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PRE

AWE REGAN CE OLOGIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
AND

ALLIED SCIENCES.

Editor: N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

FLORENCE Bascom, Bryn Mawr, Pa.

SAMUEL CALVIN, Iowa City, Iowa.

JOHN M. CLARKE, Albany, N. Y.
HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD, Rochester,N. Y. OLIVER PERRY HAy, New York,N. Y.
PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphia, Pa. GEORGE P. MERRILL, Washington,D.C.
ULYSSES S. GRANT, Evanston, II. CHARLES S. PROSSER, Columbus, O.

WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn.

ISRAEL C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va.

HORACE V. WINCHELL, Butte, Mont.

VOLUME XXXIV

Juty To DEceMBER, 1904

MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.
THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO.

1904

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS OF MINNESOTA.

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BINDING

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CONTENTS.

JULY NUMBER.

CHARLES Emerson BeecuHer. [Portrait.] J. M. Clarke.......... I
THE SEDIMENTS OF THE MecuMA Series oF Nova Scotia. J. Ed-
BNMRANIE Far ACA PPEEEIG To '9 6 She loc slot sie Pisce = RAS ok ate Fike e whe bee 13
ErosIoN ON THE GREAT PLAINS AND ON THE CoRDILLERAN Moun-
Ran Ete Pe PvE UPN: 6 als Soon cane cons elie Padeiee sa 35
On THE PaRAMORPHIC ALTERATION OF PyROXENE TO COMPACT
Panne eM Gok, GOrdoma. seu inns Meeting deoa se Beene 40
CoNnTRIBUTIONS TO MINERALOGY.. John Eyerman................ 43
In THE MATTER OF THE PERMIAN FisH MeEnaspis. [Plate II.]
RINE PICUING. 6 .lichad es 48 aketite Rare ef Soin Oso SS Ae Ce 40

Review oF Recent GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
Contributions to the Geology of Washington. G. O. Smith
and Bailey Willis, 54; Christian Faith in an Age of Science,
William North Rice, 55; The Cambric Dictyonema Fauna of

the Slate Belt of eastern New York, R. Ruedemann........ 55
MontHity AutTHorsS’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LiT-

HL TIVENS Moe GIGS too § UR Cle SEIU C rue ae Ege mois zoe ie 56
CoRRESPONDENCE.

Eruption of Mauna Loa in 1903, Edear Wood, 62; The

Dolomytes of eastern Iowa, Nicholas Knight, 64; Surface de-

posits of western Missouri and Kansas, G. C. Broadhead.. 66
ESGN A SBN: SGTENTIFIC: NEWS). <7/-.% visrk «<i aia ca'eje ce eat nln’ oie an 67

AUGUST NUMBER.

Tectonic GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA, ig III and IV. i
William Herbert Hobbs. .......... Ass SPC po See eee 69
AGE OF THE Missouri RIVER, Warren Gehan SDS 28 ai ei, paebarae 80

VARIATION IN THICKNESS OF THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE Orpo-

VICIAN OF INDIANA. Aug. F. Foerste [Plate V] 87
EartHguakes IN Socorro, New Mexico, Rufus M. Bagg, Jr. 102
Tue SACCHAROIDAL SANDSTONE, G. C. Broadhead. ee 105

A REJOINDER TO Dr. DALL’s CRITICISM ON DR. ia HYPOTHE-
SIS CONCERNING THE LATE UNION OF FLorIDA WITH CUBA,
Tae A PEMCERS, Me cet ae ttrrtatiadis 2 sien ge Mente aeie «0 « II0
Review oF Recent GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE,
Geological Survey of New Jersey, Annual Report of the
State Geologist for the Year of 1903. Henry B. Kimmel,
119; The United States Geological Survey, its origin, devel-

&3834

IV Contents.

opment, organization and operations, H. C. Rizer, 119; Cata-
logue of the Ward-Coonley collection of meteorites, Henry
A. Ward, 120; The traces of the mountain building process in
the Coasts of the Don River in southeastern Russia, Alex-
ander W. Pavlow, 121; Notes on a section across the Sierra
Madre occidental of Chihuahua and Sinaloa, Mexico, W. H.
Weed, 121; Harriman Alaska expedition, vol. iv, Geology and
Paleontology, B. K. Emerson, Charles Palache, William H.

Dall, E. O. Ulnch, FP) Ho Knowliones.. 2.0. 5. 122
Montuity AutTHors’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL Lit-

ERATURE? | UG FESS ee Ee os ee eee 125
PERSONAL AND Screnrinie: NEWS 4%,¢4.2 0.2. . 15.25 eee 131

SEPTEMBER NUMBER.

THe ORBICULAR.GABBRO OF DEHESA, CALIFORNIA, H. H. Kessler

and W.. R. Hamilton. [Pilates ViIaxaos. <0). 2 4... 2 eee 133
Tectonic GEOGRAPHY OF Eastern Asta. II. W. H. Hobbs 141
Outer GrLactaAL Drirt IN THE DaAxotras, Montana, IDAHO AND

WASHINGTON: 1 Wiarren Upham. )..2> . cee 2s ene eee I51
Botson PLAINS AND THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXISTENCE. C. R.

CA AE FEI oa ERED Mere ema Een ease oh) 160
Tue ALKatr Deposits or Wyomine. T. T. Read. .........+.: 164
Notes ON THE PLEISTOCENE FAUNA OF .SANKATY Heap, NAN-

TUCKED, Jiaiss! = Je tAe (GuwshMman ye acces soe tae 169
Lake OTERO, AN ANCIENT SALT LAKE BASIN IN SOUTHEASTERN

New (Mirxrco.++ C..-Wis lermeks=. | Plate= xii. 2... «een
EpirortAL COMMENT.

The coléssal "Bruges. of+ Utalier yi). ss. Se. a 189

Review oF RECENT GEoLocicAL LITERATURE.
Faune Cambrienne du Haut-Alemtejo, J. F. N. Delgado, 192:
North America, J. C. Russell, 193; Index to the mineral re-
sources of Alabama, E. A. Smith and Henry McCalley, 105:
The Glaciers of Alaska, Geo. Davidson, [Plate XII], 195:

Dodge’s Elementary Geography, R. E. Dodge ......,...... 107
Montruty AutTHors’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEoLocGicaL Lit-
PEA TLORE (i cis Sn aadl'vies cGy een ne alt ane Te Gace Bedohe let eaes sia etapa) Oto soho
~ CORRESPONDENCE.
The Type of Aviculipecten, ]/” Raeitan Hind 45 Sues ee 200
PERSONAL: A NDs SGIBNDIRUGS IND WSu ie tice 6 ekee coins <a cee el oie ae 201

OCTOBER NUMBER.

GLACIAL AND Moprrtep Drirt IN AND NEAR SEATTLE, TACOMA AND

Otympia. Warren Upham. [Plate XIII] ...:............ 203
Tectonic GrocrRAPHY or Eastern Asia. III. Japan. W. H.

Flobbs: AVPlate Seal een te Liv lalens sees ee ee
Tue UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR Tivory: N. Mistockles.. 226

Tue “BARABOO [RON OrE; Ne A Wanchellvie....22)-c See 242

Contents,

Tue Cretaceous Exposure NEAR CLIFFWoop; N. J.,. Edward W.
Dextre AeA PUL G. . occiuss veysradind » dele bs ollavmbiwls le
Review oF Recent GEoLocicAL LITERATURE.
The occurrence and exploitation. of petroleum and natural
gas in Ohio, J. A. Bownocker, 261; United States Geological
Map, Cottonwood Falls (Kans.) folio, No. 109, C..S. Prosser
and J. W. Beede, 262; Radio-Activity, E. Rutherford........
MontHiy AutTHors’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL Luit-

NOVEMBER NUMBER.

THe EcHINODERMATA OF THE MissourrI SILURIAN, AND A New
BrAcwiopop. R.-k. Rowley. [Plate XVI] ....2.2...0..0...
TrEcTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN AsrA, IV. W. H. Hobbs.....
SUBMARINE GREAT CANYON OF THE Hupson River, J. W. Spencer
Miocene BaArNACLES FROM GAy Heap, MAss., WITH NOTES ON
Batanus Proteus Conrad. Joseph A. Cushman. [Illustrated]
Tue THeEory oF Copper Deposition. Alfred C. Lane. [Illustrated]
Tue UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR THEORY, II. N. Mistockles
EprrorrAL CoMMENT.
Mier SiOnemReciscOmBrazilescnbyct ones ao olen sobs bid) oak
Review oF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
The Geology of the Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles, J. M.
Clarke and D. D. Luther, 324; Geology and Water Resources
of part of the Lower James river valley, J. E. Todd and C. M.
Hall, 325; Glacial Waters from Oneida to Little Falls. H. L.
LETTE OCG RS MSF ra ete heat el Ae one a ee a A
MontHLy AvuTHoRS’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LitT-
PoRUATEO Felcher asd Sree obs ine ke SRR eile ai aaah geen A OR
CoRRESPONDENCE.
Paleontologia Universalis. Charles Schuchert, 332; The Type
pe reuemupeten, Gets, FH. GA n.d de waink oh ob aps idee cg.
IBERSGNPAT SAND OGIENTIETC UNEWS oc 5.4 oc s.cisitd weiss cea aclgs alse

DECEMBER NUMBER.

THE WAVERLY FoRMATIONS OF CENTRAL Onto, Charles S. Prosser
and Edgar R. Cumings |Plates XVII-XIX] ...............
THE UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR THEORY, III, N. Mistockles
Trecronic GEOGRAPHY oF EASTERN AsiA, V.. WW H. Hobbs....
A THerory oF ORIGIN FOR THE MICHIGAN Gypsum Deposits.. G.
Pe MRE SD lca Sahat tn eh 8 vies «tog & He waa es .on a cao
Review OF REcENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
A Treatise on Metamorphism, C. R. Van Hise, 388; Volca-
noes and Seismic Centers of the Philippine islands, M. S.
Maso, 391; Mount Stuart Folio, Washington, G. O. Smith,

253

264

264
267

269
283
202

203
207

310

319

336
361

371

378

Iv Contents.

392; Review of the Glacial Geology df the southern peninsula
of Michigan, Frank Leverett, 393; Manual of Chemical
Analysis of Rocks, H. S. Washington, 393.

Montuty AutHors’ CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LiT-

ERATURE | 'i0<sct Rea aieke renee aaa Pare ate rah: 0) v8) ol alg) avin Mg oth hm aleiae kal toca ‘

PERSONAL AND. SCIENTIFIC NEWS? . 52ul2 dhe 4. fe stk sein See
FURR ATA. ac nate tic Ie eee Gc sents i ieth, 2 Ae e isthe
INDEX Ske ee ce aie one eie doh eee ce 0 eee eee

304
3908
402
403

’
-
..
iis

THD AMERICAN GROLOGIST,
Vou. XXXIV. PLATE I.

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vout. XXXIX. JULY, 1904. No. I.

CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER.
Oct. 9, 1856—Feb. 14, 1904.

PORTRAIT—PLATE I.

The sense of bereavement which follows upon a ioss sb
disastrous to paleontology as the departure of professor Beech-
er renders it difficult to express lucidly and in adequatc meas-
ure to those who may have known him more by repute than by
personal intercourse, his real value to his science or tc_record
an appreciative tribute to his genius. Human experience is
so full of instances of hbr-tiiant abilities prematurely quenched,
of fruitful lives blotted out, of promising careers terminated
before the goal is reached, that the aphorisms of the world
take note of them. Death loves a shining mark, indece.

Professor Beecher’s end was wholly without premonition
even to the penetrating eyes that watched him most closely,
and its suddenness carries an element of the tragic. The
Sunday morning of his death he arose as well as ever but
later he complained of pains in his arms, then in his chest.
The usual household remedies failing, a physician was sum-
moned and while they talked togetlier he complained of’ diz-
ziness and with a few breaths was gone. The harJlening of
the cononary-arteries or angina pectoris, which m‘ght least
have been expected in a constitution of relative youth, is re-
garded as the cause of death.

One often sees in midsummer an oak on ‘which a single
leaf flares out in red and yellow while all the rest are green,
and here too age has stolen on with unequal pace.

Professor Beecher was in the 48th year of a singularly
productive life. If his own death was an illustration of the

2 The American Geologist. Jus ee

significance of those phenomena of growth and destine on
which so much of his own best work was based, so his mental
equipment strikingly exemplifies the vitality of variation. It
might be difficult to locate the ancestral kernels or his pe-
culiar mentality, the instinctive love of nature and extraor-
dinary orderliness of thought that were so pervasive of his
methods and evident in his achievements.

He was born at Dunkirk, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1856, and in his
youth his family moved to Warren, Pa., where his father
subsequently acquired large business interests. His fond-
ness for natural science developed early and instinctively, ex-
pressing itself in the zealous acquisitiveness of the collector.
Before he entered college he had brought together an exten-
sive series of land and fresh water mollusks, both from the
home localities and through exchanges from regions more
remote. He had mastered that group of obscurities, the spe-
cies of the Unionidae. For long his interest in these mol-
lusca held full sway, and he did not make formal surrender of
his interest therein until in later years he found problems
of broader import growing on him. Contemporaneously grew
his interest in the geology of his home ground, but this was at
no time so much a concern for its geological strucfure as
for the acquisition of its fossils. These he collected with
the greatest avidity and his zeal soon carried him afieid into
the well known localities of New York. After he entered
Michigan University his summers were regularly spent in
this pursuit. The volumes of the Paleontology of New York,
with their profusion of illustration, were his guide and in-
spiration.

.On a hot summer day in 1877, pale with weariness,
he staggered with pack on back into the laboratory of pro-
fessor James Hall at Albany. He had sought what to him
had seemed the fountainhead of knowledge of his fossils.
It had been the goal of many a youthful dream to show to
the author of the Paleontology of New York the treasures.
he had found. The great and keen-eyed Hall ever had an
appreciative reception for such endeavor. With the most
friendly concern he refreshed and nursed this acolyte and
when strength had returned expressed a lively interest in his.
efforts and his ambitions. On going away Beecher had prom-

Charles Emerson Beecher.—Clarke. 3

ised to come back to Albany when his coilege course was
done and join Hall’s corps of workers on paleontology. So in
the summer of 1878, the year of his graduation, he lecame
assistant to professor Hall, entered upon his work and was
received with genuine enthusiasm.

Those early years at Albany were of unalloyed happiness
for the young paleontologist. His mind was not filled with
‘dreams of fame, but he had at last reached the wellspring and
could slake his thirst at will. Hall had then been for more
than forty consecutive years engaged in elaborating the geol-
ogy of New York; he regarded himself, as the unreserved
devotee should, the personification of his work. He was the
Paleontology of New York. He invited young blood to
aid him in his work and paid in the invaluable trats:ung this
work offered to his assistant, but he shared no honors. At
the time of Beecher’s advent in Albany professor Hall was
busied with two of his tremendous monographs of the fossils
embraced in four quarto volumes, and into the study of the
vast group of species represented in one of these, the £amelli-
branchiata, Mr. Beecher was gradually inducted. As a sys-
tematic work this undertaking was of giant proportions, noth-
ing like it had been attempted in American paleontology, but,
the two heavy volumes issued, it is not difficult indeed to
find where the hand of the master was guided by that of the
student. The plan of this, as of previous volumes, and the
spirit in its execution even to details, was that of its author,
but it is well to record here, as has not been done before,
wherein the student forecasted, in this early work done sub
umbra, his future fruitage. One sees through these plates
instructive illustrations of critical structures, hinges, denti-
tion, muscular scars, which were largely drawn from prepar-
ations made by the student. There is one difficult lithograph
plate copied entirely from Beecher’s own drawings, made be-
cause this youthful Launcelot was not content with the draw-
ings by Hall’s expert and finished artists. This is worth re-
marking because the standard of artistic work in the reproduc-
tion of the New York fossils was and has always been high.
There was one immense group of species in this descriptive
work brought together under the generic name of Leptodesma
—fifty and more of them—to the everlasting confusion of all

4 The American Geologist. July, 1904.

who were called upon to use this book. Critics and review-
ers with scantily veiled disgust held this fifty up to scorn
as a blistering example of the sin of species making. And
yet this was a singularly fertile and suggestive bit of work,
chiefly of Beecher’s conception. The stock of the Leptodes-
mas blossomed out in late Devonic time into a profusion of ex-
pression; it was a rare illustration of racial vitality with vari-
ation and amongst thousands of specimens all possible vari-
ation of form, outline and proportion were present. These
things appear on the pages of the book as so many alleged
species but Beecher had himself arrived at most of them
by arranging progressive series in various lines and then
seeking out their missing links. At the end of one of these
volumes are two cuts printed on the text pages. Nothing is
said of their mode of preparation and the user would be very
likely to pass them by as zinc cuts made from stipp‘e draw-
ings. These were the product of a device conceived by
Beecher for making a drawing on ground glass wiih litho-
graphic crayon, as a subject for photoengraving. But though
he devised and perfected the process independently it was
not employed as the inventor had the melancholy experience
of finding his process already copyrighted.

I have referred to these various matters for here in a pre-
tentious work in which the young paleontologist took his first
part we find such decided evidence of the quality of his
biologic concepts, his preparative skill, his artistic faciitty and
his mechanical ingenuity and dexterity.

Professor Hall had a fearless way of committing his State
to his scientific projects. He would begin several elaborate
and very different monographs at once, having drawing and
lithography done for each until he involved a provision from
the State necessary for the completion of all. A single volume
would be years on the way, and so it happened that in Beech-
er’s early years at Albany a memoir on the Devonian ceph-
alopods, gastropods and pteropods appeared almost simulta-
neously with the other and though this was more nearly
completed at the time of his coming, there were many evi-
dences of nice final touches on the Cephalopoda which came
from him. With the exception of a few supplementary descrip-
tions of cephalopod species published in a later volume of the

Charles Emerson Beecher.—Clarke, 5

y

Paleontology, Beecher’s appearance in those volumes here end-
ed. He had done no little to refine and advance the work, but
his reward was his experience and with this he seemed fully
content.

’ During this period however he was busied with various
other things. He had not wholly lost his keen interest in the
terrestrial mollusca and he kept in close touch with students
and collectors in the east, adding considerably to an already
very extensive collection of these shells which eventually he
gave to the State Museum. He had made himself expert in
microscopic technic and some of his fine mountings of the
radulas of gastropods were the subject of contributions to
conchological papers. He undertook the microphotography
of fossils with success, and he became much interested in
human histology and anatomy.

In these days and always Beecher was a keen colicctor of
fossils. He had not the physical. strength for-the omnivorous
and ponderous effort of that kind but he was the most dis-
criminating acquirer of the unusual, the exceptional and the
fine, that it has been my fortune to know. In those days at
the Albany museum the private collection was permitted, it
was indeed to the assistant an outlet for individual endeavor
and a basis for extra-official labor and research. He held with
the rest of us firmly to the belief that a student of natural sci-
ence without a private collection or at least the impulse to it
was in danger of becoming either a starveling or a machine. As
a student of paleontology, however, new species were inter-
esting him less and less; it was something new about old
species that he sought and these new facts were acquired by
various avenues and new devices.

In looking over the list of his early papers one sees how
gradually he was finding himself. Of the 13 publications
issued before he left Albany for New Haven the majority were
conchological, only four can be regarded as paleontological, yet
this may be somewhat due to the very evident sense of repres-
sion he felt along the line of the latter.

A part of Mr Beecher’s fine natural equipment for sientific
research was his indomitable patience necessary to establish
broad premises. His conclusions were never hasty nor ever
stated on merely one aspect of the evidence. All the more

6 The American Geologist. July, Aa

- far-reaching and striking of his deductions in his later work
when his mind had turned chiefly to problems of biogenesis are
known to his friends to be the result of tireless acquisition of
material, and the focussing of light from every source. In
some quarters, his methods unknown, their results were not
accepted; they were regarded as startling, as iconoclastic and
even unreliable.

It is well that here a word be said in detail as to what his
preparation was before a publication appeared. In our mu-
tual association in Albany we undertook a study of the onto-
geny of certain brachiopods from the Upper Siluric at Wal-
dron. The materials for this study were the fine washings
from some tons of specimens brought to Albany by the mu-
seum’s collectors. Herein lay every stage ot developnient of
these shells. Night after night for a whole winter we sorted
out this material until we estimated that fifty. thousand im-
mature brachiopods had been selected and arranged in onto-
genic series. His studies of the larval and development phases
of the brachiopods and trilobites were chiefly based on etch-
ings from the limestones of the Helderberg and Canandaigua
lake. These too were numbered by thousands. When he
published the anatomy of the trilobite Triarthrus, an English
author wrote me “confidentially” to know if it was to be trust-
ed. A continental paleontologist with a single sandstove cast
of a trilobite’s ventral surface, destructively attacked his work,
intimating that it was a dream, a castle in Spain. He did not
know that Beecher had a thousand specimens back of him to
prove his work and a hundred preparations which for delicacy
and exactitude have had no equal.

In 1889 Mr. Beecher was invited by professor Marsh to
go to New Haven in the capacity of assistant in the Peabody
Museum in charge of the invertebrate fossils. Matters in
Albany were not just at that time in form to present a counter
attraction. Professor Hall was undergoing one of the period-
ical “investigations” with which he was frequently favored.
Sometimes these were precipitated by unsympathetic interests
in the state legislature, but this time by a personal hostility at
the head of the Regents of the University. Whatever their
source, however, there was never but one issue to these in-
quiries and that the full justification of the man and his work.

Charles Emerson Beecher.—Clarke. 7

At the time Mr. Beecher was 'eaving Albany he was appointed
by the interests hostile to Hall to a newly created position on
the Museum staff, “consulting paleontologist,’ but this was so
direct an affront to Hall that with the termination of the in-
quisition, the place was at once discontinued.

Mr. Beecher’s life at New Haven opened under th« hap-
piest auspices in a new and clearer atmosphere freshened by
inspiring associations and.in his future work he won and kept
the confidence and loyal support of his colleagues and patron.
Soon after his coming, and as early as his museum duties al-
lowed, he began his series of biogenetic studies which have
been of wide-spread influence on his science and have estab-
lished the high repute of his work. Among two groups of
organisms he found the subject matter of most of his future
studies, the brachiopods and the trilobites. His investications
on the former, constituting the earlier series, were inspired
by the studies under way at Albany in preparation of the elab-
orate two volumes on these structures. He kept in close touch
with those investigations through his intimate acquaintance
with Mr. Schuchert and the writer, and most profitab!y fol-
lowed out some of the suggestive points therefrom developed.
His important series of papers on the trilobites may be regard-
ed as originating in the impulse given by Matthews’s an-
nouncement of antennz in Triarthrus becki from the Utica
shale at Rome, N. Y. Aided by a lease of the locality of these
interesting fossils taken by professor Marsh he was enabled to
acquire almost unlimited material and his preparations of the
pyritized appendages of these creatures are as fine excmplifi-
cations of his skill in this kind of handiwork as his exposition
and reconstruction of the anatomy of the animal are of the ac-
curacy of his correlative powers. With this series of papers
is to be associated his determination of larval and later mor-
phology in other trilobites, all resulting in his classification
which has altogether revolutionized previously accepted
schemes.

In all his work of research, whether at Albany or New
Haven, he evinced only a rather remote and occasional interest
in problems of geology or stratigraphy, rareiy even in strati-
graphic paleontology. In the maturer phases of his thought
he was concerned so wholly with the problems of phylogeny

8 The American Geologist. go

and biogenesis that the questions of time relations among or-
ganisms, of range, distribution, paleography, were largely ex-
cluded. This is so singular as to be notable, for Beecher was
essentially without academic training in biologic science; he
was, however, trained and experienced in stratigraphic paleon-
tology, or at least in its requirements. Wherein he had no
interest he had little sympathy, though he did not lack in ap-
preciation. He was a forcible illustration of the fact, and to it
he himself would occasionally refer, that for excellence of
achievement in the strictly biologic problems of paleontology a
geological training is a more essential equipment than a bio-
logic one, for with the latter only the student never becomes
thoroughly at home amongst the fossils or ever ceases to be-
moan the loss of the soft parts; never fully apprehending a fos-
sil as a joint product of biologic and geologic agencies The
correctness of this expression is certified to on every hand in
the history of the science he loved best and cultivated most.

It is a very satisfactory reflection that a’ mentality of un-
usual power of origination can be so brought under the in-
fluence of another as to become as much the creature of cir-
cumstances as an intellect of lesser powers. I can not see where-
in Dr. Beecher acquired much from his intercourse with either
of the great systematic paleontologists, Hall or Marsh, that
modified the fruitage of his intellectual powers, but on the
other hand a definite directive impulse was given to him by his
close association with the late professor Alpheus Hyatt. This
profound student of biogenesis and most delightful personality
irradiated and transfused that receptive mind so that one might
say Dr. Beecher had become the apostle of the Hyattian meth-
od and in the expression give honor to both. The applica-
tion of the recapitulation concept and the values of growth
and decline are the foundation of the classifications of the
Brachiopoda and Trilobita which Beecher promulgated. Of
these the former was the less revolutionary of accustomed no-
tions, but the latter rests on a philosophy that can not prefitably
be challenged, and. had his life been prolonged its author would
have perfected its details. The classifications which have re-_
sulted from the application of these principles of biogenesis
and auxology are distinctively impressed with the individual
characteristics of their authors. We may concede three such

Charles Emerson Beecher.—Clarke, 9

schemes to be of this type in which the sum of all anatomical
characters rather than variations in one lie at the base; the two
just referred to and Hyatt’s classification of the cephalopods.
Beecher’s schemes are less obscured with detail and analysis of
phylogenetic status and hence more adaptive to practic.) appli-
cation. Hyatt evinces at every stage the analytical zrasp of
the growth phase and its rapid utilization in classification re-
sulting in a much more complicated and detailed, if less readily
applicable scheme. The latter in creating an army of new
taxonomic values and names has at the same time created the
necessity for as many more for phases of like value still un-
expressed ; the former has built without such close analysis and
his terms suffice. Hyatt’s classification it seems to us will stand
less well the test of time than those of his disciple, but Hyatt’s
powers of analysis and correlation ,in this line of biogeny are
still unparalleled. Out of Beecher’s study of the ontogeny of
fossil brachiopods and trilobites came his noteworthy ireatise
on the Origin and Significance of Spines, in which the fact,
recognized though not emphasized before, that the development
of spines is an indication of the decline in racial vitality which
precedes extinction, is set forth with a wealth of demonstration.

The papers we have mentioned will be regarded as the
‘broadest in scope of professor Beecher’s undertakings, but they
are not of more permanent value than many of ‘his less pre-
tentious publications.

As a teacher of his science Dr. Beecher had won an en-
viable success. His courses were attended with zeal and in-
terest and among his graduate students are some whose work
in his own department of the science has reflected much credit
on him and on themselves. He had also received substantial
recognition of his achievements in the honors which hac come
to him. The position he occupied in Yale as University Pro-
fessor of Paleontology, Professor of Historical Geology in the
Sheffield Scientific School and Curator of the geological col-
lections ini the Peabody Museum was his most signal distine-
tion. He was also a member of the National Academy of Sci-
ences, Foreign Correspondent of the Geological Society of
London, etc. For two years he was President of th2 Con-
necticut Academy of Sciences. The record of his published
works as given in the following list discloses but a part of his

10 The American Geologist. cay a

actual achievements, the greater part being the esteem and
loyal devotion of his associates and students.
JOHN M. CLARKE.

Bibliography of Charles Emerson Beecher.

Member of the National Academy of Sciences; American ssocia-
tion of Conchologists; Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences;
Geological Society of Washington; Malacological Society of London’
Boston Society of Natural History; Fellow of the Geological Societs
of America; Foreign Correspondent of the Geological Society of Lon-
don.

(Prepared by Lucy P. Bush, Peabody Museum.)

1. List of land and fresh-water shells found within a circuit of four
miles about Ann Arbor, Mich. [Walker and Beecher.] Prec. Ann
Arbor Sci, Assoc., pp. 43-46. 1876.

2. Ceratiocaride from the Chemung and Waverly groups of Pennsyl-
vania. 2nd. Geol. Surv. Pa., Rep't PPP, pp. 1-22, pls. i, 1. 1884.

3. Some abnormal and patholcgic forms of fresh-water shells from the
vicinity of Albany, N. Y. 36th Ann. Rep’t N. Y. State Mus. Nat.
Hist., pp. 51-55, pis. i, ii. 1884. 3

4. List of species of fossils from an exposure of the Utica slate and
associated rocks within the limits of the City of Albany. Tbid.,
Pp. 77. 1884.

5. Notes on a Nevada shell (Pyrgula nevadensis). [Call and Beecher.]

American Naturalist, vol. 18, pp. 851-855, pl. xxv. 1884.

6. A new design for a microscope cabinet. Amer. Monthly Mic. Jour.,

> “vol. 5, pp. 126-127, 1884.

7. Carnivorous habits of the muskrat. Science, vol. 5, pp. 144-145. 1885.

8. A Spiral bivalve shell from the Waverly group of Pennsylvania.
30th Ann. Rep’t N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., pp. 161-164, pl. xii.
1886.

g. Description of a new Rissoid Mollusk. [Call and Beecher.] Bull.
Washburn Coll. Lab. Nat. Hist., vol 1, pp. 1¢0-1¢2. 1886.

10. Lingual dentition of Pyrgulopsis nevadensis. Proc. Davenport Acad.
SCts, Vol. 5) ppl Tist2.) pree6s

tr. Lingual dentition of Amnicola Dalli. Jbid., vol. 5, pp. 2-3, 1886.

12. Method of preparing for microscopical stucy the radule of smail
species of Gasteropoda. Jour. N. Y. Mic. Soc., pp. 7-11. 1888.

13. Brachiospongide: A memoir on a group of Silurian’ sponges.
Mem. Peabody Mus., Yale Univ., vol. ‘2, I, 4to, pp. 1-28, 11s.- i-iv.
1880. :

14. The development of some Silurian Brachiopoda (with eight plates).
[Beecher and Clarke.] Mem. N. Y. State Mus., vol. 1, ato, pp.
I-95, pls. i-vili. 1&8o.

Charles Emerson Beecher—Clarke. i

. Note on the fossil spider Arthrolycosa antiqua Harger. Amer. Jour.

Sci. (3), vol. 38, pp. 219-223. 1889.

: On tne lingual dentition and systematic position of Pyrgu!s. Jour.

N.-Y. Mic. Soc., vol. 6, pp. 1-3, pl. xxi. 18¢0.

. On the development of the shell in the genus Tornoceras, Hyatt.

Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), vol. 40, pp. 71-75, pl. i. 1890.

. Koninckina and related genera. Jbic., vol. 40, pp. 211-2109, pl. ii.

1890.

. On Leptzenisca, a new genus of brachiopod from the Lower Hel-

derberg group. Jbid., vol. 40, pp. 238-240, pl. 1x....18¢0.

. North American species of Strophalosia. Jbid., vol 40, pp. 240-245,

pl. ix. 1890.

. The development of a paleozoic poriferous coral. Trans. Conn.

Acad. Sci., me 8. pp. 207-214, pls. ix-xiii, 1891.

. Symmetrical cet! development in the Favositide. Jbid., pp. 215-220,

pls. xiv-xv. 1891.

. Development of the Brachiopoda. I. Introduction. Amer. Jour. Sci.

(3), vol. 41, pp. 343-457, pl. xvii. 1801.

. II. Classification of the stages of growth and decline. Tbid.,

vol. 44, pp. 133-155, pl. i. 1892.

. Development of Bilobites. Jbid., vol. 42, pp. 51-56, pl. 1. 1891.
. On the occurrence of Upper Silurian strata near Penobscot Bay,

Maine. [Dodge and Beecher.] Jbid., vol. 43, pp. 412-418, Map.
182.

. Ueber die Entwickelung der Bactinasdek Neues. Jahrb. Mineral.

Geol., und Paleontol., 1 Bd., 3 Heft, pp. 178-197, taf. vi. 1892.

. Notice of a new Lower Oriskany fauna in Columbia Country, New

York. Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), vol. 44, pp. 410-411. 1802.

. Revision of the families of loop-bearing Brachiopoda. Trans Conn.

Acad. Sci., vol. o, pp. 376-391, pls. i, 11. 18¢3.

. The development of Terebratalia obsoleta,. Dall. Jbid.,. vol. 09,

Pp. 392-399, pls. ii, iii. 1802.

. Some correlations of ontogeny and phylogeny in the Bract.iopoda.

American Naturalist, vol. 27, pp. 599-604, pl. xv. 1803.

. Development of the brachial supports in Dielasma and Zygospira.

[Beecher and Schuchert.] Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. vc!. 8, pp.
“71-78, pl. x. - 1893.

. Larval forms of Trilobites from the Lower Helderberg group.

Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), vol. 46, pp. 142-147. pl. ii. . 1893.

. A larval form of Triarthrus. Jbid., vol. 46, pp. 361-362. 1893.
. On the thoracic legs of Triarthrus. Jbid., vol. 46, pp. 367-370. 1803.
. On the mode of occurrence, and the structure end development of

Triarthrus Becki. American Geologist, vol. 13,-pp. 38-43, pl. ili.
1804.

. The appendages of the pygidium of Triarthrus. Amer. Jour. Sci.

(3), vol. 47, pp. 298-300, pl. vil. 1894.

. Further observations on the ventral structure of Triarthrus. Amer-

ican Geologist, vol. 15, pp. 91-100, pls. iv, v. 1895.

12

39.

"sit

52.

The American Geologist. ma

Structure and appendages of Trinucleus. Amer. Jour. Sct. 4), vol.
49, PP. 307-311, pl. i. 1895.

. The larval stages of Trilobites. American Geologist, vol. 16, pp.

166-197, pls. viii-x. 1895.

. James Dwight Dana. Jbid., vol. 17, pp. 1-16, portrait pl. i. 1896.
. The morphology of Triarthrus. Amer. Jour Sci. (4), vol. 1, pp.

251-256, pl. viii. . 1896. ‘
Reprinted in Geological Magazine (London), dec. iv., vol. 3, pp-
193-197, pl. ix. 1896.

3. On a supposed discovery of the antenne of Trilobites by Linnaeus

in 1759. American Geologist, vol..17, pp. 303-306. 1896.

. On the validity of the family Bohemillide, Barrande. Jbid., vol.

17, pp. 360-362. 1896.

. On the occurrence of Silurian strata in the Big Horn Mountains,

Wyoming, and in the Black Hills, South Dakota. TIbid., vol. 18,
Pp. 31-33. 1896.

146. Outline of a natural classification of the Trilobites. Amer. Jour.

Sci. (4), vol. 3, pp. 86-106, 181-207, pl. iii. 1897.

. The systematic position of the Trilobites. [Kingsley and Beecher.]

American Geologist, vol. 20, pp. 33-40. 1897.

. Development of the Brachiopoda. III. Morphology of the Brachia.

Bulletin 87, U. S. Geol. Surv., chapter iv. pp. 105-112. 1897.

. Origin and significance of spines. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), vol. 6,
*.

Pp. I-20, 125-136, 249-268, 320-359, pl: i. 188.

. Othniel Charles Marsh. Jbid. vol. 7, pp. 403-428. 1899. The same,

abridged, with alterations. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 11, pp. 52I-
537, and American Geologist, vol. 24, pp. 135-157. 1800.
Professor Beecher’s Gift to Yale University. Science, new series,
vol. 10, p. 61. 1800. i

Trilobita. In ‘“Text-book of Paleontology,” by Karl A. von Zit-
tel. Translated and edited by Charles R. Eastman, Vo!. I, pp.
607-638. 1¢co.

. Conrad’s types of Sy.ian fossils. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), vol. 9, pp-

176-178. 1900.

. On a large slab of Uintacrinus from Kansas. /bid., vol. 9, pp. 267,

268, pls. ili. iv. Igoo.

. Restoration of Stylonurus Lacoanus, a giant arthropod from the

Upper Devonian of the United States. /bid., vol. 10. pp. 145-150,
pl. i. 1900.

Othniel Charles Marsh as am orinthologist. The Osprey, vol. 5,
No. 2, pp. 74-76. 1900. With portrait.

Fhe restoration of a dinosaur. Vale Scientific Monthly, vol. 7,
Pp. 291-2093. IgOT.

Studies in Evolution: mainly reprints of occasional papers se-
lected from the publications of the Laboratory of Invertebrate
Paleontology, Peabody Museum, Yale University. pp. xxiii and
638, 34 plates. New York, Igot.

he

59.

Charles Emerson Beecher.—Clarke. 13

Notes on the Cambrian fossils of St. Francois County, Missour'.
Amer, Jour. Sci, (4), vol. 12, pp. 362-363. 1901.

Discovery of Eurypterid remains in the Cambrian of Missouri.
Ibia., pp. 364-366, pl. vii. 1901. ;

Reconstruction of a Cretaceous dinosaur, Claosaurus annectens.
Marsh. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 11, pp. 311-324,
pls. xli-xlv. 1902. :

Alpheus Hyatt. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), vol. 13, p. 164. 1¢02.

The ventral integument of Trilobites. Jbid., pp. 165-174, pls. ii-v,
1902; and Geological Magazine, new series, Dec. 4, vol. 9, pp.
152-162, pls. ix-xi. 1g02.

Note on a new Xiphosuran from the Upper Devonian of Penn-
sylvania. American Geologist, vol. 29, pp. 143-146. I¢o2.

Palaeozoic Phyllocarida from Pennsylvania. Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc., London, vol. 58, pp. 441-449, pls. xvii-xix. 1902.

Climbing Sunset Mountain. In““Grand Canyon of Arizona,” pp.
97-100. 1902.

Observations on the genus Romingeria. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4),
vo]. 16, pp. I-11, pls. i-v. 1c03.

Exhibition of Indian basketry at the Yale University Museum.
Saturday Chronicle, January 17, 1¢03, p. 13.

Extinction of species. In “Encyclopedia Americana.” (In press.)

Note on a new Permian xiphosuran from Kansas. Amer. Jour. Sci.
(4), vol. 18, pp. — 1904. This is to appear in July. The pa-
gination is not yet determined.

THE SEDIMENTS OF THE MEGUMA SERIES OF

series;of Nova Scotia.

NOVA SCOTIA.*

By J. EDMUND WoopMan, Halifax, N.S.

CONTENTS.

Bey Gs CH CRETE WALL EC Crt SEES ON sei hacen yon dyenpabanhousbh weet rdobunterante 14
PPTL EROS cay ce cae 5 Ma teckk May trncdubapnnechbse ye andavestite cacemeetcubicesswe 14
RS EPATSEL GLO So cocncu carts aatucnckn canta, dacaties of Cech daveah and anaiattik canes 14
Contact with the Halifax formation.............202. ccsscee eee 15
RABE ICU IC TIO WE TN e force cee vavas lenateverrebecbe detent epcvetaccsedalebseacvecsec 15
aT OHM 50 nC A tea shies wacack dultanccccanevatensacteteces st ataus<d bodes Ntaes 15
SHALTACLCHISHICS Oh SECIM ONE: 305... .202<cce05 der cavsannssonssresssee 16

Ee PEAT EEA LUIS Mc cece casas peat adani hen inhi caiedwgu's sUadab gaa (snes oucya gant 16
RUSE UOM auto ntdiee citucc cept saiuetonmint tancnatrnsaceequissssansedve teceae 7
PLOPOLLIO Ns Gf, SIALE LO; QUMLEDY LO secccscsiceisecee sasceevcacce: ne: ah 9
Vertical distribution of slate horizons..... ..............00004. 18
RS IAETISIALE DOLE) BULRCES vile coepeceraiveurccesankcessandaqshtunssesccavcet res 18
ERIC IP SERET) patna ss day ac Caateka desc yaduul iaBsauahskecnvadadcescevaviessss 18
RO SIPC EOL SEEN ICO cc mudibiscaede wes avant te dancWuancusives ese. sancencanes bane §
yer tea Ce Bes Gis pores | kg Cole a BENS S er 20

*The second of a series of papers, having a common origin, on the Meguma
The first appeared in this journal, vol. xxxiii, pp 364-

370.

14 The American Geologist. Ju eee

ThesHalifax FormatiGriig,..cerscaterteertssscsacvssvaededsssspedes erases Pas
Distribttion ....cicccebigees tieakeeeaeeeea aires sarcnre we de oameeae dae ad aoe na aaee 21
Character of S@dimedtercgr-rsgsse css er oecep se epns- dvr ns foaeena 22 seman
Continuity Of Stratatsaespntessresreensecsiee + saccec ccepasacasd ieee ome 23
“Banded Areillyterdivasiomete..csssee. sstresctercce-sacesccons seas 23
Erosion: from top. Of Seniesecr-setees-cer coe ee ie areastor ates sar watean 24
Thickne€Ss).3.:cissocsees Anes snterteen esse teases ct zasceen ch ccassdes cneapacns 24
Conditions Of (depOSittlOniis.. jeccetwasessesssteacessccs secs) lesaaseeree 25

Evidences as to depth of water during deposition.......... 26
Texture Of SEGIMeENntSy cesnises ss dsecsueesetn sted tecsteccuccesesaeesaee 26
Leimest mesic; ssevads. csdscdeessacend-euteocdees tovgens fee tuvataedude.sdcsater 26
Cross-bedding..............c+«- fern tedons dens AI COE Con Coe Gere 26
Ripple marks...... SB aoa scenopcec oben. ot actadogsepeccce eR eEReL asc eS 27
Conglomerates eo teies:eessce eomernnasteen = ee ematea ee ctvine eee mse 27

Origins sks chests cee cer sae cena ceace aeouecote ectacerdtaertsavie Mrdassacoer heen an 29
Pre-Meguma continent BN EMOW tises-cecsocscesebsscvacsvcssde cas 29
Problem of GimtenslOnsy.-sesveesueaeces4es obi ons apdeabapecacheose stad 29
Area and time of erosion rapredented Bavcadecnsds voractwerev o> 32
Pre-Meptimay latidpuacossoeccnceresscerestoans ee cdatedcindeno denser ~sdes. 1

POSItL OMe eee teense aaa By oes foo fae Cpt Ok 32
Rock composition................ PEPER A EES PROTEC AO ta a 33
REfETOTICES. 22... ..200. ccnesceeseserccedecrecvesecossscseeweuess soceecantecessscreccns 34

In the first paper the limits of the gold-bearing metamor-
phic series of Nova Scotia were sketched roughly, and a no-
menclature proposed for the series and its two subdivisions. In
the present paper and those following, these formation names
will be used without further explanation. The metamorphism
of the sediments will be treated in a later paper.

The Goldenville formation.

Defimtion.—The division of the Meguma series into two
formations depends upon a sudden change from strata pre-
vailingly gray and dark green in color in typical regions, and
largely siliceous it: composition and arenaceous in texture, to
superjacent conformable beds which are for the most part lead
colored or black, in some places light gray and light green;
and almost wholly argillaceous in character. The change is
so abrupt as to be readily recognizable, whether the base of the
Halifax formation be black or green.

Distribution.—The Goldenville formation furnishes the
ground upon which the upper member is laid in east-west
synclinal bands, in surface distribution. This results from its
position below the other and its greater thickness, from the’
shape and persistence of the folds throughout the series, and
from the superior resistance of its rocks to erosion. Only a
few localities are known in which it forms isolated patches sur--
rounded. by Halifax slates. In the east the most interesting
is the Caribou mining district, which is located at the summit

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia-——W oodman, 15

of the Goldenville formation. The usual syncline of the Halifax
has been puckered’ into two, with an anticline between; and
this has been domed up at Caribou, and eroded far enough to
show the summit of the Goldenville strata beneath. In the
west, elliptical areas of this group, on the “banded argillyte”
as.a background, are mapped as occurring in several instances,
up to a score and more miles in length (Bailey, ’98, map) .

Contact with the Halifax formation.—The contact between
the two divisions of the series is always sharp where actually
observable. It is usually marked by a striking change in
color of the strata, from the greenish and grayish of the lower
rocks to the black, or less often light green, of the upper.
Faribault (’87, pp. 146-147) speaks of the contact as charac-
terized by “fa few layers of greenish, soft, smooth slate ;’* but
these are absent in many regions. They are the eastern equiv-
alents of the “‘banded argillyte” of Bailey. Nowhere has the
slightest unconformity been seen between the two; one being
a continuation of the other as regards process of sedimenta~
tion, and differing from it only in color, texture, and kind of
material.

Base unknown.—The problem of the base of the series is
insoluble at present. It is easy to find the lowest rocks, funda-
mental to our observation; but there is no information which
gives any clue as to the depth of unknown Meguma below the
surface of the earth, in the center of the Moose River—Fifteen
Mile Stream anticline, which holds the lowest known strata
in eastern Nova Scotia.

Thickness.—This makes impossible of answer the ques-
tion as to the real thickness of the formation. The exposed
thickness of the series and its subdivisions has been computed
by several students of the field. Hind (’70, ’70*, ’70) first
estimated the thickness of the whole series, calling it 12,000
feet. The opposite extreme is Prest’s estimate of 28,000 feet
(Bailey, ‘98, p. 83). Hind (loc. cit.) gave 9,000 feet as the
thickness of the lower formation. Faribault (’87) gave -15,-
ooo feet at first, and later (’99, p. 2) regarded three miles
—as the depth to which erosion had exposed these beds. Bailey
(98, p- 31) gives 5,000 feet as a minimum, indicating thus
the greater difficulty of exact structural work in the west.

16 The American Geologist. July; L908.

The two best localities for measurement, in eastern Nova
Scotia, are from the Moose River anticline, at its bifurcation
a mile west of Moose River mines, north to the contact with
the Halifax formation; and from the more _ northerly
of the two branches into which that axis breaks, five
miles west of Fifteen Mile Stream gold district, north to the
contact with the Halifax. The former gives 16,730 feet, the
latter 17,070 feet as the exposed thickness of the Goldenville.
Strike faults are extremely rare in the Meguma series, and
small where found. The traverses made for the purpose of
estimating thickness were along lines giving numerous out~
crops; and no evidence whatever was found, which would war-
rant belief in either folding or faulting along the lines meas-
ured.

Characteristics of sediments: psammytes.—A few con-
glomerates are to be found in this formation, but are most
conveniently described later. Finer than these is the “whin,”
including sediments of all textures between conglometates on
one hand and slate on the other. These strata exhibit all de-
grees of compactness and metamorphism, from somewhat fri-
able sandstone to the most dense and highly metamorphosed
quartzyte; the latter being abundant and the former rare. As
a rule they are heavily bedded, single strata reaching thirty
to forty feet in thickness in some instances, without sign of
stratification. On the other hand, some are but a fraction of
an inch thick. The color is generally dark green when fresh,
becoming brown through oxidation of sulphides, and finally
bleaching by continued weathering to a yellowish or light
greenish gray. Under a hand lens, one of the most noticeable
features is the abundance of grains of black or dark smoky
quartz in some of the coarser whins.

The texture of these whins ranges from coarse grits, al-
most conglomerates, to fine quartzytes with some admixture
of kaolin. Of'the former, the thick whin belt at Mt. Uniacke
is a good example. | Very considerable masses of quartzyte
are so uniform as almost to prevent structural relations from
being deciphered. Frequently a zone of more noticeably
cleaved rock or an indistinct lamina of slate is all that can be
relied upon. The lack of individuality in the arenaceous sedi-
ments is so marked that there is no opportunity for finding

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia —W oodman, 17

/

datum planes which can be used as a basis for the larger struc-
tural problems. It may be that, on the whole, the whin is
more abundant and somewhat coarser near the base of the
formation, becoming finer above ;, but the differences are neith-
er strong nor persistent. At certain horizons, in restricted
districts, the whin forms a noticeably small proportion.
Characteristics of sediments: slates. —The slates vary less
than the whin. Their color is ugually a bluish or greenish
black, often altered by chlorite to a somewhat lighter green,
or by the rusting of sulphides to a brown. Their commonest
surface color when well weathered is gray. Color changes are
by no means so frequent or so violent as in the green slate
section at the base of the Halifax formation. In_ thickness
the slate is often a mere parting in the quartzyte, and seldom
attains a greater amount than a few feet in a single stratum.
Usually it is a few inches or less. The rock is in places graph-
itic, but not commonly or so noticeably as in the overlying
formation. Near the base of the series slate is said to be less
abundant, and the belts thinner on the average; yet at Moose
River, whose rocks lie almost at the lowest known level in the
formation, there is a belt of slate of considerable thickness, with
a very small amount of whin within it. The highest propor-
tion of slate to whin is stated to be found near the center of the
Goldenville, but of this we have as yet no proof. In most of
the gold districts this rock is distributed in thin belts between
well-defined quartzyte walls; and this has determined in large
part the position and character of the mining districts. Old-
ham, Goldenville, and Montague are good examples.
Proportion of slate to quartzyte.—By far the larger part
of the Goldenville formation is composed of sandstones,
quartzytes, and their more metamorphosed schistose equiv-
alents. At what may conveniently be called the “horizons of
most abundant slate,” exposed on the domes now worked for
vold, it yet, by measurements in a number of districts, averages
less than 20% of the whole. In parts of Moose River it
amounts to much more, but the district is exceptional. In
the westernmost quarry, areas 70 and 71 block 1, the rock is
33% slate; in one of the cross-cut trenches 60%, and in several
other parts of the district nearly 50%. Estimates based upon
the thickness of these slate horizons on the different anticlines,

18 The American Geologist. July, uae

and their number, indicate that the workable parts of the
domes themselves occupy but a small proportion of the thick-
ness of the Goldenville. It is probable that the slate composes
3% or less of the total thickness exposed in the formation.

A source of slight error arises in neglecting the slate beds
and partings which lie in the thick whin belts between the an-
ticlines; but observations indicate that this would not increase
the total by more than .5%e. Another source of uncertainty
is the discontinuity of the strata. Between Moose River and
the contact with the Halifax formation on the north, there is
probably less than 1% of slate, in a thickness of over 16,000
feet. If we could get similar sections at some other place, on
one dip, there might be found several times that amount.

Vertical distribution of slate horizons.—Moreover, these
slate horizons have a very erratic distribution in vertical suc-
cession. Instead of a rhythmic alternation of whin and slate,
there appear to be great depths of quartzyte almost barren of
slate, between horizons which have a considerable proportion
of slate to whin. And the thickness of these whin belts varies
in different examples, ranging from somewhat less than a
thousand to many thousand feet. It is impossible to give
any average interval between the slate-bearing horizons, be-
cause a study of the field shows no probability that these ho-
rizons are of sufficient lateral extent to run under and over one
another to a degree that would give a vertical arrangement in
tiers.

Continuity of strata: on the dip.—The question of the
continuity of individual strata or groups of strata is a puzzling
one. The absence of any distinctive horizons within the
group, except the formation contact plane, makes exact state-
ments impossible, But the slate horizons exposed by denuda-
tion of the domes offer a partial substitute. At about the
longitude of Moose River there are five anticlines, from the
ocean on the south to the Carboniferous lowland on the north,
and excepting the Moose River and Caribou folds These
are, from north to south, the Gold Lake-Goldenville, Moose-
land-Gegogan, Lake Catcha-Salmon River, Tangier-Harrigan
Cove, and Southern anticlines (vid. Geol. Surv. Can., does.
611, 624, 634; N. S. sheets 49,50, 51). Within a few min-
utes of longitude east and west the mining districts of Gold

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia —IlW oodman, i9

Lake, Mooseland, and Tangier are situated on three of the
arches. A cross section of the region shows that none of these
anticlines give horizons at the surface which are exact strati-
graphic equivalents of each other. From the -axis at Moose
River at the lowest known horizon, to the upper contact of the
Goldenville formation on the north, the dips are all north; and
give about 16,900 feet of strata. Allowing 400 feet as the
maximum thickness of the slate horizon at Moose River, there
are 16,500 feet of Goldenville strata stratigraphically over it;
and in that thickness at least three zones of slate-bearing rocks
should appear.

Three good traverses are possible from the Moose River
axis northward in and near the district of that name—a west-
ern one, two or three miles west of the main settlement, along
the old Moose River road north to: Higgins settlement; a sec-
ond along the present road north from Moose River mines;
and an eastern one, three miles east of the mines, along the dis-
used road through the Icelandic settlement. All these tra-
verses give numerous exposures, and it seems impossible that
slate-bearing horizons aggregating probably 4500 feet in thick-
ness, should escape observation; but they have not been seen.
Moreover, the vein-bearing horizon at Caribou shows no slate
or leads where it emerges again from under the Halifax form-
ation, south of Caribou. These facts would indicate that not
only do individual strata extend a comparatively short distance
north and south, but that whole groups of strata, represent-
ing individual and localized conditions of deposition, are quite
circumscribed in their extent. Indeed, it is often impossible
to match strata satisfactorily on the opposite sides of a single
anticline and within a few hundred feet; and this, too, with
good artificial exposures.

Continuity of strata: along the strike.—The same criteria
are more difficult of application directly along the strike, be-
cause the pitch of the domes is always gentle compared with
the dip of the legs of the anticlines. One case, however, is
especially noticeable. The dome at Caribou, Halifax county,
is located at the top of the Goldenville formation; and its po-
sition is closely defined by the only exact datum plane we
know—the contact with the base of the Halifax. Eastward
ten miles, along the same axis, the Goldenville emerges from

20 The American Geologist. culy, ae

the cloak of black strata; but no horizon of vein-bearing slates
is known. Morecver, very many points of contact between
the two formations have been seen by various observers, but
I cannot find that any horizon similar to the one at Caribou has
been noted. The fact that there is no striking similarity in
succession of strata between the various domes on the same
anticline, especially where, as is true in several instances, more
than two domes have been made on the same axis, also points
strongly to the same conclusion reached in north and south
traverses. The strata of this formation are markedly discon-
tinuous in all directions; and this is especially true of its finest
sediments, which in other countries are normally persistent
to a greater extent than coarse ones. :

Conditions of deposition.—The few and local conglomer-
ates of the Goldenville have in no instance been proved to lie
at the base of the series; hence we cannot learn under what
conditions its deposition began. We know, however, that
these were so unstable as to cause the accumulation of fine and
coarse material alternately through the period of action, the
latter strongly predominating. The conglomerates indicate
a probable shore line not far distant at some time or times.
The sands and grits show a condition of quite shallow water
during most of the sedimentation; but the slate horizons do
not, on the other hand, prove an oscillation of the sea bottom.
Such changes of level are more or less widespread, and the
slate strata in the formation appear not to have a lateral ex-
tent commensurate with that condition. Moreover, many slate
partings are too thin for their deposition to have occupiéd the
whole time required under normal conditions of sedimentation,
while such a secular change of depth was in progress. They
are, however, readily explained by more local and transient
causes.

The sudden and blunt ending of strata in some cases, as at
West Waverly; the rapid thinning of others,.as the whin over-
lying the Jo. Taylor belt of “leads” at Moose River mines;
the very apparent non-persistence of individual and grouped
strata over extensive areas, so that the beds are much more
found in most other formations of great.area and frequently no
coarser,—all appear to me best explained in one way, not com-
monly employed in accounting for the presence of extensive

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia—IlW oodman., 21

-~

series of strata. This is by the deposition of the sediments
of the Goldenville in moderately shallow water, upon a floor
essentially flat under the area now covered by the strata, and
influenced by somewhat violent currents and waves, constantly
shifting their relations. Tidal changes in depth of water and
direction of transportation may suffice to account for some of
the phenomena ot distribution of sediments, but not for all.
These currents created unevennesses of bottom through dif-
ferential deposition, and changed the character of the detritus
in any place suddenly, according to the direction and force of
the flow at the time.

The known thickness of the formation is more than 17,000
feet. How much lies below the exposed part we cannot tell.
It may be considerable; it can hardly be less than hundreds of
feet, and probably amounts to thousands. The top is not
essentially different from the bottom in texture. There is
perhaps a finer average of the whin and a greater abundance
of the slate near the center, although any difference which
exists is not marked. Taken as a whole, the quartzytes keep
their texture, and there is no such progression from a coarse
base to a fine summit, or vice versa, as often is found. This
indicates that the conditions of sedimentation were the same at
the top as at the Lottom. But the 17,000 feet represent solid,
compact rock. How much bulk the sediments lose by super-
incumbent pressure and by loss of water, both during and af-
ter deposition, it is difficult to estimate. It is safe to say, how-
ever, that the strata now exposed would, in their original un-
compacted state, have occupied a vertical column far higher
than the present thickness of the formation. This does not
mean that they were ever thicker to that extent; but it does
mean that, to keep the sea bottom at a fairly even depth, the
sinking of the original bottom, minus the compressive com-
pacting of the lower strata by those continually forming over
them, must have Leen equal to about 17,000 feet, and possibly
more. The theory of the deposition of these sediments under
the influence of currents lends itself readily to this view of the
position of the sea bottom and the sinking of the detritus.

The Halifax formation.

Distribution.—The Halifax formation is distributed in
narrow zones or bands, running with the general strike of the

ae The American Geologist. Peli foc

series, and appearing to be inlaid upon a background of the
Goldenville. In the field, and on such geologic sheets as have
been published for the eastern half of the province, it is notice-
able that these bands taper at both ends, with a resulting canoe-
shaped outline. The intervals between the zones vary greatly,
as do their widths. Thus, ‘between the nearer margins of
Halifax strata in the Waternish and St. Mary’s Bay synclines,
in the longitude of Indian harbor, there is an interval of eight
miles, occupied entirely by strata of the lower formation. Be-
tween the Waternish and Sherbrooke synclines the Goldenville
beds cover six and one-half miles across the strike. On the
other hand, between the Ruth Fall and Liscomb Harbor syn-
clines, they are in one place only half a mile wide. This is,
however, exceptional.

It is difficult to estimate the relative areas occupied by the
two formations. Conditions in the western half of the prov-
ince are very different in this, as in other matters relating to
‘the distribution of the two groups of rocks. An average of
five traverses at different places east of Halifax, and aggre-
gating over fifty miles, gives a distribution in the ratio of about
one of Halifax to five of Goldenville strata, across the strike.

Character of sediments.—The rocks are chiefly slates, of-
ten very fine grained and evenly bedded. Indeed, in many
places it is necessary, in the study of structure, to take ad-
vantage of the fact that crystals of pyrite lie abundantly in the
stratification planes. The color of the slates varies from dull
black through shades of blackish gray to light gray, and light
olive green. There is rarely, if ever, the peculiar dark green
given to some of the slates in the Goldenville by an abundance
of chlorite and inore indefinite hydrous silicates. In few in-
stances would a hand specimen from a formation, placed
side by side, prove confusing.

The black slates are often highly graphitic, and to an ex-
tent indicating an abundance of life in the waters in which
the Meguma was deposited. In many places they also con-
tain such a quantity of pyrite crystals, generally along the
stratification, as to impart upon decomposing a characteristic
rusty color to the rocks.

Such quartzytes as occur in the Halifax are unimportant in
quantity, and whether they lie at such definite horizons as to

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia.—IlWoodman. 23

be of use stratigraphically is not known. They are never, so
far as I have observed, of as coarse texture as some in the
Goldenville, which become grits; but their color is in cases
identical, and often only their association with earthy black
or green slates distinguishes these quartzytes from similar
beds in the lower formation. Hand specimens are insufficient.

Continuity of strata.—It is impossible, because of the ab-
sence of structural domes developed for mining purposes, to
say whether the strata are widely continuous or not; but one
fact is important in this connection. While in the Goldenville
it is common to find blunt terminations to thin strata, empha-
sizing their lens-like shape, such phenomena do not appear in
the Halifax, to my knowledge. The finer texture of the sedi-
ments of the upper formation also argues for a probable great-
er equality of the conditions of deposition, hence more extend-
ed laminae and strata.

“Banded argillyte division.” —Very rarely within the form-
ation, but abundantly near its base, occur strata of light ma-
terial—‘‘greenish, argillaceous and chloritic soft slate,’’ of little
thickness at the east end of the province, but increasing to a
considerable thickness at the west end. A few layers of
magnesian siliceous limestone have also been noted at different
places, at the base of the group, overlying conformably the
quartzyte of the lower division (Faribault, ’99, p. 2). In the
west, Bailey (’98, p. 28) mentions gray, green, and purple
slates, most of the green, purple and blue being grayish; often
alternate in color, and thin bedded. Some quartzyte strata are
interspersed.

It is this which Bailey has called the “banded argillyte di-
vision” (loc. cit.). He states, however, that there is a grad-
ual transition between the quartzyte and banded argillyte, and
between the latter and the black slate. In the east of the prov-
ince these beds are never more than a few feet thick, and are
often absent altogether. In the west they are said to attain a
thickness of several thousand feet. In the former region, no
one who has studied them has given evidence of a belief that
they should be erected into a separate formation. In the field
they appear merely as a basal phase of the Halifax. Traverses
of a number of the areas in the western country have made me
doubt the necessity of such a division there, much of the meta-

24 The American Geologist. Jay,

morphic material placed under it being readily referable to one
or the other of the two great divisions. Indeed, the mapping of
the region on a three-fold basis brings out some incongruities; -
as in the eastern part of the field mapped by Bailey (98, map),
where a large patch of the Goldenville is shown adjacent to
Halifax strata, with none of the “banded argillyte division” be-
tween.

On the whole, therefore, it seems best not to name a third
formation until stronger proof has been presented of its im-
portance as a separate stratigraphic part of the Meguma series.

Erosion from top- of sertes——The original summit of the
series has been lost through erosion, or at least has never been
found in the most favorable places—the centers of synclines.
Thus we have no knowledge of the thickness of the undenuded
Halifax formation. Moreover, we have no adequate criterion
by which to judge how much of it has been lost. The small
amount of territory covered by it at present, scarcely five per
cent, of the area of the series, indicates that a large propor-
tion of its original hight must have gone.

At the west end of Tor bay, near the eastern extremity of
the province, there are two very strong synclines of adalusite
schist. Faribault (°87, p. 149) regards these as perhaps a
superjacent series. But they appear to be better regarded as
a more highly metamorphosed part of the Meguma; for if they
are a newer series conformable with the lower, the Halifax
formation which immediately underlies it is, complete, only
1800 feet thick. The mining settlement of Rawdon is situated
on reddish slates which are thought by some to be a formation
overlying the Halifax conformably; but as to that there is no
conclusive evidence as yet.

Thickness .—Estimates of thickness vary greatly. Hind
(70, 70", 70”) called it 3,000 feet. Bailey (’98, p. 46) gives
3,000 feet as a probable minimum for the black slates. But
this estimate does not include the “banded argillyte division,”
at least a part of which probably can be regarded for the pres-
ent as within the Halifax. If it really represents a westward
thickening of the thin bands of the east, it is fair tentatively to:
include all of it within that formation. No statement is made,
in the paper referred io, as to the thickness of these banded

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia—lW oodman, 25

argillytes. Faribault (’99, p. 2) calls the Halifax roughly
two miles in thickness.

The thickest sections of which I have direct estimate are
(1) in Halifax county on the Caribou anticline, two miles west
of Caribou settlement at the end of a dome of Goldenville
rocks which projects through the Halifax, the latter appearing
to be 4,600 feet thick; (2) in Guysborough county on the St.
Mary’s Bay syncline, a mile west of where West river crosses
it, the formation measuring here approximately 4,800 feet;
and (3) Halifax peninsula. This last is the only instance, at
least in the eastern part of the province, in which the Halifax
attains a considerable breadth by repeated folds; and here,
unless unknown strike faults are present, the thickness is ap-
proximately 11,60c feet. Strike faults are rare throughout
the series, and the few known are extremely small and local.
There is, moreover, no proof of such faults of any appreciable
throw, in the many exposures in the city of Halifax.

Conditions of Ceposition.—The conditions of sedimentation

in the Halifax were much more uniform than in the lower

formation. The scarcity of quartzytes and the fineness and
evenness of texture of the slates, indicate somewhat deeper
water with little of the action which gave to the Goldenville
its peculiar distribution of strata. The normal conditions of
deposition prevailed. The deeper water signifies either a
more distant land mass, or one worn much lower, so that not
much material coarser than mud reached the off-shore bottom.
A few limestones are reported from various localities; and es-
pecially are thin layers found at the base of the formation.
One, of a black color, outcrops on the east side of Halifax
harbor. Wherever found, these indicate a nearly complete
cessation of mechanical deposition. But usually the change
from the lower to the higher group of rocks is marked by the
light green, gray, and black banded slates. These apparently
indicate a slightly different source of material ; and their greater
thickness in the west than in the east suggest one or more of
three conditions: either a larger body of rock in the western
part of the pre-Meguma land mass, from which this could
come; or a quicker subsidence in the east than in the west; or
the presence of the pre-Meguma land nearer to the western
seat of deposition. I know of no way to decide between these

26 The Anierican Geologist. July; See

possibilities. They are not, indeed, alternatives, as any two
or all three may have obtained. From other evidence, it seems
probable that the last of the three, at least, existed.

Evidences as to the depth of water during deposition.

Texture of sediments.—The varying texture of the sedi-
ments affords an index of slight probable differences in depth
of water in some cases. For instance, Hind (72, p. 76) men-
tions near Coxcomb lake, Mt. Uniacke, a belt of sandstone
380 feet thick, a grit at the bottom, becoming steadily finer
upward. Many of-the coarse sand grains are a translucent
blue color. This, it may be remarked, is characteristic of
much of the coarser quartzyte of the series, the grains being
often black, or a dark smoky brown.

Limestones.—A limestone has already been mentioned.
Hind (’72, p. 78) writes of “twisted and contorted slates with
bands of carbonate of lime” at Mt. Uniacke; but these bands
were probably the stratified veins.* The Goldenville formation
contains much lime as a cement in the rock; which may have
come originally from organisms or have been introduced by va-
pors and surcharged waters working interstitially, or have been
an original constituent of the feldspathic components of the
sands. In view of the arkose nature of much of the quartzyte in
different parts of the formation, and the amount of kaolin pres-
ent as shown in thin sections, the last supposition appears rea-
sonable. Any sedimentary lime, however, is evidence of a lack
of clastic material in the water, and either of such deepening of
the water as ceased to allow mechanical detritus to be carried
so far, or a change in current action whereby no sediment was
fed to a part of the bottom, and. the calcareous and siliceous
ooze gathered for a period unmixed with mud.

Cross-bedding .—Cross-bedding has not been mentioned by
any author as characteristic of any of the horizons in the se-
ries. It is found in a number of localities, widely separated
geographically and stratigraphically. Beside the shore road
of the west coast of the province, one and one-half miles south
of the village of Pubnico Harbor, is an exposure giving a struc-
ture which shows deposition from the south. The dark bio-
tite schist is similar to much of the rock of the region. Near
the same stratigraphic horizon is a conglomerate, another evi-
dence of shoal water. The west side of Halifax harbor con-

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia—W oodman., 27

tains many feet of finely cross-bedded quartzytes, giving con-
flicting evidence as to direction of current.

Ripple marks.—These are mentioned occasionally in the
literature of the series. Hind ('72, p. 78) speaking of a de-
tailed section made at Mt. Uniacke in 1869 by A. Michel of
the Geological Survey of Canada, alludes to a “slaty sandstone
—tripple-marked dip 71 north.” Bailey (’98, p. 56) speaks of
the rocks of Lockport island, Shelburne county, as distinctly
ripple-marked. Certain strata on the west side of Halifax har-
bor show the same phenomenon.

Conglomerates.—Conglomerates have been reported from
a number of localities, chiefly in the western half of the series,
and all in the lower formation. The eastern occurrences noted
in literature are at Mt. Uniacke and West Waverley. At the
former place Hind notes (’72, p. 78), in the cross-trenched
section by A. Michel, a stratum of “slaty sandstone holding a
few slate pebbles.”’ In the latter district, the same author :nen-
tions (’69, p-: 21) in the Tudor group of beds, ‘“heavy-bedded
gray whin, holding pebbles of blue-black slate.’’ In the strata
accompanying the Rose group of leads, he speaks of a “‘fine-
grained whin, holding a few pebbles of the dark bluish-gray
slate.”’ In a careful survey of the district I did not find any
true fragmental pebbles, either in the strata mentioned or in
others. What I have found, however, is a number of lenses
of slate in the quartzyte, some but a few inches in length; and
the blunt ends of others. All are flat, their shape ranging from
that of rather flat ovoidal concretions to thickened discs. That
they are not concretions is shown by their composition, and the
disposition of the material. There are, however, certain hori-
zons of concretionary quartzyte at West Waverley. There are
a number of localities containing concretions which might be
taken for pebbles at first sight by some; as, for instance, Moose
River mines and the west side of Halifax harbor, near York
Redoubt.

In the west, Bailey reports conglomerates from a number
of localities. Near Port la Tour, Shelburne county (’98, p.
59), is a true conglomerate, “mainly of quartzyte” (MS let-
ter). At the settlement of Pubnico Harbor, Yarmouth county,
he speaks of “the inclosure in the beds of numerous well-de-

*

28 The American Geologist. a esnlin=

fined pebbles, mostly a quartzyte, the rock being really a
quartzyte” (’98, pp. 67-68).

A mile south of the village of Pubnico Harbor, where the
railroad to Barrington crosses the same road mentioned in con-
nection with cross-bedding, is a sericite schist, altered from a
sandstone, and containing olive-green quartzyte pebbles, some-
what resembling massive serpentine. ‘This is probably part of
the formation noted by Bailey in the same region. The schist
has much fine biotite irregularly distributed through it. The
pebbles are sufficiently resistant to stand out well on the
weathered surfaces, and occasionally these surfaces show pits
due to loss of the pebbles.

At Western Head, south of Lockport, Shelburne county,
the sediments “include some . . . beds made up of well round-
ed quartz pebbles of the size of bullets” (loc. cit., p. 56). In
describing the strongly conglomeratic rocks of Yarmouth, he
mentions (p. 69) pebbles up to a foot in diameter, of gray
quartzyte in some strata; in others of a “gray or purple-gray
vesicular rock,’ which he has not determined. In a MS. letter
he speaks of them as “feldspathic, and recalling the vesicular
ash rock (trachytes?) of Huronian age underlying the Cam-
brian rocks about St. John.” He considers them practically
basal, part of division la of his classification; but on the map
accompanying the report the whole region is colored as division
II, the “banded argillyte division.” .

At Westfield, Queens county, “near the mouth of a brook
emptying into the Westfield river,” is said by Bailey to be
“a deposit of very hard breccia or conglomerate, the cement of
which is oxide of iron” (loc. cit., p. 38). A traverse of the
river in the region indicated, failed to discover the strata, nor
does the stream appear to contain pebbles of it. The nearest
resemblance to a conglomerate was seen in a small piece of
recently cemented breccia of whin pebbles, the matrix being
iron rust. At the so-called Jumbo mine, a few hundred yards
northwest of the bridge over the river, mentioned by Bailey in
this connection, but not as containing conglomerate, is a vein
breccia; and where the margins of the leads have been faulted
are many small slickensided lenses, sometimes cemented into a
fault breccia. The hand specimens suggest a conglomerate,
at first sight.

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia.—W oodman., 20

Origin.

Pre-Meguma continent unknown.—The Meguma series
stands almost alone among the large stratified groups on the
continent, in having no rocks visibly subjacent to it, in vertical
or areal distribution. Neither bottom nor margin is known.
The granites show no horses of a foreign and presumably older
series. The conglomerates give little hint of what must have
been a very large land mass. The schists of the Yarmouth re-
gion were at one time regarded as subjacent to the Meguma
series, but are not now so considered. In the east, Faribault
says (’87, p. 146) “The base of the quartzyte group is char-
acterized by the occurrence of coarse quartzyte and grit in cer-
tain beds which, at the mouth of St. Mary’s river, appear to be
underlain by bluish-black and greenish siliceous slate holding
small crystals of andalusite or staurolite.” But no proof of the
separateness of these rocks is given, and they may well be only
a more highly metamorphosed part of the Goldenville forma-
tion. Nor does the author show, either in the text or the map

sheet (nos. 28, 29; Geol. Surv. Can., docs. 382, 383), that
they lie at the base of the series.

The southern, western, and part of the eastern margins lie
under the sea, the original shore regions having of course long
since vanished. The northern and part of the eastern margins
lie under younger sediments.

Problem of original dimensions: original extent and thick-
ness .—Evidence as to the original dimensions of the series is
circumstantial only, like that for several other factors in its
history. Its lateral extent must have been much greater than
at present. The only hint of the proximity of the pre-Meguma
land comes from the few conglomerates, chiefly in the west.
None of these have been proved to be basal, hence cannot be
used as arguments for the proximity of the shore at the begin-
ning of sedimentation. At the east, the present strike of the
series carries its northern contact clear of the south shore of
Cape Breton; and, unless its strata extend far to the north
under the Devonian, it is not to be expected that Meguma rocks
would be found on the island. A small circular area of this
age is, indeed, mapped in southern Cape Breton (Geol. Surv.
Can., doc. 203), occupying only about one-fourth of a square
mile, and surrounded by pre-Cambrian rocks; but what evi-

30 The American Geoiogist. ee

dence there is for correlating it with the Meguma I do not
know.

All that can be said definitely at present, upon the subject
of original extent, is that the character of the sediments gives
no indication of the proximity of any natural margin, and the
former lateral extent was probably much greater than now ex-
posed, even were the strata straightened out and the folds
eliminated.

Evidence as to greater original thickness is of four classes,
none of which gives definite quantitative results. The first
is the extent of younger sediment composed of material which
may have been derived from the Meguma. No measurements
have been made which would justify giving figures on this mat-
ter. But the area and thickness of the lower Carboniferous
conglomerate in the eastern half of the province, where it is
composed almost entirely of Meguma waste in parts, are both
considerable. It is very noticeable at Gays River mines, Cold-
stream, Colchester county, that the conglomerate contains a
large amount of one rock not now found as a part of the older
series—a dull red sandstone. The rest is readily traceable to
the Meguma. This red of course may be Devonian; but there
is no evidence that it is, and the boulders at Gays River have
evidently not travelled far. Again, there may have been an
upper formation in the Meguma, now eroded completely away
and preserved in these relics; or the latter may come from a
younger series below the Devonian, although we know of none
which answers the description.

The second cla:s of evidence as to. the former thickness of
the Meguma is its structure. The folds are as sharp and well-
formed at the present summit as at the bottom; and, except at
the extremities of domes, have no faults which appear to be
consequent upon east-west folding while brittle. The whole
appearance of the orogenic type displayed by the series indi-
cates that the folds were made well down in the zone of plastic-
ity, which later became one of plasticity and fracture.

The third line of evidence is the dynamo-metamorphism,
which will be discussed separately in a subsequent paper. It is
as thorough at the top of the series as at the bottom, and of
such degree as must have required no small depth of superin-

ae

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia —lW oodman, 31

cumbent sediment for its growth. Moreover, it is all pre-Car-
boniferous, and probably considerably antedates that period.

The fourth group of testimony comes from the intrusions.
With the exception of dioritic marginal phases and dioryte
apophyses, they are all granitic and abyssal. Nowhere does
the slightest tendency appear toward a transition to quartz por-
phyry or aporhyolyte; although the granites cut the highest
strata in the series in such manner as to show that they must for-
merly have extended far higher. This is especially true of the
great western massif. The period of intrusion was afteralmostall
the great events in the history of the Meguma had taken place ;
and this indicates that even at that time there was a very con-
siderable cloak of superincumbent strata. Some of the granite
areas are so large as to force the conclusion that they originally
extended far above the present summit of the series. The depth
of cover needed to allow acid magmas to crystallize as coarse
granites must be considerable, as shown by the infrequency of
dikes of granite cther than as short apophyses.

The conclusion from these various lines. of observation is
that the Halifax formation must originally have been far thick-
er than at present, or that it was covered by some thick form-
ation, probably conformable and sharing its history. The
great western massif, cutting Siluro-Devonian strata, seems to
indicate the latter; but (1) these strata are not of great thick-
ness, and (2) the granites of the Meguma series are almost
certainly of more than one age of eruptivity, so that the his-
tory of the large mass cannot fairly be taken as representative
of the whole. Although there ‘is no direct quantitative evi-
dence, it probably is safe to consider that at least a mile has
been stripped from the present highest beds of the Halifax, of
which we have not even a vestige left.

Problem of original dimensions: present bulk.—The area
now occupied by the stratified rocks of the series is 4,500 square
miles. The known thickness alone, if uniform, gives with
this area a contents of 22,500 cubic miles before erosion. But
measurements across the folds show that the same sediments
now exposed, if restored to a flat position, would occupy at
least 75 % and probably 100% more area; so that the total bu!k
of the rocks now represented, but restored to an even thick-
ness may be conservatively estimated at 45,000 cubic miles.

ee) The American Geologist. sales eae

What has been lost above and laterally, what lies below the low-
est visible strata, and what under the cloak of younger form-
ations to the north, we have no means of knowing. Taking
the total present area of the series, however, as 8,000 square
miles, including that part replaced by granite, the total cubic
contents when restored to a condition of horizontal stratifica-
tion would be approximately 88,000 cubic miles of rock.

Examined from the standpoint of the amount of erosion
necessary to produce the series, even the figures given are seen
to be very large. To produce these sediments would require
the complete degradation of the provinces of Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, from an alpine
condition with high peaks and total average elevation of 9,200
feet, to sea level.

Area and time of erosion represented.—Such a _ history
makes the series one of the largest almost purely inorganic
accumulations known. The time occupied by its deposition
is also very great; so great that figures have no value in deal-
ing with the problem. The Goldenville formation evidently
was accumulated at a rate not very rapid, as shown by the
scarcity of coarse debris, and relatively small amount of cross-
bedding; and at a rate not very slow, indicated by the lack of
continuity of the strata and the relatively small percentage of
pelytes. The Halifax, even at its present much diminished
thickness, may represent more time than the lower formation.
The continuity of sedimentation appears to have been unbrok-
en throughcut; and this points to one of the longest epochs of
continuous deposition, as well as one of the most ancient.

Pre-Meguma land: position.—There is little evidence as to
the position and character of the land mass from which the
Meguma series was derived. Of the sandstone and pelytes,
it cannot be said that they become finer or coarser in any direc-
tion. Indeed, the grits which here and there occur through-
out the Goldenville are rather widely separated, both strati-
eraphically and geographically. The instances of cross-bed-
ding, which might give some clue as to the direction of the
land, are not very satisfactory in their evidence; but much re-
mains to be studied regarding them.

The authentic conglomerates are all in the southwestern end
of the series, if we except Hind’s references; and it is a fair

Meguma Series of Nova Scotia-—W oodman. 33

assumption that this marks a shoreward direction in part, and
that a portion of the pre-Meguma land mass lay to the south
and west of the west end of the provitice. The size of the
boulders in the Yarmouth conglomerate indicates a transpor-
tation by no means long. The cross-bedding seen in the west.
as far as it has any weight, points to the same direction of land,
the south. On the other hand, the structure of the eastern part
of the series is of such type as would readily have resulted
from the folding of sediments marginal to a land mass to the
north.

There is no evidence as to the proximity of the old shore
lines to any known points, if we except the large boulders in
the Yarmouth conglomerate; and when it can be proved con-
clusively whether or not these are basal, they may be of great-
er service.

Pre-Meguma land: composition.—As to the character of
the material forming this land mass, two indefinite lines of ey-
idence are available. The first is the chemical character of
the sediments. This is moderately acid to intermediate, de-
pending upon the situation. The silica of the quartzytes is in
part offset by less acid minerals such as chlorite. A large
number of rocks could have furnished detritus of such nature.

The second class of evidence is the mechanical nature of
the strata. The pebbles at Mt. Uniacke and Waverley, if
there be any, are slate. Bailey’s reference at Pubnico is quart-
zyte, and my own confirms it for the general region. The peb-
bles near Lockport, mentioned by Bailey as “quartz,” may be
quartzyte; and those at Port la Tour are quartzyte. What
the “gray vesicular rock” is, is not known. Thus the only au-
thentic evidence as to kinds of pebbles points to quartzyte as
at least a prominent ingredient of the old land, but it cannot
have been the only one. Aside from the inherent improbability
of one kind furnishing so many cubic miles of detritus, quartz-
yte, however impure, would hardly account for the several
thousand feet of argillaceous material in the slates of both
formations. In the lower this is intimately mingled with the
sand, the two in many places alternating several times in a foot
of thickness; and evidently they came down in the water ap-
proximately together.

34 The American Geologist. ne Lh

In addition, there is clastic mica, and the relic of feldspars
in places. Granitic rocks would furnish detritus in propor-
tions nearest to these found in the series. No sediments alone
would do it, except perhaps a series essentially like the one
made from it; and igneous rocks more basic than the granite-
’ rhyolyte series would not furnish the requisite amount of
quartz. ; |

In view of the evidence, it may be stated very tentatively
that the pre-Meguma land mass probably consisted of granitic
igneous rocks; with some sediments, of which we have definite
trace in the quartzyte conglomerates and perhaps in some slate
conglomerates in the center of the province.

REFERENCES

Barney, L W.
"98. Report on the geology of southwest Nova Scotia, embrac-
ing counties of Queens, Shelburne, Yarmouth, Digby and part
ot Annapolis. Geol. surv. Can., rept. for 1896; new ser. vol. 9,
rept. M. pp. 154.
FarIBAuLT, E. R. (FLeTcHER, H. and).

87. Report on geological surveys and explorations in the counties.
of Guysborough, Antigonish. Pictou, Colchester and Halifax,
Nova Scotia, from 1882 to 1886. Geol. and nat. hist. sury. Can.,
rept. for 1886; new ser. vol 2, rept P. pp. 129-163 (counties of
Guysborough and Halifax).

‘99. +The gold measures of Nova Scotia and deep mining. Min-
ing soc. Nov. Scot.; 11 pp, 5 pls.

Hirnp, Ei. -Y.

‘69. Report on the Waverley gold district, with geological maps.
and sections. Halifax; 62 pp., map.

’*79. Notes on the structure of the Nova Scotia gold districts. Nov.
Scot. inst. nat. sci., proc. and trans.; vol. 2, 1866-70; pt. 3, pp.
102-109 (read April 13, 1869).

’702. On two gneissoid series in Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick, supposed to be the equivalents of the Huronian (Cam-
brian) and Laurentian, Geol. soc. London, quart. journ.; vol.
26, pp. 468-479 (map).

7ob. Report on the Sherbrooke gold district, together with a paper
on the gneisses of Nova Scotia, and an abstract of a paper on
gold mining in Nova Scotia. Halifax; pp. 70, 4 maps.

*72. Report on the Mount Uniacke, Oldham, and Renfrew gold
mining districts, Halifax; pp. 136, 3 maps and sections,

Erosion on the Great Plains.—U pham.

a
ul

EROSION ON THE GREAT PLAINS AND ON THE
CORDILLERAN MOUNTAIN BELT.

By WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn.

The subaerial sculpture of great land areas is not less wor-
thy of attention than marine sedimentation, upheaval, and vol-
canic action, by which the lands were originally formed. It is
also very interesting to follow the great courses of drainage,
and to note the marine and lacustrine deposits that have been
derived from the wear and waste of continents.

In the region here considered, namely, the north part of
our Great Plains and the part of our Cordilleran belt where it
is crossed by the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, and Can-
adian Pacific railways, the physiographic history is comprised
in the Tertiary and Quaternary eras. During the much longer
ages of Paleozoic and Mesozoic time, from the Cambrian peri-
od to the Cretaceous, inclusive, the site of the Yellowstone
National Park and a vast region to the north and west were
covered by the sea, with practically continuous and conform-
able sedimentation, sometimes at abyssal depths where little
deposition took place through long periods, and sometimes
in shallower water receiving plentiful tribute from adjoining
eroded lands.

The Cretaceous sea of that region, in which its latest sedi-
ments were laid down, stretched eastward over Manitoba and
the greater part or all of Minnesota, to the area now occupied
by the west end of lake Superior. Though the strata then
formed have been mostly or wholly eroded and removed from
a tract 100 to 200 miles wide along the eastern margin of the
Cretaceous marine area, its fossiliferous beds are found in place
by H. V. Winchell so far east as on the Little fork of Rainy
river* and on the Mesabi range.t Thence west to the Rocky
mountains, an expanse of deep Cretaceous strata, mostly
shales, was uncovered from the sea at the end of that period,
and has since been subject to erosion.

At first a vast flat and monotonous plain, this expanse has
lost hundreds of feet at the east and thousands of feet at the

* Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Sixteenth Annual Report, for
1887, pp. 403-9, 431, 434.

+ AM. GEOLOGIST, Vol, xii, pp. 220-223, Oct., 1893.

‘

36 The American Geologist. July, 1904.

west by denudation; but the surface yet retains so much sem-
blance of its original flatness as to be commonly called ‘The
Plains.” Like all the interior basin drained by the Mississippi,
Missouri, St. Lawrence, and Nelson rivers, between the Ap-
palachian and Cordilleran mountain belts, the Plains, 800 miles
wide and of much greater extent from south to north, have
been exempted from the throes of mountain building. Their
only oscillations of altitude have been epeirogenic, in marked
contrast with the grand orogenic movements which formed the
Cordilleran ranges.

At the beginning of the history of the Plains, one of the
mighty mountain-building and continent-making epochs gave
rise to the principal ranges of the Rocky mountains, the frontal
parts of the Cordilleran belt, which were folded and uplifted
near the end of Cretaceous time. As the chief orogenic revolu-
tion producing the Appalachian belt of mountains, from north-
ern Alabama to New Hampshire and Maine, coincided with
the close of the Paleozoic era, so the end of the Mesozoic era
witnessed the upheaval of the sea bed to form the Great Plains,
the birth of the Mississippi flowing at the foot of their east-
ward slope, and the thrusting up of mountain ramparts along
all their western border. The sites of Heiena, Butte, and Great
Falls, cities of the mountains and plains of Montana, then
emerged from

“The stillness of the central sea.”

Ten years ago | published a paper from my studies of “‘Ter-
tiary and Early Quaternary Baseleveling in Minnesota, Mani-
toba, and Northwestward,’* and ever since I wished to cross
the western half of our continent, until opportunity came last
year. In my journey over the Plains and the broad Cordilleran
region of mountains, valleys, and basins, the vastness of Ter~
tiary erosion was more fully appreciated, and I was impressed
with the multitude of the mountain ranges, rather than by their
hight.

In Montana, Idaho, and Washington, these mountains are
of the same order, in respect to altitude above the land at their
base, as the White, Green, and Adirondack mountains, in-
stead of representing the most lofty mountains of all the world,

* AMER. GEOLOGIST, vol. xiv, pp. 235-246, Oct , 1894; Bulletin, Geol. Soc.
of America, vol. vi, 1894, pp. 17-20.

Erosion on the Great Plains.—U pham. 37

J

as the European Alps, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. But
with those latest formed mountains, which together may be
- named the Eurasian mountain belt, should be classed, in tl
same first rank as to hight, and of similar late Tertiary and
Quaternary time of uplifts, other parts of this very long and
wide Cordilleran belt, such being Mt. St. Elias and its neigh-
bors, the Sierra Nevada of California, and the high Andes.

Attending and following the great folds, faults, and uplifts
of mountain ranges through the western side of our continent,
which closed the Crétaceous period and began the Eocene, so
bridging the transition between the Mesozoic and Tertiary
eras, volcanic intrusive and eruptive rocks added greatly to the
mointain masses of some tracts, as in tiie Yellowstone Park
and in the Cascade range, and spread over very large plain
areas in the basins of the Snake and Columbia rivers.

During the Tertiary and Quaternary eras, this western half
of our country and of Canada, newly raised from oceanic
depths into plains and mountains, has undergone much eros-
ion; and the rivers have borne thence the detritus from this
vast area, depositing it mostly beyond their mouths in the sea.
Quantitative estimates of the amount of this erosion, and conse-
quently of the offshore sedimentation, are afforded from the
Plains by the Turtle mountain, on the international boundary
of North Dakota and Manitoba, and by the Crazy and High-
wood mountains in Montana. Farther to the west, such esti-
mates may be taken from the valleys and canyons of the wide
Cordilleran belt, and from the fiords of Puget Sound and the
coast northward.

Turtle mountain, 40 miles long from east to west and about
25 miles wide, rises 300 to 800 feet above the surrounding east-
ern part of the Plains, the tops of its highest hills. being about
2,500 feet above the sea. Under a veneering of the glacial
drift, which probably averages 50 to 75 feet in thickness, this
wooded highland consists of nearly horizontally bedded Lara-
mie strata, chiefly shales, with thin seams of lignite. It testi-
fies that a thickness of 500 feet, or more, of Laramie and Mon-
tana (Fox Hills and Ft. Pierre) strata has been eroded from
the surrounding region.*

* “The Glacial Lake Agassiz,” U. S. Geol. Sarv., Monograph XXV, 1895,
pp. 85,178.

38 The American Geologist. SUN, re

Around the Crazy mountains, prominently seen from Liv-
ingston, where the Northern Pacific railway branch for the
Yellowstone Park leaves the main line, much deeper general
erosion of the Plains has taken place, to the vertical extent of
3,000 to 5,000 feet. This group of mountains, about 30 miles
long from south to north and 10 to 20 miles wide, rises in its
highest peak 11,178 feet above the sea, being-5,000 to 6,000
feet above the adjoining prairies. The stricture of this moun~
tain mass has been thoroughly studied by Dr. J. E. Wolff, who
finds that it consists of late Cretaceous or early Eocene strata,
mostly soft sandstones, nearly horizontal in stratification, named
the Livingston formation, intersected by central volcanic out-
flows and a network of innumerable raciating dikes.* The
more enduring igneous rocks have preserved the mountain
group, while an average denudation of nearly or quite one
mile in vertical amount reduced all the surrounding country
to a baselevel of erosion. Alluvial sedimentation on this area
was rapid and deep while the neighboring Rocky mountain
ranges, west of these Plains, were being uplifted; and the en-
suing Tertiary erosion in baseleveling here greatly exceeded its
volume from the country eastward.

A hundred miles distant thence to the north, the Highwood
mountains, about 30 miles east of Great Falls, having a hight
of 7,600 feet above the sea or about 3,500 to 4,000 feet above
their base, are described by Prof. W. M. Davis as displaying a
similar structure, and therefore testifying likewise of great
denudation. +

It seems a reasonable estimate that the average depth of
erosion from all this northern part of the Plains, stretching
from the Red river valley to the Rocky mountains, is at least
1,000 feet. Such a vast volume of detritus was carried away
by the predecessors of the Missouri and Saskatchewan rivers
and their tributaries during the Tertiary era, to be mostly
borne forward to the sea by the great streams which represent-
ed the Mississippi and Nelson rivers during that time. Thus
it is seen that, if the Tertiary era had a duration of about 3,-
000,000 or 4,000,000 years, as estimates of the ratios of geolo-

* Bulletin, Geol. Society of America, vOl. iii, 1892, pp. 445-452.

+ Mining Industries of the United States. Tenth Census, vol. xv, pp. 710,
737,745. See also the U. S. Geologic Altas, Folios 1,56 and 55, respectively
the Livingston, Little Belt Mountains, and Ft. Benton Folios, by WALTER H,
WEED, mapping and describing these two mountain groups.

Erosion on the Great Plains.—Upham. 39

gic time by Dana, Walcott, the present writer, and others, have
indicated, the mean rate of denudation on the Plains through-
out that era was approximately the same as now, or an average
of one foot in three to four thousand years.

Extensive Tertiary formations in the southern part of the
Mississippi basin and along the Gulf border accord well with
the foregoing estimate of erosion and resulting deposition. But
northward, in the Hudson bay region, Tertiary beds are want-
ing, which, with the similar general absence of Tertiary marine
strata about the northern Atlantic and Arctic shores of our
continent, implies for that great land area an altitude through-
out the Tertiary era above that of the present time. We may
infer that the epeirogenic and orogenic movements originally
forming the Great Plains and the Rocky mountains elevated
this region much above its present hight; that during Ter-
tiary time the Plains were cut down and mainly base-leveled,
having at last, in the Pliocene period, only a moderate hight
above the sea, so that their vast expanse was mostly reduced
by its streams to a mature peneplain; that in the early part of
the Quaternary era it was again greatly uplifted, by another
grand but slow epeirogenic movement, attaining its present
eastward slope; and that during the same time, and before the
culmination of the Glacial period, the broad flat valley of
the Red river of the North, and of the large lakes in Manitoba,
was formed by stream erosion of the former eastern edge of
the Plains, or, as we may better say, of the continuation of
their Cretaceous area.

