergence and re-elevation are again found up to the
hight of 800 feet, as noted by Dr. Lawson in pages 46-57 of the same
volume. Some 30 miles farther north, in the vicinity of the’ town of
Santa Cruz and westward along the north coast of the bay of Monterey,
nine terraces were observed, the highest being at 1,200 feet.

Besides the epeirogenic moyements which are thus ascertained, a re-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 337

markable Quaternary orogenic disturbance has uplifted and steeply
‘tilted the thick Merced series of richly fossiliferous Pliocene sandstone
strata on the peninsula of San Francisco, afew miles south of the Golden
Gate. The center and cause of the disturbed areais the Montara moun-
tain, an upthrust portion of the granite floor on which the Mesozoic and
Pliocene beds had been deposited. The latest and chief uplift of Mon-
tara mountain took place at the end of the Pliocene and during Pleisto-
cene time, which also, according to Turner, included the similar up-
thrust of Mount Diablo, about 25 miles east-northeast of San Francisco;
and on the other side of the great valley of California, according to Le
Conte, Diller, Becker and others, the extensive faulting and tilting
which produced the present high Sierra Nevada range belonged to the
same period. Dr. Lawson thinks that a part of the area of the Merced
series had sunk to the vertical extent of more than a mile, the measured
thickness of the series, during its deposition. Its basal beds now out-
crop at the altitude of 700 feet above the sea, indicating an equally
great re-elevation. But if this series comprised the outwardly dipping
beds of an advancing delta brought by the Pliocene representatives of
the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, as Shaler has suggested for the
similarly extensive section of inclined strata at Gay Head, Martha’s
Vineyard, the required subsidence and ensuing upward movement would
be reduced to moderate amounts.

The time of the depression of large portions of the coast and some of
the islands southward to San Diego is referred by the author to the Pli-
ocene period, and that of their uplift to the Pleistocene, the division
between the Tertiary and Quaternary eras being marked by a general
reversal in the epeirogenic movements of this coastal region. The up-
ward movement seems to have been closely related to the much greater
uplift occurring farther north, which extended from the Pacific to the
Arctic and Atlantic coasts and at its culmination caused the accumula-
tion of the North American ice-sheet. The Pliocene depression near
the Golden Gate permitting the deposition of the Merced series seems
to have been contemporaneous with a somewhat greater elevation than
now back from the coast, since the rivers would need more than their
present slopes for transportation of the sands forming the Merced strata.
It is further evident that the Pleistocene upheaval at its culmination
raised the coast on the latitude of San Francisco at least 414 feet above
its present hight, as shown by the depth of the channel at the narrow-
est part of the Golden Gate, and by the eroded lower portion of the trib-
utary valley now occupied by the San Francisco and San Pablobays. A
much greater vertical extent of this uplift, however, seems to have
been attained and held during a time sufficient for the erosion of the
deeply submerged valleys on this continental slope, which have been
made known by Davidson and Le Conte, reaching to a depth of 2,000 to
3,120 feet where they cross the general submarine contour line of 600
feet below the sea level. The channeling of these valleys or cations on
a high-coast, with plentiful rainfall, may have been very rapid and some-
times independent of any connection with important valleys of the

338 The American Geologist. November, 1894

streams now existing. To that time of very high but geologically brief
Pleistocene uplift we may refer the passage of the mammoth from the
continent to Santa Rosa island, if it should be found that the preceding
Pliocene submergence affected the entire coast line. Wa-t

Notes on the Pleistocene of the Northwest Territories of Canada, northwest
and west of Hudson Bay. By J. BuRR TyrRELL. Geological Magazine,
IV, vol. 1, pp. 394-399, with map; Sept., 1894. In the years 1892 and
1893 Mr. Tyrrell, for the Geological Survey of Canada, explored a large
region from the Churchill river and lake Athabasca northeastward to
Chesterfield inlet and Hudson bay. A preliminary account of his ex-
ploration in 1893, from which he returned along the west coast of Hud-
son bay, was given in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST last February (page 132).
In the present short paper Mr. Tyrrell notes the occurrence of horizon-
tal red sandstones and conglomerates, cut by trap dikes, similar
lithologically with the Keweenawan series of the lake Superior region
and probably of the same age, south of Athabasca and Black lakes and
from Doobaunt lake (lat. 62° 30’ to 68° 30’, and long. 101° to 102° 30’,
with an altitude about 500 feet above the sea) northeast and east to the
head of Chesterfield inlet. Laurentian gneiss borders the north
side of lake Athabasca, reaches thence northeast to Doobaunt lake, and
again appears along the north side of Chesterfield inlet. For 150. miles
south of this inlet the greater part of the northwest shore of Hudson
bay was found to consist of ‘‘green Huronian schists cut by many quartz
veins, and sprinkled through with particles of copper pyrites.”’

The whole region has been strongly glaciated, and the directions of
the currents of the ice-sheet were noted in hundreds of places. On the
upper Churchill river the glacial movement was prevailingly south or a
little west of south; about lake Athabasca, Black and Daly lakes, and
along the Telzoa river to Doobaunt lake, west; about the north part of
Doobaunt lake and along the next 150 miles of the Telzoa river in its
course through Wharton, Aberdeen, and Schultz lakes, northwest; but
on Baker lake, next southeast of Schultz lake, and along Chesterfield in-
let, south to southeast; along the northwest coast of Hudson bay, also
southeast; and in the vicinity of Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the
Churchill river, three sets of strite were observed, respectively (1) 8. 5°
W. to S. 10° E., (2) N. 80° E., and (3) N. 55° E.

The southward striation at Fort Churchillis preserved on the summits
and northern sides of the hills, and Mr. Tyrrell supposes it to be the
most recent of the three courses; but it may be questioned whether it is
not more probably the oldest, being possibly as early as the time of max-
imum thickness and extension of the ice-sheet. The northeastward
striation would then be referable to the time of departure of the ice,
when the land was depressed from its great preglacial elevation, so that
the sea coming into the areas of Hudson strait and bay melted away the
ice-sheet there faster than over the land areas on each side. This melt-
ing appears to have opened a large embayment or basin into the central
part of the originally ice-covered area, and to have finally turned the

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 339

glacial currents at Fort Churchill northeastward, in a nearly opposite
direction to the former course held during the greater part of the Ice
age. If the total glacial erosion, besides plowing up the preglacial
stream deposits and general mantle of residuary clay, removed also on
the average several or many feet from the underlying rock surface, it
is evident that nearly all the striw# produced during the early and middle
portions of the Glacial period were erased and their places taken by
later markings. The ice-currents recorded by Mr. Tyrrell radiating in
all directions outward from the region west of Hudson bay and east of
the Telzoa river therefore probably are referable to a late stage of the
glaciation, when the previously thick part of the ice-sheet covering the
basin of Hudson bay had been melted, on account of the ingress of the
sea, more rapidly than its portions at the west and at the east and south-
east, which consequently for a time flowed into the Hudson bay area,
engraving the latest and most plentiful courses of striation.

An opinion here stated by Mr. Tyrrell, that Hudson bay was an inland
sea during the Ice age, thus appears to be true only for its closing or
Champlain epoch. The northeastward and eastward glacial strie re-
corded by Bell on the northeastern shores of this great bay and along
Hudson strait, with the extension of the ice-sheet thence eastward be-
yond the present coast of Labrador, and its extension west and north-
west, as shown by Russell, Dawson, and McConnell, to the upper part of
the Yukon basin and beyond the lower course of the Mackenzie river,
indicate that the area of Hudson bay during the greater part of the
Glacial period was enveloped by a deep ice-sheet, which, because of its
thickness and the hight of its surface in that central portion, outflowed
east into Davis strait and the North Atlantic ocean, south and south-
west to the Ohio and Missouri rivers, and northwest to the Arctic
ocean north of the mouth of the Mackenzie. Due south of Hudson bay
the ice-sheet had its greatest extent in the United States, reaching in
southern Illinois 200 miles farther south than in New York and New
England. Drift from east of Hudson bay also was carried far south-
westward. Boulders of a peculiar rock formation which occurs in place,
so far as known, only on the east coast of this bay where it narrows into
James bay, are plentiful in the drift southwest of James bay and con-
tinue to North Dakota and southern Minnesota, 1,000 miles from their
outcrops.

Drumlins or ridges of till, and eskers or ridges of sand and gravel,
were commonly found, throughout the region traversed by Mr. Tyrrell,
on the areas having a considerable average thickness of drift deposits;
but some tracts, as the shores of Chesterfield inlet and part of the north-
west coast of Hudson bay, are largely bare rock. Theeskers often were
observed to extend long distances, ‘‘parallel to the glacial striw, over
hills and through valleys and lakes, quite regardless of the surface con-
tour of the country.”’

Strand lines of the Late Glacial or Champlain marine submergence
were seen along all the lower part of the Telzoa river, the first and high-
est being about 400 feet above the present sea level. Near Fort Churchill,

340 The American Geologist. November, 1894

however, the uprise of the land seems to have ceased or to have been
very slow for at least 150 years, as shown by inscriptions cut on a pre-
ee

cipitous rock shore there by sailors as early as 1741, 1746, 1753 and. on-
ward. Ww. U.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Pror. Cuartes 8. Prosser, of Washington college, Kansas,
has been appointed to the chair of geology at Union college,
Schenectady, N. Y.

GEN. WitiiAm W. Dourrtetp, of Detroit, has been appointed
by the president to succeed Prof. T. C. Mendenhall, resigned,
as superintendent of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey,

Magsor C. L. Griespacn, after about twenty years service in
the Geological Survey of India, is appointed to succeed Dr.
William King as director of that survey.

THe ConsTANTINOPLE EARTHQUAKE OF JULY 10, 1894, trans-
mitted its earth pulsations as far westward as to Kew,
England. An investigation of their velocity by Prof. Charles
Davison (in Nature for Sept. 6) shows that this distance of
2,500 kilometers was traversed in 780 seconds, at the average
rate of 3.23 kilometers, or about two miles, per second. ‘To
Utrecht, in Holland, nearly 2,200 kilometers, the rate of
progress of this earth wave per second was 4.05 kilometers, or
two and a half miles. In general the progress to nearer points
was not more rapid proportionally than for these greater dis-
tances. The speed of transmission of the earthquake at
Charleston, 8. C., August 31, 1886, felt 800 to 900 miles north
and northwest in New England, New York, Wisconsin, and
Iowa, was found by Dutton to be about three miles per sec-
ond.

THE GEOLOGICAL MAP oF Evuropr, which has been under
course of preparation by a committee of the International
Congress of Geologists since 1881, contains 49 sheets, of which
six are now ready for issue, including Scandinavia, northern
Germany, and parts of France, Belgium and Poland. It is
expected that the next ten sheets will be issued within a year,
to include the British Isles, France, Spain and Portugal, Italy,
and Switzerland. In the drift-covered area of northern and
northwestern Europe, the bed-rocks, where their distribution
is known, will be shown by thin bands of color over the colors
for the Quaternary formations. The subscription price for
the entire map is $20, but this may be paid in instalments
as the successive parts are issued, the proportion for the first
part being $2.50. Subscriptions must be sent to Dietrich
Reimer, Berlin, before the close of this year, after which the
price will be increased.—N ature, Sept. 20.

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.
Vol. XIV, Plate X.

5) Ge oD ho Sila ah al alana ae 2 i “d J “ ? \
ere
eae Re a i ae

THE
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vor. XIV. DECEMBER, 1894. No. 6.

SKETCH OF DR. JOHN LOCKE.
By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn.

(Plate X, Portrait.)

Fifty years ago the person of John Locke, of Cincinnati,
was a familiar object to the higher circles of science in that
city. No less familiar to the geologists of fifty years ago was
the personality of his genius and the power of his industrious
pen. As a geologist, however, his career was short. He re-
turned to the medical profession, and secondarily to physics
and astronomy. His chief laurels will always be found in the
contributions which he made to other sciences, yetas an orig-
inal contributor to geology he was associated with Owen,
Hall, Shumard, Whittlesey and Foster.

Born Feb. 19, 1792, at Lempster, N. H., he spent his boy-
hood at Bethel, Maine, where his father was proprietor of
“Locke’s mills,” still known.* Here he took much interest in
the machinery of the mill and in the physical problems in-
volved, exhibiting a precociousness which marked him
throughout his early career, and which took the direction of
mathematics and natural science. He became greatly inter-
ested in botany, and published a text book which was ad-

*The writer is under obligations to Mr. J. B. Locke, of Zumbrota.
Minn., nephew of Dr. John Locke, for much information concerning
the personal-history and character of Dr. John Locke, and for the use
of a copy of the memorial address of Dr. M. B. Wright, delivered at the
request of the Cincinnati Medical Society. There is also an account of
Dr. Locke in the ‘‘History of Bethel, Me.,’’ published in 1891, by Dr.
Wm. Bb. Lapham. Col. Chas. Whittlesey also gave a brief, appreciative
sketch of him in the Magazine of Western History. 1885, p. 84. — In the
Am. Jour. Sci. (2), xxii, p. 301, is a brief obituary notice, of thirteen,
ines. There is also a sketch in the ‘Locke genealogy,’’ Boston, 1853.

342 The American Geologist. December, 1894

mired for the simplicity of its arrangement. At Bridgton he
made the acquaintance of Seba Smith, author of the “Jack
Downing letters.” He was turned from the effort to procure
a collegiate education because the ordinary college course in
those days comprised little that was practical, and embraced
mainly those studies in which he had no interest. He chose
medicine; and was for a short time at Dartmouth college,
but took his degree at Yale, to which place he was attracted
by reading “Silliman’s Travels in Europe.” Resigning a po-
sition in the navy because of the unwholesome sanitary con-
ditions which he noticed on shipboard, he returned to New
Haven, where he had established a reputation for industry,
energy and ability.

Scarcely four years had elapsed since he left the valley of
the Androscoggin. He had taught botany at Keene, N. H.,
had been appointed, through the friendly influence of Prof.
Bigelow of Boston, procurator of plants for the botanical gar-
den of Cambridge, under the patronage of the Massachusetts
Agricultural Society, had delivered public lectures at Port-
land, Maine, botanical lectures at Dartmouth college and at
several academies, had issued a popular scientific work and
had become a doctor of medicine. All this was accomplished
without one dollar of patronage or support, except that crea-
ted by his own exertions. His father, although not destitute
of means nor of intelligence, could not fathom his designs nor
appreciate the tendency of his labors sufficiently to induce
any pecuniary outlay. He reasoned: “If the boy can summon
courage enough to appear before learned men and by his un-
aided efforts has acquired knowledge enough to impart to
them instruction, he needs no assistance from me; his own
will seems destined to achieve that which money cannot pur-
chase.”

He then made an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself
as a physician, but resorted to teaching, in a female academy
at Windsor, Vt. as assistant to Col. Dunham, who subse-
quently removed to Lexington, Ky. It was through this con-
nection that Dr. Locke was induced to céoperate in the estab-
lishment of a new school, at Lexington, in which he bore the
principal part, Col. Dunham having been unexpectedly de-
tained. In 1822 Dr, Locke left Lexington, for Cincinnati,

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.— Winchell. 343

which he determined to make his abode for life. He estab-
lished immediately a new school, long known by its high rep-
utation, in which many of the present mothers of Cincinnati
were his pupils. He was among the earliest instructors and
lecturers in Mechanics’ Institute, but the young mechanics
went to his private apartments for instruction. He particu-
larly excelled in making clear to his listeners the principles
of chemistry and physics. ‘They were inspired and attracted
by his enthusiasm. He made with his own hand many of the
instruments which he needed.

In 1835 Dr. Locke was elected professor of chemistry in
the Medical College of Ohio, and he entered upon his duties
with the zeal of one having no thought of failure. He had
been liberally patronized, and had been successful asa teacher.
His associations had been adapted to his sensitive nature.
All around were daughters, wives and mothers, sustaining by
their intelligence and accomplishments his self-made reputa-
tion. But his desire for more ample scope for the study of
scientific problems induced him to sever the pleasant and re-
munerative relations which he had sustained for thirteen
years.

The chemical department he found nearly destitute of every-
thing needed for illustration. His own handicraft supplied
many pieces of apparatus, but he finally visited Europe in
1837, for the purchase of much more. The college rapidly
rose in reputation and patronage, largely due to the renown
which was spread abroad from the energy and popularity of
the department of chemistry. We will not, however, pursue
the course which Dr. Locke carried out in that institution, nor
dwell upon his magnetical or astronomical researches, some of
which proved of the greatest value to science. The chief of
these was his “electro-chronograph,” or ‘magnetic clock,”
which was pronounced by Lieut. Maury, of the National Ob-
servatory, Washington, an invention of the highest value to
the Coast Survey, ‘‘a national triumph, belonging to that class
of achievements by which the most beautiful and enduring
monuments are erected to national honor and greatness.” For
this signal triumph congress voted him $10,000 in 1849, and
the English government presented him a full set of magneti-

B44 The American Geologist. December, 1894

cal instruments. He also invented a “microscopic compass,”
and an instrument known to geologists as ‘‘Locke’s Level.”
It was while he was absent in Europe, in 1837, that he was
appointed one of the assistants on the Ohio survey under W.
W. Mather, then just established. He took no part in it the
first year. But his report for 1888 is probably the most val-
uable contribution to the geology of Ohio which was made
through that survey, by any single man. Itis the most vo-
luminous and the best illustrated. Prof. Orton, who again
examined, for the second survey, the region on which Dr.
Locke reported (S. W. Ohio), had occasion repeatedly to com-
mend at once the scope and the detail of Locke’s first report,
saying that he had found it correct in observation and in gen-
eralization. It gives one of the first expositions of the “Blue
limestone,” bringing out clearly the anticlinal form of the
gentle dips observable along the Ohio river, and showing that
the coal beds of eastern Ohio, on one side, and of Indiana on
the other, could not possibly exist in the region of Cincinnati
except high in the air, at 1,160 feet above Adams county. He
gives, in connection with a colored map of Adams county, a
perpendicular colored section of the strata from the coal and
conglomerate of Scioto county on the east, to the west line of
Adams county, supposed to pass through West Union. Here
he represents the Waverly sandstone at the east line of the
county, 348 feet thick; followed by a bituminous slate, con-
taining conspicuous septaria, now known as the Huron shale,
of Devonian age, 251 feet thick; Cliff limestone, with basins of
iron ore,involving in this both the Devonian and Upper Silurian
limestones, 89 feet thick; marl], 106 feet thick, probably Upper
Silurian; flinty limestone, 51 feet; clay marl, 25 feet, and
Blue limestone, 1,000 feet. Although the structure of the re-
gion is well made out, there is no attempt to assign the strata
to their respective ages by comparisons with other states or
with Europe. He made an excursion into the coal regions of
the southeastern part of the state, and another under the guid-
ance of Dr. D. D. Owen, to Madison, Ind., for the purpose of
comparative study of the stratigraphy, particularly to deter-
mine the manner of junction of the Cliff limestone with the
Blue. Of the latter excursion he remarks: “For the infor-
mation of those who may be inclined to make the investiga-

Kee art ee

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.—Winchell. 345

tion, permit me to observe that I shall not charge the State of
Ohio my salary during this excursion beyond its limits, but
as a sketch of the information would, I thought, serve to show
the connection of our geological formations with those of an
adjacent state, I have taken the liberty of offering it to the
service of our citizens.” (p. 288).

In this report he described and figured Jsotelus maximus
(which he afterward changed to /sotelus megistos ), comparing
it accurately with /sotelus megalops Green. His specimen was
21 inches long, its great size being the only definable differ-
ence which he could discover between it and Green’s /. mega-
lops, which was 5 inches long. He feared his specimen might
be “actually an overgrown megalops of Green.” He made also
a careful examination and illustration of certain peculiar “di-
luvial grooves” which he found seven miles above Dayton, on
the limestone of Light’s quarry, in Montgomery county. He
compares them with grooves described by Dr. Hitchcock on the
Primitive rocks of Massachusetts, and suggests that they may
be due to icebergs floating over the terrace. ‘The rectilinear
course of these grooves corresponds with the motions of an im-
mense body, the momentum of which does not allow it to
change its course upon slight resistances.” The glacier hy-
pothesis of professor L. Agassiz had not then been heard of in
America.

The “first survey” of Ohio was discontinued because of the
failure of the Legislature to make the necessary appropria-
tions of money; indeed, the second year’s work, and the most
valuable portion of the report published in 1888, resulted
from the unexpended surplus of the funds appropriated for
1837. The survey was well begun and ably maintained, but
its utility was not appreciated.

The following year (1839) Dr. Locke was in the service of
the United States government under Dr. D. D. Owen in the
survey of the “Mineral Lands of the United States.” It shows

”

how little conception of the mineral wealth of the United
States the government then entertained, to observe that such
lands were defined as “all the lands in the Mineral Point and
Galena districts which are situated south of the Wisconsin
and north of the Rock river, and west of the line dividing
ranges eight and nine east of the fourth principal meridian,

346 The American Geologist. December, 1894

together with all the surveyed lands in the Dubuque district,”
and that a report thereon was required “before the approach-
ing winter should set in.”* Here Dr. Locke was entrusted
with the “physical department” of the survey, as noted by
himself, which he understood to include, especially, the baro-
metrical observations, the measured altitudes and the geolog-
ical sections. The report rendered by himt has the following

parts:

1. A comparison between the rocks of the lead or mineral region and
those of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, called the ‘‘Cliff limestone,”’
showing their probable identity.

2. Several sections of strata (the hight and thickness being deter-
mined by the barometer) with drawings.

3. The altitudes of table lands, hills, mounds and mountains, deter-
mined by barometrical observations, with a chart.

4. The result of numerous observations and calculations on the ele-
ments of terrestrial magnetism, including the dip, declination and force
or intensity of the magnetic needle at several places between Cincinnati
and the region surveyed, and in that region itself, accompanied by two
charts: together with some remarks on the practical uses of these ele-
ments of magnetism.

5. Surveys of a few of the earthwork antiquities of Wisconsin, with

drawings.
6. Some observations on the climate and meteorology of the upper
Mississippi.

7. Acknowledgments and concluding remarks.

The lead-bearing limestone of the upper Mississippi valley
he considered older than the coal-bearing rocks, arguing at
some length to prove that Keating’s idea of their super-Car-
boniferous position was erroneous, and that they were the
equivalent of the Cliff limestone of Ohio. He gives colored
sections from the south fork of the Little Maquoketa to Sin-
sinewa mound, and across the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien.
The former shows only the Cliff limestone, 550 feet in thick-
ness, abounding in veins of lead ore, and the Blue limestone
somewhat below water-level. The latter represents the Blue
limestone about 400 feet above the river, 115 feet thick, un-
derlain by the Butf limestone 20 feet thick, which rests ona
soft sugar-like sandstone 40 feet thick. Magnesian lime-

*Report of Dr. Owen dated Jan, 20, 1840.

+Report of John Locke, M. D., to David Dale Owen, M. D., principal
agent to explore the mineral lands of the United States. Included
in Dr. Owen's report ordered to be printed by the Senate June 11, 1844.
This report was also printed by order of the House, in 1845.

1 hd Sr a ao a

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.— Winchell. B47

stones and soft sandstones are still lower in the bluffs, the
river being on a sandstone. Another section extends from
the Blue mounds to the Wisconsin river at Arena.

The greater part of Dr. Locke’s time and energy were spent,

_ during this survey, on magnetical and barometrical observa-

tions, this being more in keeping with the trend of his ambi-
tion and taste, as well as his instructions. He presents a
“magnetical chart” showing the lines of equal dip, crossing
the lead region. There was a curious notion prevalent, shared
by Owen as well as Locke, that the dip compass might be af-
fected by the ore bodies of the lead region, and Dr. Owen
ealls particular. attention to the probable action of “protoxide
of iron” on the needle. Locke, however, made a direct test
as to the lead ore at Dubuque and found that the metallic
vein exerted no peculiar magnetical influence.