Beneath the waters of Hudson bay and strait and of the
North Atlantic lies the great tribute carried from the Rocky
mountains and the Plains by the Tertiary and early Quaternary
streams that now live anew, since the Ice age, as the Saskatche-
wan, Red, and Nelson rivers. From the depths of fiords and
of submarine valleys, as those of the St. Lawrence and Hud-
son rivers, we know that this region was raised to a preglacial
altitude of 3,000 feet, or more, higher than now, probably giv-
ing the cold and snowy climate which induced glaciation.

On the Cordilleran belt farther west, and along the Pacific
border, far more complex conditions of erosion and marine de-
position characterized these eras, which I hope to consider in a
later paper of this series, dealing especially with the Puget
Sound fiords.

40 The American Geologist. July, AsO

ON THE PARAMORPHIC ALTERATION OF
PYROXENE TO COMPACT HORNBLENDE.

By C. H. Gorpon, Seattle, Wash.

A careful examination of the evidence thus far advanced
to prove the derivation of compact hornblende from pyroxene
is not altogether convincing since most of the phenomena ap-
pealed to may be equally well explained cn the theory of syn-
chronous growth. Such for example are the occurrences cited
by Hawes,* Irving, Van Hisey and cthers, of augite and com-
pact hornblende side by side, or the latter developed in a zone
about the augite. Later G. H. Williamst refers to the evi-
dence adduced by these writers as lacking in proof, and pre-
sents a case where a core of hypersthene is surrounded by a
zone of compact biown hornblende, tongues and shreds of the
latter extending from the outer rim all through the hypersthene
core. Emphasis is also placed on the manner in which the
minerals insensibly grade into each other, and on the presence
of fine twinning !amellze which cut sharply across the minerals.

Commenting upon this professor Iddings in his paper on
the rocks of Electric peak and Sepulchre mountain, says:§ “It
is self-evident that thin edged portions of minerals with sim-
ilar indices of refraction, which wedge out against one another
within the space of a rock section appear to pass into one an-
other by insensible gradations of color. This can be observed
in the case of inclined contacts between hypersthene and feld-
spar in which case there is no suspicion of an actual transition
of substance or intermediate stage of chemical character. There
is no direct evidence brought forward in the paper cited ito
show by the crystal outline of the mineral that the original
form was that of pyroxene as in the case of uralite. The whole
argument seems to the writer to hang on the fact that the horn-
blende penetrates the pyroxene in tongues and shreds in which
respect it resembles the paramorphism of pyroxene to uralite.
From the writer’s acquaintance with instances of undoubted

* Mineralogy and Lithology of New Hampshire, pp. 57, 206. Plate VII.
Fig. 1,1878. Hawes, G. W.

+ Geology of Wisconsin, vol. iii, pp. 170, 1880. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 26.
3rd, Ser. p. 27. Ibid, vol. xxvii, 3rd Ser. p.130. ‘“‘Copper Bearing Rocks of
Lake Superior,’”’ U. S. Geol. Surv. Mon. X, p. 259.

+ Amer. Jour. Sci., 3rd Ser., vol. xxviii, p. 259.

§ U. S. Geological Survey, 12th Annual Report, Pt. I, pp. 610, et seq,
Plate L, LI

Paramorphic Alteration of P\roxene.—Gordon. 4!

intergrowths of liornblende with other minerals the last men-
tioned argument for the paramorphism of compact hornblende
from pyroxene does not seem to him to be sufficient. . . . In
cases where augite is surrounded by or appears to pass into
compact hornblende and neither mineral exhibits its charac-
teristic crystal outline in any part of the rock under investiga-
tion and the rock is unaltered the primary or secondary na-
ture of either mineral may be questioned: for each mineral may
be the result of the primary crystallization of the once molten
magma from which either of the two may separate before
the other, or either may be the result of the alteration of the
other, since the change of compact hornblende to compact
augite occurs in the rocks already described.”” From the study
of the synchronous development of various rock-making min-
erals in pumiceous glassy lavas it is evident that caution must
be used in referring occurrences of parallel intergrowth to
paramorphic changes.

Lawson* refers frequently to the presence of a lighter col-
ored core in the hornblende as evidence of derivation from
augite, while Winchellt has described with a like interpretation
occurrences of dark green hornblende surrounded by or inti-
mately intergrown with colorless portions, the former being
by him considered as occupying the space of the original augite,
and the colorless portions as having formed at the same time
but entirely free from the influence of the augite. This con-
troverts Williams’ view that these so-called zonal hornblendes
are the effect of dynamic action, as also that of Van Hise that
they represent secondary growths.

Briefly summarized the evidence commonly adduced for
asserting the derivation of compact hornblende from augite is
as follows:

1. The zonal arrangement of hornblende around augite
and the presence of cores or fragments of augite in hornblende

individuals, (Hawes, Irving, Van Hise, Lawson, Winchell) .

2. The intimate intergrowth of the two minerals (Wil-
liams) .

3. The imperceptible gradation intc each along their com-
mon boundary (Williams) .

* Lawson, A. C., Ann. Report Geol. Sury. Can., New Ser., vol. iii, part 1,
p. 125F.

+ WINCHELL, N. H., Geological Survey of Minnesota, vol. v, 583.

42 The American Geologist. Sy Se

4. The presence of a common twinning plane (Williams) .

5. Differences in the coloration of hornblendes; cciorless
within with dark green zone without (Lawson); dark green
within surrounded by a colorless zone or the two intimately in-
tergrown (Winchell).

With the exception of the last all the phenomena thus far
considered may he paralleled in the igneous rocks in circum-
stances which leave no doubt of the primary character of the
hornblende as shown by professor Iddings in the rocks of Elec-
tric peak and Sepulchre mountain. There is no reason to
suppose that a like process of synchronous development may
not have taken place in the recrystallization of the gneisses and
other metamorphic rocks. ‘In support of this is the occurrence
described by the author* where the augite aid hornblende ap-
pear as independent growths. Their idiomorphic form and
their relations to each other and to adjoining minerals sug-
gest independent growth. As against the hornblende being
of magmatic origin we may note (1) its occurrence in the
rock which has suffered most from dynamic forces, and (2)
the absence of idiomorphic hornblende in the least altered
rock. While it. may be assumed that the elements of horn-
blende originally crystallized as augite it is evident that the
change here is not one of paramorphism, but perhaps a more
or less complete dissolution of the augite and a recrystalliza-
tion of both minerals.

Whether or not the conclusions in the above cited cases are
correct does not now concern us. In many and perhaps in all,
the inference seems a reasonable one, but it remains an infer-
ence only, the evidence offered lacking the elements of con-
vincing proof. Nor is such readily forthcoming owing to the
lack of criteria whereby cases of derivation may be clearly
distinguished from those due to synchronous growth as Id-
dings has pointed out.

There is one line of evidence, however, that may be regard-
ed as incontestable, viz., the presence of hornblende bands
bordering irregular fractures in the augite. In the author's
study of the syenite-gneiss of Canada such cases were ob-
served under such circumstances as to make the conclusion

* Syenite-Gneiss (Leopard Rock) from the Apatite Region of .Ottawa
Coun, Canada. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., vol. vii, p. 118.

Paramorphic Alteration of P\yroxene.-—Gordon. 43

of alteration irresistible. In some cases areas of compact
hornblende directly associated with the bordering bands of
hornblende and evidently identical with them appear at inter-
vals within the fractured zone. The hornblende occurs chiefly
in that portion of the crystal which has suffered most from
crushing. Standing alone this latter fact could not be regard-
ed as conclusive cvidence of alteration since the position of the
fracture may have been determined by the presence of original
hornblende intergrown with the augite, but taken in connection
with the bands bordering the fracture the whole seems to of-
fer conclusive evidence of alteration.

In descriptions of the crystalline schists there is a widely
prevalent tendency to ascribe all the compact hornblende to
the paramorphic alteration of augite on what, in view of the
foregoing, seems to be insufficient data, and sometimes pure
assumption. Without touching the validity of such views we
would suggest that there is need of caution here and that the
cause of petrography will be promoted by distinguishing clear-
ly between cases that are reasonable inferences only and those
that can be conclusively established; while statements based on
pure assumption should be avoided.

University of Washington.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO MINERALOGY.
By JoHN EYERMAN, Easton, Pa.
I. SOME ZEOLITES FROM MOORE STATION, NEW JERSEY.

This locality, which is situated a few miles south of Lam-
bertville along the Delaware river, bids fair to beccme as
famous as the historic Bergen tunnel. The opening is operated
by the Delaware River Quarry Co., and the material quarried
is used chiefly for road making and ballast. The rock is an
overflow of plagioclase hornblende and pyroxene.

_ Besides the zeolites, stilbite, natrolite, mesolite, and scol-
ecite, there are pecolite, datolite, apophyllite, prehnite, light
yellow calcite (scalenochedra common and of fair form up to
50 mm.) epidote, cuprite, chrysocolla, pyrite malachite and
opal. . ,

Sritpite: This is quite abundant and generally in large
masses of crystals. Sheaf-like crystals and globular-radiat-

44

The American Geologist.

July, 1904.

ing forms predominate, although the orthodome and prism and
pinacoids are frequently found; the former measure up to
35 mm., the single crystals up to 15 mm.
ations incrusting the rock are quite common.
Colors: milky white, gray, yellow, salmon, red-brown and

brown

Analyses, a, yellow; b,

red-brown:

c

JI

Fan-like radi-

grayish-» hite; d,

flat radiations on granite from McKinnon’s quarry, German-

town, Pa.

G.

SiO.
Al.O;
FeO;
CaO
NazO
K2O
H.0

NATROLITE:

ysis afforded:

PREHNITE:

a b c

2.209

58.53 57 .00 57-40

15.84 14.97 16.95

2.08

8.02 8.00
-63 -54
1.65

14.67 16.69 16.87

99.34 a9.76

a.
2.197

55.10
14.18

9.40
2.70
» .40
18.60

100.28

Less common than ‘stilbite, occurring in most
beautiful snow-white radiating acicular crystals up to :5 mm.
in length; base almost invariably of white calcite. An anal-

G.
SiO»
AleOs
CaO
Na:O
ie)
H:.O

2.228
47 .80
27.10

E.50
11.62

1.68

9.99

99.78

Generally occurs massive in narrow seams;
crystals rather rare; color Nile green:

Analysis of prehnite.

tb
OW Wb
b bd oO
on On
bo

oO ¢

Wo AN

to
+ owe
WwW unt ©

coal
8
=
a=

Contributions to Mineralogy.—Eyerman.

BS
oa

Il. THE Easton LOCALITY.

The minerals of the syenite ridge and contiguous rocks
have long been known to collectors. This belt, appearing
in Warren Co., N. J., crosses the Delaware river a quarter
of a mile above Easton and extends southwesterly a distance
of three miles, thinning out at both ends. A belt of serpen-
tine forms the south contact between the syenyte and a gray
blue limestone of uncertain age. North of the syenyte is
found the same blue limestone which forms the southern con-
tact. The minerals occurring here (those in italics being
rarely found) are graphite, molybdenite (in precious serpen-
tine), chalcopyrite, chalcocite, pyrite, fluorite, galenite, gyp-
sum, quartz, limonite, hematite, calcite, aragonite, hydromag-
nesite, barite, celestite, strontiano-calcite, malachite, zircon*
tremolite, actinolite, asbestus, mountain leather, pyroxene, coc-
colite, sahlite, nephrite, serpentine, bowenite, tourmaline,
topaz, biotite, phlogopite, talc, orthoclase and prochlorite.

OrtHocLASE: Being an essential constituent of the rock
it is more or less common massive. Good crystals are occasion-
ally found and two analyses are given, a creamy white, from
Marble Hill, N. J.; b, light-red crystal, from the ridge north
of Easton.

Analysis of Orthoclase.

a b

G. 2.609 2.507
SiO, 65.73 66.14 mR
Al.Os 17.21 18.96
Fe.O; 2.58 .62
CaO 2.69 08
K.O 9.59 10.79
Na:O 2.41 3.00
ign. .40

100.21 99.99

TouRMALINE: Generally occurs massive, imbedded in
quartz, above the devil’s oven, Bushkill creek, west of Easton.
Good crystals up to 60 mm. showing a o m planes are oc-
casionally found, and an analysis of one of these crystals is
appended. Some brilliant black striated crystals 40 mm, long
have been found at Marble Hill, imbedded in orthoclese.

*I havein my possession some dark brown crystals doubly terminated of
fine form 15 mm. long imbedded in biotite.

40 The American Geologist. July, 1308

Analysis of Tourmaline.

G. 2.901
SiOz 35.57
T1i0; .18
B.O; 10.10
Al.O; 24.72
FeO; ial tyy
FeO 9.40
CaO 3.42
MgO 8.29
Na.O 2.10
K.0 40
LiO [os
H.0 4.23
1B undet.
99.58

BIoTITE: Very common, usually in small plates dissem-
inated throughout the rocks of the serpentine belt. Good
crystals are occasionally found and one large one in my
possession measures 50 mm. in length. The smaller and
more slender crystals are the most common. a, silver-white;
b light brown; c, dark brown.

Analysis of Biotite.

a b G

G. 2.712 2.880
SiO: 41.07 41.12 40. 32
AlOs 23.34 17.28 18.03
. KO; 4.35 3.14 5.80
MgO 23.00 24.00 24.79
CaO .89 .46

Na.O 1.60° .42

KO 6.30 9.50 10.50
H.0 .26 3:56 226
99.92 99.86 100.15

ProcHLoriTeE: Analyses of decomposed and altered olive-
green (a) and light-green (b) material from William’s Bush-
kill quarry afforded:

a b
G. 2.603 2.533
SiO: 33.96 34.01
Al:Os 14.41 15.74
FeO 3.81 5.70

CaO $e , 14

Ss

Contributions to Mineralogy.—Eyerman, 47
MgO 3420) 31.20
H.0 12.60 12.69

99.10 99.48

AMPHIBOLE: Many varieties are found, all more or less
massive. Analyses of actinolite (a) in grayish-green striated
crystals from the Reservoir quarry, and asbestus (b) in
long pure white fibres from the Delaware River quarry re-
sulted :

a b
SiO, 54-35 55-25
FeO 327 2.18
CaO 13.43 12.66
e MgO 28.05 30.19
ign. Te2s
09.35 100.28

SERPENTINE: A large number of analyses have been made,
three of which are here recorded:

a, Pure white variety, resembling c in association, color,
texture and grain; b, An altered aluminous variety, foliated;
both from Williams’ Delaware quarry, and c, The socalled
meerschaum from Middletown, Delaware Co.

a b c
G. 2.363 2.718
SiO, 44.21 39.83 44.58
Al.Os 2.72 6. 39 tr
FeO .52 T275 2.13
CaO .24 .07 tr
MgO 40.55 39.92 39-49
Na-O ‘ 1.11
H:O 12.42 10.23 12.91
100.66 99.26 99.11

Of the many minerals found in the serpentine helt, as
might be expected, the majority are more or less altered, and
pseudomorphs are not uncommon.

III. GARNET.

In my account of the mineralogy of the French Creek
mines (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., viii, 1889) I mention
lime-iron garnets as occurring in considerable quantities at
shaft No. 1. These occur in large groups of dodecahedral.
crystals with truncated edges, single crystals varying in size
from 5 to 25 mm.; color very dark brown; fracture resinous.

48 The American Geologist. : July, 1904.

(a) French Creek. This variety is also fairly abundant at the
Franconia Iron mine a mile and a half from Sugar Hill P. O.,
N. H., associated with epidote and hornblende (b). I also give
an analysis (c) of the variety almandite containing consider-
able manganese and found in large dodecahedral crystals with
truncate edges at Bishop’s Mill, Middletown, Delaware Co.
Color: dark brown.

Analysis of garnets.

a b G

G. 3.719 3.991
SiO, 35.42 35.65 36.22
Al.O; 851 27 24.58
FeO: 21.04 25.59
FeO 300711
MnO 9.88 1.82 8.97
CaO 25.67 32.96

100.52 99.78 100.48

IV. GENTH’S UNDESCRIBED ZEOLITE.

Dr. F. A. Genth in his Mineralogy of Pennsylvania (p.
110.) gives an analysis of an undescribed zeolite having an
inclusion of calcite (b). Several vears ago I obtained a small
quantity of material, consisting of badly distorted crystals,
but undoubtedly tetragonal and resembling the apophyllite
from French Creek. Color: white, transparent; lustre: vitre-
ous. H. 4-4.5; Gr. 2.609. _B.B. easily fusible, becoming
opaque, and giving alkaline reaction. Calcite not present.

An analysis a afforded

sere b

S102 39256 43.36
Al:O3 26.38 28.78
CaO 14.80 10.95
Na:O .87 .68
K:O 2.22 1.38
H.0 16.59 15.52

100.48 100.67

It is evident that Dr. Genth’s zeolite is different from the
one under consideration, but until more and better developed
crystals are obtained it is useless to ascribe it to any known
species and still less so to assume that it is new. The material
analyzed, however, was entirely pure.

Permian Fish Menaspis.—Dean. 49

IN' THE MATTER OF THE PERMIAN FISH
MENASPIS.

By BASHFORD DEAN, New York.
PLATE II.

Among fossil fishes, Menaspis has been the source of con-
siderable discussion. For, while it belongs, generally speak-
ing, within the interesting circle of the more ancient sharks,
it shows structures which are so puzzling one does not wonder
that very discordant views have been held regarding its posi-
tion in the system of fishes. ‘

Thus, Ewald early maintained that it was akin to Cepha-
laspis. Jaekel, on the other hand, contended that it represented
a “Trachyacanthid,” that is, a “placoid” connected with Coch-
liodus, Oracanthus, Sandalodus, Onchus.* Among other ex-
perts, A. Smith-Woodward has regarded it as an armored
shark of ‘some unknown group,” and Reis has placed it near
the xenacanthids, 7.e., ichthyotomous sharks, but later empha-
sized its chimzeroid characters. The discussion, however, has
subsided during the past decade, and it is gnly in the light of
an undescribed fossil and after a re-examination of the valu-
able chimzroid material in the British Museum, and in the
Paleontological Museum in Jermyn street, that the present
writer has been led to reopen the question of its relationships.

Menaspis is remarkable on two main grounds. The head
region, Fig. 1A, is surmounted by what appears to be a series
of paired spines (some of which are of a kind apparently un-
known in any fishlike vertebrate) which pass from the region
of the mouth backward on eithér side in a graded series.
Second, the region which has been regarded as the trunk is en-
closed in broad, almost plate-like tubercles, of which a posterior
pair protrudes backward, Fig. 1A, C*, suggesting somewhat the
posterior rim of the shoulder armoring in an Ostracophore.
These features, it may be remarked, are fully taken into ac-
count by professor Jaekel in his description (1891) of the im-
portant example of the fossil noticed by Giebel and Ewald.

“To Jaekel, in short, it typifies a stage in the phylogeny of fishes where
the dentition was plate-like and permanent, and where the dermal armoring
was gradually becoming reduced in transition from the plated palwozoic
fishes to the shagreen coated sharks. He later (’99) shifts his ground and
admits that Trachyacanthids may occupy a position intermediate between
-sharks and chimzroids.

50 The American Geologist. July, 1304.

And it is these features, in fact, that have furnished the basis
of later discussion.

_ One naturally reasons, a priori, that the key of the puzzle
of Menaspis will be forthcoming when abundant and better
preserved specimens are secured. But this reflection gives
little comfort when for a decade no satisfactory material has
been brought to light. There is thus, as far as I am aware,
but a single additional specimen to be drafted into the dis-
cussion. This, it may be mentioned, has been secured by the
Prussian paleontological museum. And it is primarily from
the examination of this specimen which, thanks to the courtesy
of professor Jaekel, the present writer had the privilege of
examining during a recent visit to Berlin, that the following
notes are suggested.

The undescribed specimen is of especial value since it pre-
serves the dental plates. And from the size of these elements
one is led to conclude that the head could not have been en
closed within the region suggested by earlier authors, and
that, accordingly; the posterior spines, hitherto regarded as of
the hinder trunk region, mark in reality the region of the oc-
ciput. This view is indicated in the accompanying restoration,
Fig. IA, which has been based upon a combination of the
contours of the earlier and newer specimens. Confirming this
view, moreover, is the presence of the mucous canals already
described in Jaekel’s (1891) paper. Two of these are present
on either side of the head, Fig. 1A, MC, one representing the
frontal canal, the other the supraorbital. Two additional
points strengthen the newer interpretation, first, the presence
of shagreen tubercles lying at the side of the fossil, as pictured
by Jaekel, and second, the position of the bases of the fins, as
also given in the cited work. In the first regard, it may be re~
called, Jaekel maintained that these shagreen plates are widely
displaced, having been crushed into a lateral position during
the process of fossilization: according to the present interpre-
tation, these plates, Fig. 1A, L S, remain in approximately
their normal position, as the only remnants—somewhat denud-
ed, but corresponding in arrangement with those on the op-
posite side of the body—of the armoring of the trunk pre-
served on this side of the fish. In the second regard, it will
be seen that the pectoral fin is in its usual position with respect

Tam AMpRICAN GroLoaist, Vou. XXXIV. ; PLATE II.

PERMIAN FISH, MENASPIS.

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Permian Fish Menaspis.—Dean. 51

to the head.* According to Jaekel’s interpretation, on the
other hand, a large gap must have existed between the head
and the pectoral region, and consequently, there was present, or
might have been present, a greater number of gills in this
form. One observes, furthermore, that in the present render-
ing the ventral fin occurs in the position in which it usually
occurs in shark-shaped fishes. In Jaekel’s interpretation, on
the contrary, they must have occupied a position far back on
the trunk, in the neighborhood, in fact, of the caudal fin.*
Jaekel infers that a dorsal fin could hardly have been present
in Menaspis. If, however, the present explanation is just, a
dorsal fin may well have existed, although it has not been pre-
served in the type fossil. Its position is suggested by a dotted
line in the restoration, DF, and the line of shagreen denticles
shown in the fossil may have passed beside it, as in the case of
chimeeroids, both living and fossil.

The dental plates shown in the Berlin specimen, together
with the entire fossil, will, it is to be hoped, be shortly figured
by professor Jaekel, so that their more definite relations (c.g.
to Deltodus and similar forms) may be accurately determined.
I may, however, be permitted to note that they are strikingly
chimeroid in character, reminding one of Rhynchodus, al-
though showing no conspicuous tritoral areas. In any event,
the number of these plates is but four, as in the Devonian
chimaeroid.

Menaspis and its Relation to Chimaeroid Fishes.

If Menaspis, a Permian form, be closely related to chime-
roids, it possesses the interest of being the earliest representa-
tive of this ancient group whose body structures are preserved.
And that it is essentially chimzroid is shown from the follow-
ing grounds:

(1) Resemblance to Myriacanthids—These Mesozoic
chimeroids possess a series of lateral head spines which agree
essentially with those indicated by M.S., C C? and C*, in the
present restoration, Fig. 1A. Especially convincing is the sim-
ilarity of the anterior lateral spines in myriacanthids and Men-
aspis. In the later form, however, the extreme rim of the

* The left pectoral fin in the first specimen appears to have been bent
under the body, and has been partly exposed by the breaking away of the
upper portion of the fossil, judging from Jackel’s figure.

+ He does not explain, however, how this tallies with his view that Men-
aspis was ray-like in habit.

/

52 The American Geologist. ml

spine is provided, naturally perhaps, on account of its more
recent appearance, with more highly differentiated denticles,
Cf. Fig. 1C. The lateral head spine of myriacanthid has hith-
erto been regarded as a “dermal plate”* and its projecting den-
ticles have not been perfectly preserved. The writer is, ac-
cordingly, greatly indebted to professor E. T. Newton of the
Palzontological Museum in Jermyn street, for the privilege
of examining an unfigured specimen of “Prognathodus gun-
ther’ (Myriacanthus paradoxus), from the classic locality at
Lyme Regis, which shows these antero-lateral spines in ap-
proximately their natural position. One observes in passing
that the spines in this specimen had a well marked basal re-
gion ensuring their firm attachment, and we have thus addi-
tional evidence for regarding the group of trachyacanthids as
an artificial one, Jaekel having maintained that the lateral head
spines of Menaspis, which are closely to be compared with the
present spine of myriacanthids are practically without basal
expansion.

(2) Dentition. The dental plates, as above noted, are
four in number, and agree essentially with those of Rhyncho-
dus. One notes, in this regard, the peculiar ridge passing
along the buccal face of the plate, which finds its apparent
homologue in many chimzroids. How closely its tritoral
elements correspond remains to be determined by histological
study. Moreover, as here denoted, the plates agree with those
of chimzeroids in their proportion to the size of the head. .

(3) Dermal scutes——These agree in essential characters
with those of Mesozoic chimeroids, notably Squaloraja.

(4) Relations of the mucous canals.—These are denoted
in the restoration and will be found to agree essentially with
those of chimeroid. (Cf. Fig. 1B.)- They are. moreover,
open canals as in recent chimeroids.

(5) Characters of the paired fins—The basal elements
resemble strikingly those of Squaloraja.

(6) ' Disposition of the so-called paired head spines de-
noted by I, II and III in the restoration, Fig. 1A.—These
structures, shown by Reis to be fibro-cartilage rather than
vaso-dentine, apparently correspond to the so-called lip cartil-
ages of Squaloraja. They are, it is true, unjointed, but from

—
*Both Woodward and Jaekel have indicated that these spines may have
had their position on the sides of the head, Oracanthus-like.

-

Permian Fish Menaspis.—Dean. 53

their rounded bases, as is well shown in the type specimen,
they were evidently movable. In point of size, moreover, they
best correspond to the elements referred to in Squaloraja.
Such structures would, moreover, be apt to take a position
dorsal to the antero-ventro-lateral head spines during the pro-
cess of fossilization.

The above considerations lead us, accordingly, to infer
that Menaspis, although showing a number of shark-like fea-
tures, was an early chimeroid. Its likeness to chimzroid
rather than to shark is shown notably in the dentition, in the
character and disposition of the lateral head spines, and in the
remarkable paired “spines” which may be compared to the
“labial” structures of Squalorajid. Conclusive proof of its
chimeeroid affinities, however, will be lacking until it can be
shown that the erectile frontal spine was present in the male
(the type specimen may have been a female), and that it pos-
sessed a dorsal fin-spine and the peculiar vertebral-column
known to have been possessed by chimzroids from mesozoic
times. The evidence for the present interpretation of Men-
aspis is at least adequate, I conclude, to enable us to inter-
pret the most troublesome features of the fossil. It is no
longer a nebulous “trachyacanthid” with vague affinities to
doubtful early groups, but instead, a form well proportioned,
(Cf. Figs. 1A and B), after the fashion of shark or chime-
roid, but with its major features allying it with the latter
group. It is remarkable in the possession of well-marked lat-
- eral head spines, and in a series of three pairs of greatly elon-
gated and curidusly unsegmented spine-shaped cartilages. In
the former regard, agreeing with older chimezeroids, it presents
more specialized dermal developments than are known to have
been developed in the contemporary sharks. In the latter re-
gard it is certainly extraordinary, although, as above noted,
somewhat similar structures exist in Squaloraja. In short,
we reasonably conclude that in Menaspis there is preserved
a Permian chimeroid representing a distinct family (Men-
aspide A. S. W.) provisionally to be placed near the Myria-
canthidz and Squalorajide. The larger question of the re-
lationships of the chimzroids need hardly enter into the pres-
ent discussion. It may be enough to indicate that in the mat-
ters of dermal defenses and teeth the Permian chimeroids re-
semble the contemporary cestraciont sharks.

54 The American Geologist. July, 1904,

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

Contributions to the Geology of Washington: Geology and Physiog-
raphy of Central Washington. By Grorce Otis SmirH. Physiog-
raphy and Deformation of the Wenatchee-Chelan District, Cascade
Range. By Batrey Wittis. U. S. Geol. Survey, Professional Pa-
per, No. 19. Pages 101, with 20 plates and 3 figures in the text.
1903.

The first part of this work comprises 39 pages, with seven plates,
in which Dr. Smith shows that the region of the Cascade range in
Washington, after the eruption of its great lava flows of Miocene age,
was reduced by general erosion in the Pliocene period to a low pene-
plain, which, toward the end of that period and later, was uplifted to
form the Cascade range, with great erosion during the uplift and to
the present time. These studies supplement the former work of Rus-
sell, and confirm his estimate that the maximum vertical extent of the
late Pliocene and Pleistocene uplift was about 7,500 feet along parts of
the axis of the range.

The uplift appears to have been a broad upward flexure or arch-
ing of the earth’s crust upon an area averaging about a hundred miles
in width and extending from south to north across the state of Wash-
ington. On the eastern slope of the range, extensive warping produced
broad buttresses, one of which is represented by the Wenatchee moun-
tains, culminating in Mt. Stuart, o,470 feet high, fifteen miles east of
the main crest of the Cascade range.

South of the Wenatchee mountains, minor ridges, from 2 or 3 miles
to 10 miles or more in width, running easterly from the Cascade range,
were gently arched to hights of 1,c00 to 3,000 feet above the valleys;
and the Yakima river intersects several of these ridges in its canyons
below Ellensburg. This river, like the Columbia in its cutting through
the high Cascade range, remains in the same course which it had before
the complex uplifts and warping of the Miocene and older eruptive and
sedimentary rock formations. The rivers are older than the mountains.

Willis, in the second part of this work, discusses the evidences of
these great events in the history of the Cascade region as observed by
him in the district of the Wenatchee, Entiat, Chelan, and Methow
mountains, eastern buttresses of the great main range, with the valley
gorges or canyons of lake Chelan and the Columbia river. He esti-
mates the area of the Cascade uplift in Washington to be about 20,000
square miles. Its time of broad erosion, producing a low peneplain with
monadnocks, is named by Willis the Methow stage, and is considered
as a part of the Pliocene period. Two stages of uplift, named the
Entiat and Twisp stages, are recognized, and are referred to the end
of the Pliocene period, with probability that they extend iato the Pleis-
tocene period so far as to include the time of accumuiation of the
continental ice-sheet.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 55

To the reviewer, these uplifts seem capable of correlation, in respect
to their time and origin, with the latest uplifting of the region traversed
by the Colorado river in its grand canyon, with the latest elevation
and eastward inclination of the great plains east of the Cordilleran
mountain belt, and with the epeirogenic uplifts of North America and
Europe that are made known by their deep fiords and submarine val-
leys. The broad continental uplifts, contemporaneous -with the Cas-
cade orogenic movements, were doubtless tke chief cause of the gla-
ciation of both continents. W. U.

Christian Faith in an Age of Science. By WittrAm Nort Rice. Crown
Octavo, pp. 425. New OF A. C. Armstrong and Co. 1903. Net
$1.50.

This book is written from the standpoint of a scientific Christian
scholar, whose candor and acumen, the result of scientific training and
long and wide study, have brought forcibly to his mind the apparerit
non-agreements between science and some popular Christian beliefs,
and whose Christian faith has spurred him to-hold on to the fundament-
al principles of Christianity. He allows those biblical corrections whicua
have been made necessary by late criticism, but shows that they do not
affect the main scope and purpose of the biblical revelation. They are
inherent in the human vehicle in which the revelation is made. in
other words, the scriptures are not inerrant.

The writer has read the volume entire, with much satisfaction and
sometimes with delight. The book is destined to be of great service
to the thoughtful scientist, whether Christian or agnostic. It has
a wide sweep of discussion. Its style is simple and its statements are
candid and fearless. It will not please everyone, for it ieans in some
parts, so far away from some of the accepted doctrines of the church
that strict adherents of the dogmas will denounce it as 1ion-Christiaa,
but its close bond with modern science will win for it and for Christian-
ity the confidence of the earnest and thoughtful of all readers. The
author combines in his personality the qualities of an able and fearless
seeker after truth in the science of the day, and of a reverent and firm
believer in God and his immanence in nature, and in the essentials of
Christianity. N. H. W.

The Cambric Dictyonema Fauna of the Slate Belt of Eastern New
York. By RupotpnH RupEMANN. New York State Mi.seum Bulletin
69, 1902 (1903).

This paper is of much interest to American and Canadian geologists
as it contains a very full discussion of the relation of the Dictyonemi
zone to the Cambrian and Ordovician systems.

The author gives an account-of the position of this band in Scandin-
avia, and the elaborate studies Linnarsson, Tullberg, Lundgren and
Brégger upon its fossils, and its relation to the Cambrian types below
and Ordovician above. “The northern Enropean palzontoiogists almos*
without exception, have agreed” to place this band as the “termination
of the primordial (Cambrian) fauna.”

56 The American Geologist. Tey toe

On the other hand, the English geologists, including Prof. Geikie,
still include in the Cambrian the next group (Tremadoc) above this
band, though Brogger and others show that the paleon‘ological evi-
dence is against such a decision. The use of the term Cambrian is
based on historical usage, and the acceptance of the Arenig fauna
as the base of. the Ordovician.

Dr. Rudemann, from the conditions at Navy island, in the St. John
basin, finds evidence (shown by Matthew) that the Dictyonema zone
should be included in the Cambrian; but he holds with the continentai
paleontologists that the division line for the summit of the Cambriaa
should be drawn at the top of this zone. He alludes in terms of ap-
proval to the work of Ells and Ami on the rocks of the Quebec gro:ip
in the typical region, but he probably misunderstands Ells’ table of the
divisions in these rocks in attributing the two lower to Lower Cam-
brian on account of remains of Olenellus thompsoni. Ells’ meaning
probably is that the fossils are contained in the pebbles of the con-
glomerate in division 2, in which case these divisions are not neces-
sarily Lower Cambrian. :

Rudemann’s result would appear not to agree with C. D. Walcott’s
opinion of the limit of the Cambrian (see page 953, fourth paragraph),
for he, Walcott, would include the Dictyonema zone in *he lower Or-
dovician. Moberg has suggested a similar view of this zone in Scan-
dinavia, but, as Rudemann has shown, it does not apply in America.

Dr. Rudemann seems to think it will be possible to divide the Dic-
tyonema zone in America into two or three sub-zones, as has been done
for that of Europe in Sweden.

Three plates are given to show the lithological aspect of the Dic-
tyonema beds on the Hoosic river in New York. The article is pre-
liminary to a work on the graptolites of New York by this author.

G. F. M.

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY.

ADAMS, GEO. ft. (and others).

Gypsum deposits in the United States. Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S.,
pp. 129, 21 plates, 1904.

BARBER, W. B.

On the lamprophyres and associated igneous rocks of the Ross-
land mining district, British Columbia (Am. Geol.,. vol 33, pp. 335-
347, May, 1904.)

BERKEY, C. P.

Mineral resources of the Uintah mountains. (Eng. Min. Jour.,
vol. 77, p. 841, May 26, 1904.)

Author's Catalogue.

un
N

BLAKE, W. P.
Gypsum deposits in Arizona. (Bull. 2238 U. S. Geol. Sur., p. 100.)

BOUTWELL, J. M.
Gypsum deposits in Utah. (Bull. 223 U. S. G. S., p. 102.)

BRANNER, JOHN C.

The stone reefs of Brazil, their geological and geographical rela-
tions, with a chapter on the coral reefs. Vol. 44, Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool., pp. 285, 99 plates, May, 1904. Cambridge, Mass.

BROADHEAD, G. C.
The Loess. (Am. Geol... vol. 33, p. 393, May, 1904.)

CHAPMAN, R. H.

The value of topographic maps. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol.
May 26, 1904.)

CLAPP, F. G.

Relations of gravel deposits in the northern part of glacial
lake Charles, Massachusetts. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 198-215, April-
May, 1904.,

CLARKE, J. M.

The destruction of Niagara Falls. (The Polytechnic, Troy, N. Y.,
vol. 20, pp. 177-182, May 28, 1904.)

CROSBY, W. O. 5

Structure and composition of the delta plains formed during the
Clinton stage in the glacial lake of the Nashua valley. (Tech. Quart.,
vol. 16, pp. 240-254, vol. 17, pp. 37-75.)

CROSBY, W. O.

Geology of the Weston aqueduct of the Metropolitan water
works in Southboro, Framingham, Wayland and Weston, Massa-
chusetts. (Tech. Quart., vol; 17, pp. 101-116, Mar., 1904.)

CROSBY, W. O.

The hanging valleys of Georgetown, Colorado. (Tech. Quart.,
vol. 16, pp. 41-50, March, 1903.)

CROSBY, W. O.

A study of the geology of the Charles river estuary and Boston
harbor, with special reference to the building of the proposed dam
across the tidal portion of the river. (Tech. Quart., vol. 10, pp. 64-92,
June, 1903.)

lea
fa

; Dp. 843.

DARTON, N. H.
Gypsum depesits of South Dakota. (Bull. 223 U. S. G. S., p. 76.)

DARTON, N. H.

Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Ne-
braska west of the one hundred and third meridian. U. S. G. S.,
Prof. Pap. No. 17, pp. 69, 48 plates, 1903.

DAVIS, W. M.
An excursion to the plateau province of Utah and Arizona. (Bull.

-

Comp. Zool., vol 42, pp. 1-50. 7 plates. June, 1903.)

58 The American Geologist. Toy, ae

DAY, DAVID T. ?
Mineral resources of the United States, 1902. U. S. G. S., 1904

DAY, DAVID T.
Gypsum deposits in Florida. (Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 47.)

DERN, GEO. H.

The Geology of Murcur. (Mines and Minerais, vol. 24, p. 542,
June, 1904.)
DOMINIAN, L. (E. P. SMITH and).

Notes on a trip to White Oaks, New Mexico. (Eng. Min. Jour.,
vol. 77, p. 799, May 19, 1904.)
ECKEL SE. 7G.

Gypsum deposits in Virginia. (Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 36.)

EGKEL, (E. Cs 4 -

Gypsum deposits in New York. (Bull. No. 225, U. S. G. S., pp.
33-35.) 4
EGGLESTON, J. W.

Physiography—An eutline of its scope and applications. (Bull.
Schl. Mines, Colorado, vol. 2, pp. 96-110. May. 1904.)

EMMONS, §S, F.

Theories of ore deposition historically considered. Bull. G. S. A.,
vol. 15, pp. 1-28, Jan. 1904.
FAIRBANKS, M. L.

Gypsum deposits in California (Bull. 223 U. S. G. S., p. 117.)

FULLER, M. L.
Ice retreat in glacial lake Neponset and in southeastern Massa-
chusetts. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 181-198, Apr.-May, 1904.)

GIDLEY, J. W.
Proper generic names of Miocene horses. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist., vol. 20, pp. 191-194. May 28, 1904.)

GILBERT, G. K.
The mehcanism of the Mont Pelé spine. (Science, vol 19, p. 927,
June 17, 1904.)

GILBERT, G. K.

Domes and dome structure of the high Sierra. (Bull. G. S. A.,
vol. 15, pp. 29-36. pls. 1-4. Feb., 1904.)
GOULD, C. N.

Gypsum deposits in Cklahoma. (Bull. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 60.)
GRIMSLEY, G. P.

Gypsum deposits in Michigan. (Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 45.)

GRIMSLEY, G. P.
Gypsum deposits in Kansas. (Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S. p. 53.)

HALL, C. M. (J E TODD and).

Geology and water resources of part of lower James river valley,
South Dakota. U. S. G. S., Wat. Sup. frrigation Papers, No. 90, pp.
47, 1904.

Author's Catalogue. 59

HAMILTON, S H.

The mineral industry:—The Cement industry. (Rep. State Geol.,
1903. New Jersey, pp. 95-112.)
HERRICK, C. L.

The clinoplains of the Rio Grande. (Am. Geol., vol. 23, pp. 376-
881, May. 1904.)
MERRICK, C..L.

Block mountains in New Mexico: a correction. (Am. Geol., vol.
33, p 393, May, 1904.)
HERRICK, C. L.

A coal measure forest near Socorro, New Mexico. (Jour. Geol.,.
vol. 12, pp. 237-252. Apr.-May, 1904.)
HERRICK, H.N.

Gypsum deposits of New Mexico. (Bull. 223. U. S. G. S., p. 89.)

MeERSHEY, \O:-H.

The Bragdon formation in northwestern California: concluded.
(Am. Geol., vol. 33, pp. 347-360. May, 1904.)

HILGARD, E. W.
Proposed examination of the arid belts in South Africa and South
America. (Am. Geol., vol. 33, p. 394, May. 1904.)

RIEL: B: FE:
Gypsum deposits in Texas. (Bull. 223, U. S. Geol. Sur., p. 68.)

Fy DE, J:.E. t
Changes in the drainage near Lancaster. (Ohio Nat. vol. 4. p.
146, May, 1904.)
IDDINGS, JOS. P.
Quartz-Feldspar prophyry (graniphyre liparose-alaskose) from
Llano, Texas. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12. pp. 225-232, Apr.-May, 1904.)

JOHNSON, D. W.
The Geology of the Cerillos hills, New Mexico. (School of Mines
Quart., vols. 24°and 25, 1903.)

KAIN, S. W.
Recent earthquakes in New Brunswick. (Buil. Nat. Hist. Soc.
N. B., vol. 5, pp. 243-245, June, 1904.)

KINDLE, E. M.
Note on some concretions in the Chemung of southern New
York. (Am. Geol., vol. 33, pp. 360-363, May, 1904.)

KLOCKMANN, F.
On the formation of certain ore deposits. (Eng. and Min. Jour.,
vol. 77. p. 964, June 16, 1904.)

KNAPP, G. N.
Underground waters of New Jersey:—Welis drilled in 1903.

(Rep. State Geologist, New Jersey, 1903, pp. 73-84.)

KNIGHT, W. C.
Gypsum deposits in Wyoming. (Bull. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 79.)

60 The American Geologist. July, 1904.

KUMMEL, H. B.

Annual report of the State Geologist for the year 1903. pp. 132,
Trenton, N. J. ’

LAKES, ARTHUR.
Gypsum deposits in Colorado. (Bull. 223,°U0. S: G.S,.p.e6.)

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR.
Gypsum deposits in Colorado. Bull. 223, U. S. G S., p. 86.)

ELOY Dy or. Es

The delta of the Mississippi. (Jour. Geog., val. 3, p. 204, May,
1904.)
LOUDERBACK, GEO. D.

Gypsum deposits in Nevada. (Bull. 223 U: S. G. S., p. 112.)

MOORE, CHAS. J.
Geology applied to mining, or the practical use of geology in
mining. (Bull. Schl. Mines, Colorado, vol. 2, pp. 68-84, May, 1904.

PEPPEL, S. V.
Gypsum deposits in Ohio. (Bull. No. 223, U. S. G. S., p. 37.)

' PETERS, W. J. (F. C. SCHRADER and).

A reconnoissance in northern Alaska, across the Rocky moun-
tains, along Koyukuk, John, Anaktuvuk and Colville rivers, and
the Arctic coast to Cape Lisburne, in 1901. U. S. Geol. Sur., Prof.
Pap. No. 20, pp. 139, 16 plates, 1904.

POOR, CHAS. LANE.

Record of the meetings of the New York Academy of Sciences,
January to December, 1903. (Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. vol. 15, pp. 155-
215, May, 1904.)

RANSOME, F. L.

Faulting in the Globe district. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 77, p. 802,
May 19, 1904.

RANSOME, F. L.

Geology of the Globe Copper District, Arizona. Prof. Pap. Wwe se
G@S:, No. 12,.pp: 168, 27 plates, 1903:

The physical geography and geology of Connecticut. (Conn. Bd.
Agrcul. Rep. for 1908, pp. 94-112.)

RICHARDS, R. W.

New habit of chalcopyrite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 17, p. 425, June,
1904.)
RIES, H.

The clays of the United States east of the Mississippi river.
Prof. Pap. No. 11, U. S. G. S., pp. 298. 9 plates. 1903.)
REID Iai. ibs

The variations of glaciers, ix. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 252-264.
Apr.-May, 1904.)
RICE, W. N.

The proper scope of geological teaching in the high school and
academy. (Proc. Nat. Ed. Ass., 1908. pp. 853-856.)

Author’s Catalogue. 61

RIGGS, E. S.

Dinosaur footprints from Arizona. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 17, pp
423-425, June, 1904.)
Rizer, H. C. 9fifi,ze 3ieol., Bvr cmfwyp vbgkqj cmfwyp vbgkq xz

RIZER, H. C.

The United States Geological Survey, Bull. 227, U. S. G. S., pp.
205, 9 plates. 1904. :

RUSSELL, I. C.

Research in state universities. (Science, vol. 19, p. 841. June 3,
1904.)

SCHRADER, F. C. (and W. J. PETERS).

A reconnoissance in norther Alaska, across the Rocky mountains,
along Koyukuk, John, Anaktuvuk and Colville rivers, and the Arc-
tic coast to cape Lisburne, in 1901, U. S. G. S., Prof. Pap. No. 20,
pp. 139, 16 pl., 1904.

SCHUCHERT, CHARLES.

Charles Emerson Beecher. portrait. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 17, pp.
411-422, June, 1904.)

SMITH, E. P. and L. DOMINIAN).

Notes-on a trip to White Oaks, New Mexico (Eng. ‘Min. Jour., vol.
17; p. 799, May 19, 1904.)

STERRETT, D. B.
Tourmaline from San Diego county, California. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 17, pp. 459-465, June, 1904.)

STEVENSON, JOHN J.
Carboniferous of the Appalachian basin. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15.
pp. 37-210, May, 1904.)

SUESS, EDWARD.

Farewell lecture on resigning his professorship. Translated by
Charles Schuchert. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 264-276, Apr.-May, 1904.)

TODD, J. E. (and C. M. HALL).

Geology and water resources of part of lower James river valley,
South Dakota. U. S. G. S., Wat. Sun. Irrigation Papers, No. 90, pp.
47, 1904.

TVHheLeL, J. Bb. *

Crystosphenes, or buried sheets of ice in the tundra of Northern
America. (Jour. Geol. vol. 12, pp. 232-237. Apr.-May, 1904.)

UPHAM, WARREN.

Boulders due to rock decay. (Am. Geol., vol. 35, pp. 370-375, May,
1904.)

VERMEULE, C. C.

Report on a proposed tide waterway between Bay Head and
Manasguan inlet. (Rep. State Geol. New Jersey, 1903, pp. 1-17.)

62 The American Geologtst. July, 1904.

VERMEULE, C. C.

The floods of October, 1903.—Passaic floods and their control.
(Rep. State’ Geol. New Jersey, 1903, pp. 17-45.)

WARD, HENRY A.

Catalogue of the Ward-Coonley collection of meteorites. pp. 118,
8 plates, Chicago, 1904.

WARREN, C. H.

Petrographical notes en the rock of the Western aqueduct. (Tech.
Quart., vol. 17, pp. 117-123, Mar. 1904.)

WATSON, THOS. L.

The leopardite (quartz porphyry) of North Czrolina. (Jour. Geol.
vol., 12, pp. 215-225, Apr.-May, 1904.)

WEED, W. H.
Gypsum deposits in Montana. (Bull. 223 U. S. G. S., p. 74.)

WIEDER; F:.°A:
Gypsum deposits in Iowa. (Bull. No. 228, U. S. G. S., p. 48.)

WILSON, E. B.

The theory of ore deposits applied to prospecting.—Influence of
aque-igneous solutions and fossiis on ore formations. (Mines and
Minerals, vol. 24, p. 527, June, 1904.)

WOODMAN, J. E.

Nomenclature of the gold-bearing metamorphic series of Nova
Scotia. (Am. Geol., vol. 33, pp. 364-375, May, 1904.)

WOODWARD, HENRY.

Professor Charles Emerson Beecher. (Geol. Mag., Dec. v, vol. 1,
p. 284, portrait.)

CORRESPONDENCE. :

Eruption oF Mauna Loa, 1903. On Monday afternoon, October 5,
1903, as the British ship Ormesery was approaching the west coast of
Hawaii, the sea was observed to be boiling as though from great springs
beneath the surface. The temperature increased perceptibly and the ship
received a shock as from a tidal wave from the coast. The ship was
forced astern by the impact. When land was sighted during the early
afternoon of Tuesday, October 6, 1903, a column of smoke was noticed
rising from the summit crater of Mauna Loa. First mate Carter who
made the observation described the column as about two miles high and
three-fourths of a mile wide.

Late in the afternoon of Tuesday, October 6, the officers of the Orm-
esery observed what seemed to be a stream of lava flowing down the

Correspondence. 63

sides of the mountain. The smoke cloud reflected the glow of the fir

Surveyors Baldwin and Dodge reported what seemed to be a flon
among the small cones on the southwest of the,mountain, going toward
Kahuku along the general line of the flows of 1868 and 1887. This
flow was probably lost among the many cones and chasms of that slope
as it was soon lost sight of.

The smoke from the summit crater rcse in three columns, two small
ones and one large one. The columns were aligned almost due east and
west. The larger column was on the east towards Hamakua. The col-
umns as they rose united to form one great column that rose to a great
hight and in some cases spread out like a great umbrella, the under part
reflecting the dull glow of the fires beneath.

Eruption of Mauna Loa, October, 1903.

Many wild stories were circulated, and among them was one, of
some ranchmen, that the lava was overflowing the crater wall at th
lowest point and flowing down towards south Kana in the general lin
of the flow of 1859. This report, although verified by two different
parties, is probably not correct. The persons (ranchmen) ‘may have
seen what appeared to be a flow over the wall, but was simply a crack
filled with hot lava that failed to find an outlet. It seemed to be along

the line of weakness where vou might expect such phenomena.

64 ; The American Geologist. July, 1904,

The lava in the crater showed along a line running through the
crater northwest to southeast. There were three principal fire-fountains
from which the lava flowed over the crater floor. Steam issued in ail
directions over the whole crater floor, with an area of (three miles by
two and one-half miles) seven and one-half miles. It is said that the
crater floor rose 300 feet and then settled back to its old level.

On Monday, December 7th, at to p. m., the last glow from the fires
was seen and then blackness settled down over the mountain top.

Epcar Woop.
To C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H.

THE Dotomytes OF EASTERN JowaA. The experimental werk in this
investigation was done by Grace D. Bradshaw in the chemical labora-
tory of Cornell College. The purpose was to determine whether the
silica exists in a free condition, or is in the form of a silicate; also to
ascertain whether the iron is in the ferrous condition as carbonate, or
is in the form of ferric oxide, The rocks abound in many parts of Iowa
and belong to the Niagara formation. The stratified character, even in
a small field section, is apparent, and the layers differ somewhat in
composition as shown by the varying amounts of iron visible in differ-
ent portions. The rocks are used as building stone to manufacture
quick-lime, and in McAdam paving. F

To answer the first question as to the conditian of the silica six pairs
of determinations were made as follows:

(a). A gram of the finely powdered rock was placed in a small
beaker, and covered with a watch glass, a small quantity of dilute hy-
drochloric acid was added and the carbonates were dissolved by careful-
ly heating to the boiling point. The insoluble portion, which is the sili-
ca, was filtered off, dried in an air bath, and the weight determined.

(b). A gram of the fine powder placed in a porcelain evaporating
dish of rooce. capacity was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and
covered with a watch glass. It was warmed on the water bath until’
there was no further evolution of carbon dioxide. The watch glass
was removed and the dish was kept on the water bath until crystals
began to appear. Then as the drying continued, the substance was con-
stantly stirred with a glass rod until a fine dry powder resulted. The
powder was then moistened with a few drops of concentrated hydro-
ehloric acid, and 2occ. dilute hydrochloric acid (equal parts of concen-
trated hydrochloric acid and water) and about the same quantity of
water were added. The contents of the dish were then filtered and the
silica determined. The results for the two methods were as follows:

(a). (b),
1). 0.78 # 1)... SO-gayane
2). 0.76” 2). 0.408
5), OITA 3). O85
AN Sze 4). 0.91 ”
5). Pogge 5): | Otpies

6). “ooqe 6): Oagey

Correspondence. 65

The treatment described under (b) would decompose a silicate,
while the method under (a) would not. As the two series of results
are fairly concordant, the conclusion is that the silica exists as a fine
sand disseminated through the rock. A private communication from W.
H. Norton, of the Cornell College department of geology, states that
he came to the same conclusion while studying the rock with a petrolog-
ical microscope. The method described under (a) is simpler than (b),
and the work can be done in a much shorter time. It is therefore to be
preferred in the analysis of rock of this kind.

z. The condition of the iron.

A gram of the substance was introduced into a flask of 120cc. capa-
city, fitted with a bulb tube and Bunsen valve to prevent oxidation of
the iron. It was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid. A few drops of
the cooled solution were then withdrawn with a capillary tube and tested
with a crystal of potassium ferricyanide. No suggestion of a blue color
resulted, showing the iron to be in the ferric condition. This increases
the value of the rocks as a building material, as ferrous carbonate is an
unstable substance with a tendency to change to the ferric condition.
A complete analysis of the specimen resulted as follows:

Mei abas Moen thie @ pepsi Se se Ag 53-62%
TR gay oa a MD: oh eee 44.96%
SEC eR, Se iy ae eet ey ee aa 0.83%
NUN GSTS a Bes Hat She Six 1 Raa thy mt Hea NG 0.25%
Charman kets phd Niece hese he .5ys 0.34%

“913521 gos SRE oe eae 100.00%

The specimen is nearly a true dolomyte which contains : 54.35 per
cent calcium carbonate, 45.65 per cent magnesium carbonate.

This method of analysis was employed: After removing the silica
according to (a), a gram or two of pure ammonium chloride was added
to the filtrate to prevent the precipitation of magnesium. It was then
heated to boiling and a small excess of ammonia added which, precipi-
tates iron and alumina. They are determined together and then dis-
solved in the crucible with warm hydrochloric acid. The solution is
treated with caustic potash which precipitates the iron and dissolves the
alumina. The iron is filtered off and discarded because it can not be
thoroughly washed from the caustic potash. The filtrate is slightly acid-
ified with hydrochloric acid and the aluminum is precipitated with
freshly prepared ammonium sulphide. The precipitate when heated ina
crucible becomes Al.O;. The filtrate from the iron and alumina, con-
taining calcium and magnesium, is heated to boiling and precipitated

: N ; ; :
with an —>- solution of ammonium oxalate, care being used to avoid

much excess of the reagent. The precipitate was allowed to stand
eight to twelve hours before filtering. The well washed precipitate of
alcium oxalate containing also a small quantity of magnesium oxalate
was dissolved in warm dilute hydrochloric acid and the solution was
made alkaline with ammonia. This precipitates the calcium oxalate and
leaves the magnesium in solution. This, with the main portion of the

66 The American Geologist. July, ia

magnesium contained in the filtrate, from the calcium-magnesium is pre-

cipitated as magnesium ammonium phosphate and weighed as magnes-

ium pyro-phesphate. NICHOLAS KNIGHT.
Cornell College, Mount ‘Vernon, Iowa.

SurraAce Deposits oF WESTERN Missourr AND Kansas. Beginning
in western Missouri and extending into Kansas, there are found along
the valley of the Barais des Cygnes occasional deposits of partially
rounded flint gravel often about two inches in diameter but generally
smaller. These deposits generally are found on hills or in valleys at an
elevation above all known high water and are frequently associated
with red clay. In the eastern part of Bates county these gravel beds
are found upon hills over 200 feet above the Marais des Cygnes valley
or 800 or goo feet above the sea. Such deposits occur at the head of
Panther creek on the higher lands of Bates county. Ne..r Carterville
on high ground and at Carthage 80 feet above the valley of Spring
river, and at Nevada, Mo., such gravel deposits occur. Considerable
quantities of flint gravel are found on the high lands of Miami county,
Kansas, near the Missouri line. In Miami and Anderson counties,
Kansas, gravel beds exist on the upper terraces of the Marais des
Cyegnes and its tributaries, and it is found nine feet thick on ridge be-
tween the Marais des Cygnes and Pottawatomie rivers and over fifty
feet above the valley of the latter stream. In Kansas along the
Marais des Cygnes there are two well defined terraces, one at 20 to 46
feet above the stream, the other about 50 feet higher. The lower is
rich with alluvial deposits, the upper valley often wide overspread with
clay and with water worn gravel beneath. The second terrace is about
goo feet above the sea, On the higher ground south of Garnett, Kansas,
the gravel seems everywhere to be present at a general elevation of
about 1,050 feet above the sea. In the valley of the Neosho, at Neosho
Falls, one finds a deposit of sand and gravel several feet in thickness,
lying at an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea or 30 feet above or-
dinary water of the Neosho river. Further north, at Burlington, thick
gravel deposits are reported, also south of Emporia. Similar deposits
I have observed near the Verdigris at Toronto and above all known
high water of that stream. Farther west, on Fall river, at an eleva-
tion of 1,100 feet above the sea, and higher than all known water of
the river there are deposits of flint gravel, the quantity seeming less
at the western outcrops.

Extending into Kansas from the south and near the line of Cowley,
Elk, Chautauqua, Butler and Greenwood, and northwardly towards Em-
poria, there is a higher ridge known as the “Flint Hills.” This is much
higher than the country lying east or west and is covered with partially
rounded but mainly angular fragments of flint. The solid strata of this
ridge are of Permian age, excepting near the line of Elk and Cowley,
where the base is of well defined upper Coal Measures strata. The
eastern escarpment of the ridge in this vicinity is well exposed and
from the plains, five miles east, the rise is 300 to 400 feet {o the crest of
the ridge. On the west, the country slopes off gently for 20 miles to

Correspondence. 67

the general surface west. From the prevalence of Permian strata, |
have elsewhere applied the term “Permian mountain” to the ridge. The
loose flint is of the upper Carboniferous age and some may be Permian.
The ridge varies from 1,5co to 1,700 feet elevation above the sea along
the line of Cowley. and Elk, the highest point being near ihe southwest
corner of Greenwood county, and 1,565 near the southwest corner of
Elk county. The elevations are closely correct being taken when [
was in charge of a railroad survey across Kansas in 1874.

These flint beds look to a former period when this country was at
least partly covered with water, and in the process of subsiding, the
gravel beds were deposited, probably by moving currents originating
from the melting in the north of the ice after the close of the Glacial
period. G. C. BROADHEAD.

Columbia, Mo.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. G. E. Conpra has been appointed professor of geol-
ogy at the University of Nebraska.

Proressor W. P. BLAKE of the University of Arizona, is
spending the summer vacation at Mill Rock, Conn.

THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF LAWS was conferred on T. C.
Chamberlin and S. L. Penfield by the University of Wiscon-
sin at the recent jubilee celebration. ;

Dr. F. J. H. Merritr retired from the position of state
geologist of New York June 1, and has opened an office in
New York for the practice of economic geology.

Proressor W. H. Petree of the department of mineralogy
and economic geology-of the University of Michigan died
suddenly at Ann Arbor, May 26, at the age of sixty-five years.

Dr. C. H. Gorpon who has been acting professor of geo-
logy in the Washington State University during the past year
has accepted a call to the chair of geology in the New Mexico
School of Mines. :

Proressor Henry LAnpes, head of the department of gev-
logy in the Washington State University, who has been absen‘*
studying in the University of Chicago during the past year
will resume his work in Seattle next year.

T. C. Hoprxins, Proressor oF GEOLOGY AT SYRACUSE
University, is doing geological work in California this sum-
mer, preparing a bulletin on Structural and Industrial Ma-
terial for the State Bureau of Mineralogy.

Proressor SAMUEL CALvIN has resigned the position of
State Geologist of Iowa. At the meeting of the Iowa Geolog-
ical Board on the 4th of June the resignation was accepted

68 The American Geologist. July, 1904.

to take effect July 1. Dr. Frank A. Wilder, Professor of Eco-
nomic Geology in the University of lowa, was elected as
Professor Calvin’s successor.

THE LEGISLATURE OF CONNECTICUT at its last session or-
dered a geological and natural history survey. The board of
commissioners embraces the governor and the presidents of
four colleges, viz: Yale, Wesleyan, Trinity and the Connec-
ticut Agricultural College. Professor W. M. Rice of Wes-
leyan University, has been appointed superintendent of this
survey. The present appropriation is $3,000 for two years’
work. But there is great probability that this will be in-
creased by the next legislature.

Wantep: Economic Geologist and Paleontologist to take
charge of field party investigating stratified economic deposits
of coals, irons, clays, etc., of the Philippines, and to perform
necessary laboratory and office work in study of fossils and
preparation of bulletins and reports; experience in soft coal
preferred. Must be graduate, of thorough training, young,
and of robust health, and must satisfy United States Civil
Service Board of qualifications before appointment. Salary
for first year two thousand dollars with field expenses. Leaves
of absence granted. Opportunities for original work excel-
lent. Address, giving complete details and recommendations,
to avoid loss of time: by correspondence, the Chief of the Min-
ing Bureau, Manila, P. I.

AT THE ALUMNI DINNER OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF
Iowa, the .former students of professor Samuel Calvin, to the
number of over two thousand, united in the commemoration
of the completion of his thirtieth year in a professorship at
that institution. The recognition took the form of a costly
silver loving-cup, designed “especially for the purpose of sym-
bolizing the scientific achievements of the recipient. The cup
is a classic Greek vase sixteen inches in hight, and stands on
a base of serpentine five inches high. It is adorned with casts
taken directly from fossils, with a “drainage- -map of lowa, with
crossed geological hammers, a microscope, and the more con-
ventional spray of laurel, owl of wisdom and torch of learn-
ing,—all in relief. One side bears an appropriate inscription
in raised letters.

Professor Calvin was elected to the chair of Natural His-
tory in Iowa’s university thirty vears ago. The “chair” has
since been subdivided into four distinct departments, profes-
sor Calvin retaining the department of geology. He has
been state geologist of [owa during the last twelve years.

Peek RICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vor. XXXIV. AUGUST, 1904. No. 2.

TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA.

Reviews and Translations by WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS,
Madison, Wis.

. PLATES IJJ-IV.

The march of events upon the other side of the planet dur-
ing the past decade, the imminence of great industrial and
commercial evolution, the probability of political changes to
which the Russo-Japanese war is the prelude: have served to
focus attention upon the geography and only less upon the
geology of eastern Asiatic countries. A result of this stimu-
lation of interest in our antipodal regions has been the large
number of scientific expeditions which have been fitted out,
either with the support or the encouragement of the different
governments concerned. The reports of greatest interest from
the region, because of the perspective which they afford, are
by two masters of generalization in geological science—Pro-
fessor Edouard Suess,* of Vienna, and Ferdinand Freiherr v.
Richtofen,+ the great authority upon China, and the professor
of Geography at the University of Berlin.

The work of Suess upon the structure of Eurasia would
not have been possible at the time his earlier volumes were
published (1884). It is therefore a generalization derived
from painstaking, careful study of numerous recent reports,

* EpovarD SvEss. Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. III (first half), 1901, pp.
1-508. (With general map.)

+ FERDINARD vy. RICHTOFEN. Geomorphologische Studien aus Ostasien
Sitzungsber.d konigl. preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch. z. Berlin.

I.—Uber Gestalt und Gliederung einer Grundlinie in der Morphologie
Ostasiens, Bd. X X XIX, Berlin, 1900. pp. 888-925.

II.—Gestalt und Gliederung der ostasiatischen Kustenbogen, Bd. XXXVI,
Berlin, 1900, pp. 782-808.

IIIl.—Die morphologische Stellung von Formosa und den Riukiuinseln, Bd.
XL, Berlin, 1902, pp. 944-975.

70 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

many of them inaccessible to the majority of readers, and in
part published in the Russian or in oriental languages. The
series of papers by Baron y. Richtofen has been written with-
out collaboration with Suess, yet the conclusions arrived at,
it is a pleasure to note, are surprisingly concordant. Conclud-
ing his second paper v. Richtofen says:

“Though the relationships of the interior continental land-steps per-
mit certain conclusions regarding the earliest occurrences of those tec-
tonic movements which have determined the present forms, the same ,
may not be carried out for the marginal steps, and it appears safer for
the present to avoid any conclusions in this direction until a greater
total of observations is furnished for comparative consideration than is
now at hand in the generally accessible literature.”

To this he adds the important foot note:

“Unexpectedly soon the wish implied in the concluding sentence has
been fulfilled; not only the opening up of otherwise not generally ac- -
‘cessible sources, but also their thorough correlation is furnished by a
master hand. For after this paper was put in type and during the
correction of the proof sheets, came the joyful surprise in receiving from
the author the long-expected first half of the third volume of the Antlitz
der Erde, by Edouard Suess. In it are discussed some of the problems
which have been treated here, in particular the structure of the Sikhota-
alin and the Anamitic ranges, as smaller parts of a representation of
the structure of the Asiatic continent in its broader aspects. I have been
obliged to renounce with reluctance making reference to it here, and
from the fountain of facts won from the study of the extensive Russian
literature and the conclusions drawn from it, to supplement my own ar-
guments. Yet I can with satisfaction state that in the few points in
which the region of my performances touches that in the mentioned vol-
ume, a difference of opinion regarding the comprehension of the basis
of facts does not exist, and that in respect to the theoretical explanation,
in particular the disjunctive processes connected with the eastern Asiatic
depressions, a difference of opinion regarding the essential points
likewise does not exist.”

In the works of both these geologists a key note has been
struck by giving thought not alone to the construction of geo-
logic sections representing parts of the crust not exposed to
view, but by seeking to interpret genetically the larger fea-
tures of the surface—the tectonic lines—which are everywhere
open to study. As Suess has expressed it the knowledge of
the cross section is but one part of the problem, the other be-
ing the horizontal projection—the plan. Applying this meth-
od to the Asiatic coast he continues:

Fic, 1. Reproduction of a portion of Suess’ map showing the
structural lines for a portion of southeastern Asia.

iu

f

ters
a

a ol

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2

r.

ty lea ay ; ;
Tun AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV.

PLATE IV.

¢)
ont® , 120°

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100° °

ae
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410°

Fic. 2. Outline guide map of eastern Asia, showing tectonic lines ano great
circle to which they approximate (after v. Richtofen’s descriptions.)

4 Ys ka ey
atte ® lo bo tytihy 6 eee
y Pon rte! Ot peng APG Gaels fe

Wy . SS f
y THD AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV. PLATE IV.

.
a

100° OF 110°

Fic. 2. Outline guide map of eastern Asia, showing tectonic lines ano great
circle to which they approximate (after v. Richtofen’s descriptions.)

phe ts TE bea! ve at

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Geography of Eastern Asie.—Hobbs. ay

“The crescents (Bogen) which form these borders, all of them
turned to the southward, point to a connection of the parts of this entire
extended region, and if one examines the eastern coast of Asia along
which repeated’ island-crescents and the bands of islands are strung as
upon no other coast of the globe, the thought is forced irresistibly upon
one that a common cause must lie at the basis of this marginal festoon-
ing of the Asiatic continent.”

Further he says:

“These examples and problems may suffice. They show that the
most important facts in the largest numbers which it has up to the
present been possible to discover respecting the position of tectonic lines,
relate to Europe and the borderland of Eurasia. A binding together of
the parts, and any sort of synthesis, would not have been possible at
the time of the appearance of the second volume, for the reason that
all interior parts of Asia, in which the connection of the crescents
must be sought (Siberia and Mongolia), were almost completely un-:
known. The latest works of Russian explorers have for the first time
furnished the possibility of such an attempt.”

To review the more than five hundred pages of Suess’s
work, packed as it is with local data carefully digested and
correlated with those of neighboring regions, would be to
write a more or less extended treatise upon Asiatic geology.
The book is, moreover, accessible to most readers of geological
literature. It is sufficient to state that the same principles
which were shown to be so important in determining the broad
features of European topography and geology apply equally
to the Asiatic continent. The evidence that deforming agen-
cies responsible for tectonic structures and for surface features
of the first order of magnitude have been operative through-
out the entire region, have been supplied with only less full-
ness. The great importance of disjunctive processes, which
have allowed the sections of the earth’s crust to move up or
down with reference to each other, thus dividing the country
into plateaus or landsteps, is no less forcibly presented than
was done in the earlier volumes.

With this first half of the third volume of Das Antlitz der
Erde is printed a map upon which some of the larger lines
of faulting have been indicated. The portion of this map
which comes within the region here under consideration has
been reproduced in figure 1. The course of the Ho-ang or
Yellow river is indicated upon the map in its southern portion,
and the great plain of China by the white area in the extreme

73 The Amencan Geologist. BUG REL Rees

MORPHOGRAPHICAL VALUES CHARACTERISTIC OF THE

Characterization Border of the step MV
of the land step Eastern Boundary

(Landstaffel) | (Staffelrand)

VRANGN-SIED bc. cs Vanna ICLeSCent ease East Yunnan fault......
Kwei (Kui) step.....| Awez (Kui) crescent....| Hukwang fault.........
Usinting Step. ;.. ss 2 LZONGH Crescent as sch it Honan. fan\ice =... aoe
\
South Schansz Tathangschan Seca Tathangschan (Tai- — {
(Shansi) step. .... Chescenteaaye sn: = eee hang) fault........ J
East Mongolian step.| Az#zmgan crescent....... Khingan fault zone......
LEM A! SLC Dis eas ec ue: South Stanowoz

(Stanovoi) crescent.| d/dan Range*.........

PEOLYIMBISCE DP onis wns North Szanowoz Without particular
(Stanovoil) crescent. NaAMes ule ees

southeast. In the mountainous region to the north and west.

of it are indicated the more important of the tectonic lines.

Somewhat less likely to meet the eye of the geologist are
the papers by v. Richtofen in the Sitzungsberichte of the Ber-
lin Academy. The first of this series of three is devoted to the
region represented in part upon the map which has been re-
produced from Suess—what v. Richtofen has distinguished as
the interior series of Landstaffeln, a word which has here been
translated Jandsteps. v. Richtofen shows that along a line
nearly parallel with the Pacific coast of Asia there runs a
series of contiguous and more or less crescent shaped plateaus
(Landstaffeln) all convex to the southeastward. v. Richtofen
seems to regard it as significant that this series of landsteps
extends across the continent so as closely to approximate to a
great circle of the earth.

The author’s views are so fully summarized in the con-
cluding section, that it is thought best to reproduce them en-
tire in translation. The many different spellings adopted
by the different authors for Asiatic geographic names intro-
duce the greatest confusion into the study. The translator

* There appears to be an error here inasmuch as the Aldan Range is in the
same latitude as Khingan Range, the error being to give the western rather
than the eastern limit to the land step. The eastern limit is a northern section
of the Stanowoi (Stanovoi) Range.—[ TRANSLATOR. ]

Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 73

LAND STEPS AND OF THE ENTIRE FAULT LINE. *

Extent of the step in the
direction of the meridan

In kilometers

Offset of each step to
wen bs the eastward Relation

crescent ee ae Lae of

In degrees of | ‘on meridian | (Bogen) | In degrees of | Tn Wilomerery| m ton
approximately a approximately t (n)

22%4-25 N. 255 450 2%° 250 ee
25-3214 N. 830 1200 474° 550 Se:
3214-38 N. 600 750 3° 270 Wa-u%
38 - 54 N. 1760 1900 8° 580 ee
50 — 62 N. 1330 2000 18%° I100 Lea
62 -— 66 N. 440 2600 49°

2400 | note.

has therefore used the German spelling of v. Richtofen, plac-
ing after each word in parenthesis the spelling of the Century
Atlas. To render the geographic descriptions intelligible a
map is necessary, and one of the excellent German maps from
Andreés Handatlas, upon which the tectonic lines referred
to and the great circle to which they approximate have been
sketched in has been furnished from v. Richtofen’s description.
It should be used as a guide map in following v. Richtofen’s
descriptions which follow: The map of figure I is on a
much smaller scale and includes the area covered by figure 2,
mainly between the Yellow and Amur rivers.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS.
Al. MORPHOLOGICAL RELATIONS.

a. ‘Along a line which begins somewhat south of the Tropic of
Cancer in about 130° east longitude, and which may be followed to
the Arctic circle in 190° east longitude, are arranged a series of con-
tiguous crescent-shaped land-steps (Landstaffel) convex to the south-
eastward, which have the peculiarity in common that the section of the
earth’s crust immediately to the east always stands lower than the one
to the west.

* All figures are only approximate values.

+ The equatorial limb is here reckoned only from the junction with the
meridional section which follows to the south,

+ Reckoned as the average breadth.

74 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

b. The border of each step consists of two rectilinear or gently
outward curving sections, (i. e.; an easterly meridional and a southerly
equatorial section), which are joined with one another to form a cre~-
cent (Bogen) of larger or smaller radius of curvature. The more exari
direction of the eastern limb is on the average S. by S. W.—N. by N. E.,
but inclines in the northern steps more toward the N. E. The direction
of the equatorial limb varies little from W. S. W.—E. N. E.

c. The equatorial portion of the border of each step crosses the
meridional portion of the crescent next farther to the south. There
is thus effected in the direction towards the pole an advance of the
steps to the eastward like that of the wings upon the stage of a theater.
But the equatorial section in the majority of instances stretches out
westward over the point of junction with the meridional. A concentra-
tion of the crescents is nowhere found.

d. The morphographical relations given under a, b, and c, above are
evident from the numerical values in the adjoining table: (See pp. 72-

73:)

e. If we lay a tangential great circle through the point of intersec-
tion of the meridian of 95° east with the equator and of the 66th par-
allel* a little to the westward of Behring straits (in Longitude 185°
east) the outward curves of the land-steps adhere to it with sufficient
precision to make it probable that the falling together of both lines is
not without significance.t

f. The entire series of crescents forms a continental divide between
maritime and inland east Asia, without regard to whether the former
is narrow (as about the sea at Ochotsk (Okhotsk) and in the narrow
stretch of coast of Liau-hsi (Liao-si) between Pekin and Mukden,
or whether it reaches a breadth of more than 1,000 kilometers, as in the
plateaus of Manchuria and China lying outside the inland region. The
amyportance of the divide is:

1. Purely morphographic; this is comprised in sections a. to e.

2. Hydrographic. The great streams of east Asia have their sourc-
es for the most part far to the west of this line, but first enter upon
their quiet lower reaches where they cut through this line. This
is true of Amur and Yellow rivers, the basin of the latter stream at
the point of crossing being restricted to little more than the stream
channel; of the Han-kiang (Han river), Yang-sze-kiang (Yang-tze
river), Yuen-kiang (Yuan river), Hsi-kiang, and Song-ka (Song-koi—
Red River). Eastward from the line of breaking through, the broad
land areas are coursed by navigable streams, which, to the south of

* This appears to be an error as the great circle described in the foot note
would pass far to the west of this point.—[TRANSLATOR. ]

+ This great circleruns past the places Ochotsk (Okhotsk), Ayan, Tsitsilkhar
(Tsitsikar), Pau-ting-fu (Pao-ting), Hsiang-yang-fu (Sing-yang), I-tschang-fu
(I-chang), which lie at the foot of the individual steps at distances
varying from 0—50 km. It penetrates then western Kwang-si, 120 km. east of
Pese-ting (Po-se), and forms the medial line between the Kwei (Kui) crescent
which projects somewhat towards the east and the Yunnan (Yunnan) cres-
cent remaining to the west. It should be remarked that this section of the
crescent lies in the continuation of another section of the crescent belonging
to the same great circle, which forms the medial line of the Pacific ranges of
North America, which are oriented essentially parallel to it.

*T

—
- /

Geography of Eastern Asia.

Hobbs. 75

a line that continues the Tsin-ling-schan (Tsin-ling range) line, form a
densely crowded network, though northward of that line they are spaced
with wider intervals. Westward from the series of crescents, navigation
is interfered with or is difficult; only on the Yang sze-kiang (Yang-tze-
river) there lies farther up in the Red Basin of the Ss-tschwan (Sze-
chaun) still. one other region of better navigation as a consequence of
regionally less intensive and more intensive erosion.

3.. Commercial geographic. Commerce is conducted in general freely
and openly to the east of the series of crescents; except in south-
eastern Manchuria where the mountains fix its limit. The land-steps,
in spite of their generally small altitude, present a bar to commerce,
which, on these land routes, as in the case of ocean routes, have only
in a few cases been overcome. Maritime east Asia is hence closed
off from the inland country. This is even in those places the case,
where, as in Schen-si (Shen-si) and Mongolia, open lands again follow
upon the other side with easy conditions of communication.

4. ‘Climatic. Although all land in east Asia, or as far as Ochotsk
(Okhotsk), is under the influence of monsoon climate, yet the dividing
character along the line determined by the step borders is in some
places recognizable and probably everywhere present. The separation
is sharp in Stanowoi (Stanovoi). It is present in the Seya (Zeya) range
and Olekma ranges and the Khingan as shown by the contrast of the
park landscape and the deciduous features on the Amur with the Siber-
ian conifers and the dry steppes of Mongolia. Only in one region west
from Nenni and Tung-liau-ho (Tung-lia river) do the latter extend
eastwards over the Khingan. For the stretches lying farther to the south
itis sufficient to point out the contrast between the great plain which ex-
tends from Pekin to Hwai (Huai) on the one hand, and countries
which lie on the other side of the land-steps—Mongolia, Ordosland, and
Schen-si (Shen-si), on the other hand. In southern China the separ-
ating influence is veiled by the much stronger one that is exercised by
increasingly high mountain ranges.

B. RELATIONS OF THE AREAS OF THE EAKTH’S CRUST WHICH BORDER THE
SECTIONS OF CRESCENTS TO ITS INTERNAL STRUCTURE.

a. The following are certain peculiarities of the internal structure of
those areas in east Asia which come here under consideration:

1. Fundamental gneiss and gneiss granite in the basement are found -
in China only in Schan-tung (Shan-tung) ; the internal structure show-
ing the constant strike direction of N. N.W.—S. S. E. Obrutschew
determined it in the ancient gneiss to the eastward of Baikal as W. N.
W.—E. S. E. In all other Archean rocks of contmental east Asia, which
lie to the eastward of the meridian 105° East and to the northward of the
Tropic, the Sinian strike direction (average W. 30° S. to E. 30° N.) ap-
pears to predominate strongly and to control regionally the basement
structure. Only one important exception is known; it is afforded by
the relatively narrow but compactly constituted Tsin-ling zone in whose
structure the Kwen-lun (Kuen-lun) strike direction (W. by N.—S.
by E.) controls exclusively. This zone of intense folding must have

76 The American Geologist. Gch

been indicated from the earliest times, since the ranges which are ori-
ented in the Sinian direction approach one another at their northern and
southern limits.

2. The ancient Paleozoic cover resting upon the eroded basement
lies horizontal and apparently unbroken in the Lena-Olenek country;
the Triassic occurring in higher latitudes, and the Upper Jurassic trans-
gression stretching from here to the latitude of Jakutsk (Yakutsk),
have the same position. The remaining portion of the entire region
is divided into two portions by the Tisiv-ling range and its imaginary
eastern continuation. North of this line the sediment plateau has
suffered no foldings, or at most very slight ones of the nature of bow-
ings-up, described by Suess as back-folds (Ruckfaltungen) which are
locally restricted. On-the other hand it is broken into horizontal lying
or gently inclined porfions displaced in reference to one another; in
part these have the form of irregular blocks and Schollen, as in Schan-
tung (Shan-tung) ; in part they appear in long parallel strips, as in the
north Chinese and Daurian ranges. The faults appear in part in the
form of flexures. To the south of the Tsin-ling zone this plateau is
divided first into crowded, farther away into broad, open folds, with
abundant superimposition of middle and upper Paleozoic, as well as in
places of old Mesczoic marine beds, in which the Sinian strike controls
the character of the landscape.

b. The collective arrangement of the system of faults is independent
of the internal structure. ‘This is different in the different land-steps
enclosed by the individual crescents—its fundamental lines may be
grouped together as follows:

1 and 2.. Yunnan (Yunnan) crescent and Kwei (Kui) crescent sur-
round the horst-like massif of Vunnan (Yunnan) and Kwei-tschou
(xui-chau). Much fractured (l’erkarsteter) limestone predominates in
it; but the mountain structure is not known.- The meridional arrange-
ment of individual form elements in eastern Yunnan (Yunnan) allows
the presumption of the step-like sinking inward to the east. Farther
to the north the Hukwang fault encloses as a part of the Kwei (Kui)
crescent the eastern range of the Ta-pa-schan in the Sinian direction,
which is here moderately folded to the southeast. It is probable that this
folding continues in the horst of Kwvei-tschow (Kui-chau).

3. In the step-province enclosed by the Honan crescent the main
range of the Tsim-ling protrudes as a massive range, strongly folded,
distinguished by southerly directed compression and over-turning, and
controlled by the strike direction W. by N. W.—E. by S. E. It is ac-
companied in the north by similarly directed, partly low, partly very
high, mountain ranges, which have not been subjected to folding since
the Cambrian. Zonal sinkings-in may be distinctly made out in the
northerly inclined orographic blocks arranged along parallel faults. The
Honan fault cuts off the entire complex upon the east.

4. The crescent of the Jai-hang-schan (Tai-hang mountains) bor-
ders a Carboniferous plateau which owes its origin to a relatively deep
and very uniform depression ‘of the district as a whole. The plateau

Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 77

land is many times faulted in a meridional direction with slippings-down
to the eastward; and slopes to the eastward in step-faults, but to the
southward in a flexure,

5. Within the eastern Mongolian land-step is spread out veiled land
from which certain mountain ranges jut up having predominate Sinian
strike. From the few investigations at our disposal these ridges appear
to be in structure not essentially different from the adjoining north
Chinese and Daurian mountain regions to the south and north, which
are separated by faults into gridiron-like parallel systems.

6 and 7. The Sud-Stanowoi (South Stanovoi) crescent surrounds
a perfect ancient Paleozoic plateau, extending in the southwest to the
high ridges, within which plateau folds and faults have been proven,
The interior of the Nord-Stanowoi (North Stanovoi) crescent is geo-
logically unknown. The north outlier of the Verk-hoyanskii range, con-
cerning which excellent observations by Baron Toll are available, is too
far removed to come here under consideration.

c. If we separate the individual crescents into their two components
it is found that only in the meridional sections is the independence of
internal structure* expressed. The faults of the Aldan range in the
Khingan in the Tai-hang-schan (Tai-hang mountains), and the Huk-
wang fault cut across the dominating Sinian strike direction in the basa!
structure of the corresponding steps at angles of 120 to 140 degrees,
while the Honan fault is parallel to the Sinian direction, but crosses
the interior ridges of the steps connected with it at co degrees.

As regards the form of the eastern falling-in, the step-fault is proven
in the Tai-hang-schan (Tai-hang mountzins). The parallel grouping
within the zone of falling-in makes this torm probable in the Khingan
and the Aldan ranges. It is doubtful in the Tsin-ling-schan (Tsin-
ling mountains) and in the vicinity of the Hukwang fault, while on the
eastern side of Yunnan (Yunnan) certain facts can be introduced fa-
voring step-faults.

The aggregate amount of the depression is in all cases considerable.
In most cases it is certainly not less than two kilometers (about 6,500
feet), probably it is throughout notably greater.

Respecting the manner in which the eastward lying crustal areas
are affected by the falling inward, I do not venture here to say. It
may be that in the latitudes in question, 1; the entire area stretching
to the eastern margin of the cortinent has been depressed, or, 2; a
Graben depression separates the high’ mountain land-steps from the
other eastern ones; or, 3; the eastward lying orographic block is depress-
ed only on one side against the fault line and ascends from it toward the
east to the mountainous country.

d. The equatorial sections of the crescents follow the strike of the
internal structure. They appear in consequence as deviations from the
expression of the force which conditioned the great development of
faults. ‘The continental fault does not iollow singly and continuously

*Inneren Bau. This expression is evidently restricted in the author's mind
to fold structures.

78 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

the line of the great circle, but is decomposed into several more merid-
ionally directed stretches, which, if one follows them from north to
south, return to the average direction of the great circle by means of
the equatorial stretches. Perhaps in this lies the basis for the fact that
in northeast Siberia, where the great circle in question makes only a
small angle with the parallels the equatorial stretches predominate in
their extent; the meridional stretches on the other hand become pro-
portionately shorter and describe a larger angle with the meridian than
they do farther to the south. Surely in that case the marked western xe-
treat from the south end of the Hukwang fault forms part of an abnor-
mal phenomenon and should be referred to some other cause.

In the equatorial sections, also, there have been tectonic processes
connected .with the building out of the land-steps. Just here occur the
great flexures directed toward the plain of Pekin, the embayment of
Hwai-king-fu (Huai-king), and the northwest coast of the inner Yellow
sea. However the transitions from the high grounds of the land-steps
to the deep land stretches at their foot are made generally very grad-
ually and are brought about through frequently changing mountain
Jand-scapes. They appear to be more abrupt on the south side of Kwei-
tschou (Kui-chau) and Yunnan (Yunnan).

C. TYPE OF TECTONIC MOVEMENTS.

a. Crescent-shaped border swellings with land depressed in front
easily give rise to the impression of a movement on a large scale of the
upper parts of the earth’s crust from the interior of the crescent out-
ward and connected with uplifting of the front as well as with interna!
folds and overturns. Where this is found to be true there stand con-
trasted with the phenomena of tension—fracture and sinking in upon
the back side—compression within the circumscribed area of the zone
of overturning, and hence the eruptive rocks are usually connected
with the former. I have elsewhere shown* that the J sin-ling-schan
(Tsin-ling mountains) owes its origin to such a movement directed
from north to south, and, although the crescent form is in this case
lacking, the phenomena mentioned are easily recognizable upon the
north side.

b. Of the crescent forms which are here under consideration, not
one of those which lie to the north of the Tsin-ling-schan (Tsin-ling
mountains) appears to have the properties of a fold crescent. So far
as observations are at hand they compel us to conclude that not com-
pressive force from within outward but on the ather hand tensional
forces which operated from the outside lie at the basis of the fault
development. Step depressions, which we can prove in many cases,
indicate by themselves an extension of space. But as always in the realm
under consideration where sections of a sediment plateau may lie at
different levels near one another the simple explanation is always, so
far as information goes, a sinking in of the deeper lying portion along

x China, vol. ii, p. 655.

at)

Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs, 79

a fault plane which is steeply inclined outward, while a forcing up of the
beds or an overturning has in no case been observed.

This holds for both components of the crescents. I think it may be
concluded from this that the meridional faults point to a tendency of
the eastern foreland to give way toward the east in the direction of
the Pacific ocean; the equatorial faults to a similar yielding toward the
south in the direction of the Tsi-ling-schan (Tsin-ling mountains) and
its eastern continuation. To this doubled tension and the depression in
consequence along two lines which meet under an obtuse angle may be
ascribed the crescent-like sinking down in steps of the areas lying with-
in the obtuse angle of the border of the orographic blocks which remain
stationary.

In accord with this explanation are two other phencmena.

One is the recurrence of parallel faults of the same kind (same sense)
‘in the rear land of the step-crescents. ‘hey appear to be more rare in
the north and to increase in the breadth of the zone affected by them and
in the number of faults as they approach the 7’sin-ling-schan (Tsin-ling
mountains). They point to regional control of extensions of the same
kind dependent upon tension, which was relieved along certain lines,
but which all fall in significance far behind the chain-like line of crescents
within the great transcontinental line here considered. To the phenome-
non of the parallel faults alone attention will here be directed; the ques-
tion of the recurrence of crescent fractures of the same sense with the
eastern foreland being left unicuched.

The other phenomenon has to do with the occurrence of the erup-
tive rocks. They ogcur in those places where, in the case of the develop-
ment of folds by overturning, they should be lacking, viz.; between the
subordinate steps (Theilstaffeln) and in the outer margin of the cres-
cent shaped marginal zones. In reference to the first mentioned oc-
currence it is sufficient to refer to what was said of the north Chinese
and Daurian ranges; respecting the latter, the volcanic rocks may be
thought of as on the Okhotskian slope of the Aldan range, on the east
side of the Kiingan, from Mergen to Mukden, on the outer margin of
Liau-hsi (Liao-si), and in the embayment of Pekin. That they occur
also upon the rear of the crescents, as on the southern border of Mon-
golia, and at Witim. (Vitim), can only confirm a widely extended control
of tensional forces of the same kind.

ce. To the southward of the Tsin-ling-schan (Tsin-ling mountains)
the observations do not suffice for the formation of a definitive verdict.
For the meridional faults the explanation probably holds which was
offered for the northern fractures of this kind. They cut through an
old folded structure under an acute angle, and there is no indication
present of a pushing forward of the upper limb over the lower or of a
folding in perpendicular direction upon the line of depression; it can
surely not be denied that eruptive rocks are not known along the latter.
The equatorial lines on the south side of Kwei-tschou (Kui-chau) and
Yunnan (Yunnan) appear none the less to be different from those of

20 The American Geologist. AMET: Sues

the northern crescents. Whether in them a pushing toward the sceuth
has occurred can first be shown after more exact investigation.

D. AGE OF TESCONIC MOVEMENTS. .-

The determination of th2 age of the fault structure meets a difaculty
which influences evetvwhere the geological cnronology of continental
east Asia; it rests in the absence of marine deposits of age’ younger than
the Triassic. The ocean sedimerts end for the most part with the
Carboniferous. To some determinations the fresh water depesits of
the Jurassic period give support.

Suess* has shown in his profound work upon the asymmetry of the
northern hemisphere, which compresses great results into small compass,
that the plan of Eurasiatic folds, so far as it concerns Asiatic soil, was
laid out in pre-Cambrian time, the conmipietion cf its form, however.
reaching up into Tertiary time. This holds for the broader outline ot’
the folding movements, but is not, however, immediately applicable to
the fault development.

AGE OF THE MISSOURI RIVER.

By WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn.

As the sea covered the area of the Plains during the Cre-
taceous period, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico north-
ward through the United States and far into Canada, perhaps
to the Arctic ocean, with its eastern shore crossing Iowa and
Minnesota,} it is evident that the Missouri and Mississippi
rivers cannot be more ancient than the Tertiary era.

Great rivers undoubtedly flowed into this Cretaceous sea
from the east, but we can scarcely trace their courses or out-
line their basins. It seems most probable, however, that one
of the chief river systems of that time coincided with the
present series of the Great Lakes tributary to the St. Law-
rence, but discharged its waters westward, opposite to the
present direction. Another large river may have brought its
tribute of detritus from the area of Hudson bay and the Nel-
son river, its flow being similarly the reverse of the present
course.

In the region of the Ohio river many changes of drainage
have taken place in connection with the continental glaciation,
as made known by studies begun twenty-five years ago by

* Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Wein, Math.-Nat. Cl., vol. 107, p. 94, (1900).

+See the last preceding paper of this series, AMER. GEOLOGIST, vol. XXXiv,
pp. 35-39, July, 1904.

Age of the Missouri River.—Upham., 81

Carll in Pennsylvania and since continued and extended by
Spencer, Foshay, Chamberlin, Leverett, Tight, and others.”
The upper waters of the Ohio are now known to have flowed
in preglacial times into the Lake Erie basin; but apparently the
drainage thence passed westward, as before noted, being thus
tributary to the Cretaceous inland sea, presumably by the way
of lake Superior, and afterward to the Tertiary river which
is now the Mississippi, reaching it probably by.a route nearly
coincident with the Illinois river. /

The lower part of the Ohio river basin, with the tributary
Cumberland and Tennessee basins, may have sent its waters
directly to the western Cretaceous sea, flowing across the
country traversed by the Missouri river below Kansas City;
but with the inauguration of the Mississippi river, during the
Tertiary era, that trunk stream must have received important
branches from the lower parts of these two great basins. the
Ohio and the Missouri, nearly as today. Even in the Creta-
ceous period, too, it is perhaps more probable that the lower
Ohio and the lower Missouri from Kansas City eastward,
with its continuation in the course of the Mississippi, both
emptied into the Cretaceous ocean near the site of Cairo, [l-
linois, at the present mouth of the Ohio; for so far northward
extended a great embayment of the Atlantic during the Cre-
taceous and Eocene periods.

With the epeirogenic uplifting of the Plains from the sea,
near the end of Cretaceous time, and the contemporaneous
folding and upheaval of many ranges of the Rocky mountains,
there ensued very abundant estuarine, lacustrine, and fluvial
deposition, of partly brackish, but mainly freshwater beds of
very great extent and depth, often including layers of lignite,
overlying the marine Cretaceous series. In the Dakotas and
Montana and northward, on the country of the upper Missouri
and the branches of the Saskatchewan, these beds belong al-
most wholly to the latest Cretaceous stages; but southward, in
Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas, they extend on-
ward from the late Cretaceous to the Miocene and Pliocene
periods. Their material has come chiefly from the erosion of

* The latest and most complete discussion of the complex history and
development of the Ohio river system has been given by FRANK LEVERETT in
Monograph XLI, U. S. Geol. Survey, ‘‘Glacial Formations and Drainage
Features of the Erie and Ohio Basins,’’ 1902, chapter iii, pages 82-219.

&2 The American Geologist. August, 1906

the mountain ranges on the west, and secondarily from erosion
and redeposition of the¢very thick beds first so spread out on
the western borders of the Plains, adjoining the mountains.
Estuarine conditions are indicated here and there, though not
generally, in the Laramie formations, terminating Cretaceous
and Mesozoic time; but the greater part of the Laramie and
all of the Tertiary formations are freshwater deposits.

Many geologists have ascribed these very extensive fresh-
water beds to sedimentation in vast lakes. Prof. W. M. Davis
has shown, however, that the physical characteristics of these
formations, as well as their fossils, indicate instead that rivers,
meandering in variable courses, and in their seasons of flood
spreading far and wide, were the agents of deposition, bring-
ing the sediments from the ever progressing erosion of the
mountains.*

The alternations of gravels, sands, and clays, with frequent
cross-bedding and local unconformities, in the deposits that
have been supposed to belong to the central parts of large
lakes, are evidently more accordant with the explanation of
these areas as flood-plains of rivers. Shallow playa lakes of
moderate extent undoubtedly existed temporarily in many in-
closed basins, and on some areas occasionally large and deep
lakes may also for some time have received sediments from in-
flowing rivers and from shore erosion; but the view presented
by Davis, that fluvial deposition accounts for the far greater
part of these late Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, seems most
acceptable. )

Following the deposition of the extensive and thick Lara-
mie strata on the Plains through which the Missouri river
flows, a depth varying from 500 to 5,000 feet (increasing
from east to west) of these and the underlying Cretaceous
beds was eroded by rains, rills, brooks, and widely wandering
rivers, reducing this region mostly to a peneplain. The ver-
tical uplift above the sea level, and the concomitant and subse-
quent depth of denudation, wearing down the uplifted land
until its surface was again mostly near that ultimate baselevel,
are measured from occasional groups of mountains and hills

* Proceedings, Am. Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xxxv, pp. 345-373,
March, 1900. AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. xxv,p.313, May,1900. See also an earlier
important paper bearing on this question, by W.D MATTHEW, Am. Naturalist,
vol. xxxiii, pp. 403-408, May, 1899; AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. xxiv, pp. 250-251,
Oct., 1899.

A ge of the Missouri River.—Upham. 83

consisting partly or wholly of the nearly horizontal strata,
spared from erosion while all the surrounding country was
being baseleveled. Such are the Turtle mountain and the
Crazy and Highwood mountains described in my last fore-
going paper.

The Hand hills, in eastern Alberta, and the Cypress tills,
in southwestern Assiniboia, are similar high remnants of the
Cretaceous strata, rising 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the sur-
rounding Plains; but they also show, above the Laramie and
other Cretaceous formations, a capping of Miocene conglom-
erate, sandstone, and sandy clays, of fluvial deposition. It
cannot be doubted, therefore, that Miocene deposits, somewhat
like the Miocene and Pliocene formations in Wyoming and
Nebraska and southward, once had a considerable development
throughout the Canadian part of the Plains ; and it is also evi-
dent that, since so comparatively late a stage in the Tertiary
era, a vast amount of denudation las taken place there. It thus
seems very sure that likewise much of the denudation on the
adjacent region of the Plains drained by the Missouri river
belonged to the late part of Tertiary time. It progressed prob-
ably through nearly the whole of that long era, completing the
baseleveling, so far as that was attained, near the end of the
Pliocene period, the Plains through most or all of their extent
being then worn down to only a slight elevation above the
sea.*

Stream deposition had been very abundant, widely ex-
tended and deep, during the early part of the time since the
original uplifting of the mountain ranges and plains drained
by the Missouri river and its tributaries. During the latter
part of that time, until the end of the Tertiary era, the Plains
underwent great denudation and a general baseleveling, which
apparently coincided, as to both beginning and end, with the
Tertiary or Somerville cycle of partial baseleveling which
Davis and Wood have studied in Pennsylvania and northern
_New Jersey and believe to have affected a large area of the
other eastern states. +

* U. S. Geol. Survey, Monograph XXV, 1895, ‘‘The Glacial Lake Agassiz,’’
pp. 81-107. P :

+ National Geographic Magazine, vol.i, 1889, pp. 183-253; vol. ii, 1890,
pp. 81-110. Proceedings, Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxiv, 1889,
pp. 365-423.

84 The American Geologist. AUEDEE eevee

The termination of the cycle of abundant fluvial deposition
and ensuing erosion upon our great .western Cretaceous area,
and its renewed epeirogenic uplift to undergo the erosion of
the broad and flat Red river valley along its eastern margin
in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba, were probably
also contemporaneous with the great epeirogenic movement
which in California, according to Mr. J. S. Diller, ended a
long cycle of baseleveling that had extended through the whole
of Cretaceous and Tertiary time, and raised a part of that
baseleveled district at the beginning of the Quaternary era to
form the lofty Sierra Nevada.* Again, a similar record of
long-continued baseleveling, followed by uplift and a new
cycle of rapid valley erosion, is found by Powell and Dutton
in the plateaus and Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.+

Like the great changes of drainage which have formed the
Ohio river, so I think the Missouri river also to have been
made compositely, and to have taken its present course, since
the Quaternary era began, with its general epeirogenic eleva-
tion of the greater part of North America to an altitude 3,000
to 5,000 feet higher than now, which led to snow and ice ac-
cumulation and the prolonged glaciation of the northern half
of this continent, excepting Alaska. This opinion was first
reached by Gen. G. K. Warren,t and has been more amply
considered and stated by Prof. J. E. Todd.§ The continental
ice-sheet turned aside the rivers of the northern part of the
Plains, deflecting the Tertiary predecessor of the Missouri to
the west and south from its preglacial course, which may
have occupied a part of the valley of the James or Dakota
river, nearly parallel with the Missouri of today, or which per-
haps farther north passed eastward to the most southern bend
of the Souris river, or to the Sheyenne and Red rivers. Pro-

* U.S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Annual Report, pp. 428-432. Compare also
articles by PROF. JoSEPH LECONTE, Am. Jour. Sci., third series, vol. xix, pp.
176-190, March, 1880; vol. xxxii, pp. 167-181, Sept., 1886; vol. xxxviii, pp.
257-2638, Oct., 1889.

+ Exploration of the Colorado River of the West, 1875. Geology of the
eastern portion of the Uinta Mountains, 1876. U.S. Geol. Survey, Mono-
graph II, Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District, 1882. Amer. Jour.
Sci., third series, vol. xxxii, pp. 170, 171, Sept., 1886.

~ Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, for 1868, pp. 307-
314.

§ Proc. A. A. A. S., Vol xxxiii, 1884, pp. 381-393; U.S. Geol. Surv., Bulletin
No. 144, 1896, p.57. Compare also a paper by ProF. E. W. CLAYPOLE, *'*The
Story of the Mississippi-Missouri,’? AM. GEOLOGIST, VOI. iii, pp. 361-377, June,
1889; and a paper by ProFr. G. C. BROADHEAD, ‘‘The Missouri River,’’ AMER.
GEOLOGIST, vol. iv, pp. 148-155, Sept., 1889.

Age of the Missouri River.—Upham. 85

fessor Todd finds also in the topography of that region evi-
dence that in preglacial time the great tributaries coming from
the west to join this part of the Missouri, namely, the Cannon
Ball river, the Grand and Moreau rivers, then united, the
Cheyenne, and the White river, flowed east to the James val-
ley; and he is inclined to believe that from that valley the
great stream formed by these affluents passed northeast to the
Red river of the North and Hudson bay.

In this view I very heartily concur, as a good confirma-
tion of it seems to me to be afforded by the contour of the
Coteau des Prairies, lying between the Minnesota river valley
and that of the James river. Rising very gradually, without
definite boundaries southward in Iowa and the southwest
corner of Minnesota, this massive highland runs north-north-
west to a high termination, called the Head of the Coteau, like
a promontory, between the James valley on the west and the
continuous and broad Minnesota and Red river valleys on the
east. I attribute this form to preglacial stream erosion, when

two great rivers here united, flowing northward. The western

stream may have been the ancient Missouri river, while the east-
ern probably drained the upper part of the Mississippi basin,
deriving its most eastern and southern waters from parts of
Wisconsin and the northeast corner of Iowa. According to
Hershey, the preglacial divide crossed the present course of
the Mississippi somewhere between LaCrosse and Dubuque.*

The erosion of the present valley of the Missouri river,
from where it leaves the mountains to the mouths of the Nio-
brara and James rivers, ranging below the Great Falls from
one to ten miles in width and from 300 to 600 feet in depth
cut into the general surface of the plains, may be ascribed
wholly or chiefly to the work of this great stream since the
culmination or Kansan stage of the Ice age, probably 50,000
years or longer ago, when the drift thinly overspreading the
country along the course of the river was deposited. Only on
the east side of the river at variotis places in South Dakota is
its valley touched by the border oi the much later drift sheet
spread during the moraine-forming Wisconsin stage, near the
end of the Glacial period.

* “The Physiographic Development of the Upper Mississippi Valley,” AM.
GEOLOGIST, vol. xx, pp. 246-268, Oct., 1897

86 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

So long a time have the Missouri and its tributaries been
at work, with a good rate of descent, eroding the mostly soft
Cretaceous strata, in an unceasing task estimated by the pres-
ent writer as seven to ten times longer than the postglacial pe-
riod since the ice-sheet melted away from much of the area
of South and North Dakota, from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
the moraine-inclosed part of all the northern states and of
Canada. But through a still longer time, ever since the early
Quaternary uplifting of the Plains from their low baselevel-_
ing, that is, probably 150,000 years, more or less, have most
of the large streams outside the glaciated area been cutting
down their valleys.

What some of these streams, with their branches and ad-
joining springs, have accomplished in sculpturing picturesque
and almost indescribable chasms, gorges, and ravines, is the
scenic and geologic wonder of the Plains, the widely famed
“Bad Lands” (Mauvaises Terres), so named by the early
French fur traders and trappers, because of the difficulties of
traveling through or across these wildly and fantastically
eroded tracts. This frequent phase of valley erosion under a
somewhat arid climate is perhaps best displayed along the
Little Missouri river, in the west part of North Dakota. It is
well seen on a width of several miles in the vicinity of Medora,
where the Northern Pacific railway crosses this valley, and al-
so along all the course of this stream far to the south and
north of the railway, to its union with the Missouri river. The
weird effects of the forms of erosion are further enhanced here
by the bright red color of some of the beds, and in numerous
places by jet black lignite seams.

Twenty years ago Theodore Roosevelt had a cattle ranch
in this valley a few miles south of Medora, and ranged in his
hunting excursions over all parts of these Bad Lands and the
adjoining plains. His description of the valley sculpture, in
“Hunting Trips of a Ranchman,”’ may well close this paper,
as follows:

Our route lay through the heart of the Bad Lands, but of course
the country was not equally rough in all parts. There were tracts of
varying size, each covered with a tangled mass of chains and peaks,
the buttes in places reaching a height that would in the East entitle
them to be called mountains. Every such tract was riven in. all direc-
tions by deep chasms and narrow ravines, whose sides sometimes rolled

Age of the Missouri River.—U pham. 87

off in gentle slopes, but far more often rose as sheer cliffs, with narrow
ledges along their fronts. A sparse growth of grass covered certain
portions of these lands, and on some of the steep hillsides, or in the can-
yons, were scanty groves of coniferous evergreens, so stunted by the
thin soil and bleak weather that many of them were bushes rather than
trees. Most of the peaks and ridges, and many of the valleys, were
entirely bare of vegetation, and these had been cut by wind and water
into the strangest and most fantastic shapes. Indeed it is difficult, in
looking at such formations, to get rid of the feeling that their curiously
twisted and contorted forms 2re due to some vast volcanic upheavals or
other subterranean forces; yet they are merely caused by the action
of the various weathering forces of the dry climate on the different strata
of sandstones, clays, and marls. Isolated columns shoot up into the
air, bearing on their summits flat rocks like tables; square buttes tower
high above surrounding depressions which are so cut up by twisting gul-
lies and low ridges as to be almost impassable; shelving masses of sand-
stone jut out over the sides of the cliffs; some of the ridges, with per-
fectly perpendicular sides, are so worn away that they stand up like
gigantic knife blades; and gulches, wash-outs, and canyons dig out the
sides of each butte, while between them are thrust out long spurs, with
sharp ragged tops.

VARIATION IN THICKNESS OF THE SUBDIVI-
SIONS OF THE ORDOVICIAN OF. INDIANA.
With notes on the range of certain fossils.

By AuG. F. FOERSTE, Dayton, O.

PLATE V.
CONTENTS.
I, Variations in Thickness of Ordovician Strata in Indiana.
. ‘The Subdivisions of the Ordovician of Ohio and Indiana........ 88
2. Diminution in Thickness of Utica, Lorraine, and Richmond south-
SOrSRNUEE AN ed flee chCNne tid tae Neue whe ahal‘clay nl chao cetera o.a) v8 lw checmaee aie, aim a,'4 sy ve 88
8. Dirinution in Thickness of the Subdivisions of the Lorraine.... 89

4. Diminution in Thickness of thé Subdivisions of the Richmond.. 91
a. Intervals between Herbertella insculpta layer, the base of
the Waynesville and top of the Whitewater beds north of

INEVCRSGON 4 via stecdmin baer Sra Siaih GM Wace nik ord eltne ees MA Anaee's asdGjele ict o ha 34 91
b. Thickness of Hebertella insculpta layer.................. 93

e c. Interval between Herbertella insculpta layer and base of Di-
Vorthis Sullguagratn BONE,» . coir eiae sisies Paws cs ease saves 93

d. The Vertical range of Dinorthis subquadrata north of Madison. 93
e. The Vertical range of Dinorthis subquadrata south of Madison. 94
f.

The Dalmanella jugosa zone of the Waynesville bed....... 95
Se Phe. -MaAGISON eDOU., Moi a: aoe) w oon ayelay eye wieye ws S sj0 dv oe ono do & wieheie 95

lI. The Vertical Range of Certain Ordovician Brachiopoda.
5. Dalmanella emacerata, D. multisecta, D. meeki, D. jugosa...... 96

6. Strophomena hallie, Str. planiconvexa. Str. planumbona, Str. ne-
glecta, Str. vetusta, Str. nutans, Str. suleata..........-+-+-+- 98

88. The American Geologist. August, 1904.
f6 SDINOLUBIS! SPOtTONSa 2 1s Se. SS ees se See lect et ond arene a 100
&, «heptacna, ‘rhomboidalis.. <'Accs ov cufea. fs ,~ 2 this erage Ot rue Oe 101
9. , RBhynchotrema dentatum,) Rh:- capax...:. .05 «= -spsnle =o seh aes 101
10: (Plectambonites: NEriceus:, go esi-ts os « ~ aie sake oo 6 6 eto emilee ee 101
1d, VPIAGVSEPODMIR MIVINS. bes2 ce oe stale od dice m » cen ae eee 101
12. ‘Streptelasma, Hetercspongia, DGeatricea. 2. :...). 22-0. eee 102

I. VARIATIONS IN THICKNESS OF ORDOVICIAN STRATA IN
INDIANA

rt. The Subdivisions of the Ordovician of Ohio and: In-
diana.

The Ordovician of Indiana is merely the western extension
of the Ordovician of Ohio. It presents the same divisions
and subdivisions, contains the same fauna, and was deposited
under closely similar conditions.

The following subdivisions were proposed by Mr. J: M:
Nickles :*

Madison, Saluda.... or Upper Richmond

Whitewater) or Middle Richmond
Liberty J

. |
Richmond. . m4
levee econ or Lower Richmond
|
i

Warren
Mount Auburn
Corryville
Bellevue
Fairmount
| Mount Hope

a { Upper Utica
Wticae noes , Middle Utica
| Low er Utica

P j Probably Lowsaf 252
Trenton \ Be ETentone eee Pleasant

(
|
|
|
|
Cincinnati | Lorraine...
|
|
|
l

2. Diminution in Thickness of Utica, Lorraine, and Rich-
mond southward.

All of the major divisions and most of the subdivisions di-
minish in thickness, from the more northern exposures in Ohio
and Indiana, southward. In the case of the Utica, this di-
minution in thickness cannot be established within the areas
exposed in Ohio and Indiana; however, the entire absence of
the Utica in south-central Tennessee, in the area included be-
tween Columbia, Centreville, and Franklin, suggests that this

*AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Oct., 1903.

Tur AMERICAN

*
CATUR

Greensbur gia

GroLocist, Vou. XXXIV.

Benprett

Deréyshire Falls»

~

-
'
'
'
'
'
1
'
'
'
'

St Maurice
Otdenburg

Batesville \_

Dillsboro stat

JEFFERSON

Hanover
rene

|

Marble Hill.

| ey Brook-
~ille

Py,
é} Bauman’
>
&\Senefeld
Blue Cr Pa.

SovthGateo
~,----NawTrenton{o ___ |

St.Leon?

Xs aGuilford
CFR
o Holman

‘
‘Farmers
jRetreat

KENTUCKY

switZe RLAND

SOUTHEASTERN INDIANA
Scare beet 5 Mires

Ne « The ryan

ator ya

a Aaa

é q
Y ‘Zz
yi &
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Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 8&9

diminution in, thickness begins much farther north than Ten-
nessee. According to Hayes and Ulrich*, the Utica is absent
in the Richmond and London quadrangles on the eastern side
of central Kentucky. Recently Dalmanella multisecta has
been found nine miles north of Richmond, at Clays Ferry, in
beds overlying strata referred to the top of the Trenton,

The Lorraine diminishes in thickness from 290 feet in the
neighborhood of Cincinnati to 260 feet near Madison, Indiana.
In south-central Tennessee, its thickness does not exceed 100
feet. Along the Tennessee river, at Clifton, a section, three
and a half feet thick, may belong to the top of the Lorrain=.
It contains Dinorthis retrorsa, a species formerly believed to
be restricted to the Warren bed, but this fossil has been found
recently in Indiana also in the upper half of the Waynesville
bed. Elsewhere in the Tennessee river valley of western Ten-
nessee the Lorraine certainly is absent.

The Richmond diminishes in thickness from 300 feet in the
southern part of Franklin county, Indiana, to 115 feet at Mar-
ble Hill, 60 miles southwest. In central Kentucky, much thin-
ner sections are known. In southern Tennessee its thickness
does not exceed 40 feet and averages about 20 feet.

3. Diminution in Thickness of the Subdivisions of the
Lorraine.

The diminution in thickness of the Lorraine is accompan-
ied, of course, by a diminution in thickness of certain of its
various subdivisions.

No decrease in thickness is noted in case of the Bellevue
and Warren beds within the limits of Indiana. The Bellevue
bed is the chief Platystrophia lynx horizon of southern Indiana.
At Cincinnati, where Platystrophia lynx is rare at this horizon,
the thickness of the Bellevue bed is about 20 feet. Near Mad-
ison, in Indiana, its thickness varies from 20 to 24 feet. South-
ward, in Kentucky, the lower Platystroplia lynx or Bellevue
bed forms one of the most constant horizons. The Warren
bed has a thickness of 61 feet at Lebanon, in Ohio. At Mad-
ison, in Indiana, the thickness of the Warren bed certainly
equals and probably exceeds this amount; the distance from
the top of the Mount Auburn layers containing Platystrophia

* Folio 95, Columbia, Tenn., 1905.

go The American Geologist. August, 1904.

lynx and *Coeloclema oweni to the top of the Lorraine is 77
feet, but the lower part of this interval does not, contain diag-
nostic fossils.

At Cincinnati, the Mount Hope-Fairmount section has a
total thickness of about 130 feet. In southern Indiana, be-
tween Vevay and Brooksburg, this thickness averages be-
tween 90 and 95 feet. The occurrence of Strophomena plan-
iconvexa, Hebertella sinuata, Plectorthis plicatella, and of the
small Mount Hope form of Platystrophia, species first seen at
the base of the Fairmont bed in Ohio, near the base of the
Lorraine section in southern Indiana suggests that the consid-
erable diminution of the Mount Hope-Fairmount section
southward is due chiefly to the thinning of the Mount Hope
bed.

At Cincinnati, the thickness of the Corryville bed is esti-
mated at about 60 feet. At Madison, in Indiana, the base of
the Mount Auburn layers containing Platystrophia lynx and
Coeloclema owent is 80 feet below the top of the Lorraine. The
top of the Bellevue bed is between 130 and 134 feet below the
top of the Lorraine. Bythopora gracilis and Callopora ramosa
characterize the section up to 90 feet below the top of the
Lorraine. The strata intervening between this level and the
base of the upper Platystrophia lynx layers, known to be of
Mount Auburn age, consist of nodular limestone and clay of
unknown age. The thickness of the Corryville bed at Madison,
therefore, can not exceed 54 feet, and possibly may not exceed
44 feet. At Lebanon, the thickness of the Mount Auburn bed
is estimated by Mr. J. M. Nickles at about 20 feet. At Madi-
son, only three feet can be definitely assigned to this bed, al-
though the underlying, doubtful section, 10 feet thick, also may
belong to this bed.

At Fredericktown, Kentucky, seventy miles south of Madi-
son, the top of the great Platystrophia lynx bed, presumably of
Bellevue age, is about 90 feet below the top of the Lorraine.
Strophomena planiconvexa occurs 107 feet below the top of
the Platystrophia lynx bed. This indicates the continued thin-

*All bryozoans mentioned in this paper were identified by Mr. R. S. Bass-
ler. These identifications in addition to many others form the basis of. the
stratigraphical work here described. The writer desires to express his great
obligations for the favors received. Although much more abundant collec-
tions of fossils are necessary to determine the exact limits of the various
subdivisions in Indiana, the present paper is offered as a contribution pre-
liminary to such more detailed study.

iii
rr

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 91

ning southward of the upper beds of the Lorraine, but suggests
very little change in the thickness of the Bellevue-Fairmount
section between Madison and Fredericktown. In south-central
Tennessee, the Lorraine section, 100 feet thick, includes the
Fairmount, Bellevue, and Corryville beds; with Platystrophia
lynx in the uppermost beds.

4. Diminution in Thickness of the Subdivisions of the
Richmond.

While there is no doubt of the considerable diminution in
thickness of the Richmond group as a whole, from the more
northern outcrops in Ohio and Indiana southward, the relative
diminution of its different subdivisions can not be determined
definitely until their characteristic faunas are better known.
However, in the mean time, a number of very suggestive ob-
servations, connected with the interval between the base of the
Hebertella insculpta layer and the base of the Waynesville bed,
also with the interval between the base of the H. insculpta lay-
er and the base of the beds at present referred to the Madison,
will prove of interest, especially in view of the fact that the
base of the Herbertella insculpta layer has been proposed as
the base of the Liberty division of the Middle Richmond.

a. Intervals between Hebertella insculpta layer, base of
Waynesville and top of Whitewater beds north of Madison.

Comparatively little variation is noticed in the vertical di-
mensions of the interval between the base of the Hebertella in-
sculpta layer and the base of the Waynesville bed between Un-
ion county, Indiana, and Madison. This interval amounts to

about 83 feet at the localities west of the home of William

Bauman on McCarthy creek southwest of Brookville; about a
third of a mile above the mouth of Pipe creek; southeast of
Cedar Grove on the road to South Gate; and north of Hogan
creek on the road from Moores Hill to Holman. Along Silver
creek in Union county the interval is probably equally great,
since the exposures of the Waynesville bed opposite the home
of Robert Martin equal 64 feet without exposing either the
Hebertella insculpta zone or the base of the Waynesville bed.
Southwest of Friendship on the road crossing the southeastern
corner of section 13, also two miles southeast of Belleview on
a road crossing Indiankentuck river, this interval is 70 feet.
Southeast of Belleview, the thickness of the Richmond is 166

g2 The American Geologist. sie a
feet and the interval between the base of the Hebertella insculp-
ta layer and the Clinton is 96 feet. Along the railroad at Mad-
ison, the Locke level measurements for the thickness of the
Richmond are 170 feet, and the interval between the base of the
Hebertellainsculpta layer and the Clinton is 85 feet—both along
the Canaan road two miles northeast of Madison, and along
the Hanging Rock road at the northern edge of the city. Mak-
ing full allowance for errors due to Locke level readings and to
dip, a local increase rather than a diminution of the interval
between the base of the H. insculpta layer and the base of the
Waynesville bed is suggested. South of Madison, Hebertella
insculpta is unknown.

The interval between the base of the Hebertella insculpta
layer and the top of the Whitewater or the base of the Madison
bed, on the contrary, diminishes rapidly southward. Half a
mile southwest of Cedar Grove, on the road to South Gate, this
interval is 140 feet. Dinorthis subquadrata has a range extend-
ing from 10 feet above the base of the Hebertella insculpta
layer to 150 feet above the same. The exposure was divided
into vertical sections of to feet, and in each of these Dinorthis
subquadrata was found. ‘The rubble limestone overlying this
Dinortlis section is referred to the Madison bed. At Ver-
sailles, the interval between the base of the Hebertella insculpta
layer and the base of the Madison bed layer is 61 feet. The
base of the lowest massive Tetradium layer is taken as the base
of the Madison, although Coluwmmnaria alveolata is found oc-
casionally about a foot beneath this Tetradium layer. Two
miles southeast of Belleview, Hebertella insculpta occurs 44
feet below a Colummnaria alveolata layer. At Madison, along
the Hanging Rock road, a few poor specimens of Hebertella
iisculpta were found loose about 31 feet below the lowest Col-
umnaria alveolata bed which here forms the base of the Madi-
son. This is probably the true horizon for Hebertella insculp-
ta, since the lowest specimens of Dinorthis subquadrata at this

locality occur about 28 feet below the lowest Columnaria layer, |

and since in that case the interval between the Hebertella in-
sculpta layer and the Clinton would be 85 feet, an interval
known to occur along the Canaan road two miles northeast of
ie

Medison.

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 93

South of Madison, Hebertella insculpta is unknown. Cer-
tain facts, however, suggest that some opinions may be formed
as to the variation in thickness of the southern extension of
the intervals between the base of the Hebertella insculpta lay-
er, the base of the Waynesville and the base of the Madison
bed, notwithstanding the absence of Hebertella insculpta.
These facts are as follows:

b. Thickness of Hebertella insculpta layer.

In Franklin county and at St. Leon in the northern part of
Dearborn county the Hebertella insculpta layer has a thickness
of seven feet. Northeast of Moores Hill on Hogan creek, aiso
two miles east of Cross Plains, it is five feet thick. South of
Cross Plains it diminishes rapidly in thickness. Its thickness
is only 1.5 feet three miles southeast of Cross Plains in the
northwestern corner of section three, and at most points in the
northeastern part of Jefferson county. Farther south, careful
search often is necessary to sectire specimens enough to make
the identification of the Hebertella insculpta horizon certain.

c. Interval between Hebertella insculpta layer and base
of Dinorthis subquadrata zone.

Dinorthis subquadrata entered the field later than H. in-
sculpta. The base of the D. subgquadrata zone usually is sep-
arated from the top of the H. msculpta layer by a short inter-
val. At the north this interval apparently is greater than at
the south. Thus at St. Leon, the lowest specimens of D. sub-
quadrata occur about eight feet above the H. insculpta layer.
Farther south the interval is five feet; for instance, in section
3, three miles southeast of Cross Plains, on the Poplar
Ridge road three and a half miles south of Cross Plains, in the
southwestern corner of section 19 six miles southwest of Cross
Plains, two miles northwest of Canaan on a branch of Indian-
kentuck, and two miles southeast of Belleview on a road cross-
ing Indiankentuck. Two miles east of Cross Plains the inter-

_ val is 3.5 feet. Two miles northeast of Madison on the road

to Canaan the interval is only two feet; this appears to be the

interval also at Madison.

d. ‘The Vertical Range of Dinorthis subquadrata north
of Madison.

Half a mile southwest of Cedar Grove, on the road to
South Gate, Dinorthis subquadrata has a vertical range of 140

94 The American Geologist. Angns ae

feet. In the southern part of Ripley and Dearborn counties
no sections are known in which the range of this fossil equals
40 feet. At Versailles, its range is 20 feet. Two miles east of
Cross Plains, it is 15.5 feet; a single good specimen of Calo-
poecia cribiformis was found in the upper third of the D sub-
quadrata zone. Two miles northwest of Canaan the range of
Dinorthis subquadrata is 26 feet. At Madison its range is
about Io feet.

From these data it may be seen that the vertical range of
Dinorthis subquadrata diminishes rapidly southward, also that
the distance of the lowest specimens of Dinorthis subqua-
drata from the Hebertella insculpta layers decreases south-
ward in such a manner that at the southern exposures the low-
est specimens of Dinorthis subquadrata evidently are but a
slight distance above the Hebertella insculpta horizon.

e. The Vertical Range of Dinorthis subquadrata south of
Madison.

_ At Madison the base of the Dinorthis subquadrata horizon
is 82 feet below the Clinton, the vertical range of the fossil
being about 10 feet. At the Pinckney Swan locality, on Sal-
uda creek, it occurs 75 feet below the Clinton and 65 feet
above the base of the Waynesville bed. At the mouth of Bull
creek, it occurs 63 feet below the Clinton, and ranges from
this point upward for several feet.. This diminution of the
interval between the base of the D. subquadrata bed and the
base of the Clinton is due apparently chiefly to a decrease of
the interval between the base of the Dinorthis suwbquadrata
horizon and the base of the beds referred to the Madison. It
accords very well with the decrease southward of the interval
between the base of the Hebertella insculpta layer and the base
of the Madison, shown by the exposures between Franklin
county and Madison.

Should the base of the Hebertella insculpta layer turn out
to be a reliable marker of the base of the Middle Richmond,
the preceding observations would indicate a very rapid dimin-
ution in thickness of the Middle Richmond from Franklin coun-
ty as far as the mouth of Bull creek. The Waynesville bedon the
contrary would not show any important variation in thickness
between Franklin county and Madison, although south of
Madison a rapid decrease in thickness would be indicated.

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 95

f. The Delmanella jugosa zone of the Waynesville bed.

Quite different conclusions might be drawn from a study
of the Dalmanella zone, at the base of the Richmond, alone.
On the north side of Hogan creek on the road from Moores
Hill to Holman, Dalmanella jugosa is common from the base
of the Waynesville bed up to 65 feet above; it occurs in smal-
ler numbers as far as the base of the Hebvertella insculpta hori-
zon, at an elevation of 84 feet. South of Friendship along the
road crossing the southeastern corner of section 13, Dalmanel-
la jugosa is abundant up to 40 feet, the base of the H. insculp-
ta horizon being at 70 feet. Two miles southeast of Belleview
along a road crossing Indiankentuck river, Dalmanella jugosa
is common up to 30 feet, the base of the H. insculpta layer be-
ing at 70 feet. South of Madison, the vertical range within
which D. jugosa is abundant diminishes rapidly. At the
Pinckney Swan locality on Saluda creek it is abundant only
within a few feet of the base of the Waynesville bed. This
rapid diminution in the vertical range of Dalmanella jugosa
between Moores Hill and Marble Hill at first thought sug-
gested an equally rapid decrease in the thickness of the
Waynesville bed southward. However, the data recorded in
connection with the vertical position and range of Hebertella

insculpta and Dinorthis subquadrata do not bear out this sug-

gestion.

g. The Madison, Saluda, or Upper Richmond bed.*

At Richmond the top of the characteristic Middle Rich-
mond brachiopod fauna occurs 57 feet below the Clinton.
Southwest of Laurel, at the Derbyshire falls, the base of the
Tetradium bed is about 71 feet below. At Versailles, the in-
terval is 60 feet. Two miles southeast of Belleview and six
miles north of Madison, Colwmnaria alveolata occurs 52 feet
below the Clinton. At Madison, and at Hanover, the inter-
val is 54 feet. While the coral bed has not been located along
Saluda creek or at Marble Hill, the corresponding interval is
believed to equal or exceed 50 feet. Farther southward, in
Kentucky, there is a distinct diminution in the thickness of the
section referred to the Madison.

*Twenty-first Annual Report, Indiana Geological Survey, p. 220. AMER-
1cAN GEOLOGIST, June, 1903, plates XXI, XXII.

96 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

Il. Tuer VERTICAL RANGE OF CERTAIN ORDOVICIAN
BRACHIOPODA.

5. Dalmanella emacerata, D. mutitisecta, D. meeki, D.
jugosa.

The lowest layers of the Trenton exposure along the Ohio
river opposite Warsaw contain a large species of Dalmanella,
usually 21, and occasionally 26 mm. wide. Compared .with
- Dalmanella emacerata, its radiating striae are coarser and
more distant; and the pedicle valve is more convex. Fifty
feet above the river, west of the home of Louis Botts, the top
of the Trenton contains Eridotrypa briareus, Eridotrypa mu-
tabilis, and Prasopora simulatrix. In the central part of Ken-
tucky this species of Dalmanella often is fairly common in the

lower part of the Trenton. Typical specimens of Dalmanella

emacerata occur in the Lower and Middle Utica at Cincinnati.
The original shells must have been very thin; owing to pres-
sure they have almost invariably been crushed flat. At Vevay,
they are found in the Middle Utica, between 90 and 100 feet
below the top of the Utica. The most abundant brachiopod
of the Utica is Dalmanella multisecta. It ranges practically
throughout the entire formation. In southern Indiana it is es-

pecially abundant in the upper part of the Utica, this fossil and -

Dekayella ulrichi extending to the very top.

In southern Indiana, the top of the Utica frequently is
overlaid by a bryozoan layer varying from 2 to 4 feet in thick-
ness, and consisting chiefly of numerous fragments of Callo-
pora dalei and C. subplana. Constellaria constellata-prominens,
Dekayia aspera, Heterotrypa frondosa, and Perenopora vera
usually are present, but are much less abundant. At Vevay
this layer contains also Amplexopora septosa, Homotrypa cin-
cinnatiensis, and Phylloporina variolata. In Indiana, Dalman-
ella multisecta is practically absent in the Lorraine, being
known at this horizon only at one locality, Guilford, and there
only in the lowest beds.

Dalmanella meeki is common in the Fairmount bed at Ham-
ilton, Ohio. It is common at the same horizon at New Tren-
ton, in Indiana. It is found in small numbers half a mile east
of Dillsboro station, near the base of the Fairmount, and
also west of Dillsboro station, near the upper Strophomena
planiconvexa horizon. Southwest -of this locality it appears

oe.

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 97

to be very rare. The species is probably represented by Fig.
1d, of Plate 8, Ohio Pal., Vol. I, 1873.

~ In the Corryville bed along the eastern bank of the White-
water at Brookville is found in considerable numbers a form
of Dalmanella closely resembling the species which is so
abundant in the lower part of the Waynesville bed, provision-
ally called D. jugosa. It is associated here with Bythopora
gracilis, Callopora ramosa, Heterotrypa inflecta, Homotrypa
obliqua, and Leptotrypa clavacoidea, At New Trenton it oc-
curs in much smaller numbers in the Corryville bed, assoc-
iated with the same bryozoans; it is found occasionally also in
the Mount Auburn bed, associated with Platystrophia lynx,
Coeloclema oweni, and undescribed Mount Auburn forms of
Eridotrypa and Dekayia; it is fairly abundant at the base of
the Warren bed, associated with Homotrypa pulchra and
Coeloclema owent, species occurring also in the Mount Au-
burn bed, Coeloclema oweni being usually diagnostic of the
Mount Auburn.

In various parts of Franklin county, Dalmanella is very
common in the upper part of the Warren bed: Southeast of
Fairfield on the L. J. Logan farm it is common both below and
above the Dinorthis retrorsa horizon. Along Templeton creek,
a third of a mile east of the Brookville pike, it is abundant.
At the Bauman locality southwest of Brookville it occurs in
the upper part of the Warren bed. About a third of a mile
above the mouth of Pipe creek, where the hill land reaches
the creek, Dalmanella occurs for at least 10 feet both above
and below the Dinorthis retrorsa horizon, the latter being 35
feet below the top of the Warren bed. The Warren bed form
of Dalmanella closely resembles the species which character-
izes the Dalmanella zone of the Waynesville bed.

There is no doubt that the form characterizing the Dal-
manella zone of the Waynesville bed was the form for which
the name Dalmanella jugosa was originally intended since this
is the only form in. the upper beds of the Cincinnati Group
which can be said to be abundant. Its width often is seven-
eighths of an inch, occasionally one inch. In local collections
a small variety, slightly exceeding one-half inch in width, is
often labelled Dalmanella jugosa; both valves are more con-
vex than in the larger specimens; this variety occurs in the

98 The American Geologist. *, Ae
Waynesville bed, but it can not be said to be common. Spec-
imens of this size are found also at the top of the Middle
Richmond at Dayton, Ohio, and at the top of the Madison
bed southeast of Westport, Indiana, but are rare.

6. Strophomena hallie, Str. planiconvexa, Str. planum-
bona, Str. neglecta, Str. vetusta, Str. nutans, Str. sulcata.

Strophomena hallie is cited from the Lower and Middle
Utica. At Vevay it occurs in the Middle Utica, between 100
and 120 feet below the base of the Lorraine, associated with
Amplexopora petasiformis, also the variety welchi, Aspido-
pora newberryi, Aspidopora eccentrica, Batostoma implicatum,
Ceramoporella granulosa-milfordensis, Hemiphragma whit-
fieldi, and Stigmatella clavts. Between 120 and 128 feet be-
low the base of the Lorraine the section contains Monotrypa
subglobosa and Stigmatella nana. A number of Lower Utica
forms evidently range higher than hitherto suspected. At the
junction of Mud Lick and South Fork, half a mile south of
Milton, Strophomena hallie occurs at the base of the Up-
per Utica, 85 feet below the base of the Lorraine, associated
with Batostoma jamesi, Callopora nodulosa, Coeloclema alter-
natum, Dekayella‘urichi, and other fossils of general range.
North of Rogers Gap, in Kentucky, Str. halle occurs, in
the lower part of the Utica, associated with Dalmanella mul-
tisecta and D. emacerata.

Strophomena planiconvexa, in southern Indiana, occurs
quite constantly, although in small numbers, near the base of
the Lorraine, at the top of the bryozoan layer or just above.
At Vevay it ranges from three to eleven feet above the base;
at Brooksburg it is eight feet above.

Four miles north of Vevay, on the Plum creek road about
two miles south of Jacksonville, this species recurs 52 feet
above the lower Sirophomena planiconvexa horizon, and
about 33 feet below the lower Platystrophia lynx or Bellevue
bed. Three miles east of this locality, in the southwest cor-
ner of section 14, opposite the home of J. W. Evett, a large
typical gerontic lower Lorraine specimen of Platystrophia
lynx occurred in the same slab with Strophomena planicon-
‘vexa at this upper horizon. The upper horizon is exposed also
along the upper part of the road ascending the hill east of
Scott chapel, three miles north of Florence, along the eastern

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 99

branch of Lock Lick creek. Half a mile northwest of Dills-
boro station, at the crossing of the road leading north to
Chesterville, the upper horizon of Strophomena planiconvexa
occurs 11 feet above the railroad crossing and about 35 feet
below the Bellevue or Lower Platystrophia lynx horizon.
West of Guilford, northwest of the home of George Frieden-
berg, the upper Strophomena planiconvexa horizon is 60 feet
above the lower. At the lower horizon, 54 feet above the rail-
road track, the specimens are small and are associated in the
same blocks with Plectorthis, small Platystrophia, and rare
specimens of Dalmanella multisecta. The fossil varies in size,
form, and coarseness of the radiating plications, all variations
being found at both horizons. This is an interesting case of a
general recurrence of a species at different elevations. Furth-
er search will probably result in finding occasional specimens
also at intermediate horizons.

Strophomena planumbona ranges throughout the Waynes-
ville bed, although it is comparatively uncommon in the lower
half. At Concord, Kentucky, it is abundant between 30 and
35 feet below the top of the bed. It is comparatively common
and widely distributed in the upper third of the Waynesville
bed, and also in the Liberty bed. It occurs also sparingly in
the Whitewater bed, although Strophomena vetusta is far
more abundant here. The variety elongata is widely distrib-
uted in the Waynesville bed. Strophomena neglecta occurs
at Moores Hill about 15 feet below the top of the Waynes-
ville bed. It is associated with forms not to be distin-
guished from Strophomena’ vetusta, so that Strophomena
vetusta apparently begins its range in the upper part of the
Waynesville bed although most common and most character-
istic of the Whitewater bed. Strophomena neglecta occurs
also at the Nick Senefeld locality, at the north end of frac-
tional section 26, south of Brookville, 25 feet below the top
of the Waynesville bed, and also on Silver creek, opposite the
home of Robert Martin, at approximately the same horizon.
At Richmond, Indiana, Strophomena neglecta occurs sparingly
at the top of the Whitewater bed. Strophomena vetusta has
been found in the lower part of the Madison bed in Indiana.
Strophomena nutans is widely distributed in the Waynesville
bed; one specimen was found in the Liberty bed at Oregonia,

100 The American Geologist. AngaRe, Sauer

Ohio, and another in, the Whitewater bed at Tate hill, east of
Dayton, Ohio. Strophomena sulcata occurs in all subdivisions
of the Richmond, but it is common only in the upper part of
the Waynesville bed and, again, in the upper part of the
Whitewater.

7. Dimorthis retrorsa.

Dinorthis retrorsa has been considered hitherto one of the
most characteristic fossils of the Warren bed. It is found in
the Warren bed at numerous localities in southern Indiana,
although restricted to a vertical range of only a few inches
near the middle of the bed. At Madison, it occurs 47 feet
below the top of the Warren; east of Cold Springs station on
the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern it is 32 feet below; east
of New Trenton the species ranges from 33 to 35 feet below;
half a mile above the mouth of Pipe creek it occurs at least 35
feet below. .

Recently a variety of Dinorthis retrorsa has been found
also in the upper part of the Waynesville bed, about 25 to 30
feet below the top. It occurs 30 feet below the base of the
Hebertella insculpta layer, directly in front of the home of
Nick Senefeld four miles southwest of Brookville, immed-
jately overlying beds containing Bythopora meeki, Eridotrypa
simulatrix, Heterotrypa prolifica, Homotrypa flabellaris, and
Nicholsonella tenera. Dinortisis retrorsa was found loose 25
feet below the top of the Waynesville bed at the home of Wil-
liam Bauman, three miles southwest of Brookville. About
half a mile above the mouth of Silver creek, opposite the home
of Robert Martin, it occurs 47 feet above the creek and 17 feet
below the top of the exposure, all of Waynesville age. Here
Bythopora meeki, Callopora subnodsa, Hetrotrypa prolifca,
Monotrypella quadrata, Nicholsonella tenera, and Spatiopora
montifera were found immediately below this upper Dinortiss
retrorsa horizon. The top of the Waynesville bed was not
exposed. At all Waynesville localities specimens are rare; the
valves are usually separated; they differ from the Warren bed
forms in the smaller number and greater width of the radiating
plications. The Warren form was described by Hall as Dinor-
this carleyi; a more careful discrimination between Ordovician
faunas will probably lead to the revival of Hall’s name for the
Warren form.

Variations of the Ordovician of Indiana.—Foerste. 101

8. Leptaena rhomboidalis.

Leptaena rhomboidalis ranges in the Warren bed of War-
ren county, Ohio, from three to four feet beneath the Din-
ortlis retrorsa horizon to a short distance above this horizon.
It occurs at the same horizon in Indiana, on Big Cedar creek
in Franklin county and a mile southeast of Sparta. However,
it is abundant and widely distributed only in the upper third of
the Waynesville bed. At the Bauman locality, three miles
southwest of Brookville, it makes its appearance at the upper
Dinorthis retrorsa horizon, becomes abundant 10 feet higher,
and extends through the Hebertella insculpta layer. It makes
its appearance at the upper D. retrorsa horizon also along Sil-
ver creek, half a mile east of Dunlapsville. A mile and a half
west of Blue creek postoffice, east of the creek, it is found in
the Hebertella insculpta layer. South of St. Leon it is abund-
ant for five feet above the Heberiella insculpta layer, immed-
iately below the Plectambonites sericeus horizon. Occasionally
specimens are found at the top of the Whitewater bed at Rich-
mond.

9. KRhynchotrema dentatum, Rh. capax.

Another. fossil showing recurrence at different elevations is
Rhynchotrema dentatwm. A variety with fewer and more
angular plications occurs in the Warren bed, 23 feet below the
lowest strata definitely recognized as Richmond, half a mile
southwest of Howard Mill, in Kentucky. The typical form oc-
curs near the top of the Waynesville bed at Versailles and at
Metamora. It is rather common in the upper Whitewater beds
at Richmond. and east of Dayton, Ohio. Rixynchotrema capanr
occurs at Madison seven feet above the massive coral layer at
the base of the Madison bed. It occurs much more abundant
ly in the other subdivisions of the Richmond.

10. Plectambenites sericeus. |

Plectambomites sericeus occurs occasionally near the base
of the Waynesville bed west of Oxford, Ohio. It is abundant
a short distance above the Hebertella insculpta layer in the
Liberty bed.

Ir. Platystrophia lynx.

In southern Indiana, and in the adjacent parts of Ken-
tucky, Platystrophia lynx is very abundant in the Bellevue
bed. In Ohio, it occurs occasionally in the Fairmount, Belle

102 The American Geologist. ADEE

vue, and Corryville horizons but is not common until the
Mount Auburn bed is reached. It occurs in the Mount Au-
burn bed also in Indiana, but, except in the neighborhood of
Madison, it appears to be very rare at this upper horizon. In
Ohio, specimens are known even as far up as the middle of
the Warren bed. Many of the gerontic Mt. Auburn specimens in
Ohio are characterized by the possession of a remarkably short
hinge line, resulting in a more globose ferm for the shell.

12. Streptelasma, Heterospongia, Beatricea.

Streptelasma rusticum, or rather the form which passes
under this name in Ohio and Indiana, occurs at Concord, Ken-
tucky, at 47 feet and again at 58 feet beneath the base of the
Hebertella insculpta layer, while Dalmanella jugosa is found
in abundance only between 44 and 28 feet beneath this layer.
Heterospongia, a branching form of unknown affinities, oc-
curs at Madison eight feet above the base of the Madison
bed; at Versailles it occurs at the base and also two feet be-
neath this bed; along Elkhorn creek near Richmond it occurs
in the Madison bed about 38 feet below the top. A large
typical specimen of Beatricea undulata was found immediate-
ly above the massive coral layer at the base of the Madison bed
at Madison, Indiana.

EARTHQUAKES IN SOCORRO, NEW MEXICO.

By RuFus M. BaGe, Jr., Socorro, New Mexico.

Thirty-four earthquake shocks have been felt in Socorro
during the last three months. Seismographs have therefore
been constructed in the basement of the New Mexico School
of Mines for more accurately investigating these phenomena.
Since this work was done we have had one earthquake which
occurred shortly after midnight on the night of March 8,
1904. The first decided shock came at 7: 10 p. m., January 19,
shaking doors, rattling windows and swaying objects back and
forth. It was accompanied by a heavy rumbling sound like
thunder. Several minor tremors occurred that same night.

The next marked disturbance was on the 3oth of Jan-
uary at 5:25 a.m. On the 2ist of February at 11:30 p. m.
another rather sharp earthquake occurred and there were three
pronounced jars during the night. The last shock was on the

Earthquakes in New Mexico.—Bagg. 103

eighth of March at 12:26 a.m. The direction of the move-
ment of the earth-wave during this shock was recorded by the
writer's seismograph and was found to be an almost true east
and west movement, the motion being first toward the east
and then to the west. Though the pendulum swung outward
and back, making two complete vibrations, and returned to
the centre, it is probable that there was but one vibration-wave
instead of a double rocking motion. This is probable from the
very fine wire used and the length of the pendulum which
would of itself through momentum be carried out and back
through the sand bed after the initial jar had passed.

Upon investigation, we find that there have been a number
of earthquake shocks in this immediate vicinity at various
intervals during the past and some have been quite violent.
According to the most reliable evidence at hand from one of
the oldest residents here there was a strong earthquake on the
twenty-eighth of April, 1868, and again in April, 1869. This
latter was the most serious known here. This earthquake shock
affected the water flow in the Socorro springs at the base of
Socorro mountain. Prior to this disturbance the water flowed
most rapidly from the southwest corner of the wet area about
the springs. After the jar it shifted to the north end of the
water-bearing zone where it still issues forth in abundance,
but not as strongly as it used to in the area farther south. Fur-
thermore after this earthquake the water became muddy and
of a rusty color and remained so for many weeks.

The next violent shock occurred on the sixth of July, 1886,
when the County Commissioners were in session at the court
house. There was a heavy rumbling sound preceding the jar
and this was followed by so sharp a rocking of the building
that the men endeavored to rush out of doors for safety. For-
tunately, the vibrations quickly passed and the building re-
mained. ;

Again in 1897 another earthquake was felt which is dis-
tinctly remembered by many persons now residing here. This
was sufficient in strength to overturn chairs and small ob-
jects. One man crossing the plaza says that the ground
seemed to roll towards him and he was forced to stop and sit
down until the motion passed.

104 The Amertcan Geologist. August, 1308."

The above records are sufficient to show that Socorro is in
a belt of crustal disturbances which, while they are not violent
enough to render the region in any sense unsafe, yet they may
be pronounced enough to be worth careful study and should
be accurately measured by instruments prepared for that pur-
pose. With the present improvements made in the seismo-
graphs in the basement of the School of Mines we shall be in
better shape to record such earth tremors should they con-
tinue. There seems to be no record of any damage to public
or private property, however, although the recent shocks have
been so pronounced that people are awakened from sound
slumber when they occur. .

All these jars are of short duration, come at irregular in-
tervals, and the more violent appear to be followed by a num-
ber of minor tremors which are more or less distinct. The
turbidity. of the waters in Socorro springs in 1869 and the
number of fault planes found on Socorro mountain go far to
substantiate the hypothesis that these earthquakes are due to
local displacements in Socorro mountain and its outliers. One
such fault is visible close to the Magdalena railroad track as
it bends around the mountain at the arroyo crossing a few
miles from Socorro. These slippings are presumably going
on slowly with now and then a sudden displacement strongly
marked which results in these local earthquakes. It is quite
likely that the region is slowly uplifting which assists in pre-
serving the rugged topography of the mountain which is so
characteristic. That such elevation is assuredly taking place
in the southwest portion of Colorado among the San Juan
mountains has already been shown by the geologists of the
United States Geological Survey who have studied the dis-
trict.

The Saccharoidal Sandstone.-—Broadhead. 105

THE SACCHAROIDAL SANDSTONE.

By G. C. BROADHEAD, Columbia, Mo.

In the Missouri geological report published in 1855 profes-
sor G. C. Swallow divides the Lower Palaeozoic strata into a
series of three sandstones and four limestones to which he ap-
plies the term Magnesian limestone series, as follows, begin-
ning at the top:

First Magnesian limestone, 80 to 10¢ feet.

First, or Saccharoidal, Sandstone, 80 to 125 feet.

Second Magnesian limestone, 150 to 230 feet.

Second Sandstone, 70 feet.

Third Magnesian limestone, 350 feet.

Third Sandstcne, 50 feet.

Fourth Magnesian limestone, 300 feet.

With slight changes these divisions are still recognized,
and to certain beds, local names have beeen applied.

The Third Sandstone and Fourth Magnesian limestone
were recognized by Swallow on the Niaugua and Osage rivers
in Camden and Miller counties. Their equivalents may in-
clude the lower lead-bearing limestones of Madison and St.
Francois counties. Everywhere else they are covered with
later sediments. The Third Magnesian limestone is well ex-
posed on the Gasconade river in Maries and Pulaski and on
the Osage in Cole, Miller and Morgan. It is the lead-bearing
rock of Morgan, Miller and Washington counties. .The Sec-
ond Magnesian is the principal rock in the Missouri bluffs
from the western part of St. Charles county to Moniteau, and
forms the entire hill at Jefferson city. Certain lead mines in
Cole, Maries, Franklin and Jefferson occur in it.

The Saccharoidal sandstone is well exposed for two miles
along the Mississippi at and near Crystal city, 35 miles south
of St. Louis, where a thickness of 50 feet of pure white sand-
stone is seen. Forty miles north of St. Louis it is next seen at
Westpoint, Illinois, and at Pacific, 35 miles west of St. Louis,
it-is well exposed.

This sandstone wherever seen is composed of minute round
grains of silica sometimes resembling an odlite and cemented
by silica paste and rarely by calcite. Analysis of specimens
from several places shows it to be over’ 99 per cent of silica.

106 The American Geologist. | August, (3304

It is more often pure white, but sometimes colored by iron
oxide. At Crystal city, Pacific, Augusta and Westpoint it is
capped by the First Magnesian limestone. The fact of its
being so pure and easily crushed caused extensive plate glass
works to be constructed at Crystal city and these have now
been successfully operated for thirty years. Near Horine in
Jefferson county, it is seen 80 feet thick and thence northwest
to Pacific it is of frequent occurrence. One hundred feet
thickness is exposed at Pacific, the upper seventy-five feet be-
ing pure white and easily hauled. There has been a large
quantity shipped off from here for the past twenty-five years.
At Valley Park, a few miles east, extensive glass works have
recently been constructed.

At Gray’s summit the Pacific railroad cuts through this
sandstone.

On the Missouri river at St. Albans it is the lowest rock
seen and at Lefficue Rock it is in the river.

The hill, one mile below Augusta in St. Charles county,
shows the following section:

1. 16 feet of Lower Trenton, on the hill top.

2. 94 feet of First Magnesian limestone.

3. 2 feet of coarse calcareous sandstone, somewhat oOdlitic and en-
closing calc spar.
1 foot of earthy odlitic limestone with calc spar.
2 feet of white and brown sandstone, slightly odlitic.

5

6. 130 feet of white Saccharoidal Sandstone.
7. 2% feet of chert.
8
9

=

3 feet of dark, rough, mottled magnesian limestone.
. 38 feet cf Second Magnesian limestone, containing some chert
and some Cotton rock beds.
A half mile east, along the bluffs, the Second Magnesian
limestone dips beneath the horizon and one mile farther the

sandstone disappears. From here, as we go west, as far as.

Boone, the standstone is found near the top of the Missouri
bluffs. On Tuque creek, two miles north of Marthasville, it
is 127 feet thick and pure white, with the lower beds slightly
brown tinged. A cave called “‘the devil’s boot’ occurs near
Marthasville. From the level surface we descend 30 feet to
the floor. We are there in a room 60 feet wide and 150 feet
deep, 8 feet high at the entrance and 25 feet high at the far-
ther end. There is a cave near the head of the Dry fork of
Charette which has a beautifully ripple marked roof.

4

The Saccharoidal Sandstone.—Broadhead. 107

On bluffs of Lost creek, Warren county, one and a half
miles from the Missouri bottoms, the section shows:

57 feet with outcrops of chert and some sandstone.
20 feet of. Devonian limestone.

15 feet of crinoidal limestone.

80 feet of Trenton limestone.

31 feet of First Magnesian limestone.

70 feet of Saccharoidal sandstone.

105 feet of Second Magnesian limestone.

MAURO DH

On Charette creek, Warren county, the Saccharoidal sand-
stone is seen 84 feet thick, the upper part white, the lower
brown tinged, and forming very picturesque scenery, and cov-
ered with lichens and ferns. Springs of water often issue from
the lower beds.

The Saccharoidal sandstone is exposed on most of the
streams flowing towards the Missouri in Warren, Montgomery
and Calloway. Five miles southwest of High hill, there is a
lone hill called the “pinnacle” nearly surrounded by the water
of Pinnacle fork. It is 88 feet high, with a width at the bottom
of 100 feet, and 540 feet long, the lower 50 feet nearly per-
pendicular, the upper 12 feet of First Magnesian limestone,
that below of sandstone. The lower part of the sandstone is
sometimes deeply weathered and forms good shelter for cat-
tle.

On Whitesides branch it forms very picturesque escarp-
ments capped by the First Magnesian limestone. On Dry
fork of Lowtre it forms beautiful terraces and escarpments,
the upper 4 feet columnar. The columnar was also seen on
Lost creek in Warren county and on most of the branches of
Loutre river. The best example of this was seen on Whetstone
creek west of Loutre.

On the Missouri bluffs, near Portland, there is a shallow
cave in sandstone known as Saltpetre cave. Saltpetre has been
made here and the walls are coated with a fine white efflor-
escence.

At the Clatterbuck ford, on Cedar creek, line of Boone and
Calloway, the section shows:

I. 52 feet of Devonian limestone and shales.

2. 25 feet of First Magnesian limestone.
3. 30 to 40 feet of Saccharoidal Sandstone.

108 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

The Saccharoidal sandstone appears in high lands in many
places in Franklin county and is well developed along the Mis-
souri in the northeast part of the county, also in the northwest
between St. John and Boeuff creeks, where Dr. Shumard esti-
mated it to be 175 feet thick.

On the Missouri bluffs at the line of Gasconade and Frank-
lin it has been quarried and used in bridge masonry. From
this place I obtained part of an Orthoceras over 6 inches in
diameter with a siphuncle over an inch in diameter. The spec-
imen was over 2 feet long. Fragments of what may be ortho-
ceratites were also obtained 34 inches in diameter.

On the top of the bluffs between Cole’s creek and the Gas-
conade, the upper beds are of a beautiful and somewhat banded
pink color. Near this there were formerly two large tumbled
masses of sandstone known as the Little and Big blossom, but
the railroad builders blasted them away. Farther west the
sandstone is only occasionally seen, as the Second Magnesian
limestone more often reaches from the base to the summit of
the hills. Wolf’s point, 30 miles above Jefferson, is the last
point where the sandstone is to be seen. The last point west
where it is seen on the railroad is near Syracuse. It is found
near the Versailles. It is occasionally found on the highlands
near the Gasconade for 30 miles from its mouth.

At Westpoint, Ill., it forms a flat anticlinal which exposes
the rock 75 feet in thickness for a half a mile along the Miss-
issippi.

On the west side of the Mississippi in Lincoln county, Mo.,
opposite Cap au Gres, the St. Louis limestone lies horizontal,
but on the north side of a branch here the rocks are tilted up
at an angle of 80° and dip southwest, showing the Burlington
limestone and still farther are older rocks, including the First
Magnesian limestone, Saccharoidal sandstone and the Second
Magnesian. Sandy creek, entering the valley three miles north,
derives its name from the frequent occurrence of sandstone
along its bluffs. The fold in strata just spoken of is known as
the Cap au Grés axis. It is recognized in LaSalle county, IIL,
next at Westpoint, in bluffs west of Cap au Gres, thence north-
west via Auburn, Bowling Green, near New London, and is
last seen in Missouri near Newark, in Knox county. From
the Mississippi bluffs it can be traced for several miles by a

The Saccharoidal Sandstone.—Broadhead. 109

series of sink holes. Through the northern one-half of Lincoln
and through Pike and Ralls it approximately follows a ridge
about 12 miles from the Mississippi. At Westpoint the axis
must be deep down, opposite Cap au Grés and on Sandy creek
nearer the surface, and farther north it lies deeper.

The last place where the Saccharoidal sandstone is seen in
Missouri is at Jones’, near the lines of Pike and Ralls, where
the section shows:

1. 6 feet of limestone.

2. 16 feet of drab shaly limestone.

3. 30 feet of First Magnesian limestone.

4. 4 feet of Saccharoidal Sandstone.

From Westpoint the sandstone is not seen again until we
enter Wisconsin and Minnesota. At Minneapolis and St. Paul
our Saccharoidal sandstone is the well known St. Peter’s sand-
stone. The First Magnesian seems not to be present here, but
the Trenton rests directly on the sandstone. In southern Mis-
souri sandstones often occur, and some have been referred to
as the Saccharoidal sandstone, but the adjacent strata seem dif-
ferent.

At the Insane Asylum well at St. Louis the Saccharoidal
sandstone was reached at a depth of 1462 feet, showing it to
occupy the bottom of a basin of that depth whose outer rim
appears at the surface 30 to 40 miles distant at Crystal city,
Pacific, Augusta and Westpoint. The thickness in the well
was found to be 133 feet, or about the same as that which I
measured near Augusta upon the surface. From Augusta to
Westpoint it is covered by 700 feet of more recent sediments,
showing that between Augusta and Westpoint there is a de-
pression or trough over 700 feet deep extending northwest.

A mile below Augusta there formely stood out from the
bluffs a pyramid of rock 4o feet high and 10 feet wide at the
base—the upper part a few feet of limestone resting on sand-
stone. This was separated from the bluffs by a few feet and

on its top a small cedar grew, hence it was long known as | ©

Cedar hill, but the railroad builders have demolished it. A
company now operates a quarry a mile below Augusta and
they take out and ship off large quantities of the sand. Their
place is now known as “Klondike.” Specimens from this place
show beautifully under a magnifying glass, sometimes a beau-
tiful cross lamination is seen.

‘4a The American Geologist. August, 1904.

At Clayton, St. Louis county, the sandstone is reached in a
well at 1145 feet and at Houseman’s, near Brentwood, at a lit-
tle over a 1000 feet depth. Several years ago it was reported
that just after a sudden rise in the Missouri water in the
Houseman well rose to the surface. Hearing of this, a project
was conceived by certain parties to build a dam on the Missouri
where the sandstone is at the water’s edge, which was a little
more than 20 miles distant. The idea was that the water be-
ing dammed up around the sandstone it would thoroughly sat-
urate it and the pressure would force it along the strata to
near St. Louis, where it could be utilized. Testing a piece of
the Klondike rock I found that after remaining in water five
days the weight of the rock would be increased about 5 per
cent. But the truth remains that within 50 miles of St. Louis
there is an inexhaustible supply of the very best sand for
making glass, clean, pure, easy to crush and showing over
99 per cent of pure silica.

A REJOINDER TO DR. DALL’S CRITICISM ON DR.
SPENCER’S HYPOTHESIS CONCERNING THE
LATE UNION OF CUBA WITH FLORIDA.*

By J. W. SPENCER, Washington, D. C.

I have contoured the continental shelf of the Floridian re-
gion, with lines from 200 to 500 feet apart.+ Thus it has been
found the Bahamas and Cuba are on the continuation of the same
continental shelf with Florida. I have studied the valleys in-
denting this shelf, their sizes and gradients as well as their
neighboring geological formations. I have seen in these sub-
marine valleys and their tributaries such a close analogy to the
barrancas and canyons incising elevated plateaus and descend-
ing from them to lower plains, that I have been forced to con-
clude that they were sculptured by atmospheric agents, and
this being the case, they became evidence that the continent
stood at a startling elevation in late geological times. |

Je) Vee See

* “Tertiary Fauna of Florida’ by W. H. DALL, Wagaer Free Tast..Sc., 7a,
1904, p.1544.

+ ‘Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent’’ by J. W. SPENCER, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vi, pp. 103-140, Jan., 1895. Also other papers On the
maps, the close contours have not been reproduced, to avoid confusion of
the small scale.

A Rejoinder to Criticism on Hypothesis.—Spencer. 111%

Omitting all the evidential facts bearing upon these fea-
tures, Dr. Dall tells us that he is still “convinced” that they
can be otherwise explained, without suggesting in what man-
ner. He fortifies himself with the opinions of his junior col-
leagues, claiming that they throw “much more light on the
subject,’ of which I can find none. Yet he passes over the
testimony of other widely separated, but actual investigators
of the subject. He prominently introduces several irrelevant
problems, which are not validly pertinent to my hypotheses,
and with which I have no occasion to disagree, and these he
discusses in such a manner as would appear to me to carry
the implication that he has removed by counter evidence the
supports of my hypothesis, which implication cannot for a
moment be allowed to pass unquestioned. In only one case :
does he raise a valid objection, which is easily explained not
only by my facts, but also by those of another who is a dis-
tinguished authority. Finally he proceeds to shatter all phys-
ical investigations on the subject by a dogmatic pronuncia-
mentum, which together with his treatment forces me to reply.
And in order to make this reply intelligible, [ must give a
lengthy citation from Dr. Dall’s paper, as follows:

1. “Dr. J. W. Spencer has propounded some very startling hypotheses,
involving the elevation of some of the Antilles and Florida many
thousands of feet, and their submergence within a comparatively recent
period of geological time.

2. “By the researches of Prof. R. T. Hill and Mr. T. W. Vaughan
much more light has been thrown on the subject.

3. “I am entirely unable to accept Dr. Spencer’s hypotheses, while
udmitting many of the facts he brings forward, I am convinced that they
admit of some other explanation. We find in the Oligocene of Bowden
land shells belonging to groups peculiar to and now inhabiting the island
of Jamaica, which is sufficient evidence that since the era during which
the Bowden marl was deposited the island has never been entirely sub-
merged. With Cuba it may be different, though I can hardly bring
myself to believe that the peculiar land shell fauna which is so char-
acteristic of that island can have been evolved since the Pleistocene.

4. “The proximity of Cuba to Florida and the fact that the adjacent
portions are composed of organic limestones, which has long been
known, led to the very natural, but erroneous inference that Cuba and
the peninsula were formerly continuous, and that the Florida straits had
been cut between by the erosion due to weather and streams, and sub-

_ sequently by the gulf stream.

I12 The American Geologist. August, 1904,

5. “There is‘no doubt that Cuba has been subjected to great geo-
logical convulsions, but that any considerable part of the island has
been submerged since the Miocene is extremely doubtful and requires
proof not hitherto forthcoming.

6. “According to Mr. Vaughan’s observations the great mass of the
Tertiary limestones of Cuba are middle and upper Oligocene, . . . no
positive identification of Pliocene beds has been made, and the Pleisto-
cene reef rocks do not occur above the sea at a greater height than
thirty or forty feet.

7. “The, on the whole, horizontality of the Floridian strata indicates

a freedom from violent changes of level . . . Land shells in the Ocala
limestones show that dry land existed; . . . elevation never exceeded
100 feet. . . . Denudation of the organic limestones by solution rather

than erosion is the prominent characteristic of the changes of the sur-
face. Soft, crumbling under the finger nail, the rocks of the plateau,
if lifted five or six thousand feet, as claimed by Dr. Spencer, would
have been furrowed by canyons and swept bodily into the sea. Indeed,
to me the proposition is inconceivable as a fact and incompatible with
every geologic and paleontologic fact of south Florida which has come
to my knowledge.”

The numbering of the paragraphs is mine, given for ref-
erence.

As an elevation of about 2074 feet would connect Cuba and
the Bahamas with Florida by isthmuses, the evidence of any
‘ greater elevation would have to be sought for far beyond the
lands of the peninsula, which constitutes Dr. Dall’s limitations.
Fhe great elevation suggested by the occurrence of the. subma-
rine valleys would certainly be startling if contemplated with-
out study. With me the hypothesis was of slow growth as
twenty-five years ago I began where my friend now appears
to be. About 1878, while investigating the problem of the
origin of the basins of the great lakes, I found in the works of
Dana and Dawson the evidence of a former greater elevation
of the continental lands, but it was not until 1889, when I saw
no other probable explanation of the submarine valleys, that
the hypothesis of a late elevation of even 2000 or 3000 feet
was adopted.* The same continental shelf extended from the
gulf of St. Lawrence to the gulf of Mexico and it was similar-
ly indented with valleys. Yet it was another four years before
I ventured to call attention to the continuation of the same
features to great depths.t A year later, I published an array

*“High Continental Elevation’”’ etce., by the writer, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,
vol. i, pp. 65-70, 1889.

+ ‘Terrestrial Subsidence S. E. of the Am. Cont.,’’ Id., vol. v, p.19 with
map.

A Rejoinder to Criticism on Hypothesis.—Spencer. 113

of facts and announced my hypothesis,* and since that time
have added the results to numerous surveys confirming my
belief that the submarine valleys cutting the continental shelf
were formed by atmospheric agents. And I hope to revise
the whole subject, brought down to date, in the near future.

Dr. Dall in paragraph numbered 2 refers to the work by
Mr. R. T. Hill, which he says throws “much more light’? upon
the subject.+ From the same paper by Mr. Hill I find a con-
firmation of (a) my previous observations upon the enormous
amount of denudation of the white limestones since their up-
lift with moderate dislocation; (b) the subsequent terracing
(which means both subsidence and re-elevation) high? above
the present shore line and (c) the remarkable horizontality of
the late epeirogenic movements. He also shows how the ter-
races have been incised by gorges and canyons, but he does
not follow these features below sea-level. However, I could
not find anywhere that he had thrown any light upon the er-
ror or extravagance of my hypothesis as may be inferred when
Dr. Dall says that he has thrown “much more light on the
subject.” That I am right in this contradiction is shown by
Mr. Hill’s own words. He says: “It might be alleged that
all the ancient topography, showing subsidence is still beneath
the ocean level. . . . The submarine topography however ts
not within the province of this paper’? Thus it may be seen
that Mr. Hill has not studied the very features upon which
my hypothesis has been based and consequently he is not in a
position to throw any light upon the subject in any way, yet he
ventures an opinion thus: “/Vithout committing myself to an
emphatic negation as yet, I must confess . . . I seriously
doubt its existence” (that is, late subsidence), and such an un-
supported opinion Dr. Dall accepts as authority. Nor have I
been able to find any proof to the contrary furnished by
Mr. Vaughan.

While speaking of Mr. Hill, I shall now improve the oppor-
tunity of correcting Mr. Hill’s measurement of the thickness
of the Tertiary limestones at Mantanzas (in the Yumuri can-

* “Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent’’ by the same, Jd., vol. vi, pp.
103.140, Jan., 1895.

+ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. xvi, pp. 243-288,1885. Mr. HILu was sent
to Cuba by PrRoF. A. AGASSIZ in 1894 to study the raised coral reefs and
arrived in Havana just as I was leaving the island.

t Also: ‘‘Geographical Evolution of Cuba” by J. W. SPENCER, Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am., vol. vii, 1895, see page 87.

Ii4 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

yon). Here he gives the thickness at 800 feet. The section
along the canyon is almost directly across the strata, which
dips uniformly at a moderate angie. It shows an unconform-
ity near the top and another at the inner end of the canyon,
and a little beyond there is a fault; above which I measured
the thickness and found it to be 1700 feet, and if the beds are
not repeated at the fault, it was estimated that several hundred
feet more would have to be added.* This correction is im-
portant, as it shows that the limestones here have about the
same development as is now known to obtain in southern Flor-
ida on one side and in Jamaica on the other; and it throws
more light on the amount of denudation of the neighboring
hills. Furthermore, the discrepancy in his measurement does
not strengthen the value of Mr. Hill’s undigested opinion, as
above pointed out.

As expressed in the beginning of paragraph No. 3, I could
not object to Dr. Dall’s dissent from my conclusions (though
I should prefer him to accept them), provided he had at-
tempted to show some other feasible explanation of the phe-
nomena, which he says he is “convinced that they admit” of.

In the latter part of paragraph 3 and in No. 4 Dr. Dall cites
evidence that Jamaica and Cuba have not been entirely sub-
merged in later geological days. The introduction of this
topic has no bearing upon my hypothesis, and its treatment
is liable to leave the impression that here is a strong point
against my conclusions. The same infelicitous treatment is a
prominent feature of other paragraphs. In Cuba, the terraces
and sea caves at about 400, 700 and 1000-1100 feet suggest
that Central Cuba was so submerged as to be represented by
only a few small islands, though Dr. Dall fails to use such
evidence of partial submergence in his paragraph 5. It may
be added that these recent terraces could not date to the orig-
inal uplift of the limestones, which even near by in places have
been entirely denuded away.

With the cited correlations of Mr. Vaughan (in paragraph
6), I know of no reason to dissent, but when the heights of the -
coral reefs are mentioned as occurring to only 40 feet, the one
inference to be drawn is that this slight change of level is all
that is recorded, while in reality living species of mollusks oc-

* “Geological Evolution of Cuba,” cited before, page 76.

Dad ai it

A Rejoinder to Criticism on Hypothesis.—Spencer. 115

cur in beds to an elevation of 150 feet or more, as Dr. Dall
would have seen had he referred to my work on Cuba (p. 83).
And these fossils, from a point nearly opposite the end of
Florida, were determined by Dr. Dall’s colleague under his
own direction.

The first real objection, and indeed the only one, appears
in No. 7, and it is a comfort to reply to it in place of warding
off intangible inferences. Dr. Dall says that with an elevation
of 5000-6000 feet the plateau of Florida would have been fur-
rowed into canyons, of which none are seen in southern Flor-
ida. Certainly in the very low peninsula, such do not form a
feature. An ‘elevation of 2100 feet would connect the islands
with the continent, and to this amount I shall here confine
myself. An uplift of even this much would extend the land
far beyond the boundaries of my critic’s limitations.

With atmospheric action on such a raised plateau, it be-
comes dissected, with remnants intact, until the features grow
old when only ridges and valleys are left. I had seen in the Flor-
idian ¢hannel and its tributaries such dissection, with Florida
one of the remnants of the original plateau. My observations
of the erosion features of high plateaus, which are not of
great antiquity, show that above the head of the incising val-
leys the surface may show no depressions or only shallow
channels. So also the canyons or deep valleys should be found
nearer the edge of the continental shelf than the now very low
plains of southern Florida, to which Dr. Dall seeks to ‘imit
the evidence. Even here the surface has been levelled ever
by coral reefs or sand accumulations formed since any sculp-
turing of the Floridian plateau according to my hypothesis.
This is confirmed by professor N. S. Shaler who finds great
changes of level as shown by the following quotations: “The
coast line exhibits a number of flooded valleys . . . some of
these channels . . . are now completely filled with sand plains

. evidently of considerable depth. It is tolerably evident
indeed, that if the recent deposits . . . were removed the sur-
face of the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds would be found
deeply scarred by gorge-like valleys.”’*

The above quotation refers to the surface sculpturing, but
professor Shaler shows in evidence of a great elevation of the

* Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vi, p. 154.

116 The American Geologist. ApEua at

peninsula the occurrence of deep subterranean channels in
the Tertiary limestone.

He says, after stating that the water of the subterranean
drainage comes from considerable depths:

“There is no way in which we can account for the excavation
of the subterranean channels . . . except by the supposition that they
were made as caverns in the limestone rock, with all their parts above
the erosion base level. We have to suppose considerable subsidence to
account for these inverted syphons. It is, indeed, not likely that sound-
ings would give evidence of value as to the original horizontal plain of
the exit, for under the existing conditions the channels would be filled
Tihs

He further states that the water coming from depths of at
least 800 feet in wells, has displaced the original salt water,
indicating a recent elevation to at least this amount. We know
of no reason why it should be so limited, as the rock favorable
for the production of such channels reaches to an ascertained
depth of over 2000 feet. It is also well known that these lime-
stones favor the formation of subterranean drainage channels
in place of canyons and valleys, thereby removing the necessity
of such valleys as Dr. Dall demands.

Thus Dr. Dall’s only real argument against my hypothesis
(of a late Tertiary or early Pleistocene connection of Florida
and Cuba) and his own opinion that the oscillations of Flori-
da have not exceeded 50-100 feet are not supported when the
facts are looked into, nor are his conclusions sustained not-
withstanding the opinions of his associates, as shown above.
These gentlemen having been referred to, I may be permitted
to mention the results of independent and actual workers in
the same line of investigations as my own.

In America, on the Pacific coast, professor George David-
son,t and on the Atlantic side Dr. Warren Upham,z almost
simultaneously with myself interpreted the submarine valleys
in the continental shelf as submerged land features. Mr. A.
Lindenkohl* had brought to light the deep canyon of the Hud-
son river, showing that the region has lately been depressed
to a much greater depth than that which divides Florida from

*Id., pp. 154-155.

+ Bull. Cal. Acad. Sci., vol. ii, 1887, pp. 265, and Ap. 13. Rep., U. S. Coast
Surv. for 1887 (1889).

t Bull. Geol. Soc, Am., vol. i, 1889, pp. 563-567, and in Geol. Mag. Lond.,
Dec. 3, 1890, vol. vii, p. 492.

yr _
a5
i
> ~

A Rejoinder to Criticism on Hypothesis—Spencer. 117

Cuba, and yet it is cut in the continental shelf substantially
submerged to the same depth in that region as it is off Florida
and the islands.

On the European side of the Atlantic, professor Edward
Hull (the retired Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland,
and author of the Geology of Palestine including that of the
complex Jordan—Akabah valley) has pursued the same meth-
ods of study and interpretation of the submarine valleys as
myself, and has published numerous papers on those off the
European coast.* One of the most important of his drowned
valleys was discovered by A. Saint Clair Deville. Hull’s
conclusions are supported by professor R. Ethridge, an-
other paleontologists, who pronounces them as “fully demon-
strated,” thus accepting geomorphic evidence of a land fea-
ture without the aid of fossils. Professor Hull’s conclusions
and those of his supporters are applicable to my methods, which
professor Hull freely recognizes.

I shall now refer to another epoch-making work, a quarto
monograph just published by professor Fridhjof Nansen? (the
greatest Arctic explorer), on the continental shelves and
drowned valleys, not merely of the Aretic region, but also of
the north Atlantic, including part of the American side. Writ-
ing of the former elevation of some of the now sunken plains,

he says:
“The drowned valleys and fjords at many places make this highly
probable, and at some places . . . there seems no other feasible ex-

planation to be found. Some drowned river valleys on the American
side of the Atlantic seem perhaps to give still better evidence of such a
recent elevation. . . . Although Spencer’s descriptions of the drowned
valleys (i.e. southeast coast of the U. S. and in the West Indies) may
often be based on too few and scanty soundings to be absolutely certain,
there are evidently a good many submarine features in this region
which cannot easily be otherwise explained, and which indicate vertical
oscillations of great amplitude of the shore line as Prof. Spencer has
pointed out.” £

Dr. Dall’s long studies of the Tertiary mollusks seem to
have made him overlook the import of the hollows and gullies

in the older Tertiary limestones of Florida, which are more

*In a series of papers published by the Victoria Institute (1896-1902).

+ The Norwegian North Polar Expedition (1893-1896), vol. iv. (XIII *'The
Bathymetrical features of the North Polar Seas, with a Discussion of the
Continental Shelves and previous Oscillations of the Shore-line’’ by FRIDHJOF
NANSEN, Quarto, pp. 1-232, plates 1-28, Christiania, 1904).

ft Op. cit:, p. 192.

118 The Amcrican Geologist. August, 1282:

or less filled up with recent coral and sand accumulations. He
has entirely passed over the evidence of the subterranean chan-
nels, which professor Shaler emphasizes as proof of a recent
elevation of more than 800 feet (in place of 50-100 feet given
by Dall as a maximum). Strengthening himself with the
opinions of his junior colleagues, unsupported by evidence, he
brushes aside the phenomena of the drowned valleys of the
continental shelf, without considering them. Even in his own
palaeontological work, he leaves one in uncertainties in the
correlations. And he has pronounced that “beyond question”
certain beds are below the newer Pliocene* and yet these con-
tain a rich mammalian fauna of the later Pleistocene period
(belonging to the Equus beds). While I have now twice
passed unnoticed his criticisms, a reply has become necessary,
and from all the things set forth, I am compelled to pronounce
that his arrogant dictum—that the late connection of Cuba and
Florida is “inconceivable” and “incompatible” with facts in -
any part of Florida—has not been sustained by any evidence
which he has shown, and indeed I have failed to find any geo-
logical, physiographic, or paleontological features incompatible
with my general hypotheses, though these may be modified in
the future and extended. Indeed they seem necessary for the
explanation of several features which I gather from Dr. Dall;
such as: the filled superficial gullies, the change from the
warm Oligocene to the cold Miocene waters, the Pacific types
of the Miocene of Galveston, problems of the bone beds, ete.
Then a number of questions we might ask, such as what part
of the system does the Miocene sheet of Florida represent? or
where is the evidence of the earlier warmer epoch of the Mio-
cene as in Europe, and how are time correlations made with
the Arctic Miocene? This case, like others, may serve to show
that a specialist, however distinguished in his own branch,
cannot be relied on as an authority beyond the valid evidence
adduced.

During the ten years since writing the paper suggesting
the connection of Cuba with Florida, much additional evidence
bearing directly and indirectly upon the question has been ob-
tained, confirming my views. I have also considered in the
fullest manner the probability of the submarine valleys being

* Bull. 84, U. S. Geog. Surv., p. 133.

A Rejoinder to Criticism on Hypothesis—Spencer. 119

due to open faults, not sculptured by atmospheric erosion,
without finding a vestige of possibility in such explanation.
But this whole question will be discussed again from the evi-
dence now obtained.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

Geological Survey of New Jersey, Annual Report of the State Geol-
ogist for the Year 1903. Henry B. KuMMEL. Pages xxxvi, 132;
with 14 plates. Trenton, N. J., 1904.

Besides the administrative report, noting the work of the last year,
this volume contains the following five papers: 1. Report on a pro-
posed Tide Waterway between Bay Head and Manasquan Inlet, by C.
C. Vermeule; 2. The Floods of October, 1903,—Passaic Floods and
their Control, by C. C. Vermeule; 3. Forest Fires in New Jersey dur-
ing 1903, by F. R. Meier; 4. Underground Waters of New Jersey, Wells
drilled in 1¢03, by G. N. Knapp; 5. The Mineral Industry and the Ce-
ment Industry, by S. Harbert Hamilton.

The St. Louis Exposition commissioners for this state appropriated
$5,000 for a geological exhibit of the state’s resources, under the di-
rection of the state geologist and S. H. Hamilton. After the close of
the Exposition, this collection of specimens, photographs, maps, etc.,
will be placed in the State Museum.

It is announced that Prof. R. D. Salisbury during the present year
will begin the preparation of a monograph, for this Survey, on the
surface geology of southern New Jersey, supplementing his previous
Volume V of the series of Final Reports, which treats of the Glacial
Geology, limited to the northern part of the state. This work will
be welcomed as supplying correlation of the stages of the Glacial pe-
riod with the stages of the Lafayette and Columbia periods, which
have been so well studied along the southern coastal plain from. New
Jersey to the gulf of Mexico.

During 1903 the mining of iron ore in New Jersey yielded 280,323
tons; and of zinc ore, 279,419 tons. Iron mining is only a half or third
of its maxima in former years; but the zine mining has gradually ad-
vanced to four or five times its amount as it was six to twelve years
ago. W. U.

The United States Geological Survey, its Origin, Development, Or-
ganization, and Operations. H. C. Rizer, Chief Clerk U. S. G. S,,
Bulletin No. 227. Pages 205; with 9 plates and 5 figures in the
text, both series being mostly maps. Washington, 1904.

The close of a quarter of a century of the existence of this Sur-
vey is an opportune occasion for presenting this history and review

120 The American Geologist. August, 190%.

of its ifception, growth, and work accomplished in its numerous and
varied departments of surveys and researches in geology, paleontology,
hydrography and hydrology (the former dealing with surface waters,
and the latter with underground waters), chemical and physical studies,
development of economic resources, topographic and geologic mapping,
publications, etc.

Nearly a third part, or, more exactly, 31 per cent, of the entire —

United States, excepting Alaska, has been topographically mapped by
this Survey. Its geologic maps, in 106 published folios, cover about
171,000 square miles, or an eighteenth part of the whole national do-
main, again excepting Alaska and our island possessions. The map-
ping of our geology may therefore occupy about fifty or a hundred
years more.

Prior to June 30, 1903, nearly 4,000,000 copies of the publications of
the Survey had been distributed, including the annual reports, mono-
graphs, professional papers, bulletins, water supply and irrigation pa-
pers, geologic folios, and topographic atlas sheets. About two-thirds
of this distribution of the Survey publications has been done within the
last five years, showing a great increase in the popular use of the re-
sults of this national work. Wi Ue

Catalogue of the Ward-Coonley Collection of Mcteorites. Henry
A. WARD. pp. 113, 9 plates, morocco flexible covers, $1.50, Chicago,
1904.

This elegant publication is, like its author, sui generis. Other cat-
alogues of meteorites have been printed, but they are the product of
public or corpcrate institutions. Treatises on meteorites have been
printed, but they have been extended descriptions and discussions. No
catalogue lists so many falls as this. There are four “world collections”
of meteorites, that of the British Museum, 577 falls, (catalogue of
March, 1904), that of Vienna, 560 according to its last catalogue (Oct.,
1902), that of Paris, 466 (catalogue of 1898), and the Ward-Coonley
collection, 603 falls.

Dr. Ward gives a sketch of his methods of building up this col-
lection. It is mainly by exchange, but this has been coupled with world-
wide travel and liberal purchase. In four years this collection increased
179 falls, or 45 falls per year. Such growth, for a collection which al-
ready contained 424 falls, “is unprecedented in the history of meteorite
collections.”

The work does not go into the chemical or mineralogical details
of composition of any of the specimens, but gives interesting statistics
of date of fall, where described, name (and its synonyms) and tax-
onomic classification according to Brezina’s system. The catalogue also
includes an alphabetical list of all known meteorites, with note of such
synonyms as are important, also a list showing the geographical dis-
tribution of all known meteorites, the total number being 651. The
Ward-Coonley collection embraces 229 falls from North America, 31
from South America, 213 from Europe, 77 from Asia, 27 from Africa,

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 121

and 26 from Australasia and the Sandwich Islands. Its total weight
is 5,509 pounds, and the average weight of all kinds is 9'/s pounds, the
total number of specimens large and small about 1,600.

This collection is now “on deposit” at the American Museum of
Natural History, Central Park, New York. N. H. W.

The traces of the mountain building process in the coasts of the Don
river between the villages Kletskaia and Trechostrovianskaia (in
S. E. Russia), by ALEXANDER W. Paviow (“Semlevieoenie,” 1902,
N. II-III).

The paper contains a brief description of one of the regions of the
S. E. Russia studied by the author from the geotectonic side.

The locality in question is the extreme eastern part of the Don river,
where the river sharply changes its course from the eastern direction to
the sotithwestern (a little northerly of the village Trechostrovianskaia).
The investigations of the author show, that the series of Carboniferous,
Jurassic, Cretaceous and, probably, Tertiary rocks, developed in this
region, are compressed into a large unsymmetrical anticlinal fold, with
strike in a N. E. direction (about 30°). This strike in general coin-
cides with the principal direction of the portion of Don immediately
below the extreme eastern point of the river. Thus, the part of the
valley (with a W—E direction) is a transversal valley, the parts with
the NE direction form a longitudinal.

The described fold must be regarded as an extreme western por-
tion of the “region of the pericaspian dislocations’ (of the author),
connected with the disturbed regions on the rivers Atcheda and Med-

* vieditza and perhaps with the inclined rocks near the village Tioplowka

(in the government of Saratow) situated in the north of the city Sar-
atow.

The western part of the summit level of Volga-Don represents
probably the eastern portion of the fold.

According to the author there is no proof of the existence of any
fault, as has been supposed by Mr. Leon Dru. If any fault exist, prob-
ably one can find it on the summit level of Volga-Don.

Notes on a Section across the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua
and Sirtaloa, Mexico. (Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Nov., rgor.)

This paper contains an ideal cross section and description of the
Sierra Madre between Parral and the Pacific coast. The results of
these observations are new and important. It is shown that the
Sierra Madre is not a mountain range, but a great plateau, deeply
trenched by river canyons, and bordered westward by a great abfall,
with a fringe of mountains carved by erosion from the edge of the

’ plateau. The geologic structure shows a base of eroded Cretaceous

shales and limestones, covered by andesitic rocks, partly lava flows,
partly fragmental volcanic accumulations, which are cut and meta-
morphosed by quartsmonzonyte, dioryte, and granite. The eroded
surface of these earlier igneous rocks is covered by dacitic and rhy-

“122 The American Geologist. ADEUR ae

olitic rocks, several thousand feet thick, capped by*occasional basalt
flows.

The recognition cf Tertiary granitic rocks in Mexico is entirely
new. The order of succession of the igneous rocks 1s: 1.Andesyte, the
oldest; 2. Trachyte: 3, Granitic rocks; 4. Dacyte ;5. Rhyolyte; 6.
Basalt.

Harriman Alaska Expedition, Volume IV, Geology and Paleontology.
B. K. Emerson, CHARLES PALACHE, WILLIAM H. Dati, E. O. UL-
rich and F. H. Knowiton. New York. Doubleday, Page and
Company. Roy, Oct., pp. 173, 33 plates.

Including the Introduction (by Dr. Gilbert) there are eight “parts”
of this volume, Dr. Palache furnishing three, viz: General Geology, by
B. K. Emerson, 56 pages; The Alaska-Treadwell mine, Geology
about Chicagof Cove, and Minerals, 40 pages, by Charles Palache;
Neozoic invertebrate fossils, by William H. Dall, 26 pages; Fossils and
Age of the Yakutat formation, by E. O. Ulrich, 24 pages; and Fossil
Plants from Kukak bay, by F. H. Knowlton, 13 pages.

The descriptions by Dr. Emerson include such observations on the
structure as could be made at the various points at which the cruise

halted, supplemented by later study of the specimens collected, illus-
trated by figures and plates. The notes on the microscopic thin sections

are valuable and interesting—especially the metamorphic rock described
from St. Lawrence island in which the clastic grains of a graywacke are
intact in a paste of actinolite needles, the actinolite having resulted from
alteration of the original matrix (p. 40). He found but little evidence
of rocks older than the Carboniferous, while the Vancouver series of
G. M. Dawson, of Triassic, or early Jurassic age, plays a very im-
portant part in the geology of the coast even to Plover bay in Siberia.
A variety of igneous rocks, in which granite is common, are associated
with these sedimentary series.

Mr. Palache’s description of the Treadwell mine supplements that ot
Becker, and is specially full on the new workings opened between
1895 and 1809. The rock of the country is a black slate. The ore con-
sists of “a somewhat silicified sodium-syenyte which has been intruded
as alarge dike . . . and later charged with gold-bearing pyrite by
mineralizing solutions.” This syenyte is not much altered even where
gold-bearing. It consists essentially of albite with pegmatitic quartz,
and orthoclase. The ferromagnesian numerals are lost. The accesso-
ries are apatite, titanite and sparingly zircon. The secondary products
are pyrite, abundant in sharp crystals, calcite, sericite, epidote zoisite
and sagenite groups of rutile. The walls are uniformly black slate,
except that in some places a late intrusive, more basic, has entered
between the syenyte and the black slate. This, when not altered, resem-
bles gabbro, and so it was named by Becker. The Treadwell Com-
pany had running 880 stamps, and were crushing of this ore approxi-
mately four tons per day per stamp.

Dr. Palache describes in some detail the geology of a small area at
Chicagof cove which is opposite the Shumagin islands, and gives a

»
Review of Recent Geological Literature. 123

geological sketch map. This region is for the most part occupied by a
series of Eocene sediments to which he applies the name Stepovak
series, and divides them into upper and lower. Tliey have been con-
siderably folded and faulted, and intruded by a laccolitic rock, a dior-

yte porphyryte that sends off numerous radial dikes into the adjoin-

ing sediments. The lower Stepovak beds are coarse breccias and ag-
glomerates and fine tuffs cemented by secondary silica and by other
alteration products, the whole plainly of pyroclastic origin, and but
slightly fossiliferous. They are hence probably of local and perhaps
quite restricted distribution and will be difficult to co-ordinate with

any other igneous rock mass in Alaska. The upper beds are evidently

of marine deposition, consisting of soft shales, sandstones and grits,
with some thin beds of limestone and now and then a chert band. They
are the principal rocks of the region, forming the coast line, having a
thickness apparently of more than a thousand feet. According to Dr.
Dall the fossils found in the Stepovak series denote the Claiborne
(Middle Eocene) age.

Dr. Palache describes and figures a laccolith of intrusive rock in the
Stepovak series, exposed near the summit of Chicagof peak. The in-
trusive rock is augite-dioryte-porphyryte, dark colored, gray to green-
ish-gray and fine-grained with porphyritic crystals of hornblende and
labradorite, more rarely of augite. The author speaks of hornblende
surrounding pyroxene cores, but “clearly original.” From this lac-
colith numerous radiating dikes pierce the sedimentary rocks, the pre-
vailing type being an alkali-syenyte-porphyry, the porphyritic element
being black hornblende, while in the groundmass are crystals of albite,
and but rarely an insignificant amount of quartz. Other dikes are pe- .
trographically named latyte, hornblende-dacyte, dioryte-aplyte, dioryte-
porphyryte, olivine diabase and diabase porphyryte, without chemical
analyses.

In the section on minerals Dr. Palache enumerates all minerals seen
by the party, not including the rock-forming minerals. He modestly
states that this catalogue is not extensive, but it contains 33 names.

~The invertebrate fossils of the Neozoic are described by Dr. W. H.
Dall, the oldest being those of Stepovak bay. The next higher are
“logically” the Kenai series on the peninsula separating Port Moller
from Herendeen bay immediately to the westward. These are coal-
bearing, and are overlain by a thinner series of Miocene age which is
also much broken by volcanic dikes and intrusions of lava, found in
numerous localities along the north shore of Popof island. An im-
portant stratigraphic result of the expedition therefore is the addition
of a fully established lower series to the Eocene of Alaska. Of the
Stepovak fauna there are 34 species, of which 32 species are from the
“upper beds,” and two, belonging to Modiolus and Cassis, but un-
identifiable as a species, are from the lower, or volcanic beds, of the
whole number eleven being described as new.