In 1847 Dr. Locke was again called to the examination of
United States mineral lands. He received the appointment of
first assistant, with instructions, in the early part of the sea-
son of 1847, from Prof. C. T. Jackson, who had charge of the
survey of the mineral lands in the northern part of Michigan.
His field was from the mouth of the Chocolate river, where it
joins lake Superior, to the little Bay de Noquet. This enter-
prise, however, so far as Dr. Jackson’s plans were concerned,
resulted in failure. Personal ambition and jealousy united
with political intrigue and partizan greed and effected the re-
moval of Dr. Jackson, and the final completion of the survey
by other hands. According to Dr. Jackson’s statement in his
final report,* he learned from the commissioner of the general
land office that the “appropriation for the survey was endan-
gered by certain representations which had been made to a
member of Congress by persons opposed to it, or by persons
who wished to supersede me, by limiting the appointment to:
a citizen of Michigan.” He does not mention any individual
by name, but it mwy be inferred from events which followed,
connected with those which are patent in the report of Dr.
Jackson, that the same gentleman who subsequently broke up
the Michigan survey under Dr. A. Winchell, had no little influ-
ence in effecting this revolution. Dr. Locke’s report for 1847,
so far as it appears in the printed report of Dr. Jackson, con-

*Journal of the Geological Survey for 848.

348 The American Geologist. December, 1894

sists of magnetical and barometrical observations, a catalogue
of specimens collected, and daily journal from July 8, 1847, to
August 30, the last mentioned evidently kept by some member
of his party. It appears from this journal that Dr. Locke,

after making a reconnoissance southward from lake Superior to

the waters of the Escanaba river which enters little Bay de
Noquet, returned to lake Superior, and thence, on his way to
lake Michigan to make connection by way of little Bay de
Noquet, made a detour into Canada, visiting the region of
Bruce mines and Echo lake, and subsequently noted the geology
of the shores of Drummond’s island. Of the geology of this
season’s work, on which he was engaged in making a full re-
port, with maps, Jan. 23, 1848,* date of his letter transmitting
his magnetical observations, there is no report in Jackson’s
final report. Of this Dr. Jackson says:

I have sent Dr. John Locke’s report on magnetic observations, and have
requested him to send in some additional matter on the subject, and
also his notes or report on the geology of the district which I assigned to
him in 1847. His occupations in another service of the country during
the past year have prevented his completing his geological report in sea-
son to forward to me, but I trust it will be communicated to you in sea
son to be printed in my report.

In 1848 Dr. Locke
‘“‘was detached, by orders of the Secretary of the Treasury, as a mag-
netic surveyor, in accordance with my request, and a vacancy thus
made in the assistants’ corps was filled by my promotion of Mr. J. W.
Foster to the place of assistant geologist.”” (p. 579.)

Dr. Jackson also says (p. 424): .

“Dr. John Locke has been detached at his own request, and by the
advice of the honorable Secretary of the Treasury, to make magnetic
observations on both Dr. Owen’s district and mine; but owing to the
lateness of the passage of the appropriation bill, did not enter upon field
duties this year. The appropriation bill not passing till August, it was
considered then to be too late for the beginning of Dr. Locke’s field
duties, and the means placed at the disposal of Dr. Owen and myself
were not sufficient to maintain that survey until the appropriation
should be placed at our disposal. This was a matter of regret, for the
magnetic observations had already begun to yield interesting results.”

Dr. Locke does not seem to have returned to the survey

under Dr. Owen, nor indeed to have been again actively en- ~

gaged in the geology of the Northwest. He was doubtless
deeply involved in his magnetic studies, to which Dr. Jackson

*Jackson’sreport, p. 596.

+ ae,

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.—Winchell. 349

seems to refer in his own report as ‘another service to the
country.” His synoptical report for 1847, dated October 25,
and printed in the Senate documents (II) 80th Congress, 1847-
48, as a part of the report of the commissioner of the general
land office, was sent in response to an earlier request of Dr.
Jackson. It illustrates the negligence which pervaded the
superintendence of the public printing at that date. It was
so badly printed that, according to Col. Charles Whittlesey,
Dr. Locke repudiated it entirely.* Following is an example
of the proof-reading which it exhibits. It purports to be a
list of the “Crustaceous” collected by Dr. Locke:

Calemens (probably the senaria ofceraurus pleut couried) rex anthems.

Green.

Isoletus gigers.

Isoletus mesistus (mihi).

Asaphus—a large species.

The report confirms the prevalence of the idea that both the
iron and all the other ores of the region were in some way de-
pendent on magnetic currents and could be discovered by the
use of the dip needle. He refers to a general statement made
by him,+ that his experiments go to show that the general na-
ture of the subjacent rocks may be ascertained by the mag-
netic elements, the instrument serving the purpose of a divin-
ing rod. This idea he considered that his summer's observa-
tions did not contravene, but he also had discovered that there
are greater deflections or local.attractions in the northern part
of Michigan than in other parts of the country. He projected
a general magnetical chart of the United States, a kind of
Physical Atlas. He calls attention to the incompatibility of
magnetical and geological observations when conducted simul-
taneously, the former requiring more rapid travel and less ex-
posure to delicate instruments. He suggests, what ultimately
occurred, that the iron ore of the Negaunee region would be
profitably brought to the limestone region of Bay de Noquet
for smelting. He did not reach the mouth of the “Escanawby,”
owing to his insufficient force for “packing” the necessary
provisions. John Locke, his nephew, was with him. His de-
scription of “pictured rocks” is interesting, as follows:
~ *Magazine of Western History, 1885. Seth

+Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., April 19, 1844.

350 The American Geologist. December, 1894

PricruRED Rocks.

I had passed and repassed the ‘‘grand portal’’ of the pictured rocks
three different times and had once made a sketch of it, but it seems I
had never ascertained the extent of itsinterest. In passing it lately, all
the circumstances being favorable, we determined to enter the arch
with our boat. and though our mast was only about 16 to 18 feet high,
still the feeling. as we approached, was that we must take it down to be
able to pass under the apex of the arch: but drawing nearer the mast
seemed to shrink and the arch to tower upward until our sail shook un-
der a vault of 120 feet high. So much is the eye deceived by a general
proportionate grandeur. Entering, we found ample room for a vast ship
of war, with sails all standing, to conceal herself, turn round and come
out without impediment. Although the water is deep for three-fourths.
of the way, yet, at the far end of the cave there is, first, a pile of huge
fallen blocks of sandstone, and beyond these a sand beach 50 to 60 feet
wide. Excited by a work so magnificent, I determined to make it my
observatory until I had ascertained its form and dimensions as accu-
rately as expedition would permit. For this purpose. and to enjoy a
romantic luxury, I resolved on spending a night where I need not call
on the mountains to hide me.

As there was a spice of danger in spending the night in this palace of
winds and waves, I landed the party to encamp on the sands near the
Doric rock, and was then transported and left in the cave, with my
nephew and instruments, the voyagers returning with the boat to the
encampment. Here we were more securely imprisoned than Napoleon
on St. Helena, the only means of escape being to climb over hanging
rocks 200 feet high, or swim half of a mile of the lake, with water so
cold as to stiffen us in one-eighth of that distance, and our provisions, a
few sticks of wood, which we brought in the boat, and a bucket of bean
soup. But we gave ourselves no anxiety, for we had too much work to
perform. Immediately we measured our base line, for triangulation,
500 feet long, all within the cave of the great arch!

At this part of the pictured rocks there is a table of sandstone about
200 feet high, presenting to the lake a perpendicular wall of waving
and angular outline for several miles. At the grand portal the rock juts
out into a short peninsula by two curves, which come up like the curves
from the shoulders in each side of the neck. At the end it is abruptly
truncated, as if the head had been cut otf. Into this truncated end en-
ters the grand portal arch, about 120 feet high, and, penetrating about
300 feet, terminates in two smaller arches. Near the far end, a cross
arch, opening on each side of the neck, traverses the main cavern.
Thus the ground plan, like that of ancient cathedrals, is a cross. In the
portal, however. the head of the cross is double. We ventured to give
names to the various apartments. Ist. The grand dome, opening in the
grand portal. 2d and 3d. The first and second dormitories. 4th. The
left wing of the cross. 5th. The right wing of the cross. 6th. The
vestry, with columns, groined arches and Gothic windows, communicat-
ing with the right wing. 7th. The Egyptian labyrinths, consisting of

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.— Winchell. 351

cylindric and groined galleries, supported by peculiar columns, having
a distinct resemblance to the Egyptian, communicating both with the
right wing and with the grand dome. The form of the columns is that
of two elongated bells, with the two small ends joined to form the mid-
dle of the shaft: or, to detail the figure, it is expanded at the top like
an inverted bell, contracting rapidly as it descends, and, by a gradual
curve, becomes nearly cylindric for some distance; and again it con-
tracts, on a gradual curve, till it comes almost to a point, where it
meets the same figure reversed. This form is essentially beautiful, be-
ing a solid, generated by rotation of Hogarth’s sigmoid line of grace.
To explain the mode of its formation would lead to too long a discus-
sion.

Our most active and frolicsome half-breed voyager had waded the
water and, without our perceiving him, had entered the labyrinth. To
our surprise he thrust his head out of a hole in the wall of the grand
dome and uttered a hideous growl. His companions instantly took up
the drama of the beast in his den, andvhurled a volley of stones at him.
Darting back, Legarde presented his head at another opening and defied
his pursuers with a still fiercer snarl. Instantly there followed another
volley, another evasion, and another peal of laughter echoed back from
the dome. I labored hard until dark, and then discovered a new dan-
ger in making it my place of rest. J found a great part of the interior
of the cave to be lined with a shell of stone, loosened by last winter’s
frost, and ready, at all points, to fall with crushing force. Going back
to the farthest recess of the dormitory arch, I knocked off all the loose
stones, propped up my cot on piles of rocks and composed myself to
sleep, not unmindful, as I laid down, that the canopy of my bed was of
solid stone 200 feet thick, with a forest of fir trees on top as the orna-
mental fringe. About midnight I arose, lighted a candle, built a fire,
and walked forward with my lantern to the farthest block of stone.
Here I gazed at the great star-lighted window, presented by the portal
arch; and, as I stood, the polar star just twinkled on the verge of the
opening, making the angular altitude equal to the latitude of the place.
Again I laid down in the dormitory and listened to the dirge-like music
of the ripple as it kissed the rocky fragments and danced into the laby-
rinths. In such situations there is often a mirage of sound as wonder-
ful as that of light. The discords seemed to be absorbed, and the har-
monious notes are echoed and reverberated with more enchanting spells
than belong to the seolian. Commingled with the dirge one imagines
imitations of cascades, hail, rain and storms. This was pianissimo.
The fortissimo would be witnessed when the northern storm should
drive the thunder of the great lake into the grand portal. Suppose this
was to have happened while I was a tenant, it was really what I desired.
An avalanche of rock sufficient to have crushed a city had fallen just
outside of the left arch and laid rudely piled to the hight of 50 feet.
Thither I would have retreated to witness the bloodless battle of the
elements; for a long war has been waged between waves and rocks, in
which the rocks, so far, have been obliged to yield. Morning came, and,

352 The American Geologist. December, 1894

with the dawn, myself and nephew were at our work of triangulating,
Finally, having completed the survey and obtained geological speci-
mens of great interest, we joined ourselves to the world again. I shall
calculate my observations, make drawings of ground plan and elevations
and include them in my report to Dr. Jackson, and, through him, to the
government, that, if they are found worthy of it, they may be published.
I need hardly say that such a curiosity, in such a climate, deserves a
visit from the Cincinnatians during the hot months. * Within half a
mile is a boat harbor, a fine camping ground, and still another half mile
along the beach is the Chappel rock, and still nearer a cascade. Beyond
this again is a cascade, leaping from the top of the pictured rocks clear
into the lake, and blowing a blast of wind in all directions from where
it strikes the water sufficient to propel a sailboat.

The grand portal is less extensive than the mammoth cave, being a
mere fraction of it: but it has several compensating beauties. It has a
light and fine breeze, and it is, at the same time, as cool. You arrive at
all of its beauties without fatigue, and enjoy, through its open arches,
the most extraordinary landscapes. Through the grand portal you see
only the shoreless lake. Through the western opening of the cross arch
a limited but magnificent view of the lake, the pictured rocks overhang-
ing its dark blue waters, on whose surface, when calm, those rocks are
reflected into a symmetrical counterpart of the original. Through the
eastern wing is seen also the lake and pictured rocks, dying away in
well marked perspective, as one point sinks behind the other, to the
distance of 10 miles. In the course of this perspective is the cascade of
Chappel river, the Chappel rock and the cascade of the winds. This
cross arch is 500 feet long and so straight that light is seen through it
from one side to the other.

Mr. Schoolcraft passed through it with his boat, but the lake having
fallen about four feet it is now barely dry, and the only entrance by
water is by the grand portal.

Dr. Locke identified the Blue limestone on St. Joseph’s
island, and the Cliffon Drummond island. The latter he traced
westwardly to great Bay de Noquet. From the dip and the
succession of the various formations between St. Joseph’s and
Drummond islands he concluded the red sandstone at St. Ma-
ry’s falls belongs beneath the Trenton and Cincinnati lime-
stones, “and is therefore rather the older red sandstone than
the new red sandstone.” This was contrary to the opinion of
both Jackson and Houghton. The limestone (the Trenton)
which he found on the west side of little Bay de Noquet he
rather thought belonged to the Carboniferous, and imagineda
fault-plane running north and south under little Bay de No-
quet in order to bring about such a position fora much younger
limestone, as he knew of no such rock beneath the Blue lime-

_ Sketch of Dr. John Locke.—Winchell. 353

“stone at Cincinnati. With the exception of this error, he out-
lined the geology of the northern peninsula of Michigan
eastward from Keweenaw bay. If his full report on this ex-
amination had been completed and published it certainly
would have constituted an important chapter in the progres-
sive development of the geology of that state.

This, apparently, was Dr. Locke’s last geological work. The
study of magnetism and the increasing exactions of his pro-

-fessorship at Cincinnati engrossed all his attention.

Personally, Dr. Locke was slightly above medium hight.
From his feet to his eyes, as stated by himself in explaining
the use of his “level,” he measured 5 feet 5 inches. He was
not physically rugged ; his countenance had usually the sickly,
almost sad, expression of a severe student. He was indifferent
to exposure, either of cold or rain, and never carried an um-
brella. When involved with some problem of physics it was
his habit to give himself no rest. His nervous excitement sus-
tained his physical powers with little aid from sleep. Pros-
tration usually followed, but he was soon at his work again.
This habit doubtless permanently injured him both mentally
and physically, for his death at 64 years was described as due
to “a breaking up, as it were, of the great nervous centers.”
In manner he was marked by the dignity of his address and
the courtliness which partook of the old regime of the eigh-
teenth century. He was a man of fine presence, with an open
and benignant countenance, in all respects a rare specimen of
eultured manhood. In Ohio his home was for some time at
Lebanon, the home of Tom Corwin, and they became firm
friends. Locke, Corwin and Thomas Ewing, the last the
father of Mrs. Gen. W. T. Sherman, were very close friends,
making a notable trio. It wasat Corwin’s instance that Con-
gress purchased Dr. Locke’s electro-chronograph.

Dr. Locke married Mary Morris, of Newark, N. J., in 1825.
She had been one of his pupils. She was a most estimable
lady and his domestic life was a very happy one. They reared
a large and interesting family, but one son died young and
two in early manhood.

Dr. Locke’s career, from first to last, was a remarkable one.
Single handed, as a youth, he attacked the outworks of a great
problem the issue of which was, to say the least, precarious—

354 The American Geologist. December, 1894

to win a recognition among educators and scientists. He
made rapid progress toward the front. His inventions were
numerous and his publications were of the highest value both
in physics and geology. For seventeen years he held an im-
portant professorship in one of the leading institutions in the
central portion of the United States, and at his death it was
truly said that the country had lost one of its foremost citi-
zens.

The following list of Dr. Locke’s publications is probably ~
complete for his geological contributions. There is mention
made, amongst the memorabilia sent by Mr. J. B. Locke, of
an English grammar, and a “pamphlet on Toxicology,” but of
these no further information can be obtained.

List OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF Dr. JoHN LOCKE.

Outlines of Botany. 1819.

The microscopic compass: invented by John Locke. Am. Jour. Sci.,
Vol. XXIII, 1838, pp. 237-243.

On a large and very sensitive thermoscopic galvanometer. Phil. Mag.,
London, 1887. [Reprintedin Am. Jour. Sci., XXXII, pp. 365-368, 1838. ]

Magnetical observations at Dayton, Springfield, Urbana and Colum-
bus, Ohio. Jour. Franklin Institute, Oct. 1858.

Geological report communicated by the governor to the General As-
sembly of Ohio. Dec., 1838. Addressed to Prof. W. W. Mather, princi-
pal geologist of the survey, 66 pp. octavo, 15 plates and a colored geolog-
ical mapof Adams county. Published in the second report of the first
survey.

Report on the explosion of the steamboat Moseler, 1840.

Electricity in steam. Contributed to the National Institution for the
Promotion of Science, Jan, 22,1841. [Apparently not published. }

On anew species of trilobite of very large size. Am. Jour. Sci., 1842,
XLII, p. 366.

Alabaster in Mammoth cave, Kentucky [Illustrated]. Am. Jour.
Sci., XLII, p. 206, 1842.

On the manipulations of the dipping compass. Am. Jour. Sci., XLII,
235, 1842.

On the geology of the upper Mississippi. Am. Jour. Sci., XLIII, 147,
1842.

A new species of trilobite of very large size. Report of the Ist, 2d,
and 3d meetings of the Assoc. Am. Geol. and Nat. [1843], pp. 221-224.

[Norr.—This trilobite is the same as described in the Ohio report for
1838, and in the Am. Jour. Sci., 1842, but the name is here changed to
Tsotelus megistos. |

Ancient Earthworks of Ohio. Rep. Ist, 2d, and 8d meetings, Assoc.
Am. Geol. and Nat. [1843], pp. 229-238.

Sketch of Dr. John Locke.— Winchell. 355

A new reflecting level and goniometer. Rep. Ist, 2dand 5d meetings,
Assoc. Am. Geol. and Nat., p. 238 [1843].

Notice of a prostrate forest under the diluvium of Ohio. Rep. Ist, 2d,
and 3d meetings, Assoc. Am. Geol. and Nat. [1845], pp. 240-41.

Observations on Cryptolithus tesselatus. Proc. Phil. Acad. Sci., 1843,
pp. 196-236.

Description of Ceraurus crosotus. Am. Jour. Sci., XLIV, 1843, p. 346.

Supplementary notice of Ceraurus crosotus. Am. Jour. Sci., 1843,
Wol. XLY, p. 223.

Casts of American fossils presented to the Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol.
I, 1848, p. 174.

Sulphate of lime or fibrous gypsum from Mammoth cave, Ky. Phil.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. I, p. 244, 1843. [For this the name oulophyllites
is suggested. |

Report of John Locke, M. D., to David Dale Owen, M. D., principal
agent to explore the mineral lands of the United States. Embraced in
Dr. Owen’s report of work done in 1839, in Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois.
Senate Ex. Docs., No. 407, 28th Congress, Ist Sess., 1844. [This report
was first printed as a part of a special message from the president (dated
June 4, 1840) in 1840, without the accompanying charts, sections, and
other illustrations. Besides the edition ordered in 1844 by the Senate,
1,500 copies, the House ordered for its own use, an edition of 5,000
copies, Feb. 25, 1845. ]

Observations made in the years 1838, °39, °40, °41, °42, and °48, to de-
termine the magnetical dip and the intensity of magnetical force in sev-
eral partsof the United States. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. LX, 283-315,
April 15, 1844.

Geology of Porter’s island and Copper Harbor [Isle Royale]. Trans.
Am. Phil. Soc., LX, 311, 312 (pp, 805-315), with maps, 1844.

Geology and Magnetism. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., April 19, 1844.

Observations on Terrestrial Magnetism. Smithsonian Contributions,
Ill, Art I, pp. 1-29, 1851.

Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 1846, p. 242.

Description of Asterias antiquata, from the Blue limestone of Ohio
Proc. Phil. Acad. Sci., Vol. III, pp. 32-84 (with figure), 1846.

{Nore.—In this Locke corrects the idea maintained by Troost and
Featherstonhaugh that this is the Carboniferous limestone. |

Synoptical report on the geology of the northern peninsula of Michi-
gan, addressed to Dr. C. T. Jackson, Oct. 25, 1847. Senate documents,
1847, Ist Sess., 830th Congress, comprising pp. 185-199 of the report of the
Commissioner of the General Land Office.

Catalogue of specimens forwarded to Dr. Jackson by John Locke,
Dec., 1847. In Dr. Jackson’s report for 1848, pp. 547-556,

U.S. Geological survey of public lands in Michigan—Field-notes.
[Evidently these notes were taken by some member of Dr. Locke's party
in 1847.] Dr. Jackson’s report for 1848, pp. 556-570.

Report of Magnetic observations by Dr. John Locke, assistant geolo-

pd)

gist. In Jackson’s report for 1848, pp. 572-589.

356 The American Geologist. December, 1894

Report on the invention and construction of the electro-chronograph
clock at the National Observatory, Washington. 1851.

Catalogue of rocks, minerals, ores, and fossils collected by John
Locke during 1847. Smithsonian Report, 1854, pp. 367-383.

The devotee of Science and the National Institute. [Quoted by Dr.
M. b. Wright in his memorial address, p. 42, 1857. ]

THE “SLATE BINDERS’* OF ‘THE, “PITTSBURGA
COAL-BED.

By W.S. GRESLEY, F. G.S., Erie, Pa.

Given, a “bench” or layer of good bituminous coal, of very
uniform quality, varying in thickness from say 22 to 27 inches,
with one or two more or less irregular slaty partings or bind-
ers here and there in it; and imagine such a deposit spread
out over at least 15,000 square miles. The edges or outcrop-
pings of this layer of coal reveal no signs of a beginning or of
an end; in other words, there is nothing to indicate that this
coal did not originally extend hundreds of miles beyond any
of its existing limits. We will not now discuss the question.
How did this layer of coal get where it is? but proceed at
once to observe that it has a practically dead-level and even
surfaceor top.+ Suppose this vast expanse of dead-level coal
vegetation to be completely covered or sealed over by a thin
layer or band of shale, or “slate,” as miners call it. We will
suppose the thickness of this film of shale to be from 4 to $ of
an inch only. Imagine a practically unbroken 15,000+ square
mile sheet of shale only 2 of an inch thick! On top of this
shale-band let a second and equally uniform layer of the same
coal as the thicker one below, be deposited, whose thickness is
about 4 inches—a layer of cual practically free from impuri-
ties, and, in every respect, similar to the rest of the seam, re-
garded as a whole. Again, on top of this 4-inch band of coal
conceive a second layer of shale to exist, in thiekness and kind
just about the same as the shale-layer 4 inches below it. Then
above this suppose we have a uniform bench of coal 3 feet to

*Binders, in coal, are thin interstratified layers of shale, more or less
mixed with pyrites, etc.

+The only breaks or interruptions of the continuity of the seam being
afew small and local banks or ridges of rock, called ‘‘horse-backs,’”
rising from the floor.

“Slate Binders” of “Pittsburg? Coal Bed.—Gresley. 357

5 feet high. Here, then, we have three separate and distinct
benches or divisions of a coal-seam separated horizontally by
a couple of thin, parallel-bedded layers of shale; or, looked
at in another way, we have a, say, 15,000 square mile 4-inch
band of excellent coal sandwiched between two very thin, but
remarkably persistent layers of what is presumably hardened
mud, these again being enclosed by thicker layers of the same
kind of coal. Now, the foregoingis in reality a description
of what actually occurs in nature; it is the lower or workable
division of the “great Pittsburg bed.” These two “slate-bind-
ers’ seem to be so remarkable as regards their geographical
extent, uniformity in thickness, composition, distance apart
vertically, etc., that some special effort ought to be made
to explain: 1—What they are or signify; 2—How they
got there; and, 3—Whence they came,—three questions, so far
as I know, not yet at all satisfactorily answered, and much
less easy of solution than at first sight appears. My wish in
this connection is that this paper may stir up suflicient in-
terest in this matter to lead to further, extended, and closer
observation; and such a detailed study of the Pittsburg bed
as it (a typical one) surely deserves and ought to receive at
the hands of all local geologists and men capable of doing
useful work on it. Of course, the question of the origin and
formation of the shale-bands in the coal opens up that of the
whole question of the formation of coal-seams, for the bands
are part and parcel of the seam; the two substances (coal and
shale) cannot be considered separately.