To the Kenai, or Astoria, series of the Miocene Dr. Dall refers the
fossils from the Shumagin islands, immediately south of Stepovak bay,

* .
124 The American Geologist. August, 1904.

enumerating not only those recently found, but those previously col-
lected by himself and by Grewingk, making 31° species, 16 more than
formerly known.

Certain boulder-clay deposits at Juneau contain Pleistocene fossils,
marine invertebrates, to a hight of about 200 feet above present
high tide, indicating that the land then was at least 200 feet lower
than at present and the climatic conditions somewhat colder. The ge-
ological features of this vicinity have been discussed by Mr. Gilbert
in vol. iii of this series. There are 19 species of which two are not
known in the recent state.

The tossils of the Yakutat formation are discussed by Mr. Ulrich.
They are mainly from near Kadiak, on an island off the Alaskan penin-
sula northeastward from the Shumagin islands, although the name was
given by Russell in 1891 to a locality near Hidden Glacier nearly 500
miles to the eastward. These localities are bound together stratigraph-
ically by the occurrence of a fossil of definite character, Terebellina
palachei, common to them all, although there are 18 species in all, 13
being new. Their upper Liassic age is shown by the direct evidence of
four European species characterizing that age, viz: Chondrites divari-
catus F—O., C. alpestris Heer, Helminthopsis magna H. and H. ?
labyrinthica H., the latter genus being known only as Liassic. The most
of the fossils are fucoids.

F. H. Knowlton describes the fossil plants from Kukak bay situated
a little north of west from Kadiak island, of which he enumerates 26,
amongst which the confers and the birches prevail. He describes nine
new forms, seven are not named specifically being branchlets, seeds,
scales, etc., leaving ten species previously known. Without hesitation
they are referred to the upper Eocene.

The expedition was an excursion, but with the experienced geolo-
gists who composed the party there could hardly be a failure to gather
important scientific data. The published volumes bear testimony to the
industry with which they studied the regions where the temporary camps
were made, and to the skill and learning with which the data are
discussed. It is not an exhaustive treatise on the geology of the
coasts of Alaska, but it is exhaustive and conclusive on the questions
presented for discussion. Its authority will stand probably unimpaired
by future observations, and it will have to be consulted by future
geologists who attempt to add to the geology of Alaska. N. H. W.

Author's Catalogue. 12

un

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY,

ABBOTT, C. C.

On the occurrence of Artifacts beneath a deposit of clay. (Proc.
Am. Phil. Soc., vol. 48, p. 161, April, 1904.)
ANONYMOUS.

Economic geology of New York. Handbook, pp. 40, N. Y. State
Museum, Albany, 1904.
ANONYMOUS.

Assignments of employés, season of 1904. U.S. G. S., Handbook,
Washington, 1904, pp. 105.

BABCOCK, E. N. (and JESSIE MINOR).

The Graydon sandstone and its mineral waters. (Bull. Brad:
Geol. Field Sta., vol. 1, pp. 22-31, 1904.)
BARLOW, A. E.

The Témagami district. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp.
120-133.)
BASKERVILLE, C. (and GEO. F. KUNZ).

Kunzite and its unique properties. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 25,
July, 1904.)
BASSLER, R. S. (E. O. ULRICH and).

A revision of paleozoic Bryozoa. (Smith. Mise. Col’, vol. 45, pp.
256-295, 4 plates, Apr. 11, 1904.)
BEECHER, C. E.

Note on a new Permian Xiphosuran from Kansas. (Am. Jour.
Sci., vol. 18, p. 23, July, 1904.)
BEEDE,. J. W. (C. S. PROSSER and).

Description of the Cottonwood Falls quadrangle. U. 8S. GS,
Folio 109, 1904.
BELL, ROBERT.

Summary report of the geological survey department of Canada
for the calendar year 1903. 218 pp., Ottawa, 1904.
BERRY, E. W.
. A notable paleobotanical discovery. (Science, vol. 20, p. 56,
July 8, 1904.)
BISHOP, IRVING P.

Economie geology of western New York. (22 Rep. N. Y. State
Geologist, pp. 42-75.)
BREZINA, ARISTIDES.

The arrangement of collections of meteorites. (Proc. Am. Phil.
Soc., vol. 43, pp. 211-246, 7 plates, Apr., 1904.)
BRIGHAM, A. P. F

The geographic importance of the Louisiana purchase. (Jour.
Geog., vol. 8, pp. 243-251, June, 1904.)

2/5 ae The American Geologist. AUBURG GE zees

BROADHEAD, G. C. :
Surface deposits of western Missouri and Kansas. (Am. Geol.,
vol. 34, p. 66, July, 1904.)

BROCK, R. W.

The-.Lardeau district. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp. 42-
81.)
BROCK, R. W. (R. G. McCONNELL and).

The great landslide at Frank, Alberta. (Ann. Rep. Dept. Int.,
1903, Ext. from Part VIII, pp. 17, 13 plates, Ottawa, 1904.)

BROOKS, A. H.

The investigation of Alaska’s mineral wealth. (Trans. Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., Lake Superior Meeting, Sept., 1904, 20 pp.)

CHALMERS, R.

Surface geology of the southern part of the province of Que-
bee. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp. 140-143.)

CLARKE, F. W.

Analyses of rocks, from the laboratory of the United States
Geological Survey, 1880 to 1903. Bull. 228, U. S. G. S., pp. 375, 1904.
CLARKE, JOHN M.

Charles Emerson Beecher. [Portrait.] (Am. Geologist, vol. 34,
p. 1, July, 1904.)

COLLIER, A. J.

The tin deposits of the York region, Alaska. Bull. U. S. G. S.
No. 229, pp. 61, 1904.

DALY, R. A.

Geology of the International boundary. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur.
Can., 1903, Bp. 91-100.)

DARTON, N. H.

Surface and climate of the Louisiana purchase. (Jour. Geog.,
vol. 3, pp. 251-261, June, 1904.)

DARTON, N. H.

Description of the Newcastle quadrangle, U. S. G..S., Folio 107,
1904.

DARTON, N. H.

Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Ne-
braska west of the one hundred and third meridian. U. S. G. S.,
Prof. Pap. 17, pp. 69, 43 plates, 1903.

DAVIS, R. O. E.

Analysis of kunzite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 29,. July, 1904.)
DEAN, BASHFORD.

In the matter of the Permian fish Menaspis. (Am. Geol., vol. 34,
pp. 49-54, July, 1904.)

DOWLING, D. B.

On the coal basins in the Rocky mountains. Sheep creek and
Cascade troughs northward to Panther river. (Sum, Rep. Geol. Sur.
Can., 1903, pp. 83-91.)

DRESSER, JOHN A.

The copper-bearing rocks of the eastern townships, Quebec.
(Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 19038, pp. 146-149.)

Author's Catalogue. 127

DYAR, W. W.

The colossal bridges of Utah; a recent discovery of natural won-
ders. (The Century Magazine, vol. 68, p. 505, Aug., 1904.)

EAKLE, A. S. (and W. J. SHARWOOD).

Luminescent zine-blende. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 77, p. 1000, June
23, 1904.)

ELLS, R. W.

Charlotte county, New Brunswick. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can.,
1903, pp. 150-160.)

ELLS, R. W.

The recent land slide on the Liévre river. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur-
Can., 1903, pp. 1386-139.)

ELLS, R.-W.
Prince Edward and Hastings counties, Ont. (Sum, Rep. Geol.

Sur. Can., 1903, pp. 133-136.)

EYERMAN, JOHN,

Contributions to mineralogy. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 43-49, July,
1904.)

FAIRBANKS, H. W.

Description of the San Luis quadrangle. U.S. G. S., Folio 101,
1904.
FAIRCHILD, H. L.

Glacial waters from Oneida to Little Falls. (22 Rep. N. Y. State
Geologist, pp. 17-42, 26 plates.)

FAIRCHILD, H. L.

Glacial waters from Oneida to Little Falls. (Rep. N. Y. State
Geologist, 1902, pp. r20-r41, 26 plates, 1904.)

FAIRCHILD, H. L.

Geology under the planetesimal hypothesis of earth origin. (Bull.
G. S. A., vol. 15, pp. 243-266, 1904.)

FARIBAULT, E. R.

Gold Fields of Nova Scotia. .(Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1908,
pp. 174-186.)
FLETCHER, HUGH.

Northern part of Nova Scotia. Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903,
pp. 160-174.)

BUELER;-H.. T.

Corundum and emery. (Bull. Brad, Geol. Field Sta., vol. 1, p. 31,
1904.)
FURLONG, E. L.

An account of the preliminary excavations in a recently explored
Quaternary cave in Shasta county, California. (Science, vol. 20,
p. 53, July 8, 1904.)

GANNETT, HENRY.

Boundaries of the United States, and of the several states and
territories, with an outline of the history of all important changes
of territory (3rd edition). U.S. G. S., Bull. No. 226, pp. 145, 1904.

128 The American Geologist. August, | 1302.

GILBERT, G. K.
A case of plagiarism. (Science, vol. 20, p. 115, July 22, 1904.)

GORDON, C. H.

On the paramorphic alteration of pyroxene to compact horn- | ~

blende. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 40-43, July, 1904.)

GREENE, G., K.
Contribution to Indiana paleontology, part 18, pp. 176-184, New
Albany, June 22, 1904.

HAMLIN, HOMER.

Water resources of the Salinas valley, California. Wat. Sup.
inrnies Pap: 89; Ue Ss. Ges: 9 pp, L904

HOFFMAN, G. C.

Chemistry and mineralogy. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp-
187-192.)

HOPKINS, T. C.

Mineral resources of Onondaga county. (22 Rep. N. Y. State Ge-
ologist, pp. 109-115.)

HOWVEY, sO: ‘

Mont Pelé from October 20,1903, to May 20, 1904. (Science, vol.
20, p. 23, July 1, 1964.)

HOVEVe ea.

The 1902-1903 eruptions of Mont Pelé, Martinique and the Sou-
frére, St. Vincent. (Comptes rendus, vol. 9, Int. Cong. Geol., Vienna,
1908, pp. 707-7388, eleven plates, Vienma, 1904.)

INGALL, E. D.

Work of the Mines section. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp.
193-196.)

KNIGHT, NICHOLAS.

The dolomytes of eastern Iowa. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 64, July,
1904.)

KRAUS, E. H.

Occurrence of celestite near Syracuse, N. Y. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 18, p. 30, July, 1904.)

KUNZ, G. F. (C. BASKERVILLE and).

Kunzite and its unique properties. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 25,
July, 1904.)

LAMBE, L.

Vertebrate paleontology. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1993, pp-
205-207.)

LAMBE, L. M.

On the squamoso-parietal crest of two species of horned dino-
saurs from the Cretaceous of Alberta. (Ott. Nat., vol. 17, pp. 81-
84, 2 plates, 1904.)

LOGAN, W. N.

Economic produets of St. Lawrence county. (22 Rep. N. Y. State
xeologist, pp. 118-125.)

Author's Catalogue, 129
LUCAS, F. A.

The dinosaur Trachodon annectens. (Smith. Mise. Coll., vol. 45,
2 pls., April 11, 1904.)

MACOUN, J. M.

Peace River country. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 19038, pp. 81-
83.)

McCONNELL, R. G. (and R. W. BROCK).

The great landslide at Frank, Alberta. (Ann. Rep. Dept. Int.,
1903, Ext. from Part VIII, pp. 17, 13 plates, Ottawa, 1904.)
McCONNELL, R. G.

The Klondike District. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can.»1903, pp. 34-
42.)

McINNES, WILLIAM. ;

The Winisk River, Keewatin district. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur.
Can., 1903, pp. 100-108.)

MERRILL, F. J. H.

Twenty-second report of the state geologist, 1902, pp. 140, Al-
bany, 1904.

MINOR, JESSIE (E. N. BABCOCK and).

The Graydon sandstone and its mineral waters. (Bull. Brad.
Geol. Field Sta., vol. 1, pp. 22-31, 1904.)
OSBORN, C. S.

Iron ores of Arctic Lapland. (Proc. L. Sup. Min. Inst., vol. 9,
pp. 94-118, 1904.)

OSBORN, H. F.

Recent advances in our knowledge of the evolution of the horse.
(Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. 43, p. 156, April, 1904.)

PARK, EMMA J. (and MABEL HAYS).

Winoka gravels: supposed Tertiary deposits. (Bull. Brad. Geol.
Field Sta., vol. 1, pp. 14-21, 1904.)

PRESCOTT, A. B. (and |. N. DEMMON).
William Henry Pettee. (Science, vol. 22, p. 58, July 8, 1904.)

PROSSER, C. S. (and J. W. BEEDE).

Description of the Cottonwood Falls quadrangle. U. S. G. §S.,
Folio 109, 1904.

RANSOME, F. L.

The geographic distribution of metalliferous ores within the
United States. (Min. Mag., vol. x, pp. 7-15, July, 1904.)
RANSOME, F. L.

The geology and ore deposits of the Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona.
Prof. Pap. 21, U. S. G8.

RICE, W. N.

The physical geography and geology of Connecticut. (Conn. Board

of Agriculture, report, 1903, pp. 94-112.)

RIES, HEINRICH,
Notes on mineral developments in the region around Ithaca. (22
Rep. N. Y. State Geologist, pp. 107-109.)

August, 1904.

7

130 The American Geologist.

RIES, HEINRICH,
Notes on recent mineral developments at Mineville, Essex coun-
ty. (22 Rep. N. Y. State Geologist, pp. 125-127.)

ROWE, J. P.

Pseudomorphs and crystal cavities. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 80,
July, 1904.)

RUHL. OT 10; ,

The King-Ritter fault. (Bull. Brad. Geol. Field Sta., vol. 1, p. 3s.
1904.)

RUHL, OTTO.

Observations at Pegmatyte hill. (Bull. Brad. Geol. Field Sta., vol.
1, p. 36, 1904.)

SARLE, C. J.

Economic geology of Monroe county and contiguous territory.
(22 Rep. N. Y. State Geologist, pp. 75-107.)

SHEPARD, E. M.

Table of geological formations. (Bull. Brad. Geol. -Field Sta.,
vol. 1, p. 41; 1904.)

SMITH, G. O.

Description of the mount Stuart quadrangle. U. S. G. S., Folio
No. 106, 1904. ‘
SMYTH, C. H.

Notes on the economic geology of Oneida county. (22 Rep. N. Y.
State geologist, pp. 115-118.)

SPERIREda. Dae.

New type of calcite from the Joplin mining district. (Am. Jour.
Sci., vol. 18, p. 73, July, 1904.)

TASSIN, WIRT.

The Persimmon creek meteorite. (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 27,
pp. 955-959, 2 plates, 1904.)

UDDEN, J. A.

The Geology of the Shafter silver mine district, Presidio county,
Texas. (Bull. No. 8, Uni. Tex. Min. Survey, 60 pp., Austin, 1904.)

ULRICH, E. O. (and R, S. BASSLER).

A revision of paleozoic Bryozoa. (Smith. Mise. Col., vol. 45, pp.
256-295, 4 plates, Apr. 11, 1904.)

UPHAM, WARREN.

Erosion on the great plains and on the Cordilleran mountain belt.
(Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 35-40, July, 1904.)

WARD, L. F.

Famous fossil Cycad. (Am. Jour. Sci. vol. 18, pp. 40-53, July,
1904.)

WASHINGTON, H. S.

The superior analyses of igneous rocks from Roth’s Tabellen,
1869-1884, arranged according to the quantitative system of classi-
fication. Prof. Pap., No. 28, U. S. G. S., pp. 68, 1904.

WHITE, JAMES.

Dictionary of altitudes in the Dominion of Canada, with a relief
map of Canada. pp. 148, Ottawa, 1908.

Author's Catalogue. 131

WHITE, DAVID.
Deposition of the Appalachian Pottsville. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15,
pp. 267-282, pl. 11, June, 1904.)

WHITEAVES, J. F.
Paleontology and Zoology. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903,
pp. 201-205.)

WILSON, A. W. G.

Trent river system and Saint Lawrence outlet. (Bull. G. S. A,,
vol. 15, pp. 211-242, pls. 5-10, May, 1904.)
WILSON, W. J.

The Nagagami river and other branches of the Kenogami. (Sum.
Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903, pp. 109-120.)

WINCHELL, H. Vv.
The Butte Copper veins. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p. 7, July 7,
1904.)

WOOD, EDGAR.
Eruption of Mauna Loa in 1903. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 62, July,
1904.)

WOODMAN, J. EDMUND. ‘
The sediments of the Meguma series of Nova Scotia. (Am. Geon.,
vol. 34, pp. 13-35, July, 1904.)

YOUNG, G. A.
Geology of Yamaska mountain. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1903,
pp. 144-146.)

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Pror. H. F. Ossorn, now in Europe, will lecture on the
evolution of the horse at Cambridge, England.

Dr. J. B. Hatcuer, of the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburg,
Pa., died July 4, of typhoid fever at the age of 46 years.

Proressor RAPHAEL PUMPELLY is making archeological
excavations for the Carnegie Institute in Russian Turkestan.

YALE UNiversity conferred the degree of doctor of laws
on president Charles R. Van Hise of the University of Wis-
consin.

THE EicutH INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CONGRESS,
which meets in this country in September, will have sessions
at Washington, New York, Niagara Falls, Chicago and St.
Louis.

Tue AMERICAN Museum or Naturav History has three
expeditions in the field this season searching for specimens of
vertebrate paleontology. These are under Mr. Walter Gran-
ger, Mr. Barnum Brown and Mr. Albert Thompson.

132 The American Geologist. ADE US es

Tue TentH MEETING OF THE LAKE SUPERTOR MINING
INSTITUTE will be held Aug. 16, 17, and 18 at Ironwood,
Mich. There will be an excursion to Milwaukee and Chicago.
It promises to present a very interesting and vatuable pro-
gram. .

Accorpinc To Dr. J. C. BrANNER the “stone reefs” of
the Brazilian coast are entirely distinct from coral reefs, and
are due to lithification of beach sands in place—consolidated
sand approaching quartzyte. Their existence forms many of
the harbors on which are important cities. They usually are
nearer the land than the coral reefs whenever both occu: at
the same place. They are flat-topped and flush with the sur-
face of the sea at high tide.

ACCORDING TO PRorEessor H. F. Osporn there are in the
American Museum of Natural History remains representing
upwards of 770 specimens of fossil horses. In 1goo “a herd”
of six Pleistocene horses were discovered belonging to the
new species Equus scotti. Explorations have demonstrated
the existence of two and probably three collateral lines of
horses contemporaneous with the Protohippus line which is
regarded as the lineal ancestor of the true horse.

Mr. Cuartes SCHUCHERT, Assistant Curator, Division of
Stratigraphic Paleontology in the U. S. National Museum,
since 1894, has been appointed Curator of the Geological Col-
lections in the Peabody Museum and Professor of Paleon-
tology in Yale University, also Professor of Historical Geol-
ogy and member of the Governing Board of Sheffield Scien-
tific School, succeeding the late professor Charles Emerson
Beecher.

During his period of service in Washington Mr. Schuchert
has shown himself more than usually efficient, and his loss
will be deeply felt.

Professor Schuchert’s address after September Ist will be
New Haven, Connecticut.

AMYGDALOID IN MANtTopA. According to the last “Sum-
mary report” of the Canadian Geological Survey (for 1903)
outcrops of copper-bearing amygdaloid have beén discovered
on lake Manitoba in Manitoba. The strike seems to run SE
and NW, rising about ten feet above the general level of the
plain with an apparent slight dip toward the west in which di-
rection they run under almost horizontal beds of gypsum.
“Cavities near the surface are nearly always empty and lined
with a coating of white substance, occasionally they are filled
with greenish earth or with crystals of zeolites. Small parti-
cles of copper can be seen with the microscope and some
copper carbonate. Small areas of jasper conglomerate are
associated with the amygdaloid, but their relative position is
uncertain.”

Tur AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV. PLATE VI.

Thin sections of orbicular gabbro of second variety. A. Section of periphery,
showing feldspar zone and concentric rings of olivine, which has here
altered to actinslite. >< 33. B. Section of periphery, with
‘< Nicols, showing irregular orientation of feldspar X 33.

/

P
a
>

TH AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. XXXIV. PLATE VII.

Thin sections of orbicular gabbro of third variety. A. Section of centre of nuclens,
showing inclusions of feldspars and olivines in hornblendes. % 60.
B. Section of radial zone showing radiating olivines and
concentric ring in which olivine is lacking. X 33.

2
—_
=
:
a
a
I
=z
>

\“

\

Tum AMpRICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV. PxiaTE VIII.

Boulder of orbicular gabbro (second variety).

7 °
120 oma
LIBRARY
-_,”_ OFTHE
UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS
—
i ; :

Tur AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV. PLATE

Section of orbicular gabbro (second variety), showing general appearance.
White minerals are feldspars. Dark minerals are olivines, horn-
blendes and hypersthens. Thickness, about 2mm. Nat. size.

pe
UNIVERSITY f ILLINOIS

\\

\

TH AMBRICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV. PLATE X.

Hand specimen of orbicular gabbro of third variety. Natural size.

= AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

; Vor. XXXIV. SEPTEMBER, 1904. No. 3.

4 ‘THE ORBICULAR GABBRO OF DEHESA,
’ CALIFORNIA.*

By H. H. KESSLER and W. R. HAMILTON,
Stanford University, Cal.

: PLATES VI—X.

Occurrence. The rock which forms the subject of this pa-
per was first found in 1901, as a small piece of float, beside the
road, near Dehesa, by Mr. Marion Powers. This specimen
was sent to professor A. C. Lawson at the University of Cali-

q fornia and was discussed Ay him in a brief paper before the
Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America, at
; its meeting of December, 1901.t Since the work of prepara-

tion of the present paper has been completed, there has come
from the press, a paper by professor Lawson on the same sub-
r ject. £
The orbicular gabbro occurs in a boss of gabbro which
broke through the surrounding granite and which forms nearly
the whole of the first hill which rises to the northwest of De-
hesa post office. This hill is very steep and rises to an ele-
vation of 1800 feet above sea level and 1300 feet above the
Sweetwater river, which flows at the base.

The locality is on the El Cajen sheet of the U. S. Geol.
Survey, the exact locality being Long. 116° 52° W., Lat. N.
32° 47. This gabbro boss has an area of approximately one

a. ee rk. Pe

ys |

~e

* The authors are indebted to Dr. J. P. Smith, of Stanford University, for
advice and assistance.

+ On an Orbicular Gabbro from San Diego Co., Cal., by ANDREW C. Law-
SON, Berkeley, Calif. Science, (New Series), vol. xv, p. 415.

~The Orbicular Gabbro at Dehesa, San Diego Co., Cal., by ANDREW C.
LAWSON. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., vol.iii, No.17, March,1904. (The
writers had begun preparation of this paper before they knew that the paper
of PrRoF. LAWSON was being prepared.)

Se” eae Pe

134 The American Geologist. Repteste eee

square mile. Over only a small area, which is near the cen-
tre, are the orbicular rocks found. About two per cent of the
boulders in the small area, show the orbicular structure.

Geological relations. The granite through which the gab-
bro has broken is, with slight variations in petrographical
character, continuous over a large part of San Diego Co.
Fairbanks* has done some work on the region and he men-
tions many phases of the crystalline rocks, but no detailed
petrographic or chemical analyses have been made of the
rocks in the locality.

The granite is evidently older than the gabbro. There
is no fusion contact visible. The contact can be easily traced
on the surface and is often found to lie in small water courses,
showing less resistance to erosion. .The gabbro is fresh though
considerably shattered, and exists as huge angular boulders
lying in irregular heaps and as isolated masses. In no place
can it be found in a large mass im situ. The mass was evident-
ly consolidated before the uplift, and shattered during that
interval. Owing to this shattering of the gabbro mass, the
boulders of orbicular gabbro have been isolated. The writer
spent several days examining the area and in no place could
the orbicular rocks be found in place. It is evident from an
examination of the boulders, that the orbicular portion oc-
curred in the original mass as a dyke, the character of the gab-
bro on either side being identical. In some of the larger boul-
ders it is found as a dyke, trom one to eight feet in thickness.
In such cases the line between the orbicular portion and the
barren portions of the rock is clearly defined. No orbicular
rocks were found at any place nearer than 400 feet from the
contact with the granite, so it is probably not a-contact phe-
nomenon.

General Petrographic’ Characteristtcs.

The normal gabbro. The main body of the boss is made
up of a coarsely crystalline, mesocratic, hornblende gabbro.
The texture varies from microcrystalline to coarsely granitic,
with large crystals 10 mm. to 15 mm. in diameter. The most
notable petrographic feature is the profusion of these horn-
blende crystals. Dykes or segregation veins, two to ten inches

* 11th Ann. Report of the Cal. State Mining Bureau, 1893, pp. 76-120.

-Orbicular Gabbro.—Kessler and Hamilton. 135

in thickness are seen in many places, made up almost entirely

of black hornblende crystals. Some of these hornblendes

__were noted nearly four inches in length. They seem to be well
distributed over the gabbro area.

A peculiar wavy banding is often seen in the gabbro boul-
ders. It is made up of alternate layers of light and dark min-
erals, the band usually continuous in width, despite its undulat-
ing arrangement. This appears to be flwxion ‘structure.

The principal constituents of the gabbro are: plagioclase,
hornblende, olivine, hypersthene and oxide of iron.

The feldspar usually predominates, though the hornblende,
owing to its resistance to weathering, is the most prominent
on.the weathered surface. The extinction angles of the feld-
spar vary 26° to 40°, measured from albite lamella. Twinning
after the albite and pericline laws is common, The twins of-
ten show evidence of crushing—fraying out or ending abrupt-
ly. In some hand specimens the feldspar contains inclusions
of olivines. In others the olivines contain the feldspars as in-
clusions. The former occurrence is the more frequently noted.

The hornblende is of the brown basaltic type. Extinctions
c/\c as high as 16° have been noted. It has a strong pleo-
chroism, brown to yellowish. <A cleavage angle of 123° was
noted in the hand specimen.

Olivine is usually very fresh, but in thin sections taken
‘from near the surface a great variety of decomposition pro-

’ ducts are seen. Hornblende, actinolite, tremolite, chlorite,
iddingsite, serpentine, limonite, and an unidentified member of
the sodalite group, were noted as secondary to olivine.

Hypersthene is usually partially uralited, enough of the
original hypersthene usually being left to show the origin of
the amphibole. In one section the hypersthene was almost

completely enveloped in a network of magnetite. In the same
section the olivines are also seen to have similar inclusions.
This phenomenon was probably caused by the presence of a
superabundance of iron when the ferro-magnesian mineral
crystallized. The pleochroism of the hypersthene is distinct,
green to pink. ;

Diallage is almost entirely absent. In only one thin section
was it noted and in that its identity was not very clearly es-
tablished.

a a
7 4“ Z 4 ~ a i, aw) .

\ an” bo,
—s

SA eee oe eS oF a,

136 The American Geologist. eptember, 1904.

The orbicular rocks. Three distinct varieties of orbicular
structure were noted: one showing neither concentric nor ©
radial structure; another showing concentric, but not radial
structure; and a third showing both concentric and radial
structure.

The first variety was noted in only the most weathered
rocks. It was found farthest up the hillside, the highest boul-
der being found about 4oo feet from the summit, on the south
side. It consists of seemingly homcgeneous balls which stand
out on the weathered surface as balls instead of being seen as
rings, such as the other two varieties show. A fracture of the
rock merely separates the balls, showing them to be more re-
sistant than the matrix. The balls are made up of finer crystals
than the material surrounding them. They are usually about
30 mm. in diameter, but one was found three inches in diam-
eter. In places on the surface of the ground these spheroids
are found to be so plentiful as to give the appearance of water-
worn pebbles. In the spheroids of this variety the feldspars
show evidence of crushing. Thc olivines occur in rounded
grains. There is no development noted, either toward con-
centric or toward radial structure.

The second variety, of which the largest part of the obi-
cular boulders is composed, consists of an outer ring of feld-
spar 3 mm. to 4 mm, in thickness and about 40 mm. in diam-
eter (Pls. VIII and IX). This surrounds a nucleus which is
seemingly little different from the outer matrix. In the cen-
ter is found a sponge-like bunch of feldspars. The feldspars
in the outer zone have no regular orientation. Concentric
rings of olivine are seen, but otherwise the zone is composed
of feldspar entirely.

The spheroids are usually round, but are sometimes flat-
tened. In such case& the feldspars show evidence of crushing,
denoting that movement of the mass took place after consoli-
dation. There is no suggestion of radial structure in this
variety of spheroid. There seems to be no regularity of orien-
tation in any of the feldspars. (Fig. B, Pl. V). The feldspars
usually average about 0.4 mm. to 0.5 mm. in diameter. The
line between this outer feldspar zone, or periphery, and the
darker minerals of the matrix, is clearly defined as is the line
between the zone and the nucleus.

- Orbicular Gabbro.—Kessler and Hamilton. 137

This rock has generally a greenish color from the super-
abundance of green decomposition products of olivine and hy-
persthene. In the field, rocks were noted with this variety of
spheroid and with dykes of hornblendic material cutting
through the orbicular portion, and with the hornblendic por-
tion itself orbicular.

The third variety is the rarest of the three.. This one is of
the same type as the one described in professor Lawson’s pa-
per. The outer zone has a distinct radial and concentric struc-
ture (Fig. B, Pl. V and Pl. X). It is much wider than the
corresponding zone in the second variety, being about 12 mm.
to 15 mm. in thickness and about 60 mm. in diameter. The
spheroids are best seen on a weathered or a polished surface.

From an examination of the hand-specimen, the observer
would suppose the orientation of the feldspars to be radial.
Upon a microscopical examination of a thin section, however,
the radial appearance is seen to be due to radiating olivines,

; whereas no definite orientation whatever has been noted in

a the feldspars. The nucleus is made up of about equal quanti-

ties of light and dark minerals, with the dark hornblende pre-

, dominating. Feldspars are found in the nucleus as inclusions

| in hornblende (Fig. A, Pl. VII). Where it occurs as such it has

a corroded surface and a roundish outline, probably showing

| that there was a partial resolution of the feldspars in the orig-
inal fluid magma. These corroded feldspars appear snow-
white when seen in the hand-specimen.

J

. The feldspars give extinction angles which vary from 27°
iy to 40°, measured from the albite lamellae. In the hand-speci-
: men they often show iridescence, showing a beautiful play of
P colors similar to that seen in the typical labradorite. Their
_ average size is about 0.22 mm. in diameter.

The olivines are long, lathe-shaped aggregates varying in
width from 0.03 mm. to 0.20 mm. and in length from 0.8 mm.
to 1.4 mm. At certain intervals can be seen concentric rings
in which the olivine is lacking (Fig. B, Pl. VII). These rings
are about 0.06 mm. in width. The olivines nearly all contain
minute inclusions of feldspar averaging about 0.006 mm. in
diameter. This shows that the feldspars already existed as
such when the radial arrangement of the olivines took place.
The olivine is very fresh and has high interference colors.

138 The American Geologist. September eam

The relief is high (Fig. B, Pl. VIL). The only alteration pro-
ducts noted are serpentine and occasionally hornblende.

Hypersthene occurs in irregular patches associated with
olivine and magnetite. Pleochroism is distinct, pale greenish
to pink. The extinction is always parallel to the pinacoidal
cleavages.

Hornblende is very common in this rock, both in the nu-
cleus and in the matrix which separates the spheroids. The
black minerals are well shown in the figure of the hand spec-
imen.

The periphery merges into the surrounding rockmass.
There is no abrupt change in the preceding variety. The
change from the radial zone to the nucleus is also gradual.

Chemical Properties.

One partial analysis was made of the obicular gabbro of
the third variety. Samples were taken from all parts of the
fresh surface. The sample was made to represent, as nearly
as possible, the entire composition of the rock. With this
analysis are given, for comparison, the analysis of a spheroid
given by professor Lawson*, and a partial analysis of an
orbicular noryte from Plumas Co., Cal., described by Mr. H.
W. Turner.} These are seen below:

I. as III.
SiO. 43.28 40.08 45.92
Al:Os 22.86
FeO 33.60
Fe0s 11.96
CaO 12.02 II.41 9.61
MgO Tale 77; 12.40 13.85
Na.O 1.26 aga
K.0 38 .10

I. Orbicular gabbro, Dehesa. Horowitz, analyst.

I]. Spheroid of orbicular gabbro, Dehesa. Howson, analyst.
IlI.Orbicular noryte, Plumas Co. Steiger, analyst.

A comparison of I and II does not show any great change
in the chemical contents between the spheroid and the matrix.
That the matrix is higher in SiO, may be due to the fact that
the hornblende predominates, while in the spheroid the feld-
spar predominates. The calcium and magnesium are practi-

* Loc. cit.. p. 394.
+ 17th Ann. Rept., U.S. Geol. Surv., p. 642.

Orbicular Gabbro.—Kessler and Hamilton. 139

cally the same in both. This similarity in chemical composi-
tion seems to denote that the cause which set about the form-
ation of the spheroids was not a chemical phenomenon.

Other Occurrences.

Orbicular granites have been noted in many localities, no-
tably from Slatmossa, Sweden.* Also from Fonni, Sardinia.+

An orbicular granite was described from Quonochontogue
Beach, Rhode Island, by J. F. Kemp.+

This quite closely resembles an appearance, the second va-
riety of spheroid from Dehesa. Another occurrence is dec-
scribed by Hatch, from Mulaghderg, Ireland.§ This resem-
bles the orbicular dioryte of Corsica much more closely than
does the gabbro of San Diego, the radial structure being very
pronounced. Spheroids in the granites of Sweden were de-
scribed by Brogger and Backstrom. || ;

A nodular granite from Ontario, has been described by
F. D. Adams.{| This differs from other orbicular granites
in that there is no pronounced radial or concentric structure.
The same is true of the “pudding” or “prune” granite of Ver-
mont. °

Orbicular dioryte is represented best in the type locality,
Corsica. It was described by Vogelsang.** Another example
was reported from Rattlesnake Bar, Eldorado Co., Cal., by
Vom Rath.***A specimen from this locality may be seen in
the California State Mining Bureau Museum in San Francis-
bo, Cal:

Orbicular gabbros have been reported from Romsas, Nor-
way by Chrustschoff,°°ind from Willow creek, Cal., by H. W.
Turner.++ This is described as an “orbicular rock which con-~
tains olivine and iron ore with much rhombic pyroxenes and

* Sitzungsber. d. neiderrhein. Ges., Dec., 1874, p. 206. Also Rept. Smith-
sonian Inst., 1900, pp. 50, pl. 6.

+ ‘Sur les nodules dela Granitite de Ghestonai pres Fonni (Sardaique)”’
Bull. de la Soc. Min., France, tome X (1887), pp. 57-63.

t Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xii, pp. 140-144, Pl. XI, 1894,

§ Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xliv, p. 548.

|| Geol. Forem. Stockl. Forhandl., No. 110, Bd. ix, Haft. 5, p. 307.

§ Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. ix, 1898, p. 163.

° Geol, of Vermont, vol. ii, p. 564, 1861.

** Sitzungsber. d. neiderrhein. Ges., 1862, vol. xix, p. 185.

*** Sitzungsber. d. neiderrhein. Ges. zu Bonn, 1884, p. 206.

°° Buber holocyrstalline macrovariolitische Gesteine, VON DR. K. YON
CHRUSTSCHOFF, St. Petersburg.

t+ 14th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv., p.474. Also 17th Ann. Rept. U. Ss
Geol. Surv., p. 642, Pl. XXX.

140 The American Geologist. September, 200s.

anorthite, but the average rock of the area is a normal gabbro

composed of monoclinic pyroxene, brown hornblende and bas- .

ic plagioclase. In some specimens there are large porphy-itic
hornblendes more than an inch long.” Except for the mono-
clinic pyroxenes, the noryte of Willow Creek is very similar
to that of Dehesa. A partial analysis of the former shows a
close resemblance to an analysis of the latter.

Dr. Chrustschoff, who has made a study of many forms
of nodules in crystalline rocks, has divided them into four
classes:

t. Concentric, spheroidal and concretionary growths about
foreign inclusions.

2. Nodular growths about fragments of secretions or in-
clusions which latter are often partially or wholly redissolved.

3. Groups of so-called pudding granites where the struc-
ture is due to a simple concretionary action, set up in the mag-
ma during its normal crystallization.

4. Primary structural forms of the magma or endomor-
phic contact products.*

The explanation of Vogelsang,t+ in his discussion of the
dioryte of Corsica, is as follows:

“When a molten magma consolidates, an irregular (ungeleichmas-
sig) cooling may produce greater contraction of the mass at certain
points; and this may lead later on to a spheroidal separation. If this
condition is arrived at after the point of consolidation of the several
minerals has been passed, and, therefore after their separation is com-
plete, we get, indeed, a concentrically laminated body, but one without
definite arrangement of the constituents; this is the well known spher-
oidal structure of many eruptive rocks. If on the other hand, the
tendency to form spheroids is developed during the period in which a
differentiation of the magma into its various minerals can still take
place, the latter will undergo a definite arrangement with regard to
the central point.”

It would seem that we have the two cases represented in the
forms of orbicular gabbro from San Diego. The fact, how-
ever, that the boulders are not in place, makes it impossible
to conjecture on the position of the different varieties with ref-
erence to the cooling surface. It is evident that the conditions
were not the same when the different varieties were formed.

* Memoires del. Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, VII
Series, tome xlii, No. 3. (Quoted from F. D. Apams’ paper, the originial by Dr.
CHRUTSCHOFF is not accessible to the writers.)

+ Loc. cle.

a =

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. 141

TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA.
II.

Reviews and Translations by WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBs,
Madison, Wis.

- In an earlier article* has been summarized the first of a
series of three papers by Baron von Richthofen, dealing with
the geomorphology of eastern Asia.+ It was shown by this
authority that the course of the mountain ranges which rise
abruptly to form the western margin of the coast plains of
eastern Asia, extend in a series of zigzags made up of merid-
ional and equatorial components, and that these ranges form
the boundary of the high plateau to the westward which is
separated into crustal blocks whose approximate dimensions
are given by the zigzags themselves. The general direction of
the series of zigzags is that of a great circle whose course is
about parallel to the general trend of the coast line, the broken
crescents formed by the blending of the meridional with the
equatorial components being always convex towards the ocean.
The elements of the zigzags are found to correspond in posi-
tion to normal faults of large throw, the orographic blocks
which they outline being always downthrown on the eastern,
convex, or ocean side.

In the second of the series of paperst, von Richthofen shows
that the scalloped eastern boundary of the Eurasian continent,
while parallel to the-mountain ranges near the coast is not an
expression of their folding. Of the morphological relations
he says:

(a) The series of crescent-shaped marginal zones of crustal blocks
convex to the southeastward which run through continental east Asia
from the peninsula of Tschuktschen to the northwest of Tongking, and are
characterized throughout the entire line by the sinking in of those por-
tions of the earth’s crust which lie to the eastward, are followed in
the direction of the ocean by a second series of homologously consti-
tuted crescentic blocks which form the oceanic border of eastern Asia.

The parts of the earth’s crust which are broken down along them lie
to the eastward in the bottoms of the seas. On the Stanowoi coast the

* This journal, August, 1904.

+ FERDINAND FRRIHERR VON RICHTHOFEN. Uber Gestalt und Gliederung
einer Grundlinie in der Morphologie Ost-Asiens, Sitzungerber.d.k. preuss. Akad.
d. Wiss. z. Berlin, vol. xxxix, 1900, pp. 888-925.

t FERDINAND FREIHERR VON RICHTHOFEN. Geomorphologische Studien aus
Ostasien. II. Gestalt und Gleiderung der ostasiatischen' Kustenbogen. Sit-
zungsber. d. k. preuss, Akad. d. Wiss. z, Berlin, vol. xxxvi, 1901, pp. 782-808.

142 The American Geologist. Repieaber ae

two series of crescents fall together, for the sea extends inward to
the faults of the interior series. The members of the second series
forming the marginal limit of the continent, begin at Cape St. Alexan-
der in 54° 15” N, and terminate at Cape St. Jacques in 10° 40” N. The
island crescents which project above the sea, belong ina series still furth-
er to seaward in the complex of the east Asiatic depressions contin-
ued beneath the sea and can here be given only an occasional mention.

(b) If one takes into consideration the coast line represented upon
maps as an enveloping contour line of the-steep wall bounding the in-
dividual blocks, there is indicated by it in the sharpest manner the gen-
eral form as well as each individual division in it. Furthermore the sculp-
ture of the coast may be recognized in the coast line. Four great coast
crescents appear distinctly. They have been designated above as the
Tungusian, the Korean, the Chinese, and the Annamitic. The third
and fourth are completely closed; the first has a small gap to be ex-
plained by local submergence; the third is only retained in one frag-
ment. We have ventured to complete it hypothetically through inter-
polation, according to the scheme indicated by the interior and the
coastal crescents.

(c) The lineal form of each individual crescent of this coast series
approaches more the form of a circle than is the case with the interior
crustal blocks. In the case of each of the latter there could be recog-
nized two extended arms of crescentic form joined to one another,
which can be considered as the meridional and equatorial arms. From.
the Aldan range to Yunnan an approximate parallelism controls these
two elements in so far as the meridional stretches follow the mean di-
rection N. to N.E., and the equatorial are controlled by the Sinian
direction W-S.W. to E.N.E. In the case of the coastal crescents the
analogy because of the similar designation may be retained, but with
the modification that rectilinear stretches of coast of more than 200 kil-
ometers are rare, while the convex curvature in the direction of the sea
obtains in all parts; also with the further modification that each indi-
vidual coast crescent has a much greater individuality respecting its in-
clination to the meridian, that is to say, the air line of its beginning and
end portions. In form and in position in reference to the continent, the
crescents are not equal. They may be separated into two groups, and
from two points of view; for similarly constituted are the Tungusian
and the Chinese crescents on the one hand, the Korean and the Anna-
mitic on the other. The two former represent, if one glances at the
general form of eastern Asia, together with the great double Stanowoi
crescent, the fundamental marginal line of the continent; while the two
others together with Kamchatka surround projecting peninsulas from
the main body. This relation is still doubtful and will here be left out
of consideration, as Kamchatka‘also, and the S.E. front*range of north
Stanowoi will not be drawn into consideration, because of insufficient
knowledge of their structure.

(d) The Yellow sea is the shallow inundation of a block enclosed
within the two north coast crescents, which is somewhat more de-

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. 143

pressed than the other parts of the East Asian steps formerly designat-
ed as coastal.

(e) The general form of the interior land blocks lying to the north
of the Tsinling mountains, which is conditioned through the general
rise of the included land surface in the direction of a more highly
elevated border, and the shorter descent, probably depending upon step
faulting toward the seaward, is represented in the Tangusian and Kor-
ean marginal blocks. The marginal bulging up is lacking to the Chi-
nese crescent, but is present on the other hand in the meridional part
of the Annamitic.

The general arrangement of each individual coast crescent is inde-
pendent of the internal structure as has already been. set forth as true
of the interior land blocks. But the proportion is a special one in the
case of each crescent.

MANNER AND AGE OF THE TECTONIC MOVEMENT.

(a) As little as the crescents of the interior series do the exterior
ones correspond morphologically and tectonically with the folding and
overthrusting of the connected mountain scallops upon the convex side,
though in their linear outlines they more resemble them than those of
the former series. In the case of the Tungusian crescent it is not
proven that very old, perhaps even Archean, folds do not stand in some
relation with its position; but on the one hand parts of it cut too sharp-
ly through the axes of folds in order to bring both into complete caus-
al connection; on the other hand it is only one member of a series of
externally homologous structures whose form must be referred to a
similar action of forces. Since now in the case of the other three cres-
cents a correspondence with the internal structure cannot be made out,
we may measure with it the fact that in the case of the Tungusian
crescent such a correspondence is in part present, as having a secondary
significance only.

(c) The continental mass of eastern Asia may be considered to
have been depressed in great blocks. Two of these are distinctly indi-
cated through widely extended crescentic lines in sections depending
upon the formation of fractures. - The one cause of the phenomenon is
to be sought in the combination of two systems of tensional forces of
which one was directed eastwards, the other southwards.

If we seek for the cause for the development of the eastwardly di-
rected tension it may be sufficiently given in the depression of the Pa-
cific ocean basin on the border of the continental mass presumedly de-
pending upon isostatic tendencies continuing through long periods. .

. The Eastern Asiatic festoon of islands appear as the crest of the
marginal region of the continental mass arched up through such upward
working stresses. But since they bear the character of the inner side
of fold mountains, the folded outer zone must be sought first in the
descent toward the oceanic depth. The existence of other still deeper
lying crescents projecting only in small island peaks and otherwise still
hidden beneath the surface of the sea, as they stand forth upon bathe-

144 The American Geologist. September, 1904.

metric maps, allows the conclusion that the same tendency has been
present operative in this part also of the earth’s crust since the earli-
est times. For the explanation of the equatorially directed tension and
movement of great parts of the earth’s crust in Asia from Kwenlun
Tsinling on, the same ground does not appear; it may perhaps be ex-
plained, if doubtfully, through changes in the velocity of rotation of
the earth and the displacement of mass condition thereby.”

In connection with the above statements by von Richthofen
it is interesting to note that Woodworth in his interesting paper
on the fracture system of joints* has called attention to the
direction of the fracture lines indicated by the volcanoes off
the coast of Asia, and has suggested that the arrangement in
crescents may be explained through curved lateral crustal frac-
tures in a system such as he has described.in much detail, but
in small specimens only. Woodworth’s figure to illustrate this
structure has been reproduced in Fig. 1. To the present writ-

Fic. 1. Fracture Systems of Asian volcanoes.

er it seems better to explain such lines of fracture through the
intersection of a number of fault lines in zigzags meeting un-
der the requisite angles.

MANCHURIA.

The structure and geology of Manchuria have been dis-
cussed in a recent paper by von Cholnoky describing a journey
in that country during the years 1896-’98.t According to v.
Cholnoky Manchuria can be looked upon from the orographic
standpoint as separated into two parts, one of which lies south-
east of the rivers Liau and Songari, the other to the north-
west of the same line.

*J.B. WoopwortnH. “On the Fracture System of Joints with Remarks
upon Certain Great Fractures.’’ Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii, pp.
163-1838.

+ EUGEN VON CHOLNOKY. Kurze Zusammenfassung der wissenschaftlich-
en Ergebnisse meiner Reise in China und in der ManGschurei in den Jahren
1896-98. Verh. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin, vol. xxvi, 1899, pp. 251-61.

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. 145

Von Cholnoky shows that the Liau peninsula and bay, as
well as the western shore of thé Yellow sea, are bordered by
great normal faults which not only follow the shores, but ex-
tend far back into the interior. The line already referred to
which borders the high plateau of southern Manchuria contin-
ues southward to form the western shore of the Liau peninsula,
and crossing the straits of Chili meets the western boundary
of the Shantung in China. Where this line of faulting meets
the similar lines to the west and east, in one case in the vicinity
of Kirin, and in the other on the western border of Shantung,
recent volcanic material is found. The eastern one of the ser-
ies follows the course of the Yalu river. We may here trans-
late to advantage the summary by von Cholnoky referring also
to his map which is reproduced in Fig. 2.

Y, on
‘bere? y)
AL POP T ARTHUR

GULF la ee
PECHIL) F

-

YE,
£0
io

Fic 2. Sketch map of Munchuria and surrounding region.
Dotted and dashed lines represent faults, full lines show mountain ranges.

“While I am about to present a somewhat clear picture of the struc-
ture of the first mentioned district—making my observations supple-
mentary to the studies of Richthofen upon the Liau peninsula—our
knowledge of the latter, the northwest district, is still so fragmentary

146 ~The American Geologist. September (os

that the contributions of the Russian investigator Ahnert are the only
ones available.

“The peninsula of Liau is according to the studies of Professor v.
Richthofen covered by very ancient mountain chains “aving the di-
rection W.S.W.-E.N.E. These mountain chains are for the most part
formed from Korean granite and crystalline schists which are older
than the Sinian schists. Upon and between these mountain back-bones
the bedded rocks of the Sinian period have been quietly deposited and
occur in sufficiently large masses to make it possible to study in detail
the age of the beds and the principal mountain systems.

The same can be said of those parts which I traversed. The rocks
which. I met upon my journey were for the most part massive rocks,
the orographic and tectonic studies illuminating also the mountain re-
gion at the N.E. of the Liau peninsula.

The road from Kirin toward Mukden follows along the northwest-
ern foot of the plateau of the mountain chain of Kuleh. This so-
called mountain chain is really nothing else than the elevated margin of
the trap plateau. Here runs a mighty line of fracture having the di-
rection S.W.-N.E. and limiting onthe northwest the upland of south-
ern Manchuria. Along this fracture are found numerous volcanoes of
youthful age whose nearly uninterrupted continuity lends to the moun-
tain chain its character; of a chain of mountains it is only proper to
speak in-so-far as here and there crystalline schists are also found and
form individual patches. They lie at a steep inclination and their
strike is S.W.-N.E.

“Along the chains of the Thu-Schan as well as on the northwestern
slope of the plateau district, basins are found which appear filled out
with tertiary deposits. One such we meet in the vicinity of Kirin, where
beneath a thick sand and gravel layer lie coal-bearing blue clay slates.
A compact brown coal is also found in the same region, which appears
to be of ancient origin, whose locality have, however, not yet been
visited.”

,

“(1) The mountain chains running in crescents from north Chi-li

are terminated in Liau-si by a mighty fracture. This line of fracture
appears to meet the second where the greatest number and the most
beautiful volcanoes group themselves together in the vicinity of Kirin.
On from there—it appears-—the line continues to follow the valleys of
the Songari and Amur, even to the northern angle of the island of
Sachalin.

(2) On the southeastern side of the Liau river is found a second
great fault line; cutting through the region of Kirin and Mukden, it
intersects the western border of Shantung. This fracture line was
determined by Richthofen.

(3) The third fault line runs along the eastern end of the Tschang-
pai range bordering on the east the Liau peninsula and throwing
itself forward on the steep side of the projecting peninsula of Shan
(Schantung), and uniting with the fault running down from the west-
ern side of the Liau peninsula. The point of its junction is character-

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. 147

ized by strong vulcanism on the southwest point of the Liau peninsula,
as it is also by the disturbed condition of the ‘strata. This latter
Richthofen’s keen eye determined in a manner beyond all doubt. In
the case assumed by me, all the mountain ranges in Shantung and in
southern Manchuria which without doubt belong to the Sinian system,
fall upon one side of this great fault. For this line of faulting in Man-
churia it is characteristic that it—as mentioned—is associated with great
basins. ‘

(4) The southern part of Manchuria is covered by mountains of the
Sinian system which probably extend over from Shantung toward Kor-
ea,

(5) Between the two fault lines of Liau-tung is to be recognized in
two places the E.W. mountain trend. One is the range of Shang-pai in
the south, the other the Thu range and its parallel granite range in
the north. Such an east-western mountain range the system of the
smaller Khingan also appears to he.

(6) Between the two fault lines of the Liau peninsula and the
equatorial mountain chains rises the trap plateau of Manchuria.

(7) Liau si is an abrasion plateau whose main skeleton is formed
by mountain chains, which unite in the Tschang-pai. Originally, how-
ever, they fcllowed the S.W.-N.E. direction, and terminate on the fault
of the Liau-si.”

KOREA.

The peninsula of Korea, which Griffis has aptly termed the
“land of the hermit nation” has been given a thorough study
by the well known Japanese savant Koto.* Under great diffi-
culties he has crossed and recrossed this little known country
in a series of geological sections which in most districts are
separated by intervals of a little more than fifteen miles.

As a result of this investigation Koto finds that folding,
while easily recognized, has been entirely subordinate to a sys-
tem of faults in producing the positions and attitudes of rock
masses, and in determining the present topographic relief. A
sketch map showing: the location of faults and of axes of folds
has been reduced from Koto’s larger geological map (Fig. 3).

“The fundamental features of the topography of Korea, as in other
lands, are the result of internal geologic structure. Indeed the peninsu-
la was the battle-ground of earth-movements of two directions—the Sin-
ian and the Liau-tung. In the south of the lava-drowned rift-valley of
Chyuk-ka-ryong, the axes of crustfolds are mainly N.N.E.-S.S.W., ie
the Sinian. In the extreme north (in the Kai-ma plateau), the fold-
mountains run from W.S.W. to E.N.E., in the Liau-tung direction. The

* BuNDJIRO Koto, Ph. D. *‘An Orographie Sketch of Korea.’ Journal of

the College of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan. Vol, xix, 1903,
pp. 1-61., Plates I—IV.

148 The American Geologist. Sepia aan

== FAULTS
——— Axes vf Folds

Fic. 3. Sketch map of the Peninsula of Korea showing the
distribution of faults and of axes of folds.
earth-movements had folded the core of gneiss-granite together with
the overlying mantle of normal gneiss and mica-schist. The kernel
of south Korea is the wedge-shaped massive of Chi-ri-san at the
boundary of Chyol-la Do and Kyong-syang Do. That of the north is
also the wedge-shaped massive of Kai-ma Land. These Sinian and
Liau-tung massives, together. with their overlying mantles meet each
other with their apices, and struggle for the supremacy in north-east-
ern Ham-gyong Do, thus leaving between them the third wedge of low

neutral land.

‘

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. 149

“Therefore, the peninsula is divisible orographically into three gigan-
tic wedges. The south, embracing the whole of South Korea, is the
“old land of The Three Hans. North Korea is again divided into the
Kai-ma plateau, and the intersertal wedge,—the land of old Chyo-syon
- or Paleo-Chyo-syon.

I have still to mention a third element. This time the earth move-
ment did not produce folds, but ruptured and dislodged the crust, tilt-
ing up the edge. The main edge runs N.N.W. to S.S.E., at the margin
of the sea of Japan, facing its high scarp to the deep ‘shore. This tec-
tonic disturbance, relatively of young age, produced prominent ridges
which constitute the backbone and determine the present topography.
_ The outline of the peninsula is due in a great measure to this geologi-
cal event. The block-edges I call collectively the Korean range.” (pp.
12 & 13.) ;

“Putting aside the Kai-ma land as an exception, Korea is not a
very high mountainous country, nevertheless we find mountains every-
where. It is topographically speaking a labyrinth, and one will find
orientation very difficult in the country without the help of good maps.
The general disposition of the land is like a checkerboard; this being
due to the crossing of mountain-directions. J have already enumerated
about 10 ridges of the Korean System, all running more or less north-
south, terminating in headlands, peninsulas and islands in the Southern
Archipelago.” (pp. 26.) —

“T have grouped together all these fault-scarps and ridges under
the Han-san range, by which the peninsular block has been successively
dislodged southward, thus limiting the south border of Korea. Small
peninsulas, head-lands, islands, islets and rocks are only the detached
masses and fragments with skeletal ridges of the Thai-Paik-san and
Han-san ranges. Hundreds of these fragments abound in the south
Korean archipelago. (pp. 30.)

“The earth-movements that disturbed and uplifted the- Kai-ma land
are mainly dislocations and not folds; consequently the disturbance
- should be classed in the same category as that which created the Korean
and Han-san systems. J can without difficulty distinguish three ridges
which run parallel to one another in the Liau-iung direction and con-
stitute the skeleton of this northern plateau. The two southernmost of
these have the steep side towards the south, but it is remarkable that
they become successively higher at. the tilted edge, where the block is
suddenly cut off to a lower level on the south. The tilted edge of this
narrow but gigantic block is, as I have already stated, the land-mark of
the two halves of north Korea. The third parallel ridge, however, falls
away steeply to the northwest; in consequence of which a comparative-
ly low basin is formed in the drainage-area of the Am-nok and the
Tuman rivers, which is limited on the north by the long Chyang-paik-
san.” (p. 33.)

“When speaking of the surface-configuration of south Korea, I have
said that it is like a checker-board, and the same feature is not wanting
in the Kai-ma Land— (p. 40).

4 ee

150 The American Geologist. Repheies ee

“The peninsula is divisible on good grounds into two sections—north
and south Korea—by a trench, in the geological sense, from the head
of Gen-san harbour to Kang-hoa bay, at one corner of which is located
Che-mul-pho, the emporium and entrance to the capital, Seoul. This
trench or rift-valley is lava-drowned and is the only extensive volcanic
field in south Korea, except the large basaltic island of Chyorjyu
(Quelpart) off the southern coast of Chyol-la Do. This rift-valley
or Graben of Chyuk-ka-rong (510 m.) affords the easiest pdssage
obliquely across the peninsula from the sea of Japan to the Yellow sea,
and marks the boundary of various geographic elements:” (p. 52).

“Tt is a rift valley or Graben obliquely crossing the geological strike.
From the top of Nam-san in Seoul, we see on the east a regular cliff
with its escarpment toward us. It runs from the mouth of the Keam
Gang to the head of Wo6n-san harbour, and the well-fortified castle of
Koang-jyu, 12 kilometers from the capital, stands on its edge. I call
this the Koang-jyu ridge. The other ridge starts from the Ma-sing-
nyOng, the highest pass of 1020 meters (the second pass A-ho-by-nyong
being 760 meters, between Wo6n-san and Phyong-yang, and lowers at
the mouth of ‘he Imjin Gang. The Ma-sing-ny6ng ridge turns its fault-
scarp to the cast, making the counterpart of the Koang-jyu ridge, thus
forming the trench-fault. Great basalt flows occurred at the end of the
Tertiary, filling up the bottom and now forming the sterile plain of
Thyduuon or iron plain, so named from some resemblance of the lava
to magnetite. The Chyuk-ka-ry6ng road goes gradually up this lava-
field, frequently crossing the canyon-like river-channel, and stddeniy
descends to W6n-san at the above-named pass, which is the edge of the
basalt-mesa and the boundary of two provinces.” (pp. 9-10.)

“North Korea, as I have already stated, is divisible into two re-
gions, viz., the plateau of Kai-ma on the north, and the hilly land of
Paleo-Chyo-syon on the south. The boundary between the two is
sharply marked. The north is a high plateau with a fault-scarp, facing
southwards towards the depressed land, just as the Great Khingan
(Hsing-an) turns to the east with its precipice towards Manchuria.
The incurves of Korea bay on the west and that of Chyo-syén bay
(Broughton bay) on the opposite side give some idea of the boundary
as expressed in coastlines, and we can trace it in the interior as well.”
(pp. 31.)

“Five components of the Thai-Paik-san are the cliffs of tilted blocks
sweeping along the coast of the sea of Japan, from which the right
wing was successively thrown down to the sea bottom, as if it originated
in disjunctive faults as an after-effect of the piling and pressing up of
Hondo (Japan) toward the Pacific ocean.” (pp. 56-57.)

“The Han-san range resulted from a later geologic event than that
which produced the Korean system. The former is composed of a
number of tilted edges of faults which threw down block after block
to the Southern sea. The sea-coast is dotted with an innumerable num-
ber of, islets and rocks, and describes complicated in-and-out-curves.
These peculiar features which characterize the coast, are nothing more

73

=
1

Tectonic Geography of Asia. Hobbs. I51

than the outcome of the joint-work of the orogenic movements that
gave form to the Korean and the Han-san ranges. The inlets are the
remains of tectonic valleys, while the headlands represent the ridges.
Especially remarkable is the narrow canal of the free port, Masan-pho,
which presents the outline of a compound cross with a single axis,
due to the Korean and Han-san ridges which intersect each other on
both sides of the entrance.” (pp.:57 and 58.)

“A great number of small ridges or fault-scarps traverse like a
gridiron the whole of Paleo-Chyo-syén. The region: is somewhat sim-
ilar in its geological structure to the western half of Shan-tung. Well-
established rules can be scarcely discovered in the arrangement of ridges.
The whole tract is broken up into a number of long orographic blocks,
each being of old sedimentaries, mainly of grey tabular limestone. Each
block is tilted along the long side with steep walls, while it slants
gradually towards the opposite direction. Some of the equatorial ridges
may be brought into connection with the tectonic line of Shantung, e.g.,
My6r-ak-san of Hoang-hai Do, while others of the same group are dif-
ficult to correlate with any known system. Meridional ridges, though
coinciding in direction with some of the Korean system, do not har-
monize with each other in position, nor in magnitude of disturbance:
the general plan of the west coast, however, seems to have been great-
ly influenced by them.

In short, the intersecting fault-scarps of Pe ae es inserted
between the Sinian and Liau-tung systems seem to be the result of a
passive movement and after-effect of the still greater tectonic disturb-
ances which gave to the crust-block of the Korean peninsula its present
form.” (pp. 58 and 50.)

OUTER GLACIAL DRIFT IN THE DAKOTAS,
MONTANA, IDAHO, AND WASHINGTON.

By WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn.

The outermost boundary of the glacial drift acress the entire
northern part of the United States, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, was first fully mapped in a somewhat detailed man-
ner by Chamberlin in 1888; though during the preceding twen-
ty years the eastern half of this boundary had become known,
with increasing accuracy and definiteness, from the work of
many observers, mapping it between the New England islands
and the Mississippi river. Comparing Newberry’s map of
the margin of the drift area,* as it was imperfectly known

* Map showing Drift Area and Bearings of Glacial Furrows, Report of the

Geological Survey of Ohio, vol. ii, 1874, at page 76 of the chapter on Surface
Geology (pp. 1-80.)

- oa
a
4

152 The American Geologist. September, 1904

thirty years ago, drawn from the Delaware river at Trenton, -
N. J., to the lower part of the Kansas or Kaw river, with the
maps of it published by Chamberlin in 1883 and 1888,* the
former reaching westward to the east edge of Montana, but
largely revised and corrected for all the country northwest
of the Kaw river by his next map five years later, we are
greatly impressed with the rapid progress of our American
explorations of the limits of glaciation, which were traced ex-
actly or approximately through the distance of more than 3,000
miles across the continent between thirty and fifteen years ago.

A principal incentive to that work was the recognition of
the terminal moraines of our continental ice-sheet, in the years
1877 to 1880, by Cook and Smock in New Jersey; by the
present writer on Long Island, Block island, Martha’s Vine-
yard, Nantucket, and Cape Cod; by Lewis and Wright in
Pennsylvania and Ohio; by Chamberlin in Wisconsin; and
by N. H. Winchell and the writer in Minnesota, Iowa, and
South and North Dakota. Within three years after the first
mapping of the marginal moraines in New Jersey, they had
been mapped more or less exactly for 2,000 miles from south-
eastern Massachusetts to where their course passes out of the
United States, from North Dakota into Manitoba and Assin-
iboia.

About a quarter of a century has since passed, and very
detailed surveys of the glacial drift and its extreme margin,
and of the many parallel and interlocking or overlapping mo-
raines which limit the areas of the ice-sheet at successive
stages of its recession, interrupted here and there by re-ad-
vances, have been made by numerous observers in southern
New England and Long Island; by Salisbury in New Jersey;
Wright and Leverett in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; Cham-
berlin and Salisbury in Wisconsin; Calvin and Winchell and
their associates on the geological surveys of lowa and Minne-
sota; and Todd and the present writer in the Dakotas.

Farther westward little thorough work has been yet done,
though important reconnaissances, and detailed studies in

* Rive maps in Preliminary Paper on the Terminal Moraine of the Second
Glacial Epoch, (pp. 291-402), Third Annual Report of the U.S. Geol. Survey,
for 1881-2, pub. 1883. Map of the Glacial Strix of the eastern United States ss
(and of the Earlier and Later Drift across all the northern states), in The
Rock-Scorings of the Great Ice Invasions (pp. 147-248), Seventh Annual Re-
port, U. S. G. S., for 1885-86, pub. 1888.

Outer Glacial Drift—Upham. 153

some localities, have been made, by Chamberlin and Salisbury
in central Montana; by Culver on the front range of the Rocky
mountains in the north edge of that state; by Weed in the
vicinity of Fort Benton; and by Chamberlin, Wiilis, Russell,
and others, in Idaho and Washington.

There yet remains, however, to be applied to all that west-
ern half or two-fifths of our continental drift border, from
western North Dakota and the lower Yellowstone river to
Puget sound and the Olympian mountains in Washington,
the painstaking differentiation of the successive stages of the
Glacial period, and precise mapping of any marginal moraines
that may be found, such as have been very carefully and in-
structively worked out in the northern central states of the
Mississippi basin, from Ohio to Iowa and Minnesota, noting
there a dozen or more moraine-forming stages in the departure
of the ice-sheet.

Broadly viewed. the most noteworthy feature of the western
half of the continental drift sheet is its less extent southward
than that of its eastern half, from Kansas to the Atlantic
coast. The rather arid climate of the Great Plains from the
lower Missouri river to the Rocky mountains, and likewise
of the wide Cordilleran belt until we come to the narrow tract
between the Cascade range and the Pacific, had the effect
to limit the glaciation in Montana and westward to latitudes
averaging about eight degrees, or 550 miles, north of the
average limit from Kansas eastward.

In the central part of the continent, for the distance of
about 1,600 miles, from southwestern Ohio to the upper Mis-
souri river and its tributaries; Maria’s, Teton, and Sun rivers,
in northern Montana, reaching nearly to the base of the Rocky
mountains on the international boundary, the border of the
glacial drift belongs to earlier stages of the Ice age than either
east or west. Through that central region, the outermost
drift, referred to the Albertan, Kansan Illinoian, and lowan
stages of the long Glacial period, has generally an attenuated
edge, destitute of morainic knolls, hills, and ridges, such as
extend in narrow belts along the boundaries of the late Wis-
consin drift, and which also, in a numerous series of these mo-
rainic belts, traverse the areas of that later drift, marking
pauses or slight re-advances during the general retreat of

154 The American Geologist. September, 1007

the ice-sheet when it was being finally melted away. East from
the Scioto river in Ohio, and westward from the upper Mis-
souri across the great Cordilleran region, the later drift and
its moraines reach generally quite to the margin of glaciation,
covering the older drift of the previous stages.

One of these stages, named the Iowan, has been shown
by McGee in northeastern Iowa, and elsewhere by Leverett
and many other observers, to have been characterized by ex-
tensive deposition of loess, a fine silt washed down from the
dissolving and waning icefields, and deposited by the flooded
‘ streams in front of the Iowan drift boundaries, with much
redistribution at the same time and !ater upon large tracts
by winds. The loess evidently belongs to a time of general
depression of the land beneath the long continued weight of
the ice-sheet; and this ehange, from a former high elevation
to mostly lower altitudes than now, appears to have brought
again the warm temperate climate under which the. continental
ice-sheet from then onward was somewhat rapidly melted
away, meanwhile forming many marginal moraines at lines of
slackening, halt, or temporary readvance, in its general re-
treat.

On the plains bordering the upper Missouri river in the
neighborhood of Fort Benton, and thence northward, loess, or
a loesslike fine silt, is described by Weed as spread very exten-
sively, varying from a few feet to a hundred feet in thickness,
mantling the nearly flat country, and forming the upper part
of the drift there.* Much further exploration is desirable for
all the upper Missouri region, to discriminate and map the re-
spective areas of the Albertan, Kansan, and Iowan drift, and to
trace the limits of the Wisconsin drift, lying farther north,
with its moraines, in Assiniboia and Alberta, to the Rocky
mountains.

The oldest glacial drift sheet yet recognized, the Albertan,
was so named by Dr. George M. Dawson from its occurrence

on the upper edge of the plains of Alberta, along the east base -

of the mountains, and westward among the Rocky mountain

ranges, whence its materials are wholly derivedj The Al-

bertan till and associated Saskatchewan gravels have therefore
* Fort Benton Folio, No. 55, Geologic Atlas of the United States, 1899.

+ Journal of Geology, vol. iii, pp. 507-511, July-August, 1895; Bulletin,
Geol. Soc. of America, vol. vii, pp. 31-66, Nov., 1895.

iil

Outer Glacial Drift—Uphain. 155

strictly no extension in Montana east of the mountains and
their immediate vicinity; yet probably correlative and contem-
ponaneous till exists beneath the later Kansan, Illinoian,
lowan and Wisconsin drift in the Mississippi basin, where
these divisions of the glacial series have been so fully studied
and classified in their stratigraphic and chronologic relations
by Chamberlin, Calvin, Leverett, and others. Eastern gla-
ciation and drift, which overspread that region, failed to ex-
tend into confluence with the Cordilleran glaciation south of
the forty-ninth parallel; but north of that line the icefields
flowing from the east and west were confluent, with inter-
mingling of their drift deposits on a tract of considerable width
extending from south to north not far east of the mountains.
In western Montana, and onward to the Pacific coast, the
earliest and lowest glacial drift must be correlative with the
Albertan of Dr. Dawson, which he regarded as earlier than
the Kansan drift sheet, the lowest and oldest recognized pre-
viously in the United States.

_ Including the chief moraine belts, of Wisconsin age, trace-
able north of the international boundary, it is probable that
the northwestern part of the Great Plains, on the upper Mis-
souri river and northward in the Dominion of Canada, has as
good a representation of the entire sequence of our glacial de-
posits, from the oncoming to the final wane of the prolonged
and varied Ice age, as can be found anywhere, not excepting
Kansas, Iowa, and Illinois, in which states the series has been
most elaborately studied and named. ,

A general survey of our marginal drift formations, from
the area of the glacial lake Agassiz west to the Rocky moun-
tains and the Pacific, noting the relationships of the diverse
courses of the glacial currents and the relative ages of their
drift, convinces me that the view of Tyrrell,* indicating suc-
cessive culminations of ice accumulation, first in the Cordill-
eran region, next on the country between the Rocky mountains
and Hudson bay, with extension south into Kansas, and last
on the Laurentide region, stretching an ice-sheet from Labra-
dor to the Red river valley, is erroneous. Instead of successive

Cordilleran, Keewatin, and Laurentide or Labradorian ice-
ON TO ORES Sa a

* Journal of Geology, vol. iv, pp. 811-815, Oct.-Nov , 1896; vol. v, pp. 7§-
$1, Jan.-Feb., 1897; vol. vi, pp. 147-160, Feb.-March, 1898.

156 The American Geologist. Bepteniyety ee

sheets, there seems to me to have been contemporaneous and.

long continued glaciation of the entire width of the continent ;
but during the original growth of the vast sheet of snow and
ice covering half of North America, and again during its de-
cline and disappearance, it doubtless outflowed predominantly
from those three central areas.*

As the glacial drift generally extends somewhat beyond
the Missouri river, to a maximum distance of about fifty miles,
through the Dakotas and Montana (excepting a large part of
South Dakota, to be again noticed), up to Great Falls, whence
the drift boundary passes across this river and runs north-
westward to the St. Mary’s river and the Canadian line at
the base of the mountains, it is evident that during the cul-
mination of the Glacial period, in its Kansan stage, all the
rivers of these states, and also of Nebraska, were turned aside
to the west and south, being caused to send their waters south-
eastward along the border of the ice-sheet. In the Fort Benton
folio of the Geologic Atlas of the United States, an ancient
channel, called the Shonkin sag, eroded by the waters thus
pouring along the ice border, has been traced by Weed about
fifty miles, passing across the low watersheds. He describes
it as “a continuous depression that is clearly an old river chan-
nel, with wide valley floor and steep walls and precipitous
cliffs.” It wil be a most interesting task for amateur geolo-
ogists of this region to trace these old watercourses, inter-
rupted here and there by beds of lakes that adjoined the ice
front, from the vicinity of Great Fails for 1,100 miles east
and south, across the Musselshell, Yellowstone, Little Mis-
souri, Cheyenne, White, Niobrara, Platte, and Kaw rivers, to
the Osage valley in Missouri, which doubtless for some time
carried all the drainage of the Missouri basin, when the pres-
ent pathway of the Missouri river was thus buried under the
edge of the continental glacier. But my last preceding paper
(pages 80-87 of this volume) has somewhat fully considered
the relation of this majestic river to the glaciation, leaving now
a river system probably very unlike its preglacial condition, so
that further comment on its changes and development during
the Ice age will not be expected here.

* See Maps of the Glaciation of North America, by CHAMBERLIN in Geikie’s
Great Ice Age, third ed., 1894, pl. xiv, at page 724; by the present writer, U.S.
Geol, Survey, Mon. X XV, The Glacial Lake Agassiz, 1895, pls. ii and xvi; by
LEVERETT, U.S.Geol. Survey, Mon. XX XVIII, The Ulinois Glacial Lobe, 1899,
pl. i; and by RUSSELL, North America, 1904, pl. v, at page 315.

Lien. J i el . oa,

Outer Glacial Drift.—U phain. 157

Professor G. E. Culver, exploring the front range of the
Rockies in northern Montana, found that ice was accumulated
so thickly west of the main eastern range, within thirty miles
southward from the forty-ninth parallel, that it outflowed
eastward through the passes, carrying dioryte boulders from
ledges west of the watershed to a distance of several miles on
the plains at the eastern base of the mountains. No Laurentide
er eastern drift was observed there, but in the valley at the
head of St. Mary’s river, a tributary of the Belly river, flow-
ing northeastward into Alberta, on latitude 113° 30’, five to
twenty miles south of the international boundary, he noted
shore lines of a glacial lake, which was probably formed by
the neighboring barrier of the Laurentide ice-sheet on the
northeast. These old shore lines occur up to the hight of at
least 800 feet above the present St. Mary’s lakes, or approx-
imately 5,400 feet above the sea.*

~The Altamont, Gary, Antelope, Kiester, Elysian, Waconia,
and later moraines, which have been traced in concentrically
lobate courses through South and North Dakota,t were quite
surely formed at exactly or approximately the same time with
the terminal moraines, outermost and recessional, which cross
Ohio, southwestern New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Long Island, and southern New England. Throughout that
eastern part of their extent, the outer moraine is at or near
the extreme boundary of the glacial drift. In all the interior
region, however, from Ohio to the Rocky mountains, the out-
ermost of this series of moraines lies far back from the drift
boundary, excepting on the east side of the Wisconsin drift-
less area, and again along a considerable distance, about 200
miles, in South Dakota, where the Altamont moraine comes
nearly or quite to the Missouri river, while the older glacial
drift beyond this moraine is scanty or altogether wanting west
of the river.

It also appears very certain, according to the judgment of
expert glacialists, that the latest great development of glaciers
and piedmont ice-sheets in the western Cordilleran region
of the United States, spreading generally farther than in the

.* Trans., Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, vol. viii, pp.
187-205, with map; Dec. 30,1891.

TJ. E Topp. Proc. A. A. A. S., vol, xxxiii, 1884, pp. 381-393; U. S. Geol.
Survey, Bulletin No. 144, 1896, 69 pages. WAKREN UPHAM, U.S. Geol. Sur-
vey, Mon. XXV, 1895, chapteriv, pp 108-191.

158 The American Geologist. Septenther,( -es

earlier stages of the Ice age, was practically contemporaneous
with the remarkable Wisconsin stage of glaciation. Although
in the central part of the continent the prominent moraines of
that stage are far back from the drift border, belonging thus
to icefields much restricted from their former area, it is seen
that on each side, eastward and westward, the snow and ice
were then more abundantly accumulated than ever before, over-
riding the older drift deposits and encroaching on ground not
previously glaciated. When the local causes of the compar-
atively late maximum growth of the eastern and western parts
of the vast continental ice-sheet shall be satisfactorily deter-
mined, consistent with the restriction at the same stage in the
interior country, it will be a long stride of progress toward
fully solving a difficult and most interesting problem, the gen-
eral causes of the Ice age.

Because of the great extent, both in length and width, of
the groups of high Cordilleran ranges, they presented very
favorable gathering grounds for glaciers during the Ice age.
In remarkable contrast with the eastern half of our country,
where the Appalachian mountain belt appears to have had no
local glaciers, nor even any notable effect in deflecting the
boundary of the ice-sheet from its direct course through New
Jersey and Pennsylvania, the glaciation in the Rocky moun-
tain region and onward to the Pacific was greatly influenced
by the mountain masses.

In northwestern Montana, heavy glaciation on a width of
50 to 60 miles, extended along the frontal ranges, and on
‘the upper part of the basin of the Flathead river and lake,
to a distance of more than a hundred miles south of the main
border of the continental icefields. Again, on the high area
of the Yellowstone National Park and its environs, confluent
glaciers formed an. ice-sheet measuring about 75 by 150 miles;
and several tracts of mountain glaciers, from one third to
two-thirds as large, are mapped farther south, in Wyoming,
Utah, and Colorado. On the great mountain ranges and
groups of southwestern Colorado, and on the grand Sierra
Nevada of eastern California, abundant ice accumulation and
effective glaciation reached to the 37th degree of -latitude,
about 50 miles farther south than the utmost projection of
the Laurentide part of the ice-sheet, in southern Illinois.

bbb.

Outer Glacial Drift—Upham. 159

Only in northwestern Washington, on the basin of Puget
sound, occupying a width of 75 to 150 miles between the
Cascade range on the east and the Olympic mountains and
the ranges of Vancouver Island on the west, was a projection
from the continental icefields of British Columbia able to
flow into the United States, while of course the, far greater
part of the ice even there was formed by snowfall on the ad-
joining mountains.

So marked dependence of the Cordilleraan ice accumulation
upon the grand topographic features is a complete proof, as
I think, that the icefields of the Puget Sound basin and of the
Canadian province on the north were produced chiefly by local
snowfall, not by invasion or inflow from the central part. of
the Cordilleran glaciated area. Similarly, as I also think,
the southern marginal parts of the Keewatin and Laurentide
icefields grew in depth and areal extent chiefly by snowfall on
those outer tracts, within the first 20 or 50 or 100 miles back
from the extreme ice boundary, in nearly as large degree as
the central and thicker parts of the ice-sheet. Yet some gla-
cial outflow took place from the central areas throughout the
maximum stage of glaciation; and there was much peripheral
outflow during all the stages of growth, culmination, and de-
cline. With the slow ice motion, the very long duration of
the Glacial period can be well appreciated when we bear in
mind the glacial transportation of boulders a thousand miles
from the east side of James bay to southern Minnesota, and
the equally long distance of the outermost glacial drift in
southern Russia from the Scandinavian mountains that sup-
plied some of its boulders.

Why the ice-sheets shrank earlier from the flat country of
the .Mississippi and Missouri basins, and of Russia, than from
the more hilly or mountainous regions in both North America
and Europe, and why morainic drift hills and ridges were
formed on each continent principally during the late and clos-
ing Wisconsin stages of the Glacial period, are questions that
may be probably answered, for the first, by the flat contour and
far inland situation of these countries first permanently un-
covered from the ice-fields; and, for the second, by the long
continuance of glaciation, whereby the ice became more charg-
ed with drift in its lower part, and by the more vigorous glacial

160 The American Geologist. September, 1902

currents near the margin after the epeirogenic depression in the
Iowan stage of glaciation restored a warm temperate climate
upon the ice border.

In the next paper of this series I wish to present my detail-
ed observations of the drift around the southern part of Puget
sound, where the proportion of modified drift, stratified gravel,
sand, and fine silt, far exceeds the till deposits.

BOLSON PLAINS AND THE CONDITIONS OF
THEIR, EXIST ENCGE.*

By CHARLES R. KEYES, Socorro, New Mexico.

Bolson plains are the most characteristic features of the
Mexican tableland. They are peculiar to the arid regions.
They could not exist in the same country in which they now
do, under conditions of copious rainfall. While they are
among the most novel of physical features and while much
has been made of them as forming a distinct type of geo-
graphic relief they hardly deserve, from the viewpoint of gen-
etic geography and geology, the attention that has been given
thei.

Bolsons, as their name signifies (Spanish, a purse), are
broad, level valleys, depressed slightly in the center, and bor-
dered by mountains. The writer who introduced the name
into American geography thus describes them.

“These plains, or ‘basins, as they are sometimes called,
are largely structural in origin. Bolsons are generally floored
with loose, unconsolidated sediments derived from the higher
peripheral region. Along the margins of these plains are
talus hills and fans of bowlders, and other wash-deposits
brought down by mountain freshets. The sediments of some
of the bolsons may be of lacustral origin.

“It is essential, in both the. geographic and the geologic
discussion, to bear in mind the distinction between bolson
plains and plateau plains. The plateau plains and the moun-
tains are genetically related, the strata composing the one be-
ing bent onto or flexing out into the other. . The bolson plains,

* Read betore the Iowa Academy ot Sciences, Iowa City Meeting, Apml 15,
1904.

.
,

Bolson Plains and Their Exvistence.—Keyes. 161

on the other hand, are newer and later topographic features,
consisting of structural valleys between mountains or plateau
plains, which have been partially filled with debris derived
from the adjacent eminences. The plateau plains are usually
destructional stratum plains. The bolson plains are construc-
tional detritus plains filling old structural troughs.’’*

It has been recently showny that the structure of the bolson
plain is not nearly so simple as the description just quoted
would indicate; that they are not, according to the strict phys-
iographic usage of the term, structural valleys; that the bol-
son plains are not necessarily any newer and later than some
of the plateau plains which overlook them; that the construc-
tional detrital covering is no more important than that of the
plateau plain! and that the wash-deposits brought down from
the peripheral area are relatively of small importance.

On the other hand, it has been clearly demonstrated that
the rockbed surface of the bolson piain, that part beneath the
thin detrital covering, is a planation surface, a surface worn
out on the bevelled edges of the consolidated and indurated
sedimentaries.

The bolson plains*of New Mexico, for example, are found
only in that part of the region which belongs to the geo-
graphic subdivision known as the basin region. This includes
the southern two-thirds of New Mexico, or the portion lying
south of the Rocky mountains, which abruptly terminate 100
miles south of the Colorado line. Southward, from this lati-
tude, the bolson plains occur—long, level strips of plains coun-
try, separated from one another by high, but narrow mountain
ranges. . Far beyond the New Mexican boundaries the same
type of physiography prevails nearly so far as the city of
Mexico.

The peculiar alternation of narrow mountain ranges and
broad plains present’ many features which are not easily un-
derstood until the country both te the eastward and to the
westward is taken into account. In both directions from the
central highland the “perse” character of the basin plains is
soon lost.

The different plains become confluent and more contin-
uous, and the mountain ranges more disconnected and finally

*HiLu? Top. Atlas U. S., folig 3, p. 8. 1900.
+ Amer. Jour. Sci., (4), vol. xvi, p. 207, 1903.

162 The American Geologist. September, ava

isolated altogether. Still beyond, the plain alone persists with-
out notable mountains. This condition continues on the one
hand to the gulf of California and on the other to the gulf of
Mexico.

At the beginning of Tertiary time the region between the
two great gulfs north to the present Colorado line must have
been a vast lowland plain, with but faint relief features. A
large part of this plain was on the bevelled edges of Creta-
ceous and older strata as is shown now in its remnants clearly
discernible.. The Las Vegas plateau, the Llano Estacado, the
bolson plains of central New Mexico and some of the less
broken plains of eastern Arizona seem to belong genetically
together. To the east and west of the vast area thus outlined
a broad submarine platform was formed from the sediments
derived from the planing off of the central land area. When
the general bowing up of the region took place later in Ter-
tiary time the great plain formed was partly a peneplain of
destructional land origin and partly a constructional plain of
marine origin.

After the period of the main uprising, after the whole sur-
face of the country had attained somewhat more than its pres-
ent elevation above the sea-level, normal faulting on a vast
scale gave rise to numerous monoclinal block mountains, with
a trend of north and south. There were numerous halts in
the general movement and the Mesozoic and youngest Pale-
ozoic beds here are completely stripped off the mountain sum-
mits. Several times the staying process has enabled partial
peneplanation to take place. But the mountain blocks have be~
come more and more tilted.

Between Tertiary time and the present, enormous erosion
has taken place. The vast plain has been deeply dissected by
such old mountain-born streams as the Canadian, Pecos, Rio
Grande, and Colorado.. The valleys of thése water-courses are
very wide and deep. On the east the Canadian flows 4000
feet below the level of the old plain. The Pecos perhaps 2500
feet. The Rio Grande about 1500 feet. While the Colorado
canyon is a mile deep.

In the Llano Estacado the remnant of the great plain con~
tains 50,000 square miles. The bolson plains are already be-
ginning to give way to erosion agencies. In the valley of the

Bolson Plains and Their Existence —Keyes. 163

Rio Grande nearly all traces of the old plain are already de-
stroyed. The displaced intermontane basins, like the Jornada
del Muerto, which adjoin the long Rio Grande valley, are be-
ginning to be deeply dissected wherever the great river
touches the borders. ,

In its broader features the surface of New Mexico may
be regarded as a ribbed tableland. Broad north and south
valleys alternate with long narrow more or less continuous
mountain ridges. The most important of the long basin plains
and valleys are the Pecos, Huerco, Estancia, Jornada, Rio
Grande, San Augustine, and Mimbres.

Over such a surface from the southern end of the Rockies
three great streams diverge. These are the Canadian river,
the Rio Pecos, and the Rio Grande. The first of these after
leaving the mountains flows eastward to the Arkansas in In-
dian Territory and thence its waters find their way to the .
Mississippi. Rio Pecos trends southeastwardly, entering Tex-
as near the southeast corner of New Mexico. From the San
Luis valley in Colorado the Rio Grande flows slightly west
of south to El Paso. Of these the last two streams mentioned
flow in broad valleys between lines of block mountains.

Comparison of the physiographic features of basin valleys
which the great mountain-born streams traverse with those
which are not so occupied, quickly demonstrates that the bol-
son owes its existence merely to lack of erosion agencies. The
Rio Grande no doubt at first passed through a series of bol-
sons identical with those at present found on either side of its
present valley. It has cut down its channel often 2000 feet be-
low the surface of the ancient bolsons. Within the valley
nearly all traces of the bolson characters are now lost. No
waters are received by the great stream after it emerges from
the Rockies. The work of this river has been confined to cut-
ting its canyon. Little additional work of side streams has
been imposed upon it. A still grander example of its kind is
found in the Colorado river of the West. Its great valley, so
far below the level of the tableland, exists merely because the
drainage-way has its source in a region of abundant moisture.

Between the Rio Pecos and Rio Grande valleys at the south
end of the Rockies there is a small mountain stream, the Rio
Galisteo, which crosses the Estancia bolson, and which soon

164 The Ainerican Geologist. September, "ey

falls into the Rio Grande. This little stream has carved out a
remarkable valley. It is an illustration of how wonderfully
effective is even a small, often dry, rivulet in corrading the
high plains.

The bolson plains may be considered as sections of an
upraised peneplain surface in its earliest infancy, at a stage
in which they are as yet untouched by stream-action. They
could not exist under present hypsometric conditions except in
an arid region, which snow-fed perennial rivers do not tra-
verse. The bolsons are only apparently lake-like basins. They
have a marked slope in at least one direction, that of their major
axis, as in the case of the Jornada del Muerto, where the
slant is 20 feet to the mile and greater than the gradient of the
parallel Rio Grande. Had the latter stream entered at Santa
Fe the Estancia-Huerco er Estancia-Jornanda line of bolsons
instead of the line to the westward, a vast canyon would have
occupied these basins.

The bolson plains of central New Mexico hang high above
the great channels of the Rio Pecos and Rio Grande on either
side. Were the rainfall of the region sufficient to produce
perennial streams these plains would be soon as deeply carved
out as the great adjoining valleys of the rivers just men-
tioned.

New Mexico School of Mines, July 1, 1904.

THE ALKALI DEPOSITS OF WYOMING.

By TuHos. T. READ, Laramie, Wyoming.

Scattered over the south central part of Wyoming are nu-
merous undrained depressions containing large amounts of
salts of sodium and magnesium, chiefly sulphates, which are
locally known as soda lakes. Of these there are eight groups
composed of from one to several lakes varying from a few
to several hundred acres in extent. In addition there are
smaller lakes scattered in such profusion that no estimate of
their number has ever been made.

Two questions chiefly concern us, their origin and their
uses. As to the latter, their great future value for the pro-
duction of carbonate of soda and caustic soda is evident. Many

Alkali Deposits of Wyoming.—kead 165

of the lakes yield pure mirabilite, which upon simple exposure
to the air loses its water and becomes anhydrous sodium sul-
phate. However, the distance of the region from the consum-
ers of sodium sulphate and the consequent high freight tariff
has so far ptevented their exploitation.

The question as to their origin cannot be so easily disposed
of. Of the various theories which have been propounded two
alone seem to deserve consideration. Of these the first is that
they are the result of the evaporation of the waters of uprising
springs which are charged with the alkaline salts. The second
is that they have resulted from the leaching of the surround-
- ing Mesozoic rocks. Let us first consider the latter.

Assuming for the moment that these rocks are capable of
supplying the amount of salts which we find in the depressions,
let us investigate the conditions under which such deposits
might be thus produced. In order to have a concrete case let
us take the Union Pacific soda lakes which. are situated about
13 miles southwest of Laramie in Albany county. We have
here four lakes with a total area of about sixty acres. The de-
posit of soda was reported to be fifteen feet thick in the deep-
est part of the depression and was assuredly not less than ten
feet thick. Allowing for the thinning out at the edges it is safe
to assume an average thickness over the entire area of two and
a half feet. Upon this basis of computation we find that there
are 300,000 tons of the deposit. From the analysis of an av-
erage sample of this deposit published by Pemberton and
Tucker in the Chemical News, vol. 68, p. 19, we find that it con-
sists ot 34.85% of sodium sulphate, 1.16¢ of sodium chloride,
1.45% of calcium sulphate and 0.97% of magnesium sulphate, or
a total of 38.43% of alkaline salts; and on this basis we have
115,290 tons of these salts in the deposit.

The surrounding strata are Ft. Benton, and it is reasonable
to assume that the percolating waters from whose evaporation
the deposits are supposed to have resulted would have approx-
imately the composition of the water obtained from driven
wells sunk in these strata. We find that on the average such
water contains a total of 50 grains per gallon of the above
salts. The records of the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment
Station show that the average yearly evaporation from a free
water surface is 40 inches. Therefore from an area of 60 acres

166 The American Geologist. -eD tern Des teem

we would have 64,686,600 gallons exaporated yearly, leaving
a solid residue of 231 tons. At this rate it would require 500
years to create these deposits, assuming that evaporation takes
place continuously and that none of the salts are removed. As
a matter of fact the lakes are entirely dry during a good portion
of the summer, when the evaporation is the greatest, and the
milabilite then effervesces to a pulveulent mass which the pre-
vailing west wind carries away in clouds. Probably not less
than 2000 years would be required for the formation of these
deposits under the conditions we have assumed. No records
have been kept as to whether there have been any apparent
changes in the extent of any of these deposits, and in the case
of the one we have been considering the escape of seepage
water from an irrigation canal which now passes just above the
lake has caused the re-solution of all the salts, so that it now is
a lake of brine and bids fair to remain so. However, I believe
all observers of these deposits will agree with the statement
that there seems to be no reason to believe that any of these

deposits are accumulating at a rate much faster than that:

worked out above. Therefore we arrive at the conclusion that
the vaporation of dilute solutions is sufficient to have caused
these deposits and the assumption of uprising waters highly
charged with these salts is not only unnecessary, but does not
meet the conditions. Taking the deposits in general, the er-
rors in the assumption in regard to the amount of water sup-
plied and the strength of the solution would tend to counter-
balance each other.

The next point to be considered is the method of the con-
centration. This may come from the seeping of the waters
through the strata, finally emerging in the basin where they
evaporate. Or the subsurface waters, evaporating over the
entire drainage area, of which the basin is the lowest part, de-
posit their load of salts on the surface. At the time of the
spring rains the surface waters dissolve these salts and carry
them into the basin to be later deposited by evaporation. Both
methods find the salts in the strata in which the deposits occur.
In the former, however, only the salts lying above the “lake”
level could be brought in and in a comparatively short period
the supply would be exhausted and no further deposition take

place. In the latter, however, the salts might be brought up-

"a

:
.

Alkali Deposits of Wyoming.—Read 167

from unknown depths below by osmotic action and the volume
of strata from which the supply may be derived might thus be
immensely increased. That the latter is the more probable
source would seem to be indicated by the fact that shallow
wells sunk near some of the deposits have yielded water that
is fairly palatable, and also the results of the work of the Ex-
periment Station upon hydrography in the area go to show that
seepage from precipitated moisture is very small in amount.
We now see hew the amount of water supplied and the strength
of solution are counterbalancing, for the amount of salts
brought to the surface yearly is constant and all would be car-
ried into the basin, irrespective of whether the precipitation
was great or small.

In the latter case the computation should rather be based
on the area of the drainage basin, the average yearly evapor-
ation from the soil, and the strength of the subsurface solu-
tions. So many unknown quantities are here involved that
stich a computation is impossible with our present knowledge,
so that we shall have to allow the original computation to
stand, with due allowance for its errors of assumption.

In regard to the theory of the origin of these deposits from
springs, certain conditions are obvious. The water must carry
only small amounts of salts, or else much larger deposits must

have: been formed. Springs highly charged with salts, even

though they did not break out into undrained depressions
which might serve as evaporating basins, would necessarily
have produced smal! deposits. We have no instances of de-
posits except in these depressions, and it is of course absurd
to assume that such springs would break out in such depres-
sions alone. We have no record of any spring in the state
which carries more than 150 grains to the gallon of the salts
we, have been considering.

In the second place, the flow of such springs must be small,
or else we would not have the drying up of the deposits in
the summer months, which is so characteristic of the greater
number of them. There are numerous cases where alkaline
lakes do not dry up during the summer months, but in no case
is the alkalinity of the waters of these sufficient to justify the
assumption of contnuous evaporation of an alkaline supply.

168 The American Geologist. Reptembes,

Where do the alkaline salts come from? The spring the-.

ory has no answer to that question, beyond that they come
from beneath. .

From a careful consideration of the evidence it would
seem that both theories are right, and find their application
in different instances. The southern edge of the valley of
Rock creek, which that stream has cut in the crest of an anti-
cline, is a ridge of hard Dakota beds. Near the crest of this
ridge is an undrained depression containing one of these de-
posits. We clearly can have no application of the first theory
here, for with the exception of a low rim, the surface slopes
away from the depression. On the other hand, we have nu-
merous springs breaking out on all sides, all of them of water
which is good enough to drink. These springs join into a
small stream which flows into Rock creek. This seems clear-
ly to be a case of a spring whose yearly flow is not equal to
the yearly evaporation from its lake basin. In the case of
the Union Pacific lakes we find a larger and deeper undrained
depression, containing no deposit, a few miles to the north and
another to the west. The absence of such deposits from these
depressions is inexplicable by the theory of the leaching of the
surrounding strata, since at least one of these depressions
occurs in exactly the same strata. Therefore uprising waters
from be neath must again be the probable source.

On the other hand, it seems almost certain that the leach-

ing of salts from the surrounding strata must have at least ©

aided in the formation of the alkaline deposits. The presence
of efflorescent crusts of alkali throughout the arid region
shows that such salts are brought to the surface and surface
drainage would naturally concentrate the alkali in the evapor-
ating basin. Hence we arrive at the conclusion that both
causes have operated, their relative importance differing in
specific cases.

As to the origin of the salts themselves there is almost no
evidence to offer and without good evidence it is useless to
construct a hypothesis.

The position taken by Dr. W. C. Knight in Bull. 49 of
Wyoming Experiment Station, “Alkali Lakes and Deposits,”
seems to be clearly untenable. He assumes that the salts
have been carried down mechanically by the sediments as they

a . “ : i
« %

Alkali Deposits of Wyoming.—Read 169

were deposited, but in such case it is difficult to see why
sodium chloride is entirely absent in nearly every instance.
The most definite statement that it would seem safe to offer
is that they must have been produced during rock decomposi-
tion by chemical reactions, the exact cause of which is not
known. See the work of Hilgard on alkali in soils.

SUMMARY. .

1. Deposits of sodium and magnesium sulphates of great
extent exist in south central Wyoming.

2. These deposits offer a valuable source of sodium and
its salts.

3. The salts appear to have been in part brought to the
surface by uprising waters and in part derived from the leach-
ing of the surrounding strata.

4. The origin of the salts has not yet been satisfactorily
explained.

April, 1904, Department of Geology, University of Wyom-

ing.

NOTES ON THE PLEISTOCENE FAUNA OF
SANKATY HEAD, NANTUCKET, MASS.

By JosEPH A, CUSHMAN, Boston, Mass.

The geological events of this interesting locality have been
a matter of considerable discussion since they were first defi-
nitely treated by Desor and Cabot in 1847. The section ex-
posed has changed somewhat in the ensuing time and only a
portion of the original section is now exposed. The details
of this are given by Merrill and are reproduced here. .

TeRniNemdatk dritted, SAG. «we cavers Molde we sidrdorae ee ale caes arate

eiey eliow sandy Gtiit) . viii es cus ie aeRO eA hE a wPaON D die & Cte

mr eearse etay? Steatined Sand) @bGuvies aime aca vs <el¥ cress 4o “

moe Pine wore clayey’ sand; etc. im aes be A nas ws Tor

Pee Tacirent. | eda) Ul]. -cs. si ces elma ate erage wicha Wiss sie 1dyek

Be vernneareuells BA fal. ss fag dime wee es oo clos xs > 8 in.

eo Glavey ferraginous: layer. ...i ciel bdssade cee sso ese Ae.

Me Svagie le Co ers ad (eee Bek a a Algae | Fs

(oh elo"ah, Goleta nel od Cote ia bral MIRE) oe ah ae ee rae

ier eRe acnee With CLAY... i oo Ree ace c's cu bacy dues es 22o

PR CAMEE UME I LESMN ES RELCL Rw 5-<iosci nrc AE NRT re cialy-srdic ud she ds 4° ¢
WOME aetna ok. ovis ae eee ered ies Rai sleds Liaraled cient 7, We

170

The American Geologist.

September, 1904

PLEISTOCENE FAUNA OF SANKATY HEAD, NANTUCKET, Mass.

List OF SPECIES.

Portfera.
Cliona sulphurea Desor
Echinodermata.

Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis
Mull

eee eee eee Beene eee ee eee ree eeeeseeereeeees

Annelida,
Serpula dianthus Verrill
Bryzoa.

Hippotlroa variabilis Leidy
Membranipora tenuis Desor

. catenularia Smitt
Eschara verrucosa Esper
Celleporaria incrassata Smitt (?)......

Mollusca (Pelecypoda).

Arca pexata Say
“ponderosa Say
transversa Say
Ostrea virginica Gmel
Anomia aculeata Gmel
i simplextqh@rpr cee oe ee
Mytilus edulis Linn
Modiolus hamatus Verrill
2 modiolus Linn
Crenella glandula Totten
Thracia truncata Mighels and Adams
Pandora (Clidiophora) gouldiana Dall
Astarte castanea Say

“e

“ee

eee eee

eee e nee twee seees
reer eee eer eee

quadrans Gould
undata Gould
Gouldia mactracea Linsley................
Venericardia (Cyclocardia) borealis

Conrad
Venericardia (Cyclocardia) novang-

liae Morse
Viens MmerCemaGrant Mien. vs ase beeeree

Var. Antiqua Verrill
Gemma gemma Totten 0-20. oie. ess
Petricola pholadiformis Linn ............
Tellina (Angulus) tenera Say
Macoma balthica Lint....c.ccscsseseeseese-
Cumingia tellinoides Conrad
Ensis- directus’Gomrady. 203.0 eite, a
Spisula solidissima Dillw..................
Mesodesma arctata Conrad

Renee wee wenn eeneee

“a

“ee ae

TLUDGATAY oer areas teesee ecpehencmeneenae:
Corbula contracta Say
Saxicava artica Linn

ae

eee eee eee eee ee eee eee ei

“as

Range

i Senpita : ‘gee
Lower Bed Bed Upper Bed Bed
Abundanty)|..t.c::. 2522.
jaabartactee ten Suds (Ses coateeeaaes Spines. only |icsessernapet

|
Abun-
Abundant dant (crersetetrsteses creseseseeneees

|
Common _}:\Commoni),..:....-.;..4ee eee
COMMON | ...600 240. de00s tech ocbecoseese oe eee
Comimion,. ||:$2.050 ee. oe | heecce eens eee
De AA \eesetesescessd-| Oly SHELLS esa
Bees Soh ooh oe aes See aac Déveral ) Maneweryeaeet
| )
bf, Gib l te: Secob Kes ous sided eeeceel eee
ONES EC) esceoneeasctee | acc. ceosbewses bial eer
Abundant x | Few! \ dtc
Abundant | x| Few. -.) {):32 eee
eet, OEMS, & Sei) |eseseseseeeesee| Common |e

5 NR ed Ae |. .esccussdes ceotee Sep cease

ews) sel eons |. Common, ficesremece
Common Ka eee ae eee
So renocce pon aeaacoon eeesnoe Sacic oe Many x
GW” lesco.scoseee oe sever | large caeseaceet
bats ee oon ton abalone tee meee Few* Pra
Ses ein ee CR Rae: One valveseseeseteeees
BA Oi ON en Aa rg Abundants\ie2sseee
phsticn Charen ea x Fetes ees ee a
AS Uan aes, VPC eae ere a tape One valve: i2seeeene
Ome ‘SPECI Ny :22.225..--20:5)ssheos des peee os eean eee
ARTS SE OO JU Bat So cices Common) jereeceeeeeeeeee
tech ns ete aek Rea Ree Seen Few aE
Abundant | pd Few. . =}eeseeonee
ADUNGANE: | 5.00... .dsccencts cass aueadseaevedses Geeeuteeeatennel eae
LGW!“ Ficcedsusse cones sas cates Sale ceeee oleae eee
RATE. my | Maetceatecd oul. aves chk oes tere ea eee
Several ux cksce cides | be ee
ccuaseet ee hes ee eee aoe A: few valves}........<.csces
Common XK ‘ © .,|cccdccoleeeeaneeces pace ene
Abundant x Piew: 20] ccaseecetemed
See CA eed eos eee ons Common a
Jin Yihcebemenenee hesesoensaranse Abundant :|t,.<c eee
iad esecetccts cae ueed eae nt eee x* iba Kees
AbunGamt ascsecenece Few ‘.2ccceeeee
«sad os Canean Cee ecco Sevéral |.a.ckeRe
Onie valve ccs ccceceaes erences ese Sasa
GW), | a pease eee Common: se ieee
eT PPP REED lndeten tos One valve; 12 eee
Re Seen coetasats | sctav secavsese Eh PAPIOEN (S|. sarcctreaeeee

* Exact bed not given, referred provisionally to this bed by Prof. Verrill or by the writer.

Range

i Pleistocene Fauna of Sankaty Head.—Cushman. 171

: I. 2 3. 4. Frag-
List OF SPECIES. Serpula ment

Lower Bed Bed Upper Bed Bed

Mollusca (Gastropoda.) F

. rag-

RTA TC CONE. § 0, os ve cunysicnhavp Leeacowsuhs tngsadvante| teveenuempbavey[ubaasisiedeqssecaes ayaitts
Odostomia impressa Say... ROEM TNR otis fockak oes hes Pia ks tesas00e9 4 vy] eniecricssinoods
a PUA: MT OUIG 5.00... 05-snansen = Common 0 PS EE REST EN SR ae
Turbonilla interrupta Totten.............. Several BO Ati dep asics cagA ead andi Ch oe ced

Rn x*
Scala greenlandica MUU NKcb Word ncdehc |vveneveredtyacsncevd Pcatlenntsdleds (B. S.N. H.)|
Crepidula convexa Say............:cccsse0e Not common BRA Rcahavindtilss cies af aby acaccoyaaas
3 Rormicata, Wa mikr..1.5...ecec.sies Abundant x ly, Se ee eee
s PM SAY condi co web conwcnncaspssann COMINON +[yesecrerecicens POR) 1b uiledhapansiastex’
r + 2 I speci’n (v)

eepcezliien MEIN NIU We wast aan ScBd tang adcstcavasicsvesticefasstarwes xvaene (also Merrill)|1077""

Birdsalpinx cinerea Say.............0..0.00 Common x OWE SPECI eirecceots.

Hupleura caudata Say.............c.scccee OTe! BSC Oil esac He yetor ves svc canvedeyseean|vasqraahavacere

MRIMTIGUMBAtA SAY ......05.....:00sccereseseees ENS SIGSSD Lipo bn piceonn| s cnbage soppy col veal paises Wea ee sede

NSO Ling 5 <n oo %ena~ckonsexvovass,|xneacvegecescchasess|vayereyacensone Common >

SRM AST SS Woy ot cas <ivinnn stew adin |v enc Vudkinensicas dozeennsesasess 7 aie all RN teria heer

MEPL ihe, CU IICALA SAY....-.....caececnenners | one Sereaee teers ds digas One spect nine.

RUMEN URE i COU IC, 0, ores uaneesuceeesasae|acsovaenacnnsesanens|ocedeceserneses pee Py eae *

ESRI RRS EL AMC EDLY s de 2 2 cs dg sop hell sant coc ak yancescpve[iotedcusnic sis foccssdecdonseesovene x

NE IARC AT A STAY. «5d <2 fiseseskawdaalsceceonssvesepbsgeea| ter cenews «oeeue \E WO SPE DShs-.24 sans

PMIMRD DIRE MONIT SEIT = .-0-<<<- cn; ynes |ewaserssaccdcensnicdl seveodsone senss AS EE es OOS x

Cerithiopsis greenii C. B. Adams....... BU SSC NS Poke sas voc geae caanvod«dehbex]| doy -abevieadead

Se OM MPAA CL REID DGD. «05 522-0020 401 lyeevaxesabanewponses|seeraoreece>oe0| Commons ean,

MUGS ELIVILLALA- SAY. c.ccrecccccccses-no enna FEW ca ficp ccenet say acs Common « |: cree

« (Ilyanassa) obsoleta Say.......... Few x Few x
Mervaodamlts CUrta Jefreys.........).c0:.|iccesescecoscascnden|ovseceseecroone Several |. beeccsee
Trophon scalariformis Gould............. baer oe APE seta |e fap. seFadeadiwead] Se veksegeareut

f Crustacea.

meelatis crematus Brug..............ses.ce0s COMMON ||tr.cs.e.5-05. eng He By: Seah ey

* epurneus Gould............:..-0+: Common i cdot sgeneaet doeabissaestevews Stee

_ POTCALUS....... 00... ceercecesceetences <F: Saah a Beg REE Nee ere x x
Eupagurus pollicaris Say................. OME SRECH IA aseck cotig, cvedetntteneuneates eae pnkgee ae
BRST SEED ye hag 2. oa ca--cervssserieceesscese | x Bi) Raita sks ddesdes )& eee

There are, according to his observations, four main fossil-

iferous beds, marked 1-4 on the section as here given. This

division in place of the older idea of two beds gives additional

\ characters from which certain conclusions may be drawn as

to the fauna.

a It is the aim of the writer to present the data in regard to
the fauna of these four beds in a simple manner. Several new
species have been added since the publication of professor

Verrill’s paper in 1875. ‘These additions for the most part

Verrill or by the writer.

substantiate the conclusions drawn by professor Verrill in
regard to the faunas of the different beds, that is, the original

* Exact bed not given, referred provisionally to this bed either by Prof.

172 The American Geologist. Septemhee ae

conditions under which they were formed before transporta-
tion. ,

From the pocket-like character of the shell deposits as well
as other characters of the material in which they are at pres-
ent found, the idea that they have been transported or at least
secondarily worked over by water, must, it seems, be accepted.

The whole fauna as here given consists of 71 species and
2 varieties, ten of these species having been added since pro-
fessor Verrill’s list. Of these Panopaea sp. and Mesodesma
deaurata (M. jauresi) were added by Hollick; Caecum pul-
chellum, Astarte quadrans, Cingula (Rissoa) aculeus, Solari-
ella (Margarita) obscura, Skenea planorbis, Trophon (Fus-
us) scalariformis, and Arca pexata were added by Merrill, and
an excellent specimen of Arca ponderosa was found among the
early collection of Mr. Scudder by the writer.

In the last column of the table is given the range of the
species either to the north or south. In some cases it is about
im the middle point of its range and both letterstare given, the
one indicating the greater range being given first. In one or
two cases the species is not now found living at this point and
this fact is indicated in the column by repeating the letter indi-

cating the range in parenthesis, as N. (N.) meaning that the .

species does not at present range south to this point in shallow
water.

Relations of the Fauna of Bed. No. I.

At the present time there are forty species and varieties
which have been identified from this lower bed. The one
crustacean Eupagurus pollicaris is hypothetically referred to
this bed by professor Verrill. The only specimen was found
by Desor. Of the forty forms thirty-two have a decidedly
southern range; one other, the var. antiqua described by Ver-
rill, is limited to this locality as far as known. Of the remain-
ing seven forms with a northern range, two have a decided
southern range as well, of the remaining five, three species are
found rarely in this lower bed and much more commonly in the
bed above, the other two remaining species being decidedly
northern, one of them only now found at this point in deep
water. Therefore 87144% of the forms found in this bed would
be found more commonly to the south of this point today,

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Pleistocene Fauna of Sankaty Head.—Cushman. 173

while ‘all but one species of the others would be found, al-
though near the southern limit of their range.

Relations of Fauna of Bed No. 2.

In this bed the earlier writers mention simply Serpula and
its encrusting bryozoan. Merrill found in his work on it six-
teen additional species, giving this bed a distinct fauna of its
own. -The forms found indicate a change in conditions and
especially a transition toward the faunal conditions of bed 3.
Of these sixteen species, thirteen represent those that were
present—in most cases abundant—in the first bed and which
either disappeared entirely or were limited to few specimens
in the upper bed. They represent the remnants of fauna No.
1 left before the completed change of conditions sent them
out entirely. . ;

Of the other three, one, a northern species, has been found
only in this bed, the other two represent northern species which
make their first appearance here, but are found again in one
of the upper beds. Thus the transition character is easily made
out, having the last appearance of many of the southern species
of the lower bed and the first appearance of northern species
of the upper beds.

Relations of the Fauna of Bed No. 3.

From this bed forty forms are now known including four
species placed here hypothetically. Of these twenty-six did
not appear in the first bed. Of this last number twenty-four
have a decidedly northern range. Of the other two, one is
referred hypothetically, simply fragments being found, while
the other is represented by a single specimen. Those species
which were found in the lower bed are represented by very
few specimens in almost all cases. The fauna of this bed then

represents the completion of the changed conditions and a

much more northern fauna due to much cooler water while the
earlier, more southern species have either entirely disappeared
or are represented by few individuals.

Relations of the Fauna of Bed No. 4.

This bed according to Merrill contains eleven species. Their
relations are decidedly northern. Four of these have not been
met with in the other beds. Of these, three have decidedly
northern ranges, the fourth being almost limited to this gen-

174 The American Geologist. Scotentes
eral locality. Of the other seven, six represent species of
northern range not found in the first bed. The other one
represents a species found in all the beds. This bed consisting
as it does mainly of fragments shows probably far less of its
original faunal members than the other beds. From those
which it does contain it probably represents a condition not
unlike the present except that the southern species were not
again established at that point.

Whether the idea of transportation of the material is ques-
tioned or not there remains the fact that there are represented
by the contained fossils, four distinct stages. All four stages
probably represent a period during freedom from the ice sheet
somewhere between the earliest and !atest advances.

Two species, Arca pexata and Ostrea virginica, were found
by Merrill in a bed intermediate between Beds 2 and 3. The
list as here given includes all the species and varieties reported
from these beds, the names used, being as far as possible, ac-
cording to latest usage.

4

LAKE OTERO, AN ANCIENT SALT LAKE BASIN
IN SOUTH-EASTERN NEW MEXICO.

By C. L. HeRR!IcK, Socorro, New Mexico.
PLATE XI.

To a mind endowed with some ‘maginative powers one
of the attractive features of geological study is the continu-
ous series of panoramic portrayals of earth-building which it
spreads before one—pictures which present the grand out-
lines of continents and seas during the course of profound
changes requiring ages for their completion. It is a very
apathetic mind that is not stirred by the sheer immensity of
many of the geological movements which are plainly evident
in the configuration of mountain and plain, especially in the
arid region where there has been little glossing over of the
rude narrative.

This sense of the immensity of geological manifestations
is felt in any mountainous region in the Southwest equally
from two points of view. The evidence of profound faulting
and dislocation is so clear and convincing as almost to over-

Lake Otero, N. Mex.— Herrick. 175

shadow the still greater, if more gradual, work of erosion

which has planed away the broken or arching strata, leaving

the clear outlines of faulting more plainly in view ,than in

any other region whatever.

- - Any peak of the San Andres or Sacramento mountains in

| south-eastern New Mexico may become a veritable Pisgah to
the trained observer, though it is history and not prophesy
that will occupy him. The writer has briefly described the
valley of the “white sands’* but in the present paper we
are able to trace historical features not hitherto published.

To one standing upon the foot-hills of the White or
Sacramento mountains on the morning of a clear day and

; looking west there is presented a view which cannot be dupli-
cated elsewhere. At his feet is a nearly level plain crossed
from north to south by the El Paso and North Eastern Rail-
way and dotted with a number of villages prominent among
which is the new city of Alamogordo, each settlement being
picked out by the bright green of the unfailing cottonwoods.

The vivid green of the grease-wool (Laria) fades-as the
plain is followed west. Numerous canons from the foot hills
extend as arroyos all converging toward the central portion of
the plain where they abruptly disappear. Still beyond, cov-
ering an area of over 300 square miles, is a great white ex-
panse of gypsum sands whose parallel dunes seem like frozen
waves. It is impossible to escape the impression that one is
looking out upon a great arm of the sea breaking in foam-
like billows upon a low shore. Beyond, grey in the distance,
are the outlines of the San Andres, whose irregular crests are
capped with Carboniferous limestone dipping west.

A recent opportunity afforded by a survey of this area
has permitted the writer to study this plain in considerable
detail and not only to secure evidence of the truth of the
theory of origin of the “‘white sands” advanced in the pre-
vious paper but also to work out the general outlines of the
history of the entire basin.

The origin of the great valley between the San Andres
and Sacramento mountains is to be «ttributed, as previously
suggested, to a great anticline similar to that of the Rio

Grande valley. This axis is nearly north and south but is not

* Bull. Univ. New Mex., vol. ii; Fasc. 3.

176 The American Geologist. September. ues

continuous in the same straight line to the north, for the
Oscuro mountains, which are almost the direct northward
continuation of the San Andres, form the other limb of the
anticline, dipping east instead of west, there being a region of
sharp flexture about a short axis or pivot near the north end
of the San Andres, giving rise to the Little Burros mountains.

North end of San Andres Range.

The conditions represented in this little sketch are of suffi-
cient interest to permit a remark. It would appear to the
casual observer that the Oscuro and San Andres mountains,
separated by the Mocking Bird pass, form part of the same
system, but even hurried geological examination reveals the
fact that the dip is in opposite senses and that the region of
the pass is a part of neither the Oscuro nor the San Andres
system but forms a distinct element. When compared with
the Oscuros it is faulted so that the base of the Carboniferous,
or at least the granite contact which i:s some 1500 ft. above
the plain in the south end of the Oscuros, drops in the Little
Burros to, and in some places below, the general level. What
is more surprising is the fact that a part of the north end of
the San Andres is involved in this little Burro mass. The
fgult represented north of Capitol peak has not been studied
closely and may not extend through the range as represented.
At any rate, the’ Carboniferous hills of the Little Burro block

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—Herrick. 177

abut against the granite of the north end of the San Andres.
The entire northern ridge of that range is bare of stratified
rocks. To the south of the fault indicated the dip of the
strata is uniformly to the west. The lava flow, part of which
is represented, extends for about fifty miles uninterruptedly
in the vallev east of the Oscuro mountains and ends abruptly
on the plain formed by the basin of lake Otero, the upper
part of which was covered by it.

In the main, and south of the Little Burro block, the
anticline is relatively simple and not unlike that illustrated as
typical of “basin range” structure in Russell’s article on lake
Lahontan (1. c. fig. 44) with which region the present locality
is naturally compared. The dip on both sides, in the San
Andres and Sacramentos respectively, 1s moderate and subject
to much local variation.

It may be presumed that the orographic flexture creating
this axis dates from a period earlier than that of the sedi-
mentaries depcsited on the granite which is everywhere their
base, for it seems to be true that the !owest sedimentaries on
the east (Sacramento) side of the valley are of earlier age
than those exposed in the San Andres, or, in other words,
the formation was not homogeneous nor was it uniformly de-
posited across the incipient uplift. This uplift probably ex-
posed the granite during the Carboniferous-Permian interval,
if such there was, though the greater part of the granitic
material characteristic of the lower Permian may have come
from special (focal) uplifts like that forming the foundation
for Sierra Blanca north of the Sacramento range.

If we were to assume that the entire Permo-Carbonifer-
ous was uninterruptedly laid down before the arch began to
be sprung this would mean that a tremendous elevation was
at one time reached and a still more enormous erosion would
be required, for, granting a thickness of say 3000 feet to the
sedimentaries, even a very flat arch would have the effect of
carrying the summit to a great hight in the forty miles or so
intervening between the buttresses left as the ranges men-
tioned. But it is certain that the flexture was accompanied by
faulting on a large scale. The small ridge forming Cerrito
Tularosa east of the “sands,” and others farther south but
along the same axis, are of dark earthy limestone with fossils

178 The American Geologist. September, 1904.

supposed to be of Permian age, and evidently represent the
tops of faulted blocks indicating a drop of perhaps 4000 to
gooo feet. Similar conditions are not known to exist on the
west side of the valley but the tops of faulted blocks may be
buried beneath the sediments.

Four fossils from the Cerrito Tularosa, an outlier of Permian limestone
along fault line on the east side of Lake Otero basin.

It is clear that the axis of uplift hecame a drainage axis
quite early. To the east the sedimentaries carried to the top
valley, where, as I am informed by Dr. W. G. Tight, who has
studied the region, they form the water-bearing horizons of
that celebrated artesian area. The same may prove to be true
of the plains to the west of the San Andres known as the
Jourado del Muerto (Journey of Death). Although the
fracture axis of our valley may have been early, the latest up-
lift of the Sierra Blanca was certainly later than the Cretace-
ous for Mr. H. N. Herrick has collected Fox Hills fossils
from well up on the western slope and a curious broken area
of Cretaceous intersected by dikes of recent basalt occupies
a position at the base near Three Rivers and this block is
faulted down to the level of the Permian which borders it.

It may be supposed that the great faults which reduced
the valley to something like its present level occurred during
late Cretaceous or Tertiary time, though even greater disloca-
tions may have followed the period of the Red Beds, i. e. at

Lake Otero, N. Me.«.—Herrick. 179

the time of the great early basic (mostly andesitic) flows and
the succeeding acid eruptive period.

There is much to lend plausibility to the theory that a river
of considerable magnitude occupied the valley and flowed
south to enter what is now a part of the Rio Grande valley.
At any rate, a change was introduced by the basaltic overflows
which produced a great sheet of “mal pais” occupying the
valley east of the Oscuros and possibly serving to cut off the

-superficial waters from the north. It may be that other

causes had operated to occlude the original outlet to the south
for it seems that a long period of lacustrine quiet had preceded
this lava flow. Perhaps the condition of periodic rain-fall
or arid status had assisted in silting up the outlet.

There is room for much detailed study in connection with
all of these questions. At any rate, it may be regarded as
certain that the great basin north of the Jarilla mountains and
extending northward to east of the Oscuros was for a very
long period covered by a salt lake in which gypsum, salt, and
saline alkalis were deposited with ‘intermittent regularity.
Thus were formed the great saline beds which we venture to
call the Otero marls. This formation has been penetrated by
wells to a depth of some 200 feet in many places and every-
where reveals a succession of gypsum and saline beds inter-
calated in gypsiferous marls. It is impossible to guess at the

thickness of this formation. It may very possibly prove to
be of Tertiary age, at least in part, as it seems to pass undis-

turbed under the lava beds at the north end of the valley. The
upper surface, where exposed, is a plane and the superposed
sandy marls (Tularosa Formation) are distinctly differen-
tiated.

\ SAN ANDRES MTs
SACRAMENTO MTS

.
we

Section across old Lake Otero.

The upper or Tularosa Beds are rarely over twenty-five
feet thick and in many places contain fresh-water lacustrine

180 The American Geologist. September, 1004

shells. It would appear, therefore, that the line between the
upper and lower beds marks a period of transition to a time
when more water and more sediments entered the lake from
the sides. The lake was divided during this period, probably
near its close, into two parts which may have been connected,
as now, by a narrow strait. The division is apparent to-day
as a bank rising some twenty-five to forty feet above the beds
of the residual lakes and is nearly parallel and adjacent to
the north boundary of Dofia Ana county where it crosses
the valley.

The sandy marl of this period is usually quite fine and
may be gypsiferous. It has apparently been derived from

the Cretaceous sandstone and shale and the soft gypsiferous_

shales and sandstones of the Permian. This points to the
probability that the change from the lower to the upper forma-
tion may have been due to the lava flow which penetrated the
border of the lake and doubtless laid these formations open
to fresh erosion. I{.these intrusions were of the same age as
the flow covering the northern part of the valley the latter
may at the same time-laveé served to cut off connection with
saline districts to the north.

In the absence of more minute investigation it is useless
to speculate as to the entire course of the original river valley
but it is obvious that even the present drainage area tributary
to the great salt basin 18 sufficient to supply an enormous
amount of water which must either find an underground out-
let or return to the atmosphere through evaporation. The
amount lost in the latter way is reduced by the fact that the
waters tend to bury themselves under the upper or Tularosa
formation. A comparatively small part of even the focal
flood waters remains upon those playas which represent the
last remnants of the original lake Otero. The streams
flowing from the lateral canons soon lose themselves under
the sandy strata occupying the middle of the basin. Water
may be found by penetrating the Otero beds at any point
and frequently near the top of that formation. All such
waters are strongly impregnated with common salt and alka-
line salts and with gypsum but different strata in the same
well may afford water very dissimilar in point of salinity.

{V. Peace x

THE AMERICAN Grotoctst, Vou. XXX

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PLATE XI.

-

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—-Herrick. 181

In describing this basin one is forcibly reminded of Mr.
I. C. Russell’s account of lake Lahontan ; in Powell’s Third An-
nual Report; indeed, much of his description of the Great
Basin applies, on a reduced scale, it is true, to the region in
question. “No streams that rise within it carry their con-
tribution to the ocean, but all the rain that falls inside the rim
of the basin is returned again to the atmosphere, either by
direct evaporation from the soil, or, after finding its way into
some of the lakes that occupy the depressions of the irregular
surface. The climate is dry and arid in the extreme.” It has
been a matter of frequent observation that during the early
part of the rainy season clouds from which rain is falling in
torrents will pass over such dry reaches of sand intensely
heated by the sun and, on reaching their borders, the rain
will fail to reach the earth and soon perhaps the cloud will
cease to precipitate but may resume its occupation on reach-
ing the farther (cooler) side of the plain.

The mountains bordering the lake basin conform to the
“great basin type.” ‘They are long narrow ridges usually
bearing north and south, usually steep upon one side, where
broken edges of the composing beds are exposed, but sloping
on the other with a gentle angle conformable to the dip of the
strata. They have been formed by the orographic tilting of
blocks that are separated by profound faults, and they do not
exhibit the synclinal structure commorly observed in moun-
tains but are monoclinal instead.” .

To this description it may be remarked that the structure
in question is by no means limited to the Great Basin, for
throughout a great part of .New Mexico this is the type of
mountain formed where Carboniferous and earlier strata are
involved in the uplift. It is a mistake to suppose that this is
essentially a monoclinic type. Anticlines exist ona grand
scale but these arches grow coincidentally with vast erosion
and faulting and were often greatly altered by later intrusion
phenomena which, as I have repeatedly pointed out, com-
monly chose one of the lateral axes cf the anticline for the
play of their disturbing forces.

Much as it has been altered by late disturbances and
enormous erosion and sedimentation, it is impossible to fail
to recognize the anticline of the middle Rio Grande valley, for

182 The American Geologist. September

instance, yet it is not common to find both sides clearly pre-
served at any one cross-section. The eastern limb is seen in
the Sandias and Manzanos, the western, farther south in
the Ladronnes, Limitars and Socorro ranges, while still
further south the river turns west but remains in the anti-
clinal valley, the eastern border of which is formed by the
San Cristobal and Caballos ranges. The eastern limb is nearly
covered east of Socorro.*

We do not conceive of this great fold (nor that east
of it, forming the basin under consideration) as narrow plica~
tions but rather as great undulations with irregularities which
may in places almost obscure the general north and south
trend. The foundation for these orographic changes was laid
after the upheaval that closed the granite-forming period, that
is prior to the deposition of the Carboniferous (farther south,
Devonian) limestones that repose upon the granite. The
upper surface of the granite is planed to such an extent that
the contact at a distance appears a right line. These sedi-
ments, in so far as they are not calcareous and so derived di-
rectly from the ocean, seem to have come from the surviving
peaks or land masses of granite not covered by the Carbonif-
erous sea and there is every reason to believe that during the
Carboniferous-Permian interval (if interval there was) an up-
lift presented more of the granite material to the tooth of the
waves. The unconformities thus indicated seem to have been on
a large scale and are so broad in their contours as to defy detec-
tion in a small field of observation though when once worked

out they may be strikingly obvious. Reverting to our de-

scription, we again quote Mr. Russell: “The valleys or plains
separating the mountain ranges . . . are often absolute des-
erts, totally destitute of water, treeless for many days’ jour-
ney, the grayish green Artenisia or “sage brush” giving
character to the landscape. Many of them have playas in
their lowest depressions—simple mud plains left by the evap-
oration of former lakes. . . . In the summer months portions
of them become so baked and hardened as scarcely to receive
an impression from a horse’s hoof, and so sun-cracked as to
resemble tessellated pavements of cream-colored marble.

*Laws of Formation of New Mexico Mountain Ranges. AMERICAN
GEOLOGIST, May, 1904.

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—Herrick, 183

Other portions of the valleys become incrusted to the depth of
several inches with alkaline salts which rise to the surface as
an efflorescence and give the appearance of drifted snow. The
dry surface material of the deserts is sometimes blown about
by the winds, saturating the air, or is caught up by whirl-
winds and carried to a great hight, forming great hollow
columns of dust. These swaying and bending columns, often
two or three thousand feet high, rising from the plains like
pillars of smoke, are a characteristic feature.”

The above might almost have been written of the Otero
basin, which, nevertheless, has peculiar features of its own.
Prominent among these are the great dunes of gypsum sand
occupying fully 300 square miles lying immediately east of
the largest playas. These “white sands” have no counterpart
elsewhere and have frequently been described.* It must not
be supposed that the area of the white sands is absolutely bar-
ren. On the contrary, it forms the only part of the basin
which supports a thrifty growth of vegetation. This con-
sists of occasional clumps of cottonwood trees and clusters
of bushes of various species as well as of Artemisia and
grasses. There are even small flats covered with Grama
grass forming excellent feed. The suneriority of the vegeta-
tion over other parts of the basin is chiefly to be attributed to
the hygroscopic nature of the gypsum. We found, for ex-
ample, in the midst of a very dry time when the surface of the
dunes was so hot that one could with difficulty endure the
beat upon the bare hand, that a few inches below the surface
there was a layer of damp sand several inches thick. Below
this layer the sand was perfectly dry. Even in very hot
weather this area is very cool at night and this is the result of
precipitation, evaporation and reprecipitation upon the sands.
Experiments made at the Agricultural College of Las Cruces
show that the gypsum is of value in increasing the growth
of wheat and other crops upon soil with which it is mixed.
This appears to be wholly due to the hygroscopic action of
the gypsum. It is probable that, when properly understood
and utilized, this property will be made greatly to benefit ag-
riculture in the arid belt. A sufficient covering or admixture

* Cf. Bal. Univ. New. Mex., vol. ii.

184 The American Geologist. September, 1904

of gypsum might render soils to some extent immune to
droughts.

The dazzling whiteness of the sand is strongly contrasted
to the unusual greenness of the vegetation. Travel over the
sands in the day time during summer is dangerous and the
peril is even greater during severe wind storms in winter.
Two travelers perished on the day following the escape of our
party on a previous visit in January. Seven hours rapid walk
ing over the sands and adjacent salt flats without food or
water in July convinced one of our party of the grave pos-
sibilities of any miscalculation of time or distance in this
region. These natural difficulties are greatly increased by the
undrinkable nature of the water of springs and wells in this
region. Animals and even men become innured to its use
but vast numbers of domestic animals perish from its effects.
We lost a valuable horse from the effects of drinking from
a well used by hundreds of animals and the occurrence is not
unusual. All watering places are surrounded by carcasses of
cattle and horses.

To the residual lakes found in the old basin the de-
scription of Russell applies, and as some interest attached to
the parallel, we again quote:* ‘Other lakes, which indicate
still more pointedly the contrast between an arid and a
humid climate, we may call playat lakes. These are broad
sheets of shallow water, covering many square miles in
winter season, but evaporating to dryness during the summer,
their beds becoming hard, smooth mud plains or playas. In
many instances a lake is formed over a playa during a single
stormy night, only to disappear beneath the next noon-day
sun.”

The effects of the universal whiteness on life is seen in
the case of certain lizards, beetles and spiders, which become
nearly perfectly white. A question of considerable biological
interest arises in this connection, namely, whether a long in-
terval of time was necessary for such adaptive changes, or
whether the adaptation occurs as a result of direct and
prompt nervous reaction such as the paralysis of the nervous

Te. puts.

+ The word playa primarily means a shore or beach. It would be inter-
esting to know how it comes to be applied to these mud flats. Oneis tempted
to think of a confusion of terms. C.L. H.

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—Herrick. 185

apparatus controlling the chromatophores or the bleaching of
the colors themselves. In the case of the lizard, Holbrookia
texana, which is a rather poor pedestrian, the transformation
of the upper parts is nearly complete but the characteristic
blue bands remain below in contrast to the original white of
the under parts. Crotophytus colaris, a very fleet and active
species which can, upon occasion, pick up its tail and fore feet
and make great progress as a biped, like some of its gigantic
forebears in the west, is little if any modified so far as ob-
served.

Extent of Lake Otero.—So far as we can now determine,
the area of this ancient lake may have been from 1600 to 1800
square miles. We have made no examination to the south
to ascertain if the nature of the barrier can be made out. It
may have extended nearly to the Jarillas mountains. From
the nature of the case, the old shore lines must be deeply
buried under the talus from the mountains whose fans spread
out a great mantle of lime debris. Near Alamogordo at
the mouth of one of these mountain canons a well was drilled
over 800 feet without reaching solid rock. Along the gradual
slope west of the southern tongue of mal pais, i. e. along
what was the northwest border of the lake,.erosion has ex-
posed what seem to be remnants of old lake benches. At no
other place have they been observed though three or four
distinct benches border the playas upon the Tularosa forma-
- tion. a

We may assume that the saline lake began in Tertiary
time and continued with minor changes to a period of disturb-
ance which may have coincided with the lava flow already
mentioned. Ii the extrusion of so vast an amount of lava
caused a sinking of the northern part of the valley, a deepen-
ing of the lake would result and a corresponding diminution
in extent which might account for a.greater depth of water
and a corresponding freshening of it. The extent to which
the sheet has been undermined by subterranean erosion indi-
cates a considerable antiquity. It is moreover possible that
the Otero beds do not really underlie the lava, as they appear
to do, in which event our only clue to the age of these beds
is inapplicable.

186 The American Geologist. Septemver, aa

The Otero Formation, as already described, consists
of marls with gypsum and saline beds. The upper surface
wherever exposed seems a plane and the line between the
Otero and Tularosa beds is sharply defined. Wherever the
level of the Otero beds is reached, as in the playas and
streams about the margin of the basin, saline conditions pre-
‘vail. Sometimes these salt flats are bare and covered with a
thick deposit of salt and alkalis as wel! as gypsum, while in
other cases there may be some soil commingled and the sur-
face is sparsely covered with “‘salt bush,” “salt grass’ and
other plants of the distinctly saline flora. Along the margins,
where the fans from the canons have added to the original
deposits, the flora is increased by greise-wood (Laria) mes-
quite and the typical desert facies. The salts upon the playas
differ in different cases. In some cases, when dry, there is
a layer of nearly pure salt (chloride of sodium) several
inches thick. More frequently other salts occur in considera-
ble abundance. When carbonate of soda preponderates it will
often form a dense crust’ in which little common salt is a
prominent ingredient. Borax and carbonate of potassium also
occur under somewhat different conditions. There seems
to be considerable uniformity in the amount of salt in the
several divisions. ‘Thus in the series of playas north of the
barrier above described as separating the great western salt
lakes into two portions an average of two samples gave over 6
per cent of salt, while to the south of the Soda lake which is
the southern part of this chain gave an averge of 14.6 per
cent. besides large quantities of other salts. This might seem
to indicate a tendency to concentrate toward the southern
part of the area. Nevertheless the area near “Mal Pais
spring’? which issues from the southern end of the lava
sheet, and the flats of the northern end of the old lake Otero
are heavily charged with salt. An average of over I5 per
cent was found here without including several lakes whence
commercial supplies of salt have been taken and which afford
a continuing supply of the pure mineral.

All the arroyos in the east side of the basin are saline.
The water flowing in Lost river, for example carries 7 per
cent salt while soil in Tularosa arroyo runs 7.8 per cent. The
salt lake into which Lost river flows is saturated brine and

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—Herrick. 187

furnishes commercial supplies. Analyses of the ‘white sands”
show that this gypsum sand contains very little salt.

From what has been said it will appear that along the
entire western border of the old lake the later formation has
been removed, perhaps by combined wind and water action,
leaving the Otero saliferous formation exposed over several
townships, the material therefrom having beendriveneastward
by the prevailing winds. The, eastern margin is suffering
destruction in another way. Streams from the Sacramento
mountains attack the sandy upper layers (Tularosa forma-
tion) and by driving their waters against the advancing dunes,
forming deep arroyos and, preliminary to them, series of sink
holes in which in some cases water may be heard running.
‘The arroyos are extended and new ones are formed by the
confluence of these sink holes. During wet times the roof of
such caverns may cave in and we have found the bodies of
cattle, head downward, in such falls. It is apparent that so-
lution rather than erosion is the great agent of destruction
here. The arroyos so formed may end abruptly against the
central dune area or may form salt flats along its eastern
margin. These arroyos are covered with salt grass and Salt
bush and have the usual saline efflorescence.

Much of the drainage from the east is not by way of open
arroyos but reaches and even penetrates the Otero formation
and passes through underground channels. Frequently these
underground waters meet obstacles, or perhaps create them
by depositing lime and gypsum, and so are forced to find
an escape at the surface. These springs have a considerable
artesian head, building up cones to the hight of twenty-five
feet or more. Attempts have been made to utilize these arte-
sian waters for irrigation but in all cases so far as followed
up the results have been disappointing because of the saline
impurities in these waters. Excavation has in some cases
opened large subterranean chambers in the vicinity of such
springs and the soil is marly and inapt for cultivation.

The Tularosa Formation has been incidentally described.
It consists of sandy marl largely gypsiferous and moderately
saline. It is usually covered with scanty desert vegetation
and is rolling from the dune formation usually accompanying
it. The presence over its entire extent of recent fresh-water

188 The American Geoiogist. September Saas

shells serves to indicate a comparatively fresh condition of the
waters during the hight of the period.

Economic Exploitation. Some eftorts have been made
to utilize the gypsum sands, a compary having been formed
operating from Alamogordo for the manufacture of cement
and artificial stone. It would appear that the more impure
deposits occasionally occur in such mixtures with earth and
vegetable matter as to require no retarder and simply need
to be partially burnt to be ready for use. Artificial stone and
stucco are produced but much remains to be done in the
practical exploitation of what will sometime prove a great in-
dustry and afford a substitute for the lumber which at no
very distant date will disappear from the southwest. Mexico
affords an illustration of the great variety of uses to which
a cheap cement may berput. Irrigation ditches and wiers as
well as very substantial buildings are constructed of com-
binations of adobe, poor brick, and cement. In this country

the use of slow setting (‘‘dead burnt”) plasters is not in-

vogue so that great care is necessary to get the right degree
of dehydration.

The entire region is strictly saline and the thin covering
of sandy marl of the Tularosa formation does not disguise the
fact, though in the vicinity of the talus fans, especially on
the east side of the valley, there is a fringe of good soil which
will prove very productive when irrigated with fresh water.
Such towns as Tularosa and La Luz near the base of the
mountains are surrounded by thrifty orchards and alfalfa
fields. There is little doubt that mountain reservoirs may
do much towards the reclamation of a part of this area, but
in the bed of the lake out from the immediate margin the
salinity of the Otero formation will always impregnate the
superficial layers.

Although the only economic use so far made of the
vast deposits of salts has been that of the local stock men who
occasionally drive into one of these flats and shovel up a
load of salt, is is probable that a large industry will one day
be carried on here. It will be found possible to evaporate the
brines by a solar process on a very large scale and the cement
for making the pans is immediately at hand. Cheap coal

Lake Otero, N. Mex.—Herrick. 189

for refining will be available and it is only a matter of
time when salt, soda and borax works will be erected.

It is not impossible that fresh water could be found by
deep drilling and a partial artesian head would probably
be found. In this event the exploitation of the district will
be facilitated. If one or more of the extensive irrigation
schemes now on foot are carried to a successful completion still
greater impetus will be given to manufacturing enterprises in
this valley.

In conclusion I have to thank Mr. A. J. Hunt and my
son, Mr. H. N. Herrick, for assistance in the work covered
by the present paper. The chemical work involved was all
done by the latter. I also am indebted for sundry suggestions
to Dr. W. G. Tight of the University of New Mexico.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

THE COLOSSAL BRIDGES OF UTAH.

Mr. W. W. Dyar describes and illustrates in the Century
Magazine for August, another great American wonder. Time
was when the natural bridge of Virginia was held to be worthy
of a long journey. It is rare indeed that the erosive forces are
so balanced against the varying endurance of natural rock cliffs
as to excavate and undermine and leave intact a span of the
firmer rock arching over an eroded softer stratum. Rare as this
may be it is certainly rarer that arches as majestic as those de
scribed by Mr. Dyar should be wrought and preserved through
the vicissitudes of Pleistocene time and remain to the present—
indeed it is certain that no natural bridges equal to these are
known in any part of the world. The unexplored interior of
Africa may disclose natural arches of equal hight and span, but
until such are discovered those of Utah will very easily rank
first and will challenge the admiration of American travellers.

These bridges are near the head of White canyon in San
Juan county. “Their walls and buttresses are composed of
pinkish sandstone, streaked here and there with green and or-
ange-colored moss or lichens.” The Caroline bridge, by a se-
ries of rough triangulations was found to measure two hundred

190 The American Geologist. September, 1904,

and eight feet, six inches from buttress to buttress across the
bottom of the canyon. From the surface of the water to the
center of the arch above the hight is one hundred and ninety-
seven feet, and over the arch at its highest point the solid mass
of sandstone rises one hundred and twenty-five feet farther,
to the level floor of the bridge. The causeway of the bridge,
over which an army could march in columns of companies, as
remarked by Mr. Dyar, is therefore three hundred and twenty-
two feet above the stream. The floor of the bridge is one hun-.
dred and twenty-seven feet wide. Unfortunately, owing to the
winding course of the canyon at this point and the consequent
lack of perspective, the travelers were unable to obtain photo-
graphic views conveying to the eye any adequate expréssion
of the majesty of this bridge. Still Mr. Dyar succeeded in get-
ting a sidewise view and the Century Magazine has reproduced
it from a half-tone plate engraved by S. Davis.

Three and a half miles above the Caroline bridge is the
Augusta bridge, which is the most remarkable and majestic
seen by the explorers. Of this a colored half-tone by Henry
Fenn is given by the Century Magazine, occupying a full page,
made from a photograph. This is described as magnificent,
symmetrical and beautiful in its proportions, ‘‘so as to suggest
that nature after completing the mighty structure of the Car-
oline had trained herself for a finer and nobler form of archi-
tecture.” Here the cross-section of the canyon is three hun-
dred and thirty-five feet and seven inches from wall to wall.
The splendid arch is of sandstone sixty feet thick in the central
part and forty feet wide. The opening beneath the arch is
three hundred and fifty-seven feet in perpendicular hight. The
lateral walls of the arch rise perpendicularly nearly to the top
of the bridge where they flare suddenly outwards, giving the
effect of an immense coping or cornice overhanging the main
structure fifteen or twenty feet on each side, and extending
with the greatest regularity and symmetry the whole length of
the bridge. A large rounded butte at the edge of the canyon
walls seems partly to obstruct the approach of the bridge at one
end.

“Here again,” in the words of Mr. Dyar ,“the curving walls
of the canyon and the impossibility of bringing the whole of
the great structure into the narrow field of the camera, except

Editorial Comment. IOI

from distant points of view, render the photographs unsatisfac
tory. But the highness and grace of the arch are brought out
by the partial view which Long obtained by climbing far up
the canyon wall and at some risk crawling out on an overhang-
ing shelf. The majestic proportions of this bridge, however,
may be partly realized by a few comparisons. Thus its hight
is more than twice and its span more than three times as great
as those of the famous natural bridge of Virginia. Its but-
tresses are one hundred and eighteen feet farther apart than
those of the celebrated masonry arch in the District of Colum-
bia known as Cabin John bridge, a few miles from Washing-
ton city, which has the greatest span of any masonry bridge
on this continent. This bridge would over-span the capitol at
Washington, and clear the top of the dome by fifty-one feet,
and if the loftiest tree in the Calaveras grove of giant sequoias
in California stood in the bottom of the canyon its topmost
bough would lack thirty-one feet of reaching the under side
of the arch.”

THE LITTLE BRIDGE.

(From a half-tone plate engraved by ]. W. Evans.)

192 The American Geologist. September ae

The Little bridge, of which a cut is herewith shown, taken
by permission from the Century Magazine, is a mile and half ©
below the Caroline bridge. Its dimensions are not so large as
those of the Caroline and Augusta bridges. It has a span of
two hundred and eleven feet, four inches. The under side of
the arch is one hundred and forty-two feet above the bottom
of the canyon. The crown of the arch 1s eighteen feet, eight
inches thick and the roadway is thirty three feet, five inches
in width. “The slenderness of this aerial pathway and the
fact that the canyon here opens out into a sloping valley be-
yond rendered it possible for the camera to give a proper im-
pression of loftiness. Indeed, judging from the photographs
alone one might suppose this to be the highest of the three
bridges, whereas in fact it has but little more than one-third
the altitude of the wonderful Augusta arch. It was compara-
tively easy to reach the top of this bridge, and among Long’s
notes I find the following: ‘Rode our horses over. I am the
first white man who has ever ridden over this bridge.’ ”

The foregoing descriptive notes are condensed from the
interesting account by Mr. Dyar, who used the notes made by
Mr. Horace J. Long who in company with a cattle man named
Scorup visited the region March 13, 1903. Mr. Scorup had
seen the bridges in the fall of 1895, but they were discovered
earlier in the same year by Emery Knowles. :

The region is one of the Cliff Dwellers, and abounds in their
remains. It is evidently destined to become one of great inter-
est. The Century Magazine is to be thanked for the beautiful
but simple presentation of these natural wonders to the atten-
tion of the public. N.\.Hy W.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
| LITERATURE.

Faune cambrienne du Haut-Alemtejo, par J, F. Nery Dereano [“Com-
municagdes” du Service Geologique du Portugal Fom. V., Lisbonne,
1904]. ,
This communication is of much interest to paleontologists in mak-

ing them acquainted with a new fauna of Cambrian time in southern

Europe.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 193

It is contained in what has been denominated the “Upper Cambrian”
of Portugal as distinct from the “Lower Cambrian,’ which M. Del-
gado places on a par with the Algonkian, Huronian, Keweenawan, etc.

The fauna is contained in a schistose group of beds immediately
subordinate to a heavy body of limestones which he designates as the
limestones of Villa Boim. The underlying beds are chiefly quartzytes
100 metres thick. The fossils were taken from a thin layer of slate
about a centimetre thick in the top of the quartzytes. Beneath the
quartzytes above mentioned are other quartzytes, slates, etc., of great
thickness, of the same series.

The fossils were very irregularly distributed in the slates and were
preserved in spathic iron which by its oxidation discolored the rock
and revealed the position of the fossils. These are consequently moulds
of the tests showing the outer and inner surfaces of the fossils. The
greater part of them are the remains of the heads of trilobites; the mov-
able cheeks are usually wanting, and fragments of the thorax and
pygidia are rare. The fauna is chiefly composed of species not hither-
to known or described. Besides the trilobites there are several species
of pteropods (Hyolithide) lamellebranchs and brachiopods.

The existence of several species of lamellibranchs in this fauna is
worthy of attention; they are of small size and carry genera described
by Dr. Henry Hicks from the Tremadoc down to this horizon.

There are innumerable detached heads and pygidia of trilobites of
the genus Microdiscus imbedded with'the other fossils. No example
of an inrolled trilobite of any genus was found.

Upon the varied forms referable to the genus Microdiscus M. Del-
gado bases the opinion that this fauna is allied to that of Olenellus in
America.

However, if a comparison is made with the fauna of Wales studied
by Hicks this Portuguese Cambrian fauna is best represented by the
Solva group fauna of Wales.

In the Siberian Cambrian fauna described by von Toll there are a
number of related forms especially in the genus Microdiscus. M. Del-
gado considers that the Portuguese species showing relation with the
Olenellus fauna are of greater importance than those which connect
it with the Paradoxides fauna.

Of Paradoxides five species were found, indicated either by a
sufficiency of parts to determine the species, or by fragments.

In this memoir M. Delgado elaborates the character of a new genus
—Hicksia, founded on a group of species resembling Salter’s species

- Conocoryphe humerosa: it has the tumid cheeks and glabella of Solen-

opleura with the smooth test of Liostracus, but the back of the glabella
is narrower than in Liostracus; like the latter it has a quite small py-
gidium. No less than nine species referable to this genus are described.

Of the genus Microdiscus five species are described. They are
mostly smooth forms such as are found in the Olendellus fauna and
faunas referred to that horizon.

194 The American Geologist. September, 1904

Three Hyolithes are described of which two are referred to species
described of the Lower Cambrian of America.

Though they are minute, considerable variety is found in the spe-
cies referred to the Lamellibranchiata, as may be seen by the generic
names Posidonomya (?) Modiolopsis, Synek, Davidia (3 species) and
Ctenodonta.

The Brachiopoda are rather meagerly represented by Obolla (2
species) Acrothele Lingulepis (2 species) and Lingulella (3 species)

Six plates containing numerous photographic figures of the fossils
serve to give completeness to the memoir. These have the merit of
accuracy and eliminate the personal equation, but for such small figures
as those of the brachiopods and lamellibranchs they do not present
determinate characters. Such a picture illuminates the fossil only from
one side and fails to- bring out all the details. An enlarged drawing
by the author representing what he saw in the fossil, viewed from
different points, would help to fix the descriptions in the reader’s mind.

M. Delgado is to be congratulated on the complete manner in
which he has worked up this fauna contained in a little bed of the
Cambrian rocks of Portugal, and thus given a fixed horizon from
which to determine the age of the connected formations above and
below it. G. F. M.

North America. By Isrart Cook Russetyt. Pages x, 435; with 8 col-
ored maps and 39 other illustrations. New York, D. Appleton &
Company, 1904.

This excellent compendium of geographic, climatic, biologic, geologic,
and ethnologic description of our North American continent is one in
a series of convenient octavo volumes treating of “The Regions of the
World.” For this task the author has given in previous works full
guarantees of his ability, having published, besides many and volumin-
ous reports of the United States Geological Survey, several geographic
works during the years 1895 to 1898, on the lakes, glaciers, volcanoes,
and rivers of North America.

Professor Russell says in the preface: “While writing this book I
have become more and more impressed with the incompleteness and
inadequacy of the printed records relating to the geography of the con-
tinent of which it treats. Extensive tracts, particularly in the far North,
have not been traversed by observant men, vast areas throughout the
continent have not been surveyed and mapped, and even in the some-
what thickly inhabited portions of the more enlightened countriss there
are large districts in reference to the geography of which there is but
little critical information available. Under these conditions it seemed
best to select typical examples of various geographical features from
the better known portions of the continent to represent the conditions
‘throughout the less thoroughly explored domain in which they are sit-
uated, and at the same time serve to illustrate the highly creditable ad-
vances made by American geographers in detinitely formulating the

principles of physiography. The book may, in a measure, be considered-

as an attempt to present in popular form a report of progress concern-

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 195

ing the study of the geographical development of North America at the
beginning of the twentieth century.”

The chapter on geology comprises 56 pages, treating very interest-
ingly of the growth of the continent, noting briefly its rock formations,
and more at length its resources for quarrying and mining. A geologic
map of three colors shows the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks. Another colored map delineates the Pleistocene glacial deposits,
but by transposition reverses the chronologic sequence of the Illinoian
and Iowan drift sheets. W. U.

Index to the Mineral Resources of Alabama. By Eucene A. Smit
and Henry McCarirey. Published by the Geological Survey of Al-
abama. Pages 79; with a geological map of the state, and six plates
(views from photographs). 1904.

This report briefly describes the numerous and varied geologic re-
sources of the state, with references to further information in the pre-
vious publications of the state survey.

Alabama ranks as the third state of the Union in iron ore production,
which during the year 1902 was 3,574,474 long tons, having a value at
the mines of nearly $4,000,000. Practically all the ore is smelted in the
state, by 42 coke furnaces and six charcoal furnaces.

The state is also rich in bituminous coal, having an area of 8,800
square miles of the southwestern end of the great. Appalachian coal
field. Twenty-five coal seams have been worked, ranging in thickness
from 18 inches to 16 feet. Although during the first twenty-five or
thirty years of coal mining in Alabama, previous to 1874, its total pro-
duction was no more than 480,000 tons, this industry has increased in
thirty years to 11,700,753 tons mined in 1903, valued at about $15,000,000,
giving to the state the fifth place among the coal-producing states of
the Union. W. U.

The Glaciers of Alaska. Gnrorce Davinson, A.M., Pl.pD, sop., Honorary
Professor Geodosy and Astronomy and Professor of Commercial
Geography, University of California. (Transactions and Proceed-
ings of the Geographical Society of the Pacific, Vol. III, Series II,
June, 1904.)

The author of this paper has made an extended study of records and
charts made by the earlier navigators of the Pacific coast and islands
of northwest America, and has embodied the results of this study in
the above named paper covering 98 pages and eleven charts. All ac-
cessible maps of these regions prior to 1852 had been compiled by
Tebenkof, to whose great atlas of thirty-eight charts Davidson has
access as well as to the English, Spanish and Russian criginz]ls from
which Tebenkof quoted or compiled. Davidson’s work ecmmences with
glaciers mapped on a volcano on Ackha island, Lat. 52%. Long. 1744
W, and embraces the vast coast line and island shores to Stakhun river,
Lat 56%, Long. 13134 N., a coast line unrivaled in its grandeur, at-
tractiveness and accessibility, and offering to the student of glacial ge-
ology the largest and best fields for research outside polar regions.

196 The American Geologist. September, 1904.

After citing the possible existence of glaciers on Atkha island, Day-
idson reviews at considerable length those on Unalaska island, the Pe-
ninsula of Alaska, Cook’s inlet, Kachemak bay, Kiani peninsula, Prince
William sound, Yakutat bay and from Glacier bay to Stakheen river.

Tebenkof’s charts mark the positions of thirty glaciers; these, as
noted by Davidson, are (a) on the southeast coast of the peninsula of
Alaska north of Agripina bay, three; (b) on the southeast coast of
Kenai peninsula, eleven, then follow (c) the great glaciers fronting on
the ocean between Icy bay and Lituya Day, including Malaspina, Yakutat
and Fairweather glaciers; the apparently recent obliteration of Icy bay
and the uncovering of the northeastern part of Yakutat bay and of the
entire Disenchantment bay region are marked features in this group;
(d) the next group is on the north shore of Cross sound, where Teben-
kof charts cight important glaciers, two of which indicate that Taylor
bay has been blocked by an advance of Brady glacier, and that the
three easterly glaciers as mapped by Tebenkof, indicate an extensive
retreat which has uncovered Glacier bay and its entire group of tribu-
tary glaciers. Davidson recites quite reliable Indian legends supporting
the evidence furnished by these early charts: (e) the most southerly
glaciers mapped by Tebenkof are, one on.the north shore of Taku inlet
and one on the east shore of Frederick sound north-northeast from
Wrangell narrows; this glacier must have comefromthe great Stakheen
mer de Glace, and in 1835 filled Frederick sound and Wrangell nar-
rows with bergs. Glaciers also reached tide water here in 1867—but
today these glaciers do not flow into tide water with sufficient energy
to give off bergs.

These constitute the glaciers mapped up to the date of Tebenkof’s
atlas and when compared by Davidson with later chartings show marked
retreat in most cases.

Later records are also fully reviewed by Davidson. The most in-
teresting points brought out by him are: (1) the probable recent open-
ing of Doran strait and Harriman fiord by the recession of Washington
and Barry glaciers, thus permitting the Harriman expedition in 1899 to
first expose the splendid group of glaciers to the west of Doran strait.
(2) The retreat of two and one-half miles of the Kachemak bay glac-
iers. (3) The changes since Vancouver’s survey in the Port Valdes
region. (4) The probable recession in the glaciers of Taku inlet since
Lt. Whidbey’s description in 1794.

Davidson concludes, p. 92: “So far as we can judge there has been
a general recession of the glagjers through Aleutian islands, the pe-
ninsula of Alaska, and from Cook’s inlet to Portland canal; except
where they come directly or almost upon the broad ocean.”

The evidence of advance seems clear at Wimbleton or Taylor bay,
just inside cape Spencer, at Icy strait, since the survey of Whidbey;
but the recent topographical survey by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey shows a retreat behind the terminal moraine which it
has left as a record.

‘

vo
>
Tie American Geovogist, Vou. XXXIV, =

Prare XU.

showing the

PRINCIPAL GLACIERS

OF THE

Alaskan Coast.

het ae

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 197

The Malaspina glacier has filled and obliterated the Icy bay of Van-
couver and Tebenkof; the recent Canadian survey indicates that the
glaciers of Lituya bay have shortened the deep arms described by La
Perouse; and the La Perouse glacier upon the ocean shore shows
positive signs of advance according to the reports of the Harriman ex-
pedition of 1899.

“Nevertheless in this region of advance the immense ice blockade
at the head of Yakutat bay, so well depicted by Malaspina and con-
firmed by Tebenkof, has been carried away, and the Turner and Hub-
bard glaciers now discharge into the sharp bend at the head of the bay.
Puet reported there was a small inlet that extended N. 55° Ey, one
league behind the ice front, July 27th, 1704.”

This excellent work should form the basis of a thorough survey of
all the more important glaciers therein méntioned; and should be in
the hands of those who visit these regions as a general guide and to
induce close study and comparison. M. M.

Dodge’s Elementary Geography. R. E. Dopce. 231 pp. Rand, Mc-
Nally & Co., Chicago, New York, London., Oct. 1903. Price
75 cents.

In the multiplicity of geographies that are appearing in the
United States constructed on the more modern ideas, it is some-
times a little difficult to discover their individual distinctions. There
are physical geographies, and geographical geologiegs, as well as
geographical histories. In nearly all of the recently published mod-
ern geographies the lines devoted* to political geography are rather
few, and those devoted to physiography are many and long. Dodge’s
geography is more evenly balanced. While its chapters and para-
graphs bear the term of political geography, the maps that illustrate
them are both political and physical. Of the latter North America,
for instance, is shown by a beautiful relief map and also by a
physical map, followed by a political map. The United States is
also thus thrice mapped. The different sections oi the United States
are politically mapped and the facts of their induscrial differences
are clearly set forth in the text. This: book dwells more on the
facts of geographic distribution of the inhabitants and their occupa-
tions than upon the physical causes of such distribution. It is pro-
posed by the author to treat fully of the physiographic elements of
geography in a more advanced work. The voiume is _ bountifully
illustrated by beautiful half-tone engravings from photographs. On
the 217 pages are numbered 375 such pictures. It would be difficult
to speak too highly of the excellence of this work as au elementary
school geography. N. H. W.

198 The American Geologist. September, 1904.

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY,

BAGG, R. M.

Earthquakes in Socorro, New Mexico, (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 102,
Aug., 1904).
BALL, S. H.

Deposition of the Carboniferous formations on the north slope
of the Ozark uplift. (Jour. Geol., vol. 13, pp. 335-344, May-June,
1904.)

BOWMAN, ISAIAH.

A typical case of stream capture in Michigan. (Jour. Geol., vol.
113, pp. 326-335, May-June, 1904).
BOWNOCKER, J. A.

The occurrence and exploitation of petroleum and natural gas
in Ohio. (Bull. No. 1, Ohio Geol. Sur., pp. 1-32& 9 maps and 6 pls.
Dee., 19038).

BROADHEAD, G. C.

The saccharoidal sandstone. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 105, Aug.,
1904).

BROWN, BARNUM. :
Stomach stones and the food of Plesiosaurs. (Science, vol. 20,
p. 184, Aug. 5, 1994).

BROWN, L. P.
The phosphate deposits of the southern states. (Proc. Eng. Assoc.
of the South, vol. 15, pp. 53-127, 2 pls., June, 1904).

CASE;, E.°G:
The osteology of the skull of the Pelycosaurian genus Dimetro-
don. (Jour. Geol., vol. 18, pp. 304-312, May-June, 1904).

CASE, E. C.
On the structure of the fore foot of Dimetrodon. (Jour. Geol.,
vol. 13, pp. 312-316, May-June, 1904).

CLARKE, JOHN M. (and D. D. LUTHER).

Stratigraphic and paleontologic map of the Canandaigua and
Naples quadrangles. Bull. 63, N. Y. State Museum, pp. 76, map,
Albany, 1904.

DODGE, R. E.

Dodge’s elementary geography. Part 1, Home geography; part 2,
World relations and the continents. 251 pp., Rand, McNally & Co.,
1904.

EASTMAN, C. R.

Asterolepid appendages. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 141, Aug.,
1904).

EASTMAN, C. R

A second century criticism of Virgil’s Etna. (Pop. Sci. Month.,
vol. 65, p. 452. Sept. 1904.)

Authors Catalogue. 199
FARRINGTON, O. C.
Observations on the geology and geography of western Mexico,
including an account of Cerro Mercado. (Field Col. Mus., Geol. Sur.,
vol. 2, No.-5, pp. 197-228, May 1, 1904).

FOERSTE, AUG. F.

Variation in thickness. of the subdivisions of the Ordovician of
Indiana (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 87, Aug., 1904).
FURLONG, E. L. (W. J. SINCLAIR and).

Buceratherium, a new ungulate from the Quaternary caves of
California. (Bull. Univ. Cal., vol. 3, pp. 411-418, 2 plates, June, 1904.)

GIBSON, THOS. W,

Report of the bureau of mines [Ontario] 1904, vol. 13, part 1,
Mar., 1904, pp. 255,.7 plates, 8 maps, Toronto, 1904.

GORDON, C. H.
On the pyroxenites of the Grenville’ series in Ottawa county, Can-
ada. (Jour. Geol., vol. 13, pp. 316-326, May-June, 1904.)

GREENE, G. K.
Contribution to Indiana paleontology, part’ 19, pp. 185-197, pls.

55-57, July 20, 1904, New Albany, Ind.

HAGER, LEE.

The mounds of the southern oil fields. Part 1 and 2. (Eng. Min.
Jour., vol. 78, pp. 137 and 180, Aug. 4, 1904.)

HOBBS, W. H.
Tectonic geography of eastern Asia. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 69,
Aug., 1904.)

HOLWAY, R. S.

Eclogites in California (Jour. Geol], vol. 13, pp. 344-350, May-
June, 1904).
JACKSON, R. T.

Charles Emerson Beecher, (Am. Nat., vol. 38, pp. 407-427, por-
trait, June, 1904.)

KINDLE, E. M.

A series of gentle folds on the border of the Appalachian system.
(Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 281-290, May-June, 1904.)

LUTHER, D. D. (JOHN M. CLARKE and).

Stratigraphic and paleontologic map of the Canandaigua and
Naples quadrangles Bull. 63, N. Y. State Museum, pp. 76, map, Al-
bany, 1904.

McCALLEY, HENRY (E. A. SMITH and).

Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. Geol. Sur. Ala., map

and illustrations, pp. 79, Montgomery, 1904.

MORGAN, W. C. (and M. C. TALLMON). p

A fossil egg from Arizona. (Bull. Univ. Cal., vol. 3, pp. 403-410,
pls. 48-49, June, 1904.)
ORTON, EDWARD, JR.

The organization and work of the geological survey of Ohio.
(Bull. No. 1, Ohio Geol. Sur., pp. I-XXI. Dec., 1903.)

200 The American Geologist. Septemiery. aaa

OSGOOD, W. H.

Lake Clark. (Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 15, p. 326. Aug., 1904.)
PARKS, W. A.

Remarkable parasite from the Devonian rocks of the Hudson bay
slope. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18,’ p. 135, Aug., 1904.)

SCOTT, W. B.

John Bell Hatcher. (Science, vol. 20, p. 139, July 29, 1904.)
SELLARDS, E. H.

Study of the structure of Paleozoic cockroaches, with descrip-
tions of new forms from the Coal Measures. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol.
18, p. 113, August, 1904.)

SINCLAIR, W. J. (and E, L. FURLONG).

Euceratherium, a new ungulate from the Quaternary caves of
California. (Bull. Univ. Cal., vol. 3, pp. 411-418, 2 plates, June, 1904.)
SMITH, E. A.. (and H. McCALLEY).

Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. Geol. Sur. Alabama,
map and illustrations, pp. 79, Montgomery, 1904.

SPENCER, J. W.

A rejoinder to Dr. Dall’s criticism on Dr. Spencer’s hypothesis
concerning the late union of Florida with Cuba. (Am. Geol., vol.
34, p. 110, Aug., 1904.)

TALLMON, M. C. (W. C. MORGAN and).

A fossil egg from Arizona. (Bull. Univ. Cal., vol. 3, pp. 403-410,
pls. 48-49, June, 1904.)

UPHAM, WARREN.

Age of the Missouri river. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 80, Aug., 1904.)
WATSON, THOS. L.

Orbicular gabbro-diorite from Davis county, North Carolina.
(Jour. Geol., vol. 13, pp. 294-304, May-June, 1904.)

WEIDMANN, SAMUEL.

The-Baraboo iron-mining district. Bull. 13, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist,
Sur., 23 plates, pp. 199, map, Madison, 1904.

WHITE, DAVID.

Deposition of the Appalachian Pottsville. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15,
pp. 267-282, plate, June, 1904.) :
WILDER, F. A.

The Laramie and Fort Union’beds in North Dakota. (Jour. Geol.,
vol. 13, pp. 290-294, May-June, 1904.)

CORRESPONDENCE.

ody

THe Tyre or AVICULIPECTEN. I was interested to see Mr. G. H.
Girty’s note on “The typical Species and General characters of Avt-
culipecten, McCoy. I have recently had occasion to examine this
question when working on the Pectiniform shells of the British Car-
boniferous rocks and published.certain results in Pt. II, Vol. I], of my

Correspondence. 201

Monograph of British Carboniferous lamellibranchs, published in the
Paleontolographical Society’s volume for 1903. 1 wish Mr. Girty had
had access to this Monograph before he penned his note because un-
fortunately most of the scientific names quoted by him turn out to be
mere synonyms of previously described species, or belong to genera
distinct from Aviculipecten.

I think, in the unfortunate circumstance of the absence of any defi-
nite indication, that it is a good and simple rule to regard the first de-
scribed species as the type of the genus. All that Mr. Girty has to
say as to the locality is important, but nevertheless an author has some
object in view in the arrangement of his species, and as McCoy adopted
no alphabetical order, we must presume that he intended A. planoradi-
atus to be the type. Unfortunately, however, he had erected this spe-
cies on a left valve, in ignorance of the fact that he had previously
described the right valve as Pecten tabulatus; consequently this name
has the priority. Again McCoy did not recognize that his A. docens had
been described long before by Portlock under the name Pecten semui-
cestatus, which name is prior even to P. fexruosus McCoy. The
hinge plate of this species is almost smooth, vide fig. 11, Pl. XIII, (op.
supra cit.), the fine parallel strize are only to be seen by a microscope.
I have found it necessary to remove A. papyraceus Sow. sp., A. gran-
osus Sow. sp., and A. concavus McCoy sp. from Aviculipecten, be-
cause they have a narrow linear hinge plate, and the posterior is not
marked off from the rest of the valve, I have referred them to Pter-
inopecten, Hall. Neither of these three species can in any way be
regarded as the type of Aviculipecten. I have pointed out Zittel’s mis-
take in referring A. papyraceus Sow. sp., as the type of that genus,
Op. supra cit, p. 51. It will be noted in my monograph that I have
restricted Aviculipecten to forms with a long hinge line, well marked
elongated ears, but even so I feel that future observations will prob-
ably necessitate a still further restriction of this genus.

' WHEELTON HIND.

Stoke on Trent, England, July 21, 1904.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

At A RECENT MEETING OF THE VIRGINIA Boarp OF AGRI-
CULTURE an appropriation was voted for a Geological Survey
of the mineral resources of Virginia. The survey will. be
conducted jointly by the State Department of Agriculture and
the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Thomas L. Watson,
professor of geology in the Polytechnic Institute, was ap-
pointed Geologist-in-charge of the survey,

Mayor A. W. Vocpes, San Diego, Cal., has recently been
retired from active service in the United States army, and has

202 The American Geologist. September, 1904

returned to his home in San Diego. He is building up a large
geological library for the west coast.

Dr. I. C. Wuirte, state geologist of West Virginia, has
leave of absence for six months and has sailed to Brazil where
he will examine and report on the coal fields of Rio Grande do
Sul, the most southern state of Brazil. He left the United
States July 5, and will return some time in December.

Pror. G. P. Grimstry, of Topeka, Kansas, has been ap-
pointed assistant geologist of West Virginia, and began work
Aug. 1, in the preparation of vol. ili, on clays, building stones,
limestones, etc. .

THE Onto GEOLOGICAL SURVEY is carrying on both office
and field work during the present summer, The following
indicates the principal lines of work which the survey is at
present conducting. Professor Edward Orton, jr., State Ge-
ologist, is completing his part of the work on cement and its
uses and is also editing the manuscript for two other bulletins.
It is his expectation that four bulletins will be published dur-
ing the remainder of the year. Professor John A. Bow-
nocker with an assistant is engaged in studying and mapping
the distribution of the Pittsburg and Meigs Creek coals in the
eastern part of the state. Professor Charles S. Prosser with
an assistant is studying the stratigraphy of the Upper Silu-
rian, Devonian and Carboniferous formations. Part of this
work is directed toward the correlation of the Ohio formations
with those of Pennsylvania and New York and a report is in
preparation describing their stratigraphy in detail.

THE CLASS IN FIELD GEOLOGY of the Ohio State University
during the spring term+of this year, under the guidance of pro-
fessor. Prosser, studied the various formations which are found
in central Ohio. The Devonian limestones (the Columbus and
Delaware formations), the Olentangy and Ohio shales of the
Devonian; the Bedford shale, Berea grit, Sunbury shale, Cuy-
ahoga and Black Hand formations, ‘Logan shales and Potts-
ville formation of the Carboniferous comprise the formations
which were studied the most thoroughly. The Saturday field
trips consumed the entire day. The rocks and fossils collected
were later studied in the laboratory and a thesis prepared by
each student which contained a description of the sections
studied, together with a summary of the geological literature
for central Ohio relating to the above mentioned formations.

Tue DEVONIAN VOLUME of the systematic reports of the
Maryland Geological Survey is nearing completion. It will
be a composite work consisting of three parts; the Paleode-
vonian by professor Schuchert, the Mesodevonian by profes-
sor Prosser and the Neodevonian by Dr. John M. Charlse.

PLATE XIII.

TH AMPRICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV.

DRIFT AREA OF THE SOUTH PART OF PUGET SOUND.

= se eC

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.
Vor. XXXIV. OCTOBER, wea: _ No. 4.

GLACIAL AND MODIFIED DRIFT IN AND NEAR
SEATTLE, TACOMA, AND OLYMPIA.

By WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn.
PLATE XIII.

These three cities in the state of Washington, the first and
second situated on the eastern shore of the southern part of
Puget sound, and the third at the end of the most southern arm
of the sound, are respectivly its foremost and second commer-:
cial ports, and the state capital. Last year I spent several days
in their vicinity, examining the drift deposits of the region,
coming to it by the Northern Pacific railway, and extending
my journey across this drift area and a wide driftless tract on
its southwest side, to the ocean shore west of Gray’s harbor.

Although my observations are necessarily very incomplete,
as noted in this paper, it is hoped that they may serve some
useful purpose as a slight contribution to the description and
history of the very interesting glacial and modified drift for-
mations of the Puget sound lobe of the ice-sheet.*

The most notable feature of these formations seems to me
to be the very large proportion of the modified drift, or stratifi-
ed gravel, sand, and fine silt, deposited by streams discharged
from the ice-sheet, apparently during the time of its final melt-
ing and departure at the end of the Glacial period. In the
greater part of New England and in Minnesota and North

* Previous descriptions of these drift deposits, with discussions of their
origin and stages of the Glacial period, have been given by BaILEY WILLIS, in
a paper entitled ‘‘Driit Phenomena of Puget Sound,”’ Bulletin, G. S. A., vol. ix,
1898, pp. 111-162, with five plates, containing many details of his observa-
tions, and quoting from a manuscript report of a reconnoissance by Prof. I. C.
RUSSELL. A large part of the same stuGies is also presented by BAILEY WILLIS
and GEORGE OTIS SMITH inthe Tacoma Folio, No. 54, 1899, of the Geologic
Atlas of the United States.

204 The American Geolcgist. October, 1904.

Dakota, where I have made extensive studies of the drift, the
proportion of the glacial drift or till to the modified drift
averages, as I estimate, generally about as two or three to one.
Here, however, .as on cape Cod, Nantucket, Martha’s Vine-
yard, and Long island, the ratio is reversed, so that the modi-
fied drift is twice or thrice as abundant as the till.

Referring the modified drift mostly or almost wholly to
derivation from formerly englacial and finally superglacial
drift, which had been gathered up by the slowly flowing ice-
sheet into its lower quarter or third part, but which was at last
uncovered and exposed on the surface of the ice when nearly
all its thickness had been removed in the final melting, and
thence being washed down by superglacial drainage to the ice
border, I therefore regard the large volume of these stratified
drift deposits as good evidence of a very long duration of the
glaciation. The lower part of this glacial lobe was abundantly
charged with englacial drift, brought partly from the Cascade
range on the east and partly from the Olympic mountains and
the mountains of Vancouver island on the west, but doubtless
also in an equal or greater degree supplied from the intervening
area of lowland, fifty miles or more in width, and from the
bed of the sound, with its many canals, bays, and inlets.

Pleistocene history probably began with an epeirogenic up-
lift, elevating this side of the continent at least 3,000 to 5,000
feet higher than now, as is known on the coast of California by
the deep submarine valleys described by Davidson,* which
great elevation caused glaciers to be formed first on the moun-
tains and to extend thence outwards as piedmont glaciers on
the lowlands. At length the glaciers of such local origin be-
came confluent upon all the country. A general ice-sheet then
enveloped British Columbia, and indeed extended, as I believe,
during a very long period, from the Pacific to the Atlantic,
across the entire width of Canada and the northern United
States. At last, beneath the long continued ice burden, all this
nerti:c:n half of North America sank to its present altitude,
or mostly a few hundred feet lower, bringing again a
temperate climate, with plentiful melting of the ice every
summer along all the border of the continental icefields, which
then were somewhat rapidly melted away.

* California Academy of Sciences, Bulletin, vol. ii, pp. 265-268, Jan., 1887;
do., Proc. Geol., third series, vol. i, pp. 73-103, with nine plates, 1897.

-

Drift near Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia.—Upham. 205

The channeling of the deep valleys now occupied by Puget
sound and its many inlets, ranging from common depths to 100,
300, and 500 feet to a maximum of 918 feet a few miles north
of Seattle, must be ascribed, as I think, to river erosion during
the time of continental elevation inaugurating the Ice age.

While these valleys were being filled gradually by the grow-
ing piedmont glaciers, sometimes retreating and again read-
vancing, as we must suppose, their early till might become
buried beneath stratified drift and a forest, which in their turn
would be later overridden by the glaciers and long covered by
the general glaciation. Therefore the intermittent glacial
action shown by deposits of till underlying and _ overlying
stratified drift, which sometimes contains layers of lignite, noted
in various localities of the Puget sound region and attributed
by Willis and Russell to successive and distinct stages of gla-
ciation, may perhaps be more probably explainable by moderate
oscillations of. the margins of the early glaciers, requiring no
long stage, nor very notable secular climatic changes, as the
lower till would represent a time before the broad and general
ice accumulation.

After the glaciers flowing outward from the mountains at
the east and west had become united, the Puget sound basin
was evidently filled by a typical lobe of the continental ice-
sheet, the snow and ice being amassed to the greatest thickness
_and hight upon its central and axial part, thence flowing out-
ward to the west through the strait of Juan de Fuca, and to
the south, where it terminated at a curved border nearly on
the same latitude with Mt. Rainier. From the sites of Seattle,
Tacoma, and Olympia, the currents of the ice-lobe moved
southeast and south, carrying drift from the area oi the sound
upward fully thirty miles to a hight of 1,000 to 1,600 feet
above the sea level near the base of the great snow-covered
cone of Rainier, and reaching several miles farther south, to
the latitude of that majestic white mountain, at the most
southern limits of the icefields, about 100 to-400 feet above the
sea, southwest, south, and southeast of Olympia.

The lowest place in the southern watershed of Puget sound
is about three miles southwest from Olympia, between that arm
or inlet of the sound and Black lake, some two miles long,
at the head of the Black river, a tributary of the Chehalis river,

206 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

which flows west to the sea at Gray’s harbor. The altitude
of Black lake is about 160 feet above the sea level; and the
watershed, in a wooded swamp about a quarter of a mile wide,
close north of the lake, is only 5 to 10 feet higher. The rail-
way from Olympia to Gray’s harbor passes near this lowest sag
of the water divide.

Over this low pass a river doubtless outflowed for a consid-
erable time when the icefields covering the southern half of
the sound were being finally melted. Below the hight of about
170 feet, therefore, evidences of standing water ponded
against the retreating ice margin are to be expected in the
valleys and along the shores of the sound from Olympia to
Seattle, or farther north, their northern limit being reached
wherever the melting of tne outer western part of this ice lobe
in the great valley of the strait of Juan de Fuca coalesced with
the melting of its southern part so as to remove the ice barrier
and admit the sea there along the west side of the sound.

But much of the modified drift of this region, its far great-
er part, is above the limit of lacustrine effects from the glacial
lake so overflowing to Black lake and river. On the hills and
plateaus bordering the sound, mostly 200 to 300 feet or more
above its sea level and rising thence gradually on each side to-
ward the Cascade range and the Olympic mountains, great
areas of stratified drift sand and gravel are found, which must
be attributed to stream deposition attendant upon the recession
of the ice-sheet, with free descent of these streams, which
would deposit the greater part of their coarse modified drift
close to their places of discharge from the waning icefields.
Thus the highlands along this south half of Puget sound were
overspread by stratified drift progressively from south to north,
as the ice border was gradually melted back.

Queen Anne hill, in the northwest part of the city of Seattle,
rising with moderately steep slopes to a massive, gently round-
ed top, or rather to two such hilltops, each about 460 feet above
the sea level of the sound, a half mile distant, consists of strati-
fied sand and gravel, cut in many places 6 to 10 feet deep for
new streets, and on its steep southern side cut 25 to 50 feet
in the same modified drift. Much of it is quite irregularly bed-
ded, and in the deep southern cuts the beds are largely inclined
10° to 20° northward, dipping toward the center of the hill. It

ae é

Drift near Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia.—Upham. 207

is mostly sand in the lower parts of its deepest sections, but
includes gravel beds nearly everywhere for the highest 5 to
10 feet next to the surface, with rounded cobbles up to 6 to 8
inches in diameter. Boulders are very rare or wholly absent.
Only in one place on this hill was any till observed, that
being in a street cut on the northwest slope of the eastern sum-
mit, about forty rods from the city water works tower, which
stands on the top of this east part. There, 25 to 30 feet below
the top of the hill, a lenticular mass of true till, 30 feet long,
with a maximum thickness of 5 feet, was seen inclosed in an
exceptionally coarse gravel deposit, the till mass being 5 to Io
feet below the original surface. All around it was very coarse
gravel, in part showing a gradual transition, but mostly with
a definite and abrupt line of separation. The explanation that
seems most satisfactory would refer the modified drift of this
large and high double-topped hill to deposition under the edge
of the departing ice, when it had become thin and drift-covered
on account of its surface melting. Streams gathering the
superglacial drift from parts of the icefields a little farther north
probably poured down through crevasses near the ice front,
amassing the great hill in a two-parted cavity melted beneath
the ice. The deposition of the modified drift progressed as the
subglacial cavity was melted and enlarged; and the mass of
till mentioned appears to have been derived from superglacial
drift that was allowed to fall by the full melting of the ice be-
neath it, without becoming modified by water assorting and
stratification.
Duwamish, head, and the plateau extending from it south-
ward, a mile wide between Elliott bay and the main sound,
“rising 250 to 300 feet above the sea level, reached by a ferry
trip of two miles west from the docks of Seattle, are, in the
lower 100 to 150 feet, horizontally bedded clay, or very fine
silt, light gray and nearly uniform in color, mostly exhibiting
very fine lamination, evidently laid down in still water. The
next higher 100 feet, or more, are sand, yellowish gray, hori-
zontally stratified in the lower part, but very irregularly bed-
ded, with evidence of strong flow and counter currents of the
depositing waters, in the upper part, where the sand _be-
comes coarser, with some layers of fine gravel. Above these
very thick stratified beds is a sandy till, with little or no strati-

208 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

fication, 10 to 20 or 30 feet thick, forming the surface of the
plateau, inclosing rather scanty small rock fragments, with a
few large boulders. Good sections of the successive deposits
are seen in the sea cliffs at and south, of the ferry landing,
and likewise on the west side of the plateau; and they all seem
to me referable to the time of the final melting of the ice lobe,
being modified drift with a surface of till.

Most of the area of Seattle city has till on the surface,
which rises in very massive, smoothly rounded hills, 250 to 400
feet high. Here, and in the northern suburbs, about lake
Union and Green lake, the till has nearly the same very com-
pact and clayey texture, and the same considerable proportion
of small stones and large boulders, as the average till of south-
ern and western Minnesota; but it has much fewer boulders
than are common in the till of northeastern Minnesota and gen-
erally thence east to New England.

Sections cutting through the till on Washington street, two
blocks southwest of the court house, at the hight of about
150 to 175 feet above the sound, show it to have there a thick-
ness of only 2 to 8 feet along a distance of about 250 feet, being
underlain by light gray, finely laminated shales, which seem to
‘me probably of Lower Tertiary age, like the lignite-bearing
shales in the vicinity of Renton, near the south end of lake
Washington, about ten miles south-southeast of Seattle.
Numerous other sections in this city show the glacial and
modified drift to be frequently no more than 10 to 25 or 40 feet
thick, with such shales lying beneath and reaching to an un-
determined depth.

The massive hills were subaérially sculptured in the shales
before the Ice age, and are only thinly veneered with the drift;
but in the valleys the drift doubtless attains, in some places, a
much greater thickness. For example, we cannot doubt that
the long north to south valley occupied by lake Washington,
whose water surface is 22 feet above the sound and the sea,

with a maximum depth of 222 feet, had, along some route now

filled by the drift, a continuous preglacial connection, nowhere
less than 200 feet deep below the present sea level, joining
the lake valley with that of the sound.

Within the third of a mile eastward from Renton to a brick-
yard, which uses the Tertiary shales, the bluff rising at the

~

Drift near Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia.—Upham. 209

south, side of Cedar river has these shales at its base, eroded
to an undulating contour, on which till was deposited to the
thickness of 5 to 15 feet, succeeded by 75 feet of sand and
gravel, containing cobbles up to 6 or 8 inches in diameter.

Stewart street in Seattle, at its summit level, about 175
feet above the sound, in front of the Hotel Washington, has
cut through the thin drift, which there is coarse gravel, into
the shales, which contain in that place a layer of lignite, 4 to 6
feet thick, in part clayey, about 10 to 15 feet beneath the orig-
inal surface, horizontal but here and there considerably con-
torted as it by the pressure of the overriding ice lobe. The
lignite is seen along an extent of fully 250 feet at the upper
north side of the street excavation, and also for a less extent
on its south side, where this layer outcropped on the natural
surface.

In Tacoma, twenty-five miles south of Seattle, till generally
forms the surface, which ascends in moderately steep slopes
to a hight of 350 feet; but street grading or other and deeper
excavations often pass through the till, penetrating into an
extensive mass of modified drift, irregularly bedded gravel and
sand, probably a subglacial deposit. A notable cnaracteristic of
the till here is that many of its small rock fragments, about
three fourths of all in some excavations, are well rounded peb-
bles and cobbles, up to 8 inches in diameter, derived from pre-
glacial valley gravels. Otherwise the till is quite typical, very
hard and compact, with only a moderate supply of stones
and few boulders, yet having some boulders 2 to 3 feet in
diameter or larger.

Till and thick underlying modified drift continue five miles
northwest from Tacoma to Point Defiance, where they are well
exposed in freshly undermined sea cliffs. Throughout the
neighborhood of Seattle and most of the city area of Tacoma,
the drift surface is smooth, without the knolls and small ridges
peculiar to marginal moraine tracts; but in Point Defiance
park, and thence southward eight miles to Chambers creek,
it consists of knolly and ridgy till, with more than the ordinary
proportion of boulders, possessing thus well marked morainic
characters. The knolls, however, as seen on the railways going
to the park and to Steilacoom, are seldom more than 10 to

210 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

20 feet high; nor does the drift accumulation seem much great-
er than on the smooth areas.

Southward from Chambers creek, as about Steilacoom and
American lakes, and at Parkland and southward on the railway
from Tacoma to Spanaway lake, the surface is stratified gravel
and sand, in far reaching plains, extending to the drift boun-
dary. These Steilacoom plains, as they are named by Willis,
are 250 to 350 feet above the sea. Spanaway laxe, one mile
long, at the hight of 329 feet, is of the same type as many
others inclosed thus by modified drift, being probably the site
of a finally isolated remnant of the melting ice border, which
was surrounded by the rapidly deposited gravel and sand.
When the ice mass melted, it left a hollow and lake.

From Steilacoom, Parkland, and Spanaway lake, only strati-
fied drift gravel and sand were seen along the distance of
about twenty-five miles southwest to Olympia and twenty
miles onward to Gate, at the edge of the drift. In all
that distance, nearly fifty miles, only two or three boulders
were seen, these being 3 or 4 feet in diameter, in the
fine sand of the modified drift about two miles southwest of
Olympia, on the ascent to the watershed near Black lake. The
deposition of the sand and gravel took place evidently close
outside the retreating ice margin at the end of the Glacial
period.

About a quarter of a mile southwest of Olympia depot, on
the south side of the railway and near the end of this arm
of the sound, is a well exposed section 60 to 100 teet high, con-
sisting of very fine sand and clay beds, all laminated, with no
gravel, dipping 2° to 5° eastward. These beds, rarely exposed,
form the lower half of the plateau country adjoining the end
of the sound; but the upper half, rising to 200 or 250 feet, is
sand and gravel, irregularly bedded, often very coarse, with
cobbles up to 5 or 6 inches in diameter.

One of the many excavations in this modified drift of Olym-
pia has a part that resembles till. It is a half mile east from
the center of the town, and at the estimated hight of 150 to
160 feet, being a dark gray, very compact and very coarse
gravel, with abundant stones up to 8 inches, all somewhat
waterworn,—thus containing too many cobbles to be regarded
as till, and having no boulders. That deposit, to to 15 feet

Drift near Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia.—Upham. 211

thick, is overlain by 5 or 8 feet of the ordinary coarse yellow
gravel.

Although there is little or no till at and near the drift,
border south of Puget sound, and although that belt has no
large drift accumulations, the thin edge of the modified drift
presents distinct but very low mounds and knolls, ridges and
hollows, more or less referable to the class of marginal kames,
which in many drift regions are a conspicuous feature of ter-
minal and recessional moraines. Frequently only 2 to 5 feet
high, but occurring in great profusion, by hundreds and even
thousands, without any evident system or order of grouping,
these peculiar gravel mounds, characterizing especially the
open tracts of prairie in this mainly wooded district, are one
of the most remarkable phases of terminal drift deposition.
They seem to me correlative with the commonly hilly terminal
moraine belts of other drift areas.