Most geologists have access to about all that has been pub-
lished in the way of detailed sections, etc., of the Pittsburg
bed, and so are more or less familiar with its geographical
extent as shown upon geological maps; so that to copy a host
of sections and cite others would be superfluous here. We
all know by this time how vastly greater in areal dimensions
this seam of coal must originally have been, compared with
what it is now. Prof. Lesley sees no reason why it may not
have extended north far into what is now Canada, and north-
east at least as far as the hard coal region of Pennsylvania.
That it isa typical coal-seam nobody disputes; that the coal
is the remains of Carboniferous-period vegetation no geolo-
gist denies; but how it got there, nobody knows, although

358 The American Geologist. December, 1894

some seem to think they know. In order to reach a reasonable
explanation of the origin and formation of the shale partings
we should, if possible, be able to answer the questions: where
did the coal vegetation all grow or come from? and how was
it putin place? But whether it grew on or about the spot
where its remains now are, or was transported or sorted by
water in one of the several ways geologists have supposed
(myself among them), we may, I think, take it for granted
that the lower of these two shale-layers got there during a
pause,—a temporary stoppage of the growth or accumulation
of vegetable matter within the region affected by the slate-
parting. However this may have been, we will proceed to
look closely at the “slate” itself. As the appearance of the
two slate-bands is identical it matters not to which the follow-
ing description be applied:
Description of the shale forming parallel bands in the Pittsburg coal.

Macroscopic. Very fine-grained, in fact granules of ground mass not
distinguishable. Specks and streaks of coal. Often a brecciated ap-
pearance, due to mottling. Should suppose the sediments had been
derived from clay-slate or still older muds.

Texture. Homogeneous, compact.

Fracture. Urregular, splits roughly parallel with bedding planes,
Almost free from joints.

Streak. Pale, brownish gray.

Luster. Earthy, dull.

Taste. Sometimes salt or astringent (7 alunogen).

Color. Ata distance, dark, brownish black or gray; close to, varie
gated or mottled by numerous shades of gray, brown, etc., of which
more further on.

Sp. gr. Probably about 2.60.

Non-plastic.

Fossils. Flat, long leaf or reed-like, compressed forms of an obscure
nature; many macrospores. Impressions on surfaces of Sigillaria, etc.
[ Stigmara never recorded in this seam. |

The shale sometimes parts easily from the coal next it, but
in other places the planes of demarkation are less pronounced,
So far as my observations go, the shale bands only show ab-
normal thickening in proximity to or in contact with faults
or comparatively recent disturbances of the coal bed, where
the cause is easily explained. The “cleat” in the band of
coal between the two thin slates is the same as that of the
lower and higher benches of the seam, viz., strikingly uni-

form.

“Slate Binders” of “Pittsburg” Coal Bed.—Gresley. 359

As to the mottling. I can best describe this by saying the
rock is rudely but obscurely brecciated or fragmental-looking,
often grading into a marbly or streaky vein-like, vitreous as-
pect, as thougha variety of fragments of shale, etc., of ditferent
tints had been in a semi-liquid or run-together state, producing
a slaggy or drawn-together, kneaded aspect. Some parts of
the rock are much darker than others. There seems to be
considerable differentiation in coloring and in shapes and
sizes of the blotches; the individual blotches are even varie-
gated, spotted, streaked, etc. In general, the appearance, as
revealed by a pocket lens, when the rock is wet, and in a
strong light, reminds one somewhat of the structure of ordi-
nary serpentine. Pyrites occur in tiny nests or aggregates of
crystals scattered through the groundmass.

A polished surface of a fragment viewed at right angles to
the bedding planes shows the character of the mottling or
marbling shown in fig. 1.

Ite. 1. Ite. 2:

Viewed in the direction of the stratum, i.e. a transverse
section appears as in fig. 2. Thus it will be seen that the
blotches are several times longer in the horizontal direction
than they are vertically.

The fossils do not seem to pay any attention to the varie-
gation, nor does the texture of the rock vary with the blotch-
ings. It would appear therefore that the mottling is the re-
sult of chemical action among the particles produced since or
during consolidation of the deposit; though one occasionally
finds a specimen imitating variegated breccia to a degree
which even suggests uncertainty about the mottling after all.
That the particles composing the shale were largely derived
from feldspars is tolerably certain; and the mottling process
may even be still going on. Of course the layers of shale
originally possessed horizontal limits,and,if they be regarded as

360 The American Geologist. December, 1894

layers of sediment transported and stratified by or under water,
the original shape was probably more or less lenticular, being
thicker and coarser shoreward, and thinner and finer-grained
seaward. And sinee, in the area in which these binders are
now confined, their composition, texture, etc., hardly seem to
vary at all, we naturally ask, How large an area did the now
denuded, binder-divided coal seam once upon a time cover? ;
the only answer is, simply immense! Can we suppose any--
thing short of scores of times larger than at the present day!
What do the facts seem to suggest?

(a) Having to deal with a comparatively very thin sheet of
what looks like an originally almost impalpable powder or
the finest slime or mud, distributed in a marvelously uniform
manner, and covering an area almost continental in size, we
wonder which of the known ways in which strata are formed
best answers or explains the phenomena. Basing our argu-
ment upon the supposition that the termination of the deposi-
tion of the stratum of coal-forming vegetation upon which
the lower sheet of shale rests, found that stratum lying prac-
tically level as accumulated under water or on the bottom of
a vast lake or inland sea, let us endeavor to imagine the wa-
ters to be charged with fine particles of sediment, brought in
from the mouth or mouths of immense rivers flowing in the
then continental areas which furnished the sediments com-
posing the coal-measures. The character of the shale binder
points to a uniform mixture of sizes and kinds of particles, to
an even or continuous supply of the same at the commence-
ment of its falling to the bottom of the water, during all the
period thus occupied in sedimentation, and up to the time the
particles ceased to accumulate: practically no variation in
strength or velocity of current of water supplying or parting
with its muddy ingredients; a rate of flow of water hardly
perceptible; a period of calm as regards wind and waves; a
depth of water absolutely the same all over the expanse or
area of precipitation; this implies perfect freedom from local
currents and irregularities of bottom; no drifting logs or
snags to scrape or plow up the bottom; a time on land of no
floods or droughts important enough to interfere with or
break the continuity of the supply of mud transported. We
have also to suppose that the rivers, deriving sediment by

“Slate Binders” of “Pittsburg” Coal Bed.—Gresley. 361

erosive processes on land, flowed over or through rocks of
marvelous uniformity, otherwise how could the finest sedi-
ments derived therefrom preserve their sameness?; also that
no changes or disturbances took place from an off-shore or in
a landward direction meeting the waters from the rivers; a
contemporaneous set of physical conditions, in short, are ap-
parently demanded for the accumulation of this film or layer
of mud, which is indeed hard to conceive. We ask, Can such
a period be reasonably supposed to have actually happened?
It must be borne in mind that it would take about 100 tons
of sediment to cover each acre about 4 inch deep; also thata
15,000 sq. mile sheet of shale $ inch thick is in the same pro-
portion as one sq. mile covered by a film 35155 inch thick.
Will or can transportation of sediment by water produce such
wonderful uniformity of deposition or precipitation on the
bottom as the application of the method ealls for?

(b) Take the eolian process. It seems to me that the ob-
served facts in regard to these binders would entirely forbid
the acceptance of the idea that this shaly material got there
by the agency of wind, i. e. that it was dust blown or carried —
off the land and dropped in an even manner upon the quiet
waters of a great inland sea.

(c) Concretionary. If these parallel bands of shale had
had a concretionary origin, they must have taken another
form. Concretions are characterized by their irregular or
nodular shapes, by a tendency to spherical or ringed structures,
to differences in texture, hardness, fracture, etc., so that
while the mottling may in part be due to some slight action
of the kind within the layers, the origin and formation of the
layers themselves cannot be attributed to concretion.

(d) Substitution or replacement formations. This implies
that the binders were originally part and parcel of the coal-
bed, regarded as a whole, and that during solidification or the
process of coal-forming most of the carbon and of the volatile
matters made way for concentration (along definite horizons
in the bed) of the inorganic matters in the vegetable mass;
that in fact there was set up, at different hights in the coal-
mass, molecular affinity, perhaps akin to the process of seg-
regation or leaching, among the particles, resulting ultimately
in the growth of definite sheets or bands to the nearly total

362 The American Geologist. December, 1894

exclusion of coaly substances. Since replacements or concen-
trates are almost entirely confined to calcareous and siliceous
rocks and those readily acted upon by metallic solutions.and sel-
dom take a regular horizontal or definite and stable form, I, for
one, would not accept such an explanation of these coal-seam
shales. To suppose that such shale-bands were originally thin
films of chalky mud, since chemically converted into silica,
alumina, iron, etc., etc., would, I think, be exceedingly unsafe ;
and yet the formation of widespread layers of something sim-
ilar to chalk in composition at the present day (the “Globi-
gerina ooze”) over the bottom of the Atlantic ocean where
deepest and farthest from land, would seem to furnish us
with about the only way (as to physical conditions) in which
our shale-binders in the “Pittsburg” coal-bed can be imagined
to have accumulated.

(e) Precipitates. There occurs to me only one other known
process or way by which these binders could come into the
coal; it is on the supposition that the waters overlying the
coal layers were so highly charged with minerals in solution
that in the end there camea time when these were precipitat-
ed as solid particles. Hence a sheet of uniformly-composed
mineral ingredients was brought into existence and solidified
where it lay. This theory makes these binders chemically-
formed rocks. But, in my opinion, such an explanation of
them will be rejected.

Now, if the lower of these two slate-binders was really de-
posited as a layer of fine silt or mud by the aqueous transpor-
tation process, it becomes interesting to enquire: How was

the succeeding or superimposed four-inch band of pure coal

created or put there? for, in reality, 7t is abed of coal per se;
and they who would regard coal-beds as remains of trees, etc.,
that grew where or near where the coal now is, with under-
clays for their roots to meander and develop in, will have to
consider this 4 to $ inch layer of shale as the wnderbed of the
four-inch layer of coal. I merely make this observation here
to show how exceedingly cautious geologists should be when
attempting to handle the subject of the origin of coal seams.

Geological text-books don’t seem to help us one bit in try-
ing to find a satisfactory explanation for the formation of
anything so extensive, geographically, as these particular 4

“Slate Binders” of “Pittsburg” Coal Bed.—Gresley. 363

inch layers of slate in the pure coal. The Mississippi river is
said to deposit an amount of detritus in one year found to be
approximately equal to one of these thin binders, but then we
are told most of this river material goes toward the augmen-
tation or extension of the river’s delta. But our coal shale-
binders, as already pointed out, contain no signs of a typical
delta formation. Flocculated particles are common to fine
river deposits. In these shales flocculation is not observed.

Again, it is only reasonable to suppose that either of these
shale-layers, whenever and however formed, was accumulated
at one time, whether it took one year or ten years to do it;
the process was uninterrupted, it operated uniformly both lat-
erally and vertically.

The “Pittsburg bed” contains several ether binders or
“dividing slates” besides the twins under consideration, but
these are all of less persistent character and variable dimen-
sions; they, however (so far as my examination has gone), are
all practically identical in composition and texture.* though
the degree of mottling may change locally; thus everything
points to a common origin and source of the materials of all
the binders by which this splendid and unique coal-bed is
horizontally and stratigraphically divided, also a very similar
mode of deposition or formation for one and all, whatever it
was. Although apparently, perhaps, a not difficult coal-bed
to explain geologically, a more close study of its stratiform
composition extending over wide areas brings it, to my mind,
well within the category of geological problems by no means
as yet satisfactorily solved.

The thickening of the “Pittsburg bed” is in a southeasterly
direction, so also is that of the ‘bearing in” and other slates.
Thus the evidence goes to favor the assumption that both the
organic material (the coal) as well as the inorganic (the
“slates” ) had their source or chiefly depended upon or were
largely governed by the land surface towards where the At-
Jantic ocean is now.

Whenever the geologic history of ¢h/s vast coal seam shall be
something like correctly made. out or described, there will be

*Except the bed of impure fire-clay or ‘‘draw-slate’’ of the miners,
which lies immediately on top of the 3-5 feet bench of coal already re-
ferred to.

364 The American Geologist. December, 1394

little or no difficulty in accounting for most of the things that
now puzzle us in connection with other seams; but I am
rather afraid, unless a larger number of competent observers
take up the working out of the geology of the “Pittsburg
bed” than seem to be now so engaged, the seam itself will be
about all “worked out” ere the problems which confront us
are settled.

Anent this coal seam question it should not be forgotten
that, as yet, the form Stigmaria (in any of its various phases )
has not yet been reported in connection with it.* This cir-
cumstance alone casts reasonable doubt as to its growth in
situ, origin, or formation, as usually understood, Moreover, I
find its floor or under bed (that of the 22-27 inch bench of
coal forming the basal member or division of the seam) to be
a caleareous shale, wherever I have examined it, carrying very
numerous remains of an aquatic fauna.

The extraordinary uniformity of the Pittsburg bed as to
purity and structure of coal, evenness and geographical ex-
tent of its various strata, its widespread interstratified shales
and the marvelous persistency of them, and other characteris-
tics, make this seam, in its entirety, the most remarkable, most
typical, most interesting one of which we possess any knowl-
edge; it is probably the most extensive instance of horizon-
tality or parallelism in stratification any geologist in any
country ever did or ever can point to. It is certainly phenom-
enal; and yet I maintain that a rational explanation of any of
its individual layers, from and including underbed to topmost
member, has yet to be found. About all that can with safety
be said about it is that, everything being horizontally strati-
fied, every part of it was most likely accumulated under
water. I have therefore come to the conclusion that this coal
bed is the accumulated remains on the bottom of a lake or
sea of vegetable growth of aquatic formst (though much of it
did not necessarily grow in the water) living afloat and dying
and decaying, falling through the water.t Ido not recollect

*The only fragment at all resembling Stigmaria I have seen or heard
of from the Pittsburg horizon was one found by myself near Elizabeth,
Pa., on a bit of a shale binder in [892.

+Vegetation of such character as thrived in luxuriant profusion upon
the surface of the water.

tSee Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. of London for August, 1894.

pnt Nore}
- aenat
Weeyy is A

pt
$ thi Mi, Conde kame
‘ j foie es

. i 6th 3

EES
i Yj, _\
fq || <2
YW

SV 7

Y
ao .

oN
<>
\

Springs: The Influence of Stratigraphy.—H opkins. 365

having observed anything in this coal bed or in the strata im-
mediately below and above it that could be regarded as evi-
dence against the idea just stated. The absence of Stigmaria,
of erect tree stumps with root processes attached, and of ir-
regularities of stratification; and the presence of numerous
remains of a rich aquatic fauna in places and at more than
one horizon in the seam ;* with, here and there, areasof lime-
stone where the ‘‘draw-slate” occurs (in which “slate” I have
seen a traveled boulder of hard yellow limestone)—all these
facts can only be explained by an aqueous origin for this
coal.

SPRINGS: THE INFLUENCE OF STRATIGRAPHY
ON THEIR EMERGENCE, AS ILLUSTRATED IN
THE OZARK UPLIFT.

By T. C. Hopkins, University of Chicago, Ill.
(Plate XI.)

There is probably nowhere in the United States a better op-
portunity for observing the influence of stratigraphy on the
emergence of springs than in the Paleozoic area of northern
Arkansas and southwestern Missouri, an area known as the
Ozark uplift.

In most mountainous areas the strata are generally much
flexed and faulted, so that the emergence of springs is gov-
erned largely by the position of the strata and is not so di-
rectly dependent upon the lithologic character of the different
layers as is the case when the strata are horizontal or nearly
so, with only few faults. Over a large part of the Ozark up-
lift the strata are very nearly horizontal and are deeply
eroded by White river and its numerous ramifying tributa-
ries, thus exposing a great vertical thickness of the different
layers, so that we have a nearly ideal condition for observing
the direct influence of the different beds on the emergence of
the springs. It is true that the Grand Canyon area of the
west has deeper erosion, but the lack of rain makes it spring-
less.

The strata in the Arkansas-Missouri area consist of ditfer-

*See Pa. Geol. Sury. Final Report, vol. iii (to be published, 1894).

366 The American Geologist. December, 1894

ent beds of sandstone, limestone, shale and chert, a general
section of which is given in the following table:
General section of the Paleozoic strata in northern Arkansas.

Feet
1. Millstone grit,’ coarse-sandstone... 6. bets eae ee 400
2. Black shale and shelly limestone................ 50 to 250
3. Archimedes limestone, partly crystalline........ 50 to 80
AS ShalysanastOne wc. c2.cle pontoon ain eee eee 20 to 200
Dd pblackyarcilaceous: shale. ss csiccct oe ine tccicta eee 100 to 250
6G. Yellow ferruginous sandstone. ..0.i0.. 45 00...0% 50 to 17
7. Black argillo-calcareous shale................... 30 to 800
Si-Gherivand, limlestones-<7 saw anti beta atte iors ee 370
9. Sandstone, coarse, rounded grains....... See mh 40
10: “BlackvarcillacequspSiale seek ees ser Pee 2to 50
Ae sGrystaullimedimMestowe sinc ke vce ise women Sterol 100 to 155
12. Compactiblue Wimestone:. soy, serons Ns ake hae eee 280
13. Saccharoidal, white, friable sandstone.......... 5 to 150
14. Magnesian limestones, chert, and sandstone .... 1,600

Not all of the above are exposed on any one slope. Proba-
bly inno case is the immediate slope more than 2,000 feet
above the stream, the average hillsides being 500 to 1,000 feet.
Yet over the entire area each formation is exposed in many
places, generally four or five or more on each slope.

Not all of the above beds extend over the whole area.
Numbers 1, 6, 8,13 and 14 are persistent, occurring at all
points in the area where the proper horizon is exposed. Num-
bers 9 and 10 are very irregular, rarely both being present at
the same time, and frequently both being absent, or if present
only an inch or two in thickness. Numbers 11 and 12 are
persistent beds over the eastern half of the area, but are
wholly absent from the western half, so that at many places in
the western part of the area No. 8 rests directly on No. 10,
where it is present, and on No. 13 in the absence of No. 10.
The significance of this will appear in what follows.

Springs are abundant all over the area, some noted for me-
dicinal properties and all remarkable for the clearness, purity
and volume of the water. One, the Mammoth spring, forms a
river in itself; and from many others flow large-sized creeks.

While springs occur in almost all of the above formations,
by far the greater number, possibly more than half, the
springs of the whole area emerge on No. 10 or No. 13 of the
accompanying section. The cause for the emergence on No.
10 is very plain, as it is a compact argillaceous shale; but it

Baye

Springs: The Influence of Stratigraphy.— Hopkins. 367

is not so clear why No. 13 should have so great an influence,
as itisa very friable white sandstone, composed of almost
pure silica. It isso friable in places that it can easily be
rubbed, in the hands, into a loose mass of white sand resem-
bling granulated sugar. The state geologist has suggested
capillarity as an explanation of its impermeability. I think,
however, that two other factors play a very important part:
first, the indurated surface, since in nearly all places a thin
hard crust has formed over the surface, by the deposition of
silica, iron and possibly lime; second, the shale may be more
abundant than would appear from surface exposures. Thus
where the outcrops on the hillsides would indicate only traces,
or the absence, of the shale, it may underlie a larger part, pos-
sibly the greater part, of the hill; its absence on the surface
being due to local thinning of the bed, a characteristic of this
formation, or to the weathering away of the shale near the
surface, permitting the overlying limestone and chert to settle
down on the underlying sandstone. This last factor is appli-
cable only to the western part of the area, where the lime-
stones, Nos. 11 and 12, are absent.

In the eastern half of the area the shale is more variable
in thickness than in the western half. Where it has a thick-
ness of two or three feet or more, it is a prominent horizon for
springs. Where it is absent or very thin, the springs are ab-
sent and the top of the sandstone No. 18 is the prominent
spring horizon.

The explanation for the excess of springs emerging on Nos.
10 and 13, over the number emerging on the almost equally
impervious shales of Nos, 2 and 7, is found in the character,
and distribution of the chert and limestone bed No.8. In this
bed the chert predominates in most places; and in all places
it predominates on the surface, owing to its greater durability.
It is very much jointed, and the weathering opens these
joints, strewing the surface with a mass of loose angular frag-
ments. The rain and snow water sink so quickly into this
mass of broken stone that very little runs off as surface
water. This chert covers a much larger surface area than any
of the other beds, probably due in part to old baseleveling,
and in part to its greater durability. It covers a large area

368 The American Geologist. December, 1894

with a great porous mantle, which readily admits the surface
waters that trickle down through it until they meet the less
pervious bed of shale, No. 10, or the sandstone, No. 13.

The accompanying plate XI represents a typical area in the
western half of the district. It is a map of Eureka Springs and
vicinity, drawn to scale from a survey of the area. It shows
nearly all the constant springs, but omits many smaller ones
that flow only during a part of the year. The shaded area on
the map represents the cherty limestone of No. 8, which forms
the tops of all the hills; the broken line is the outerop of a
bed of crystalline limestone (“St. Joe marble”) forming the
base of the chert bed. The black shale No. 10 is present here
in places as a bed varying from two to five feet in thickness
and many of the springs emerge on it. Where it is absent
or thin the springs emerge on the sandstone No. 13, which
immediately underlies No. 10. The unshaded part, marked
as Silurian, includes the sandstone No. 13 and several beds of
No. 14.

As may be seen, of the thirty-eight springs on this area of
five square miles, twenty-six emerge at the base of the chert
bed, and only twelve find their way through the shale and
sandstone into the underlying magnesian limestones. Even
this proportion is much greater in many other parts of the
area, owing to the thinness of the sandstone bed in this re-
gion. Where the sandstone No. 138 is thick, practically no
springs emerge beneath it.

It is noteworthy that this horizon of springs should repre-
sent the interval between the Silurian and Carboniferous
rocks over a large part of the area. Nos. 11 and 12 are of Si-
lurian age, but they occur only in the eastern part of the area.
The fact that this interval is a marked horizon of springs, is
probably a coincidence rather than a result of the long time
interval, as apparently the only effect it might account for
would be the induration of the sandstone of No. 18. There is
no unconformity, either of dip or erosion.

The remarkable features of the region are the great number
of beautiful springs and the large proportion of them that
emerge at definite horizons.

Crystalline Limestones of Warren Co., N. J.— Westgate. 369

THE AGE OF THE CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONES
OF WARREN COUNTY, NEW JERSEY.

By Lewis G. WESTGATE, Evanston. Ill.

The petrographic characters of certain crystalline lime-
‘stones of Warren county, New Jersey, have already been de-
seribed in the American Georoaist for last month. It is the
purpose of the present paper to consider the evidence of their
geological age. These rocks occur in a belt along the eastern
border and at the northern end of Jenny Jump mountain.
‘Their more exact location is given in the accompanying map,

EXPLANATION
Son laa
a= Crystalline Limestone,
*f>+ Gneiss east of Cryst, Ls.

---- Boundary between mountain.

and froin '

Fic. 1. Map of the northern part of Jenny Jump mountain, New Jersey.
which is based upon field work done while the writer was in

the employ of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Localities A to E
are exposures which, from their alignment and general paral-
lelism of strike, apparently represent a single band of lime-

370 The American Geologist. December, 1894

stone. Localities F and G are small isolated outcrops of erys-
talline limestone situated in the midst of the granitoid
gneisses, which make up the bulk of the mountain. The
largest area of crystalline limestone occurs east of the north
end of the mountain, occupying an area two miles in length
from north to south, and one-half to three-quarters of a mile
in width. The surface within this area consists of a succes-
sion of low ridges and valleys with no definite order, forming
foot-hills lying between the high crystalline mountain mass
on the southwest and the alluvium of Pequest meadows on the
east.

Petrographical characters of the crystalline limestone and
associated eruptive rocks. The erystalline limestones of War-
ren county are more or less coarsely crystalline, varying be-
tween white and red in color, and containing large amounts
of accessory metamorphic minerals scattered everywhere
through them—mainly pyroxene, hornblende, quartz, and
magnetite.

The limestones at the north end of the mountain are cut
with great frequency by eruptive rocks. These are of three
kinds, diabase, pegmatite, and diorite. Dark, fine-grained
diabase, in vertical dikes up to fifty feet in thickness, cuts
the limestone at various points. A coarse pegmatite contain-
ing considerable amounts of hornblende and magnetite occurs
sometimes in irregular areas in the limestone, and is probably
of eruptive origin. The most abundant eruptive rocks occur-
ring in the area form a series of varying mineralogical com-
position, but as a whole merit the name of diorites. They
consist generally of green monoclinic hornblende and _ plagio-
clase, and are then true diorites. Monoclinic pyroxene often
oceurs and the rock is then an augite-diorite. In some cases
the pyroxene occurs in greater abundance than the hornblende,
when the rock becomes a gabbro. While typical diorites are
the most common, all gradations occur between the three va-
rieties mentioned. The rocks, however, lack the typical dio-
rite structure. All the principal minerals occur in rounded
or polygonal grains. This structure is explained by the fact
that the rocks occur in comparatively small masses, and may
be supposed to have cooled rapidly, giving no opportunity for
the different minerals to crystallize out separately in a defi-

Crystalline Limestones of Warren Co., N. J.—Westgate. 371

nite order. These dioritic rocks occur in great abundance in
the limestone. They are known to be eruptive, because at
several localities, where their contact with the limestone can
be seen, they branch irregularly out into the limestone. In
one or two cases the diorite is distinctly banded not many
feet from such eruptive contacts, and were it not that its con-
tact with the limestone proves it to be eruptive, it might eas-
ily be mistaken for gneiss. The banding is clearly a second-
ary structure, and the result of the general metamorphism
which the region has suffered.

The relations of the crystalline limestones of Warren county
to the crystalline limestones in other parts of New Jersey.
Among the crystalline limestones of New Jersey no localities
are so well known as those near Franklin, in Sussex county;
and writers describing the crystalline limestones of the state
have generally had these prominently in mind as typical, and
representative of other localities. They have generally con-
sidered all the separate outcrops of these beds in New Jersey
to be of the same age with the Sussex county rocks. Cook,*
in describing the crystalline limestones of the state, considers
together the localities in the southeastern and northwestern
highlands and places them all in the Azoic (Archean). Na-
son,+ in describing the Sussex county white limestones, ex-
tends the belt by isolated outcrops southward to Jenny Jump
mountain and to Oxford Furnace, making all these outcrops
of the same age and Cambrian.

The evidence in favor of this correlation of isolated out-
crops of crystalline limestone, is mainly lithological, for no
fossils have been found in any of the crystalline limestones of
New Jersey. The reasons for correlating the crystalline lime-
stones of Jenny Jump mountain with those of Sussex county
are as follows: (1) Their likeness in lithological character.
The rocks in both regions are very crystalline, generally
white or grey limestones, and carry large amounts of acces-
sory metamorphic minerals. (2) In both areas the limestones
are cut by similar eruptive rocks—diabase, granite or pegma-
tite and diorite. (38) In both regions the limestones are more
or less closely associated with the granitoid gneisses, which

*Geology of New Jersey, 1868.
tGeol. Survey of N. J., Ann. Rept. State Geol. for 1890, pp. 25-27

. wI-wi.

372 The American Geologist. December, 1894

are the most abundant rocks of the northwestern highlands,
and in some cases the limestones appear to be interbedded
with them. (4) The crystalline limestones at Oxford Furnace
and Jenny Jump mountain in Warren county seem to be a
southwestward extension of the Sussex county belt. An ex-
amination of the geological map of New Jersey does not bring
out this supposed relation with any marked distinctness. The
Warren county rocks do not appear to be strictly a continua-
tion of the northern belt, but to lie somewhat west of where
the southern extension of the Sussex county rocks would
naturally be expected.

The crystalline limestones of the two areas have thus been
classed together, because of their lithological similarity and
their association with the gneisses, and not on good structural
or paleontological grounds. Lithological resemblances among
crystalline rocks are certainly insufficient proof of contempo-
raneity. This is especially the case where the areas in ques-
tion are at considerable distance from each other. In this
case the nearest outcrops of the two areas are separated by a
distence of sixteen miles. Where no contrary evidence occurs,
however, lithological similarity has value as a suggestion;
and when, as in the present instance, it is accompanied by
association with a similar series of rocks—the granitoid
gneisses—and the outcrops occur in a general way in line, it
is very possible that the correlation between the two series of
rocks which has been made in the past is correct.

Views concerning the age of the crystalline limestones of
New Jersey. Two different views have been held as to the
age of the crystalline limestones of Sussex county and these
views have been extended by their advocates to include the
other crystalline limestones of the state. The view which has
generally prevailed in the past, is that these limestones are of
Arehzean age, and are members of the series of crystalline
rocks to which the gneissic rocks of the highlands belong and
with which the limestones are closely associated. The crys-
talline structure and the abundant presence of accessory met-
amorphic minerals, which are characteristics of these lime-
stones, are considered due to the same general causes which
have produced a erystalline structure in the gneisses with
which they are associated. Among the geologists who have

Crystalline Limestones of Warren Co., N. J.— Westgate. 373

accepted the Archean age of these limestones are Vanuxem
and Keating,* Kitchell,+ Cook,t Britton,§ Dana,|| and H. S.
Williams. These writers consider the crystalline limestones
to be distinct from the blue Cambrian limestone of Kittatinny

valley.

The other view is that these limestones are not true mem-
bers of the crystalline series, as has generally been supposed,
but are of Cambrian age. The supporters of this theory claim
that the crystalline limestones belong to the same formation
as the blue magnesian limestone (proved Cambrian by its fos-
sils), which outcrops along the eastern border of the Kitta-
tinny valley, and that they have been locally metamorphosed
by intrusions of igneous rocks. This view was first proposed
by H. D. Rogers in 1840.** It found no further support until
Nasont++ adopted it, giving a large amount of detailed evidence
in its favor. Kemp and Hollicktt accept the same theory for
the age of the white crystalline limestones of Warwick, Or-
ange county, N. Y. The reasons given in support of the iden-
tity of the crystalline limestone with the blue magnesian lime-
stone, and consequently of the Cambrian age of the former,
are, as summarized by Nason,§§ as follows:

1. The white limestones are continuous with the blue limestones (now
accepted as of Cambrian age) and every degree of transition may be
found between them.

2. Both have the same dip and strike.

3. Both are conformable with a quartzite also containing Cambrian
fossils.

*Jour. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci.. vol 1, pp. 277-288.

+Second Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey of N. J. for 1855, pp. 111-248.

tGeology of New Jersey, 1868, pp. 809-321, and in later annual reports.

SAnn. Rept. State Geol. for 1885, pp. 36-55. Same for 1886, pp. 74-112.

|Am. Jour, Sci., II, vol. xim, 1891, pp. 70-72.

Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xivi, 1894, pp. 401-402.

**Pinal Report of the Geology of N. J., 1840.

++In the Annual Report of the New Jersey Survey for 1890, pp. 25-50.
Van Hise in Bulletin 86, U. S. Geol. Survey, ‘‘Archean and Algonkian,”’
pp. 399-404, and Nason in AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. VII, pp. 241-252, give a
full bibliography of this subject. Other papers by Nason on this sub-
ject have since appeared in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST and in the Bulle-
tin of the Geological Society of America. In the AM. Gronoaistr for
September, 1894, vol. xrv, pp. 161-169, is a summary of the facts brought
forward by him to prove the Cambrian age of these crystalline lime-
stones in Sussex county.

t¢tAnnals N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol, vu, pp. 638-654.

SSAMERICAN GEOLOGIST, September, 1894, vol. xtv, p. 168.

374 The American Geologist. December, 1894

4. Both are unconformable with the gneiss upon which they rest.

5. Both have in sum total the same chemical composition and are
Magnesian.

6. The altered crystalline condition of the white limestone is due to
the intrusion of igneous masses and to regional metamorphism, while
the blue limestone never contains such igneous injections.

7. The presence of certain minerals, especially chondrodite, is not
indicative of geological age.

It is not the purpose to consider here the evidence of the
age of the white or crystalline limestones of Sussex county,
but merely to give the arguments advanced by the different
sets of writers. It requires, however, evidence of a very posi-
tive paleontological or stratigraphical character to overthrow
the generally held opinion that these two very different lime-
stones are of different age.

The age of erystalline limestones of Warren county. The
largest area of crystalline limestones in New Jersey, next after
that of Sussex county, embraces the Warren county outcrops
along Jenny Jump mountain. The facts so far made out by
a careful study of the latter, point to the conclusion that
these limestones are distinct from the Cambrian blue magne-
sian limestone which occurs in Kittatinny valley to the west,
and that they are of pre-Cambrian age.

telations of the crystalline limestones to the gneisses.. The
isolated outerops, A to E (see the foregoing map), of erystal-
line limestone along the eastern edge of the mountain, are
undoubtedly remnants of what was once a continuous band,
and have been separated by erosion, the alluvium of Pequest
meadows covering the former connections between the present
outcrops. The limestone in these outcrops sometimes shows
a faint banding, but very often is quite massive; and when
banding is apparently present it is often so obscure that
measurements of it are of doubtful value. Where present, the
banding of the limestone is in general parallel with that of
the gneiss. Granitoid gneiss bounds the limestone on the
west wherever outcrops are found on the west side of the
limestone. At two points, A and D, banded granitoid gneiss
isfound on the east of the limestone, between it and Pe-
quest meadows. Rock outcrops are wanting where the gneiss
might be expected to be found, east of the other limestone
outcrops of this belt. The banding of the limestone agrees

Crystalline Limestones of Warren Co., VN. J.— Westgate. 375

with that of the gneiss on either side. This, with the posi-
tion of the limestone between gneiss outcrops, seems to indi-
cate that the limestone is interbedded with the granitoid
gneiss along the eastern side of the mountain. The intimate
association of the limestone with the gneiss is at any rate ap-
parent.

At Fand G outcrops of crystalline limestone also occur,
At F (just east of the Stinson mine), a band of crystalline
limestone occurs in the gneiss, dipping 50° S. E., and with a
strike of N. 40° E. This band is about six feet in thickness
and is parallel with the banding in the biotite gneiss with
which it is associated, and acts in every way as a conformable
member of the gneissic series. Thisoutcrop cannot be traced
in either direction along the strike, and appears to be local.
At G the relations of the limestone are the same. , It is not
impossible that these two small outcrops may be of the nature
of segregations rather than true beds. They are less coarsely
crystalline than the other outcrops and contain a consider-
able amount of basic impurities.

The relations of the northern Jenny Jump limestones will
be discussed later. Enough has been said to show that out-

-erops A to G are closely associated with the gneisses and ap-

pear to be interbedded with them.

The crystalline limestones and eruptive rocks. Besides this
interrupted band of outcrops, there is, as already described, a
large area of crystailine limestone at the northern end of the
mountain. The limestone here is cut by numerous eruptive
rocks. These are coarse granite or pegmatite, which occurs
in large irregular masses; diabase in dikes up to fifty feet in
width; and diorite, which is by far the most abundant of the
three. These eruptive rocks, however, can not be considered
the agent of the metamorphism which has taken place in the
limestone. The reasons for this statement are as follows:

(1) If the eruptive rocks were the agents of metamorphism
the limestone should be most crystalline at the contact with
the eruptive, and should become less crystalline as the dis-
tance from the eruptive rock increases, until at no very great
distance an unaltered non-crystalline limestone should be
found. This limestone should be the same as the blue mag-
nesian limestone of Kittatinny valley, if, as some writers as-

‘
376 The American Geologist. December, 1894

sert, the crystalline limestones are simply the Cambrian met-
amorphosed by intrusives. Such phenomena as those de-
scribed are universally present where limestones (or other
rocks such as schists or shales) have been locally metamor-
phosed by intrusives. One of the best known examples of
these relations is that at Cortlandt, N. Y., a short distance
south of Peekskill. G.H. Williams* in describing the con-
tact here between the eruptive diorites and the limestone, says:

The metamorphic action extends but a small distance from the actual

contact, but is always unmistakable in its nature. The limestone is in
almost all cases bleached and is frequently rendered more coarsely crys-
talline. There are new contact minerals developed in it, among the
most common of which are hornblende and pyroxene.

Similar conditions are said by Nasont to occur at the con-
tact of the limestones and eruptive rocks near Franklin, N. J.
No such relations occur between the diorites and limestones
in the Jenny Jump area. The limestones are not more erys-
talline at the contact with the eruptives than at a distance
from them. The limestone is uniformly crystalline through-
out. The accessory minerals, pyroxene, biotite, graphite, ete.,
are not found more abundantly near the contact than else-
where. The limestone shows no change in crystalline char-
acter, or in the abundance and character of accessory minerals,
as the contact with the intrusive is approached.

(2) There are bands of limestone occupying very consider-
able areas, and everywhere of perfectly crystalline character,
which nowhere show the presence of eruptive rocks. The
uniformly crystalline character of the limestone over consid-
erable areas is evidence that the metamorphism is not due to
local intrusives. It was produced by some cause acting uni-
formly over wide areas and resulting in regional as distin-
guished from local metamorphism.

The same relations are shown in the outcrops of crystalline
limestone A to G as in the larger area at the northern end of
the mountain. Eruptive rocks are of uncommon occurrence
in the limestone outcrops along the eastern side of the moun-
tain. At only one locality (B) was an eruptive rock seen in
the limestone. Here a small dike of gabbro six inches in
thickness was seen cutting the limestone, apparently in the

ay

*Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xxxvi, 1888,*p. 267.
+Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey N. J., for 1890, p. 32, and elsewhere.

Crystalline Limestones of Warren Co., N. J.— Westgate. 377

plane of the bedding. Yet these outcrops A to E contain
some of the most coarsely and thoroughly crystalline lime-
stone of the whole region and limestone carrying as large a
proportion of accessory metamorphic minerals as any else-
where. The metamorphism cannot be the result of eruptives
as there are almost none in the limestone.

The metamorphism of the Jenny Jump limestones is not
local, but general; not due to the agency of eruptive rocks,
but to other causes acting over wider areas and producing
farther reaching and more uniform effects. In this area the
crystalline and the blue Cambrian limestones are not inti-
mately associated. Yet the unchanged blue limestone oceurs
not far from the crystalline at the most northern outcrops of
the latter. The metamorphism has affected the crystalline
limestone but not the blue. The reason is clear. The blue
magnesian limestone had not been deposited at the time of
the metamorphism of the present crystalline limestone, else
it too would have been involved in the same changes as have
affected the crystalline limestones; changes very probably
produced by the same agents that were at work in the crys-
tallization of the associated gneisses. The crystalline lime-
stone is older than the blue Cambrian limestone and is of pre-
Cambrian or Archean age. It is difficult to conceive that the
forces resulting in metamorphism could act over considerable
areas and then suddenly stop short. If the two apparently
different limestones are of the same age, the blue limestone
associated with the crystalline should also have been meta-
morphosed. A greater agent than local metamorphism by
eruptives is required, to explain the crystalline character
of the Jenny Jump limestones. Regional metamorphism,
which is the only adequate explanation of this character,
must have occurred at a time previous to the deposition of
the blue or Cambrian limestone.

The field relations of the crystalline limestones and the blue
magnesian or Cambrian limestone. More or less has been
written concerning the field relations of these limestones
while discussing previous points of this paper. In the Jenny
Jump region they are nowhere in close and intimate associa-
tion. The two are said to be in intimate association about
Franklin, in Sussex county, and that is taken as one of the

~

378 The American Geologist. December, 1894

evidences of their contemporaneity. The belt of limestone
outcrops along the middle of the mountain (A-E) is nowhere
in contact with the blue limestone; on the contrary, wherever
the rocks adjacent to the limestone on either side appear they
are granitoid gneisses.

At the northern end of the mountain the crystalline lime-
stones occupy a distinct area, and no outcrops of blue lime-
stone are known within that area. North of the northern end
of this area, however, blue limestone occurs at H (see map),
not over two hundred feet from the crystalline limestone.
The blue limestone here is the typical fine-grained blue lime-
stone which outcrops further west in Kittatinny valley. The
crystalline limestone is in part characteristic for that rock,
and in part a local variety (pyroxene-rock or quartz-rock)
frequently found associated with the limestone. There are
no eruptive rocks cutting the crystalline limestone here. The
two outcrops are perfectly characteristic of their respective
varieties, and there is no tendency in either toward gradation
into the other. It seems hardly possible that the passage
should not show in this locality, if there is a gradation be-
tween the two rocks, for they are separated by less than two
hundred feet. The crystalline limestones of Jenny Jump
mountain are in all cases sharply distinct from the blue
Cambrian limestones; and at the locality where the two occur
nearest together, there is no gradation in lithological charaec-
ter between them. ,

Conclusion. In conclusion, the crystalline limestones of
Warren county are believed to be distinct from and older than
the blue magnesian limestone of Cambrian age which occurs
along the northwestern side of the New Jersey highlands.
They are believed to be distinct for the following reasons:
first, they have a well developed crystalline character, and
they hold large quantities of accessory metamorphic minerals;
second, they show no intimate association in areal distribu-
tion with the blue Cambrian limestone; third, they show no
tendency to grade into blue limestone. They are believed to
be older, because, first, they have been subjected to general
metamorphie forces resulting in great changes, of which the
neighboring blue limestones show no trace; second, they oc-

‘ATVHS GNV19A910 3HL WON NYAGOOVId MAN V

‘IMdV19 SAHLHOILNOYA

youl ug

——

‘TIX SLVTd ‘ATX "TOA *LSIDOTONY) NVOIBANY AH,

Brontichthys clarki, from the Cleveland shale-—Claypole. 379

eur in intimate association with the granitoid gneisses and in
some cases appear to be interbedded with them.

Whether the other crystalline limestones of New Jersey are
of the same age as those of Warren county, has not been
proved. The answer has generally been that they are. This
seems to be the most probable view. If they are, and if the
position taken in the present paper is valid, then the crystal-
line limestones of Sussex county, and of other places in New
Jersey, would also be, as they have generally been supposed
to be, of pre-Cambrian or Archean age.

[PAL ONTOLOGICAL NOTES FROM BUCHTEL COLLEGE.—NO. 8. ].

ON A NEW PLACODERM, BRONTICHTHYS CLARK,
FROM THE CLEVELAND SHALE.
By E. W. CLaypote, Akron, Ohio.
(Plate XII.)

To the three great placoderms of the Upper Devonian of
Ohio, Dinichthys, Titanichthys, and Gorgonichthys, must now
be added a fourth genus not less remarkable than the rest and
only less striking because it is not the first. In the Cleveland
shale of Cuyahoga county Dr. Clark has recently found ajaw,
which, while bearing a strong general resemblance to Titan-
ichthys, yet differs so much that it cannot be placed in that
genus. Two views of the fossil given herewith will illustrate
its characters.

Only a single ramus, the left, was found, and most careful
and continuous search failed to discover its mate. Itis slightly
imperfect on the hinder end but almost complete in front. It
must originally have measured at least twenty-five inches from
end toend. Its greatest depth toward the spatular end is five
inches. In this part it shows no distinction from the jaw of
Titanichthys. But in front its econstruetion is much more
massive. It bends outward about five inches from the tip,
and at the bend begins a deep alveolus resembling that in the
jaw of Titanichthys but growing deeper toward the end. This
alveolus is now an inch and a half deep, and when its walls
were entire it must have been somewhat deeper. The inner
wall is rather higher and thicker than the other. It is appa-

380 The American Geologist. December, 1894

rently somewhat crushed inward, thereby narrowing the alve-
olus to the same amount.

The symphysial part of the jaw is but slightly injured, and
its appearance strongly suggests an intermandibular bone or
cartilage. The symphysial surface retreats rapidly upward,
so that the lower point is the most prominent. The bone is
very massive even to the end, differing in this respect strik-
ingly from the corresponding bone of Titanichthys. It is
nearly an ineh thick at the thinnest part under the alveolus
and often exceeds this measurement.

It is almost impossible to doubt that this deep alveolus once
carried one or more strong teeth, as was the case with Titan-
ichthys: but as no trace of such organs was met with, we
can only at present speculate on this point.

At the bend of the jaw the bone measures two inches in
thickness. Inferiorly the edge of the jaw is sharp along its
whole length, smooth in its hinder portion, but slightly rough
and somewhat tuberculated in front.

The peculiar bend of the jaw may excite a suspicion that
some degree of fracture has taken place during fossilization,
and that the figure does not therefore represent the true form.
But, in addition to the fact that the bone shows no sign of
fracture in that place, we may add that the fossil occurred in
a rather unusual position, not lying flat in the shale but set
on edge, so that fracture in the direction supposed is quite
impossible.

The generic name is taken from the mythologie term
Bpovtns, one of the Cyelopes; and the honor of the specific
name is only a just tribute to the industry and perseverance
of its discoverer, Dr. W. Clark, of Berea, Ohio.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE MISSOURI
PALEOZOIC.
By G. C. BROADHEAD, Columbia, Mo.
The Missouri Paleozoic rocks, in their average surface de-
velopment, include:
Upper Carboniferous 2 chiccwacsmiy «cients hicks 2,000 feet.

Lower Carboniferous to the base of the Burling-
LOU LRH oie seine ceo See Oe eee laeec aerate 1,100

History of the Missouri Paleozoic.—Broadhead. 381

Chouteau Limestone group...................- 200
LU V2 VTEV 0 SSB as a ee ae ee pe ae PR 100
ETM OUNUEL AN, Wisc evs soe coe teen denon ans 360
Lower Silurian to the base of the Trenton..... 400

—— 4.160

Ozark sERtes, including:

First Magnesian limestone................ tye Sascha)
First or Saccharoidal sandstone (St. Peter’s)... 130
Second Magnesian limestone.................- 230
ISCAS SEOME F261 5 clare aise ost w aycis Sandvotdie Buhay stere 125
Third Magnesian limestone............... 350. to 600
APA LSAMGSTOME Hy apo class etd oe fas oleae ols Soar 50
Fourth Magnesian limestone.................. 300

— 1.315

(Ot IED) ete Ran ices to SAp os wD ate He Eas 8 nae Rae 5,475

Below the Trenton formation in southern Missouri the
Ozark series therefore presents a great thickness of magne-
sian limestone with occasional beds of sandstone. In the well
at the Insane Asylum at St. Louis the borings would indicate
2,000 feet of this series. Prof. Swallow applied to them the
term ‘“‘“Magnesian Limestone series,” but the objection to the
term is that there are magnesian limestones of other ages. As
the series is well developed in the Ozarks, and the Ozark area
is so great, it seems that of all names there is none more ap-
propriate than “Ozark Series.” As such I have named and
described it in an article published in the American GroLo-
cist for July, 1891.