A good description of these mounds, and discussion of their
mode of formation, have been given by Mr. G. O. Rogers,*
with illustrations of the probable conditions of the melting ice
margin from Russell’s observations of the present glaciers of
Alaska. Other suggestions to account for the origin of the
mounds, as by Prof, Joseph Le Conte,t who ascribed them to
erosion of a formerly smooth deposit, are shown by Rogers
to be inapplicable.

Passing southward from Olympia by either of the two rail-
ways, one sees the mounds of this marginal drift belt in

countless numbers. The following details of the prairie areas

which they occupy there and eastward were not supplied by
Rogers nor Le Conte, excepting their general statements that
the “mound prairies’ are, as Rogers wrote, “a few miles south
of Olympia,” being, as Le Conte wrote, “at the southern ex-
tremity of Puget sound.”

About ten miles south from Olympia, and three to five
miles north of Tenino, they have given name to Rocky prairie,
because of the exceedingly abundant waterworn cobbles of the
gravel which forms the general prairie and also the mounds.
This prairie is crossed centrally by the railway for two miles.

*“Drifts Mounds near Olympia, Washington,” AMER. GEOLOGIST. Vol. xi,
pp. 393-399, June, 1893.

+ Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Dec. 15, 1873.

QED): The American Geologist. October, 1904.

Again, one to two miles south of Tenino, Grand Mound
prairie, whose eastern end is crossed by the railway, and which
extends thence seven miles westward, takes its name from the
same moraine mounds.

On the more western railway, running from Olympia
southwest to Gate, and thence westerly to Gray’s harbor
these mounds are seen in great abundance on a prairie two or
three miles in diameter at the distance of three to five miles
northeast of Gate. Extensive gravel excavations, for ballasting
the railway, have been made in the central part of this prairie,
near Mima station. Several of the mounds, 2 to 3 feet high,
half cut away, are seen to be through their entire thickness of
the same black color as the surface soil, which elsewhere has a
depth of only 4 to 6 inches; but no difference is observable in
the coarseness of the gravel forming the mounds and the in-
tervening ground. Pebbles and cobbles from 2 to 4 or 6 inches
in diameter are plentiful in the mounds, on the general surface
between them, and for several feet downward.

At Gate (also called Gate City) the same gravel surface is
much mounded and ridged, inclosing occasional bowl-shaped
depressions 2 to 5 feet deep. In a miniature degree, the con-
tour at Gate resembles that of a typical tract of kames, which
usually consist of such coarse gravel; but on the Mima prairie
many hundreds of round mounds, 2 to 5 feet high, occur sepa-
rate from each other, and are often very thickly grouped to-
gether.

The gradation of forms from round mounds to interlock-
ing ridges and mounds, like small reticulated kames, debars
the reference to aboriginal mound building, or to mounds of
any burrowing animals, which at the first view are suggested
by these very unusual drift deposits. Their true explanation
has been well stated by Rogers, referring them to accumula-
tion in little hollows of the finally very thin margin of the ice-
fields when they at last melted back from this outermost tract
or terminal moraine belt. é

Mr. John D. Henry, of Olympia, county surveyor of
Thurston county, kindly supplied outlines and descriptive notes
of the several “‘mound prairies” of that county, including
Rocky, Grand Mound, and Mima prairies, already mentioned,
and Tenalquot and Yelm prairies, lying farther east, on the

—

3
d
%

Drift near Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia.—Upham. 213

railway that extends from Tenino east and northeast to Taco-
ma. From Mr. Henry’s manuscript map of the county these
prairies are mapped on plate xili, accompanying this paper.

Grand Mound prairie beginning three miles north of the
railway station of Grand Mound, and reaching thence seven
miles east to where it is crossed by the railway between Tenino
and Bucoda, has an immense number of gravel mounds and
short ridges, from 2 or 3 feet to 10 or 15 feet in hight, often
very irregularly grouped, with hollows entirely inclosed, like
ordinary kames.

Tenalquot prairie, partly a grassed area, and partly covered
with bushes and scattered trees, 6 to 10 miles northeast of
Tenino, has many mounds, but reticulated kames there pre-
dominate, as described by Henry, rising to hights of 25 to
50 feet, with many inclosed hollows, 10 to 20 feet deep. The
southeast corner of this prairie is crossed by the railway at
Rainier station, about nine miles east-northeast of Tenino.
Very fine views of Mt. Rainier, 40 miles east, are seen from
this knolly and ridged open tract.

Four to six miles northeast of Rainier station, the railway
crosses Yelm prairie, on which is Yelm station, near its cen-
ter. Mr. Henry describes the west half of this prairie as
having a contour of low ridges and mounds, while its east half
is nearly flat but has on its southeastern edge many boulders,
this being the only locality of their occurrence known to him in
Thurston county.

Mapping these five ‘mound prairies” in a curved belt of the
marginal drift, six to eight miles wide, I trace its probable
continuation east and northeast in Pierce county by the occur-
rence of numerous lakes inclosed by the same gravel deposits,
the largest being Kipowsin lake, about three miles long, trend-
ing east and northeast. The belt at the northeastern limit of
my map (Plate XIIi) comprises township 19 north, range 6
east, where Willis noted plentiful drift gravel ridges, knolls,
and hollows, in the vicinity of the many lignite coal mines of
that township, which is in an entirely wooded region.

Similarly these low kames or marginal mounds and ridges
of the Puget sound ice lobe are undoubtedly traceable through
all the wooded parts of this belt, not less than on its prairie
tracts, where their surprising abundance has been especially ob-

214 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

served and described. Their unique phase of terminal drift
accumulation is the dwarf counterpart of the great moraine
hills on other areas of our late and closing Wisconsin stages
of the continental glaciation.

The departure of this ice lobe was probably very rapid,
like the final melting of the icefields from the areas of lake
Agassiz and of the great lakes tributary to the St. Lawrence.
The land had sunk from its high elevation that caused the
ice accumulation, and the glacial recession uncovering this
southern part of the Puget sound basin, which had then nearly
its present altitude and a climate probably as warm as now,
may have occupied no more than a few centuries.

Within so brief a part of the Champlain epoch, or time
of land depression and final ice melting, which comprised the
moraine-forming stages of waning glaciation, grandly repre-
sented in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and eastward to
New England, the “mound prairies” of Washington received
their knolly gravel, the Steilacoom:sand and _ gravel plains
were spread in front of the retreating ice border, and the modi-
fied drift and till of the Tacoma and Seattle hills were deposited
from the englacial and at last superglacial drift. The mounds,
the plains, and the plateaus and hills, were successively formed
or overspread by their drift, but, as I think, with no long
intervals of separation, all the series being closely consecutive.

TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA.

Reviews and Translations by WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS,
Madison, Wis.

Ill. JAPAN. (First Paper.)
PLATE XIV.

In earlier papers of this seriest have been treated, first, the
interior plateau (Landstaffeln) of the Pacific coast of Asia as
it has been described by von Richthofen; and, second, the
significance of the eastern coast line of the continent in the
view of the same writer, together with more detailed examina-
tion of Manchuria and Korea through reviews of papers by
von Cholnoky and Koto. There remain for consideration the

* This journal for August and September, 1904.

,

j

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 215

chains of islands festooned along the coast, of which the more
important are the Japanese chain, Formosa, the Philippines,
and the Malaysian archipelago.

Both by reason of its political importance and of its de-
tailed geological exploitation, Japan is deserving of the first
consideration. The excellent groundwork laid by Edmund
Naumann* and Teyokitsi Harada} have been utilized by pro-
fessor Suesst, by members of the staff of the Imperial Geo-
logical Survey.§ and especially by Baron von Richthofen in
the latest of his papers||._ This latter paper for the first time
makes available for the use of geologists a comprehensive
physiographic and geologic structural study of the country as
a whole. Its importance warrants its complete translation into
English.

Edmund Naumann fixed a boundary line, his fossa magna,
by which he separated north and south Japan. This boundary
line runs in a NNW-SSE direction through the middle of the
main island of Japan near its bend or “elbow.” This well
recognized tectonic line figures in all later geological studies
of the empire. Through north Japan, lying to the east of the
tectonic line, runs Naumann’s meridional chain carrying a
great number of active and extinct volcanoes. Koto had
already given the name Sachalin system to this median line
because the range of volcanoes maintains the same direction as
the island of Sachalin further to the north. The physiographic
divisions of Japan are thus concisely stated by Kotof.

A mere glance at the topographic map of Japan will lead one to
suppose that Hon-shu is a gigantic arc with Hokkaido and Kiu-shu at
the north and south ends as the homologous appendages; and the line

of the Fuji-Ogasawara volcanoes pierces right through the middle of
main island. But, as geological knowledge accumulates little by little

* EDMUND NAUMANN. Ueber den Bau und die Entstehung der japanischen
Inseln. Berlin, 1885, p. 91.

+ TEYOKITSI HARADA. Versuch einer tektonischen Giiederung der japanisch-
enInseln. Tokyo, 1888, p. 23 and map.

t EpuarD Swess. Das Antlitz der Erde .Vol. ii, 1888, pp. 220-227; vol. iii,
1901, pp. 176-186.

§ Outlines of the Geology of Japan. Descriptive text to accompany the
geological map of the Empire on the scale of 1: 1,000,000, compiled by the
officials of the Imperial Geological Snrvey of Japan. Tokyo, 1902.

|| FRRDINAND V. RICHTHOFEN. Geomorphologische Studien aus Ostasien.
V. Gebirgskettungen im japanischen Bogen. Sitzungsber. d.k. p. Akad. d.
Wissensch. Berlin, vols. xxxviii-xl, 1903, pp. 892-912.

{B. Koto. The scope of the Vulcanological Survey of Japan. Publication
No. 3 of. the Earthquake Investigation Committee in Foreign Languages.
Tokyo, 1900, p. 15.

216 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

with time, our primitive. notion comes to be largely modified; and, at
present,:we can say positively that north and south Japan differ in that
the prevailing direction of the south is greatly influenced by the folding
axes while that of the north is by the meridional ruptural lines.

The external side of North Japan, in contrast to the regular suc-
cession of geological formations of the south, consists of three tectonic
blocks,—that of the Paleozoic Chichibu (Kwanto), of the Archaean
Abukuma, and of the Mesozoic .and Paleozoic Kitakami; and these are
the gigantic crustal clods that bound the Pacific sea-board, each form-
ing a geological unit, and an independent upland region. The geo-
graphical back-bone and the main water-shed of north Japan, lie, how-
ever, westwards of the discontinuous ectoperipheral zone, and is main-
ly built up of the guartz-bearing tuffytes of a Tertiary age. These
remarkably constant pyroclastics constitute the foundation, through
which the various andesitic lavas have welled out in post-Tertiary
times in a nearly meridional direction, creating a long series of over-
towering mighty cones.

If we were asked what is the mother-rock which supplied the ma-
terial to the tuffytes, we can only say that it is the rhyolyte which had
been poured out at the bottom of the Neogene sea, and whose deriva-
tives, the tuffytes, had been deposited in so vast an extent as to serve
for the foundation of nearly the whole of North Japan, excepting the
three uplands, already mentioned.”

Below I translate with few and brief omissions the text of vy.
Richtofen’s study of Japan above cited.

* * * The study of the latter island (Yezo) has lent a new aspect
to the picture. For it has shown that from its northernmost point
certain lines having their origin in the geological structure stretch
out southeastwards into the sea through a southwardly directed di-
vergence, without appearing again in the following islands. The west- .
ermost line of Sachalin is continued in the Hidaka or axial chain of
Yezo, and runs likewise into the sea without recognizable continuation.

We limit ourselves here to the three large islands of Japan proper;
Hondu (or Honshu), Shikoku and Kiusiu, with their small insular be-
longings, and the western section of Yezo with its numerous members.
I, myself, have in the year 1871, when the permission to travel was
rarely conferred and was difficult to obtain, visited the environs of
Fuji-yama and Fusi-yama itself, made a journey along the Nakasendo
straits with certain side excursions, and traveled over the island of
Kiusiu. At that time the geology of the land was completely unknown.

The knowledge derived from these journeys, of the structure of the
formations concerned, and many of the more important stratigraphic
relations, has become of use in understanding the latter representations
and the geological map.

By the comparison of the Japanese islands with the continental
regions lying within the same longitudes; (Korea, Liao-tung, and north
China) the striking difference makes itself apparent that upon the con-
tinent the complex of Paleozoic formations has a plateau-like posi-

.
Tum AMPRICAN GHOLOGIST, VoL: XXXIV. PLATE XIV.

TECTONIC SKETCH OF JHE FUNDA MENTAL STRUCTURE OF JAPAN

Ster von Richthoten

28 150° 152" 154 136 ISS 140 (42° 44. 146

LEGEND

BrsAS trike in gneiss
= the paleogzorc

eee Gand of mica schist of the Kuma
hii Range

#828 Granite indicatea only in Eastern
part of South Japan

— Jectouic lines

Line of the great transverse tauh
s|mawnt Yo/cgnic Lone s.

'
j
j
§
4

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia—Hobbs. 217

tion, while upon the islands it occurs only compressed into folds. In
the former region it is many times broken into inclined orographic
blocks, and there are not lacking individual folds and bendings of the
beds; but first in the Tsin-ling range begin the southwardly and south-
eastwardly directed compressions or foldings which have affected all
Paleozcic formations alike and which continue in the structure of all
southern China, This southern part of the continent offers therefore an
analogy with Japan, and it is easy to conjecture that the section of the
earth which borders the great continental plateau in the south finds its

_ continuation in the Japanese islands. -

With the difference mentioned is connected a different kind of con-
sideration. In north China the folded basement of all later deposits
consists only of the Archaean formation; the superimposed cover be-
gins with the Cambrian. In the Japanese islands on the other hand
the zones and regions included in the Archaean merit special consider-
ation, but in the basement all Paleozoic deposits are included with equal
right, and first in contrast with these are the transgressing deposits
and extrusions of Mesozoic and Tertiary age which are to be consid-
ered as a separate cover.

For the comprehension of the morphology this separation is im-
portant. I limit myself hence in the first place to the elucidation of
the structure of the covered basement and to the tectonic disturbances
which are recognizable in it, particularly with reference to the occur-
rence of granite and other ancient deep-seated rocks associated with it.
Of little significance for the general structure are the transgressing
Mesozoic formations, of predominant importance on the other hand
the tectonic deformations, and the Tertiary deposits which are con-
nected with the phenomena of vulcanism.

The present view of the structure of the Japanese islands may be
briefly stated in outline. According to it the Japanese crescent or arc is
a folded range of Alpine type separated into two parts by a Graben
depression, Naumann’s well known fossa magna. A sharply drawn line,
the “median line” runs through the arc in its entire length and sep-
arates an inner zone corresponding to the core zone of the Alps marked
by an abundance of granite, from an outer zone consisting of strongly
folded Paleozoic sediments, in which locally also Mesozoic beds occur
gently folded. In each of the two wings the two zones suffer by their
approach to the fossa a bending back and there arises through it a kind
of chain which reminds one of the Indian grouping (Scharung) and
was compared with it by Harada, while Naumann first discovered the
similarity of form but warned against the comparison. In north Japan
the outer zone is formed by the ranges of Kitakami and Abukuma;
their bending back occurs in the Kwanto range.

If one investigates the islands according to the present state of the
detailed knowledge of them, certain essential lines which through their
very simplicity corrupt the picture disappear, and with them disappears
the similarity with the well known representation of the mountain
crescents of Alpine type. Involved problems intrude. I turn te the

218 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

consideration in detail and fasten my attention upon the separation by
the native imperial geologists into north Japan and south Japan, by
which the boundary is placed in the fault cleft which limits the fossa
magna on the west side. The results I have sought to enter upon the
accompanying map. (See Plate XIV.)

A. FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF NORTH JAPAN.

On the east side of North Japan occur two elliptical mountain
masses similar to each other in form but different from each other
in many respects, which following Naumann’s example are designated
by the Japanese geologists as the Abukuma mountain region and the
Kitakami mountain region.

The Abukuma mountain region forms according to Koto, who
has investigated the difficult structure with care, an acute rhomboidal
horst-like mountain block extending from north to south 150 kilometers
in length, and 45 kilometers in average breadth. The undulating upper
surface has a mean elevation of 400 meters, with an extreme elevation
of 933 meters, and ascends gently toward the east from the longitudin-
al valley bounding it upon the west; and on the east side, 500 to 600
meters high, it falls away quite steeply upon a coastal terrace two to
four kilometers broad ‘covered by the uniform Hara steppe, which in
the basement consists of Tertiary sediments and is covered with
ancient coastal debris of granite blocks, sand, and gravel. The sea
is now at lower levels making an attack and eroding this terrace;
hence the narrow strand is accompanied by low but steep cliffs.
Through depressions on the west and east side the mountain body
proper raises its gently undulating upper surface as a horst. Deeply
incised cross valleys have brought about a transverse division of it.

The entire mountain range consists according to Koto of Archaean
rocks which fall into three divisions. The lower, designated Lauren-
tian, consists of plutonic rocks which he has. regarded as having become
schistose partly through plastic and partly through rigid (firm) defor-
mation. In the second, or Takanuki series, which consists essentially
of gneissose mica schists and titanite-bearing amphibole schists, two
stages ate distinguished of 5,000 to 5,500 meters thickness, while the
uppermost division. Gozaischo series, shows essentially amphibolytes and
mica schists estimated at about 10,000 meters thickness. All strike
directions are near the meridian, but always with a deviation toward
the NW, hence in the mean about N by W. The same holds true for
the numerous dike phenomena of ancient eruptive rocks and for the
direction of the rectilinear meridional side of the rhomboid. Even if
the numbers are considerably exaggerated it is yet clear that the Arch-
aean formations are very heavy. It is, however, to be observed that the
Japanese imperial geologists are inclined to identify the Gozaisho stage
with their Sambagawa stage, which, to judge from its rocks, corre-
sponds to the Wutai beds in China, that is to say, the Algonkian stage.

As a closed mass the Abukuma mountain region reaches its north
limit a short distance north of the 38th parallel of latitude. Approxi-

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia—Hobbs.. 219

mately. 40 minutes of latitude farther to the north, but a complete
degree of longitude further east the Kitakami mountain region begins,
somewhat longer, somewhat higher, and somewhat broader than the
above mentioned, but of similar rhomboidal to elliptical form. It con-
sists of Paleozoic sediments, whose age, as everywhere in Japan, is
with the exception of the Carboniferous part indeternunable. ‘Lhe
strike directions of the internal structure are in generai NNW to N by
W, but in the southern part irregularities occur. Here a southwardly
directed syncline of Trias and Jura appears; at the point of the penin-
sula formed by it occur also Paleozoic beds with S by W strike. Gran-
ite and other ancient eruptive rocks take part if the make-up of the Kit-
akami. ‘

If the relations in age are here widely different from those of the
Abukuma it is also true that differences are found in reference to the
form of the coast line. In contrast to the broad Tertiary band and the
even coast line of the Abukuma is found in the Kitakami an urusually
well developed Rias-like projection of the coast and the absence of the
Tertiary on the coast side. There the evidence of negative transla-
tion of the coast line, here the significant marks of advancing bay-like
invasion of the sea into the valley outlets.

The question of the contrasting relations of these two mountain
masses is decisive for the conception of North Japan. When the as-
signed differences in structure and constitution were still unknown,
Naumann was able te arrive at the view that both masses wen sep-
arated members of a continuous zone, and that the step-like pushing-out
of the ridges of the northern members came about in such a manner
that along a transverse line extending from Sado to Sendai a pushing
out in an easterly direction of the entire northern part of North Japan
in contrast to the southern had taken place. This conception deter-
mined the drawing of his median line to the west oi both mountain
masses, and this has, moreover, led up to the generally accepted view.

Since Abukuma has been investigated Kitakami can no longer be
considered as its continuation. Both masses are much more clearly
fragments of two parallel but different zones in the basement cf the
tenge, and particularly worthy of note because ancient intrusive rccks
are rare in them and younger ones are almost entirely lacking. If we
wish to search out the actual further course of both zones toward the
north, following individually the strike direction of th fold struc-
tures of each of the two masses, we must disregard all later coverings
by volcanic masses and Tertiary sediments. The places where the base-
ment is exposed are indeed rare, but by the study of the geological map
they are found to group themselves in two zones which run diagonally
through North Japan in the direction N by N W to NNW. The di-
rection of the Abukuma zone is brought out by the continuation of the
sarallel lines which limit the rhomboid of the Abukuma massif on the
southwest and on the northeast, and which are followed also by the
sinall ranges and the dikes of eruptive rocks in it. We come over the
broad valley of the Abukuma river and find between the extended lines

220 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

the rare places where the gneiss comes up from beneath its cover. The
zone reaches the west coast in the stretch in which lie the cities Sakata
and Akita. To the Kitakami zone on the other hand we must refer
everything which lies in the extension of its strike direction and to the
eastward of the Abukuma zone. We are thus led at once over the Kit-
akami river. There appears still a small gneiss dome in the high Sen-
nin-take (948 m.), which may form the boundary of the gneiss zone;
but with this exception are found in the extension through all of Mutsu
and beyond toward western Yezo only such formations as are referred
to the Paleozoic group.

Thus the Hidaka range (upon Yezo), Kitakami, and Abukuma ap-
pear as three parallel zones of the core folded in post-Carboniferous
time and striking between N by W and NNW. Their mutual connection
cannot yet be made out. There are not lacking evidences of a separ-
ation through strike faults; for the above drawn profile of Abukuma
indicates that Kitakami is sunk away upon its east side, and likewise
at the Hidaka range the steep and short eastern descent in contrast to
the gentle western slope is marked. But there enter also abnormal
phenomena. For the strike of the Paleozoic sediments is in Mutsu
(the northeastern part of Hondo) ENE, in western Yezo it is for the
most part NE, but also in part E 10° N.

The investigations up to the present appear to give no satisfactory
answer to the question where the southern continuation of the three
zones lies. Hidaka strikes out toward the sea and breaks off; for Ki-
takami the same holds true according to Jimbo’s already mentioned
representation. For Abukuma it is assumed that a turning back occurs
toward the Kwanto range, where the WNW direction controls every-
thing, and that the broad alluvial bay of Tokyo conceals the intermed-
iate members. For a conclusion the following facts may be introduced:
(1) Inthe Abukuma mountain region it holds, so far as may be learn-
ed from the accessible writings, that the strike direction SSE to S by E.
is the dominant one even to the southernmost part; (2) The Kwanto
range does not consist of the Archaean gneisses of Abukuma but of
Paleozoic sediments, and where on the northeast side a band of older
phyllite occurs it is referred to the Algonkian Sambagawa beds; (3)
In the extension of the Abukuma range to the S by E lie at the mouth
of the Tonegawa the small hills of Tschocshi made firm land through
its alluvial and coast deposits. Here occur Paleozoic sediments with
SSE strike and one might see in them a last outlier of a member of the
Abukuma zone; (4) On the other hand there arises to the west from
southern Abukuma the N-S directed Yamiso-tsukuba hill country as-
cending to a thousand meters which is built up essentially from Paleo-
zoic rocks. In the north it strikes NW, in the south SW, and here it
is in contact with eruptive masses metamorphosed to gneisses. These
changing strike directions NW and SW are given also in the Etschigo
mountains and throughout in the entire area which lies southwest from
the Abukuma gneiss zone extended in our sense to the northward. It

td

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia—Hobbs. 221

is as if here in contrast to the former complex a regularity in bedding
were not to be recognized. ° Only the Kwanto range appears to have
an independent position. for it has, as above stated, a pronounced
inner and outer side, and the Paleozoic sediments are arranged in
regular synclinal and anticlinal folds.

It is clear from this that the ‘median line’ cannot be regarded as a
separating line of two longitudinal zones of the fundamental complex.
These have indeed a zonal arrangement, but in quite a different sense:
the zones are cut through diagonally by the line. Undoubtedly the
latter has not only for commerce but also morphologically a signifi-
cance, but its origin is the result of late tectonic movements regarding
which and also the volcanic lines I will speak later. I turn first to the
structure of south Japan.

B. FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF SOUTH JAPAN.

In the west part of Japan, for which the little adapted name
South Japan has come into use, are two longitudinal zones distinctly
recognized. Here is in fact even in the basement a separating median
line at hand. It follows a narrow but distinctly indicated band of
mica schist generally accompanied by a band of Flysch-like Cretaceous,
which runs through Kii, Shikoku, and Kiusiu with varying breadth. It
belongs to the southern zone and follows it westward there also where
it is far removed from the northern zone, and a small apparently neu-
tral region in the form of a triangle is wedged between the two zones
with its very acute apex in the east. To the eastward where these zones
border each other the above mentioned bending back to the northward
is accomplished in the face of the great transverse fault along the Fuji
line.

The two zones offer in scenery and in structure noticeable differ-
ences. Their relation to each other is one of the keys for the explana-
tion of the problematical structure of Japan. We must therefore con-
sider them in detail.

Tue Nortu Zone. This is separated into a western part as far as
the narrow neck of land between the Wakasa gulf and the Owari bay,
and an.eastern part from there to the great cross fracture. To the
first mentioned belong: Tschigoku (in somewhat extended sense),
that is to say, the great western peninsula of Hondo which extended
to the eastern shore of the Biwa lake is 510 kilometers in length; the
neck of the Kii peninsula to the mica schist band; the eastern and mid-
dle interior sea with its islands and the two northern peninsulas of
Tschigoku; in addition the northern projection of Kiusiu. The east-
€rn portion embraces in addition to a little region in the southeast
the rest of the country between Biwa lake and the great cross fracture.

In Tschigoku appear in the fundamental complex schistose and
quartzitic sedimentary rocks which are regarded as Paleozoic. They
strike in ‘general parallel to the peninsula, that is about W to E and
W by Sto E by N. The rectilinear stretch of coast line facing Kor-
ea directed from SW to NE from Yamatu, Iwami and Idsumo, is

222 : The American Geologist. October, 1904.

a steep diagonal fracture on which the beds with the above mentioned
strike disappear, and does not therefore indicate how one could con-
jecture from the contours a bending of the internal structure or of
the entire mountain member. Far more character-giving than the sed-
-imentary rocks is widely distributed hill country of deeply decomposed
granite which on the surface is disintegrated to gruss, which also
composes almost without exception the islands of the interior sea and
the northern peninsula of Tschigoku. To the eastward are inserted two
bands of gneiss, on the border injected by granite, a broad one entirely
in the south in connection with the band of mica schist, a narrow one
in the north. Both include a middle band of Paleozoic sediments
varying by 100 kilometers in its breadth.

Beginning about at the 136th meridian there enters quite gradually
a southeasterly convex bending in which all three bands take part. The
gneiss band in the neck of the Kii peninsula, although according to the
conception of the Geological Survey divided into three meridional
horsts, strikes first W to E and turns then a little toward NE. The
middle strip shows still in the vicinity of Gifu W-E direction with
local deviations. But in this are found many irregularities.

To the east of the Owari bay the bending proceeds rapidly, the
strike in the southern gneiss band becomes NE, and west from the
upper Tenriu-gawa N by E. Also the northern gneiss band belonging
to the regions of Hida and Yetschiu shows in the strike of its beds
the same bending over NE to NNE. This is the bending back of the
north zone clearly recognized by Naumann.

Deviating from it is the occurrence of granite. To the traveler,
as well as to the one who glances at the geological map, the great rdle
which this rock plays, as well in the horizontal distribution as in the
upward extension to great altitudes, is most striking within these east-
ern portions of the north zone. For granite plays the principal part
in the composition of the mighty chains of the Kisso and Hida ranges.
Both are directed to the NNE; but the latter bends in the stretch in-
dicated to the meridional direction through Otendjo-yama (3185 m.),
Tate-yama’ (2936 m.), and Renge-yama (2934 m.). From the island
Awadyji the granite follows for the most part lines which do not cor-
respond with the strike direction of the fundamental complex, but in-
tersect it and in a certain degree anticipate its bending. The direction
NE is taken by the granite where the schists are still directed from W
tc E; and where the latter turn toward the NE and NNE the lines of
the granite have directions N, N by W, and NNW. The arrangement
can be considered as an irregularly radial one in the are which is con-
Vex storthey Sipe tas Gy (ih rom en

Another phenomena may be referred to the stretching and con-
sequent opening of the texture of the outer portions of the zone. ‘This
is the dismembering which it has there suffered. It is in contrast
with the simple coast line of the north side and the compressed
structure which distinguishes the Tamba _ plateau and the
mountainous country of Mino-Hida. It is sufficient to bear in mind

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 223

the invasion of the sea in numerous bays, like the Owari bay, and the
many bays united in the interior sea, Seto-Utschi, or the mentioned
dismemberment of the gneiss zone of the Kii peninsula into four horsts,
separated by meridional Graben. All these phenomena belong exclu-
sively to the outer portion of the north zone and terminate sharply
where they. join the south zone.

Tue Soutu Zone. The above mentioned arms of the sea are all
sharply cut off in a line by the above named and even narrow band of
steeply inclined mica schists, which were referred to the Samba-gawa
stage, accompanied as they are by a narrow band of Flysch which runs
through the islands Kiusiu, Shikoku, and Kii. Furrows of slight breadth
are incised and serve the ocean as portals for connection with the wide
bays of the north zone; they are kept open by powerful tidal currents.
The south zone begins at these portals: It has already been shown how
this zone ‘enters in considerable breadth from the west as the pre-
sumptive continuation of the south Chinese mountain country and con-
sists of Paleozoic deposits belonging to the Japanese Chichibu system,
whick are disposed in steep SW to NE striking folds. The dominance
of northwestern dip is indicative of compression from the NW. I
have in the place mentioned given to the still nameless range, the name
Kuma range, after the Kuma river, and sketched it as a nearly ui-
formly high mountain country, difficult of access and deeply incised
by meandering streams. It has also been shown how the entire zone
inclusive of the mica schist has suffered gentle bending and enters the
island of Shikoku with E to NE strike, crosses it entirely and contin-
uses toward the peninsula of Kii, by which the strike gradually changes
into W by S, E by N, and WE. On the way through Shikoku and Kii
the compression of the structure increases with the closeness of the
folding, and with it the altitude increases; the mountain country be-
comes more difficultly accessible, more closed to travel, and is thinly
populated; the valleys are more deeply intrenched; waterfalls occur in
the meandering channels of the brooks. This mountainous country of
Kuma-Kii, as it may here be called, separated into individual fragments
but belonging together, stands in striking contrast with the landscapes
of the north zone, which are distinguished by rich variety of topography,

For the comprehension of the morphology this separation is im-
portant. I limit myself hence in the first place to the elucidation of the
structure of the uncovered basement and to the tectonic disturbances
which and, with the exception of the highly elevated eastern portion, by
easy communications and great capacity for settlement, hence by dense
population and an abundance of cities. Upon the geological map, the
contrast is marked in the concentration of granite in the north zone un-
til almost upon the border, where it is cut off and it is a rare occurrence
in the mountainous country of Kuma-Kii; likewise the broad band of
gneiss of the north zone ends sharply upon the rectilinear border. The
general map shows that the criteria of open structure which character-
ize the southern part of the north zone, and in part the basins of the
inland sea, and the gneiss horsts of Kii, never extend into the south

224 The American Geologist. October, 1904,

zone, The connections of the seas are made through gaps in it; but
these have an entirely different character. The coasts within the south
zone are in part of pronounced Rias-type, where the sea washes directly
the transverse ends of the bedded rocks, and in part gently arched
steep coasts which indicate falling in. Volcanogs are lacking with the
exception of those in the Liukiu line.

From the general morphological point of view, it is significant that
the line of the mountainous country of Kuma-Kii (which up to the
emergence from Kii has a length of 690 kilometers) is the unique ex-
ample in the entire system of arcs here coming under consideration, of
an arc which is convex to the ocean. With it is connected the rare
phenomenon that the compressive force has been directed from the con-
vex toward the concave side of the arc. One can-designate this as a
reverse arc of compression.

CONTINUATION OF THE TsInLING RANGE IN JAPAN. This result
of finding a relation in the same sense and of the same kind
in Japan and China is based upon the conception, already expressed, that
Tschiugoku, with the ranges of the interior sea, is the continuation of
the Chinese Tsinling range, which disappears suddenly at the Honan
fracture. The comparison of the structure says nothing against it; for
in China also zones of gneiss alternate with those of Paleozoic beds,
and post-Carboniferous granites play an important role. Both are
alike the expressions of the important compression of the entire mount-
ain mass toward the south. To the argument which Naumann derived
for the compression of the Japanese range out of the northerly bending
of the eastern end, is added that common to China of the arc-like com-
pression of the ranges in the country to the south. The separation of
the Japanese fragment from the Chinese by an interval of 16 deg. of
longitude is indeed important; but on the one hand there appears to
ke present within the intervening space in the Hwai range a notable
depressed fragment of the same range thrust still farther southwards and
against the Tsinling range, and on the other hand, the interior region
is one of very deep-seated tectonic disturbances. It cannot be assumed
that such a mighty framework in the structure of the earth’s crust
as the Tsinling range with its western continuations in central Asia
from the time of its formation on, has come to so sudden an end; it is
far more probable that it has had a still further continuation in the
direction of the present Pacific ocean. Here in Japan it comes once
more to the surface with somewhat altered direction, after which, then,
in the vicinity of the most extensive of the present extreme depressions
of the oceanic basin, it seems to come actually to an end. This gives
to the study of the structure of Japan increased interest.

Tur NAGASAKI TRIANGLE. If the view here introduced is correct
that only the northwestern part of Kiusiu, with the granite mountain
country of Sefuri (1030 m.), belongs to the north zone, there remains
between this and the south zone a triangular area which is bounded on
the north side by an E-W line (Matsuyama-Kuruma-Imari) and on the

Tectonic Geography .of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. — 225

south by the connecting line Matsuyama-Yatsuschiro. The apex in
Matsuyama lies opposite the stretch of coast between Imari and Yat-
suschiro as base with ufique variety of its lines and the types of its
landscapes, in which Nagasaki is the place generally best known. As

has already been stated, a basement visible only in few places, owing
to erosion and subsequent deposition, consists here of probably Ar-

chaean schists, among them mica schist; and rock otherwise almost for-
eign to the north zone, is very widely developed along with gneiss,
while granite occurs only in subordinate amount. Harada considered
this region as a continuation of the lower zone, which belongs to the
interior sea. In that case, it would be a portion of the north zone,
and it. would be necessary to assume that this suffers a deflection
toward the SW. The interior strike of the beds must then show this
deflection in western Tschiugoku; but I have found no observation
which would confirm this. The position of the intermediate members
must, therefore, still remain uncertain.

For this space the great development of volcanoes is character-
istic. Aso-yama, Unsen-yama, Tara-dake, and others, whose activity
in part still remains, have covered the land over a wide extent with lava
and ash.

“Tue AxatscHt Rance. The remarkable position of this high and
for the most part massive mountain block was first recognized by
Naumann; further investigations have confirmed his view. The fold
axes of the Kuma-Kii, and its accompanying band of mica schist, run
from the peninsula of Kii over the entrance of the Owari (or Ise) bays,
toward the lower course of Tenriu-gawa. Here begins a peculiar line,
directed toward the Suwa lake, drawn to the eastward of the middle
and upper course of the last mentioned river and parallel to it, which
marks the line orographically and tectonically. It follows sharply for
85 kilometers the direction .N 18 deg. E and turns beyond the pass
Jiro-Toge in a further stretch of 43 kilometers, in a direction N Io deg.
E. Along it runs a furrow, distinguished by short rectangular water
courses, breaking through westward to the Tenriu-gawa, several passes,
and numerous villages. It separates gneiss with granite in the west,
from Paleozoic mountains with bands of mica schist on the east. There
the north zone is sharply bent to the NNE and N by E; herea similarly
deflected mountain fragment which all observers including Naumann
have recognized as a fragment of the south zone, that is to say, of the
Kuma-Kii range. Naumann has called it the Akatschi sphenoid. This
mountain block has much compressed structure, reaches in Akaischi
and Schirane altitudes of 3,003 and 3,150 meters, and has a meridional
extension of 110 to 130 kilometers, with a medium breadth of 4o kilo-
meters.

It shows that there where the north zone has suffered the strongest
deflection of its crest through its compression toward the south, an
opening of the correspondingly bent Kuma-Kii range has occurred in
places until it has disappeared, and an almost detached fragment of it
has been thrust in the meridional direction. If one regards the region

220 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

of the Suwa lake as the fulcrum in the turning of this Akaischi mount-
ain block, then it is easy to surmise that the connecting line between it
and Yatsuschiro in Kiusiu is in accord as a likewise scarcely moved
point approximating to the original course of the north border of the
south zone. It runs somewhat south of Matsu-yama, touches Kioto,
and has the direction of the average sinian strike. If one compares with
it the present position of the band of mica schist, one derives from it
approximately the amount of deformation that has occurred.
(To be continued.)

THE UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR
THEORY.

By N. MISTOCKLES, Minneapolis, Minn.

T

“There was once a time when the earth was distended on all sides
away out to the moon and beyond it, so that the matter now contained
in the moon was then a part of our equatorial zone. And at a still
remoter date in the past, the mass of the sun was diffused in every di-
rection beyond the orbit of Neptune, and no planet had any individual
existence, for all were indistinguishable parts of the solar mass. At the
period where the question is taken up by Laplace’s treatment of the
nebular theory, the shape of this mass is regarded as spheroidal.” (John
Fiske, The Unseen World, p. 7.)

To readers, who are interested in cosmogony and who
have acquainted themselves with the works of Kant, Laplace,
Herbert Spencer, and John Fiske, it may, perhaps, seem like
lost labor trying to find flaws in and pronounce untenable, a
theory which was advanced by the two former and, on the
whole, accepted and defended by the two latter. Still, every-
one must admit, that a theory, which pretends to explain any
natural phenomenon, but leaves both its essence and qualities in
general unexplained, is highly unsatisfactory and not to be de-
pended upon. The nebular theory* can, consequently, not com-
mand belief so long as the phenomena and natural forces,
which it has taken upon itself to interpret, practically remain a
mystery. This failure on the part of that theory proves it
conclusively to be erroneous. Nor is there any risk in asserting

*The term Nebular Theory is, in this treatisc, considered more proper than
Nebular Hypothesis, and is treated as an elaborated theory, which the well-
known Nebular Hypothesis is in the full meaning of the word. The Nebular
Hypothesis is also often spoken of as a theory, even by authorities,and among
others John Fiske has accepted it as such, which is shown in the quotation
given above.

rs

;
4
a

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 227

that errors may be found where we know beforehand that they
exist.

We gladly admit, however, that our sincere thanks are
due the modern philosophers for so insistently recommending
the study and application of the science of logic; and for their
telling us, that we can never gain a clear and comprehensive
understanding of any subject except by means of logical
thinking and harmonious and consistent reasoning. “Logic,”
says John Fiske, “is to the scientific investigator what the law
of proof is to the lawyer.”

This is true, and it is, furthermore, of vital importance for
our discussion of the theory in question. . But logic alone is
not sufficient. Let us, therefore, before we take up the prob-
lems before us, add a few observations concerning certain
rules, which every student of natural laws and forces must
recognize and observe.

However important and indispensable logic is to a scientific
investigator, it can, nevertheless, serve only as a valuable as-
sistant under certain conditions. As one of these conditions,
may be mentioned a thorough and complete knowledge of the
starting point from which one, by means of induction, seeks
the solution of a problem. No matter how logically one may
reason, if the first conclusion regarding the condition, essence
or genesis of a thing is wrong, every subsequent conclusion,
based on the first, will lead from error to error ad infinitum.
It is the non-observance of this fact, as we shall show later,
that has led the natural scientists to commit their greatest er-
rors. They have been logical to the tips of their fingers, but,
in many instances, totally blind as to the proper conditions for
the use of logic. Thus we often find, that no distinction is
made between a philosophical and a mathematical problem ; and
we are told at times, that this or that scientist has solved
mathematically a much discussed problem in spite of the fact
that that same problem does not admit of a mathematical solu-
tion. A philosophical problem cannot be solved by mathemat-
ics; for mathematics can give us a trustworthy result only
when all the elements and parts of the subject are distin-
guished and understood in all their details. The cubic contents
of a hill and its elevation above the sea level, for instance, is
a geometrical and, hence, a mathematical problem; but the

228 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

genesis and formation of that same hill is a philosophical and
geological problem which cannot be solved by computation.
Consequently, when we are told that a philosophical problem
has been mathematically solved, as for instance, when G. H.
Darwin “proves’”’ by mathematics that the moon almost touched
the earth’s surface some 50 or 100 million years ago, and that
it revolved around the earth in about four days, then we must
remember, that such speculation is simply an illusion. To
give a rational solution of such a problem lies wholly outside
the province of mathematics as we shall show more clearly
in §13, when we come to speak of the true origin of the plan-
ets.

Next to and in connection with a clear understanding and
a correct conception of the starting point, all sound inductive
reasoning requires an equally thorough knowledge of all com-
plications and conditions that may arise later in the course
of reasoning; for logic, we must remember, can serve only as
an aid or means, like a horse or a ship, which goes wherever
we guide it. A navigator, for example, who sails from New
York, bound for Liverpool, but lands in Porto Rico, gains
little by claiming that Porto Rico or any part thereof is Liver-
pool, because the ship brought him there. Thus it is also with
the mathematician and the philosopher. The result gained is
not a sufficient guarantee for the correctness of their reason-
ing; because where due attention is not paid to nature and
those of its laws that bear upon the problem, the result might
so easily be “Porto Rico” instead of “Liverpool.”

Now, therefore, it is clear that one, who attempts to ex-
plain the origin of the solar system by means of the nebular
theory, must necessarily, in the first place, have a correct con-
ception of the principal forces involved in his theory as a con-
dition for a correct understanding of the genesis or origin of
the heavenly bodies, this to serve as a starting point on the
basis of which he afterwards, by the aid of logic, tries to ex-
plain the nature and inner relations of the whole system.

Let us, then, remember this as we now proceed to the dis-
cussion of the nebular theory; and let us remember also, that
it is our duty to satisfy all reasonable demands which the prin-

. ciples we have laid down, make upon us as we proceed, step
by step.

i.

i

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 229

2.. The nebular theory, as elaborated by Laplace, and
before him presented in several of its main features by Im-
manuel Kant is, in brief, as follows:

All the heavenly bodies, large and small, which compose
the entire present solar system, have originated from a com-
mon, vast nebula. This nebula was spherical in form and filled
space as far as to the orbit of the most distant planet. The mass
composing this nebula contracted towards the center; by
this contraction, rotation and heat were generated. As the
contraction and consequent condensation went on, the rotation
increased, which again caused an expansion in the equatorial
region and depressions at the poles. On account of the rapid
rotation the centrifugal force finally increased to such a degree
that it overcame the force of contraction. This, again, caused
the separation of a portion of the nebula at the equator, which
portion continued to revolve around the nebular mother in
the form of a ring. This operation reoccurred as often as the
rotation increased to such a degree, that the centrifugal force
overcame the centripetal or inward tending force. Thus one
ring after another was formed; and in time these rings broke,
contracted, and formed themselves into individual nebulae, all
rotating and revolving around the common center of gravity.
These new bodies, in their turn, threw off rings, which, like
the former, became spherical nebulae. The former became the
planets ; the latter the moons of the planets, while the original
and constantly contracting nebula—finally forming into a mass
of glowing lava—became the Sun and center of the system.

The cause which led to the construction of and subsequent
adherence to the nebular theory, was the wonderful symmetry
of the solar system. The advocates of this theory noticed that
the planets revolve in analogous orbits around the equator of
the Sun whose plane of rotation thus becomes identical with
the orbits of the planets. They found also, that the same rela-
tions exist between the planets and their moons, so that the
moons revolve around the equator of the planets, and that the
plane of the planet’s rotation thus coincides with the orbits of
the moons, or nearly so. The object of the nebular theory,
thus, is to explain how the whole solar system was originally
formed and put in motion, and how the order and motion of
its various parts have since been retained and preserved. The

230 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

adherents of that theory have not, however, been able to find
any sufficient cause for the rotation of the nebula. This is
important; for the nebula must of necessity rotate in order to
form and throw off rings. They supposed that this cause
could not possibly be any other than the contraction of the
nebular mass, which was taken for granted and assumed to be
a fact.

Herbert Spencer and John Fiske have dwelt with great de-
light on this point and claimed that nothing can be imagined
more clearly proven and demonstrated. They have pointed
out, that according to the theory in question the planets Jupiter
and Saturn must rotate very rapidly on account of their vast
mass and powerful gravity; and which they think the obser-
vations prove to be true. They have pointed out further, that
said planets must for the same reason have thrown off many
rings, and, consequently, have many moons, which the obser-
vations also prove to be correct. This view is, therefore, in
the words of Herbert Spencer, incontrovertible.

We shall now take up these premises and. conclusions one
by one and see whether we can not derive these same phe-
nomena from other sources. Perhaps we may find some other
methods than those mentioned above, by means of which we
may be able to explain why the planets move in orbits analo-
gous to the plane of the solar equator; and likewise we may
detect another cause for the corresponding state of things in
regard to the moons and planets; and hence we may possibly
discover another manner than that set forth in the nebular
theory, in which the moons have come to the planets.

The last mentioned of these investigations we cannot un-
dertake immediately, however, as that would carry us too far
from our main subject at present. Let us rather begin with
the fundamental point in the theory, the starting point, and
return to the numerous details later on.

§3. The nebula, then must have rotated; and there is no
reason to doubt that it did. But let us remember that the
vital point right here is to determine what caused the rotation.
The importance of this point is further emphasized by the fact
that the same force must later on serve as the motive power for
the rotation of all the bodies formed from the original nebula.

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 231

How the rotation of a nebula is caused by the contraction
and condensation of its mass, can, according to Herbert Spen-
cer, be explained in the following manner:

“Each portion of such vapor-like matter must begin to
move toward the common center of gravity. The tractive
forces which would of themselves carry it in a straight line to
the center of gravity are opposed by the resistant forces of the
medium through which it is drawn. The direction of move-
ment must be the resultant of these—a resultant which, in
consequence of the unsymmetrical form of the flocculus, must
be a curve directed, not to the center of gravity, but toward one
side of it. And it may be readily shown that in an aggrega-
tion of such flocculi, severally thus moving, there must, by com-
position of forces, eventually result a rotation of the whole
nebula in one direction.” (First Principles, p. 198, $76.)

To a merely casual observer this may, perhaps, seem rea-
sonable and many may consider it tolerably satisfactory. Let
us not, however, be satisfied with this superficial probability,
but analyze the statement and thus determine to what an ex-
tent it is reasonable.

It assumes that it is the force of gravity which first set
the matter in motion and which afterwards continued to cause
this motion or rotation. As the nebulous mass contracts and
condenses, the attracted parts meet resistant forces in a sup-
posed medium through which they must pass, the result of
which is a curved motion to one side instead of a motion in a
straight line towards the center.

Here we notice at once a most remarkable circumstance,
which has been left unexplained, but which nevertheless, is of
great importance, namely, that the medium through which the
attracted parts must pass does not move in consequence of the
vapor-like or gaseous condition of the nebula. Why does not
this medium move together with the vapor, sinking towards the
center ?

This medium cannot be supposed to offer a resistance simi-
lar to the resistance offered by atmospheric air to objects pass-
ing through it, for the nebula itself, according to Laplace, was
thin as air long after the rotation commenced. To suppose
such a resisting medium ‘in the nebular matter in that stage
of evolution, would be the same as to suppose that air in

232 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

motion would meet within itself a resisting force which would
change the direction of the motion. Such a supposition would
be contrary to both nature and reason, and still the rotation of
the primeval nebula of the solar system as the theorists have .
imagined it, depended upon just such supposed conditions ; and
hence we find that the very starting point of the theory rests '
on a rather shaky foundation. r

We notice, next, a point of equal importance, namely, that”
the strength of the resisting force, supposing that it exists,
would be proportional to the velocity with which the attracted
matter passes towards the center; and further, that this veloci- ,
ty would be entirely too small to create the necessary resis-
tance! This presents a new difficulty and raises a new doubt;
if the condensation of the matter, in the condition of a nebula
at such a stage, is not sufficiently rapid to create the necessary
resistance, then its rotation would thereby be prevented.

Let us accept the assumption, however, that the contracting
matter meets a resisting force and that the condensation is
rapid enough to cause a resistance strong enough to change
the course of the contracting matter, and see if that puts us in
a better position to accept the theory, or, in other words, if it
then will be natural to suppose that this change in motion
be from a straight to a curved line, to one side of the center
more than to the other.

When we speak of a nebula whose matter is condensing, we
claim at the same time, that the force of condensation and the
force of resistance are identical in all directions to and from
the common center of gravity, whereby any motion towards
one side becomes just as possible or impossible as a motion to- ;
wards the other side. From this we must conclude, that ro-
tation cannot possibly be caused in that manner. If in spite of
this, we hold on to the supposition claiming that the nebula
rotates around its center by virtue of the force of gravity,
then we must at all events admit, that the rotary motion could
take place in a plane in one direction as well as in another, |
since the attractive force is the same in all directions. The ro-
tation should, then, according to the theory of this generative,
rotary force, have exactly the same cause to go from south to
north, from north to south, from east to west as from west to

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 233

east. We would expect that Herbert Spencer and other phi-
losophers should have understood this!
Here we may safely conclude that the rotation of a nebula

; cannot be caused in the manner that this theory claims; still it
‘ _ _- may be interesting to consider, in this connection, some of the
4 other consequences resulting from that hypothesis.

: The éthereal matter, as we may most properly call it,

~ through which the nebular stuff, attracted towards the center,

must pass, and the resistance developed by this motion, must

necessarily be the same, no matter in what direction the motion
= takes place, since it is the motion itself which creates the re-
sistance. A motion towards the side of the center must, there-
% fore, meet the same resistance as, the one moving straight to-
wards the center. Since the resistance, thus, will be the same,
- no matter in what direction the nebular stuff is moving, we are
. forced to conclude, that its motion in any other direction than

y that determined by the law of gravity, is as impossible as, for
water to run up hill.

We shall find, further, if we accept the hypothesis in ques-
_ ___ tion, that the resistance which was a consequence of the con-
vi traction and sinking of the matter, was coexisting only with
r the medium which caused it. Now, then, if we direct our at-
tention to fully condensed and encrusted bodies, as for ex-
ample the earth, we cannot escape the impression that here, at
4 least, the above mentioned medium must long ago have ceased

to exist as a means of resistance to the contracting matter ; for
the contraction has practically stopped. In regard to the
Earth, we can, consequently, not speak of any rotation of mat-
ter around the center; hence the Earth itself should not rotate,
but it does rotate, nevertheless, and with a.speed of about 17
miles a minute.

In the discussion of this theory, to which many of the
astronomers still cling, it is also of great importance to call
attention to the fact, that planets of about the same size ought
to rotate with about the same velocity, with this difference, that
a younger one ought to rotate faster than an older one, and that
the Sun, which, it is claimed, is still a glowing mass, should
rotate faster than any of the planets. Venus, which, accor |-
ing to the nebular hypothesis, is younger than the Earth,
should, consequently, surpass this body in the rapidity of its

eee
+ a

#1]

234 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

rotation. But it is now admitted the world over and especi-
ally verified by Schiaparelli’s observations, that Venus is prac-
tically devoid of rotation, turning on its axis only once in every
anomalistic period, 224 days.

This is another rock in the seaway of the aebular theory
which cannot be gotten past. According to this hypothesis,
we have a right to assume, that the same processes which are
going on in the interior of the Earth, are operating, at least
in a comparative degree, in Venus also; and if the contraction
has originated and sustained the Earth’s rotation, then Venus
also ought to rotate, but it does not.

If we, however, should persist in the supposition that Jupi-
ter’s violent rotation is caused by an interior powerful rush
of matter around its center on account of its gigantic size, what
should we then believe and say about the Sun, which is 1000
times larger than Juniter and in a state of far more intense
heat, and still it swings around on its axis only once for every
60 of Jupiter’s rotations? ;

It is clearly evident from first to last, that contraction or
condensation has absolutely nothing to do with rotation and
that the theory, which claims that it has, is without foundation
in all of its premises. It follows likewise, that the conclusion,
that the rapid rotation and numerous moons of Jupiter and
Saturn should prove that the rotation is caused by the. con-
traction and heat of the matter, is erroneous and false.

Further on we shall show what the real causes are for the
intense rotation and numerous moons of.the mentioned planets,
and our proofs shall be clear and convincing to all. But before
we do this, other matters claim our attention. Our final obser-
vation upon the subject, so far as it has now been discussed,
is, that the reason put forth as to the cause of the rotation of
the heavenly bodies, is, to say the least, meaningless.

§4. Let us now turn from the discussion of the nebula’s
rotation and its other qualities, which we have touched upon,
and pay attention to another proposition, namely: Is it natur-
al and reasonable to suppose, that such a nebula, as the nebular
hypothesis proposes, ever existed in reality? We may suppose
that Neptune is the most distant planet in the solar system,
and the size of the original nebula was determined by the orbit
of this planet. Out of this originally spherical misty mass the

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 235

Sun and the planets are said to have been formed. Conse-
. quently the solar system in its present state represents the mat-
ter which composed the original nebula. If we, then, should
find by thorough investigation, that the Sun and the plan-
3 ets together contain, say about only half of the matter which
the original nebula contained, then the theoretical supposition
would be a miserable failure. The question is: What was the
density of the nebular matter? In order to clear this point, we
: must know the size and cubic contents of the nebula and there-
by its weight; and then compare this weight with the weight
of the Sun and the planets together, which is known.
In the first place, then, it seems proper for us to inquire
>. whether, if the Sun and planets were dissolved into atoms
and spread out evenly in a space having a diameter of 5000
million miles it would constitute a mass dense enough to be
heated by the friction of its own matter and having depres-
sions at the poles and expansion at the equator, together with
_an immense centrifugal force, sufficient to throw off rings?
Francis P. Leavenworth, professor of astronomy in the Uni
versity of Minnesota, told me, that one of his students had
worked on this problem and figured out, that if-our solar sys-
tem were dissolved into atoms and spread out evenly ina
comparatively spherical space, filling the orbit of Neptune, these
atonis would be hovering about, separated from one another
by large distances. Professor Leavenworth himself said that
3 this was no doubt correct. But if that is so, which it-evidently

is, what, then, becomes of the attribute, which the theorists
| have ascribed to this misty mass, which would be no mist, but
rarer than high mountain air? -It follows, also, that it would
- have neither equator nor poles, neither rotation nor centrifugal
3 force, and far less would it throw off any rings!

We notice at once, that the assumption with regard to the
size of the nebula is just as erroneous as we have before found
the assumption with regard to its rotation. Let us, however, at
this point, consider the nebula from another point of view.

As a consequence of the attributes ascribed to it, such as
heat, centrifugal force, expanded equator, and flattened poles,
it ought to have possessed a considerable density. Let us sup-
pose; however, that it had the density of common air only, a
_ supposition which every one must admit to be fair. In order

-

236 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

to find the weight of its mass, we must find its cubic contents
and then multiply that by the weight of air, which is 815
_ times less than that of water.

We have already stated, that when the planet Neptune was
formed, the size of the nebula must have been limited by his
orbit. Now, since the diameter of Neptune’s orbit is 5528
million English miles, that must also have been the diameter
of the nebula at that time. It is difficult to determine ac-
curately the polar depressions, which are said to have been
considerable, as we have already noticed. We have hardly any
reason to. suppose, however, that the depression at both poles
was greater than one third of the equatorial diameter. But if
it were possible to suppose these depressions to be larger, let
us, for safety’s sake, square off the curvature on all sides of
the nebula and assume its mass to be equal to that contained
by a cube whose sides were only 3,500 million miles. This
figure must then be multiplied by itself and the product of
3,500 million in order to find the quantity we seek in cubic
miles.

The product which is to be multiplied by 3,500 million we
find to be 12 quintillions and 250 quadrillions and this sum
multiplied by 3,500 million gives 4o octillions, and 875 septill-
ions, which represents the contents of the nebula in cubic
miles.

_In order to make this immense number a little more con-
ceivable, let us remark, that one such cubic mile contains 254,-
358,061,056,000 cubic inches, and that the Earth contains 260,-
000,000,000 cubic miles, which makes 66 septillion cubic inches.

The nebula would, consequently, contain 619 times as many

cubic miles as the Earth contains cubic inches.

Now, since air is 815 times lighter than water, and a cubic
mile of water weighs 410 million tons, then a cubic mile of air
must weigh 815 times less, or 503,067 tons. In order to find
the weight of the nebular mass, we must then multiply its
number of cubic miles by 503,067.

This multiplication brings us to the highest power of nota-
tion: 21 decillion and nearly 569 nonillion tons. The com-
bined weight of the Sun and the planets, according to modern
astronomy, is 2 octillion and 18 septillion tons. Hence the

;
q

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 237

surprising result: The nebula outweighed the whole solar

’ 141° .
system ten million times!

We are, indeed, forced to admit that such a nebula could
not possibly have existed, and that the solar system must have
had a different origin than that accepted by the theory under

- consideration.

§5. If we should assume the existence of such a misty
body, rotating rapidly. and possessing immense centrifugal
force, it becomes a matter of importance to pay particular at-
tention to the peculiar circumstance, that the centrifugal force
separated the equatorial belt of the rotating sphere in the form
of colossal rings.

We have already noticed, that the theorists claim as a rea-
son and law for this peculiarity, that the nebula rotated by
virtue of the contraction of its matter and that it threw off
rings whenever the centrifugal force exceeded the centripetal,
or the force tending towards the center. Contraction or the |
downward pressure, is, as we all know, occasioned by the force
of gravity. Now, when a centrifugal force is assumed, which
overcomes the centripetal or—which amounts to the same thing
—the force of gravity, then the question arises: By what
means did the nebula rotate during the periods when that force
was overcome or neutralized, which according to the first as-
sumption was the cause of the rotation and the origin and
support of the centrifugal force?

Here is torn down with one hand what is built up with
the other. If it is claimed, that the centripetal force or the
consequences thereof, causes the rotation, then it is thereby
denied that the resulting centrifugal force can neutralize the
centripetal; for then it would also neutralize the rotation and
the centrifugal force itself. If, on the other hand, it is
claimed that the centrifugal force can neutralize the centri-
petal, then the same assertion overthrows the theory about
the origin of the centrifugal force.

When we thus find that the hypothesis offered as an ex-
planation of the rotation overthrows the hypothesis advanced
as an explanation of the formation of the rings, and, like-
wise, the latter to overthrow the former, then it is also evi-
dent, that the theory, depending upon the harmony betweer

238 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

these hypotheses, finds itself in a dilemma, from which if.
cannot extricate itself.

§6. From the theory that rings were formed every time
the centrifugal force overcame the centripetal, it follows, that
the rotation which created the centrifugal force, was oscillat-
ing since the centrifugal force itself was varying and irregular.
When the same theory further advocates that the rotation is
a result of the contraction which, again, is a result of gravita-
tion, then the gravitation itself must have been oscillating,
that is, increased and decreased alternately, since all its re-
sults were oscillating. At the same time it is held, that the
force of gravity in a certain mass is fixed and unchangeable.
It follows, consequently, that neither the gravity nor the ro-
tation, caused by said natural force, could be oscillating, from
which follows further, that the centrifugal force neither can
be nor has been oscillating. The theory about the formation
of rings is, thus,-also at this point, absurd in the extreme, -
since it assumes said formation to be possible, only by sup-
posing a variable ‘rotation, due to a variable gravity of the
nebular mass.

We find, thus, that what is said in one sentence is con-
tradicted in the next.

87. We have already shown, that the rotation of a nebu-
la is independent of the condensation of its matter and the
resistance with which this meets. A new question arises,
therefore, in connection with this very subject, namely this;
Would it be in harmony with the laws of nature to suppose
that the centrifugal force, leaving out »i question how the
rotation was caused, could have expanded the equator of the
nebula so as to rid it of those rings?

Let us call particular attention to the. fact, that even if
the rotation of a heavenly body be assumed with a speed so
tremendous as to satisfy any hypothesis-maker, say a thou-
sand miles a second or so, there would even then be no detach-
ment of matter from the rotating body, because of the fact,
that the natural result of such a rotation would be an expan-
sion and solution of the whole mass into a gaseous state with
every particle: of matter continually subjected in an equai
degree, to the central force of gravity of the rotating mass.

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 239

It matters not, then, in what way a reaction in the move-
ment of rotation would be caused. The simultaneous contrac-
tion of the nebular matter, as the rotation decreased, would,
in consequence of the fact that the force of gravity acted
alike upon every component part of the gaseous body, be the
same for every part and particle, and proportional to the
weakening of the centrifugal force.

In a heavenly body, the centripetal force is its spirit of
gravity and its power of cohesion. The centrifugal force, on
the other hand, is a mechanical result of the rotation of the
same body. Hence, since the first is the cause or ground of
the second, it follows, that the second cannot suspend the first
either for a short or a longer period. To say that the centrifu-
gal force, under these conditions, would be able to throw off
rings from the nebula, is identical with saying that a man
could stretch out his arm with such force that it would be
severed from his body. In both cases, the fact is overlooked,
that the mechanical and outward working power is dependent
on the body’s power of cohesion.

But even. if, at this point, we would close our eyes to the
fact that a magnetic attraction cannot be suspended or re-
duced by a mechanical power, we must at least admit, that
the influence of the centrifugal force in the interior of the
Farth, where it operates against the centripetal force, cannot
be subjected to experiments or artificial presentations. Its in-
fluence cannot be demonstrated in any other way than to pre-
sent it as co-operating with the centripetal force, which is im-
possible since everything on the earth’s surface is dependent on
the earth’s attraction, from which follows that an. artificial
center of gravity, as a condition for the centripetal force, can-
not be made. |

It is said that physicists have demonstrated by means of
experiments, that a rotating nebula must develop and throw off
rings, and hence that the assumption accepted and defended by
the believers in the nebular theory is in accordance with the
laws of nature. Now this reasoning is not quite scientific.
Any one, and especially a philosopher, ought to understand,
that a demonstration of that kind demands that such an artifi-
cially constructed nebula must possess a center of gravity and
centripetal force in order to indicate by its rotation and cen-

240 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

trifugal mechanism the real nature and qualities of a cosmic
nebula.

When these theorists, nevertheless, claim that they can
demonstrate the nature and centrifugal force of a real nebula
by means of an artificial nebula, which lacks centripetal force
and cohesive power, then we are forced to shake our heads; the
whole device is overwhelmingly ridiculous. |

§8. It is evident that Laplace thought of Saturn’s rings
in developing his theory about the solar system. He looked
upon these rings as equatorial formations caused by the cen-
trifugal force and on the way to make a moon or moons, and
also that the already existing moons of this system had been |
formed in the same manner from rings thrown off long ago.
He believes, thus, that the planets themselves had at some dis-
tant time been formed from rings of a nebula; and that Saturn
tells, as it were, the story of the creation of the solar system.

Since this planet played so important a part in Laplace’s in-
vestigations, as well as in the speculations of the adherents and
defenders of his theory, it may be well to take up that matter
in particular right here and investigate it a little closer.

We notice, then, first of all, that no other explanation of
the origin of Saturn’s rings, except the one offered by the
nebular theory has been generally accepted. Further, that if
some other explanation can be made acceptable, that will alsc
necessitate some other explanation of the origin of Saturn’s
moons, and likewise of the planets, the result of which will be
the overthrow of the original theory also at this point.

If a nebula be imagined to throw off rings by virtue of the
centrifugal force, then the breadth and thickness of the rings
must stand in a certain relation to the size of the nebula. If
we, then, think of the original nebula, we understand at once,
that its rings must have stood in somewhat the same relation
to it, as for example, the rings of Saturn stand to Saturn.
What is that relation? .

Saturn’s diameter has been found to be 76,000 miles, and
the total width of the rings together with the distances be-
tween them, 37,000 miles. The thickness of the rings is very
‘small and is supposed to be from 50 to 100 miles. It is pos-
sible that they are much thicker, but let us say that their
thickness is only fifty miles. Now, if we divide the diameter

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 241

of the plant by the thickness of the rings, we find that the latter
is 1/1520 of the former. Further, since we have found the
equatorial diameter of the nebula to have been 5,528,000,000,
miles, it follows that the ring out of which Neptune was
formed must have had a thickness corresponding to at least
1/1520 of 5,528,000,000, which is 3,636,842 miles or
about four times the diameter of the Sun. The
breadth of Saturn’s rings is 700 times .their thickness,
but since there are distances between them, let us
subtract a good round sum, so far as the nebula is concerned,
and say that the breadth of its rings was only 100 times its
thickness. If we then multiply 3,636,842 by 100 we get 363,-
648,200, which indicates in miles the breadth of the ring. If
we further multiply its breadth by its thickness and the pro-
duct of this by 17 billion miles, which is the length of the
Neptunean orbit, we get its contents, which amounts to more
than 22 septillion cubic miles. Thus we find, that this ring
would contain matter enough to form 50,000 solar system
like ours. And still we have used very conservative figures
and assumed its matter to be no denser than air.

It is evident, therefore, that the planet Neptune cannot
have been formed out of such a ring or out of a ring of such
anebula. This, then, indicates another origin of Neptune, than
that proposed by the nebular hypothesis, and another origin of
the other planets also.

Thus it is plain, at this point too, that planets are not made
of rings. Furthermore, we understand, that the rings of Sat-
urn serve some other purpose than to make moons, and that
these have an origin independent of that of the planets.

This must be said in favor of Laplace, however, that if the
solar system had been explored to the same extent in his time
as it is now, his theory would very likely never have appeared
in the form in which it is here presented. But less can be said
in favor of the modern advocates of the theory, especially after
the discovery of Neptune one thousand million miles farther
out than Uranus. John Fiske has gone even so far, that be-
fore the moons of Mars were discovered, he tried to explain, in
the light of the nebular theory, why Mars had no moons. After
the discovery of the moons of Mars, G. H. Darwin has tried to

-

242 The American Geoiogist. October, 1904.

demonstrate, by the strength of the same theory, why Mars
has fwo moons.

There are many other things that could be brought against
‘the nebular theory, for instance, the question about the origin
of the comets, which it cannot answer; but since we have al-
ready shown its untenableness, we cannot gain anything by
further argumentation against it. We may add, however, that
what we have said so far, will appear much clearer and be more
easily understood as we go on with the explanation of the real
causes which have produced the natural phenomena, which, as
we have shown, hitherto have been so totally misunderstocd.

~ (To be Continued.)

THE BARABOO IRON ORE.

By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis.

One of the notable publications relating to the iron ores of
the Northwest is that of Dr. Weidman, of the Wisconsin
survey, lately issued by the State of Wisconsin.* According to
the report this iron ore occurs in the “pre-Cambrian,” in
which are included rhyolyte, granite and dioryte, occurring
in isolated outcrops, these all being considered parts of the
Archean. The rhyolyte is a very hard, pinkish red rock which
is usually unweathered and breaks under a stroke of the ham-
mer with sharp conchoidal fractures. It contains numerous
crystals of pinkish feldspar and translucent quartz, which are
imbedded in a very fine matrix or ground mass. It fractures
sometimes naturally in all directions, so that it appears about
the outcrops in the form of multitudes of small angular pieces.
It is frequently veined by quartz. It is described by Dr. Weid-
man as having been a surface or volcanic igneous rock, its
groundmass representing the glassy part of the igneous flow,
cooled too quickly to become entirely crystallized. It is dis-
covered microscopically that the crystals of quartz and of
feldspar contained in this rhyolyte have sometimes been bro-
ken, and that between the parts thus formed the viscous
magma has flowed. In other cases these crystals are bent.
These distortions are assigned to a date prior to the solidifica-
"_*“The Baraboo Iron Bearing District of Wisconsin,” SAMUEL WEIDMAN,

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Bulletin No, 13, Madison,
1904.

)

-
o

‘ The Baraboo Iron Ore. Wanchell. 243

tion of the rock, and are features well known in the red
quartz porphyries of the Keweenawan. The rock also shows
fluxion, poikilitic and spherulitic structures. Certain gray
sericitic schists that occur between this rhyolyte and the overly-
ing quartzyte or conglomerate are supposed to be a part of the
rhyolyte rendered schistose and sericitic by dynamic pressure
and crushing, although the zone occupied by these schists is
sometimes 150 or 200 feet wide, and ‘may in places contain
some sedimentary rock.’ In the same manner an arkose-like
schistose zone lies between the granite and the quartzyte that
overlies, and is thought to be due to alteration of the granite by
dynamic pressure. A question might arise, whether, in the
light of the author’s descriptions, the dioryte should be consid-
red a different rock from the granite. These igneous rocks
are considered the basement floor on which, with a structural
non-conformity, the quartzyte and its basal conglomerate were
deposited.

The Bazaboo series comprises three parts: (1) the Baraboo
quartzyte formation, consisting mainly of quartzyte but con-
taining also a small amount of conglomerate at its base, (2)
the Seeley slate formation, consisting of a quite uniform gray
clay slate, and (3) the Freedom formation, consisting of two
members, a lower, of iron ore, ferruginous slates, ferruginous
dolomyte and ferruginous chert, and an upper, of dolomyte.

The first mentioned of these (Baraboo quartzyte) is well
known, having been described several times by different geolo-
gists. It is unquestionably a very widespread formation, ex-
tending into northern Wisconsin, into Minnesota and_ to
northwestern Iowa. It has been styled Barron County quartz-
yte, New Ulm quartzyte and Sioux quartzyte. It is in several
places accompanied by red slate, hardened and semi-metamor-
phosed, making the well-known catlinyte in Pipestone county,
Minnesota. It was first named by Dr. C. A. White, Sioux
quartzyte, from its outcrops in northwestern Iowa. The
catlinyte beds of Pipestone county in Minnesota and of Bar-
ron county, Wis., are perhaps represented at Baraboo by the
more clayey and schistose beds enclosed in the quartzyte, now
converted to a schist, as described by Dr. Weidman, by shear
and differential movement incident to the uplifting of the
quartzyte ranges. Near Ablemain’s such uplifting so fractured

244 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

the quartzyte that on reconcentration by, white quartz it pre-
sents the composition and structure of Reibungs breccia. In
general this quartzyte is cemented by “interstitial” quartz, and
small amounts of iron oxide, chlorite and sericite.

The conglomerate underlying the quartzyte is essentially
composed, even where it lies on or near the granite, of rolled
and angular pieces of the rhyolyte, i. e., it is a quartz porphyry
conglomerate indistinguishable from the red conglomerates of
the Keweenawan. It contains, however, a little black slate,
some pebbles of greenstone and some of ferruginous chert
rocks, in that respect resembling the conglomerate underlying
the New Ulm quartzyte of Minnesota. :

The so-called “intra-formational” conglomerate beds situ-
ated on or in the qurtzyte, should not perhaps receive that des-
ignation since after careful examination microscopically by
Dr. Weidman they do not contain any pebbles of the underly-
ing Baraboo quartzyte, but consist of “pebbles of chert contain-
ing considerable iron oxide and also a few pebbles of slate, but
mainly of pebbles of vein quartz or of quartzyte like the Rib
Hill quartzyte in north central Wisconsin.” Such coarse frag-
mental material, entirely foreign to the quartzyte underlying
and overlying, indicates the sudden occurrence of powerful
transporting currents in the ocean which ordinarily deposited
the fine-grained quartzyte. What may have been the cause of
such powerful currents the author does not enquire, but it has
a suggestive relation to the Keweenawan. What may have
been the source of the ‘“ferruginous chert,” which we suppose
is the same rock as that term expresses in other publications
by the Wisconsin geologists, the author does not inquire, but
it has an important bearing on the age of the quartzyte in
which these pebbles exist.

Dr. Weidman has made a very important contribution to
geology in establishing the structural relations of the quartz-
yte to the rhyolyte and the granite of the district. Very differ-
ent conceptions of these relations had been published by dif-
ferent geologists of the Wisconsin survey. Dr. Weidman
shows by a mass of detailed field observations that the quartz-
yte is younger instead of older than the quartz porphyry, that
the structure of the region, instead of being monoclinal as
thought by Irving and by Chamberlin, or anticlinal as conceiv-

a

7
+
¥
3
+

-— ss
i)

,

The Baraboo Iron Ore-—Winchell. ~ 245

ed by Salisbury and Atwood, is synclinal and the thickness of

the formation less than half as much as calculated by the other
geologists. The writer has a personal satisfaction in this re-
sult, since, in several general discussions of the geology of the
Northwest he has compared the Baraboo region with thea
geology of Minnesota and has insisted that the Baraboo
quartzyte is later in date than the Keweenawan quartz porphy-
ries and later than the Animikie iron ore, on the ground that
its Minnesota representatives are found unquestionably to oc-
cupy such a stratigraphic position. From several calculations
the author derives an average result for the thickness of the
Baraboo quartzyte, viz: between 4000 and 5000 feet, without
allowing for any faulting. This result is probably too high,
since it is not likely that there is an absence Of such move-
ments, or even of profound faulting, such as would cause an
elongation of the surface exposure and hence an elongation of
the hypotenuse of the triangle of dip. Probably these fig-
ures, reduced fifty per cent, would more nearly express the
actual thickness.

Above the quartzyte is the Seeley slate, which is known
only by underground exploration, having no surface outcrops.
By mining operations and drilling it is traceable along the
north side of the south quartzyte range a distance of six or
seven miles. It is gray, cleaved somewhat like roofing slates,
and so soft that it can generally be whittled with a knife. It
is a sedimentary rock and its petrographic description and
composition indicate that it is not free from volcanic elements.
Indeed, its reference largely, or wholly, to the agency of
igneous action, a sedimented volcanic ash containing more or
less of other detritus, would be in keeping with the characters
given to it by Dr, Weidman. In that case it is a rotted igneous
ash modified by sedimentary elements. The fact that it shows
commonly a well developed diagonal slaty cleavage implies
differential pressure and shearing in the formation, such as
would materially affect any calculation of its thickness unless
it be allowed for, as above suggested for the quartzyte. The
thickness of this soft shaly slate is placed by the author at 500
to 1000 feet, but it may be considerably more, as only the
roughest estimates can be made. In Minnesota this slate, or
what lies above the great quartzyte, is well known, having

246 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

been penetrated by a large number of deep wells, and having
developed a thickness of nearly 2000 feet. It varies from
gray (or greenish) to red, but its products under the action
of a common drill always appear red. The earliest published
‘account of this formation is to be found in the second annual
report of the Minnesota survey, where it was described in the
record of the Belle Plaine salt well, where it was penetrated
about 500 feet. Subsequently it has been encountered in every
deep well sunk in this part of the state. It is spread out hori-
zontally over a large area in Minnesota. It is somewhat in-
terstratified with quartzyte downwardly and with sandstone
upwardly, fading out in both directions by changing to such
rocks. It extends to Sioux Falls in S. Dakota where it colors
the till locally, being charged with iron oxide. It is mentioned
in all the Minnesota reports that relate to this stratigraphic
horizon, ;

The Freedom formation, which is the iron-bearing member,
“consists of a variety of rock, including slate, chert, dolomyte,
and iron ore and all gradational phases between those kinds of
rock.” The dolomyte is said to be the most abundant of these
varieties, and alone to compose-the upper part of the Freedom
formation. Its thickness is 500 feet, but was probably at first
much more than 500 feet. In Minnesota this hori-
zon has not been distinguished, but the whole shaly mass
above the quartzyte has been considered essentially as one
formation. So far as known no dolomyte has been discovered,
but in only three instances have drill cores, or drillings been ex-
amined with care, and those pertained to the upper portions
of the member, viz: the Belle Plaine Salt well, the Mankato
deep well and the Glencoe well. The deep well at the Lake-
wood Cemetary, at Minneapolis,* was sunk into the Seeley gray
slate about 33 feet. The East Minneapolis deep well and the
Mankato deep well were limited to the upper portion of the
Freedom formation. The Glencoe deep well passed through
315 feet of red quartzyte below the Hinckley sandstone and
the Fond du Lac red sandstone, and again entered a red shale,
in which the well stopped after penetrating it 230 feet.t This
quartzyte is supposed to be the representative of the New Ulm
"-* Final Report of the Minnesota Geological Survey, vol. ii, pp. 182-186. _

j Atlas Volume of the Final Report, Minnesota Survey, plate xxxvii, Mc-
Leod county.

:

The Baraboo Iron Ore.—Winchell. 247

quartzyte which appears on the Minnesota river a few miles
south of Glencoe, which has been without exception paral-
lelized with the Baraboo quartzyte, but it may be a quartzyte
stratum separated from the main quartzyte by a stratum of
red shale. In several cases such interstratified shale beds have
been observed. The pipestone, or catlinyte, layer at Pipe-
stone, Minnesota, is a familiar instance. Indeed, the New
Ulm quartzyte itself is rather shaly than quartzitic in its lower
layers and the red color is to a large extent, a superficial
feature. The outcrop of the underlying conglomerate is so far
removed from the quartzyte outcrop that intervening room
exists for a great thickness of shale or shaly quartzyte.

The iron ore of the formation (hematite and siderite) is
somewhat different from all the iron ore deposits of the lake
Superior region in its mineralogical associations. The chief of
these differences consists in the presence of a large amount of
dolomite. This carbonate develops into important strata
which, being crystalline, are denominated marble. Much of it
is affected by the presence of iron, and sometimes by manga-
nese. The general term ferrodolomite is usually applicable.
The iron ore grades into this rock, and also into ferruginous
chert, and into ferruginous slate by insensible changes, re-
sembling in all respects the gradations seen in sedimentary
rock from one to another. The workable ore occurs at different
horizons, the deposits being conformable with the strata, vary-
ing from thirty feet thick to two hundred feet, in the form of
more or less elongated lenses. The author remarks that this
ore deposit has more similarity to the ores of post-Cambrian,
such as the Clinton ore, than any of the known ores of the

-lake Superior region. Still, notwithstanding these differences,

there are greater bonds of alliance with the other ores of the
lake Superior region by reason of which this ore can be class-
ed, with strict propriety, with the well known ores of the
Northwest. The chief difference, above noted, is one further-
more that does not always obtain, for in the eastern end of
the Mesabi iron range the iron horizon is accompanied by a
deposit of ferro-dolomite or dolomitic siderite which constitutes
a noteworthy stratum in the base of the Animikie,* and its
origin and significance have been discussed by the writer.
* Final Report of the Minnesota Geological Survey, pp. 312, 638, 997.

248 ”* The American Geologist.

In Minnesota this ferrodolomyte as a rock mass is more nearly

a dolomitic sideryte.
The author fully considers the subject of underground
water and its agency as a possible producer of this ore, as has

been urged for the other ores of the lake Superior region. By,

the steps of such investigation such origination is excluded,
because, (1) the minerals in solution in the underground

waters are not noticeably different from those in solution in

surface waters; (2) the minerals deposited in the overlying
sandstone are not iron but silica and limé, the latter in small
amount; (3) river waters often hold in solution iron in greater
quantity than is now. contained in the underground water of
the Baraboo district; (4) the iron in underground waters is
held in solution until the waters are exposed to the oxidizing
action of the atmosphere at the mouths of springs; or by the
action of iron bacteria; (5) the iron of the formation was de-
posited prior to the formation of the numerous quartz veins
that penetrate the beds, i. e. prior to the upheaval and tilting
that fractured the strata; (6) these veins are quartz, with
very small amounts of lime and of iron. sulphide, and they
must have been formed by underground waters; (7) the rela-
tions of the ore to the containing rocks in everyway indicate
that the ore originated cotemporary with the deposition of
the rocks as sediments.

As to the origin of the ore the author states that he be-
lieves that it was originally a deposit of: ferric hydrate, or
limonite, formed in comparatively stagnant and shallow water,
under conditions similar to those existing when bog or lake
ores are being formed to-day, and that such ore has been
altered by heat and pressure to hematite. He also believes that
organisms played an important part in the formation of the
strata of hematite, as well as of the strata of dolomyte and
chert—that too, although he considers the associated rocks as
a part of the Archean (Lower Keewatin). It is the first sug-
gestion of evidence of organic life in the Archean, excepting
only the Eozoon canadense whose organic nature is quite gen-
erally discredited at the present time, and whose statigraphic
position may be considerably higher than the Lower Keewa-
tin, and perhaps of the Lower Cambrian. The author believes
that the shallow waters were subject to alternating changes

The Baraboo Iron Ore.—Winchell. 249

of depth and physical surroundings, and that the waters held
considerable iron in solution derived from iron-bearing rocks
of adjacent land areas. He states in detail the evidence sup-
porting this hypothesis. But few geologists will question his
interpretation of the evidence. The idea that the iron ores of
the lake Superior region have resulted from the metasomatic
alteration of a ‘‘cherty carbonate” on a grand scale, suggested
by Irving, lingers in certain quarters to this day. Indeed it is
the fundamental conception held by the United states geolo-
gists who have labored in the Lake Superior region, although,
from the force of the evidence, more lately the presence of a
“oreen silicate’ in the original rock has been recognized as
an important source of much of the ore. That the iron now
present in the rocks had its origin in sedimentation, and dates
from the formation of the rocks themselves, and has simply
suffered transformation of its chemical composition, resulting
in different iron minerals, is becoming more and more widely
proven. This process is one of metamorphism, due to the same
forces that have converted many rocks from a state of simple
sedimentary strata into schists and gneisses. The elements
were all (or essentially all) present at first. They have taken
on new: forms of chemical combination, and have been locally
concentrated. The writer is entirely in accord with Dr. Weid-
man in this explanation. The author would have found this
theory applied to the iron ores of Minnesota by the writer
thirteen years ago (though with scant recognition of the
agency of decaying organic matter) had he consulted Bulletin
No. 6 of the Minnesota Geological Survey, pp. 103-111.* If
there be any difference between the author’s and the writer’s
views it is in relation to the environment of the sedimentary
action. The author seems to require quiet, shallow water,
subject to slight, alternating fluctuations of level, but a steadily
sinking sea bottom, the iron solution in the water derived
from adjacent land areas. Rather the writer maintained that
the sea was hot, incapable of supporting organic beings, and
that the ferric hydrate was a chemical sediment. With later
observation it has become apparent that hot waters shaded off
into tepid waters, and that chemical sediment was widely

* This view was first published in the AMERICAN GEOLoGI i
291-300, 1889, haat Minch! Ue

—

250 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

mingled with detrital sediment, thus warranting the assump-
tion of the action of organic agencies and the general cotem-
porary prevalence of ordinary detrital sedimentation at other
points. The writer believes that all the facts that have been
brought to light bearing on the origin of the lake Superior
ores warrant the conclusion that these ores in their first con-
dition resulted from the chemical action of oceanic waters on
volcanic rocks, and that they were cotemporary, from the old-
est to the youngest, with epochs of unwonted volcanic ac-
tivity. The discussion of this view as to the older iron ranges
has been presented, in an incomplete manner, in volume five of
the final report of the Minnesota survey, and earlier in Bulletin
No. 6 of the same survey.

Referring to that report for reasons for this belief, it may
be well to consider reasons for assuming that the Baraboo
ore should be assigned to a similar volcanic epoch.

t. In the final discussion of the Keweenawan igneous
rocks the writer divided them into two great divisions, to
which he gave the names Cabotian and Manitou, the former
being the older. The Cabotian contains the gabbro and anor-
thosytes, the so-called red-rocks, i. e., the red quartz porphy-
ries, the red granites and the felsytes, and numerous red-rock
surface lavas. In the Cabotian are also many important basic
lava flow rocks now much rotted. In the Manitou are only
basic lavas and alternating sandstones and shales, with rare
conglomerates, the lavas gradually fading out and giving place
to a formation of great thickness, of shale and shaly sandstone.

2. In the course of about 15 years of study and field
examination in the Archean and Taconic rocks of the lake
Superior region the writer has found no red quartz porphyry
below the base of the Animikie. It seems to be confined to the
Keweenawan. It is true that in Wisconsin are several isolated
knobs of quartz porphyry that have been assigned to the Arche-
an, but there is no evidence whatever that they are not co-
temporary with similar knobs further north that are well
known to belong to the Keeweenawan.

3. The writer has shown conclusively that the conglom-
erate lying at the base of the New Ulm quartzyte is of later
date than the Animikie and hence later than the Mesabi ore. He
accepts the unanimous assumption that the Baraboo quartzyte,

The Baraboo Iron Ore.—Winchell. 251

the Sioux quartzyte and the Barron County quartzyte are all
on practically the same stratigraphic horizon, and the same
horizon as the New Ulm quartzyte.

4. Hence the Baraboo iron ore is later than the Animikie,
and the Barahoo conglomerate and quartzyte are the sedimen-
tary equivalents of the Puckwunge conglomerate and quart-
zyte.

5. Therefore the Baraboo iron ore being later than the
red rhyolyte is in the proper stratigraphic place to be cotempor-
ary with the Manitou igneous epoch of the Keweenawan,
and was accumulated under conditions that were identical with
those shown by the writer to have prevailed when the ores of
the Vermilion range and of the Mesabi range were deposited.

The writer has described the Puckwunge conglomerate as
the fragmental ‘base of the Manitou epoch of the Keweenawan,
and non-conformable on the Cabotian, and also non-conforma-
ble (owing to subsidence of the lake Superior region) on sev-
eral older formations. The subsidence which was later and
is well known as the cause of such non-conformity of the
Upper Cambrian on older formations (even on Archean)
seems to have begun far back in the Keweenawan and to
have produced a progressive non-conformity of the Manitou
rocks (or their associated fragmentals) on the still older rocks.

The author of this volume has made an important contri-
bution to the question of the origin of iron ore, in showing that
the Baraboo iron was not the product of metasomatic alteration
of other rocks by the agency of underground water, and hence,
owing to the common links that bind it with the ore of other
iron ranges, that probably none of the lake Superior ores were
due to any important degree, to the action of underground
waters. Still such waters have played doubtless an important
part in changing the ore from one mineral condition to an-
other, and perhaps to some extent in transporting it and con-
centrating it in certain strata where heat and pressure have
co-operated to produce crystalline hematite. The author is to
be congratulated for the thorough and independent manner of
this investigation.

It would have been a fortunate thing if he had been equally
independent and thorough is assigning the Baraboo ore to its
stratigraphic place. He has tentatively put it somewhere in

252 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

the Archean, amongst the rocks that hold the ores near Mar-
quette, but it is plain that, if the foregoing exhibit of the
stratigraphic relations of the Baraboo rocks be correct, tne
Baraboo ore is chronologically about equivalent to the Manitou
epoch of the Keweenawan.

In conclusion attention may be called to a former state
ment by the writer of facts that indicate that the quartzyte at
the falls of Pokegama on the upper Mississippi is more recent
than some parts of the Keweenawan, and that hence it does not
pass below the Mesabi iron ore, but may be the equivalent of
the Puckwunge conglomerate and quartzyte. There has never
been any demonstration of the age of this quartzyte. It is
known to lie on the granite of the Giant’s range but the age of
the Giant’s range of granite is, according to H. V. Winchell
and Prof. C. K. Leith, later than the Animikie. The age of
the Giant’s range granite has pretty generally been accepted as
pre-Animikie, and hence Archean. Of course if it be later
than the Animikie it will parallelize with the granite associat-
ed with the gabbro, and the age of the ores of the Mesab:
range, in its western part at least, would come into question.

At this point the facts referred to above are apropos.
They are published in volume 5, of the Minnesota final report,
p- 992. In making a final microscopical examination of some of
the slides it was found that the conglomeratic portions of the
Pokegama quartzyte which passes below the’ ore at Prairie
River falls hold a few pebbles and fragments of rock that can
be derived only from some parts of the Keweenawan, and that
hence some part of the iron ore of the Mesabi range, as des-
cribed and mapped, is later than the Animikie and later than
some part of the Keweenawan. It is a remarkable fact also
that the rock that overlies the ore and the quartzyte, in the
vicinity of the Diamond mine, east of Pokegama falls, is a red,
soft, unctous shale undistinguishable from the shales of the
Keweenawan that are well known.

It hence appears probable that the stratigraphic relations of
some of the iron ore deposits of the lake Superior region are
not well understood and need to be re-considered. Taking
together the facts about Pokegama falls and the new develop-
ments at Baraboo it seems to be pretty certain that there is an
ore horizon in the Keweenawan about on the chronological

“

oe The Baraboo Iron Ore—Wianchell. 253

_ horizon of the igneous rocks of the Manitou epoch. It is pos-
if sible that the next lower iron ore is similarly related to the
“ Cabotian, the oldest igneous rocks of the Keweenawan. It
would be no abnormal fact that the highly ferruginous shales
of the Keweenawan should be found to afford in some places
so concentrated a condition of their contained hematite as to
become economically a valuable iron.

THE CRETACEOUS EXPOSURE NEAR
: CLIFFWOOD,N. J.

= By Epwarp W. Berry, Passaic, N. J.
PLATE XV.

In the January number of the AMERICAN GEoLocisr there
_- © appeared an article criticising certain views ascribed to the
writer as to the proper correlation of the Cretaceous clays
-which outcrop on Raritan bay in the vicinity ef Cliffwood, N.
fi J. The Article in question is written in a tone that should not
be permitted in a scientific discussion, particularly as the pa-
. per criticised was intended as a contribution to paleobotany,
the geological discussion being merely introductory and ad-
eS vancing’ no new ideas or correlations; on the contrary it con-_
a tained simply a brief resume of the opinions of the several ge-
ologists who had studied this exposure and whose mature
opinions had been before the public for a number of years.
Should subsequent facts warrant, which, it seems to me they
fall far short of doing at present, the reference of these
clays to the Raritan formation I would most readily “accept
this conclusion, although the evidence of the contained flora,
largely misunderstood and misquoted by Knapp, does not
warrant such a conclusion.
_ Professor Wm. B. Clark who named the Paci tion and
mapped it for the United States Geological Survey, and whose
views I followed in a general way in my article above referred
to writes me in part as follows in response to a letter asking
for his opinion: ;
“There is no question as to the sharpness of the Matawan-Raritan
contact from the Potomac valley northward. It is one of the most

marked stratigraphic features in the Maryland-New Jersey Cretaceous
belt. As we approach the Raritan river at Cliffwood bluff coming

254 3 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

north, however, this sharp distinction between the Matawan above and
the Raritan below is less pronounced and I have always been a good
deal puzzled by the Cliffwood section as there seemed to be a lens of
different materials lying between the typical Raritan below and to the
westward and the typical Matawan above and to the eastward. This
lens it is true is more sandy in places than the typical basal beds of the
Matawan, but it contains, on the other hand, patches of glauconitic
materials which I have never observed in the Raritan. Furthermore,
while the contact of the Cliffwood lens with the more characteristic
Matawan above is not sharp and distinct* there is a marked difference
between these materials and the typical Raritan below.

“Considering all the evidence at hand it seemed to me that this
lens of dark clays and laminated sands, at times glauconitic, ought
rather to be included with the Matawan above than with the Raritan
below. I therefore incorporated it tentatively with the Crosswicks clays,
or basal Matawan, to which I am still inclined to believe it belongs
since reading your article on the paleobotany. It is not surprising that
a large proportion of Raritan plant species still continue on into the
lower Matawan as the same takes place in the formations below the
Raritan in Maryland and Virginia. . . . It would not be surprising
that with the advent of Matawan deposition certain small included areas
of deposition might exist at the time of the encroachment of the sea
which would be contemporaneous with the more distinctly marine
facies elsewhere. The production of glauconite is an extremely signi-
ficant fact and is characteristic of the opening of Matawan deposition
throughout the entire region to the southwestward as far as the Poto-
mac valley where the Matawan finally disappears by the transgression
of the Eocene. It is irregularly glauconitic and often sandy south of
the Delaware aithough no fossil leaves have been found as yet.

“The point at issue does not strike me as of any great importance
and if further investigation should show conclusively that these beds
at Cliffwood should be included in the Raritan I should have no hesi-
tancy in accepting the results. I think the data thus far furnished,
however, point more strongly to the Matawan te Be the haa but
here is a chance for an honest difference of opinion.”

Personally I have not studied the exposure to the south-
westward, nor do I feel competent to pass judgment on the
stratigraphic details, and I desire in the following notes to set
forth the evidence that is furnished by the plant remains.

The typical Raritan flora contains numerous old types, rep-
resentatives of plants from the arctic Urgonian (Kome beds),
such as Gletchenia micromera Heer; representatives of Cyca-
dinocarpus, which is almost exclusively a Triassic and Ju-
rassic genus; representatives of Csekanowskia which is a

* This statement should be qualified considerably.