In southeastern Missouri the continuity of the Ozark series
is not preserved in the same manner as represented elsewhere,
but is thus:

MUMS GMV LO NESIANMINUGSUOMEL otic harcns:< cravat ert eelsieounwa. - 130
HITS OM SACOhALold al usandstomer ie. tc o2e,cls secre s 133
Pecona Marnesian limestones. 6 ci wncrls +00 ceeeten eels Lo
Second sandstone; lower beds cherty.................. 125
Third Magnesian limestone with chert and quartz.... 225
GrMESTONe: ANG L772 0U1G! DEAS ces wi Fore cle Sse dog alesne Saye viewer 50
(OVS TTT EG 01 Ap maar eRe AR GPR RR or ee aie oS 25
Lower sandstone and conglomerate................... 90

MUN DeLee te okay tera in Sete ea urtareay a) Chats coieealneeereions 953

These rest on the Archean porphyries and granite. The
thickest development of the terranes between the Ozark series
and the top of the Lower Carboniferous Dr. Shumard has es-
timated to be over 1,800 feet in Cape Girardeau county. He

382 The American Geologist. December, 1894

recognized over 600 feet of Upper Silurian in that county.
Northwardly it becomes thinner, not being observed at all in
St. Louis, St. Charles and Jefferson counties, but may be 100
feet thick in Pike county. In Montgomery county about 20
feet of gray limestone may be referred to the Upper Silurian,
and this is restricted to a small area in Montgomery and Cal-
laway counties. Certain terranes being wanting in central
and southwestern Missouri the Paleozoic rocks, in their areal
distribution, would have much less average thickness than the
section above gives.

In southwest Missouri the group between the St. Louis and
Chouteau cannot well be separated. To such Prof. H.S.
Williams has appropriately given the name “Osage series.”

The Ozarks belong to Missouri and in part to Arkansas,
The Boston mountains are of another system, extending west-
wardly into the Indian territory. Farther south is the Wash-
ita system, extending from Little Rock west to the western
part of the Indian territory. The area of Missouri, according
to the census of 1890, is 69,415 square miles. Most of south-
ern Missouri is included in the Ozark plateau, an elevated

‘traet which in Missouri contains about 36,000 square miles;
and its total area is probably 50,000 square miles, including
part of Arkansas. This plateau is limited on the east by the
Mississippi; on the north by the Missouri and Osage rivers; and
on the west by a line about 380 miles east of the western state
line. The Arkansas river may be the southern limit. The
eastern portion of north Missouri is elevated about 700 feet
above the sea; passing westwardly it rises by gentle undula-
tions to 1,100 and 1,200 feet in the northwest. The Ozark
plateau near its eastern border is 700 to 800 feet above the
sea, but within 30 miles it rises to 1,200 and 1,500 feet. The
porphyry peaks of southeastern Missouri rise 1,200 to 1,800
feet above the sea, while the unaltered sedimentary rocks sur-
rounding them rest unconformably upon them at an elevation
of 1,100 to 1,200 feet above the sea. Passing westwardly they
rise to 1,500 feet in Webster county, 1,700 in Wright, 1,850 in
Green, 1,530 in Barry county, and nearly 2,000 feet in the
Boston mountains of northwestern Arkansas. Along the
western state line the elevation is 850 to 1,100 feet, while be-
yond in Kansas the country gradually rises to the plains and

Sune Laas Say yeaa

History of the Missouri Paleozoic.—Broadhead, 3838

to the Rocky mountains beyond. In southern Illinois the
general surface is but little over 500 feet, reaching 700 and
800 feet in the central portion. Borings at the Insane Asy-
lum, St. Louis, would indicate that the Archean lies about
8,800 feet below the surface, or about 3,200 feet below the
sea level. Not altogether reliable records of a Jackson county
boring assert that granite was reached there about 2,500 feet
below the surface, or 1,500 to 1,700 below the sea level. From
observed outerops in central and southwestern Missouri we
would suppose that borings in Nodaway county might pene-
trate through 4,000 feet of strata to reach the Archean, find-
ing it about 2,800 feet below the sea. That would nearly
agree with the measured depth at St. Louis. The Archean
floor in southern Illinois probably occupies about the same po-
sition below the sea that it does at St. Louis. At the close of
Archean time the state would be occupied by a deep sea, the
Cambrian sea, through which in southeastern Missouri cer-
tain granite and porphyry peaks protruded 500 to 1,000 feet
above the waters; these are now seen in St. Francois, Madison,
Iron, Reynolds and Wayne counties. Southeastern Missouri
was probably dry land in the early Cambrian, but in the later
Cambrian or early Potsdam period the Ozarks were occupied
by a shallow sea whose waves dashed furiously against the
Archean hills, sufficient to erode enough material to form a |
sandstone. This sandstone is found upon a limited area in
about four counties of southeastern Missouri. It is generally
of coarse texture and includes pebbles of the Archean. Else-
where the strata are covered with more recent deposits. Most
of the Archean area subsided to a depth of 2,000 to 3,000
feet in order to receive the Lower Magnesian limestone and
interbedded sandstones of the Mississippi valley, extending
from central Texas to lake Superior; only certain peaks in
Liano and Burnet counties, Texas, and in six or seven coun-
ties of southeastern Missouri were exposed.

The life of this early Cambrian sea was limited in number
of specigs. In Missouri it embraced a few Orthocerata, a
Lituites, a small Orthis, a Pleurotomaria, a Maclurea, an Oph-
ileta, two or three species of Straparollus, probably two spe-
cies of Murchisonia, and three or four species of trilobites;
while in the Potsdam of Wisconsin and Minnesota several

MP

Pe TO a
“a
‘ ee

384 ¢ The American Geologist, December, 1894

other species of trilobites have been found. Sea worms
abounded where the waters were more shallow, and left their
tracks in irregular winding holes in the off-shore sandstone.
In the upper beds sea weeds abounded, as shown by the lime-
stones now exposed. Certain beds of the Second Magnesian
limestone are largely made up of the accumulated mass of
sea weeds bundled and pressed together, their form only pre-
served, filled with calcareous matter. :

There were occasionally elevations long enough continued
for sands to accumulate off-shore to become in later time beds
of sandstone, then a sinking and accumulation of sediment in
the deeper seas, until finally 2,000 feet had .been formed.
Ages rolled on, the ocean beds rose, the granite and porphyry
hills of southeastern Missouri, as well as those of Wisconsin
and Minnesota, were eroded of their material during the vio-
lent agitation of the waters near the close of the period of the
Upper Cambrian. These sands were deposited around the
sea’s margin in remarkably clear water. The First sandstone,
or the St. Peter’s, was formed thicker along the Mississippi
trough, or what was afterward the Mississippi trough, extend-
ing from southeastern Missouri to St. Paul in Minnesota. East
and west of that line the deposit is thinner, apparently en-
tirely thinning out in Missouri at 160 miles west.

After the laying down of this sandstone most of the Ozarks
were raised above water. Much of the upper strata were
eroded and redeposited to form the rocks of later ages. The
evidence is that after the Upper Cambrian period most of the
Ozarks were elevated above the waters and have so remained.
The Ozark series northward and eastward was depressed not
Jess than 1,500 feet, and the Ozarks were separated from the
Wisconsin highlands by a deep sea; this was the Silurian sea,
and in it were laid down the Trenton and Hudson River beds
toward the north and east. But this condition prevailed only
as far west as Callaway county. From this we infer that the
Ozarks at that time extended over the western and north-
western part of Missouri. After the Lower Silurian was
formed the western half of Missouri was dry land, but the
country from Cape Girardeau to Ralls county was so de-
pressed as to receive from 100 to 200 feet of sediment to form
the Upper Silurian. Eastwardly the bottom gradually settled

History of the Missouri Palevzoic.—Broadhead. 385

down sufficiently to receive 3,000 feet of sediment in the Ap-
palachians and New York. but this thinned out as above
stated to 200 feet in southeastern Missouri, becoming zero in
Callaway county. Westwardly dry land continued. The
subsidence continued so as to receive about 100 feet of Devo-
nian limestone in northern Missouri, thinning out in Pettis
county. The Devonian sea extended northwardly to Wiscon-
sin and around the eastern slopes of the Ozarks and beyond
the Appalachians. Upon the Ozarks, and extending far west,
dry land still prevailed. At the close of the Devonian on the
east and south a clay deposit accumulated in certain shallow
estuaries, which later by the absorption of certain hydrocar-
bons became a black slate. The Devonian period in Kentucky
and in a portion of Missouri, notably at the falls of Ohio and
in Callaway county, Mo., was characterized by extensive coral
reefs. The Upper Silurian and Devonian in the eastern
states were also rich in coral forms.

After the Devonian was laid down there seems to have been
a marked dynamic change. At the close of the Devonian
there was a subsidence of most of the Mississippi valley west
of the Mississippi river, with the exception of Minnesota and
part of Iowa, and the Archean of southeastern Missouri and
of Texas. The Ozarks subsided sufficiently for the early Car-
boniferous seas to cover their margins. This was the begin-
ning of the Subearboniferous. On the east and north these
beds rest upon the Devonian, but on the west they repose
upon the Ozark series. The several groups of the Subearbon-
iferous, as the Paleozoic sea sank, continued to gradually ac-
cumulate. First the Chouteau and its several formations,
next the Burlington with its rich crinoidal fauna and inter-
calated chert, then the Keokuk, and then the St. Louis,—each
to be afterward in a great measure eroded. That there wasa
slight subsidence and then an elevation of the Ozarks after
the Burlington had accumulated is shown by the occasional
finding of patches of limestone of that terrane along the
northern and western front and resting upon the Ozark series,
indicating that the erosion of the early Subcarboniferous must
have been great. Previous to this, the erosion of the later
Ozark series must also have been great, but very probably it

ras largely aérial. Since the close of the Burlington the

386 The American Geologist. December, 1894

Ozarks have remained above water. The accumulations of
the St. Louis and Chester limestones were greater along the
Mississippi, and thin out westwardly. The later Chester or
Kaskaskia limestone was represented only by a sandstone in
northern and southwestern Missouri. At this time there was
a marked change in fauna and flora, as well as in continental
area. The deep ocean floor, east, north and west of the
Ozarks, which had been so long receiving deep sea deposits
sufficiently to be part land, part water, rose with a surface
nearly flat, over which were lakes and vast swamps, beginning
to support a rare and luxuriant vegetable growth, the fore-
runner of the coal period. The leaves and older trees fell and
accumulated in the peaty swamps and in time were covered
by the overflowing seas, leaving silt and sediment. Soils were
formed; forests grew and matured, and lycopods and ferns*
left their debris to be again covered up. At one time the
surface would sink so much that the overflowing sea covered
the older beds with accumulations of limestone. In this way
a number of ancient forest beds with their vegetable growth
were buried. Each of the beds of decaying vegetation was
converted to coal; the same vegetation in the presence of the
atmosphere would form humus. That there was probably a
great deal of carbonic acid in the atmosphere during the coal
period is believed; also that this was absorbed or withdrawn
by the luxuriant plant growth. While these deposits were
being formed, a large portion of the Mississippi valley was
sinking. Still the Ozarks kept their everlasting hills above
the waters, while Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, lowa, northern
Missouri, Arkansas and Texas were nearly covered by coal
swamps, over which the sea would occasionally flow.

During the formation of the coal in the Appalachians and
the Mississippi valley, and while the country in general was
being subjected to alternate depression and elevation, the
present Rocky mountain region remained for the most part
under a deep sea. The coal of the west is of more recent age.
In that region, during the time of the Upper Carboniferous
period, limestones were chiefly formed in the deep seas. We

*(Nore. At present we may have about 15 species of living ferns in
Missouri. In Henry county over 40 species have been obtained from
the shales overlying the coal beds, all pressed and beautifully preserved
in nature’s herbarium. |

History of the Missouri Paleozoic.— Broadhead. 387

have found an occasional plant fragment, showing that there
may have been a few Carboniferous islands supporting a lyco-
podiaceous growth. But there is no coal of Carboniferous age
west of the plains. Around the margin of the lower Coal
Measures, where they rest upon rocks of older terranes, are
found isolated coal deposits consisting, for the most part, of
an impure cannel or bituminous coal. Their thickness may
be a few feet or may be 20 or 50 feet, or even more; their in-
clination to the horizon would indicate that they were formed
when the adjacent strata were considerably disturbed, or that
a disturbance occurred soon after the coal was laid down.
These beds are now often found in side valleys tributary to
larger valleys; and the rocks higher in the hills as well as
those on which the coal rests are of older age than the coal it-
self. In fact they rarely extend farther than 200 feet into the
adjoining hill. In northeastern Missouri they lie on and
against the Lower Carboniferous; in Cole, Moniteau and
Morgan counties they rest on beds of the Ozark series, and in
no instance have I observed them occupying eroded valleys of
Upper Carboniferous age. They must have been formed just.
at the dawn of the Upper Carboniferous when there was an
unsettled condition existing, and when oscillations and tilting
of strata prevented a continuous coal formation; or in other
words the first coals were laid down in small disconnected
basins.*

We have thus far traced the geological history of each ter-
rane. We would now consider briefly the subsequent frac-
ture, erosion and carrying away of the material so as to pre-
pare our field for man’s habitation.

At the close of the Paleozoic the Appalachian revolution
took place; the coal and other interstratified beds from Penn-
sylvania and southwestward to Alabama were crushed up,
folded, and raised 4,000 or 5,000 feet; and the bituminous
coal of eastern Pennsylvania was changed to anthracite. At
the same time there was a slight quaquaversal upthrust of
the Ozarks and of the later strata, as shown by occasional

*Both zine and lead ores have been found with the coal in these
“nockets,’’ evidently deposited since the coal was laid down; and it may
be that the lead and zine ores of central and southwestern Missouri were
all deposited since the laying down of the coal.

388 The American Geologist. December, 1894

slight fractures and faultings. That was the last uplift of
the Ozarks. Previously there were undoubtedly stream chan-
nels in the Ozarks. After the close of the Paleozoic there
were additional fractures, greater erosions and deeper chan-
nelings by the streams. In southern Missouri the eroded val-
leys are 300 to 450 feet deep, in northern Missouri they may
have been 200 or 3800 feet, but, excepting near the Missouri
river, they are rarely to be seen over 150 feet deep, reaching
200 at the extreme. The Missouri river shows a valley gen-
erally one to two miles wide, with an inner channel or trough
eroded before glacial times but during the Ice age filled up
from 40 to 90 feet.

Proportional to the size of the stream and character of the
bluff are the size and depth of the stream’s trough. The
streams in southern Missouri are partly filled with a local
drift. Away from the larger streams the country is hilly or
rolling, dependent on the character of the rock structure.
Where the country rock is limestone, the channels and hills
are rugged. The Coal Measures being largely composed of
sandstones and shales, with only thin limestone beds, the ero-
sion there has been greater, but the slopes are more gentle.
We often observe limestone-capped ridges; when the erosion
is long continued they remain as mounds. To this is due the
interesting and beautiful scenery of the prairies of western
Missouri. Where the strata consist of beds of shales and
sandstone capped by harder limestone, the last serves as a
protecting cap to the softer underlying beds, retarding their
entire erosion. A line of such mounds may be traced along
the base of the upper Coal Measures from Bates county north-
eastward through Cass, Johnson, Lafayette, and thence north-

rardly. Along this line are seen ridges several miles long,
and occasionally a single mound 80 or 100 feet above the lower
plains with an area of probably half an acre on the summit.
Other mounds may be near, or distant two, five, or fifteen
miles. The visible depressed or eroded area may be a _ pris-
moid 100 feet deep by five or ten miles in one direction and
twenty miles or more in another. From the summit of one of
these mounds we may gaze on a hundred farms occupied by
an industrious and thrifty people.

Editorial Comment. 389

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

A new Meteorite. Minnesota No. 1.

Last April (9th), about four o’clock in the afternoon, a pe-
culiar rumbling sound startled the people in the neighborhood
of Fisher, in Polk county, in the Red river valley, in the
northwestern part of Minnesota. In July, in making hay on
a meadow in Sec. 28, Range 49, T. 150, a stone was found
which had by falling entered the sod a few inches, the force
of the impact having turned the turf back in all directions.
There being no drift boulders on the surface in the region,
this was at once connected with the rumbling noise. On ex-
amination it proves to be a chondritic meteoric stone, quite
similar to the well known Winnebago meteorite. Its weight
is about 94 pounds, and it is entirely covered with the usual
black crust. This being the first known meteorite fallen in
the state it is proposed to name it Minnesota No. 1, with a
view to continue the series by suitable numeration for all fu-
ture Minnesota meteorites. A full description will be given
in a later issue of the Gronoeisr. Nag He We

ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.

In a paper read before the Section of Geography in the
British Association at the last August meeting,* Col. H. W.
Fielden, who was the naturalist of the Nares Arctic Expedi-
tion in 1875-’76, reviewed the reasons for hoping and expect-
ing that Nansen and his party, after drifting in the ice-pack
across the sea surrounding the north pole, will return to tell
their experiences. Not only is Siberian drift-wood strown
along the northwest coast of Greenland and the shores of
Grinnell land, but also the currents have brought such drift-
wood during a long time past, in which Grinnell land has been
uplifted at least 1,000 feet. Up to that hight, Col. Fielden
there found drift-wood embedded in recent alluvial or glacial
clay and mud deposits, with marine shells of the species now
living in the adjoining sea. ‘The bivalve shells are often still
held together by their hinges and retain their brown epider-
mis; and the wood is combustible and so light as to float on
water. All the wood appears to be of coniferous species, be-

*Partly printed in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,
New York, vol. xxvi, pp. 389-393, Sept. 30, 1894.

390 The American Geologist. December, 1894

ing wholly different from the drift-wood cast on the shores of
Spitzbergen, which is borne by the Gulf Stream into the
North Atlantic and Arctie oceans,

We may add, in this connection, that Gen. A. W. Greely’s
Report of the U. 8. Expedition to Lady Franklin bay, Grin-
nell land, mentions (in vol. u, p.57) the occurrence there of
recent fossil shells of Astarte lactea up to 1,000 feet, and of
Sazicava arctica, as provisionally determined, up to 2,000 feet
above the sea. At Polaris bay on the neighboring Greenland
coast, recent marine shells are reported to occur at the hight
of 1,600 feet.

It may be also noted that one of the questions which we
may hope to have answered, if Nansen crosses the polar sea
and reaches home, relates to the geographic position and ex-
tent of the large nearly flat land from which come the great
tabular icebergs, sometimes called floebergs and “paleeocrystic
icebergs,” similar to the vast masses shed from the Antarctic
ice-sheet, though smaller, ranging from 100 to 600 feet and
rarely 800 or 900 feet in thickness, seen by Nares and others
in the open polar sea north of Greenland and Grinnell land.
These flat icebergs, born from the margin of an ice-sheet on
flat and comparatively low land, unlike that of the Greenland
ice-sheet and its valley glaciers, are thought by Greely to
come from a large land area north of Bering strait and very
near the pole, with its center between the 86th and 88th par-
allels and the 155th and 175th meridians of west longitude.
The thick tabular bergs are prevented from drifting to the
Siberian coast by the shallowness of the sea there; but they
are carried by the currents to Banks land, Grinnell land, and
into Robeson and Kennedy channels, where the Atlantic tides
sweeping around the north end of Greenland turn south to
Smith sound. ;

Numerous glaciers by which the Greenland ice-sheet out
flows through the valleys of its mountain border into Melville
bay and Inglefield gulf, between 75° and 78° north latitude,
are described by Prof. Angelo Heilprin.* Among the illus-
trations accompanying his paper, the most interesting are the
“hanging glacier” of Herschel’s island, flowing down from the

*Popular Science Monthly, vol. xivi, pp. 1-14, with nine illustrations
from photographs, Nov., 1894.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 39l

crest of a high mountainous coast, and a “domed glacier” in
Inglefield gulf, having the form of a great roundly sloping al-
luvial fan, with its border broken off in steep cliffs by the
sea. Prof. Heilprin ventures the opinion that exploration and
study of the Greenland glaciers will probably bring ‘‘no ex-
planations that have not already been made familiar through
the teachings of other countries.” Glacialists, however, will
be more hopeful, since our literature and resources for theo-
ries have been so increased by Russell’s studies, in 1890 and
1891, of the Malaspina glacier or ice-sheet in Alaska. Much
new light is expected, by investigators of the glacial drift and
its problems, from the past summer’s observations of the
Greenland ice-sheet and glaciers by Chamberlin and Wright,
supplementing the previous observations of Rink, Holst,
Steenstrup, Nordenskidld, Nansen, Peary, and others.
Furthermore, it is to be earnestly desired that an expedi-
tion on the Antartie ice-sheet shall be undertaken, and it
seems possible that a great part or perhaps nearly all of the
distance of 850 miles from the shore near the high volcanoes
Terror and Erebus to the pole can be traversed, with a safe
return, during the three months of the circumpolar midsum-
mer available for such an expedition. It would be very in-
structive to learn whether the maximum central altitude of
the ice surface in Greenland, about 9,000 feet where it has
been crossed by Nansen and Peary, is exceeded by the far more
extensive Antarctie polar ice-cap. Nunataks, or the tops of
hills and mountains projecting above the ice-sheet, are found
in Greenland only near its borders; but the Antarctic conti-
nent, while having chiefly a low margin, may contain very
high mountains, rising out of the ice as nunataks far toward
the south pole. W..U.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

The Laramie and the overlying Livingston Formation in Montana, By
W.H. Weep. With Report on Flora, by F. H. Knowr'ron. (U.S. Geol.
Survey, Bulletin 105. 68 pp.; 6 plates. 1898. Price, 10 cents.) There
are few western formations around which there has been so much dis-

392 The American Geologist. December, 1894

cussion as the Laramie, and there are few concerning which there are
still so many questions of interest undecided. As has long been known,
the correct delimitation of this formation is a matter attended with
some difticulty. It has been thought that the Laramie strata represent
unbroken sedimentation from the Cretaceous into the Eocene. Cross,
Eldridge, and Hills, have shown that there is in Colorado a series of
post-Laramie beds of considerable extent,. which are separated from the
true Laramie by marked unconformity. It has been found that many
of the plant remains, supposed to represent the Laramie, in reality be-
long tothe Denver and correlated beds. The necessity of a careful re-
vision of these forms has been insisted on. Similar beds and relations
have been found in Canada. These facts impart a considerable interest
to the results obtained by a study of the intervening Montana field.

In brief, Mr. Weed finds near Livingston, Montana, overlying the
coal-bearing Laramie strata and underlying the Fort Union beds, a vast
series of sandstones, grits. clays, and agglomerates, aggregating some
7,000 feet in thickness. This series is separated from the true Laramie
by unconformity, and is characterized by a distinct flora. It consists of
upper and lower beds, between which is intercalated, over a portion of
the field, a 2,000 foot bed of subaérial, volcanic agglomerates, composed
mainly of andesitic lavas,

The evidence of unconformity consists of observations by Dr. A. C.
Peale near Sphinx mountain, where the beds referred to the Livingston
were seen to rest in angular unconformity upon the Dakota sandstone;
certain irregularities in the thickness of the Laramie; and the presence
in the Livingston of pebbles derived from all the earlier formations,
whereas the Laramie contains Archean debris only. From these obser-
vations it is inferred that when the Laramie beds were being deposited
Archean land only was exposed, but that before the Livingston epoch
the land was elevated and during that epoch all the earlier beds were
undergoing erosion. The debris, mixed in part with andesitic lavas
from the neighboring volcanoes, was laid down in an inland lake.

Mr. Knowlton has carefully revised all the plants from these beds; a
work of considerable difficulty and necessity. In all he finds some 44
species. Of these 5 are new, and 11 are not found elsewhere. Of the
remainder 22 are Livingston forms, 2 Laramie proper, and 4 common to
both. Of the 22 species having distribution outside of this area, 17 are
exclusively Denver forms or have their greatest development in that
formation.

The Fort Union beds are recognized as Eocene on both stratigraphic
and paleontologic data. H. F. B.