WEN wan
V7 mA ehah
ah at 8 a +

‘AMUN (COSHT) VNITIIOVUS) VIONOAS AO SHNO)

"“AIXXX “IOA ‘GSIDOTONY NVOLUANY FH,

“AX aLvid

- . a)
= Stott
= it ed =
_—* ae 7 . a - y 7 ’
ae : j- 7 :
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»
Fr .

: LIBRARY
se OF IHE
UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS

Cretaccous Exposure Near Cliffwood, N. J.—Berry. 255

Jurassic genus; Brachyphyllum which is chiefly a Jurassic
genus, although it occurs also in the Triassic; representatives
of Batera and the allied genus Sclerop/iyllina which are
Triassis, Jurassis, and Necomian.

Podozamites angustifolius (Eichw.) Schimp, which is re-
corded by Heer from the Jurassic of Siberia and Spitzbergen
reappears in the Raritan.

In addition to these ancient types, the Raritan abounds
in species, often of common occurrence, which have not been
detected at Cliffwood. Such examples are Sequoia hetero-
phylla Vel., Widdringtonia (two species), Celastrophyllum
(nine species), Myrica (seven species), and species in thirty-
three other genera which are unrepresented at Cliffwood.

Knapp erroneously says that 64 per cent. of the Cliffwood
species are identical with the Raritan flora at Woodbridge.
As a matter of fact, in the paper he has criticised only 29 per
cent. of the plants were represented in the whole Raritan
formation,

Further contributions have increased the percentage of
Raritan species found at Cliffwood to 37 per cent. Against
this may be placed 44 per cent of forms common to the Ceno-
manian of this country and Europe, the detailed distribution
of which may be readily seen in the table of species accom-
panying this article.

By far the most common fossils at Cliffwood are Cunning-
hamites squamosus Heer, Dammara cliffwoodensis Hollick,
Sequoia reichenbachi (Gein.) Heer, and Sequoia gracillima
(Lesq.) Newb. Of these, Sequota reichenbachi ranges from
the Neocomian through the Danian, and is a very widespread
form. The balance are peculiar to Cliffwood and higher hori-
zons, thus Cunninghamites squamosus occurs elsewhere only
in the Senonian of Saxony.

The imperfectly petrified cones of Sequoia gracillima are
excessively common at Cliffwood, the writer having collected
hundreds of specimens not only from the wash on the beach
but also in place in the clays. They are sometimes very per-
fectly preserved and are very characteristic objects (see plate),
yet to my knowledge they have never been detected in the
Raritan formation, although the latter has been opened up
everywhere for the clay and been extensively collected over.

(os “t

ne A

‘

250

Pah USP IONE 9 Oe SRG re Mama nse

The American Geologist.

October, 1904.

NEOCOMIAN

URGONIAN

ALBIAN i

“ce

zippel
Gymnospermous cone...........

“ae

Laurus hollae
As Ol eA oa seas cates ros gtawalig calle ees

So Solon b25,¢nea hese we sheen fos sige) gow ted eee bs

17) PT ORG GTO Al cs =. ee Rmerdsy trea shlece eb ereuel ice os
Laurophyllum augustifolium............. eh ceesel ee te
Liriodendropsis augustifolia.............. SSE ho ;
Magnolia capellinil........ Ree Sh va PR En ES ea

obtusata......
Y speciosa.....
i tenuifolia
“ae

woodbridgensis ....
Microzamia (?) sp......... ey

,

al teeweele

g 2 gle | q
MATAWAN » | oo =o |e o| ee
S a > rt S| Ss). BR] eS Te 2
= ae ee ee ee ee se
po Mea ok inet te TES EF a Zale a
io) a = i 2 S s a eta) ro)
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; : co | Ca
Cer paucidentatum............,c.-cescesese|ecesee|eecsee|aocest | oven al eoreval ene eh Seer seid | 80a oon: owt aaa
Andromeda parlatorii SLES: 2 ee: ees eee / i tlt ka pbesfen oi * s.3ace |Sob cag Ease .
Aralia brittomiana ....0..ccec00ccceeeeeeeeeteeees eae aA Pee ae ok SLs Paceeed to sev ce cecel| ass ie
Aralia mattewanensis........... | atthe
Aralia groenlandica.............. BOE enh
_ Aralia palmata.......... MnP oats. . ene lees
rai astaVITATIAL Joss .2cnoocoeneeose ne Stag ap nerves Cents: nals ps, Pee ais ctrl tht oie
Palit MEO WELL wsses peas caees toe cech cee Rte AEE Oa eta tsh es OC coal mares PRA ra tl et ok
Araucarites OVatuS............... ER Ree BamPnn toed | Mose eh Perf Mae Se Pek fam es ass
ISTE TNA CretaCeuqms <5 teed aleeecet Medes | Seles be ealcoaen| sede lice Back lances da ERE ress.
ss (2) bat tewyaens 6. teccnces taal tee |ldeece lero o tee pateeel maak an Sass) Ra eatteew alesse.
Banksia pusilla PS mee Sep es CrP ee Nimes ae! I Di eke ee ay Pee PY Fed oe Ved Saas
Garpolithus cliffwoodenSisin,. 5.02 e---25)- oer} en-- ales Be ee RR Cs Ee et Pad El
es drupaeformis ......... RES oR A IN a: al cet AEs Her cakes scaesleue Serer abetess i
A judg landitormis) <0.c.5. 202: beoandk |e Bilan cael witches Soke] aacupel che eee pap Pe
x OStryALQUMlis (2.5 /stsatactanatros lo ee ofa Seabee dese igoved apaesltenneostah both) eae piece PRC See
Celastrophyllum elegaus nepedl extee|nsban hdd Seiel veo sed ee s4ol apeadcchere
newberryanum Sascha, labeeaa pe" Pied Ae pen Lane eet a eta IL) 2 aus ettecabaative
Chonda rites- Hex WOSUS -.scssks-eteucte pieces POA Saar elk Metron [Po A Pe arth, (oe
Confervites dubius........ LE ies ae PO epee eee Eee YP ea ee Re ee DS FY ee eo
Cunninghamites elegaus!. 2.2 beat oes eae ee re Renee ebro tap.cis Seon se ils = oa legate
s SCUATMOSUS UNG... 5ee SARE Nines Bieete econ loty owe] oceke dogs o] tease eee PRPS re Me | Aah
Dammara® cliffwoodensisy2...0.,+...%-0¢--|- 2 aie ek algae HES wctloesen|id ave sels cokes] each oe ocean ee isa, ge
Dewalquea groenlandica.................. halK ante to PRE | See Ieee te p Oa Ls Ag es
Eucalyptus CLAD aes, 2 2s fins postoaey excel Sie ctavoe Se | oan aerac ere ae We pat pesto, FS
SOUNULZY wesc oecteaenteya cose [saan eels selecceas|eccece{ensees|eosere|eveeee| soeee boa > ae) be
Ficus atavina.cee-.-..sssseeceecees ee tinea Ba iciaste le sea | aes Be Seanrael PR bec eens lena bee 5) Bere Fe, oa Fi
bo SAL ELI CUMA te wiacst cr sceebness ca Ae Sate a oem en ge he, pee a a3 2 eta | Mees
CEST SARE (QL SOMA Vcore sok oe oe Ree oe eee ARAN Nd Ada 9 Soe Oa oP | eee ee ee KY ee i ee |
Frenelopsis hoheneggeri (?). i ee
Geinitz1a Horm OSA. 228; seve csc eoson ee doin ose eco eallic sakes nates Cates Sow eerowak Leste: | ue} eee ee ei hahowaled St) Bose
Gleichenia saundersii eee eae

x

x

seen

se enee

Moriconia cyclotoxon ..............6 ARE eS lineata See x, (Rete
Myrica cliffwoodensis ......... ES Cae ee coreelee wees cabs Gilt eas as aL 2 Reem Peel i Pare les:
soo NOC Yismct eee eek bak RSI ee brea AEE leven (teem HOreeee Aneel Bia i Sa
y
’
\
\

he wereee
ae

<7 >. 9
|oteeee
ewe
seeeee
neeeee

penne
sevens
~ Saas
Neeeee
jeteeee
| feeeee
sees
seeeee
teeeee
ee eeee

saeeee

Block Is.

eeeees
seteee
seeeee
seeeee
seneee
eevee

taeees

steer
we eeee
seen
tenes
weneee
se eeee
seeees
a eeeee
teen
sete
ween
ween
see
teen
ween
saben
teen
ween
weeee
stew
whee
wee eee
seen
tee
seeeee
ne eeee

(GAULT) °

‘7

— Cretaceous

Raritan

x

x
x

seteee
weeeee
-
se eeee
steeee
steeee
te eeee
weeeee
tenes
ween
anaes

seewee

x
x

x
ak
x
x

x

x
?

Bohemia

we eeeele

x

seeccelscoeoele

Saxony

steeee
senna

5 a] aoa

dewweste

wena

Moravia

ers

slew eeee

se eeee

CENOMANIAN

Greenland

neeeee

Mill Creek

XX aceeee
x oes

weeeee

tle wwwweleee
-

sewewnlae

Peace and

Pine Rivers

seeeee

a leeeneele

SENONIAN

Bohemia

Greenland

Vancouver

DANIAN

Exposure Near Cliffwood, N. J.—Berry. 257

-

4

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m a
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| c
ct) °o
isa) |

- aee wee
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wee lw eeneeln weeee
*.
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258 The American Geologist.

NEOCOMIAN URGONIAN ALBIAN

MATAWAN*

Silesia

Kan.

Potomac
Spitzbergen
Black Hills
Kootanie
Austrian,
Switzerland
‘Tuscaloosa,
Belvidere,
Staten Is.
Long Is

eee teen ween wee wae wa wene waeeee wewnee

DIMM ELASSAL .caceo.ces cicase¥essvowstcry coe oma) op Oded Gee hat aieead seme getoeeeee
SIMO PTA VA Liat. cot. awenennncmcesscane [aasecetedeadelasec se eeuepele ers
Palinurus integrifolius...........1.c.cccce00|ecsons | ATEN acne ae Oe
Bhidomites (2)-cliffwoodensis 2... 2. cas:1 ayaleeseae cancel ecote clans = eee ieee lcas cal adie
nM S AC OlICAtUNUS..1 05.2025: <cos teas pogtenese eel meee |e eae ecees |
FoRS ATMALLE WATIENSIS © «sens shes cote sete eeeesee | aece eee eee Moco eee ae |) cay] capsee] Secale
Brtyoxylon, hollick..s.0,p2desen semesters |
Podozamites MarginatuS.. ...4......tssseee[eveees
Bapalités teniifoliis...c-2h ices staccsso-neep eee
Proteoides daphnogenoides............ gree Sate
Protophyllocladus subintegrifolius.....}......
QOuwercus: holliCkio SA acecee work Oke ;
- NOMESSI so eeeeeee. we eet Sees ee eee eae
5 MOTTISOMIANG.... ceece osecesee Saleces
y (?) novae-caesareae.............]....08
cf COPFiMOIdEs et A. b.a cect fetes
ve Sie -csse Measenenrece seeamerears seen heetas| aceast
Khammnus inaeqiilaterts - i000 sek. podteceues
4 NOVA-CAGSATEAEN ost ke eece teckel ele | igacaecades|ea dens] ae docd|atnt oil eee: el eae rn 3
Salix, maa tiewamMensiSsceriatcs se setae | eae
*F*-rinee kad ods dn, adem Renee cee ees Nene See ph Papers (ieee rene feel Magis ars hn ey Se
“ proteaefolia flexuosa.......... Maer Beer Reese: | Fative|'ssoeee] e083 | cataaa |e) ove] soceadl kana ee x

eee leew eee wee eee ween n Henne Ha eeee wewwee
ween nel aww enn a aneee
eee eel eee eee peewee eee een Fete ee FEE eee ww eeee

teen en tweens tweens

Ala

eee tween new ene ww eee cee eee lee een Hee eew laws n ee Hewes ween wees

eee sewn es wee ewe ewww w en eee eee Hee ew el ww eeee

tee weeleeeees| serene) seaeee sence |seeeus | weeeeslseeenelserens seeeen | eeeeee

see e eel ewww wel ee eeee wee eee weeeeelseeees eeeeeslaesenes saeeee eeeees aaeeee

teen el ww meee eee e ee wee ee bee w eel eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eeee | HHew ee eHeeee
see eee cee eee | eeeeesl weeeee
eee wwe ee wee eee wee wen eeeeee eeeeee

tem ee we wew el eee eee wa eeee seeeee

Ree ween el ewe e ne ween et wwe ee ewes Hee eee wee ee wee een Hwee THE EEe

Sassarras =a CUuLllObUmym acca eee In eee
2 progenitor ...... decervdoctocgeeseeed| teave|sstcuglaceods|octecele oencohedsetdl esta eae ea aa eo x

Sapindus apiculatus....cgds.sieel aAcccees| caster] asSane|uncees| seeeeghs «las paces feese nal aahe ae ata cr
= ION TISOM 1s 303. oes 3Fb sco crkross acetal eee |e eteal eaters eae locas eae ees ee ye x

Sequbia rach limag, ilk cid deateas dose hiacdal eee ee hea plea eee p Gad 8 2 Sn re BRA
fu FEICHeMDA Cy. tees saeee eee Wale: | exe alll eee bain Pee > joe oe) Sas Parent <2

sewer leew een eww wee wawe ne seewns | tweeee seeewn swaeeel eenene

= TNUCTOMA TAL. yoke eile ee eseeceee]occace| ootece| cenceslonsee ales cena) dvcsec]¢ stenctoee ral aan aaa na
a Snowili bilobatamace cc... isccsse oN al Sece cal oe Sccees le nncts| cocces] cca colle eces ataeenl Coenen nea f
ce

SPs Sach vehacevasaua'e sou dee eames DEO Tae teen cee] eee al Sete eee os ce [z-s-| rere theca ee

“

MALLE WANENSE. a5. tstcesteaccecaoees lnsavesliot ae liaecen|enemeolnccemet be teak

eee ew eee el ewe wne seeeeel eeeeee

>

This is a very significant fact, an abundant and well pre-
served type such as this far outweighing merely negative evi-
dence or percentages of species common to two’ formations.

In considering the members of the genus Aralia which are ‘
found at Cliffwood we find that the one species otherwise con-
fined to the Raritan (Aralia palmata) is not exactly identical

*Carpites minutulus Lesq. recorded from the Denver group at Golden, Col., ‘
has recently been detected at Cliffwood, N. J.

+ Localities under this species represent foliage doubtfully related to the
cones of the Matawan.

oe

\

ot .
a = = -
(GAULT) CENOMANIAN a SENONIAN DANIAN
| Tale irs
z Ad BY | 9
eee te) ai-|2ie] 2 22/2 |<¢ eleleial\¢
Seis | alee. | &labrore | Ee leoba last a! 81 8 ts Ba We
25 (3) ol 2 ° s rT) i233 S ° OE h ee (S} < eo o OP Pa
ES RE a x | $a] 2 7.7 he a eis} 6s
es lalelealals/s/S alas lans le |slalsis/siais
; }
Cea oh aes. scl. dscns |cceeos| soocas Beales ca pee coat es Oe ea Pe a Rs sea Ch Fat heey:
2s Sy SESE Ai RS b= TRF Re Fane ae SMEAR IAL cos tele ep2b lair fp eoxe
Pee ftil cscces|i os. rene teae|saeefocneeanesaeseafestelonnteneaafeteslecnnteeeaneasl see sepeeitee
(gs 0) SSE ARIES RESO CEES Fe Pete De DOO Vsistaa Pde ade oedis fos teed do OPMDMMEE Pexiotal av ealyeraecdecbese
RMR eee Gas tae co a ee al aces] soup oueiccfssvacafeedone] yoda] eeseda|cecens REPS etd a olen Pri Dee
eecccslececee Mi faweencleccecclevecce] Ki [esccccleccccclovccce|sccers|ccccce|evcces[ecsees|eoceeeleccces|eveses Brag 2 peace eueses
pond O82 “GR Be ea Rebar ee lhcd eae Paar iereeae FW Bsc feed URS | a
x x Ki facecec|accccclececee Kf eceeee Be ls sa hfe seses |osvecc| ab oie] oc dbedl ee wetdivecgse| covasall eddbualeceubel'<s cats
eet shoal Bs edies.dcoas fees cosnsfocnce seevchocoas le Ptapieleam
Bon pei! eS) NM EA ae Pe > tal MND | HER ee! Peer Far ad Ea See Poel Borate Nepean +e fen
|
SG dS tea ea Ss bas a se Bg Poca Maes, Be eg act.”
PM A CPLEN, Stcoersh) ScnOrs| occcead ass os feavexaccsaca|ecns ve pai woatt a cenlonchae|ssteec'| axtvodluaaccedgedocaiecwed teenage baa
Sage at BO gee a a Fs Re WS to Ri Wea ed sed
Pee Bee Spe Reel Oy ev Fal maces [Sad eget oe fh Masao Neola < <tbe| <oae| vcsena| shea cad Seatss]|s ates sheatenel nsslems toes aes [eee oe
> al BRP 2B) el Fed Bigs so5 er] epee >: A ance eerdes heotoe,|tneees bee ses] ce ser] eaeeepeetrete Bethe saab |. Pea es
og cy SEES SR Pay Sih ee eae Ra Fao Bre Fiche pte nek > oe Die I Sas Wi
Sete Poe eee Bag A icapad| oncpacl cmmanclvenedel adabwulctnanoleonveclscegad|stccccleconsofesscualacosdalscehinl dqdssa/dactcsfecdece
>. a) Se Peed Ceres Pee eee) KE feccece Revel roah nels cones sce val che oun [casccs wens call Creams Ki] cadge[oescve|scccce
trilaedess PATH Crates oes Coctiot se a)use as Pd Eee Bc Sel Msi ne eed pe Ase bot (eed) Bee a ee PRR
spiel panes = Soul fot Me oo Mea] ea ined Fide en Rice. ill pal el ORO: ced LB et toy aac A bs | RPC Ue. id ag
aig tele tecee | bead SN eee | doped sleet, 5 SN PSR ete ral ee erty Wes) ig ay CE De ad a gS (es eee Bes
x x Me los 6d el ccccce| ccccka} sccese)sccoenleccco] ecccce| pecces| asesba|-eadecleveace}accseclscceas Re BF Nook abs
i bs ie eae i eet
but shows a progressive development of lobes, and is more
abundant in the later formation. Of the other species of this
genus two are very large-leaved Cenomanian forms (raviiana
and ftowneri). In the genus Quercus we find at Cliffwood a
representative of a Laramie species, another common to the
Dakota group, a third closely related to the living Quercus
prinoides Willd.
: None of the six Matawan species of this genus are found
x in the Raritan, in fact the genus is only sparingly represented
7 : .
a in that formation.
4
Ry
g ‘
-

Gs

&

_ Pie) vee f
we ates Neatuty pt ere acer Sad

4 a“ Le ee Ne ae 6 ee le ee ee a weg
Oy Teena ag gees vd th eadyy als pte By 3 52 ieee >

260 The American Geologist.

The two species Rhamnus and the four species of Ster-
culia all point to the relation of the Cliffwood flora to those of
higher horizons. .

In the genus Neluimbo we have a-small leaved species at
Cliffwood which Hollick considers as probably identical with
his Nelwmbo laranuensis from the Laramie formation.

Further than this, if we were to eliminate from our discus-
sion Raritan forms of rare occurrence in the Matawan, and
evidently waning type, such as Tricalycites. papyraceous and
Protophyllocladus subintegrifolius, each represented by but a
single specimen, the differences between the two floras would —
be greatly emphasized. ’

The Cliffwood clays also contain many representatives of
distinctly later types—thus Viburnum has two positively iden-
tified species, the genus being unrepresented in earlier strata.*
Similar evidence is furnished by representatives of the genera
Arisaema, Ficus, Banksia, Laurus, Magnolia, Myrsine, Sapin-
dus, etc.

The botanical evidence is capable of much fuller amplifi-
cation than I have thought necessary to give it in the foregoing
notes, and I have no hesitation in saying that the Cliffwood
flora is not only perfectly distinct from the Raritan flora, but
that the old types in the latter are’ replaced by more modern
types in the former, and clearly point to the greater age of
the Raritan flora. If subsequent facts should prove the in-
timate stratigraphic connection of these beds with the
Raritan the flora would nevertheless prove that this horizon
(at Cliffwood) is a biological, if not a stratigraphic unit.

* A species from the Raritan referred to the genus by Newberry is obviously
not a Viburnum,

-

i’

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 261

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

The occurrence and exploitation of petroleum and natural gas in Ohio.
Joun AvAms Bownocker. Fourth series, Bulletin No. 1, of the

* Geological Survey of Ohio, Epwarp Orton, Jr. State Geologist,
Columbus, O. December, 1603, pp. 325, xxi with maps, 6 plates.
Excepting a brief historical sketch of the organization and work of

‘the Geological survey of Ohio by Prof. Orton, this volume is devoted

to oil and gas by Prof. Bownocker. The chapters are; The oil and gas
producing*rocks of Ohio; The Trenton limestone as a source of oil and
gas; The Clinton formation as a source of oil and gas; The Carbonif-
erous rocks as a source. of oil and gas; The origin of oil and gas,
and geological conditions under which they are found

Above the Trenton limestone, the lowest gas producing rock of
Ohio, commercial quantities of oil and gas have been found in a large
number of formations reaching as high as the Monongahela forma-
tion, the Upper Productive Coal Measures of the Carboniferous. The
author discusses fifteen. He gives in detail he histgry of exploitation
at the various fields, entering into the methods of various municipalities
to secure free gas for manufacturing establishments, and cheap gas for
the citizen. Toledo has had a very unfortunate and costly experience.
After an expenditure of two millions of dollars to establish a munici-
pal gas plant it has now only an annual income of $6,500, derived from
the rent paid by a private company for the use of the city’s distribut-
ing gas lines. The history of Findlay reads like a romance—discovery,
excitement, speculation, extravagant use and waste, boom, wane, col-

lapse, and a scampering of the speculators to the new fields of Indiana.

Oil when it accompanied gas, was at. that time regarded a nuisance.
This was in the eighties. Gradually, as the prevalence of oil in the
same regions and in the same rocks, became an aggressive economic
fact, efforts were turned to’its utilization. At the date of 1gor the
Trenton limestone produced in Ohio the enormous supply of 16,176,292
barrels. The greatest supply from this source in Ohio was in 7896, reach-
ing 20,575,138 barrels. The total oil supply in the United States for
those years was respectively 69,289,104 barreis and 60,960,361 barrels.
Oil is therefore now by far the greater of these sources of wealth,
but according to symptoms that are well known it also is fast going
over the same road to exhaustion. Wells are being abandoned, and
the great flowers are much reduced, salt water threatening to be their
doom. The counties of the state have all been tested by drilled wells,
some of them having scores and even thousands, so that the resources >
of the state in this direction are practically kiiown. The reservoirs, or
“pools” of oil as well as of gas have probably all been discovered.
This report serves to put on record and to preserve the history of
what has been probably the most important and exciting run of

= >? wie:
SA aes)

262 The American Geologist. | October, 1904,
economic geological exploitation ever witnessed. It has not involved
so large sums of money as some of the mining enterprises of the Rocky
mountain region, but it has been spread over a greater area, and has
affected the happiness of a greater, number of people.

The hight of the industry has gradually moved eastward and south-
eastward, at the same time being centered in later formations. The
Clinton formation supplies the gas at present consumed at Columbus
and surrounding country, taken from the wells near Lancaster and
Homer about forty miles east of Columbus. In Washington county in
the eastern part of the state, and in other counties lying on the Ohio
river both gas and oil are obtained in large quantities from the upper
portions of the Carboniferous formation.

In reading the pages of this report the geologist is painfully struck
by the use made of the following stratigraphical terms:

First Cow Run sand. ae

Second Cow Run sand.

Big Injun sand.

Squaw sand.

Hurry-up sand.

Goose Run sand.

Such trivial names, applied by the operators and current in the lo-
calities where these sands are known, might be replaced by terms more
in keeping with the science—at least they might be restricted as local
and vulgar terms not appropriate for the dignity of geological nomen-
clature.

As to the origin of gas and petroleum the author states the argu-
ments for the chemical, or inorganic theory as well as those of the
organic or geological theory. While admitting that no conclusion, has
been reached by scientists, and that therefore no positive statement
can be made, it is apparent that the author inclines to the organic
origin of these substances. His summary of the investigations of the
chemical processes is interesting, and the facts as to the organic
sources and the geological conditions necessary for their existence are
concisely yet convincingly set forth. |

The volume is altogether one that is remarkable for the mass of
detailed facts both historic and scientific which it presents bearing
on this industry in Ohio, and for the reserve and modesty with which
its conclusions are drawn. N. H. W.

United States Geologic Map. Cottonwood Falls (Kansas) Folio (No.

10o9.). CHARLES S. Prosser and J. W. BEEDE.

This folio contains a geologic map and description of the various
formations found in the Cottonwood .Falls quadrangle in central Kan-
sas. The formations belong in the upper and lower portions respective-
ly of the Carboniferous and Permian systems. This region became
classic in American geology more than forty years ago from thé ani-
mated discussion over the question whether the rocks were of Carbon-
iferous or Permian age.

ry 4

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 263

A’brief description of the formations was published by professor
Prosser in December, 1902, in the Journal-of Geology; but the folio
contains a more detailed description accompanied by various sections.
The descriptions are of general interest for in many cases they are not
confined to the area of the quadrangle, but give the distribution and
character of the more important formations from the quadrangle south-
ward into the southern part of the state and northward to Nebraska.
The following are some of the more important and interesting forma-
tions, especially from an economic standpoint. The Cottonwood lime-
stone, which is a massive stratum about 6 feet thick, composed to a
large extent of foraminiferal tests belonging to the genus Fusulina.
This is the most valuable construction stone in Kansas, which appar-
ently loses its marked lithologic character in the southern part of the
state, but to the northward it has been followed into southeastern Ne-
braska. The Wreford limestone is the next higher massive one with
a thickness of 40 feet, which in part is very cherty and is the lowest
of the conspicuous cherty limestones of the “Flint Hills” region. Sixty
to seventy feet higher is the Florence flint, 20 feet thick, succeeded di-
rectly by the massive Fort Riley limestone, which has a thickness of
40 feet and is extensively quarried at various localities in the state.
This was one of the first Permian limestones to be named and de-
scribed in the state and its distribution has been traced from southern
Kansas into southern Nebraska. The highest of the conspicuous lime-
stones is the Winfield, which generally contains numerous large con-
cretions that weather to a rusty color, and it forms a marked strati-
graphic horizon across central Kansas.

The line of division between the Carboniferous and Permian sys-
tems is drawn with a query at the base of the Wreford limestone,
which is identical with the horizon selected by Dr. Frech for the line
of division between these two systems. Following the Washington
meeting of the International Congress of Geologists Dr. Th. Tscherny-
schew, the noted Russian geologist, studied the Kansas river section
from Manhattan to Junction and later published the following state-
ment: “The layers of the Neosho, and perhaps the lowest part of the
Chase [the Chase consists of the. Wreford, Matfield, Florence, Fort
Riley, Doyle and Winfield formations] appear to be analogous to the
Schwagerinen [the upper stage of the unquestioned Carboniferous]
in Russia, while the remaining part of the Chase and the layers of the
Marion one must recognize as strata homotaxial with the Russian
Permo-Carboniferous and lower Permian.”

In a paper published nine years ago in the Journal of Geology by
professor Prosser, the provisional line of separation between the Car-
boniferous and Permian systems was drawn at the top of the Florena
shales in the lower part of the Garrison formation, 130 feet below the
base of the Wreford limestone, which is very near the horizon that at
a later date has been selected by the European authorities for the line
of division between these two systems.

264 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

The folio also clearly shows the unexpected folding which the rocks
of this quadrangle have undergone. Attention was first directed to this
folding by professor Prosser in 1894, which had been overlooked by
other geologists whé"supposed that the rocks of central Kansas had a
nearly uniform dip of small amount to the northwest. In an earlier
section along the Coffonwood river the geologist failed to recognize
the reappearance of the Cottonwood limestone in ascending the river,
due to an anticlinal fold, and so it was given a new number and re-
garded as a distinct and higher limestone.

Redio-Activity py E. RutHerrorp, MacDonald Professor of Physics,
McGill University, Montreal. University Press, Cambridge, 1904,
309 pp.

Amidst the flood of papers, often immature and incomplete, relat-
ing to radio-activity, which have appeared within recent years, it is a
distinct pleasure to meet with one in which the subject is treated in a
comprehensive as well as calm and judicial manner. In the work issued
under the above title professor Rutherford has brwught together the
available information relating to the so-called radio-active minerals
in the form of a somewhat brief summary of twenty-seven pages. The
remainder of his book is given up to a discussion of the Ionization The-
ory of Gases; Methods of Measurement; Nature of the Radiations;
Rate of Emission of Energy; Properties of the Radiations; Continu-
ous Production of Radio-active Matter; Radio-active Emanations; Ex-
cited Radio-activity ; Radio-active Processes; and Radio-activity of the
Atmosphere and of Ordinary Materials. Abundant references and
footnotes serve to make the book a very satisfactory bibliography of
the subject.

Incidental reference may be made to an earlier work by Dr. Philip
Browning, of Yale University, entitled An Introduction to the Rarer
Elements, which forms a very convenient supplement to the work of
Rutherford, above noted. This last, aside from giving a brief historical
sketch of each of the so-called rare elements, mentions the natural
minerals in which it occurs, the typical compounds formed, their prop-
erties, and method of extraction. G. P. M.

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY,

ABBE, CLEVELAND, JR.
Earthquake records from Agana, island of Guam. (Ter. Mag.
Atmos. Hlec., Tune, 1904, pp. 81-85.)

ANON.

Preliminary report on the building stones of Nevada, including
a brief chapter on road metal. Bull. Dept. Geol. and .Min., Univ.
Nevada, vol. 1, part 1, June, 1904. Not paged.

Author's Catalogue. 265

ASHLEY, GEO. H.
The Cumberland Gap coal field. (Min. Mag., vol. 10. pp. 94-100,
Aug., 1904.)

BASSLER, R. S. (E,. O. ULRICH and).
A revision of the Paleozoic Bryozoa. Part 2, Trepostomata.
(Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 47. (vol. 2, Quart, Issué) pp. 15-56, 1904.)

BEEDE, J. W. (and A. F. ROGERS)

Coal Measure Faunal Studies, III. Lower Coal Measures. (Kans.
Univ. Sci. Bull. vol. 2, pp. 459-473, June, 1904.)

BLAKE, W. P.

Superficial hlackening and discoloration of rocks in desert re-
gions. (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Lake Sup. meeting, Sept., 1904.

BOWMAN, ISAAC.
Deflection of the Mississippi. (Science, vol, 22, pp. 273-277, Aug.
26, 1904.)

CAMPBELL, M. R.

Description of the Latrobe quadrangle, U. S. G. S., Latrobe
Folio, No. 110, 1904.)

CHAMBERS, R.

Geomorphic origin and development of the raised shorelines of
the St. Lawrence valley and Great Lakes. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18,
pp. 175-180. Sept., 1904.) ;

CUSHMAN, J. A.

Notes on the Pleistocene fauna of Sankaty Head, Nantucket,
Mass. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 159-174. Sept., 1904.)
DAVIDSON, GEORGE.

The glaciers of Alaska that are shown on Russian charts or men-

tioned in older narratives. Eleven charts. (Trans. & Proc. Geog.
Soc. Pac., vol. 3, Series 2. June, 1904. pp. 1-98.)

ECKEL, E. C.

Brown hematite deposits of eastern New York ana western New
England. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol 78, p. 432, Sept. 15, 1904.)
FARRINGTON, O. C.

Some notes on the Cerro Mercado. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p.
345. Sept. 1, 1904.)

FORSTNER, Wm.

The quicksilver deposits of California. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78,
p. 385, Sept. 8, 1904.)

GARRISON, LYNWOOD F.

The genesis of limonite ores in the Appalachian. (Eng. Min.
Jour., vol. 78, p. 470, Sept. 22, 1904.)

GILPIN, EDWIN.

The Mira grant, Cape Breton. (Proc. N. S. Inst. of. Science, vol.
11, pp. 89-94, July, 1904.)

HAMILTON, W. R. (H. H. KESSLER and)

The orbicular gabbro of Dehesa, California. (Am. Geol., Sept.,
1904, vol. 34, pp. 183-140.)

266 The American Geologist. October, 1904.

HENRICH, CARL.
The Guanajuato mining district. III. (Min. Mag., vol 10, pp. 101-
108, Aug., 1904.)

HERRICK, C, L.
Lake Otero, an ancient salt lake basin in swutheastern New
Mexico. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 174-189, Sept., 1904.)

HIND, WHEELTON.
The Type of Aviculipecten. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 200, Sept.,
1904.)

HOBBS, W. H.
Tectonic Geography of eastern Asia, II. (Am.°*Geol., vol. 34, pp.
141-151, Sept., 1904.)

HULST, N. P.
Titaniferous iron. ores. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p. 350, Sept. 1,
1904.)

HUNDESHAGEN, L.
An interesting occurrence of platinum. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol, 78.
p. 344, Sept. 1, 1904.)

KEMP, J. F.
The formation of veins, a brief statement of general principles.
(Min. Mag., vol. 10, pp. 89-938, Aug., 1904.)

KESSLER, H. H. (and W. R. HAMILTON)
The orbicular gabbro of Dehesa, California. (Am. Geol., vol. 34,
pp. 133-140, Sept., 1904.)

KEYES, C. R.
Bolson plains and the conditions of their existence. (Am. Geol.,
vol. 34, pp. 160-164, Sept., 1904.)

PECK, F. B.

The Atlantosaur and Titanotherium beds of Wyoming. (Proc.
& Coll. Wyo. Hist. & Geol. Soc., vol. 8, pp. 1-17, Jan. 16, 1903.)
PECK, F. B.

The cement belt in Lehigh and Northampton counties of Penn-

sylvania—a description of the geological formations. (Mines and
Minerals, vol. 25, pp. 58-57, Sept., 1904.)

PETERSON, O. A.
Recent observations on Daimonelix. (Science, vol. 22, p, 344,
Sept. 9, 1904.)

READ anni).
The alkali deposits of Wyoming. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 164-
169, Sept. 1904.)

RICHARDS, JAMES H.
The purposes of the American Mining Congress. (Eng. Min.
Jour., vol. 78, p. 238, Sept., 1904.)

ROGERS, A. F. (J. W. BEEDE and)
Coal Measure Beane Studies, III, Lower Coal Measures. (Kans™
Univ. Sci. Bulli, vol. 2, pp. 459-473, June, 1904.)

——

Author's Catalogue. 267

ROSE, R. S.
The geology of some lands in the upper Peninsula of Michigan.
(Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p. 343, Sept. 1, 1904.)

SELLARDS, E. H.

Study of the structure of the Paleozoic cockroaches, with de-
scriptions of new forms from the Coal Measures. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 18, pp. 213-228, Sept., 1904.)

UPHAM, WARREN,

Outer Glacial Drift in the Dakotas, Montana, Idaho and Washing-
ton. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 151-160, Sept., 1904.)

ULRICH, E, OC. (and R. S. BASSLER)

A revision of the Paleozoic Bryozoa, Part 2. Trepostomata.
(Smith. Mise. Coll., vol. 47, (vol. 2, Quart. Issue) pp. 15-56, 1904.)
WARD, L. F.

Paleozoic seed plants. (Science, vol. 22, p. 279, Aug. 26, 1904.)

WHITEAVES, J. F.

Description of a new genus and species of rugose corals from the
Silurian rocks of Manitoba. (Ott. Nat., vol. 18, p. 113, Sept., 1904.)
WIELAND, G. R.

Structure of the Upper Cretaceous turtles. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol.
18, pp. 183-197, Sept., 1904.)

WOOD, ELVIRA.

On new and old Middle Devonie Crinoids. (Smith. Mise. Coll.,
vol. 2, pp. 56-85, 1904.)

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. L. J. Harrzey has been appointed to a professorship
in the Montana School of Mines at Butte.

Pror. J. E. Topp is doing field work for the United States
Geological Survey on the Redfield and Byron quadrangles in
South Dakota.

Drs. J. W. BEEpE AND E. H. SELLarps spent the summer in
the field studying the invertebrates and plants of the Upper
Carboniferous and Permian rocks for the University Geological
Survey of Kansas.

Dr. CLARENCE L. Herrick, formerly one of the editors of
the American Geologist, died Sept. 15, at Socorro, New Mex-
ico, of tuberculosis. In a future number a suitable biographi-
cal sketch will be published.

Tue Huca Mirter MemorrAL INSTITUTE was opened
Aug. 26 by Andrew Carnegie. It is at Cromarty, and the
origination was due to the memorial ‘celebration held at Cro-
marty in 1902. The institute promises to be permanent and
useful. ,

268 , The American Geologist. October, 1904.

THE PALEONTOLOGICAL LIBRARY OF THE LATE Pror. C. E.
BEECHER of Yale University, is for sale. It comprises over
3000 pamphlets and 200 volumes. Those desiring further in-
formation should write Prof. Charles Schuchert, Yale Mu-
seum, New Haven, Conn.

Dr. A. C. LANE, STATE GEOLOGIST, has been engaged as
non-resident lecturer to give two lectures a week on
economic geology at the University of Michigan. This is
a part of the work that belonged in the department of the
late professor W. H. Pettee.

Tue KEEWATIN GREENSTONE was struck by a deep well at
Veblen, in Marshall county, South Dakota, at a depth of 860
feet. A sample of the drill-core showed a much squeezed rock
carrying a considerable fine-grained or “chalcedonic” quartz.
This formation gave a flow of soft water.

WE LEARN THAT Proressor Dr.. J. F. Pompecxy, long as-
sociated with the late professor von Zittel, is to leave the Alta
Akademie at Munich, having accepted the chair of geology in
the Landwirtschaptlichen Hochschule at Hohenheim near Stutt-
gart. We understand no chair of paleontology was established
at Munich, but only one for geology, now occupied by profes-
sor Rothpletz.

Mr. O. A. PETERSON, who has been making explorations
for the Carnegie museum of Pittsburg, in the northwestern
part of Nebraska and in Wyoming, made a somewhat pro-

longed field examination of the curious fossils kngwn as Dai- ©

monelix. In a preliminary paper (Science, Sept. 9, 1904) he
states that he believes from the facts noted that there is but
little room to doubt that Daimonelix is cast of the burrow of
a rodent. The skeletons of numerous rodent specimens were
found entombed in the giant coils.

‘Tue DeEErest O1t or GAs WELL IN THE UNITED STATES
was completed in 1898 on the William Bedell farm at West
Elizabeth, 12 miles southwest of Butler, Pa. It is 5,575 feet
deep. A Io inch casing was used to 4o feet, an 8.25 inch to
360 feet, a 6.25 inch to 1320, and from thence to the bottom
is a 6.25 inch hole. Record was kept of the geological for-
mations, the hole starting in the Carboniferous, 150 feet below
the horizon of the Pittsburg coal and ending in a_ black
shale supposed to be the Marcellus shale of the middle Devon-
ian. Prof. Hallock, of Columbia University, made some
careful tests of the temperature. At 525 feet the temperature
was 57 deg. Fah., at 2252 feet 64 deg.; at 2397 feet 78 deg. ; at
so1o feet 120 deg.; and at 5380 feet 127 degrees, an increase
with depth of about 1.4 deg. per 100 feet. An accident left the
tools and 1000 feet of the cable in the well, pluggeng it, or it
would have been drilled deeper. (Eng. Min. Jour.)

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Tur AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. XXXIV. ¢ PLATE XVI.

4

Ri Rowley ed

THE ECHINODERMATA OF THE MISSOURI SILURIAN AND A NEW BRACHIOPOD.

Le

Pel E RICAN GEOLOGIST.
Vol. XXXIV. | NOVEMBER, 1904. . No. 5.

THE ECHINODERMATA OF THE MISSOURI
SILURIAN AND A NEW BRACHIOPOD.

By R. R. ROWLEY, Louisiana, Mo.

Pisocrinus granulosus, n. sp.
’ PLaT& XVI. Fies. 1, 2, 3 X 2.

The five basal plates of this little crinoid are quite large,
extending considerably beyond the columnar pit. As in other
species of the genus, they differ much in size and shape.
The two large radials rest on the basals, the three smaller ones
being triangular and lying between the two larger. The two
posterior radials rest upon a rather broad, pentangular anal
plate. The radial extensions upward, separating the arm bases,
though not long, are stout as in the figures. The entire surface
of the plates is beautifully granular. The plates are heavy
and the body outline hemispherical.

Figure 3 in its plate arrangement differs widely not only
from the specimen Figs. 1 and 2 but even from the genus
Pisocrinus. However we take it to be a mere abnormality.
“Three of its radials are large and rest on the basals, while the
other two are small, resting between the two larger radials
without touching the basals. There is no anal plate, whatever.

In all the specimens of Pisocrinus figured on our plate the
basal region is excavated.

The specimens came from the red, shaly limestone of the Niagara
age, near St. Mary’s, Ste. Genevieve Co., Mo. ;

Pisocrinus gorbyi? S.A. Miller.
PLATE XVI. Fics. 4, 5,6, 7 X 2:

This is another granulose species, somewhat smaller than the
former, distinctly star-shaped and less rotund. In small speci-

270 The American Geologist. November, 1904

mens the radials are strongly pointed and give rise to a distinct
constrictionnear their bases, as is seen in figure 6, a side view.
The basals are five, irregular in size and shape and extend out-
ward beyond the basal funnel. The line bounding the funnel
is rather sharp instead of rounded as in Granulosus. Two of
the radials are large and rest on the basals while three are
much smaller, triangular and lie between the lateral sutures
of the other two. The posterior paired radials are separated
from the basals by a broad pentangular anal plate. The radial
processes are large and abnortnally broad, leaving but a nar-
row shoulder for the arm base. Some of the specimens of this
and the succeeding species seem to be without basal plates
or they have been very small and removed with the stem base.
See Figure 9. These fossils differ some from Miller’s types.
Specimens from the same formation and locality as the last.

Pisocrinus globosus? Ringueberg.

PVATE 2Vi-, FICsss8,:9 xX 2:

There is some doubt about the correct identification of this
species, and in case it should prove to be distinct, it might be
called Pisocrinus sphaericus. Specimens of this species are
smooth and the largest collected at the St. Mary’s locality.
The basal pit is a rather broad inverted funnel with a rounded
boundary below. The basal plates if present are very small
and concealed beneath the top-stem joint. They have prob-
‘ably been removed from the bottom of the pit. The radials
as in the above species are five, two of them reaching the basals
and the other three much smaller and mere wedges between the
two larger radials and a broad anal piece. The radial processes
are broad and leave less than half of the radial width for the

attachment of the arm.
Horizon and locality same as the last.

Pisocrinus glabellus, n. sp.
PLATE XVI5 Fie, VOy 11,12 x2.

This is another smooth species and differs from the last
species in the possession of rather large basals and very narrow
radial processes, thus leaving room for broad arm bases. The
basal pit is rather large and with a sharp boundary above.
The five basals form a triangle that extends beyond the pit.
Two of the radials rest upon the basal triangle; one a small

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 271

triangular piece lies like a wedge between the two larger ones,
hardly extending half the length of the body, downward. ‘The
other two are adjoining and rest upon a rather broad azygous
plate.

Horizon and locality same as the last.

Cyathocrinus? ovalis n. sp.

PLATE XVI, FiG.13,14,15,16 X 2.
- This species is almost certainly not Cyathocrinus. Our ma-
terial consists of four, small oval bodies, all of which’ are
figured on the plate. The stem scar is minute. The under
basals are five in number, quadrangular and elongate forming
a cup of considerable depth. The basals are five, elongate and
hexagonal. The third ring of plates consists of five radials
and an anal interradial of somewhat smaller size than the ra-
dials. The plates of this third ring are a little broader than
long.

The diameter of the calyx through the middle of the basals
is much the greatest lateral diameter, the radials tucking in
toward the arm region and thus giving an oval form to the
calyx. All of the plates are smooth and rather heavy (thick).
The scar for the arm base is nearly the full width of the
radial. Thebasals are considerably convex about their centers,
giving a pentagonal outline, in an end view of the body. See
figures 13 and 15. This lobed character even extends to the
under basals but less so than in the basals.

Horizon and locality same as the last.

Lecanocrinus hemisphericus, n. sp.
Pate XVI. Fics. 17, 18,19 X 2.

The excavation for the stem base is small and shallow.

The underbasals form a flat pentagon around the basal
excavation and are small and 3 in number. The five basals
are large, as broad as long and three of them pentagonal while
two are hexagonal. The radials are five in number, broader
than long and pentagonal in outline. The arm base occupied
the entire width of the upper radial edge. Lying between
the upper sloping edges of two adjoining radials and the lower
edges of a radial and second anal piece is a small quadrangular
first anal. The second anal lies between two radials, the first
anal and the upper sloping edge of a basal and extends a little
above the top of the radials.

272 The American Geologist. NovensVer ae

The greatest width of the calyx is a little below the top of
the radial ring. There is little convexity to the plates. The
surface of all the plates is very finely granular and scarcely dis-
cernible low ridges pass from plate center to plate center.

Locality and horizon same as the last. —

Cordylocrinus? dubius, n. sp.

PLATE ZVI. Fics: 20,21, 22 xX 2:

This little crinoid has much the appearance of Macrostylo-
crinus both in outline and ornamentation, but differs in the
shortness of its costals, anchylosis of its basals and the pres-
ence of but one interradial to the area on the doral side.

There is no basal excavation for the column but a slight ele-
vation, almost a rim. The columnar canal is apparently round
and minute. The use of a lens and a strong light fail to dis-
close interbasal sutures. It is therefore probable the basal
plates are anchylosed, forming a broad but not deep cup.

Five large radials, broader than long, rest upon the basals.

Near the tcp of the radial there is a thickening of the test
that throws nearly half of the radial width into a fold form-
ing a lunular scar above on which rests a short, very small,
quadrangular first costal. Of less width and no greater
length is the second costal, a bifurcating plate. The upper
part of the depressed area between the radial folds is oc-
cupied by a single anal plate that bends over on the ventrai
side.

The dorsal plates are ornamented by fine lines that follow
the basals and radials longitudinally and cross the depressed
areas from radial lobe to radial lobe. One-half of the
dorsal surface is preserved and is composed of rather strong
ambulacral ridges and depressed triangular interambulacral
areas made up of a few plates. The ambulacral plates are
small and apparently form double series.

The anal area differs little from the interradial spaces,
with no apparent difference on the dorsal surface. There is
no apparent ornamentation on the interambulacral spaces but
the ambulacral ridges seem to be corrugate.

Locality and horizon same as the last.

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 273

Stribalocystis missouriensis Kowley.
PLATE XVI. Fics. 23, 24. :

This little cystoid was described in the American Geolo-
gist for February, 1900, page 71, and figured on plate IL
(Figs. 40, 41). There is an excavation in the basal plates for
a medium size, round column with a central canal, apparently
round. Of the four plates of the basal ring the larger two
are pentagonal and the smaller two quadrangular. Resting
upon these four plates is a ring of six larger ones, two of
which are pentagonal, two hexagonal and two heptagonal.
These are variable in size, the pentagonal being smallest.
There are eight plates in the next ring and about sixteen
smaller ones in the ventral disk. |

There is a small anal opening near the edge of the disk
and six or seven other small perforations just above the third
row of calyx plates. Around four of these latter canals are
surfaces apparently for the reception of arm bases. All of
the plates are quite convex and ornamented by strong radiat-
ing ridges or a central node and ridges.

Figure 23 is a side view of the type specimen and figure
24 a basal view of a much smaller specimen.

Locality and horizon same as the last. ul

Stribalocystis? elongatus Rowley.
PLaTE XVI. Fics. 25, 26.

This little cystidean is almost certainly not stribalocystis.
The only two specimens collected are imbedded in the lime-
stone in such a way as to make uncertain the number of plates
to the ring. |

There are either three or four elongate basal plates, four
or five in the second ring, five or six smaller plates in the
third row, six or seven still smaller ones in the fourth row
and a number of small crown plates.

Neither of the specimens show any openings, pectinated
trhombs, or appendages except a short piece of the column.
The stem is quite large and the part attached to one of the
specimens has seven joints as in figure 25.

This species was described in the February, 1900, AMER-
ICAN GEOLOGIST, page 71 and figured on plate 2 (figure 39).

Collected from the Delthyris limestone at Red Rock Landing, Perry
Co., Mo.

274 The American Geologist. ore

Melocrinus wittenbergensis, n. sp.
PLATE XVI. FIG. 27.

The only specimen collected is small and injured on one
side. The color is quite black.

The four basals form a short neck. The first radials are
a little wider than long, and hexagonal. The second radials
or first costals are wider than long and pentagonal. The
second costals are wider than long, pentagonal and bifurcat-
ing, supporting above a double series of two distichals each
to the arm bases, or rather, brachial rays. There is very lit-
tle difference in the size of any of these radial plates. There
is a single heptagonal interdistichal plate. The lowest inter-
brachial rests between the sloping upper edges of the radials
and the lateral edges of the costals and is seven sided. Above
this latter are two other interbrachials, somewhat smaller, or
three interbrachials in all.

The azygous side is injured so that no diagnosis can be made
of the anal interradius. The plates of the ventral disk are
quite large and each has a short central tubercle. The plates
of the dorsal side have little convexity, the costals, under a
magnifier, having the appearance of an ill defined central tu-
bercle. ;

The anal tube or opening is broken away in the speci-
men. There is a slight basal excavation for a rather strong
column. ;

Delthyris limestone, a mile and a half below Wittenberg, Mo.

Troostocrinus? dubius Rowley.
PLATE XVI. FIGS. 28, 29.

This little blastoid was figured and described in the Feb-
ruary, 1900, number of the AMERICAN GeEoxourst. (Plate 2
Figs26; 27," go.)

The three basal plates form a triangular, pyramidal cup.
Hight and width about equal. The radial sutures apparent-
ly extend to the top, as no interradials are visible externally.
The top of the anal interradial area projects somewhat above
the tops of the other areas in some of the specimens. Ex-
cept the anal opening and the central uncovered area, no oth-
er openings are visible.

The ambulacra are over a third of the length of the entire
body and lie a little below the edges of the radial lips. The

i:

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 275

number of pore pieces on either side of the lancet in each
area is from fifteen to twenty.

No columnar cicatrix can be seen on any of the nine
specimens and if present, the stem must have been very slen-
der. We have a strong suspicion that it had no stem. The
ornamentation of the plates is fine parallel striae.

Horizon and locality same as the last.

Calceocrinus alleni, n. sp. |
PLATE XVI. Fics. 30, 31, 32,33.

The two smaller basal plates of this species are shown in
figure 32. The columnar excavation is shallow and the col-
umnar canal small and apparently round. The third basal is
shown in both figures 30 and 31. As usual it is nearly as
broad as the body and short, forming a gaping suture with the
two smaller plates. The two latteral radials are large and
bend upon the posterior side, but do not apparently meet and
separate the two anterior radials. The lower anterior radial
appears to be quadrangular instead of triangular. The upper
plate is wanting in our specimens, but was undoubtedly quad-
rangular with its short side resting on the upper short side
of the post-anterior radial. This arrangenent seems to
make the lateral radials pentagonal. Arms and column un-
known. Surface apparently smooth.

This interesting crinoid is named specifically for my
friend, the collector, Mr. Thos. W. Allen, of St. Joseph, Mo.

The types were collected from the Clinton division of the Niagara
Limestone at Watson Station, Pike Co., Mo.

Glyptocrinus insperatus, n. sp.
PLATE XVI. FIGs. 34, 42, 43.

From the round stem base, five folds or rounded ridges
pass out almost horizontally to the centers of the five rather
large basal plates. Folds of similar strength extend from
the centers of the basals to the centers of the radials, forming
five broad, inverted V’s, a single strong fold or ridge follow-
ing the remaining radial area to the center of the second cos-
tal, bifurcating there and passing into the arms.

' The center of each interradial plate is occupied by a small
tubercle from which radiate six or more delicate ridges to
adjoining plates. The radials are pentagonal, the first cos-
tals hexagonal, the second costals pentagonal and axillary.

| ry

fj

276 The American Geologist. November, 1902.

There is little difference in the size of the radials and costals.
There are three distichals above the axillary second costa! to
where the wedge shaped arm pieces begin.

Arms, rounded, continuations of the radial folds. and com-
posed of a single series of wedge-shaped pieces that give off
alternately rather long, slender pinules whose joints are long
and grooved on the ventral side rather deeply. The pinules
near the base of the arms are much stouter. The interradial
areas somewhat depressed and each filled by a series of I, 2,
2, etc. plates, the lower and larger one of which is hexagonal
and lies between the first costals, its lower angle filling a
shallow V between the upper edges of the radials.

Ventral surface unknown. JInfra-basals, if present, not
visible beyond the stem base. Arms apparently long and ten
in number. :

Column round with every third or fourth joint much wid-
er than the rest. ’

Locality and horizon: two and one-half miles northeast of Edge-

wood, Pike county, Mo., and from an earthy limestone of the age of
the Clinton group.

Glyptocrinus insperatus var. pentagonus, np. var.
PLATE XVI.» Eres. 357 36.

This fossil is somewhat larger than the preceding one
with much stronger radial folds or ridges and more distinct
stellate ornamentation of the plates, especially the interradials.
A fold, quite as strong as the radial ones, passes up the mid-
dle of the anal area from the center of a basal. The five
double folds’ of the basal region form a flat star and the in-
verted V’s formed by folds from the centers of the radial to
the centers of the basals together with the rays of the basal
star bound deep diamond-shaped areas.

The interradial areas are flat, the anal interradius being
broader than the other four. The plate arrangement is ex-
actly as in figure 34. Fine granules cover the surface of the
plates.

The specimen preserves the calyx to the top of the second
costal which is a bifuricating plate and there are perhaps but
ten arms.

The columnar base is round and the perforation rather
small. Four of the basal plates are perhaps pentagonal (in

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 277

the absence of infrabasals) and one hexagonal. The radials
are larger than the basals and heptagonal. First costals hex-
agonal. Second costals pentagonal.

‘The first interbrachial is hexagonal and followed above by
two smaller plates. No higher plates are found on the imper-
fect type specimen. A large hexagonal first anal is succeeded
by three plates above, the middle of the anal area being trav-
ersed by a strong fold or ridge. The granular surface char-
acter, the absence of central nodes and the very strong rad-
iate ornamentation and ray folds may be sufficient to separate
this crinoid specifically from the former species. If so, the
proposed varietal designation may become the name of the
species. 4

Were it not for the fewness and size of the interbrachial
plates, both this and the previously described species might be
referred to Ptychocrinus W..& Sp. (Gaurocrinus, S. A. M.).

Horizon and locality same as the last.

Gissocrinus? problematicus, n. sp.

PLATE XVI. FIGs. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41.

Under basals three, of nearly equal size and forming a
slight rounded rim below the basals. Two of them are five
and the third four-sided.

The anterior one is longer than either of the other two.

The basal plates are large and a little longer than wide,
the posterior being heptagonal and truncate above to receive
the first anal plate. The basal to the right of the posterior is
also heptagonal while the one to the left is pentagonal. The
right anterior basal is hexagonal and the left pentagonal.

Two of the radial plates are much larger than the basals
while three are of about the same size and one smaller. The
large radials are the anterior and the one to the left of it. The
one to the right of the anterior has its upper edge below that
of the other radials. The posterior radials rest between the
sloping upper edges of basals a little more deeply than
the others and are smaller, the one on the left of the anal
area supporting above a costal of greater width, partly rest-
ing on the first anal. The small radial to the right of the anat
area supports above a costal of greater length and width. part-
ly supported by a basal.

278 The American Geologist. November, Sore.

The lunular scar for the reception of the first costal on
three of the radials and on the first costal for the reception of
the second costal of two of the rays are less than half the
width of the plates. Supported by the first anal plate which
is hexagonal of equal width and length and lying above a
truncate basal and between two radials and the two costals,
is the ‘second anal of equal size and shape as the first and
lying partly between the two costals. The surface of all
plates is apparently smooth.

The column was perhaps as wide as the underbasal rim
and with a medium canal. Arms and ventral surface un-
known.

In the equal underbasals, the number of anal plates and
the incorporation of two first costals in the calyx, this little
crinoid seems to differ quite widely from Gissocrinus and, in
fact, all other cyathocrinoids. Its nearest affinities, however,
seem to be with the cyathocrinoids and the genus Gissocrinus.
Anomalous as the statement may seem, the two costals men-
tioned in the description have every appearance of radials ex-
cept as to location.

The specimen came from the oolitic division of the Clinton group,
three miles west of Louisiana, Mo.

Glyptocrinus: insperatus? var Carinatus, n. var.

PLATE XVI. Fic. 56.

This little crinoid, imperfect as it is, lying half imbedded
upon a slab, has the appearanice of being congeneric with
figs. 34, 35, 36 and possibly, co-specific, agreeing with the
three in its long slender pinules and the character of its stem,
but differing in the possession of strong keel-like nodes on
its basal plates. The portion of stem attached to the base is
composed of thin, uniform, round rings. An inch away ev-
ery third or fourth stem joint is broader than its fellows, as
shown in the figure. Better specimens may show this form
to be a good species. Of the body plates but little can be
made out beyond the fact that there are five keeled basals and
five larger radials with a central indistinct ridge, each.

The portion of a larger stem lying among the arms is of a
larger specimen and shows well the character of the assoc-
iated columns.

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 279

The specimen comes from the Clinton beds three miles northeast of
Edgewood, Pike Co., Mo.
Lampterocrinus? comptus, n. sp.
PLATE XVI. Fics. 57, 58.

The specimens of this crinoid are so fragmentary as to
render a description more or less imperfect. Detached plates
are not uncommon but perfect bodies are not known. The
two specimens figured preserve enough to show that the spec-
ies had a slight basal rim about a shallow stem cicatrix, five
basals and five larger radials, with two costals to the ray.
The regular interradials are in series of I, 2, etc. and the
anal area of 1, 3, etc. Radiating ridges cross from center to

center of adjoining plates.
The specimens are from the Clinton oolite three miles west of Lou-
isiana, Mo.

CRINOID STEMS.

PLATE XVI. FIGs. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46.

The stem represented by figs. 42, 43 is that of a Glypto-
crinus, perhaps, as also the specimen near the top of the page,
differing none from the lower part of the stem belonging to
fig. 56, except in size.

Figure 46 is a related stem but coming from the oolite
west of Louisiana while 42 and 43 are from the earthy Clin-
ton beds near Edgewood.

44 and 45 are doubtless a Mariacrinus stem associated with
42 and 43.

CRINOID STUMPS.

PLATE XVI. E1cGs. 54, 55, 59.

The figures 54 and 55 are of a specimen from the red and
yellow-banded Niagara limestone of Ste. Genevieve Co., Mo.
The specimen is without roots, being merely expanded below.

Fig. 59 is from the same horizon and locality and possesses
roots.

CRINOID BASES.

z PLaTE XVI. Fics. 48, 53.
Figure 48 is composed of three basal plates with sutural

ridges and a round protuberant stem base. From the Clinton
oolite, three miles west of Louisiana.

280 The American Geologist. November, 190%.

Figure 53 has apparently five basals and a pentagonal
stem base. The plates are ornamented by small nodes and
ridges bordering the sutures. From the Niagara of Ste. Gene-
vieve county.

CRINOID PLATES. 3
PLATE XVI. Fics. 49, 51.

These plates perhaps belong to some species of Lamptero-
crinus, Clinto.. volite, Pike Co., Mo.

Cystotp PLATES.
‘PLate XVI. Fics. 47, 50,52.

These are found associated with the crinoid plates above.

A single plate of Caryocrinus ornatus was found at the St.
Mary’s locality, but the writer failed to find Edriocrinus in
the Delthyris beds at Red Rock Landing.

Skenidium? nodocostatum, n. sp.

PLATE XVI. Fics. 60, 61, 62, 63.

This little shell has some external ‘resemblance to Orthis.
However, the few, strong plications, rather high cardinal
area and other features separate our species from that form
and, as it bears a.strong resemblance to Skenidium we have
ventured to place it under that genus, in the absence of struct-
ural material.

The cardinal area is less than the width of the shell, not
high and with an uncovered deltidium whose sides are almost
parallel. The brachial valve is somewhat convex with a broad
illy defined sinus occupied by two plications smaller than the
ones bounding the area. Either side of the sinus is covered by
three strong plications with three other smalier implanted
ones, not reaching the beak.

The pedicel valve is slightly more convex than the brach-
ial without fold, but with a strong central plication. Either
side of. this central costa are three strong ribs or plications
with an equal number of smaller implanted ones as on the
brachial valve.

The beak of the brachial valve protrudes beyond the car-
dinal area of the pedicel valve, displaying a narrow brachial
area. The beak of the pedicel valve is almost retrorse.

Echinodermata and a New Brachiopod.—Rowley. 281

The transverse lines of growth are strong and give to the
plications where they cross, a nodose appearance. The shell is
indistinctly bilobed.

From the Niagara limestone, six miles west of St. Marys, Mo. The
shell is rare and the collection contains but three specimens, two of
which are figured.

Found associated with Pisocrinus granulosus and _ Stribalocystis
missouriensis.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.
PISOcRINUS GRANULOSUS, N. Sp.
Figs. 1 and 2. Basal and anal side views of the type, two diameters.
Fig. 3. An aberrant specimen, side view X.2.
PisocrInus GorsByr? S. A. MILteEr.
Fig. 4. Side view of.a large specimen, two diameters.
Figs. 5, 6, 7. Basal, side and top views of another specimen X 2.
PISOCRINUS GLOBOSUS? RINGUEBERG.
Fig. 8. Side view of a large specimen X 2.
Fig. 9. Basal view of another specimen X 2.
PISOCRINUS GLABELLUS, N. Sp.

Fig. ro. Side view of a-very'large specimen X 2

Fig. 11. Top view of a smaller specimen X 2. -
Fig. 12. Basal view of a small specimen * 2, showing large basals.
CyATHOCRINUS? ovALIs, N. Sp.

Figs. 13, 14, 15. Basal, side and top views of three different speci-

Fig. 16. Side view of a small individual, two diameters.

LECANOCRINUS HEMISPHERICUS, N. Sp.

Figs. 17, 19. Side and top views of two small specimens
Fig. 18. Basal view of a large example, two diameters.

to

CorpDYLOCRINUS? bUBIUS, N. Sp.
Figs. 20, 21, 22. Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the type X 2.
STRIBALOCYSTIS MISSOURIENSIS ROWLEY.
Fig. 23. Side view of the type, natural size.
Fig. 24. Basal view of a small specimen X 2.
STRIBALOCYSTIS ? ELONGATUS ROWLEY.
5. Side view of the type specimen, natural size.
Fig. 26. Side view of another specimen, natural size.
MELOCRINUS WITTENBERGENSIS, N. Sp.
Fig. 27. Side view of the type, natural size.
TROOSTOCRINUS? DUBIUS ROWLEY.

Figs. 28, 29. Side views of two large specimens, natural

wn
tae
N
oO

BRON 4 The American Geologist. November, 130%

CALCEOCRINUS ALLENI, N. Sp.
Figs. 30, 31. Side views of two different individuals, natural size.
Fig. 32. Basal view, showing columnar excavation and two basal
plates: << 1.
Fig. 33. Side view of another individual, natural size.
GLYPTOCRINUS INSPERATUS, N. Sp.

Fig. 34. Side view of a specimen preserving the arms and pinules

Figs. 42, 43. ‘Side and end views of a column, probably belonging
to this species, natural size.

GLYPTOCRINUS INSPERATUS VAR. PENTAGONUS, N. Var.
Figs. 35, 36. Side and basal views of the type, natural size.

GISSOCRINUS? PROBLEMATICUS, N. Sp.

Figs. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41. Side and basal views of th type specimen,

natural size. ;

Figs. 44, 45. End and side views of a quadrangular stem belong-

ing to some species of Mariacrinus, associated with 34, 35, 42, X I.
Fig. 46. A stem from the Clinton oolite, associated with 48, 49, 50,
Bs 525s

Figs. 49, 51. Crinoid plates from the Clinton oolite, nat. size.

Fig. 48. The three plate basal ring of a crinoid, nat. size, associ-
ated with 49, 51.

Figs. 47, 50, 52. Plates of Cystids, nat. size, associated with 48, 49,
Sie

Fig. 53. Base of a Crinoid from the Niagara of Ste. Genevieve Co.,

nat. size.

Figs. 54, 55. Side and top views of a Crinoid stump from the

Niagara, of Ste. Genevieve Co., nat. size.
Fig. 59. Side view of a Crinoid stump with roots. Niagara, same
locality, nat. size.
GLYPTOCRINUS INSPERATUS? VAR. CARINATUS, N. VAR.

Fig. 56. View of the type as it lies imbedded on a slab, nat. size.
The dotted line connects the top of the stem with another
fragment about an inch away, the intermediate portion hay-
ing been destroyed by some agency.

LAMPTEROCRINUS? compTus N. Sp.
Figs. 57, 58. Basal views of two specimens, preserving portions
of the calyx. Natural size.
SKENIDIUM? NopocosTATUM, N. Sp

Figs. 60, 61, 62, 63. Cardinal, pedicel, anterior and brachial views

of the two type specimens, natural size.

i

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 283

TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA.

Reviews and Translations by WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBs.

IV. JApAn* (SECOND PAPER).

C. THE STRUCTURE AS A WHOLE AND THE LINES OF DISLOCATION.

In the two preceding sections of this paper, were treated individual
parts of the two wings of Japan; in the two following will be considered
such phenomena as are common to the two wings or concern the island
country in general.

The Great Transverse Fracture. In the vicinity of the 138th degree
of east longitude there appears to one who approaches from the east,
a series of striking phenomena following in rapid succession, and these
cause an important change in the landscape. First there are the frag-
ments of the walls of an extended kettle-like sinking in the ancient
range, from the middle of which the beautiful cone of Fuji-yama rises
to a hight of 3728 meters; then the distinct series of well preserved
voleanic cones in the straight line of Fuji-Yatsugadake; further the
ketile of Kofu, sunk into the granite of the Kimposan, which rises
to 2550 meters. But the rarest surprise is furnished on the west side
of the road leading from Kofu to Suwa lake by a rectilinear high
wall above which becomes visible in the west somewhat later the
granitic Komaga-take rising in the immediate neighborhood to the
hight of 30co meters; and by the observation that here steeply uplifted
ancient schistose rocks are in place with almost meridional strike,
while to the eastward from Kofu the dominating equatorial strike
direction was recognizable within a somewhat confused complex.

It is obvious that that stretch of road follows a great fracture of
the crust. The geological map allows us to now easily recognize its
course in detail. Westward from Fuji it is exactly meridional in a
stretch of 88 km from the coast city of Schidsuoka to Nirasaki which
lies westward from Kofu; then it, follows for 72 kilometers the direc-
tion N 42° W until west of Matsumoto. From here to the north coast
(go k. m.), it runs again meridionally, but in a flat are concave to the
eastward. The entire length of the line is, therefore, 250 kilometers.

The following phenomena are connected with this line:

I. ina purely morphographic sense the line indicates the limit of
a steep wall and a furrow reaching from sea to sea. If the bottom
of the latter does indeed rise in the vicinity of Suwa lake to above
800 meters, it is none the less an important line of commerce.

2. The fundamental complex of the entire country lies deeper in
the east than in the west. Here is the wall of the steep break in the
highest upbulging of the land mass of Japan, toward which the funda-
mental complex, with its granites, gradually rises from the west,

* In the last paper of the series (this journal September, 1904) was begun
a translation of the fifth paper by Vv. RICHTOFEN in his studies of the geomor-
phology of east Asia. ’

284 The American Geologist. November, 2u0=

so that in the Kisso range and in the Hida range it reaches its great-
est elevation in the vicinity of that descent. On the east side the
basement vanishes at once, completely covered by later deposits, and
where it becomes visible again in the Kwanto range and farther to
the north, it rises only rarely to a little more than 2000 meters. Even
the granite domes, which in reference to the relations of altitude have
an independent position, are lower than those of the west. Harada
has called attention to the regional value of these differences in eleva-
tion.

3. The fracture line cuts off diagonally the strike directions of the
western ranges in the principal stretch from Nuirasaki to beyond
Matsumoto, under angles of 40° to 60°; in the two N-S stretches, how-
ever, it is approximately parallel to them; it is as if it were deflected in
sections by the lines of the internal structure, as is so often the case
with continental arcs of the plateau borders.

4. To the eastward from the fracture, the strike directions of the
western ranges do not again appear. All observers agree in this that
in the Kwanto range, in spite of many irregularities, the direction
NW-WNW is to be considered the normal one. A bending around of
the strike from one side to the other it has not been possible. to prove,
since the connection is interrupted. It is also in itself not probable
because to the north,of the Akkaischi-yama a bending back of the beds
occurs from N by E to Naw Further, the gneiss band of the north
zone, in which the Tenriu-gawa flows, is no longer visible upon the
east side.

5. A support for a determination of the time of the sinking in,
it is not yet possible to obtain; since the circumstance that the entire
north wing of Japan, from the great fracture line to the borders of
Abukuma and Kitakami, is covered over with heavy marine Tertiary
deposits of Miocene and Pliocene age, whereas they are restricted in
the west of the fracture line to the coasts and lower-lying portions,
does not suffice; and from the distribution of the Trias, as well as
portions of marine and in part continental development of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous, certain conclusions are not yet to be drawn.
The analogy also with the numerous meridional fractures‘ of east Asia,
for which in general the beginning probably occurred in early Mesozoic
time, and further development in later periods, cannot be here ap-
plied, since this fracture furnishes in comparison with the others, much
tha! is peculiar.

The Volcanic Series of Fuji and the Line of Islands in the Bonin
Ridge. The volcanic series of Fuji stretches to the eastward of the
great cross fracture transversely through Hondo, furthermore not
in a straight but in a broken line. The mean direction can be
regarded as parallel to that of the cross fracture; but this does not
hold true for the individual sections of both lines. According to the
present view of the Japanese geologists, the Fuji volcanic series begins
in the north with the group of Mioko-san, whose peak is distant 26
kilometers from the coast. The line runs from it S 10° E to the Tates-

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. — 285

china-yama (2530 m.), distant go kilometers; from it a line of the
series directed S 25° E touches the peaks Yatsugadake (2932 m.),
Kayagadake (1240 m.), Fuji-yama (3728 m.), Aschitaka-yama
(1187 m.), Amagisan (1386 m.), and reaches beyond the island of
Niijima to the island of Myakejima, which is distant from Tates-
china 255 kilometers. Here it meets a loxodromically straight line,
likewise sharp, and directed from N 10° W, to S 10° E, which extends
through young and generally very small volcanic islands characterized
for the most part by present activity, in a length of 1,200 kilometers.
Belonging to it are: O-schima (34° 44’ N), Miyakejima (34° 5’ N), and
with for the most part greater intervals, seven small islands and reefs,
to Ponafidin and Lot’s Wife (20° 48 N), then Rosario (27° 16’ N),
and the volcanic islands stretching from 25° 25’ to 24° 18’. At a distance
of 130 kilometers to the east rises the almost parallel series but yet
slightly curving into an are (convex to the sea) of’ the somewhat
larger Bonin islands, 120 kilometers long, for which series the Japa-
nese use the name Ogasawara-jima. Yoshiwara has found nummu-
litic limestone upon them. Based upon the interlamination of tufa
and upon other phenomena, the conclusion has been drawn that
here the volcanic activity has reached from the Eocene time into the
Miocene, and since a subsequent elevation appears not to have occurred
the _entire series of islands must be considered as an older one in
respect to that just mentioned.

Soundings have shown that the islands are raised above the sub-
marine ridge which has been designated the Bonin Ridge. It is not
certain whether it can be surrounded by the 2,0co meter line; yet it is
probable that it extends southward to 20’N. Concerning its relations
to the ridge of the Mariannes,.no conjecture can yet be made.

The Great Japanese Volcano Arc (Bandai Arc). If the portions
of the great continental framework which are above the sea, marked
out by the Japanese islands, allow the internal connection and the
history of their ancient basement to be made out but incompletely,
certain lines of great disturbance in later time, which were connected
with important neo-volcanic processes, are so much the more distinctly
drawn. Among these new dominating lines (Leitlinien) which came
into being in middle Tertiary time, that one is by far the most striking
which is genetically connected with the volcanic arc here under con-
sideration. It follows neither the direction of the strike nor of
recognizable ancient fractures, nor does it show any dependence upon
the deflections which the north zone and south zone of South Japan
have been subjected to on their east end, but it intersects each of
these elements at arbitrary angles. The tendency of the east Asiatic
arcs which are convex toward the ocean, is, as was shown, not to be
made out in any part of the fundamental complex; here in the great
Bandai arc of volcanoes it holds true for the first time in a strict
sense. The arc intersects North Japan in the middle line and is like-
wise marked out by massive volcanic formations as well as by basins
depressed upon either side. If westward from Satporo, in Yezo, we

286 The American Geologist. November, 1904.

start out from Yoitschidake, which rises at the intersection of 140° E
and 43° N, the series of volcanoes follows this meridian to th'e
southward in great stretches; northward, also it has been attempted to
extend them by two degrees of latitude to the volcano of the island
of Rischiri, 1740 meters in hight. Southwards the series deviates to
the west from the meridian for the first time, where -it leaves the
eastern environs of the Kitakami mountain country in order to go
over westwards from Sendai and to the northern portion of the
Abukuma mountain country. Here in Sao-san (1964m.) it has al-
ready reached 140%° E and has nearly attained 38° N. In the environs
of the circular lake Inawaschiro above which the Bandai-san rises to
a hight of 1969 meters, it is broadened out to a double series, of which
the eastern one runs SSW to Nasu (1912 m.), then southwest to
Nan-tai-san (2483 m.), near Nikko, thereupon WSW to Akagi-san
(1839 m.), and finally W by S to the Asama-yama (2480 m.). Here
it has reached a longitude of 138’ 35’ E, a latitude of 30 25° N,
and comes into the immediate neighborhood of the Fuji series.

Thus apparently ends the beautifully curved arc. But at this end
is joined a meridional cross series which is parallel to the northern-
most stretch of the Fuji series and is distant from it 36 kilometers.
Asama, Schirane (2253 m.), Iwasuge (2515 m.), Hennomine (1804 m.)
and Ammamisu (1090 m.), are its peaks. It is more worthy of note
that in the exact extension of the arc itself to the W by S beyond the
Fuji zone and the great fracture rim lies the unique volcanic series
in the great region of eastern South Japan. Norikura (3166 m.),
Hakusan (2640 m.), Dainitschi (1236 m.), and Kunimi-dake (638 m.)
mark it out. Kunimi lies upon the sea in the meridian of the Biwa
lake 225 kilometers distant from Asama. The length of the entire
voleanic are from Rischiri is nearly 1300 kilometers.

The penetration of this arc acrogs the great fault cleft into a
differently constructed mountain country, reminds one of the penetra-
tion of the Aleutian arc into the central range of Kamtschatka, or of
that of the Kurile are into the Hidaka chain of Yezo, and of the
Liukiu arc into the transversely directed structure of Kiusiu. As in
the first case, so it appears also here, as if the reappearance in a
foreign region were connected with special intensity of expression;
for the Nurikura, like the Asama-yama, is the focus for a transversely
directed series to which the Ontake (3185 m.), in the south and the
Iwodake in the north belong. :

The great volcano arc—which I will call from a generally well-
known peak, the Bandai Arc—is for North Japan the real dominating
line of the most recent time. As a chain of volcanic islands like the
Liukiu, the Kuriles, and the Aleutian islands, it had appeared in
connection with the sinking of the land beneath the surface of the
sea. As a transversely facing continent, with steep and sharply cut
eastern border, should rise the land lying to the west of the great
fracture. On this the arc should advance in flanking position and
continue running over across it. The similarity with the flanking

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 287

chains ‘under consideration goes even further; for as in front of the
place of contact of the Aleutian arc with the ancient continental mass
of Kamtschatka, a line of high volcanoes runs to the SSW with an
angle of 70 to 80” with the entering line, to be continued as a string
of islands; so here the Fuji series of volcanoes, likewise continues
immediately before the place of entrance with an angle of 80° to be
extended in the ocean as a series of islands directed S 10° E.

If.one considers the base from which the Bandai volcanic series
rises, he recognizes that it is a sunken region. A fault margin accom-
panies this in the east and intersects the land without regard to the
structure of the underlying rock, even if deflected at times by it for a
distance. In the depression of Satporo upon Yezo, such incongruence
is not yet observable. In Hondo to the westward of Kitakami and
Abukuma the line of fracture coincides with the oft mentioned
“median line,” which, as was chown above, runs discordantly to the
mountain structure and forms the natural trench for the commerce
between south and north. The sunken region is covered over with
young Tertiary sediments, rich in tuff, which in the water parting
Bandai range compacted by volcanic rocks were overtopped from E
to W in passes of 600 to 1000 meters, and show upon the map altitude
figures to above 1,200 meters.

That still other recent vertical displacements have taken place has
been indicated above; for the Tertiary deposits are lacking to the
Kitakami mountain country; the Abukuma mountain country is ac-
companied by them near the coast. Each shows sunken areas through
its Rias coasts; in the former country are evidences of negative trans-
lation of the coast line. Still more the character of local occurrences
is in keeping with that- of the basin depressions to the west of the
divide, which are of importance for the form in detail. Like the
latter, the individualized volcanoes which rise from kettle depressions
on the west coast can here be considered only in passing.

Perhaps they belong to the volcanoes which have no immediate
connection with extended fracture structures, but are built up over
isolated chimneys.

D. GENERAL SCHEME OF THE MOUNTAIN CHAINS OF JAPAN.

We arrive at the following results:

1. The island of Shushima and the group of the Goto istanda do
not belong to the structure of Japan, but are to be considered as
members of the Korean arc. ;

2. South Japan consists of two different independent ranges,
namely: 1. An equatorially directed much degraded main body built
up of gneisses and Paleozoic sediments folded in post-Carboniferous
times and greatly intruded by probably post-Carboniferous gran-
ites, which main body as a whole has been pushed over to the
south, through which its eastern end suffered a sharp bending with
S E convexity against a no longer visible obstruction; and, 2. A broad
contiguous Mountain Zone (our Kuma Kii range) now retained only in
one band, consisting of folded Paleozoic and perhaps Algonkian sedi-

288 The American Geologist. November, 1904.

ments with rare granite intrusions, whose folds originally striking in
the Sinian direction (about W 30° S to E 30° N) were deformed by the
southwardly migrated north zone to an arc convex to the N W
and by internal compression has been soldered to the compressing
range of the north zone along a long sharply drawn line. Where
the latter experienced its sharp bending a nearly detached fragment of
the south zone, the Akaishi range, was placed almost along the
meridian side by side with the gneisses of the north zone, and now
appears as if pressed in between the latter and the obstruction. In
the north zone the inner (northern) portion suffered compression, the
outer (southern) tension; hence we find in the former a compact
frame work but irregularity of strike, in the latter regular strike but
lateral opening, fracturing to horsts and sunken areas into which the
sea penetrates in’ the form of bays which in part unite to form the
interior sea. The granites appear to follow in part lines of fracture
directed radially toward the outer zone. In the south zone on the
other hand the outer (northern) portions of the arc were compressed,
being crowded together upon a short line; they close up the bays of
the north zone and have brought about the narrowness of the entrances
to them. The granites of the north zone end abruptly at the border
line.

3. The Equatorial main body is probably a continuation of the
Tsinling-range, the Kuma-Kii range of an eastern member of the
south Chinese mountain country. The arrangement of chains in the
two ranges in South Japan corresponds to that which is the rule on
the south side of the Tsinling. The Kuma-Kii range is a backwardly
compressed arc soldered upon the lee side in the manner im which
they there occur. A local deviation from the Chinese structure is
conditioned by the dragged backward bending of the eastern part of
both zones.

4. The position of the Nagasaki triangle is not to be determined
since the observations at hand are not sufficient.

5. The fundamental structure of North Japan inclusive of Yezo,
is characterized by the presence of three broad strongly folded rectili-
near zones parallel to one another and striking in the direction N
by W to S by E; which from the names of their parts which appear
as independent mountain masses may be designated at the Hidake,
Kitakami, and Abukuma zones. ‘The latter consistS’ of gneiss; in the
structure of the two first mentioned Paleozoic share with (probably)
Algonkian sediments.

In the portion of North Japan lying between the Abukuma zone
and the great transverse fracture, the places where the underlying
rocks come out from beneath the enveloping cover furnish at present
no adequate support for a conclusion regarding the structure. In the
hill countries of Kwanto, Aschio, Yamiso-Tsukuba, and Etschigo the
basement consists of similarly folded Paleozoic schists and granites,
to which in the Kwanto hill country the (Algonkian) Sombagawa
stage is added. In the latter the strike is W N W, in the others it

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 289

varies. so between northwesterly and northeasterly directions that no
order is recognizable. The gneisses of Kino and Hida are here lack-
ing; apparently only the elements of the Kuma-Kii zone are present,
and it is not proven that detached portions of the latter do not have

an essential part in the composition of the region in question due to

tectonic fracturing on a large scale.

6. Two tectonic lines indicated by volcanoes invade from without
the mass of Japan. The first of them is a, the Liukiu Line. It is con-
nected with the Kuma Kii range as a prominent flank range. Its
interior recognizable line beset with island volcanoes, shows its
invasion in a meridional series of voleanoes transverse to the structure
of Kiusiu and extends perhaps to beyond Asayama. The tectonic
influence of lines which are parallel to the latter may be recognized
in the abruptly terminated transverse coasts of southern Kiusiu. The
second of the tectonic lines is ), the line of the Bonin ridge beset
with the volcanoes of the volcanic islands, Bonin islands, Schitschito
islands, and other numberless volcanic islands arranged in the direction
S by E to N by W. In the continuation of the latter line deviated
toward the N N W,, rise the volcanoes of the Fuji series. The unusu-
al significance of this chain for Japan may be recognized in many
different phenomena. For not only does this series of volcanoes run
through the entire island of Hondo throughout in its broadest place;
it is also accompanied by a very important fault, which calls attention
to the variety found in the plateaus (Landstaffeln) of the continents
in this respect that the form of the land bordering upon the west
noticeably ascends till it reaches the fault cleft and then an abrupt

-descent follows toward the deeper step; it appears, however, not to

take place in step fractures, as is usually the case. A third matter of
the utmost import is the drag on the west side of the great cross frac-
ture. One cannot avoid Naumann’s conclusion that where the depres-
sion has occurred a solid obstruction existed, which lay in the line of
the Bonin ridge. This 1s strengthened by the consideration that the
Bonin ridge with its no longer projecting northwestern continuation,
as regards position and direction, appears as a fourth member in the
parallel series: Hidake, Kitakami, Abukuma.

The Bonin ridge with the Fuji zone indicates, indeed, that from
here toward the east lay a continent which differed from the western
with its equatorial arrangement by possessing a meridional structure;
and the conclusion is near that it is this once more highly projecting
structure on whose western border the Japanese portion of the Tsin-
ling range has been dragged by its southwardly directed mass mi-
gration. A glance at China has shown that there chain after chain
among the parallel members of this body has suffered an arc-like
dragging off from north to south. The behavior here considered is
analogous; it appears, as though on the site of Naumann’s Fossa magna
the last still persistently nemaining member of the great trunk range
suffered the same fate and at the same time tore away with it the
Akaischi portion of the Kuma Kii range, while it nearly detached it

290 The American Geologist. Novonet Gee

from its earlier connection and placed it in a nearly perpendicular
position.

7. Development of the Japanese Arc. It is clear that the pro-
jecting portions of Japan do not correspond to the recognized charac-
ters of compressed mountain ranges of the Alpine type. South Japan
shows in the front an arc concave toward that portion of the earth
space lying in front; we could compare it to a portion of the con-
tinent taken from the Tsinling range and its adjoining ranges to the
south. North Japan and Yezo on the other hand appear as fragments
of an ancient continent of quite a different kind, placed transverse to
the equatorial ranges of South Japan. If one considers the two parts
of the continent of which the fragments are visible, not yet intersected
by volcanoes but reproduced in full extent, scarcely any portion of
the coast could appear less adapted for the production of the mountain
arc. But exactly as upon the continent and upon the coasts, the work-
ing together of telluric forces furnished to the great fractures which
they brought forth the tendency to join in great crescentic lines inde-
pendent of the internal structure, and thus to develop an extended
structure of the plateau block kind with sickle-like border region and
with upward-arching basin-like depression toward the interior. The
Japanese inland country corresponds to these conditions in its entinety,
the sea of Japan corresponds with the bottom of the basin. _—

Like the other arcs which have been considered in these “studies,”
the Japanese has a meridional and an equatorial arm. The meridional
arm is a diagonal horst; that is to say, its long sides (the eastern and
the western, or the outer and the inner) intersect in an acute angle
the internal structure. The latter is as we have seen directed N by W.
The axis of North Japan, and in like manner its coast line, curves
from NE, through NNE, to N; hence correspondence with the strike
never obtains. It follows that the force which here produced the
meridional component of the arc on the west side of the Pacific
ocean, as we have learned in all other cases, was,so powerful that the
fault lines with it occasioned have courses without regard to any
structures which were already present in its basement. Another
property consists in its tendency in those places where the meridional
arms join with the equatorial to form ‘ares, to continue again some-
what further west and form meridional arms of new arcs in flanking
position. It should be here recalled that the bathymetric lines of
the great deep do not go around Japan, but along the east side of the
Bonin ridge in an are which is convex to the eastward.

In the equatorial arm of the Japanese arc, the conjecture already
expressed is confirmed, that for the character of these components of
the arcs, the Tsinling range constitutes a partition in so far as the type
of the gridiron of blocks (Staffelroste) arising from tensional frac-
tures, as it occurs in Daurien and North Channel, does not appear to
occur on the south side of that range. Of the Japanese equatorial
limb every trace in fact is lacking. Otherwise, the lines of the
Sinian system are dominant in the general plan. However, the
deformations which they have suffered have influenced their courses.

Sa 2. a a

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia—Hobbs. 291

The coast brings into most marked expression the bending of the
range so as to be concave to the south. As in the manner of its
bending, so also in the abundance of embayments, it is the opposite
to that which we are accustomed to see in the folded outer ranges
of mountains of Alpine type.

Of the Japanese arc, only the land which projects above the sea
is shown. Whether compressed folded arcs lie in the slopes bordering
the ocean or in its depth, is not to be determined. When I wrote the
first parts: of these “studies,” I considered it as probable, and con-
jectured that through concentration. by folding a compensation would
enter for the dilatation which has come about by reason of the tension
toward the east. The analytical consideration of the structure in
Japan has robbed me of the conviction. There is no trace of zonally
folded arcs to be discovered in the fundamental complex. In vain
one seeks it in the Mesozoic deposits. Compressed folds may indeed
be present in the eastward slopes toward the Tuscarora deep; but it
is not probable that they surround Japan in ares. The assumption
would be better based that they accompany the Bonin ridge upon its
east side.

8. The Bandai Arc of Volcanoes is a recent expression of the arc-
forming force. . From the fracture field out of which it rises in a
beautiful line, there have welled up, according to Harada, in Mesozoic
time rocks of many types. Along with granites, which he had in-
clined to ascribe in part to a late age, there were especially diorytes,
quartz porphyries, and porphyrytes. A regularity in their arrangement
cannot be made out. So much the more distinct is such an arrange-
ment in the volcanoes which have been active since Tertiary time.
Inclusive of Rischiri, Harada enumerated up to the Asama, 44 vol-
canoes, of which 8 are still active. The fracture field from which they
rise may have come into existence in Mesozoic time. The formation
of the connecting canals with the earth’s interior along the extended
continuous line, and on certain scattered laterally-lying positions, was
connected with later events. There arose thus the first independent
are structure within the region of the Japanese islands. It does not
follow the axis of the island arc; for if the northern portion does
indeed fall in the median line of North Japan, it nevertheless deserts it °
before it reachs Asama; and if we follow its extension to the west
where it is inserted in a most remarkable manner into an entirely dif-
ferent mountain country, almost all of South Japan lies outside the
line. It soon reaches the sea. In its prolongation lies, 3° farther west,
the twin pair of the circular Goto group of islands, which are in part
volcanic; yet one might venture to assume a connection.

This arc has as little foundation in the structure of Japan as have
the coast lines of the north wing. It obviously depends upon the forces
which formed both, but it is in contrast with them, independent by
its very simplicity, and throughout a long course. In it an analogy is
furnished with the Aleutian islands and with the Kuriles. Since it
rests upon the ancient arc as something foreign, one may speak of its
connection with it as epigenetic.

292 ~. The American Geologist. NOVEMID te

THE SUBMARINE GREAT CANYON OF THE
HUDSON RIVER.

By J. W. SPENCER, Washington, D.C.

(Submitted to Eighth International Geographic Congress, New York.)
(Advance Notice.)

More than forty years ago, professor J. D. Dana first ex-

plained the channel of the continental border, extending from
New York for more than a hundred miles, as the former
course of the Hudson river, at a time when the continent stood
higher than now (then known to be only 720 feet deep). In
1885, professor A. Lindenkohl discovered that the shallow chan-
nel became a canyon, and reached a depth of nearly 3,000 feet,
but with an apparent barrier across it. Since then, both pro-
fessor Dana and Dr. Upham applied this feature as evidence
of continental elevation of the Glacial period. On the evi-
dence of incomplete soundings, in 1897 I ventured to point
out that the valley was traceable to a depth of 12,000 feet.
Recently I have found authentic evidence, from soundings by
Lt. Com. Tanner, that immediately beside the sounding re-
sponsible for the barrier hypothesis, he obtained another,
which revealed a deep canyon, at this point, where the former
depth had been taken on its side only. Then in the next four
miles the floor drops in a step of 2,000 feet. Here another
deep sounding, close upon an older and shallower one, shows
a depth of 4,800 feet below sea level where the continental
slope is submerged only 1,000 feet. Accordingly, there is a mag-
nificent canyon, 3,800 feet deep, which at a little below its top is
less than two miles wide. Just beyond is a tributary. This great
depth is 31 miles from the head of the gorge, incising the
level floor of the continental shelf, having two right-angled
turns in its course. Beyond this point, the gorge is defined
and extends at least 11 miles farther. At 48 miles, the right
wall of more than 2,000 feet becomes less precipitous, showing
that the canyon is widening into a valley with the depth of 6,200
feet below the surface at a point not in its center. I have
taken the end of the more precipitous walled gorge at
about six miles above this point, and the depth below the
surface between 6,000 and 7,000 feet. The details of the
right wall from this point onward are sufficiently full, but on

id

Great Canyon of Hudson River.—Spencer. 293

the left, the immediate position is open to some variation of
location. To nearly 9,000 feet, its maximum breadth is
defined, and thus we have the proof of the valley ¢
tinuing to a point 71 miles from the head of the canyon,
which is about 100 miles from Sandy Hook. The edge of
the continental shelf is taken at a depth of 500 feet, inside of
which the gorge has receded nearly 30 miles. The floor of
the channel and gorge is covered with blue clay, while the
level shelf is covered with sand.

I am now able to analyse this feature equally well with the
canyons of the Congo and Cape Verde, or the Antillean re-
gion, with the advantage of having more knowledge of the
adjacent topography and geology, so that its date can be de-
termined as pertaining to the early Pleistocene period, and
that there seems no other feasible explanation of its origin
than that it was formed as a land valley when the region was
9,000 feet higher than now. For some reasons one might be
inclined to reduce this amount by 2,000 feet on account of
epeirogenic depression of the continental slope, but this is re-
futed by outside information.

The study of the shallow channels on the continental shelf,
shows, after a subsidence following the period of elevation, an-
other small elevation of 250 feet, obtained in age post-Columbia.
Subsequent sinkings and minor changes are also noted.

MIOCENE BARNACLES FROM GAY HEAD, MASS.,
WITH NOTES ON BALANUS PROTEUS,
CONRAD.

By JoseErH A. CUSHMAN, Boston, Mass.

During the last two summers two collecting trips to Gay
Head, Marthas Vineyard, were made by the writer, one. in
July, 1903, the other in August, 1904. .At both times a con-
siderable number of specimens of the fossil crab, Archacoplar
signifera Stimpson, were collected, in all, several hundred
specimens. Among these were a number showing the carapace
almost completely. Upon examining several of these, peculiar
circles were noted on the shell. The counterparts revealed the
bases of barnacles, the upper parts of which were imbedded in

204 The American Geologist. November, 490%

the matrix. In all, a number of specimens of crabs with at-
tached barnacles were found, one crab with several, more or
less crowded together. Fig 2. All the specimens were of
young individuals. Figures of these are given.