Geology of the Big Stone Gap Coal Field of Virginia and Kentucky. By
Marius R. CAMPBELL. (U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 111. 106 pp.: 6
plates, and 3 figures in the text. 1893. Price, 15 cents.) The area
studied and described in this report is one which, although long famous
in history and more recently familiar to the tourist, has been almost
unknown geologically. The Carboniferous strata of Pennsylvania, Ohio,

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 393

and portions of West Virginia and Alabama, have been studied in con-
siderable detail: but outside of these regions little detailed work has
been done in the Appalachian coal basin. The Big Stone Gap coal field
is one of great economic possibilities. There is present a very full sec-
tion of the Carboniferous series, aggregating 7,000 feet in thickness.
The author has recognized seven different formations, to which local
geographic names have been given as follows, in their descending order:

EE Pn ESATICISCOMES oat Selec cate dicen heels oek ite seeks 880 feet.
SOMA S ENO IUES VO LONEN, ta o22.-b0S.c0. ely . (chateecsicttee Als hins. ions os 15,2705
GIROEVINIE” SAMGSLONE) (515 os 5 So's aroate Ra elclese 03" 100°—"*
Reel OUTMALLOM a sacs veespaiciers ocasieausin tate are Dees 1; 280K"
MICE CONC OUA GRATE «Fis cistac shed ys eheeloctoe 1,200 to 1,600 *
SOTTO UOUSSIVATC ie, < fleicie! trates: \avouskeres breve: « 900 to 1,100 **
Menimrannlmmestoner he 8sty a. lads ct ele 930754

These are apparently differentiated on their Hithplowie character and
order of superposition. The Harlan and Gladeville sandstones and the
Lee conglomerate serve as key rocks in the interpretation of the com-
plex faulted structure. Four productive horizons are recognized: (1) at
the base of the Harlan sandstone; (2) directly above the Gladeville
sandstone; (8) in the Imboden and Crab Orchard basins at a lower hori-
zon extending from the Imboden to the Cannal seam: (4) in the Guest
river basin the productive horizon extends from the Imboden seam to
within 200 feet of the Norton formation.

With the vast unstudied regions intervening between this and other
fields of known stratigraphy, it is recognized that for the present the
Big Stone Gap section must stand almost wholly alone and only general
correlations are now possible. The Lee conglomerate can be pretty
closely correlated with the Pottsville series; the Pennington shale and
the Newman limestone represent the Mississippian series; while the
Gladeville and Mahoning sandstones are probably equivalent, as may
also be the Harlan and the Wanesburg. Accepting these correlations
the following interesting comparisons become possible:

W. Va. Big Stone Gap. Cahaba.

Permo-Carboniferous. ..... 1,162 880 480
Intermediate measures...... 2,098 3,650 3,240
GCon@lamerates.oc7. ns fess sees 1,400 1,500 1,765

The report is illustrated by a geologic and topographic map, and by a
unique contour map of the upper surface of the Gladeville sandstone:
the latter is designed as an especial aid in the location of the coal seams.

In connection with this bulletin it is of interest to read a recent pa-
per* by the same author in which the history of the drainage system of
the region is admirably elaborated. H. F. B.

The Glaciation of the Yellowstone Valley north of the Park. By W. H.
WEED. (U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 104. 41 pp.; 4 plates. 1893.
Price, 5cents.) From the e chanbive system of alpine glaciers covering
the greater part of the Yellowstone National Park, a valley glacier is
found to have reached 36 miles northward down the Yellowstone river

*Am. Jour, Sci., III, vol. XLVIII, pp. 21-29, 1894.

B94 The American Geologist. December, 1894

beyond the Park boundary. ‘‘Throughout the entire field the higher
mountain peaks rose above the névé fields, though the high plateaux
and broader mountain summits show considerable glacial abrasion and
were unquestionably covered by moving ice.’’ The evidences of the
glaciation are, as usual, rounded and striated rock surfaces: the broad-
ening of cations: transportation of boulders, sometimes from lower to
higher elevations; the formation of moraines, kames, and valley gravel
deposits, remnants of the last being now conspicuous river terraces; and
the cutting of cations transverse to the mountain slopes and drainages
in front of the glacier’s termination. A very striking contrast is notice-
able between the glaciated and unglaciated portions of the region.
‘WwW. U.

The Paleozoic Section in the vicinity of Three Forks, Montana. By A.C.
PEALE. With Petrographic Notes, by G. P. Merriti. (U.S. Geol. Sur-
vey, Bulletin 110. 56 pp.: 6 plates, and two figures in the text. 1893.
Price, 10 cents.) The section here described, between the East Gallatin
and Missouri rivers, consists of Carboniferous, Devonian, and Cambrian
strata, as determined by fheir fossils, aggregating nearly 10,000 feet in
thickness, thrown into steep, northwestwardly dipping folds, and rest-
ing on Archean gneiss. Mr. Merrill describes rock specimens from the
Archean base of this section; from the next overlying Belt formation of
micaceous sandstones and conglomerates, slates, and bands of silicious
limestones, regarded as of Algonkian age; and from intrusive sheets in
the Flathead shales, the lowest member of the fossiliferous Paleozoic
series and the only one of its six formations which is traversed by erup-
tive rocks. Wau!

Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1891 (1894). Vol.
IT, cloth, pp. « and 849. J. C. BRANNER, State Geologist, Little Rock.

This volume contains, with a colored geological map of Benton
county, the following parts: The geology of Benton county, by F. W.
Simonds and T. C. Hopkins; Elevations in the state of Arkansas, by J.
©. Branner; Observations on erosion above Little Rock, J. C. Branner;
Magnetic observations, J. C. Branner; The Mollusca of Arkansas, F. A.
Sampson; The Myriapoda of Arkansas, by C. H. Bollman; The fishes of
Arkansas, by Seth E. Meek; The geology of Dallas county, by C. E.
Siebenthal; Bibliography of the geology of Arkansas, by J. C. Branner.
The geology of Dallas county is accompanied by a contoured sketch-
map of the county, the contour interval being 50 feet. N. H. W.

Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1892 (1894). Vol.
IT, cloth, pp. xvi and 207. J. C. BRANNER, State Geologist, Little Rock.
The Tertiary Geology of southern Arkansas, by GILBERT D. Harris, with
a colored geological map. In a peculiarly difficult and unfavorable re-
gion Prof. Harris has succeeded in making a valuable contribution to
the geology of Arkansas and adjoining states, in which all students of
the American Cenozoic will take interest. The Eocene series is made to
consist of the following parts, in descending order: Jackson stage, Clai-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 395

borne stage, Lignitic stage, and Midway stage, ‘‘all capped by shore de-
posits, some of which evidently date back to the age of the underlying
beds, while others have been subsequently re-arranged. » The orange
sand of Hilgard, in part at least the Lafayette formation, as understood
by McGee.’’ Much of the re-arrangement mentioned ‘‘presumably took
place before the close of the epoch represented by the underlying strati-
fied beds.”’ NEL

The United States; facts and figures illustrating the physical geography of
the country and its material resources. Supplement 1. Population, immi-
gration and irrigation. By J.D. Wuitney. (Boston: Little, Brown &
Company. 8vo, xxvii and 324 pp., 1894.) This volume is considered a sup-
plement to that which was issued about 1890, which wasa corrected and
enlarged republication of Prof. Whitney’s article originally written for
the Encyclopedia Britannica. The present volume contains scientific
and statistical information made available through the census of 1890,
with concise statements of various scientific and economical problems
involved in the increase and distribution of the population, the influ-
ence of irrigation and the possibility of changing the climate by the
agency of man. It is specially full on irrigation. The author gives
general descriptions of the various irrigable areas and considers the
adaptability of each to methods by reservoirs or by artesian wells. This
implies a discussion of their geological character and of all their physi-
cal features. The author reviews various irrigation reports, and gives
lists of all government reports on irrigation. N. H. W.

The Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1893 (published
Aug., 1894) contains two papers of interest to geologists: one a bibliog-
raphy of the geology of Indiana by Prof. V. F. Marsters and E. M.
KINDLE, Instructor at the Indiana University; and the other a paper
by Prof. R. Exusworth Cann, upon the indurated Tertiary rocks of
northeastern Arkansas. The bibliography will be found useful to geol-
ogists outside of the state as well as inside of it, for besides the usual
authors’ list it contains topical heads, such as coal. gas, oil, Quaternary,
etc. In some cases the arrangement of titles is a little confusing, as
where ‘‘Dubois county’’ is followed by a subdivision of the bibliography
under the head of ‘‘Economie geology,’’ and where ‘‘Stone”’ is followed
by “Elkhart.’’ This, however, is probably only a typographic error.
The authors of this valuable paper will find a few additional titles in the
annual reports of the Indiana State Board of Agriculture (e. g. 1853, pp.
299-332), and in Owen’s ‘*Reconnoissance’’ made in 1837, and published
In 1859.

The subject of especial interest in Prof. Call’s paper is that of sub-
aérial or surface metamorphism. The sandstones of Crowley’s ridge
in Arkansas are, for the most part, very soft and friable, but they were
found by Call to have been changed locally into the hardest kind of
quartzites. In hand specimens, and even in the field, these rocks re-
semble Paleozoic quartzites so closely that such an excellent observer
as Dr. Owen mentions them in his ‘first survey’’ of Arkansas as Paleo-

396 The American Geologist. December, 1894

zoic. The work done by Prof. Call shows that these sandstones are
Tertiary, and that the quartzites are local variations of them. By what
process thisschange has come about the author does not attempt to ex-
plain. A microscopical examination of the rock might throw some
light on the subject.

Established in 1885, the Indiana Academy of Science has grown at a
remarkable rate. At the head of its list of members stands the name of
the astronomer Daniel Kirkwood, and this is followed by those of
Jordan, Mendenhall, Gray, Campbell, Coulter, Gilbert, Evermann, and a
host of others equally well known. It is hoped that with this third vol-
ume of its Proceedings the Academy has passed its ‘‘second’ summer,’”
and that it will be able to maintain and improve a publication which
reflects so much credit upon the whole state of Indiana. J- Ges

Some Typical Eskers of southern New England. By J. B. WoopwortTH.
(Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxvi, pp.
197-220, with five figures in the text; April, 1894.) This paper describes
the physical features and discusses the origin of eskers examined by the
author during his work of mapping the Pleistocene deposits of portions
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, for the U. S$. Geolog-
ical Survey. The term eskers is employed to designate the elongated
ridges of gravel and sand, often serpentine in their courses, which were
deposited in channels of drainage upon, in, or beneath the waning ice-
sheet; while the term kames, in accordance with the suggestions of
Chamberlin and McGee, is restricted to mounds and disconnected short
ridges of similar gravel and sand, probably marking the mouths of small
glacial streams and usually associated with moraines or with plains of
stratified drift. The eskers are mainly referred by Mr. Woodworth to
a subglacial origin, although he believes that in some instances portions
of their courses indicate deposition in a channel open to the sky, where
the ice roof had been melted through. Bibliographic references are
quite fully noted, with quotations of the views of previous writers on
this subject, some of whom, as N. H. Winchell, Upham, and Holst,
think eskers more commonly to have been superglacial, being deposi-
ted in ice canons and deriving their material from englacial and finally
superglacial drift. Highly significant recent studies by Barton of chan-
nels on drumlins in Massachusetts (Am. GEoLoetst, March, 1894, p. 224,
and Am. Jour. Sci., Oct. 1894, p. 349) seem to prove that many esker-
forming streams were superglacial or englacial and could not have been
subglacial. W., Us

On the Distribution of Earthquakes in the United States since the close af
the Glacial period. By N.S. SHALER. (Proceedings, Boston Soc. Nat.
Hist., vol. xxv, pp. 246-256; read Jan. 17, 1894.) Boulders lying in un-
stable positions on the rocky shores of Maine and northeastern Massa-
chusetts, occasional pinnacles of rock spared by erosion and liable to be
easily thrown down, and the steep hillocks and ridges of loose glacial
eravel and sand called kames, all occurring in the New England states
near the sea level and within reach of the great wave which would be

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 397

produced by a powerful submarine earthquake, show that no such wave
has swept upon that coast since the Glacial period. On Long Island and
south to Florida the extensive beach ridges of sand, separated from the
main shore by long and shallow bays and sounds, are also shown by
Prof. Shaler to indicate similar long immunity from earthquake sea-
waves. Likewise through large regions in the interior of the United
States, the occurrence of delicately poised boulders, and, south of the
drift area, the unstable rock-cliffs and columnar or tower-like rem-
nants of eroded strata, and insecurely pendent stalactites in caverns, tes-
tify of long quietude, unbroken by earthquake shocks, at least during the
“ten thousand years or more” since the Ice age. W. U.

The Geographical Development of Alluvial River Terraces. By R. E.
Dope. (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxv1, pp. 257-273; June, 1894.)
The processes of fluvial deposition and subsequent erosion, leaving rem-
nants of old flood-plains as terraces on the sides of the river valleys, are
here reviewed, with consideration of the geographical cycle and devyel-
opment of a normal river, and a Classification of alluvial terraces ac-
cording to the variable conditions of their origin. In glaciated regions
the abundant stream terraces of stratified gravel, sand and clay have
been sculptured, and in large part redeposited again and again, from the
original flood-plains supplied by the drainage of the ice-sheet during its
departure at the close of the Glacial period. The Connecticut river val-
ley, rendered classic by the early work of E. and C. H. Hitchcock for
the geological surveys of Massachusetts and Vermont, and later more
fully described in its northern part for the survey of New Hampshire,
has along most of its course two, three, four, or more of these terraces
on one or both sides of the river. Usually drift-bearing countries have
undergone some differential elevation since the weight of the ice was re-
moved, and each terrace is thought by the author to show a temporary
level of the stream during a time of rest or slackening of the uplift,
while the escarpments or steep fronts of the terraces are regarded as
evidence of intermittent stages when the upward movement was more
rapid, causing the streams to cut down their channels. Nie

The Preglacial Channel of the Genesee river. By A. W. GraBau. (Pro-
ceedings, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvi, pp. 359-369, with map;
read May 16, 1894.) The Genesee river above Portageville, N. Y., flows
in a broad preglacial valley. Next the river has cut a narrow and very
picturesque rock gorge for about 25 miles to Mt. Morris. Again it flows
thence nearly to Rochester in a large preglacial channel; but in the city
of Rochester it a second time enters a deep postglacial rock gorge, seven
miles long, descending into it with three falls. Above Mt. Morris the
second broad valley is occupied by the Caneseraga creek; and farther
west the Oatka creek, another tributary of the Genesee, runs inja paral-
lel preglacial valley. The connection of these valleys with their proba-
ble preglacial continuation along the [rondequoit river and bay (des-
cribed in the Am. GrkOLoGIST, vol. Vv, pages 202-207, with map, April,

398 The American Geologist. December, 1894

1890), to the present area of lake Ontario, has not been definitely traced,
because the intervening areas are heavily drift-covered.

It seems probable that some estimate of the length of the Postglacial
period may be derived from the rate of recession of the Genesee falls at
Rochester, as in the similar cases of the falls of Niagara and St. Antho-
ny. Further light also on this question may be expected from meas-
urements of the volume of the Genesee gorge above Mt. Morris, with
consideration of the manner and rate of its erosion by the river. These
problems may wellbe recommended for practice in field work by special
students in geology. W. U.

The Granites of Cecil county in northeastern Maryland. By G. P. Grims-
LEY. (A thesis accepted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the
Johns Hopkins University, June, 1894. 50 pp., 8 pls., 1894. Published
originally in the Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., April and July, 1894.)
This paper describes the granites of that part of the ancient crystalline
area of Maryland which lies on the east bank of the Susquehanna river
and just south of the Pennsylvania line. Toward the north the granite
comes in contact with the gabbro of the region; here the former rock
becomes more basic and in places appears to grade into the latter, but
elsewhere the granite is seen to be of later date than the gabbro. The
granite is separated into two areas by a belt of staurolite mica-schist;
the northern (Rolandville) area exhibits striking mineralogical changes,
the most prominent of which is the extensive development of epidote;
the southern (Port Deposit) area shows crushing and shearing, and the
rock has become a pronounced granite-gneiss. The belt of staurolite
mica-schist shows a complete alteration of the staurolite to an aggregate
of muscovite, chlorite, and quartz. Separation of the heavier constitu-
ents of the granite soils by use of the ordinary miner’s pan, a method
employed with success by Derby in Brazil and by others, brings to light
a number of the less common minerals of the parent rock. U; 8. G:

On the Cambrian Formation of the Hastern Salt Range. By Frrvz Norr-
Line. (Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xxvu, pt. 3, pp.
71-86, pl. i, 1894.)

That there should, to all appearances, be such a dearth of palseontol-
ogists in the United Kingdom as to compel the government to turn to
the continent for men of this kind for its Indian Geological Survey, has
been a matter of frequent comment and some heartburnings. The
combination of stratigraphical geologist and paleontologist seems, la-
mentably, to be somewhat out of fashion, and the predominance of ana-
tomical and phylogenetic paleontologists among English students may
have been the principal reason why the Directorship of the Indian Sur-
vey invited professor W. Waagen, of Prague, and Dr. Fritz Noetling, of
Strassburg, to undertake its paleontological work. If the English pale-
ontologists felt at all ‘‘raw’’ over this, it may have given some of the
more sinful of them a delicious, if slight, tingle of satisfaction when the
distinguished German savant described, in the impressive tomes of the
“Paleontologia Indica,’ a fauna composed of inarticulate brachiopods

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 399

of very primitive and distinctly Cambrian types and with stout argu-
ments maintained its Upper Carboniferous age. It is some time since
Waagen revised this opinion, with the aid of trilobites subsequently
discovered in the same rocks by the English members of the survey, who
had found the brachiopods and had regarded them of Silurian age.
The history of this discussion is briefly reviewed by Noetling in this

~ paper, and the author, in the light of some additional discoveries, dis-

sents from all of Waagen’s later conclusions in regard to the Cambrian
faunas. Noetling proposes the following subdivision of the Salt Range
Cambrian, in descending order:

4, Bhaganwalla group, or salt-crystal pseudomorph zone;

3. Jutana group, or magnesian sandstone;

2. Khussak group, or Neobolus beds;

1. Khewra group, or purple sandstone.

The Khussak group alone contains fossils and is the oldest fossilifer-
ous formation of the Salt Range. Noetling makes a five-fold division
of it:

VY. Zone of Olenellus sp., with ‘‘brachiopods belonging to the family
of Trimerellidie”’ (Lakhmina ?) and probable fragments of Olenellus.

IV. Zone of Neobolus warthé.

Ill. Upper annelid sandstone.

Il. Zone of Hyolithes wynnii, with Neobolus? sp. and small trilobites.

I. Lower annelid sandstone, with Hyolithes and some ‘‘bivalves.”’

The position, in the series, of the trilobites which determined, for
Waagen, the Cambrian age of the fauna, viz., Conocephalites warthi and
Olenus ? indicus W., is uncertain. It is stated by Noetling that they do
not belong to the genera to which they were referred, and the two writ-
ers are at open variance in their interpretation of the faunal succession,
a difference which cannot be adjusted without ‘‘another candle.’
Meanwhile the foreign members of Dr. King’s survey are ‘‘out.”’

J, M. G.

On the Occurrence of Chipped (?) Flints in the Upper Miocene of Burma.
By Fritz Noreriine. (Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol,
XXVII, pt. 3, pp. 101-103, pl. 1, 1894.)

The flint flakes described were found by the author himself in a fer-
ruginous conglomerate in the Yenangyoung oil-field, containing re-
mains of Rhinoceros and Hippotherium. The flakes figured certainly
suggest human workmanship, and as to their nature the author says:
“T do not want to express an opinion; all I can say is, that if flints of
this shape can be produced by natural causes, a good many chipped
flints hitherto considered as undoubtedly artificial products are open to
grave doubt as to their origin.” Jee Mir Gy

Cone-in-Cone: how it occurs in the Devonian series in Pennsylvania, with
Surther details of its structure, varieties, ete. By W.S. Grestey. (Quart.
Jour. Geol. Soc., London, vol. 50, pp. 731-739, with plates xxxv and xxxvI,
Novy. Ist, 1894.) In the Portage beds of northwestern Pennsylvania the

cone-in-cone structure is shown to be a product of alteration. It occurs,

400 The American Geologist. December, 1894

as previously observed, along a very persistent horizon, known as the
Ferriferous limestone, usually several feet thick, but occasionally thin-
ning down to four inches or less, and in these thin and shaly portions

the cone-in-cone formation is conspicuously developed. Several hundred.

feet lower in the series the author has found typical cone-in-cone at
numerous horizons of interbedded thin sandstones and shales. The
cone-in-cone occupies parts of the shaly layers, and is distinetly calea-
reous, differing in this respect from the contiguous strata, so that this
peculiar structure appears to be due to concretionary action, under pres-
sure, gathering the carbonate of lime and partially expelling the clayey
matter. Elsewhere the calcareous matter has been sometimes replaced
by hematite, limonite, pyrites, marcasite, and ferruginous quartz.
Wis UU.

RECENT. PUBLICATIONS.

1. Government and State Reports.

Smithsonian Report, 1893. contains: The ice age andits work, A. R.
Wallace; Geologic time as indicated by the sedimentary rocks of North
America, C. D. Walcott; The age of the earth, Clarence King; Deep-sea
deposits, A. Daubrée.

Thirteenth Ann. Rept., U.S. Geol. Survey. Part I, Report of the
Director, J. W. Powell. Part II, Geology, contains; Second expedition
to Mount St. Elias, I. C. Russell; The geological history of harbors, N.
S. Shaler; The mechanics of Appalachian structure, Bailey Willis; The
average elevation of the United States, Henry Gannett; The Rensselaer
grit plateau of New York, T. N. Dale; The American Tertiary Aphide,
S. H. Scudder. Part III, Irrigation.

U.S. Geol. Survey, Monograph XIX, The Penokee iron-bearing se-
ries in Michigan and Wisconsin, by R. D. Irving and C. R. Van Hise.
Pp. i-xix, 1-534, 37 pls., 1892.

U.S. Geol Survey, Monograph XXI, Tertiary rhynchophorous Cole-
optera of the United States, by S. H. Scudder. Pp. i-xi, 1-206, 12 pls.,
1893.

U. S. Geol. Survey, Monograph XXII, A manual of topographic
methods, by Henry Gannett. Pp. i-xiv, 1-300, 18 pls., 1893.

Bulletins, U. S. Geol. Survey: No. 97, The Mesozoic Echinodermata
of the United States, W. B. Clark: No. 98, Flora of the outlying Carbon-
iferous basins of southwestern Missouri, David White: No. 99, Record
of North American geology for 1891, N. H. Darton; No. 100, Bibliogra-
phy and index of the publications of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1879-
1892, P. C. Warman; No. 101, Insect fauna of the Rhode Island coal
field, 8. H. Seudder; No. 102, A catalogue and bibliography of the North
American Mesozoic Invertebrata, C. B. Boyle; No. 108, High tempera-
ture work in igneous fusion and ebullition, chiefly in relation to pres-

Recent Publications. 401

sure, Carl Barus; No. 104, Glaciation of the Yellowstone valley north of
the Park, W. H. Weed; No. 105, The Laramie and the overlying Living-
ston formation in Montana, W. H. Weed: No. 106, The Colorado form-
ation and its invertebrate fauna, T. W. Stanton; No. 107, The trap
dikes of the Lake Champlain region, J. F. Kemp and VY. F. Marsters;
No. 108, A geological reconnoissance in central Washington, I. C. Rus-
sell; No. 109, The eruptive and sedimentary rocks on Pigeon point, Min-
nesota, W.S. Bayley; No. 110. The Paleozoic section in the vicinity of
Three Forks, Montana, A. C. Peale; No, 111, Geology of the Big Stone
Gap coal field of Virginia and Kentucky, M. R. Campbell; No. 112,
Earthquakes in California in 1892, C. D. Perrine; No, 113, A report of
work done in the division of chemistry during the fiscal years 1891-'92
and 1892-793, F. W. Clarke; No. 114, Earthquakes in California in 1893,
C. D. Perrine; No. 115, A geographic dictionary of Rhode Island, Henry
Gannett; No. 116, A geographic dictionary of Massachusetts, Henry
Gannet: No. 117, A geographic dictionary of Connecticut, Henry Gan-
net.

Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey of Arkansas, for 1891, Vol. IT, 1894, contains:
The geology of Benton county, F. W. Simonds and T. C. Hopkins; Ele-
vations in the state of Arkansas, J. ©. Branner; Observations on erosion
above Little Rock, J. C. Branner; Magnetic observations, J. C. Branner;
The Mollusea of Arkansas, F. A. Sampson; The Myriapoda of Arkansas,
C. H. Bollman; The fishes of Arkansas, 8. EK. Meek: The geology of
Dallas county, C. E. Siebenthal; Bibliography of the geology of Arkansas,
J. C. Branner.

Ann. Rep., Geol. Survey of Arkansas, for 1892, Vol. II, 1894, contains:
The Tertiary geology of southern Arkansas, G. D. Harris.

California State Mining Bureau, Bull. No. 8, The gas and petroleum-
yielding formations of the central valley of California, by W. L. Watts.
100 pp., 1894.

Missouri Geol. Survey, Sheet No. 2, the Bevier sheet, With a report on
the same. Pp. i-ix, 1-75., Oct., 1893.

Missouri Geol. Survey, Sheet No. 3, The Iron Mountain sheet, with a
report on the same. Pp. i-ix, 1-85, 5 pls.. Jan., 1894.

Bulletin No. 4, Illinois State Museum of Nat. Hist.: Upper Devonian
and Niagara Crinoids, by S. A. Miller and W. F. E. Gurley. 37 pp.,
Spls., Oct. -15; 1894.

II. Proceedings of Scientific Societies.

Conegrés Géologique International, Compte Rendu dela 5me Session,
Washington, 1891 (published 18938, edited by S. I’. Emmons) contains:
Historique du congrés; Procés-verbeaux des séances du congrés; Compte-
rendu des séances du conerés, including Communications sur la corré-
lation des roches (La corrélation par plantes fossiles, L. fF. Ward. The
pre-Cambrian rocks of North America, C. R. Van Hise). Compte-rendu
de Ja discussion surla corrélation des roches, Compte-rendu de la discus-
cussion sur la classifications des dépdts pléistocéne, Compte-rendu de la
discussion sur les gammes de coloriage générales, Compte-rendu des ex-

402 The American Geologist. December, 1894

cursions, Explication des excursions, including La géologie des environs
de Washington, Excursion aux Montagnes Rocheuses, Excursion au Lac
Supérior.

Trans. N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, vol. 18, contains: Observations on the
geology and botany of Martha’s Vineyard, Arthur Hollick; The ore de-
posits at Franklin Furnace and Ogdensburg, N. J., J. F. Kemp; Addi-
tional notes on recently discovered deposits of diatomaceous earth in the
Adirondacks, C. F. Cox; On allanite crystals from Franklin Furnace, N.
J., A. S. Eakle: A Pleistocene lake bed at Elizabethtown, Essex Co., N.
Y., Heinrich Ries; A new Cladodont from the Ohio Waverly, Cladose-
lache newberryi, n. sp., Bashford Dean; Some further notes on the geol-
ogy of the north shore of Long Island, Arthur Hollick; An orbicular
granite from Quonochontogue beach, R. I., J. F. Kemp; Mineralogical
notes—topaz from near Palestine, Texas, and Diamonds from Wisconsin,
G. F. Kunz; On some new forms of wollastonite from New York state,
Heinrich Ries: Note on the petrography of certain basaltic boulders
from Thetford, Vt., E. O. Hovey; Microscopic organisms in the clays of
New York state, Heinrich Ries; On caswellite, an altered biotite from
Franklin Furnace, N. J., and quartz crystals from Ellenville, N. Y., A.
H. Chester: The intrusive rocks near St. John, N. B., W. D. Matthew:
Additional note on wollastonite from New York state, Heinrich Ries; A
group of diabase dikes among the Thousand islands, St. Lawrence
river, C. H. Smyth, Jr.: The geology of Essex and Willsboro’ town-
ships, Essex Co., N. Y., T. H. White.

Proc. California Acad. of Sciences, sec. ser., vol. 4, pt. 1, contains:
On some Pliocene fresh-water fossils of California, J. G. Cooper.

Proc. A. A. A.S., vol. 42, Madison meeting, contains; Geologic time
as indicated by the sedimentary rocks of North America, C. D. Wal-
cott: and abstracts of several papers, most of which have been pub-
lished elsewhere in full.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Nore on ‘‘Nanno.’? The description of this remarkable type of ceph-
alopod, by J. M. Clarke, in the October AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, from the
Trenton limestone of Minnesota, has interested me very much, since
formerly I collected specimens of the same species near Minneapolis.
This type of cephalopod is not new, however, having been previously
found by Gerhard Holm, who in 1885 described and figured Endoceras
belemnitiforme, a very similar species, from the Silurian of the island of
Oeland and of Estland [Esthonia]. (See Holm, ‘‘Ueber die innere Or-
eanisation einiger silurischer Cephalopoden,”’ in Paleontologische Ab-
handlungen, von W. Dames und E. Kayser, vol. 8, pt. 1, p. 4, and plate

I). [*]
[*The final paper by Prof. Clarke, as contributed to the reports of the Minnesota Geo-
logical Survey, now in press, refers fully to the work of Holm, and states that, notwith-
standing his reference of this form to Endoceras, it is quite different and worthy of a
generic rank.—EDs. ]

Correspondence. 403

Findoceras belemnitiforme Holm presents the same generic characters
as Nanno aulema Clarke. In the belemnite-like specimens (Holm, loc.
cit., pl. I, figs. 5a-5ce, and Clarke, loc. cit., pl. VI, figs. 5-7) the apical
cone represents, according to Holm, the initial chamber of the Hndoce-
ras; the contracted surface, the first septum; and the elongated portion,
the siphuncle. The thickened wall or ‘‘apical solid cone,’’ as described
by Clarke, is noted also by Holm in #. belemnitiforme (loc. cit., p. 8. pl.
I, fig. 2); and that the sipho is also in contact with the outer shell, and
even fastened to the same, is both described and figured.

Very interesting is the interpretation made by Holm of this species of
Hndoceras, the only species of which the initial chamber was known,
and in the structure of which he finds the suggestion that the initial
chamber and the sipho of Hndoceras species with large siphos served at
first, and to a great extent continually, as a visceral chamber. From
the characters presented by this species, Holm thinks that the Hndoce-
ras type is the primitive fossil cephalopod, and that the Tetrabranchi-
ata were yet earlier derived from, forms having an open conical shell
without septa or sipho. The striking similarity between WH. belemniti-
forme and Nanno aulema permits exactly the same interpretation from
either.

The ‘“‘siphonal cone,’’ as composed of siphonal sheaths described by
Clarke, is, on the other hand, not observed by Holm; but, according to
Holm’s interpretation, it might be expected that the shell at the apex
would be continually thickened while the initial chamber and sipho
were still occupied by the viscera. The existence of such a structure
seems to support the theory given by Holm,* that the primitive Tetra
branchiata filled the entire conical shell; that afterward, following ex-
tended growth of the shell and elongation of the animal, an air chamber
enclosed by a septum was formed upon one side of the animal: and that
by the formation of a succession of similar septa. originated the elon-
gated sipho. This, which was occupied by part of the viscera at first,
as in some species of Hndoceras, has, in the cephalopods with small si-
phons, been reduced to a narrow, perhaps functionless structure.

The name Nanno, which is seemingly an inappropriate one for a ge-
nus of Cephalopoda, is, according to other authors, only a synonym for
Endoceras; but the new species described is of great interest.

FREDERICK W. SARDESON.

Geologisch-mineralogisches Institut der Universitat, Freiburg ¢. Baden,

Oct 20, 1894.

EVIDENCE OF SUPERGLACIAL ESkERS IN ILLINOIS AND NORTHWARD.
The paper by Mr. J. B. Woodworth on the origin of eskers, noticed on
page 396, and the work of Mr. G. H. Barton on the same question, also
there cited, with the discussion of superglacial drift by Prof. R. D.
Salisbury in the last number of the Journal of Geology (vol. i, pp. 613-
632, Sept.-Oct., 1894), make this an opportune time for directing atten-

*See alsc Steinmann and Doderlein, ‘‘Elemente der Palaontologie”’ (1890), p. 349.

t

404 The American Geologist. December, 1894

tion to the evidences of the formation of the eskers which have been
studied in Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Manitoba, by superglacial
streams.

Where eskers (osars) have been explored by Mr. Leverett in Tllinois
and adjacent states, they are found, as described by Prof. Chamberlin
in the Journal of Geology (vol. 1, pp. 266, 267, April-May, 1893), to vary
in length from a few miles to about fifty miles, and to lie often as nar-
row gravel and sand ridges in wide river-like channels cut into the gen-
eral sheet of till, but to have ascents and descents over present water-
sheds. It is thus seen that these eskers were deposited by ice-walled
Streams, either subglacial, englacial, or superglacial. While Prof.
Chamberlin, in the paper cited, regards them as probably subglacial, a
different explanation seems to accord with theirsuperglacial formation.
From the steep slopes adjoining river valleys or canons cut into the wan-
ing ice-sheet, its englacial and finally superglacial drift, exposed by
ablation when the greater part of the thickness of the ice there had
been melted away, would slide down, or be washed down by rains and
rivulets, into the stream bed, to contribute partly to the esker and to be
partly carried onward by the stream. When the ice wholly disappeared,
a wide shallow trough in the till and the esker ridge would have the re-
lationship described. —

In Iowa the prominent paha or loess eskers described by McGee (U.S.
Geol. Survey, Eleventh An. Rep.. for 1889-'90, pp. 485-471) are attributed
chiefly to superglacial drainage, deriving the material of the paha from
drift exposed by ablation on the ice surfaee.

In Minnesota eskers are rather infrequent. The most notable are in
Bridgewater and Lake Johanna townships. The former is an esker
series about seven miles long, mapped by Prof. N. H. Winchell, who
shows its origin to have been by a superglacial stream (Geology of
Minn., vol. 1, 1884, pp. 665-669); and the latter series consists of several
parallel ridges, mapped by the present writer and similarly explained
(vol. 11, 1888, pp. 489, 490).

The most conclusive evidence of the origin of the material of eskers
from superglacial drift I find in the esker called Bird’s hill, at the sta-
tion of this name on the Canadian Pacific railway in Manitoba, seven
miles northeast of Winnipeg. This esker had such relationship to the
glacial lake Agassiz, there 500 feet deep as soon as the ice-sheet re-
treated, that its material is shown to have come from a somewhat
greater hight in the lower part of the ice-sheet, which attained probably
a maximum thickness of 5,000 feet or more above that region, if we
may judge from its known thickness upon New England and New York,
covering Mt. Washington and the Green and Adirondack mountains.
It is further learned, by a mass of till fallen into the esker gravel and
sand, that several feet of englacial drift existed there above the altitude
of 500 feet in the ice. (Geol. Survey of Canada, An. Rep., new series,
vol. rv, for 1888-'89, pp. 38-40 E.)

The observations of the eskers of Bird’s hill and the Pinnacle hills at
Rochester, N. Y. (Proc., Rochester Acad.of Science, vol. 11, pp. 181-200,

Personal and Scientific News, — 405

Jan., 1893), with my other and earlier studies of eskers in New Hamp-
shire and other parts of New England and in Long Island, convince me
that these remarkable ridges of modified drift were, in all the areas
which I have studied, derived chiefly from englacial drift which had
become superglacial, as on the Malaspina ice-sheet in Alaska, and that
they were deposited in the cafion-like lower courses of superglacial riv-
ers. This indicates that the englacial drift, as shown by articles in the
Am. GrEo.oetst for December, 1891, and December, 1892, and July, 1893,
was of considerable amount in the lower part, perhaps for a fourth of
the whole thickness, of the ice-sheet. WARREN UPHAM.
Nov. 20th, 1894.

AN EARLY OBSERVATION BEARING ON THE HIsTORY OF THE GREAT
Lakes. The reading of Dr. J. W. Spencer’s *‘Review of the History of
the Great Lakes,’’ in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST for November, recalled

.an observation made in the last century by Alexander Henry. He was
an English fur-trader, and in carrying on his business with the Indians
journeyed from Montreal to Michilimackinac in 1761. The route taken
was the Ottawa and Mattawa rivers, lake Nipissing and its outlet,
French river, to Georgian bay and lake Huron. An account of his tray-
els was published in 1809. The following extract from it shows that he
recognized the former presence of waters at a different level along what
is now regarded as for a time an outlet of the three upper lakes:

‘Leaving the Indians, we proceeded to the mouth of the lake [Nipis-
sing] at which isthe carrying-place of La Chaudiére Francaise, a name
part of which it has obtained from the holes in the rock over which we
passed; and which holes, being of the kind which is known.to be formed
by water, with the assistance of pebbles, demonstrate that it has not
always been dry, as at present it is; but the phenomenon is not peculiar
to this spot, the same being observable at almost every carrying-place
on the Outaouais [Ottawa]. At the hight of a hundred feet above the
river, Icommonly found pebbles, worn into a round form, like those
upon the beach below. Everywhere the water appears to have subsided
from its ancient levels: and imagination may anticipate an era‘at which
even the banksof Newfoundland will be left bare.’’* B.S. Ean.

Chicago, Nov. 24, 1894.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Tue GeoLoagicaL Soctety or Amertca will meet at Baltimore
Thursday, Dec. 27, the assembly being in the geological labo-
ratory of Johns Hopkins University. It is expected that
Pres. D. C. Gilman will welcome the society, and that Prof.
W. B. Clark will read a memorial of Dr. George H. Williams.

*Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between the years
1761 and1776. By Alexander Henry, Esq. New York, 1809. p. 31.

\

406 The American Geologist. December, 1894

’

Mr. E. H. Lonspare, recently of the Iowa Geological Sur-
vey, has resigned to accept a position on ha Missouri survey.

Mr. C. D. Watcorrt, director of the U.S. Geological Survey,
has recently made a western tour to inspect its work.

Prof. As I. Emmons is to have general charge of the work of
the U. S. Geol. Survey in the Rocky mountains region.

Prof. G. F. Becker, who has made a reconnaissance of the
southern Appalachian gold-fields during the past summer,
will specially examine, with Mr. H. B. C. Nitze of the North
Carolina Geological Survey, the principal mines in the central
southern part of that state.

WitriaM Torrey, F. R. 8., long engaged on the Geological
Survey of England, died Sept. 30th.

A species or Oldhamia, closely related to O. antiqua of the

Cambrian rocks in Ireland, has been collected by T. Nelson ~

Dale at several localities in a belt of reddish shales west of
the Renssalaer plateau, near Troy, N. Y. It is deseribed by
C. D. Waleott under the name Oldhamia (Murchisonites) oc-
cidens, in the Proc. Nat. Museum, vol. xvi, pp. 318-315, 1894;
and the formation is regarded as of Upper Cambrian or
Lower Ordovician age.

THE GEOLOGY oF DENVER AND Its vicinity is well summarized
in a popular address, of 36 pages, by George L. Cannon, Jr.,
as the retiring president of the Colorado Scientific Society.
A very remarkable epoch of erosion is shown to have marked
the transition from the Tertiary to the Quaternary era, re-
moving 1,000 to 1,500 feet of horizontal strata from the site
of the city of Denver, followed by an epoch of deposition of
river drift and loess.

Tue New Science Review is a recently launched quarterly
devoted to the discussion of scientific theories and discover-
ies. It does not address itself to the specialist, but to the in-
telligent public at large, and endeavors to present the results
of recent work and thought in the various lines of natural
and physical science. ‘'wo numbers have already been issued.
It is conducted by J. M. Stoddart, and is published by the
Transatlantic Publishing Co., New York (63 Fifth Ave.) and
London.

Arounp tHE Wor p fills a nookin monthly journalism which
was before entirely neglected. It is devoted to geography,
travels, and science. It is not ponderous like Harper’s, nor
prosaic like the Popular Science Monthly, nor radical like the
Arena. It is highly instructive and lightly scientific without
dilettanteism. Its pages are scrupulously edited and fault-
lessly printed, while its elegant illustrations are so profuse
that from the first page to the last it is a gallery of portraits
of nature all of which deserve to be bound together and pre-
served.

Personal and Scientific News. 407

AMERICAN Crinorps. The first hundred pages of Wachsmuth
and Springer’s long expected monograph on American crin-
oids have left the press. The work has developed greatly
since first planned and has prolonged the time of its appear-
ance much beyond the date originally set. The camarate
erinoids which form the part now being issued are comprised
in two large quarto volumes, one of text containing over 600
pages, and the other of plates nearly 100 in number. The
latter have been beautifully reproduced by the best of modern
processes. The work is issued by the Museum of Compara-
. tive Zoology of Cambridge; and the edition is limited to 750
copies. It embodies the results of what is doubtless the fin-
est piece of paleontological investigation ever undertaken in
this country; and it may be regarded as a model of modern
methods. It is the outcome of thirty-five years constant and
untiring effort; these two volumes constitute the first half of
the entire work. When completed it will form one of those
works which will be the standard of reference for a century
to come.

Tue Stranrorp University has recently obtained a cast of a
vertebral column and ribs found fossil in a marine shaly
sandstone formation of Miocene age, at an altitude of 1,400
feet above the sea, near Roblar, California. The resemblance
to man is very remarkable, but Pres. D. 8. Jordan, of the
university, thinks that more probably it was some species of
sloth. Prof. J. P. Smith states that it might be readily pro-
nounced a fossil man, if the rock formation were recent. “To
be sure,” he remarks, ‘a river mignt have brought the dead
man, sloth, or whatever it was, to the ocean, and the currents
might have carried it out, but it certainly seems more reason-
able to suppose some aquatice creature left its imprint there.”
—San Francisco Examiner, Nov, 4, 1894.

THE GLACIAL GEOLOGY or Mr. Kenya in eastern Africa, sit-
uated on the equator, about 150 miles east of the lake Victoria
Nyanza, is described by Dr. J. W. Gregory in the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society of London (vol. 50, pp. 515-
530, Nov. Ist, 1894). The mountain attains a hight of about
19,500 feet and covers an area of about 700 square miles. The
existing glaciers, one of which isnamedin memory of the late
Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis, descend to the altitude of 15,800
feet. Former glaciation, at so recent a time that the striation
of boulders and of the bed rock is retained wherever it has
been protected by a covering of soil, reached 5,500 feet lower,
or to 9,800 feet above the sea. Lake basins, moraines, rounded
rock surfaces, and glacial strive, attest the former envelopment
of the whole upper part of Mt. Kenya by an ice-cap, of which
the present glaciers are puny remnants. The cause of the

Se
% os

408 The American Geologist. December, 1894

former great extent of the glaciers is thought by Dr. Gregory
to have been a greater altitude of the country including this
mountain; and he thinks that this epeirogenic uplift may have
extended westward across Africa to the Cameroons mountains
and to the mouth of the Congo river, which has a submerged
continuation of its valley to the depth of 6,000 feet beneath
the sea level. The alpine flora found on the mountains of
Abyssinia, on Kenya, Kilima Njaro, and the Cameroons, fur-
nishes additional evidence that during a late geologic epoch
this extensive continental area was a much higher plateau
than now, having consequently a cooler and moister climate,
with a continuous flora similar to that which now survives
only upon the mountains.

Natrona, ACADEMY oF Sciences. The following papers
were read at the Autumn meeting, Oct. 30, 31 and Noy. 1, 1894,
at New Haven: An indirect experimental Determination of
the Energy of Obscure Heat, William A. Rogers; Determina-
tion of the Errors of the Circles of an electrotype copy of
Tycho Brahe’s Altitude Azimuth instrument now in possession
of the Smithsonian Institution, William A. Rogers; TheWinne-
bago County, Iowa, Meteorites, and the Meteor, Hubert A.
Newton; Literal Expression for the Motion of the Moon’s
Perigee, George W. Hill; Atmospheric Dust and Aqueous
Precipitation in Arctic Regions, William H. Brewer; Further
Researches on the Polar Motion, Seth C. Chandler; The Re-
lation of Gravity to Continental Elevation, Thomas C. Men-
denhall; The Legal Units of Electrical Measure, Thomas C.
Mendenhall; On derived Equations in Optics, Charles 8. Hast-
ings; On a method of eliminating Secondary Disperson, using
ordinary silicate Glasses only, Charles S. Hastings; The
Chemical Nature of Diastase, Thomas B. Osborne; Some
Features in the Development of Brachiopods, Charles E.
Beecher; On the Presence of Devonian Fossils in Strata of
Carboniferous Age, Henry S. Williams; On the influence of
Insolation upon Culture Media, and of Desiccation upon the
Vitality of the Bacillus of Typhoid, of the Colon Bacillus, and
of the Staphylococcus aureus, John S. Billings; Report on
Photographing Meteors, William L. Elkin; Biographical Me-
moir of F. V. Hayden, Charles A. White; Geographical and
Bathymetrical Distribution of the Deep Sea Echinoderms, dis-
covered off the American Coast, north of Cape Hatteras, AE.
Verrill; On the effect of Pressure in broadening Spectral
Lines, A. A. Michelson; Remarks upon the progress of work
upon a Handbook of the Brachiopoda, James Hall; Note upon
the Occurrence and Distribution of the Dictyospongide in the
Devonian and Carboniferous Formations, James Hall; Infra-
red Spectrum, 8. P. Langley; On a certain Theorem in Theo-
retical Mechanies, J. W. Gibbs.

A

Adams, Frank D., Nepheline syenite in
Ontario, 68, 159.

Age of the crystalline limestones of War-
ren county, N. J., L.G. Westgate. 369.

ase oh a3 the Galena limestone, N. H. Win-
che

Age of Riess Falls, J. W. Spencer, 135.

Alaska: its physical geography, I.C. Rus-
sell, 331.

Alluvial river terraces, R. E. Dodge, 397.

Alunogen and bauxite in New Mexico,
W. P. Blake, 196

American Association for the Advance-
rete a Hage seca 202.

ee ., Quebec group about Quebec,

A new meteorite, 389.

Annual reports of the Geological Survey
of Arkansas, J. ©. Branner, 394.

Arctic expeditions, 272, 389.

Argyrodite and a new sulphostannate
from Bolivia, S. L. Penfield, 53.

= heal Tertiary geology, G. D. Harris,

B

Backstrom, Helge, ‘'venne nyupptickta
svenska klotgraniter, Bo:

Bailey, L. W., Progre-s of investigation
in S. W. Nova Scotia, 67.

Basie rock derived from granite, C. H.
Smyth, Jr., 195.

Becker, Geo. F., On certain astronomical
conditions favorable to glaciation, 191.

Bell, Robt., Glacial Kettle holes in Can-
ada, 68.

Bernard, Felix, Elements de paleontol-
ogie, 334.

Bibliography of the geolegy of Indiana,
eee and Kinkle, 395.

Blake, W. P., Trilobites in the oil-rock
horizon of the Trenton limestone, 133;
Alunogen and bauxite in New Mexico,

Boyle, ©. B., Catalogue of Mesozoic In-
vertebrata, 330.
Braaner, J. C., Annual reports of the
Geological Survey of Arkansas, $94.
British Association for the Adv. Sci., 271.
Broadhead. G. C., History of the Missouri
Paleozoic, 380.
Brontichthys clarki. E. W. Claypole, 379.

Call, R. E., Indurated Tertiary of N. E.
Arkansas, 395.

Calvin, 8., The Niobrara Chalk, 140.

Cambrian age of the limestones of Sas-
sex county, N. J., F. L. Nason. 161.

Cambrian of the eastern Salt Range, F.
Noetling, 398.

Campbell, M. R., The Geslogy of the Big |

Stone Gap coal field, 392.

Carboniferous of Shasta county, Califor- |

nia. J. P. Smith, 203.

Catalogue and bibliography of N. A. Mes- |

ozoic Invertebrata, C. B. Boyle, 330.
Canses and Conditions of Glaciation,
W .Upham, 1

Tarr, F. W. Simonds. 58.
Cherts of Missouri, E. O. Hovey, 196.

2; Marsden Manson. 192. |
Cavuga lake a rock basin, Reply to Prof. |

409

®

Chipped flints, Upper Miocene, Burma,
Noetling, 399
Cladodus magnpficus, a new Selachian, E.
W. Claypole, 137.
Clark, W. B., Mesozoic Echinodermata of
the U. S., 329. :
Clarke, J. M., Early stages of Bactrites,
313 Nanno, a new cephalopodan type,

Claypole, E. W., Cladodus magnificus, a
new selachian, 137; A new placoderm
from the Cleveland ehale, 379.

Coast ranges of California, H. W. Turner
and T. W. Stanton, 92.

Coleman, A. P., Rocky mountains be-
tween the Saskatchewan and the Atha-
bascea, 83.

Columbia formation in northwestern Thi-
nois, O. H. Hershey, 203.

Cone-in-Cone, Devonian, Pa., W.8. Gres-
ley, 399.

Contribntion to the knowledge of the pre-
gene drainage of Ohio, W. G. Tight,

188.

Colorado formation and its invertebrate
fauna, T. W. Stanton, 51.

Cragin, F. W., New fossils ef the Neoco-
mian of Kanear, 1.

Cretaceous fossils collected by James
Hector, J. F. Whiteaves, 68.

Crinoids, American, 407.

D

Dale, T. Nelson, The Rensselaer Grit pla-
teau, 54,

Dall, W. H., Notes on the Atlantic Mio-
cene, 202.
Darton, N. H., 198, 201.

Dawson, J. W., Land animals of the Pal-
eozoic, 66.

Day, David T., Mineral resources of the
United States, 254.

Departure of the ice-sheet from the Lau-
rentian Jakes, Warren Upham, 199.

Diamonds in Wisconsin, and their prob-
able source, W. H. Hobbs, 31.

Die fauna des onteren Devon am Ostab-
hange des Ural, ‘th. schernyschew, 119.

Differential faulte, W. H. Hobbs. 35.

Dislocations in the Atlantic Coastal Plain
strata, and their probable causes, Ar-
thur Hollick, 197.

Distribution of earthquakes in the
United States, N. 8. Shaler, 396.

Dodge, R. E.. River Terraces, 397.

Drainage systems of the Carboniferous
area of Michigan, E. H. Mudge. 301.

Dutfield, Gen. W. we 840.

Early stages of Bactrites. J. M. Clarke, 37.

Earthquake at Constantinople, 340.

Eastman, Chas. R., 179%.

EDITORIAL COMMENT. :

Death of Wm. Pengelly. 48; Columbian

exposition, 44; 46; 108; the ‘*Mineral
Industry,’’ 185; The origin of spheroi-
dal basalt, 321; March weather on the
Greenland ice-sheet, 326; National rep-
resentation in the International Con-
gress of geologists. 327; Mountain
systems of Asia and Europe, 328; A

410

new meteorite, 389; Arctic and Ant-
arctic exploration, 389.

Ejected Blocks of Monte Somma, H. J.
Johnston-Lavis, 53.

sige ela de Paleontologie, Felix Bernard,

Elk Horn creek area of the St. Peter
sandstone, O. H, Hershey, 169.

Ells, R. W., Potsdam and Calciferous in
Quebec and Ontario, 67.

Eruptive rocks of Electric peak, J. P. Id-
dings, 117.

Eskers in southern New England, J. B.
Woodworth, 396; in lLilinois and north-
ward, W. Upham, 403.

Extension of Uniformitarianism to defor-
mation, W J McGee, 199.

Eyerman, John, Preliminary notice of
Temnocyon, 320.

Fairbanks, H. W.; Localities of fossils in ‘

California, 25: Geology of the Coast
Ranges, 198.

Fletcher, L., 271.

Fossil plants as an aid to geology, F. H.
Knowlton, 335.

FossILs.
Brontichthys clarki, 379.
Cladodus magnificus, 137.
Liriodendron from Colorado, 203.
Lower Silurian Lamellibranchiata of

Minnesota, 249.

Lower Silurian Ostracoda of Minnesota,

Neocomian of Kansas, 1.
Oldhamia in N. Y., 406.

Frazer, P., Manual of the study of docu-
ments, 118; International Congress of
Geologists, 259, 327.

Frossard, J. D., Nickel ores of Sudbury,
Canada, 252.

Fultz, F. M., Interruption during the
pepneneon of the Burlington limestone,
246.

G

Geographical development of alluvial
terraces. R. E. Dodge, 397.

Geological map of Earope, 340.

Geological Society of America, 65; 195.

Geological Survey of India, 272.

Geological and topographical features
phony Atlanta, Ga., C. W. Purington,
05.

Geology of the Big Stone Gap coal field,
M. R. Campbell, 892.

Glacial Kettle holes in Canada, Robt.
Bell, 68,

Glaciation, causes and conditions, W.
Upham, 12; M. Manson, 192.

Glaciation of the Yellowstone valley
north of the Park, W. H. Weed, 393.

Gorby, §8.8., Eighteenth Indiana report,
125

Gordon, C. H.. 201.

Grabau, A. W., Preglacial channel of
Genesee river, 397.

Granites of Cecil county. Md., G. P.
Grimsley, 398.

Great lakes, J. W. Spencer, 289; early ob-
servation on their history, E. J. Hill,
405.

Gregory, J. W., 407.

Gresley, W.8., Slate binders of the Pitts-
burg coal bed, 356; Cone-in-cone, De-
vonian, Pa., 899

Griesbach, Maj. ©. L., 340.

Grimsley, G. P., Granites of Cecil county,
Md., 398.

Growth of Knowledge concerning the
Texas Cretaceous, Jules Marcou, 98.

Index.

H

Hall, C. W., 201, 204.

Harris, G. D., The Tertiary geology of
southern Arkansas, 394,

Haworth, E., 201, 204.

Hershey, O. H., Elkhorn creek area of
the St. Peter sandstone, 169; The Co-
lumbia formation in N. W. Illinois, 203.

Hill, E. J., Great lakes, 405.

Hinton, R. J., Report on irrigation, 48.

Historical sketch of discovery of mineral
deposits in the lake Superior region, H.
V. Winchell, 330. :

History of instruction in geology in Ger-
man universities, Von Zittel, 179. ~

History of the Missouri Paleozoic, G. C.
Broadhead, 380.

Hobbs, W. H., On diamonds in Wisconsin
and their probable source, 31; Difteren-
tial faults, 35.

Hollick, Arthur, Dislocations in the
Coastal Plain strata. 197; New Lirio-
dendron from Colo., 202.

Hopkins, T. C., Springs: Influence of
Stratigraphy on, 865,

Hotchkiss, Jed, 204.

Hovey, EB. O., Cherts of Missouri, 196.

Hubbard, G. G., 202.

Hunt, J. H., 204.

Iddings, J. P., Eruptive rocks of Electric
Peak, 117.

Illustrations of the fauna of the St. John
group, G. F. Matthew, 187.

Indiana. Kighteenth geological report, 8.
S. Gorby, 125.

International (Congress of Geologists, P-
Frazer, 259; 327, 328.

Insect fauna of the Rhode Island coal
field, 8. H. Scudder, 330.

Interruption during the deposition of the
Burlington limestone, F. M. Fultz, 246-

{ron-bearing rocks of the Mesabi range
in Minnesota, J. E. Spurr, 251.

Irrigation, report on. R. J. Hinton, 48.

James, Chas, A.. Mining royalties, 252.

Jenner, ©. H., 204.

Jobnston-Lavis, H. J., Blocks of Monte
Somma, 53. :

Kelvin, Lord, Popular lectures and ad-
dresses, 118.

Kemp, J. F., Orbicular granite from
Rhode Island, 53; Nickel mine at Lan-
caster gap, 195; Zine mines at Franklin
and Ogdensburg, 202.

Kenya, Mt., glaciation, 407.

Keyes, ©. R., Work and scope of the Geo-
logieal Survey [Lowa], 52; Paleontology
of Missouri, 331. :

Kindle, EB. M.(with V. F. Marsters), Bib-
Heeraphy of tlhe geology of Indiana,
395.

Knowlton. F. H., Fossil plants as an aid
to geology, 335.

Lafayette formation. W J McGee, 115.

Lake Cayuga a rock basin, R. 8. Tarr,194-

Lane, A. C.. Connection between the
chemical and optical properties of am-
phiboles, 195.

Laramie and overiying Livingston form-
ation, W. H. Weed, 391.

Lawaon, A. ©., Post-Pliocene diastro-
phism of the coast of southern Califor-
nia, 335.

Levison. W. G.. 204.

Lewis, H.C., Papers and Notes on the

Index.

Glacial geology of Great Britain and
Ireland, 253.
Limit of postglacial submergence east of
Georgian bay, F. B. Taylor, 273.
Lincoln, D. F., 201. ‘
Localities of Mesozoic _and Paleozoic
fossils in California, H. W. Fairbanks,

25.
Locke, John, Sketch of, N. H. Winchell,

Lower Silurian Lamellibranchiata of
Minnesota, E. O. Ulrich, 249.

Lower Silurian Ostracoda of Minnesota,
E. O. Ulrich, 333.

M

Madison type of Drumlins, Warren Up-
ham,69. ~

Manson, Marsden, Causes and conditions
of glaciation, 192.

Manual of the study of documents, P.
Frazer, 118. .

March weather on the Greenland ice-
sheet, 326.

Marcou, Jules, Growth of knowledge con-
cerning the Texas Cretaveous, 98; Note
on the geological map of the state of

_ New York, 257. ;

Marsters, V. F., (and E. M. Kindle) Bib-
goetanliy of the geology of Indiana,

Martin, D.S§., 204.

Matthew. G. F., Organic remains of the
Little River group, 67; Fauna of the St.
Jobn group, 187.

McGee, W J, The Lafayette formation,
115; Extension of uniformitarianism to
deformation, 199.

poe echinodermata, W. B. Clark,

Meteorite, A new, 389.
Minera] industry, 185. c
Mineral resources of the United States,
David T. Day, 254.
MINERALS.
Alunogen and bauxite, 196.
Agyrodite and new sulphostannate, 53.
Diamonds in Wisconsin, 31.
Properties of Amphiboles, 195,
Willyamite. from Broken Hill, 253.
Mineralogical characters of certain New
Jersey limestones. L. G. Westgate, 208.
Mining royalties, their practical opera-
tion and effect, C. A. James, 252,
Missouri Paleozoic, G. C. Broadhead, 380.
Mountain systems in Asia and Europe,

Mudge, E. H., Drainage systems of the
Carboniferous area in Michigan, 301.

N

Nanno, a new cephalopodan type, J. M.
Clarke, 205; 402.

Nason, F. L., Cambrian age of limestones
of Sussex Co., N j

National Academy of Sciences, 408.

National representation in the Interna-
tional Congress of Geologists, 327.

New and little knowninvertebrata from
the Neocomian of Kansas, F. W. Cragin,

ates .

New Liriodendron from the Laramie in
Colorado. A. Hollick, 203.

Newell, F. H., 202, 204.

Niagara gorge. a measure of the postgla-
cial period, Warren Upham, 62.

Nickel mine at Lancaster gap, J. F.
Kemp, 195.

Nickel Ores of Sudbury, Canada, J. D.
Frossard, 252.

Niobrara Chalk, 8. Calvin, 140,

411

| Noetling, F., Cambrian of the Eastern

Salt range, 398; Clipped flints of Bur-
ma, 399,

North American continent during Cam-
brian time, C. D. Walcott, 116,

Note on Nanno, F. W. Sardeson, 402,

Note on the geological map of the state of
New York. Jules Marcon, 257.

Notes on the Atlantic Miocene, W. H.
Dall, 202.

Notes on the Pleistocene west of Hudson
bay, J. B. Tyrrell, 338.

Oo

Oldhamia, in N. Y., 406.

On certain astronomical conditions fayor-
able to glaciation, Geo. F. Becker, 191.

On the occurrence of alarge area of neph-
eline syenite in the township of Dun-
gannon, Ontario, F. D. Adams, 189,

Orbicular growth from Rhode Island, J.
F. Kemp, 53.

Organic remains of the Little River group,
G. F. Matthew, 67.

Origin and nature of soils, N. 8. Shaler,

Origin of certain novaculites and quart-
zites. Frank Rutley, 253.

Origin of spheroidal basalt, 321.

Pp

Paleontology of Miesouri, Part I, C. R.
Keyes, 331.

Paleozoic section at Three Forks, Mont.,
A.C. Peale, 394.

Papers and notes on the glacial geology
of Great Britain and Ireland, H. C.
Lewis, 243.

Peale, A. C., Paleozoic section in the vi-
cinity of Three Forks, Mont., 394.

Pentield, 8. L., Argyrodite and a new sul-
phostannate, 53.

Pittman, E. F., Willyamite, a new min-
eral, 253.

Placoderm. a new, from the Cleveland
shale, E. W. Claypole. 379.

Platycnemic man in New York, W. A.
Sherzer, 197.

Popular lectures and addresses, Lord
Kelvin. 118.

Post-pliocene diastrophism of the coast
He southern California, A. C. Lawson,
336.

Potsdam and Calciferous in Quebec and
Ontario, R. W. Ells, 67.

Powell, J. W., Water resources of the
United States, 202.

Preliminary notice of Temnocyon, John
®yerma pn, 320.

Present condition of the earth’s interior,
W. H. Seamon, 20,

Principes et methodes de correlation au

moyen des plantes fossiles, L. F. Ward,

334.

Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science, 395.

Progress in the geological snrvey of the
great lakes, J. W. Spencer, 204: 289.

Progress of investigation in 8S. W. Nova
Scotia, L. W. Bailey, 67.

Prosser, C. S., 201: 340.

Purington. C. W-.. Geological features
about Atlanta, 105.

Q

Quaternary time divisible into three pe-

riods, Warren Upham, 203.

Quebec group about Quebec, H. M. Ami,
66.

R
Recent publications, 55; 126; 254; 400.

412 .

Reconnoissance in central Washington, I.
C. Russell, 51.
Rensselaer grit plateau, T. Nelson Dale,

Relation between baseleveling and or-
ganic evolution, J. B. Woodworth, 209.

Restoration of the Antillean continent,J.
W. Spencer, 200.

Review of the geology of the Coast
Ranges, H. W. Fairbanks, 198

Review of the history of the great lakes,
J. W. Spencer, 289,

Rock basin of Cayuga lake, J. W. Spen-
cer, 134.

Rocky mountains, between the Saskatch-
ewan and the Athabasca, A. P. Cole-
man, 83,

Rolfe, Chas. W., 201.

Royal Society of Canada. 66.

Russell, I. C., Geological reconnoissance
in central Washington, 51; Second ex-
pedition to Mt. St. Elias, in 1891, 190;
Alaska: its physical geography, 331.

Rutley, Frank, Origin of certain novacu-
lites and quartzites, 253.

Ss

Sardeson, F. W., 201; Note on Nanno, 402.

Scudder, 8. H., Insect fauna of the Rhode
Island coal field, 330.

Seamon, W. H., Present condition of the
earth’s interior, 20.

Second expedition to Mt. St. Elias, in
1891, I. C. Russell, 190.

Segregation illustrated in the New Jer-
sey highlands, R. S. Tarr, 196.

Shaler, N.8., Distribution of earthquakes
in the United States, 396; Origin and
nature of soils, 114; 201.

Sherzer, W. H., Platyenemic man in New
York, 197.

Simonds, F. W., Reply to Prof. Tarr on
Cayuga lake a rock basin, 58.

lati Dr.John Locke, N. H. Winch-
ell, 341.

Slate-binders of the Pittsburg coal-bed.
W.S. Gresley, 356.

Smith, J. P.. Trias and Jurain Shasta
county, Cal., 200; The Carboniferous,

203.

Smyth, C. H., Jr., On a basic rock derived
from granite, 195.

Spencer, J. W., Rock basin of Cayuga
lake, 134; Age of Niagara falls, 185, 204;
Restoration of the Antillean continent,
200; Progress in the geological survey of
the Great lakes, 204; Review of the his-
tory of the Great lakes, 289.

Springs, influence of stratigraphy on
their emergence, T. C. Hopkins, 365.

Spurr, J. E., [ron-bearing rocks of the
Mesabi range in Minnesota, 251.

Stanton, T. W., Colorado formation and
its invertebrata, 51; Coast ranges, 92.

Summary of progress in mineralogy and
petrography, W.S. Bayley, 52.

Synopsis of Paleozoic land animals, J.
W. Dawson, 66.

Tarr, R.S., Lake Cayuga a rock basin,
194; Segregation illustrated in the New
Jersey highlands, 196; 201.

Taylor, F. B., Limit of postglacial sub-
mergence east of Georgian bay. 273. |
Tertiary and Quaternary baseleveling in
Minnesota, Manitoba, and northwest-

ward, Warren Upham, 199, 235.

Tertiary geology of southern Arkansas,
G. D. Harris, 395.

Tight, W. G., Contribution to the knowl-

Index.

ange of,the preglacial drainage of Ohio,

Topley, Wm.., 406.

Topographical Survey of Minnesota, 66.

Trias and Jura of Shasta county, Cal., J.
P. Smith, 200.

Trilobites in the Oil-rock horizon in Wis-
consin, W. P. Blake, 133.

Turner, H. W. (and 1’. W. Stanton), Notes
on the geology of the Coast ranges of
California, 92.

Tyrrell, J. B.. Pleistocene of the territo-
ries west of Hudson bay, 338.

Typical eskers of southern New England,
J. B. Woodworth, 396.

U

Ulrich, E. O., Lower Silurian Lamelli-
branchiata of Minnesota, 249; Lower Si-
lurian Ostracoda of Minnesota, 333.

United States: Physical geography and
resources of, J. D. Whitney, 395.

U.8. Geological Survey, Twelfth annual
report, 113; 406.

Upham, Warren, Causes and conditions
of glaciation, 12; Niagara gorge a meas-
ure of the Postglacial period, 62; The
Madison type of Drumlins, 69; Depart-
ure of the ice-sheet from the Lauren-
tian lakes, 199; Quaternary time divisi-
ble into three periods, 208; Tertiary and
Quaternary baseleveling in Minnesota,
Manitoba, and northwestward, 235;
Eskers in [linois and northward, 403.

Vv
Ventral armor of Dinichthys, A. A.
Wright, 313.

Walcott, C. D., North American conti-
nent during Cambrian time, 116,

Ward, Lester F., Correlation by means of
fossil plants, 334.

Water resources of the United States, J.
W. Powell, 202.

Weed, W. H., The Laramie and overlying
formations in Montana, 391; Glaciation
of the Yellowstone valley north of the
Park, 393.

Westgate, L. G., Mineralogical charac-
ters of certain New Jersey limestones,
308; Age of the crystalline limestones of
Warren county, New Jersey, 369.

Whiteaves, J. F., Cretaceous fossils col-
lected by James Hector, 68; Fossils from
the Nanaimo formation, 68. f

Whitney, J. D., The United States: physi-
cal geography and resources, 395.

Williams, Geo. H., 136.

Williams. 8. H.. 204.

Willyamite, a new mineral from Broken
Hill, E. F. Pittman, 253. 5
Winchell, H. V., Historicalsketch of min-
aba in the lake Superior region,

330.

Winchell N. H., Age of the Galena lime-
atone, 203; Sketch of John Locke, 341.

Winslow, Arthur, 201; 202.

Woodworth, J. B., Relation between base-
leveling and organic evolution, 209;
Typical eskers of southern New Eng-
land, 396. ua

Wright. A. A., Ventral armor of Dinich-
thys, 313. z

Zinc mines at Franklin Furnace and
Ogdensburg, N. J.,J. F. Kemp, 202. |
Zittel (von), History of instruction in
geology and paleontology in German

universities, 179.

i ie * ii mm

rn

ibeadel
Meh i bapates

tat

Ma bdo &

Ni ene

i, Tih
SVAN GIN
Wats Vapi da beats tia
Slate
babehe Hi Pd
Tit

Mar ey
4; Nitaie if Te

oy 8 eed dy) Rd
eh ember a
} a biay af]
Try aty) MAI aad ae i
ATANHN DE
if rit steht Tash
vt ay Fi + Late nai
fi West Lt
Wi hudoby by bate
bk iytetset ATH it
idobiealateea teeth dh pad a nae
Meaty ee si 5
Abt ieRiaee or abae

Hier hitlt
y

'y
in
Ni iii

meer y 14

at

hen

Seas
AS if
a
4} i

i
ty vat Negi He] ‘

Why Att Salat

a ht fob} fk yy
" spy a ath
4! f
shit rae ee eyaiah

ih

es
sins
Vtaaiatargs
aust a
Reh as es
aed ah

f + be) ln iy} 1
a ae

sai ansehen
i ae cae 7 Sit

pee

vers y ” eight *
sear elaoy V me H

he SDE ‘ eget

Heiter
Hua int "
uy Wee Me ahah
radar went) fateh *
DOG eGel ed aeete’ |

Niopnat: hs LHe Beenie

abihar shah)

utile
t, Hd bite yy Nits
Verma A
lghoh tet
vine?

ua)
bi hel

ait
of Ri ay
Ma Hae Livia ;

Wiy huey bala #33

i
ir Hist

ROL A st yi Hh
( Bribe Hh Vaan hey!

a Pains te?

AR HTy
yer y visi yah atv
tae Serie srvens

yi ae
any Es atthe
nets hs SEY eau
s 4a
Wairuravpcete
iis Ea Me aes
ah Fa kaletusy hr ay
See " cre war

iy

i} bined Dans

fy
RAH ty
bah tat

ais tah! Mi
igi 4 Pg
oe diatate hh
Sal INTUTE NPE
? phat) ret an Ua GF ary
aia bi rl
tek OW

sy Stree RY vereay Oty i}
ii Oy cans re i vrs
rele Pee

ay

fyeyty
he ne

eh
eae net

i

ma ¥

ape

Dh hada ey
i: LEA Metal
Ne vtaatrg?
ight

te an
. a .

uni hs

a
Ty} rt
»

a (0

Ababa le dulled)

bs &
STE RSTRNT AN
w Hei) He

Hyde
Healy subst a

Beane

SITY OF ILLINOIS- URBANA

i

We ibaten ety

ANDHRA OME

SS AUN
ve sae piteliad

rar a

3 01 12 08526775

j
Diy yumenhe ud eit
UP i a:

sii if i 1 rset

pubs

Dalnt

a june
wiped et hska ted
ba 43h 4

Naaighaen

Pye

tinh WU eaen i hyi Rhee
AS vevessinagt es lay hh = UN aa eg

me REU PS Th
YPPATALWINOMTY

Withvet
Arey

ears
UAL e sy yh. eed
‘ ALE y Hin itinenn tel
te Arata Vere Phad prereset
SiMPAP UE | Pasa: takepu li if
NSP PLL E lee weed
POOP Py
HARV IRF ‘
bbe hi SPOT ian stern tA UE
WVU TAME TT n boa Pc degre HSQL Fe
aes sab i) WMP Alu IN PLP enMeA Phas) f
HTS Hi uw) atutey He AAEM ltd TACT TA
Visi PEMA Nsa} dey Wetcuna
< rately ‘ .
that
oF PC arg bem rulers
ih i Telaialivladerecs
palate his Shes Uwe
it We y eg ey Lah Wa
* a) ny ty Ae
VAT yates Bhs inv)

a iis ith

Mane
"| “ n iD 4 PVT Trp te
et tan re a?

Whnras? wien
Mhure Pavabeisnen
a at ualeet ot yur
SOULS Tan) ann
INV mE A ayn Whi
'

Hi vohh eeapatal

'
sift Sevres
Nees ary) Pires 4 TiN TAN, GH Pll Fate
» nase aA ns Cant its UCN
% ou ‘Wabeuatsits cus a}
we waite! Hy 4 We ene MEOON EATS
it
Fcplnraiys
MPur tata!
Naa
Corarer les,

mie
deste we
MNPAU we)

yeh ta) ra
ae 4 bybitall ve) TUraiter
Lint if

i
vie nih |

ree i

ot i

Hpycenpeletiy

Mm eE VPs it
iF ait "
Hi ait Matas

ae? Talvyte tas 41770,

Ne Min

i aaa
(ti eis Wns i
aise
ve i
UT

SSC he
site viet

NOSE Rurete.
iaty Aples