BIGGS ele Fic. 2. Fic. 3.

Figs, 1-3. Balanus concavus from the Miocene of Gay Head. Fig.
1. Enlarged view of 5asis and one opercular valve. The outer shell has
been entirely lost. Fig. 2. Part of a group of young specimens upon a
crab’s back. Here again the shell itself has been dissolved away. Fig. 3.
Cast of interior shotving shape and the tendency toward plications.
(Specimens in Museum of Boston Society of Natural History.)

Fragments of a Balanus were reported from Gay Head
by Dr. W. H. Dall) (Am. Journ. Sc., 3rd. series, vol. xiviig
297) as ““Balanus (?proteus Conr.) fragm.’’ Almost without
exception our Miocene barnacies from the eastern United
States have been referred to Balanus proteus Conrad. The op-
ercular valves were not figured by Conrad, two sketches of the
external view of the whole shell being all that is given in his
Medial Tertiary. The original description was not accom-
panied by a figure.

Darwin was the first to recognize the real importance of .
the inner or opercular valves as a means for separating the
species of Balanus. He showed that while the outer shell or
testa varied with the irregularity of the surface to which it
was attached, the inner opercular valves were not so affected.
Darwin, in his monograph of the Fossil Balanide (1854,)
figured for the first time the opercular valves of the common

Miocene Barnacles from Gay Head.—Cushman, 295

American Balanus of the Miocene. His specimens were from
Virginia and Maryland, while Conrad’s type of B. proteus was
also from Virginia. Darwin finds that the opercular valves
agree in their details with those of B. concavus Bronn which
was described in 1831, several years before the first appear-
ance of the description of B. proteus Conrad. The very small
use that can be made of the exterior shell is shown by the
comparisons made by the two writers. Conrad speaks of his
species as being close to the English B. crassus. A comparison
of the opercular valves of his species with B. crassus would
have shown at once the great dissimilarity of the two, although
in many ways similar in external form. In the outer shell
also one has the radii perforate, the other imperforate.

In his remarks toward the end of his monograph of the
Cirripedia, Darwin speaks of B. proteus as follows, “I cannot
recognize this species; it resembles B. porcatus ; but as the radii
are rather narrow, and apparently with rather oblique sum-
mits, it may be B. concavus; the opercular valves are not fig-
ured.” Here again, the likeness to B. poreatus would at once
have been seen to be entirely superficial if the opercular valves
of the.two could have been compared.

A considerable number of specimens from Virginia and
Maryland, labelled B. protews and corresponding in all points
with Conrad’s figures have been examined by the writer. With-
out exception the opércular valves were like those of B.
concavus as figured by Darwin. Not only this, but in the
series obtained, the very slight differences noted by Darwin
were bridged over by the specimens, many of them being
more like the figures of specimens from the English Crag
than those figured from .Maryland. Darwin, however, notes
the variability of the Maryland specimens.

The specimens obtained at Gay Head are like B. concavus
in having the basis and parieties permeated by pores. The
opercular valves where shown were similar to those of B.
concavus, Fig 1, especially to those of young specimens. It
should undoubtedly be recorded as this species. Its occur-
rence on the backs of crabs is also in favor of its being placed
under that species, which in its recent members is almost al-
ways found attached either to the backs of crabs or to shells.

296 The American Geologist. Nove p aaa

In New Jersey the fragments of Balanus have been referred
to B. proteus Conrad by Prof, R. P. Whitfield. These should
undoubtedly be called b. concavus Bronn. In Whitfield’s
paper, Mollusca and Crustacea of the Miocene of New Jersey,
(Monograph xxiv, U. S. G. S.), there is one thing to which
attention may be called. On p. 141 he says, “No entire indi-
vidual of this species has been obtained from the New Jersey
deposits, so far as | am aware; but numerous separated plates
are in the collection at Rutgers College.” These specimens,
which were from near Shiloh, N. J.; are figured, Pl. xxiv, figs.
18-23. In plate iv, fig. 8, on the ear at the left of the shell
of Vola humphreysi Conrad, there is figured attached an en-
tire specimen of Balanus. This shell was also from near
Shiloh, N. J. This illustrates the ease with which barnacles
and other attached forms may be overlooked.

Although there are minor differences in the shell due to
attachment, there are, nevertheless, certain variations in this
species not due to this entirely. Darwin figures both smooth
and plicated specimens of B. concavus. In American speci- .
mens there is the same variation. Ona single valve of Pecten
eburneus both forms were found. Several had four or more
prominent radial plications on each of the parieties, another
form of which there were several were perfectly smooth ex-
cept for the lines of growth which were slightly raised. Such
differences at first glance would seem to give definite varietal
distinction but in a considerable amount of material it has been
impossible to carry this difference beyond the early growth,
both forms becoming roughened and rugose in further growth.
In both forms there seems to be no appreciable or constant
difference in the opercular valves. The Gay Head specimens .
were of the smooth type.

From the preceding it seems that we should adopt the
earlier name of Balanus concavus Bronn for the common spe-
cies of barnacle found in the Miocene from Gay Head south-
ward through New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, etc., instead
of the commonly used name B. proteus Conrad.

Boston Society of Natural History, 1904.

The Theory of Copper De position—Lane. 2907

THE THEORY OF COPPER DEPOSITION.
By ALFRED C. LANg, State Geologist, Lansing, Mich.*

During the past few years there has been a lively interest
in the theory of the origin of ore deposits, and recently two
works have been published by the Institute of Mining Engi-
neers and by the Engineering and Mini: g jvurnal, which give
a very good account of the presc«:. state of the controversy,
and references enough to carry one pretty well over the whole
field of the latter.t In these discussions our deposits of iron
ore and copper of lake Superior have been frequently used as
illustrations of the various theories by those who take part
in the discussion. In view of these facts, it seems proper to
give a review of what is known concerning the copper of lake
Superior and of the theories regarding the same. ‘here is also
a practical ::terest involved in the discz.ssion. As we shall
shortly see, all the best authorities at present agree that the
copper has been deposited by water, but there is some differ-
ence of opinion as to whether the water current is a de-
scending one and copper was deposited and a circulation pro-
duced by gravity, or ascending, and the circulation due to
one or more principal causes, which we may call as a common
name, volcanic, meaning thereby that they are connected with
the interior heat of the earth. Now, it is a common notion
among the practical Cornish miners of the copper country, al-
though I do not remember te have seen the statement in
print, that the copper is liable to occur under high ground.

To understand what is meant by the expression “high
ground,’ we must remember that at the present day the bulk
of the copper is deposited in bedded lodes. It would be per-
haps more correct to say that it comes from lodes whose strike

* Advance sheets from the Annual Report for 1903, reprinted from The
Michigan Miner, January and February, 1904. Itshould be understood that
the title in a general magazine like the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is too broad, for
the article has reference solely to the deposits of Keweenaw Point, and the
author does not wish to apply either facts or conclusions to other deposits,
such as the sulphides, whose history he believes to be different.

+ Genesis of ore deposits, Reprinted papers from Volumes xxiii, xxiv, xxx
and xxxi of the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers.
Published by the Institute at the office of the Secretary, New York City, 1902.

Ore Deposits, a discussion republished from the Engineering and Mining
Journal, New York City, 1903.

See also Geological Survey of Michigan, vol. i, Part II, p.43. Vol. vi,
PartlI, p. 216.

Yet more recent: Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,Oct., 1902. ‘‘Igneous Rocks
and Circulating Waters as Factorsin Ore Deposition,’ by J. F. KEMP; ‘‘Ore
Deposits Near Igneous Contacts,’’ by W. H. WReEpD, and discussion of same.
Annual report of the State Geologist (of New Jersey),1902. ‘“‘Copper De-
posits of New Jersey,’”’ by WALTER HARVEY WEED. ‘The Chemistry of Ore
Deposition,’’ by WALTER P. JENNEY.

2098 The American Geologist. November, 1903.

is the same as that of the beds of the Keweenaw formation.
It is commonly accumulated in the originally more porous parts
of the beds. Sometimes these porous parts are sandstones
and conglomerates, but more often they are porous upper
parts of lava flows. It is, I believe, true that in many- cases
there are faults parallel to the bedding planes, or so nearly
so that the difference has not been detected, which have had an
important influence on the production of copper. In some cases
we know there are such faults, which generally have a some-
what steeper dip than that of dips generally.*

Nevertheless, in a practical way the most characteristic
feature of these lodes is the porous beds. Any one of these
porous beds may contain copper and there are few of them,
which are decomposed, that do not show some trace of copper.
But the parts which are relatively rich, rich enough to be
the sole object of interest to the miner, are rare, and the mean-
ing of the idea that copper occurs along high ground is, as
I understand it, that in following the outcrop of such lode,
chutes of copper are liable to occur where the outcrop of the
lode is extra high. Now there is some ground for this idea.
If we take the Baltic lode, just developed, we find that in the
Baltic, Trimountain and Champion mines this is rich, while
just northeast, on section 167 the Atlantic mine has done a
good deal of exploring without being able to find the lode.
Rising once more on the high land we find the Isle Royale
mine close to the deep trough of Portage lake, where, on the
other side, is the Quincy mine, on high land again.. The
Sheldon and Columbia and Hancock mines, more down in the
Portage Lake valley, do not appear to have been so successful.
Going farther north, we find the Calumet & Hecla, Tamarack,
Kearsarge and Wolverine mines, not very far from the Allouez
gap on the southwestern side; on the northeastern side is the
Mohawk mine. Nearer the gap is the Ahmeek property, which

* The top of the Calumet and Hecla is markedly slickensided. See also
Volume vi Part II, pp. 86-94; the slide fault in the Central mine appears to be
nearly parallel to the Kearsarge conglomerate. The accumulation of copper
was in the vein above this slide, and on reaching the conglomerate they work-
ed on top of it finding good copper ground.

The annual report of the Phoenix mine for 1901 shows in the section by
DuNBAR D. ScorTt, the steeper fault slide in that mine, in the St. Clair vein.
The old Minnesota, now Michigan mine, had its largest deposit of copper
where a steeper fissure intersected alode. See the report of the Commissioner
of Mineral Statistics for 1880, p. 76. Copper Handbook, 1902, p. 195.

} Volume vi, Part II, Plate 10.

ss

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 299

is just being opened up and whose true value has not been
determined. If the “high ground’ notion has any
substantial basis, its prospects would not be so good as those
of the Mohawk and Wolverine mines, although it lies on the
same lode and between’ them. The Phoenix mine and the
Cliff lie on higher land, not far from the gap of Eagle river,
and turning to the other end of the range we find the Minne-
sota and the National on one side and the Victoria on the
other of the gap made by the Ontonagon river, while the Mass
and Adventure lie on the high land between the Flint and the
Fire Steel rivers. :

Now, this grouping of mines in accordance with this notion
that the copper occurs on the high ground may be due to the
fact that the porous beds are usually eroded, and therefore
not exposed, and not easily exploited or developed, except on
high ground. It might also be suggested that the alterations
which produce the copper had cemented these beds more firm-
ly and had thus given a greater resistance to erosion, either
by ice or by water. The copper itself, however, even in the
richest mines, is only a small fraction of the rock, and is
easily decomposed chemically, and so are some of the asso-
ciated minerals, and, although at times, copper bearing amyg-
daloids, as the igneous porous beds are called, are more or less
saturated with silica and epidote, I do not think those minerals
are so characteristic of the copper-bearing lodes as to lead
to a relatively greater elevation of such parts of the lode.
However, there is room here for inquiry.

I leave to the last another possible explanation which has
a more direct connection with the theory of the deposits of
the copper. If the copper is deposited by descending waters,
as Pumpelly, who has done by far the most work upon the
subject, suggested, and the motion of these descending waters
is determined by gravity, descending along the lodes at one
branch of the inverted siphon and rising either in the same lode
at a lower point of its outcrop, or in some cross fissure, which
might very well be the cause of the gap in the range, then we
can readily see that the greatest activity and circulation and
greatest deposition of the copper consequently, should be
beneath salient points of the outcrop of the lode. Take for
instance, the Calumet & Hecla. That deposit outcrops 600 or

300 The American Geologist. November, 1904.

700 feet above Lake Superior, and the chute of the richer
streaks in the deposit is northward, and we may imagine the
waters working down in that direction to re-appear over in
the Allouez gap or up some fissure which may possibly have
determined the gap. We see, therefore, that the question as to
whether the copper was deposited by waters circulating in
one fashion or another bas a practical interest in guiding the
search for the richest parts of the lode. Moreover, Van Hise
has suggested that the richer parts of the lode—called chutes—
will be found beneath upward bends if the waters of deposi-
tion are ascending, beneath downward bends if the waters of
deposition are descending. If he is right, which I doubt, in say-
ing that the copper of the Michigan lodes are deposited by
ascending waters, the southern end of the Ahmeek and the
northern part of the Kearsarge properties should be extra pro-
ductive according to Hubbard’s map of the Allouez gap area
(Volume VI., Part II., Plate VII.), but if the waters are de-
scending, the same area should be lean.

In the first place we may premise that it is a settled ques-
tion that the copper was deposited by water. All kinds of
authority agree in this, although at one time a few geologists
thought of its being inserted in a molten state. But native
copper and native silver occur together, as they could not if
they were melted. They would at once be alloyed. Jewelry is
often made of sections of nuggets of copper and silver, popu-
larly known as halfbreeds, where the sharp and irregular line
between the copper. and silver is beautifully displayed. We also
find copper grown upon minerals, like analcite and prehnite,
which one can fuse in a candle flame. It is not very rare to
find a sharp crystal of dog-tooth spar entirely plated over
with copper, and then the growth taken up again.* “Pumpelly
has given in Volume I. of our reports a most thorough dis-
cussion of the way in which the copper occurs. A very in-
teresting specimen, owned by Dr. Hubbard, shows a crystal of
quartz which has been corroded and mainly by native cop-
per. Moreover, in the deeper part of the Quincey mines, Dr.
KKoenig has found a water which is now depositing copper and
contains 9 grams to the metric ton of the same.

.

* See Volumei, Part II, Chapter III; also Volume vi, Part II, pp. 163 to
165 of our reports.

|

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 301

I have shown in my United States Geological Survey water
supply paper No. 31, on the different waters of Lower Michi-
gan, that while each porous bed varies in its character of
water from point to point, yet there is little intercommunication
between them and it is difficult to see how there could be much,
except upward along fissures or drill holes. Beds of clay or
shale are known to be so impervious to water and to oil, they
may be taken to be, even in a geological sense, impervious
layers, permanently guiding and separating the different flows
of water. The same statement applies to clayey belts of de-
composed rock, paint rock and fluccan, as Van Hise himself has
ably pointed out in discussing chutes and the formation of the
Galena lead deposits. Thus, it must be remembered, that Van
Hise’s figures of underground flow apply only to a homo-
geneous medium. His figure 5, for instance, might represent
the flow of water in one single porous bed, say of conglomerate,
sandstone, or amygdaloid, but not the formation at random.
It is by no means practically true, therefore, that the zone of
fracture “will be searched to its base by moving waters,” un-
less first it is not only potentially but really fractured, so as to
make it practically porous as a whole, and unless, also, it is
covered by a surface topography so rough as to stimulate
circulation. These two conditions will be best fulfilled in those
mountainous districts, which as Van Hise remarks, are most
liable to contain ore deposits, page 416.

Now, the difficulty in supposing that the copper deposits
are due to such a general circulation of water taken in at the
surface, as Van Hise imagines are very great. The following
is a sample of water from the Arcadian shaft, a relatively shal-
low shaft, analyzed by Dr. Koenig, August 23, 1898:

(CLO FRE SR eae! paar ay eae Serene .-2 2 Oe BL AOS 32:7
1 ESO Seah Dee Aialin eee, Aa eD Rim Ye ipl ERAN 13.7
SOIT Sascon steeds saeaakodcasesaesirnae cenehy oak tae coders 100.0
RSMO rete ca s eho aha gdifeeknc tion nvaawidaencaas Tone e Re es nak ents 24.5
MUN RROD (Venn oe sb, so oS la acu one ei Cate ats eee eee ae 25.6
PRES Ch eee eo A cde ad vc ks ry ere onaca ses ee ee TE 10.9
Nao SiOg eMane siaege 044 6606ub cua sd 6e0sscassesbeceadiieensdtetcosecsabphect 10%;3
AN Site dee Seca us cindcdudy sae evebwdne o4, ae can ae Cha tr
OL Eh aE UO hss cic ices x ois Pak sins Sage porn hk a ee te cecil 2:2
1 CPR O80 Pina A 02 RR ER Se Bneete Re che, titre ace ocr ae eae 42.3
OE SE SrA ECO s.: wann ica ccuchas dendestuvceteeaec tacts caves dacs 82.0

302 The American Geologist. Noventber, S702

While a deep mine water coming in at the 46th level of the
Quincy, analyzed by Dr. Koenig, was as follows:

Cd CO ee ee ES. co LSS Ne AN HR | 1.1898
(Cam Clg P Aety Riccasscostcs veastbseausence dda rencan note tna astra ioe
INAS CUR e cdc baachs caiie i Bh aupsustee ce oe tes cee eee sadeu eter ne aeons 2.96
IN ge (GSU i a sate neccs ee e

Sar cuautaceracneed seh uteetecnstaee andiee snes saaee dase eades seme 0)
THOM. d.c-cc02c0tesecdsteossvecsostgcecenessasopiparsasavedasccaaseasesee 0.004
COP PEL scccsscacsssuaccecsncenecceneeccatenpeeceasnetee seanaeerese oie 0.009
CO aii Gad aig ieee tates cesta ratataesedaasesseeceeceea aye 0.00

Now these two analyses are typical.

The deep waters are strong solutions of earthy chlorides.
A water with nearly 1 per cent. of bromine oozes in the 45th
level of the Tamarack. The shallow waters are high in alka-
lies, and so low in chlorine that the alkalies have to be com-
bined with other acids. It is no wonder that alkaline zeolites
occur in the upper levels. One might explain the loss of car-
bonates if the upper water was descending by a precipitation
of the same such as we know has taken place, but I do not see
that we can so explain the presence and absence of chlorine.
That must, it seems to me, have been an original constituent
of the deeper rock moisture, either of the sea in which the
rocks were laid down, or of the igneous magna. Prof: Moore
in his presidential address before the Liverpool Geological So-
ciety (1903, p. 269) has shown that at the top of a 96 foot
thick intrusive sheet there is a 10 to 15 foot belt, corresponding
to the amygdaloids of the Keweenawan series, which contains
a little over 4 per cent. carbonic oxide and 2.6 per cent. water
which are, as he believes, probably primary. Anarysis of the
Lighthouse Point dyke, which is probably one of the Keweenaw
flow feeders, shows chlorine, more than enough to go with P,
O., for apatite, and the apatite which has been so commonly
observed (Vol. VI, Part 1) also contains chlorine.

Note the apparent concentration of the early formed oli-
vine at the margin.

Moreover around volcanic centers the escape of vapors .

containing chlorine and carbonic oxide and the formation of
crusts of iron chloride are common.

Pumpelly furthermore concludes that the water which de-
posited the copper was descending. One of the arguments
which he used is that the alkaline silicates abound in the upper

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 303

' ANALYSES OF STONE FROM LIGHTHOUSE POINT MARQUETTE.

June 30, 1903.

MALONE Cyst was vcabvettcasecs duertaee ce 46.98 47.67 57.25 47.10
PAN UERCVBN ce i ecg rans handp¥einpecestacsvan 17.85 17.55 18.10 17.47
MBI Oh eae roc es cacuunfenaacehavenaseeins 3.18 2.51 2.21. 2.66
MANSON OCG te ycsnadassevesteds cccedjes tae 10.30 12.69 12.42 12.93
RERUNS ax 0. Ses uss vac vecscvevuctstte 7.10 5.65 6.35 6.88
MOM tai vxinit casts cuces vecccukese 8.47 10.75 11.45 10.27
CIC EIN OKIE. se. ccceveseecseec 2.04 2.21 7 19S LOL
Potassium Oxide......ci.6.... .60 65 .66 .59
He O at about 800° C........ 1.97 -35
ewe Ee LL OPI CY, cscs cedsceisterns 1.55 “4.0
aes sehen c rec ucshecauteeeeaseh oak SU 18
12 (Cl aaah aa eee EET PERS Pir CEPR 143 .169 .158 161
RENE e ioc Lars casss an settaseeestes .097 183 .086 ma
Re ee rotee cas cccdeues be Sscbastaces tact .O7 .05 .02 .09
VERT OC) Mack cc es cnet ssa saceic<Seoc-n sabes 26 -19 18 LS
101.880 102.422 100.744 109.522
Center
Distance from margin......... Margin 616m 4115m 7600m

E. E. WARE under direction of E. D. CAMPBELL.

levels and are (page 40) rare in depth; “in other words they
are abundant in that zone of the veins which lies between
walls of those portions of the beds of the melaphyre in
which we should look for the most advanced stages of altera-
tion in the components of melaphyre supposing: such ‘alteration
to be due to the action of descending solution.” By alkaline
silicates he means analcite, apophyllite, orthoclase (and datolite
is of the same age). Copper occurs of similar age in some of
these deposits. In studying the alteration of the lava flows
which form so large a proportion of the Kewcenawan series,
I find that the olivine is first to alter, then the augite, and
lastly the feldspar.

There are other arguments which may be used to support
Pumpelly’s theory with regard to the origin of copper. As
has been said, down to say 500 or 600 feet the water of the
mine is quite fresh. In the deeper mines while there is very
little water it is an extremely strong solution of chlorides. The
line between the two classes of water is reported to be very
sharp, and there is a chance for a very interesting investiga-
tion right here. It would seem quite difficult to suppose a
circulation of this heavy water tip into a light fresh water,
especially under high ground, and to imagine that there could

304 _ The American Geologist. November, 1904.

be a sharp line between them. One would expect to find brack-
ish waters clear to the surface, and that even if the heavy
waters rising were diluted by affluents, they would retain the
same general character, whereas the surface waters and the
deep waters are chemically entirely different. If there was a
tendency for the waters to descend, however, the rocks
might naturally draw in fresh water of entirely different
character from the outcrop.

Figure illustrating original cavities in a rock of the copper bearing series
such as may have been originally filled with chlorine gases, as at ‘‘A’’ wedged
in between feldspar belts and an octagonal augite grain.

Van Hise might however suggest that the present distri-
bution of waters is a recent phenomenon, the present circulation
being indeed downward, but much later than the origin of the
copper.

Now if vapors escape they must be present in proportion to
their vapor pressure in the lava and can hardly wholly escape
but must be present more or less in the rock moisture of the
acid interstices which I have so fully described for the in-
trusive rocks. But even in an effusive as the rock (above fig-
ure) we see that between the crystal of augite and that of feld-
spar, each having its own shape, is an angular space which
must have been originally a pore filled only with gas probably.

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 305

In a thoroughly crystalized trap, doleritic melaphyre or diabase
the porosity is not over 1 per cent. But in the case of an amyg-
daloid' the amount of. vesticular space may have been very
considerable, and’ this space must have been filled either with
the original gases or possibly in the case of submarine flows
with sea water more or less contaminated with such gases.
Such an origin would readily account for the saline character
of the waters, and it is worth noting that such saline waters
attack copper as is shown by the fixtures around the salt
‘baths of Lower Michigan.

Another most weighty argument is the occurrence of cop-
per native in the iron ores near Crystal Falls.* One can hardly
imagine this other than produced by descending waters since
the iron ore is universally allowed to have been formed by
descending waters. Moreover it occurs in the upper parts of
iron ore bodies and is not known to have any connection with
lower deposits. It may easily be conceived to have been de-
rived from an over-lying extension of the Keeweenawan, now
eroded away.

Pumpelly snoneed that the copper may have been orig-
inally deposited with the strata, as sulphurets under submarine
conditions. He was slightly inclined to call the old lavas altered
(metamorphic) sediments. :

Irving apparently agreed with Pumpelly speaking of the
copper having been arrested in its descent. The more recent
writers on ore deposits however seem inclined to refer the
origin of the copper deposits to the Be rising waters. For
instance Posepny writes as follows

“Some of the attempted So tenatiene assume, in my opin-
ion correctly, as the cause of the first ore depositions, the action
of hot springs—in yvhien convection 11 is only to be emphasized
these thermal effects occurred long after the intrusion of the
eruptive flows between the sedimentary strata, so the ores were
brought, not by or in the eruptives themselves, but by the later
springs, from great depths and perhaps from considerable dis-
tances. This explanation, applicable to all deposits, suits also
the exceptional case cited by R. D. Irving, namely, the None-

* A. E. SEAMAN writes that he has native copper in iron ores from the Clifis
mine at Iron Mountain, also with ferruginous chert from the tenth level of the
Great Western mine, Crystal Falls, also from the Montana mine, Tower,
Minn., where it occurs in the iron ore.

3006 The American Geologist. Noy ee

such copper bed in the sandstone of Porcupine mountain, far
from an eruptive outflow.” Posepny seems to have been influ-
enced in the first place by a strong prepossession as to the role
of ascending solutions, and in the second place by the oc-
currence of the ore as a mineral or rarely sulfide and not as
carbonate.

Prof. Van Hise in his very interesting article on “Some
Principles Controlling the Deposition of Ores,’ uses the metal-
lic copper deposits as a conspicuous illustration of ore deposits
where the concentration by ascending waters has been suffi-
cient without secondary concentration by descending waters,
writing as follows:

“In some cases the deposits thus produced are sufficiently
rich, so that they are of economic importance. In these cases,
which undoubtedly exist, but which perhaps are less numer-
ous than one might at first think, a concentration of ascending
waters has been sufficient.

“A conspicuous illustration of ore deposits of this class
which may be mentioned are the metallic copper deposits of
the lake Superior region. The copper was in all probability
reduced and precipitated directly as metallic copper from up-
ward moving cupriferous solutions. The reducing agents
were the ferrous compounds in the solid form, in part as
magnetite and as solutions derived from the iron bearing
silicate. When the copper was precipitated, the iron was
changed into the ferric condition. It is well known that me-
tallic copper once formed is but slowly affected by the oxidizing
action. Oxidation has, in fact, occurred in the lake Superior
region, but from the facts now to be observed, not to an 1-
portant extent. An oxidized belt may have formed in pre-
Glacial times, but if so, it was swept away by glacial erosion,
and sufficient time has not yet elapsed to form another. The ore
deposits now worked have apparently remained practically un-
changed since the time of their concentration. In this fact we
have the explanation of the great richness of these deposits to
extraordinary depths.”

Prof. H. L. Smyth, of Harvard, has also adopted the
same belief and I have already discussed it in Vol. VI. of our
reports. Prof. Smyth believes that the various flows were
surface weathered and the earlier non-alkaline minerals pro-

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 307

duced thereby. The later alkaline minerals he believes to have
been associated with the northerly and northwesternly tilting,
and the formation and the filling of the fissures and the im-
pregnation and partial replacement of amygdaloids and con-
glomerates with copper, the copper not being derived from
overlying sandstones nor from traps, but probably by ascending
solutions from deep-seated sources.

Returning once more to Prof. Van Hise’s paper, we find
that however his theories may apply to other deposits, they
apply very largely to copper-bearing rocks. His first premise
is that the greater number of ore deposits are the result of
work of underground water. His second is that the material
of ore deposits is derived from rocks within the zone of frac-
ture. This would seem to be true, and shall give some argu-
ments for believing that the copper is derived from the associ-
ated igneous rocks. His third premise is that by far the major
part of the depositing water is meteoric. By this he means that
it is derived from the air, rain water which was worked down
into the ground. In view of the composition of the water at con-
siderable depths above given on the Keweenawan range, it
seems probable that this is not true, but that the largest part
of the water may either have been buried originally with the
sediments (possibly he would class this as meteoric), or oc-
cluded in the original magna, as he suggests. It is a subject
for further investigation, just how much of these three classes
of water we have involved.

His fourth premise is that the flowage of the underground
water is caused chiefly by gravitative stress. If this is true,
and I believe, it is, then it follows, as Van Hise himself has
remarked (p. 417), that if the copper is most concentrated
along the higher parts of the outcrop it must be formed by
descending waters; moreover, as he also calls attention (p
412) in case of the minor flexures and pitching folds in the
bed, if the waters are descending the richest parts should be
in the troughs of these folds, or possibly on lines leading from
an anticline down to the trough of the folds. Referring once
more to plate 10, of Vol. VI., Part I1., it will be seen that in
such a case the copper of the Baltic and Trimountain may be
expected to chute to the north when followed down. So should
the mines around Calumet, while the Quincy mine should

308 The American Geologist. November, 430=

chute southwestward. And yet, as the flowage of water is un-
der gravitative stress, it must be remembered that it will take
a considerable difference in head for a fresh water to move or
balance water with a specific gravity of (1.1898) a fifth more.
However, the Keweenawan series consists mainly of a great
series of lava flows, many of them over 100 feet thick. (See
as an illustration of this, the section of Tamarack shaft No. 5,
and correlated beds elsewhere given.) They are not likely to
have lost heat for a long time after their effusion, in fact very
likely not before their burial under succeeding flows* so that
for thousands of years the remnant heat of the effusions and
the heat of the later intrusions may have aided the circulation,
and particularly the solvent action of the water, as Van Hise
(pp. 300, 346, 774), but more particularly J. #. Kemp and
others have insisted. And yet the accumulation of copper in
the Nonesuch belt of sandy shales, made up of lava and sand,
would indicate that it is the chemical character of the lavas
rather than their heat which is of most importance. The
source of the copper Pumpelly considers to be sulphides orig-
inally deposited and bleached out and reduced by the ferrous
iron. This may be so, and yet it is strange that we see so
little of sulphides in the original rock or of sulphates in the

secondary minerals. JI have seen some fine selenite from the.

* In the succession of flows noted in the Isle Royale drill cores of Vol. VI
and the Tamarack shaft, and other sections studied if there had been a long
interval between the flows and they had been exposed to air, the amygdaloids
would have decayed to red clays and iron ores, and if they had been lofig
enough under water there would have been more or less deposition. As is
obvious from the Tamarack section, there is but very little deposition, and
while there may have been some contemporary decomposition of the amygd-
aloids—in fact probably has been, and it may have helped in the copper concen-
tration, yet in very many cases, it is clear that it did not progress far before
the next flow came. In fact in some cases an effect on the marginal grain of
the underlying flow isindicated. Now, for illustration’s sake, if (p. 245 of the
Isle Royale report, Fouque and Levy’s observations) an ophite cooling in
about six days has augite grains 0.03 square millimeters in area, then one
which has them about 50 square mm.in area, like the Greenstone 120 feet from
the wall, would take about (6x5~ .03) 10,000 days before it had actually con-
solidated, that is, it would be between twenty and thirty years before the
center of a sheet 24.0 feet thick had fully consolidated, and it would still be red
hot. But the increase of the grain of the augite clean to the center shows that
it must have been during a very early stage of cooling, and ata glance at
Plate IV, of the same report shows that after more than ten times that lapse
of time say, 200 to 300 years, the temperature at the center would still retain
something like an eighth of its original excess of temperature over the country
rock. The temperature toward the margin decreases, of course and the total
amount of calorics yet left in the flow will be readily found by integrating
equation (11) or (12) of the Isle Royale report. Of course the above figures
make no pretense to accuracy. We have no right to apply Fouque and Levy’s
observations on the grain of a rock of one composition off hand to another.
Yet the order of figures is likely to be the same, and it is plain thatif the
Tamarack cross section has some fifty flows, and this section only represents
a third or less of the whole pile of flows thus rapidly piled on each other there
may have been temperatures near boiling ten thousands of years after the
formation of the pile, during all of which time the zeolites we now see may
have been forming. Obviously, too, there will be a large amount of energy to
promote aqueous circulation.

a

The Theory of Copper Deposition—Lane. 309

National mine, but in general sulphates are rare. The arsen-
ides and sulphides that do occur are very peculiar, occurring
mainly in the veins, and perhaps rather.more frequently as at
mount Bohemia, associated with the acid rocks. There are
signs that at least at times they are secondary after the native
copper. It has occurred to me that possibly a ferrous or ferric
chloride containing a trace of copper was an early volcanic
emanantion. It is, however, also true that olivine, which is
one of the earliest minerals to develop, contains ferrous silicate
with which is likely to be associated a trace of copper and
nickel. Furthermore, under the microscope the olivine, an early
formed mineral, appears to gather at the sides of this dike
and the top of the flow. Analyses (Vol. VI. and here) seem
to indicate the same thing in the variation of the magnesia
and iron.

Thus the copper may have been concentrated. First, with
the olivine of the amygdaloid traps; secondly, by leaching out
of the olivine which decomposed either by atmospheric action
and meteoric waters, or immediately after the outflow of the
lava in the presence of the waters, acid and perhaps hot, buried
with this formation; thirdly, by reactions due to the circulation
downward of this water set up by this uplifting of the edge
of the great lake Superior synclinal. It must also be remem-
bered that according to the earlier geologists there has been
enormous erosion, which, according to L. L. Hubbard’s theory
(VI., p. 94), may be in part replaced by a sliding of the upper
beds on the lower for miles. In either case there may have
been .a considerable migration downward, in the porous belts
of the formation, of the material of the strata and the original
water thereof.

There is yet much to be learned, but three things appear to
me to be extremely probable; the copper was associated with
the original lava flows; that originally deposited water or gas
has been an important factor, possibly merely in bringing cop-
per into solution, and that the water circulation which finally
precipitated the copper was downward.

It is apparent, however, that we need to test the rival theo-
ries. We need to trace some one horizon some one conglomer-
ate or flow continuously through and survey it carefully and
accurately to determine the minor flexures. Dr. L. L. Hub-
bard has done this in part, but the work is not complete.

310 The American Geologist. November, 130%

THE UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR
THEORY,

Il.

By N. MIsTocKLEs, Minneapolis, Minn.

THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES
AND THE INCLINATION OF THE PLANETS ORBITS TO THE
ECEIPTIC.

89. We have already mentioned, in an article in the last
issue of the AMERICAN GEotocist, that it was the relative posi-
tions which the Sun, the planets and the moons occupy to-
wards one another, that in the opinion of Laplace seemed to
point to such an origin of these bodies as is presented in the
nebular theory. It is proper, therefore, that we now try to
ascribe this state of things to other causes.

Since it is the attraction of the Sun which causes the
planets to revolve in their orbits around the Sun, and like-
wise the attraction of the planets which causes the moons to
revolve around the planets, it is plain, also, that it is the
same influence which determines, at least in the main part,
the relations of the planetary orbits to one another and to
the Sun, and also the relation of the orbits of the moons to
one another and to the planets.

The question, then, is simply this: In what manner have
these relations been established.

We cannot speak of gravity as the motive force which
causes the motions of the planets and by virtue of which
the velocity of the Earth, for example, is 72 times that of
a cannon ball without at the same time supposing that there
must be a constant tendency, especially between the larger
planets—Jupiter and Saturn—and the Sun, to draw the
inner planets, at the time of conjunctions, in a straight line

toward the Sun. This cannot be denied, since attraction acts
reciprocally. The case is similar to the one when we as boys
used to pull tug of war, which was a reciprocal attraction,
and the result of which was a straight line. This point may
be better illustrated, however, by supposing a steamship of
about 10,000 tons carrying capacity, or somewhat larger, as

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 311

representing the Sun, and this ship connected by means of a
cable with another ship of about ten tons carrying capacity
representing Jupiter, and that these two ships would pull
with all their might in opposite directions. We suppose, fur-
ther, that to the cable—representing the force of gravity
—connecting the two ships were fastened small boats of
from about 70 to 640 pounds carrying capacity. These
would represent the inner larger planets. We must then
certainly admit that the cable, with one ship at either end,
and the ships pulling with all their power in opposite direc-
tions, would represent a straight line, if not influenced by
some other force, causing a different result.

Those two ships and the small boats, may be said to be
in conjunction; and such a position is sometimes occupied

-by all the planets simultaneously This happens .very sel-

dom, however, but sometimes it does happen. Jupiter, Ura-
nus and Neptune formed about a straight line with the Sun
in 1881-82, whereby the inner planets in crossing this line
were also placed in the same conjunction. The tension is,
of course, greatest during such epochs; but Jupiter alone will,
as shown in the example above, hold the orbits of the inner
planets in the ecliptic or about identical with its own orbit,
when they coine between him and the Sun once in each
anomalistic period. When we, further, notice that Neptune
at a distance of 1,000 million miles exerts a disturbing in-
fluence on Uranus, which observations have convinced us
of, then we may safely consider it established beyond all
doubt, that the positions and relations of the planetary or-
bits as determined are fixed and unchangeable by the recip-
rocal attractions of the Sun and the planets. All this is,
indeed, simple and natural. And thus we understand that
we can explain these phenomena without supposing, as the
cosmologists have done, the existence of a nebula with a
diameter of over 5,000 million miles, in order to make it
explicable.

It is equally clear, that the moons are subject to the same
kind of attractions, since they frequently are in conjunction
not only with the Sun, but also with each other. The inner
moon of Mars, for instance, comes between the Sun and the
planet three times a day. It appears plain, therefore, that

312 The American Geologist. Noveriat ee

the influence of the conjunction is the sought cause of the
parallelism of the moons’ orbits with those of the planets.

But there are other forces at work upon different prin-
ciples and leading to different results than that of attraction.
One of these forces we shall point out presently. Let us
first, however, notice that the peculiarity which we here
come in contact with and which the cosmogonists have paid
most attention to, is the analogy existing between the planet-
ary orbits and the Sun’s plane of rotation; and also the cor-
responding analogy between the moons’ orbits and _ the
planet’s plane of rotation.

Why, we may ask, does not the Sun rotate perpendicu-
larly to the plane of the planets’ orbits, as well as in a plane
identical with them? And why do not the planets rotate
perpendicularly to the plane of the orbits. of the moons as
well as in a plane coinciding with them? 20 ha

It appears at the first glance as though the planets were
subject in one way or another, to the force by which the
Sun rotates, and that the moons likewise have something
to do with the rotation of the planets. This is the point
which science so long, but unsuccessfully, has sought to ex-
plain.

In a following chapter we shall discuss the law of rotation
and we shall then solve this problem, and show that these
things are simple, and that they may be easily understood
after we have found the key to the secret. This key we can-
not find, however, until we have cleared away a number of
misconceptions. It often happens, as we shall find, that what
has been accepted as a result of one single cause only, is
the result of several causes acting together, and it may even
be the result of causes which so far have been unknown or
misunderstood. In order, therefore to explain correctly
any phenomenon which is a result of a combination of causes,
we must distinguish each cause and every factor and explain
them separately.

810. THE CAUSE OF THE INCLINATION ee THE LUNAR
ORBIT TO THE ECLIPTIC, AND OF THE PERIODICAL OSCILLATION
OF THIS INCLINATION.

The inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic varies,
according to C. A. Young, between 4° 57° and 5° 19, the

_-

J
,
:

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 313

extent of the oscillation being 22°, The maxima and minima
of this oscillation, in general, are not the subject of consid-
eration in this treatise. ‘We propose, however, to discuss a
peculiarity concerning this oscillation, which hitherto seems
to have escaped the attention of astronomers. The fact is,

that the oscillation of the lunar orbit is, itself, subject to a

periodical variation, a variation which stands in harmony
with the oscillating activity of the Sun. By demonstrating
what the cause of this periodical variation is we shall also,
thereby, have proven what causes the entire inclination of
the lunar orbit to the ecliptic.

It seems, at first glance, quite natural that this character-
istic of the oscillation which we shall presently consider is
due to the Sun’s light, since it appears as a result of the va-
riation of its energy.

_ Let us therefore, briefly consider the light and the Sun’s
varying activity during a given time, and then compare the
results with the oscillations of the lunar orbit during the
same period.

It is a known fact, that an object facing the Sun, dams
up the ight. We know, further, that the solar rays fall with
greater strength when they strike an object perpendicularly
than when they strike it horizontally. The result of this is
the much higher temperature at the equator than at the poles.
Thus we understand that as an object dams up the sunlight
on the Earth’s surface, in like manner does the.Earth dam
up the sunlight in space. The torrid zone becomes the mid-
dle line in this light-belt, which, thus, lies in the ecliptic and
diminishes in density as the distance from this line increases
on either side. When we remember, further, that light is
electro-magnetic and as such has a tendency to make the
ether active wherever it is dammed up, we can no longer
fail to see that a layer of light-atoms or active ether sur-
rounds the Earth in the ecliptic and very likely reaches a
distance beyond the orbit of the moon.

This ether, thus acted upon, is different from ether in
general, not only as vibrating and active, but also as offer-
ing a resisting force. It seems, then, that it is on account
of this that the moon crosses this zone and inclines to the
ecliptic, since the resistance met there decreases towards

314 The American Geologist. Novem ae

higher latitudes. We shall see what the oscillation proves
regarding this matter.

It is a known fact, that the active condition and erup-

tions of the Sun are varying. Now, since the radiation of
light is of a certain periodicity and oscillates between maxi-
mum and minimum, it follows that for the same season the.
light-stuff around the Earth is of oscillating density; and
the moon in consequence, meets with an oscillating resist-
ing force. It is remarkable, indeed, to notice that the oscil-
lation of the lunar orbit stands in very close relation to the
oscillation of this resisting force, and in a degree which
seems to answer perfectly to the richness of the light-stuff
whgch causes the resistance. By comparing the varying in-
clination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic, as it is indicated
in the ephemerides, with several succeeding maxima and
minima of the Sun’s varying activity during the same period,
we come in possession of the necessary data, which throw
light on this subject.
' The Sun’s activity was at maximum, for instance, in and
about 1870; we may count it a period of three years. The
following minimum occurred in and about 1876. The next
maximum rose high in 1880, but covered at that time a long-
er period than in the 7o’s. Eruptions of the Sun to the
hight of from 100,000 to 400,000 kilometers were observed
during this maximum for several years. The following min-
imum occurred in 1887;. but this minimum did not fall as low
as the foregoing one, which is generally the case with a
minimum following a high maximum. Thereupon a maxi-
mum again began to appear, which reached its culmination in
1892. This is well known to astronomers, and not least from
the extent of the Sun’s corona at the time of the eclipses
during that period.

Let us now compare these maxima and minima with the
oscillation of the lunar orbit during the same period, and
see if we can find their reciprocal relations.

_ The inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic, which we
have above indicated as varying between 4° 57° and 5° 19,
fell during the maximum activity of the Sun in November,
1868, only to 5° o 5, as its minimum, and rose in February
the following year to 5° 17° 54. This was the highest mini-

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 315

mum .and maximum inclination during that solar maximum,
In December, 1875, the minimum of the inclination fell to 4°
58 42° and its maximum in March, 1876, reached only 5° 16’
45, which, thus, was during the minimum activity of the
Sun; and this was the lowest minimum and maximum in-
clination during that period. The inclination during this
minimum activity of the Sun was 1 23” less than it was dur-
ing the maximum solar activity in November, 1868.

In like manner the inclination was 1° 19” greater during
the solar maximum in February, 1869, than it was during
the minimum in 1876. In April, 1880, when the Sun’s ac-
tivity was close to its maximum, the minimum of the inclina-
tion fell to 5° 0° 2” and was, consequently, 1’ 20’ above what
it was during the preceding solar minimum in December,
1875. In July, 1883, when the Sun’s activity still was at its
hight, the inclination of the lunar orbit fell only to 5° o' 7”
and rose in October of the same year to 5° 17° 50°, which was
the highest point during that solar maximum.

During the following solar minimum, the minimum in-
clination fell, in November, 1887, 39° lower, and in January,
1888, its maximum was 51” lower than during the preceding
solar maximum in 1883.

It is important to notice, that as the Sun’s minimum ac-
tivity was higher during this epoch than in 1876-77, so the
inclination of the lunar orbit also stood higher.

As the Sun’s activity now began to increase, the inclina-
tion of the lunar orbit became relatively greater. Thus in
April, 1889, its minimum was again the same as in July, 1883,
or 5 O 7 and its maximum in December, 1890, 5” higher
than in October, 1883, or 5° 17° 55°, but during the maximum
solar activity in 1893 it reached the exceptional extreme of
5° 18 to the ecliptic.

These data from the ephemerides have been furnished by
Mr. W. T. Carrigan of the Nautical Almanac Office in Wash-
ington.

_ They are presented below in tabular form together with
the solar maxima and minima.

This shows, conclusively, that the periodical variation in
the oscillation of the lunar orbit is coincident with the oscil-
lation of the solar activity, which, as we have shown above,

se

316 The American Geologist. Noe

scauses the dammed-up light-waves in the ecliptic around the
earth to vary in harmony with its own variation and also,
further, to transmit the same periodicity to the oscillation of
the lunar orbit.

Maximum and miminum inclination and Maximum and miminum solar act-
oscillation of the Junar orbit. ivity during the same period.
1868. Nov: 5° 0% 5°
1869 Feb. 5° 17 54° Max. 1868-71 Max.
1875 Dec. 42 258 2 42
1876 Mar. 5° 16° 45” Min. 1875-78 Min.
1880 Apr. 75°20. 2"
2? Dec 52S 7 see aia 1880-'83 Max.
1883..Jily. 5 220 ie
BY Si Oete Bee eee
1887 Nov. 4° 59 28’
1888 Tan: 5° 16° 59” Min. 1887-88 Min.

1892 Feb; 4°. 59° 18”
es ONG ees oe TO On saul ice. 18g0-’93 Max.

We have above called attention to the fact, that the prob-
able cause of this periodical oscillation of the lunar orbit,
would prove to be the cause of its whole inclination to the
ecliptic. That this really is the case, seems to be well demon-
strated by the fact that the weaker the light-force the less
the inclination, and that the stronger the light-force, the greater
the inclination. The reasonable conclusion follows that the
light-zone around the earth is the prime cause on account of
which, the moon intersects the ecliptic.

The: periodical oscillation of the lunar orbit, as here pre-
sented, verifies the theory of the meteorologists, which holds
that cyclones are of a magneto-electric character, and are
originally caused by the Sun, since they follow the rising and
falling solar activity in their force and frequency.

We may add, further, that if the varition in the radiation
of light causes the periodical variation in the oscillation of
the lunar orbit, there can be no doubt about the manifestation
of the light-force in meteorological phenomena. Hence we ‘
should find that all these oscillations are very closely related,
originating from the same central force, the Sun, and having
the same characteristics.

The following example of the oscillating energy of tor-
nadoes and other severe storms may be of interest to call at-
tention to in this connection:

a

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 317

Tornadoes and severe storms in the United States, re-
ported by Professor H. A. Hazen, for 1875-1887 inclusive,
and the maximum and minimum inclination of the lunar orbit
during the same period.

Years Tornadoes Inclination of the lunar orbit.
A A Sey y Glee M
SAS rs Pe ae es eg OOs csexere tsar we ne, oleate as Dec. 4 58 2
Mar. 5 16 45 /
BRE Ar. 2.5.0 5 chee GR MEE aN ic coc ba ES, Oe OD 8 5 Min
Mare 4 iF 32
PIER ME Merciyis sie ccien Ddnesrers dates Osis Peg OMe el 59 35
Feb. 5 17 53
Mere circ Oar Rete ee okie cee nrc OctiiwiA 50 15
an. 5 16 50
MCLE ateles h) TOG wo wie andes Sie gran aapeeee Des eA ie) 5
Apt -5 oO 2
CASEI et olde Re PNR Reo, 0 ly a ee Dec. 5 17 41
§ Mare 4° 5 50> +39
Uke Olt Cie aaa naeme INGO Ng 1 baer Bate te ee po June 5 17 2
mug. 4250" 4
GR Se are te. « DOO mewn Urs Mok a oie RN OV ES 17 25
July 5 ce) a
hs OG 9 Serene GSO Naina seaya st hae os eats Ochs ss 17 50 J Max.
Apr. 5 TZ » 21
Lit Sh eae” SS eraemne AGO Mean rere ras cae tare ote Bech 4. 50 39
Jume’ 4°<.50" 4.43
Mewicnercicrne sc.c choke SAME UGAS re tne Siac veiee Sept. 5 17 14
Aug. 5 17 52
LISS os RIE acer User ieee ene hn foes ae OVE, 59 44
: : Feb.’ 5 17 41
Tite {e/a ee gee TO Se Vike here es Sale NN OWN 4 50 28) x~v,:
ahs oe 5g § Min.

The following facts demand attention: In 1876 the in-
clination of the lunar orbit was at its minimum, and in like
manner the storms and tornadoes were also at minimum;
thereupon the inclination increased, and was followed by an
increase in violent storms; then a decline in the inclination
occurred in 1878-79, which was followed by a similar decline
in the frequency of storms and tornadoes. Thereupon the
inclination rose high the following year, 1880, and the tor-
nadoes which in the preceding year numbered only 98, now
reached the number of 269. Again there was a decline -in
the inclination, and again there was a simultaneous decrease -
in the frequency of tornadoes, and as the inclination reached
its maximum in 1883, the storms and tornadoes also reached
their maximum at the same time; and as the inclination again
fell to its lowest minimum in 1887-88, the same epoch was
also characterized by a minimum for violent storms and _ tor-
nadoes.

318 The American Geologist. DORE a

In view of the fact that observations have recorded a cor-
responding and simultaneous variation in the solar activity,
it is, indeed, remarkable to notice how the magnetic waves
from the sun, are registered by the moon as they approach
the earth and manifest themselves in atmospheric agitations.

SII. THE CAUSE OF THE LARGE INCLINATION OF THE ORBITS
OF CERTAIN PLANETS TO THE ECLIPTIC,

Observations show, that the eruptions and protuberances
of the sun are greatest and of more frequent occurrence in the
sun’s equatorial region, and that the activity of the light pow-
er, as a rule, is greatest there. From this it follows, that the
light-stuff is relatively denser and more powerful in the eclip-
tic than towards higher latitudes on either side of it. The
swiftest planets, which are nearest to the sun, consequently
meet the greatest resistance in the ecliptic. Now since this
resistance decreases in proportion to the rarification of the
light-stuff north and south from the ecliptic, it follows natur-
ally that these planets intersect the ecliptic and incline to it
in the same manner as the moon.

For the reason, then, that the light-force is stronger in
the ecliptic, and most active nearest the sun, the orbit of, the
planet which is nearest to the Sun and has the greatest ve-
locity, also has the greatest inclination to the ecliptic.

Leverier, thus, found an inclination of 12° for Vulcan, a
small planet between Mercury and the Sun. Mercury has
an inclination of 7° and Venus 3%” from the ecliptic.

The decrease in the inclination of the orbits of these plan-
ets in proportion to the increase in the distance from the
Sun, is thus a result of two causes, principally, namely, the
diminution of the light-force and the decrease in the planet's
velocity simultaneously with the increase of the distance. This
decrease in the inclination as the distance increases, depends,
further, upon the size of the*planet, since a smaller planet
meets a greater resistance proportionately to its mass than a
larger one. Mercury would thus have had a greater inclina-
tion in the orbit of Venus than Venus itself has; and Venus
would, therefore, have had a less inclined orbit at Mercury’s
distance from the Sun, than Mercury itself has.

"This circumstance, that the resistance of the light-force is
greater proportionally in relation to the power and mass of

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 319

. the smaller planets than to that of the larger, appears to be

the sole reason for the inclination of the orbits of the minor
planets between Mars and Jupiter of from 8° to 30° to the
ecliptic. The same condition is, therefore, the cause which
prevents the reciprocal attraction of the Sun and the large
planets from keeping the minor planets in orbits parallel to
the orbits of the large planets.

In view of this, it is also evident, that Saturn’s. inclination
of 2%° to the ecliptic is due to his large appendix of rings,
on account of which he meets a much greater resistance in
proportion to his mass than, for instance, Jupiter.

In conclusion a few remarks may be added as to the in-
clination of the orbits of the moons of other planets, as, for
instance, in the case of Uranus. This question I intend to
deal with separately from the one discussed above.

I will say beforehand, however, that by a thorough exam-
ination, we shall find at least two forces, aside from that of
gravity, acting upon the satellites. We shall also find that
one of these forces is at work most strongly in the outer
region of the solar system, and affects the satellites of the
remotest planets the most and determines the inclination of
their orbits, while the other one, as shown above, acts strong-
est on both the moons and planets which are nearest to the
Sun. For this reason it would be an error to assume, as some
might be apt to do, that the inclination of the orbits of all the
satellites to the orbits of their respective planets is, in all
cases, due to one and the same cause. 3

(To be Continued.)

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

THE STONE REEFS OF BRAZIL,

The Stone Reefs of Brasil; Their geological and geographical relations,
with a chapter on the coral reefs. JoHN C. BRANNER; pp. 285, 99
plates. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. vol. 44,
Cambridge, 1904.

This volume is the result of labor that has been in hand
for about 25 years during which Dr. Branner, in getting the
information upon which his conclusions are based, has gath-
ered probably the largest library extant on Brazilian and

320 The American Geologist. Novem eee

other South American geology. He has repeatedly visited
and “reviewed portions of the field of study, and finally re-
ceived the assistance of Dr. Alexander Agassiz by which he
has been enabled to make a somewhat exhaustive study and
final publication of one of the most far-reaching investiga-
tions. The problems involved are complex and difficult to be
compassed except by long research and comparative study.

The subject of this investigation is one that is new to
geological literature, and the methods of investigation had to
be determined as the aspects of the problem were discovered.
Hence it is entirely an original investigation. The geologists
of North America may not at the outset take due notice of
this work. But it will repay a careful reading. It brings to
light some oceanic effects along coast lines which are either
unknown or at least are obscure and unappreciated. It will
add a new chapter to the dynamics of oceanic geography.

Except for minor interruptions due to local conditions
and agencies these reefs are formed along the east coast of
Brazil by forces fhat have acted from Maranhao to southern
Bahia. Many of the important harbors and the towns located
on them are due to the existence of the reefs. “Without these
reefs there would be no Pernambuco, no Rio Grande do
Norte, no Porto Seguro, no Santa Cruz, to say nothing of
minor ports like Rio Formoso, Serinhaem, Tuape, Traicao,
Mamanguape, and many others where the sugar boats load
and take refuge along the whole coast from southern Bahia
to Ceara and Maranhao.”

‘ Nearly all former observers have confounded the stone
reefs with coral reefs, but the latter are more extended, run-
ning along the coast from the Abrolhos islands in south lati-
tude 18’, nearly to the mouth of the Amazon river. These
reefs, therefore, both affect that part of South America that
forms the great nose or eastern projection of the coast line.
Dr. Branner thus summarizes their geological and geographi-
cal peculiarities :

1. They are of sand consolidated to a hard—in places
almost quartzitic—standstone.

2. They stand about flush with the water at high tide,
while at low tide they are left exposed like long, low, flat-
topped walls, with a width of from five meters to one hun-

Editorial Comment. 321

dred and fifty meters, and a length of from a few paces to
several kilometers. .

3. They accompany the shore line with many and great
interruptions, from north Ceara to Porto Seguro, a distance
of 2000 kilometers.

4. With unimportant exceptions the reefs do not occur
along the Brazilian coast beyond these limits.

5. They usually stand across the mouths of streams and
estuaries, forming perfect natural breakwaters for the small
harbors behind them. Sometimes they follow the shore, either
on the beach or at a short distance from it.

6. They are all nearly straight. When crooked, their
curves are gentle.

7. The structure and position of the reefs and the ani-
mal remains they contain show that they have been made by
the lithification of beach sands in place.

8. When stone and coral reefs occur together, the stone
reefs are inside or landward of the coral reefs. It is possible,
however, that there may be buried coral reefs in some cases
to the landward of some of the stone reefs:

9. The coral reefs are now growing over and upon the
stone reefs in some places, while at other places there are
stone reefs overlying dead coral reefs.

10. In general appearance, elevation, and position, the
standstone reefs bear a striking resemblance to the coral reefs.

The cause and history. of these stone reefs were found to
contain the elements of a great many problems, some of them
reaching back of the present and requiring a study of the

‘geographic development of the entire coast line, a study that

has never yet been attempted.

After giving a general sketch of the geology of the Bra-
zilian coast line and a detailed description of the reefs them-
selves at numerous chief localities, the author enters upon an

Anquiry as to their cause. Their structure was found out to be

that of beach sand, loose and irregularly bedded below but
cemented into firm rock above, through a thickness of. three
or four meters, the cement being carbonate of lime. It seems
plain that some cause peculiar to the Brazilian coast must be
largely responsible for such persistent off-shore beaches, else
they would be a more common phenomenon. In but few other

322 The American ‘Geologist. OVERRIDE aes

localities has Dr. Branner been able to find sucn reefs men-
tiohed, viz., about the shores of Asia Minor, to some extent
about Greece and about Sicily, and upon the shores of the
Red sea. These bear some resemblance to the stone reefs of
Brazil and have been produced by the recent hardening of
beach sands by the deposition of carbonate of lime.

Consequently the investigation resolved itself into the
question: Why is this hardening of beaches by lime appar-
ently confined to the beaches of the Levant and those of the
northeast coast of Brazil?

The sands were microscopically and chemically examin-
ed. They are mainly quartz, which is often abundantly sup-
plied with inclusions. In these inclusions are sometimes two
or more bubbles, and the inclusions are then believed to be of
glass. From this circumstance the quartz is referred to a
molten magma having a deep-seated origin and is supposed to
have been derived from granite or some rock formed under
similar conditions of depth and pressure. It is, however, as
appears to the writer, more compatible with the granitic tex-
ture to exclude glass from deep-seated structures, and to assign
it to surface volcanic rocks. Indeed the presence of glass in
any rock implies sudden cooling from a molten condition and
that could hardly take place except ator very near the sur-
face. If the glass be correctly identified, it is evidence hence
of surface volcanic rock as the source of the quartz containing
it. Chemically the cemented sands contain over 63 per cent
of silica, over 2 per cent of carbonate of lime, about 5 per
cent of carbonate of magnesia and very small amounts of soda,
potash, iron and alumina.

The author considers and dismisses the following partial
sources of the material of the cement:

1. Dissolved from rain-water, or spray from the beach
sands themselves; that is, carried from the upper layers of
the sand and deposited in the lower ones. .

2. Deposited from the ocean water after having been
derived (through agency of carbon-dioxide) from calcareous
organic bodies in the sea. :

3. Brought down from the land by streams..

4. Dissolved from calcareous beach sands by: fresh (or
acid) water of streams entering behind them, and redeposited
while passing seaward through these sands.

7
:

”

a

Editorial Comment, 323

~

5.. Possible influence of climate.

While all these sources of the calcareous cementation of
the Brazilian beaches are admitted as contributory to the re-
sult, they do not, either singly or combined, answer the de-
mand, because they are not exceptionally local as the beaches
are, but are world-wide in their operation and would produce
universal cementation of oceanic beaches.

The author finds that calcareous deposition from oceanic
water is in proportion to its density. He reproduces! a por-
tion of a chart taken from the Challenger reports, (vol. i)

showing the areas of densest sea waters over the globe. The

Mediterranean and the Red sea are densest, and aside from
those areas the east coast of Brazil and the central parts of
the Atlantic ocean are represented as approaching nearer to
them than any other oceanic waters. The westward moving
tropical current is rendered more dense by evaporation in
traversing the Atlantic from the African shores, and by the
time it reaches Brazil it is ready to part with some of its min-
eral solutions. The latitudes in which this current impinges
on South America are coincident with those of the Brazilian
stone reefs. Hence the auihor finally concludes:

“The cementing material of the Brazilian stone reefs is
chiefly lime carbonate.

The hardening of beach sands may be produced in the
following ways:

1. By carbonated rain water dissolving out the lime
carbonate in the upper portion of the calcareous sands and
depositing it in the lower portions.

2. By the escape of carbon-dioxide from the sea water
when the surf breaks upon the beaches. .

3. By the escape of carbon-dioxide from sea water where
where it is warmed by the tropical sun.

4. By the submarine escape of carbon-dioxide from
about volcanic vents.

“These processes may have contributed somewhat to the
hardening of the Brazilian reefs, but they do not seem compe-
tent tc account for them altogether. These theories are
especially incapable of accounting for the lithification of
beaches behind older reefs.”

“The distribution of the consolidated beaches of northeast
Brazil leads to the inference that the consolidation is directly
related to the density of the sea water.”

324 The American Geologist. Novena es

As to the age of these beaches, they seem to be interbedded
only with Pliocene and recent rocks, although they are built
against rocks of all ages. It is therefore inferred that the
formation of the stone reefs began in early Pliocene times,
and that it has continued to the present.

It is probable, therefore, that the Brazilian coast lias been
extended eastward by this process of land-making and that it
will continue to be extended until some geological revolution
diverts or destroys the equatorial current. That branch of
this current which passes northwestward becomes so diluted
by the fresh waters of the Amazon that its mineral solutions
are carried on and do not serve to cement the beach sands.
The same change takes place, doubtless, in the waters of the
southern branch of this current, by reason of the greater and
freer drainage from the land in reaching the southern sub-
tropical and temperate latitudes. In the tropics, as in the
Levant, the surface waters are largely evaporated before
reaching the ocean.

The volume is accompanied by numerous plates, taken
from photographs reproduced in the excellent style for which

the Museum of Comparative Zoology is known, and by hydro-
graphic charts from the Brazilian surveys and original surveys
by the author and his assistants. N. H. W.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

The Geology of the Watkins and Elnura Quadrangles accompanied by
a Geologic Map; bulletin N. Y. State Museum 81, 1904; JoHn M.
CLarKE and D. Dana LuTHER.

The Watkins and Elmira quadrangles lie to the east of the Canan-
daigua-Naples sheet which has but recently been issued and the work
now published has been carried out as a continuation of the former
areal mapping. An interval between the two sheets is now in process
of survey. As in the former work the large scale of the map has been
made use of in delineating the variations in the formations with great
exactitude, since experience has shown that in the terranes under in-
vestigation a reliable basis of discrimination of such refined sub-
divisions as the authors have arrived at cdén be found alone neither
in geologic nor in paleontologic data.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 325

_ Therocks shown upon this map all belong to the late Devonic and
they have heen classed in the following divisions:

Chemung sandstone and shale
‘* | Prattsville shale

High Point Sandstone
West Hill flags and shale
Grimes sandstone
Hatch shale and flags
) Rhinestreet black shale ,
) Parrish iimestone
| Cashaqua shale
| West River shale
|

Chautauquan...

Senecatin: sai.

Genundewa limestone
| Genesee shale
The distinction between Genesee shale and West River shale (the up-
per division of the Genesee shale series) which obtains further west is
still maintained in this region while the Middlesex shale, a distinct
stratigraphic element, at the base of the Cashaqua shale in the Naples
quadrangle is no longer recognizable in the Watkins quadrangle. Both
the Parrish limestone and the Rhinestreet shale have been traced as far
as Seneca lake, but are not known east of that meridian.

In the Hatch shales and flags which attain a thickness of 440 feet,
a distinct osciilation between the areas of the western or Naples fauna
and the eastern or Ithaca fauna has been observed.

The High Point sandstone has in this quadrangle furnished cal-
careous lenses with their characteristic brachiopod fauna.

The Prattsburg shale, a name proposed in the explanation of the
Naples sheet for the eastern extension of the Wiscoy shale in which a
typical Chemung brachiopod fauna appears, is strongly developed in
the Watkins quadrangle and has furnished a large fauna.

In order to arrive at the precise use of the term “Chemung” which
has in late years been more or less identified with the horizon of Spirifer
disjunctus, the authors’ have found it necessary to return to Hall’s
original employment of the name, since in this eastern region Spirifer
disjunctus does not appear until the period of Chemung deposition is
well nigh ever. The region here considered is that from which the
original definition of the term was derived. This typical Chemung
attains in the Elmira quadrangle a thickness of 800 feet.

The aggregate thickness of the Upper Devonie formations repre-
sented on the sheet is approximately 2244 feet. There are some not-
able undulations of the strata which present striking northern dips.

Geology and Water Resources of Part of the Lower James River Val-
ley, South Dakota. By J. E. Topp and C. M. Hatt. U. S. Geol.
Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 90. Pages 47, with
23 plates. 1904.

The area here described, partly ‘from field work by the late Prof.

Charles M. Hall, includes the Alexandria, Mitchell, Huron, and De

320 The American Geologist. Novemtar tyes
4

Smet quadrangles of the national topographic survey, together cov-
ering a square degree in latitude and longitude. An unevenly eroded
surface of the Sioux quartzyte was enveloped by the Cretaceous series
of the Dakota, Benton, Niobrara, and Pierre formations, almost level '
in stratification; and upon these are spread the till and modified drift,
with the Gary and Antelope moraines. Artesian wells are obtained
throughout neatly the entire district, as also farther north and south a
along the James valley, deriving their waters from various horizons in |
the Dakota sandstone, and from higher sand beds included in the Ben-
ton shales. The numerous maps of ‘this report, and its very abundant
drafted sections of the strata penetrated by deep wells, give a most de-

tailed view of the rock formations and the artesian water supply. ‘

W. U..

Glacial Waters from Oneida to Little Falls. By Herman L. Fatrcuinp.

Report of the New York State Geologist, 1902; pages rig-r4i1, with

26 plates, including three folded maps. Albany, N. Y., 1904.

Elaborate field studies and maps, with photographic illustrations, of
the numerous small glacial lakes and their channels of outflow in cen-
tral New York, east of the great glacial lake Iroquois, are presented in
this paper. The front of the continental ice-sheet receded northwest-
ward from this upper part of the Mohawk valley, which was thus open-
ed slowly from Little Falls to Oneida and Rome, before the water
body in the basin of lake Ontario completed its fall from the level of
lake Warren to that of lake Iroquois, a vertical fall of about 440 feet.

Three stages in the Late Glacial and Postglacial history of the upper
Mohawk valley are recognized by Prof. Fairchild, who summarizes
them as follows:

“t. The Pre-Iroquois or Glaciomohawk waters. These were held
in the valley during the ice retreat. They would have been lacustrine
except for the detrital filling, but were probably fluviatile in the section
below Utica.

“2, The Iromohawk river. This great river, draining lake Iro-
quois and the area of the Great lakes, was the predecessor of the St.
Lawrence and was the equal of that river in size and possibly in
length of life. For some thousands of years it swept the valley,
trenching the rock barrier at Little Falls and grading its channel to that
falling base level. ae
3. The Mohawk river, the shrunken successor of the Iroquois
flood.

“It would be interesting if we could apportion with some certainty —
the work of the three stages. It seems likely that the work of the last
stage, the present river, has been comparatively small. The dimin-
ished river has cut only about 20 feet into the channel which it found,
and is meandering in a discouraged and listless way over the broad
plain of its gigantic ancestor. It is unable to lower greatly for itself
the rock barrier. But between the effects of the first two stages the
decision is not so clear. The Glaciomohawk waters were large in vol-

ae

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 327

ume and long in life, with great erosive power. Perhaps they not only
denuded the Archean rocks at Little Falls, but cut these down to the
terraces under 500 feet. Then the Iromohawk used the remaining
drift in the valley as an abrasive to rasp down the rock barrier to near
its ‘present condition, cutting away the valley deposits of the earlier
stage and gradirg its channel to the falling outlet.”

The time occupied in the retreat of the ice-sheet from the south
to the north side of the Adirondack mountains, until it permitted lake
Iroquois to be drawn down below its Rome outlet, seems to the re-
viewer to have been probably shorter than it is estimated by the author;
for the whole duration of lake Agassiz, the largest of our glacial lakes
and far the longest from south to north, appears to have been no more
than about one thousand years.

Furthermore, the time required for the erosion of the gorge below
Niagara falls, comprising both the Iromohawk stage and the Post-
glacial stage of the present Mohawk river, is shown by the investiga-
tions of Wright and the present reviewer to have been probably no
more than 10,000 or even 7,000 years; as likewise the age of the gorge
below St. Anthony falls on the Mississippi, from Fort Snelling to
Minneapolis, eroded during practically the same period as the Niagara
gorge, is estimated by Winchell to have been about 8,000 years. In
that period, the part belonging to the Iromohawk river, that is, to the
life of the glacial lake Iroquois, could be only a quarter or a fifth, or
less, leavine much the greater part of the period as the time since
tlfte front of the ice-sheet retreated beyond our northern international
boundary. W. U.

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY,

ADAMS, GEO. I. (A. H. PURDUE and E. F. BURCHARD).
Zine and lead deposits of northern Arkansas. U.S. G. S., Prof.
Pap. 24, pp. 118, pls. 27, 1904.

BECKER, GEOE;

Experiments on schistesity and slaty cleavage. Bull. 241, U. §.
G. S., 1904.
BERRY, E. W.

The Cretaceous exposure near CliffWwood, N. J. (Am. Geol., vol.
34, pp. 253-261, Oct., 1904.)
BURCHARD, A. H. (G. |. ADAMS and A. H PURDUE).

Zine and lead deposits of northern Arkansas. U.S. G. S., Prof.
Pap. 24, pp. 118, pls. 27, 1904.

328 The American Geologist. Noy eee

CLEARMAN, HARRIET M.

A geological situation in the lava flow, with reference to the
vegetation. (Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., vol. 11, p. 65, 1904.)

COOK, A. N.
A new deposit of Fuller’s earth. (Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., vol. 11,
p. Loo, 1904.) ’

COLEMAN, A. P. ;

The Iroquois beach in Ontario. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15, pp. 347-
368, pl. 22, June, 1904.)
CROOK, A. R.

Molybdenite at Crown Point, Washington. (Bull. G. S. A., vol.
15, pp. 283-288, pls. 12-13, June, 1904.) :

CROSS, WHITMAN.

New Devonian Formation in Colorado. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol, 18,

pp. 245-253, October, 1904.)

DARTON, N. H.

Comparison of the stratigraphy of the Black Hiils, Big Horn
mountains and Recky mountain frent range. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15,
pp. 379-448, pls. 25-386, August, 1904.)

DOWLING, D. B.

Report of an exploration of Ekwan river, Sutton Mill lakes, and
part of the west coast of James bay. (Geol. Sur. Can., vol. 14, Part
F., pp. 60, 1904.)

EASTMAN, C. R. :
Fossil plumage. (Am. Nat., vol. 38, p. 669, Sept., 1904.)

EASTMAN, C. R.

Upper Devonian fish remains from Colorado. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 18, pp. 258-261, Oct., 1904.)

EASTMAN, C. R.

A recent paleontological induction. (Science, vol. 20, p. 465, Oct.
7, 1904.)

ECGKE E.G:
The non-metallic mineral products of the United States. (Min.
Mag., vol. 10, Senpt., 1904, pp. 167-174.)
EMMONS, S. F. (J. IRVING and T. A. JAGGAR, JR )
Economic resources of the Northern Black Hills. U. S. G. S., Prof,
Pap. 26, pp. 222,-pls. 22, 1904.
FINCH, G. E.
Notes on the position of Nileus vigilans in the strata at Elgin,
Iowa. (Proc. lowa Acad. Sci., vol. 11, p. 179, 1904.)
FULLER, M..-.

Rice irrigation in southern Louisiana. (Wat. Sup. Irri. Pap., No.
101, pp. 82-98, 1904.)

FULLER, M. L.

Contributions to the Hydrology of the eastern United States.
U. S. G. S., Wat. Sup. Irri. Pap. No. 102, 1904. Maine by W. S. Bay-

Author's Catalogue. 329

lev; New Hampshire, J. M. Boutwell; Vermont, Geo, H. Perkins;
Massachusetts, W. O. Crosby; Rhode Island, W. O. Crosby; Con-
Connecticut, H. E. Gregory; New York, F. B. Weeks; Georgia, S. W.
MeCallie; Florida, M. lL. Fuller; Alabama, EB. A. Smith; Mississippi,
L. C. Johnson and E. C. Eckel; Tennessee, L. C. Glenn; Kentucky,
L. C. Glenn; Arkansas, A. H. Purdue; Missouri, BE. M. Shepard;
Minnesota, C. W. Hall; Lower Michigan, W. F. Cooper.
GARRISON, F. L. ,
The iron ores of Shady valley, Tennessee. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol.
78; p. 690, Oct. 13, 1904.)
GRANT, U. S.
Investigations in the Lake Superior iron ore deposits. (Min. Mag.,
vol. 10, pp. 175-185, Sept., 1904.)

GREENE, G. K.

Contribution to Indiana Paleontology, Part 20, New Albany, Ind.
Sept. 20, 1904, pp. 198-204, pls. 58-60.

HARRIS, G. D.

Underground waters of southern Louisiana. U. S. G. S., Wat.
Sup. Irri. Pap. No. 101, pp. 98, pls. 11, 1904.

HAY, ©; P.

Fossil turtles belonging to the Marsh collection In the Yale Uni-
versity Museum. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 261-277, Oct., 1904.)
HOBBS, W. H.

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia, III. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp.
214-26, Oct., 1904.)

IRVING, J. D. (S. F. EMMONS and T. A JAGGAR, Jr.)

Economic resources of the northern Black Hills. U. S. G. S.,
Prof. Pap. 26, pp. 222, pls. 20, 1904.

JAGGAR, T. A., Jr.

Economic resources of the northern Black Hills.- U. S. G. S.
Prof. Pap. 26, pp. 222, pls. 20, 1904.

KEYES,.C. R.

Remarkable occurrence of aurichalcite. (Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci.,
vol. 11, p. 253, 1904.)

KEYES, C. R.
_ Note on the Carboniferous faunas of the Mississippi valley in the
Rocky mountain region. (Proc. Iowa Acad, Sci., vol. 11, p. 258, 1904.)
KEYES, C. R.

Certain basin features of the high plateau region of southwestern
Unned States. (Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., vol. 11, p. 254, 1904.)

KNAPP, G. N. (H, RIES and H. B. KUMMEL.)

The clays and clay industry of New Jersey, vol. 6, of the Final
Report of the State Geologist, pp. 547, pls. 56, 1904.

KNIGHT, NICHOLAS.

Some features in the analysis of dolomitic rocks. (Proc. Iowa

- Acad: Sci., vol. 11, p. 127, 1904.)

330 _ The American Geologist. November, 190%

KUMMEL, H. B. (H. RIES and G. N. KNAPP.)
The clays and ciay industry of New Jersey. Vol. 6, of the Final
Report of the State Geologist, pp.°547, pls. 56, 1904.

EE AW. is
The underground waters of Gila valley, Arizona. Wat. Sup. Irri.
Pap. No. 104, pp. 71, pls. 5, .1904.

LEVERETT, FRANK.
Review of the Glacial Geology of the southern peninsula of
Michigan. (Mich. Acad. Sci., 6th Annual Report, pp. 100-110.)

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR.

A geological reconnoissance across the Bitter Root range and
Clearwater mountains in Montana and Idaho. U. S. G. S., Prof.
Pap: 21, pps 22, pls. 15.1904:

LOUDERBACK, G. -D.

Basin Range Structure of the Humboldt region. (Bull. G. S. A,,
vol. 15, pp. 289-346, pls. 14-21, July, 1904.)
MISTOCKLES, N.

The Untenableness of the Nebular Theory. (Am. Geol., vol. 34,
pp. 226-242, Oct.,; 1904.)
MORGAN, W.C

The origin of bitumen. (Cal. Jour. Tech., vol. 4, p. 49, Sept.,
1904.)
OGILVIE, I. H.
_ Geological notes on the vicinity of Banff, Alberta. (Jour. Geol.,
vol. 12, pv. 408-414, July-Aug., 1904.)

REET Gases

Glacial and post-Glacial history of the Hudson and Champlain
valleys. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 415-470, July-Aug., 1904.)
POWER, F. D. .

Deep alluvial mining in Victoria. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p.
509, Sep. 29, 1904.

PROSSER, CHAS. S.

Description and Correlation of the Romney formation of Mary-
land. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 361-372, July-Aug., 1904.)
PURDUE, A. H. (G. 1. ADAMS and A. H. BURCHARD.)

Zine and lead deposits of northern Arkansas. U.S. G. S., Prof.
Pap. 24; pp. 118, pls. 27; 1904.
RAYMOND, R. W.

Biographical Notice of William Henry Pettee. (Trans. Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., Sept., 1904.)

RICKARD, T. A.
Copper Mines of lake Superior. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78, p. 585,
Oct. 18, 1904.)

RIES, HEINRICH. (H. B KUMMEL and G. N. KNAPP.)
The clays and clay industry of New Jersey. Vol. 6, of the Final
Report of the State Geologist. pp. 547, pls. 56, 1904.

Author's Catalogue. 331

RIES, HEINRICH.
Note on the tensile strength of raw clays. (Trans, Am, Ceramic
Soc., vol. 6, pp. 9, Feb., 1904.)

RIES, HEINRICH.
The refractoriness of the New Jersey fire-brick. (Trans. Am,
Ceramic Society, vol. 6, pp. 9, Read Feb., 1904.)

SAVAGE, T. E.
A buried peat bed and associated deposits. (Proc. Iowa Acad.
Sci., vol. 11, p: 103, 1904.)

SINCLAIR, W. J.
The exploration of the Potter Creek cave. (Rec. Past., vol. 3, pp.
275-282, Sept. 1904. Abstract.)

SPENCER, A. C.
The copper deposits of the Encampment district, Wyoming. U.
S. G.'S., Prof. Pap. 25, pp.°107, 2 pls, 1904.

STroVvALL, D. ‘HH
Placer and hydraulic mining. (Min. Mag., vol. 10, pp. 195-198,
Sept., 1904.)

mAY LOR; F. 6:
Post-Glacial changes cf altitude in the Italian and Swiss lakes.
(Bull. G. S. A., vol. 15, pp. 369-378, Aug., 1904.)

ULRICH, E. ©.
Determination and correlation of formations [of northwestern
Arkansas]. (Prof. Pap. No, 24, U. S. G. S., pp. 90-113.)

UPHAM, WARREN.

Glacial ané modified drift in and near Seattle, Tacoma and Olym-
pia. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 203-214, Oct., 1904.)

WASHINGTON, H. S.

Manual of the chemical analysis of rocks, pp. 183. $2.00. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1904.

WATSON, THOMAS L.

Granites of Nerth Carolina. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 373-407, July-
Aug., 1904.)
WEED, W. H.

Occurrence and distribution of copper in the United States.
(Min. Mag., vol. 10, pp. 185-193, Sept., 1904.)

WHITEAVES, J. F.
Uintacrinus and Hemiaster in the Vancouver Cretaceous. (Am.
Jour. Sci., vol.»18, pp. 287-290, Oct., 1904.)

WINCHELL, N. H.

Notes on a very brilliant meteorite. (Pop. Astron., vol. 12, p.
253, October, 1904.)

WINCHELL,N H.
The Baraboo [ron ore. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp. 242-253, Oct., 1904.)

332 The American Geologist. Noveriiet aoe

CORRESPONDENCE.

PALAEONTOLOGIA UNIVERSALIS.—Ihe writer- desires to call the at-
tention of American geologists to the fact that this very important work
has but 21 subscribers in the United States, while France has 63 and
Germany 36. Certainly the geologists and geolcegical libraries of this
country are not yet supplied with this publication. Fasciculi I and II
have been issued; these contain 97 sheets redescribing and refiguring 46
of the old and little known species. It is intended to issue annually
from 150 to 160 sheets, treating of- about 80 species. The annual sub-
scription price is $8.00. Subscriptions may be sent to G. E. Stechert,
No. 9, East 16th street, New York city. Those persons or institu-
tions desiring further information regarding this work, with samples
of the plates, will be supplied on application to professor Charles Schu-
chert, Yale University Museum, New Haven, Conn. CHAS. SCHUCHERT.

THe Type oF AVICULIPECTEN. Commenting, in the September
number of the AmeErIcAN GEOLOGIST, upon a note of mine regarding
the type species of Aviculipecten, McCoy, Mr. Wheelton Hind finds just
cause to regret that I had not, before writing, seen his monograph
upon the Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata. It is so easy to overlook
publications in these days of redundant literature, that one is loath to
have the appearance of being thus at fault when really to a consider-
able extent blameless. Mr. Hind’s monograph was one of the first
works consulted when I undertook to ascertain the true characters of
Aviculipecten. I was thoroughly sorry not to find, in the set to which
I had recourse, the portion of his work dealing with that genus, and
concluded, mistakenly as I now find, that it had not yet been publish-
ed. A short time thereafter, when the work really did come be-
fore me, an effort waS made to recall my manuscript for reconsider-
ation, but it was found to have already passed the press.

The fact, as pointed out by Mr. Hind, that the names thus unwit-
tingly used in my discussion turn out to be. in many cases synonyms,
is subordinate in importance to my conclusion that the typical species of
Aviculipecten is a quite different one from that which he regards as such.
He remarks upon this point: “I think, in the unfortunate circumstance of
the absence of any definite indication, that it is a good and simple rule
to regard the first described species as the type of the genus. All that
Mr. Girty has to say as to the locality is important, but nevertheless an
author has some object in view in the arrangement of his species, and
as McCoy adopted no alphabetical order, we must presume that he in-
tended A. planiradiatus to be the type.” I think Mr. Hind must have
written these words by oversight, for as I pointed out in my original
note, McCoy elsewhere arranges his species alphabetically, and in the
case of the paper containing the generic description of Aviculipecten
also, the species, so far as their number in each case permits, are so ar-
ranged. This is true of the two species A. planiradiatus and A. ruth-

,

Correspondence. 333
|
vent. Under the circumstances, therefore, the assumption that by the
arrangement of the two new forms which he took that occasion to de-
scribe McCoy intended to designate A. planiradiatus (now, according
to Hind, A. tabulatus) as the type of Aviculipecten, seems unjustified,
especially since it is quite certain that A. docens (now, according to
Hind, A. semicostatus) was the species which McCoy figured to show
the structures ef Aviculipecten, and which, according to his own state-
ment, was the one that taught him the distinctive characters of the genus.
It seems to me clear, therefore, that A. docens McCoy (=. flexuosus
McCoy=--A. semicostatus Portlock) is the only species which with pro-
priety can be considered typical of Aviculipecten.
GEORGE H. GIRTY.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

‘

Dr. Epwarp H. Kraus has been appointed instructor in
mineralogy at the University of Michigan.

AMONG THE TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS recently issued by the
United States Geological Survey are the following: Park-
ersburg, W. Va.; Vanceboro, N. C.; San Diego, Calif. ; Apal-
achin, N. Y.; Boston, Mass.; Bastrop, Texas; Honeoye, N.Y.

JAMes WaLTER GOLDTHWaAIT, of Lynn, Mass., has been
appointed instructor in geology in Northwestern University.
Mr. Goldthwait took his college course at Harvard, where he
has' also done graduate work and where he has been for two
years past teaching fellow.

THE. FOURTH NEW ENGLAND INTERCOLLEGIATE GEOLOGICAL ©
FIELD EXCURSION was held at Worcester, Mass., on Saturday,
Oct. 22, under the direction of Mr. Joseph H. Perry of the
Worcester High School. The excursion was attended by over
forty persons, including representatives of Amherst, Harvard,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Smith, Wellesley, Wil-
liams, Worcester Polytechnic, and Yale, and of St. Mark's
School, Worcester Academy, Worcester High School and
Worcester Normal School. A general statement of the prob-
lems to be studied was made by Mr. Perry on the evening be-
fore the excursion in the rooms of the Worcester Natural His-
tory Society. The field localities showed outcrops and quarries
of slates and quartzytes, assigned to the Carboniferous period,
greatly deformed and eroded, with many large and small gran-
itic intrusions. An excursion to some point on the sea coast
will probably be made next year.

bd : = pe ee ;
334 The American Geologist. November, aan

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The Second Annual Report of the Reclamation Service, a
volume of 550 pages with maps and illustrations, has re-
cently been issued as House Document 44, fifty- -eighth Con-
egress, second session. ‘This report contains an account of the
results accomplished during the field season of 1903.

sibliography and index of North American geology,
Nes Sala oh petrology and mineralogy for the year 19063,
by F. B. Weeks, has recently been issued as Bulletin No. 240.
the forthcoming volume on mineral resources contains,
for the first time since 1898, tables showing the result of an-
alyses and tests of building stones.

The coal and coke resources of the Latrobe, Pennsylvania,
region are described by W. R. Campbell in Folio No. 110,
which has been recently issued.

The magnesite product of the United States came last
year entirely from California. Special mention of this sub-
stance is made by C. G. Yale in the ‘Mineral Resources for
1903.’

Tue New YorK ACADEMY OF eee Oct. 17. The pro-
gram of the evening consisted of a lecture by E. O. Hovey,
on “St: Vincent, British West Indies. The Eruptions of 1902
and their immediate results.”

The author gave a summary account of the results obtain-
ed on two expeditions undertaken by him for the American
Museum of Natural History in 1902 and 1903, for the study
of the volcanic eruptions of the Soufriére which began in
May, 1902. Particular attention was devoted to the heavy
coating of volcanic ash deposited upon the northern portion
of the island of St. Vincent and the ash-filling of the gorges
of the Wallibou and Rabaka Dry rivers, “the devastation
wrought in the forests and on the plantations within a radius
of about five miles from the crater and the phenomena of pri-
mary eruptions observed in the crater and of secondary erup-
tions observed in the Wallibou and Rabaka ash-beds. The
nature of the exploding eruption cloud was discussed and it
was shown how the heavily dust-laden steam cloud kept close
to the surface of the ground under the influence of gravity
while its initial velocity was furnished by the horizontal com-
ponent of the explosion. .

About eighty lantern-slides were used in illustrating the
speaker's remarks.

The result of ballot for officers was the election of E. O.
Hovey for vice-president and chairman of the Section of
Geology and Mineralogy, and Dr. A. W. Grabau.of Columbia
University for secretary.

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UNIVERSITY «

PLATE XVII.

Tue AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XXXIV,

No. 1. View of eastern wall of the Leyndecker quarry in Litho-
polis. Mr. Wilkinson stands on the top of No. 10 of the Lithopolis
section and indicates with his hand the top of the Buena Vista member.

No. 2. Sandstone layer, No. 6 of the Lithopolis section, which

makes the fall in the Leyndecker glen and is thought to represent the
“City ledge” of southern Ohio.

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. XXXIV. PLATE XVIII.

No. 3. Cliff on Rocky fork showing the entire Berea formation,
capped by Sunbury shale. Photographed by Mr. J. E. Hyde.

No. 4. Wright quarry west of Portsmouth in which the even bedded
sandstones of the Buena Vista member are finely shown. Its top is in-
dicated by Mr. Wilkinson, above which are shown the shale and sand-
stone zones,

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THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vou. XXXIV. PLATE XIX.

= No. 5. Complete thickness of Berea sandstone as shown on Hart-
; man run. Photographed by Mr. Charles C, Wilcox.

oe as shown on bank of Smith run. Photographed by Mr. Charles C.
ilcox,

No. 6. Berea sandstone with irregular base and Bedford shale be-

THE

PvE RICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vor. XXXIV. DECEMBER, 1904. No. 6.

THE WAVERLY FORMATIONS OF CENTRAL
OHIO.*

By CHARLES S. PROSSER, Columbus, Ohio,
Assisted by
EDGAR R. CUMINGS, Bloomington, Indiana.

PLATES XVII—XIxX.

CONTENTS.
Pe AICHCLTIREAUATE aah tay ch dee aud dadanunda dens oo veh ada ovdudcavaeved? ae ears q<nsda0vnke 335
ENG RR ENED ERIS CATT Ch WICISINUY cs cc pac cave occasthocao, canqunsesustesedesacssuvsecesss 336
MRLES ILIA MPC ELOM reaiweoassacacans ddacccasguew-Vaveceasasiaccsee) <dovaess 337
Sections south west Of LithoOpolis..... ....c:..cessccseoscqserssccccsoes 343
PAAR ETSI TTS CISC HEC GIONS sous reset cegddes ¢icacess vase doe eubNovenes ye ch eavne 343
Smith run section............ scans n Oe duces tuning steatoesuatonatabedudaskaee 344
SCCCIGMN MOLL MWEELO?: DEALCY. «(het <ccceccasiee cnsuccavenixedecepegss 346
UP ENON PUTED POOL OL oe iFapendasscesaces, ovate acvassetvcnuncwesl savessdueis 348
GH CRM OME COC UO fl onc cewachadeausnatudussseccsscassa ars ¥eesea;Weser sacshes 348
WO CO Es TOe Sere LYS COMET E Vp odovdan ast a0 ducvoduos~ daseds uvacans te, Cane¥en vs 349
ACE Meie CLe eis MSI CVA ECL, cchcnnwccduigns abitechpibtcbenericneanves 349
MOVNOLOS HUTS ANG VICINITY nc cn<sscncnceades dead auusncuvsuse be ee da 355
Section southeast of Newark............ ...... iudenpcashitgnseacnecesaua® 358
INTRODUCTION

From fifteen to twenty miles east and southeast of Colum-
bus are interesting exposures of most of the formations com-
posing the Waverly series. These formations are shown to no
better advantage at any other place readily accessible from
Columbus and heretofore these localities have been either
very imperfectly described or not at all. A study of these
rocks has furnished additional information regarding the char-
acter of the Waverly formations in central Ohio which is con-
sidered of sufficient interest to warrant publication. Some of
the sections were first studied while engaged in areal work on
the East Columbus quadrangle for the U. S. Geological Sur.

* Published by permission of EDWARD ORTON, JR., State Geologist of Ohio.

336 The American Geologist. Decent

vey in which Dr. Edgar R. Cumings ably assisted; but later
they have been given a more thorough detailed study by the
senior author.

The greater portion of the region under discussion is the
hilly country in the northwestern part of Fairfield county and
northeastern part of Pickaway. Although the edge of this hilly
district in a direct line is only 15 miles or a little farther south-
east of the Capitol in Columbus it has never been described.
In many respects it affords the most satisfactory exposures of
the Waverly formations to be found in central Ohio and on
this account is of especial interest to the stratigraphic geologist.

The hilis just enter the southeastern corner of Franklin
county bordering Big run for about one mile, the northwest-
ern limit of which is about four miles southeast of Groveport.
It is really a plateau dissected by numerous small streams, giv-
ing the topography a somewhat rugged aspect and the excel-
lent exposures of the various formations are due to the eroding
agency of these streams.

The geology of Franklin county was described by Dr.
Orton and the “Waverly group” is represented on the geolog-
ical map of the county as crossing its southeastern corner,*
but there is no account of the Waverly formations as shown in
the broken country where Franklin, Pickaway and Fairfield
counties corner,

LITHOPOLIS AND VICINITY

In the narrow glen running parallel with the main street of
Lithopolis, Fairfield county, known as Leyndecker glen or
Dutch Hollow, which forms the northeastern boundary of the
village, occurs one of the best sections to be found in central
Ohio for studying the relations of the lower formations of the
Waverly scries. The exposures begin with very soft argil-
laceous shales capped by compact, heavy beds of Berea grit at
a distance of about one-half mile below the highway bridge
crossing the glen. This lowest shale probably belongs at the
top of the Bedford formation while the Ohio shale is not seen
in the immediate vicinity of Lithopolis. It may be seen, how-
ever, on the banks of the Little Walnut creek at both crossings

* Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. iii, 1878, op. p. 600.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 337

on the roads from Canal Winchester to Lithopolis. The de-
tailed section of this glen is given below.

Lithopolis Section

Total

No. Thickness. thickness.
16. Cuyahoga formation. Bank on western side 14 11434’

of Joseph Leyndecker’s quarry shows 14 feet

of shales and thin sandstones to the soil on its

top.
15. Sandstone stratum, which on the eastern bank ° z'9” 10034"
' of the quarry is 1 foot 5 inches.
14. Rather sandy shales with two or more thin 54” 99’

‘sandstones, from 4 to 8 inches in thickness.
This zone on the eastern wall is 5 feet 5 inch-
es in thickness.

13. Light gray compact sandstone which forms 2 938”
a prominent stratum on the banks of the quar-
ry. It varies in thickness on the western bank
from 1 foot 10 inches to 2 feet 1 inch, is 2
feet 8 inches on the southeastern and reaches
2 feet 11 inches in the eastern bank where it
is very compact, but splits into two layers.

12. Dark to bluish-gray rather sandy shale which ae g1’8”
is 3 feet in thickness on the eastern wall of
the quarry, 3 feet 9 inches on the southeast-
ern and 3 feet 6% inches on the western wall.

11. Top of Buena Vista member. Zone of two or 5+ 882”
three sandstone layers, alternating with shales,
which is 4 feet 8 inches thick at the southern
end of the western bank, 5 feet at the north-
ern end of the same cliff and 6 feet on the
eastern bank. The section at the southern end
of the western bank from the tase up is 3
inches ‘sandy shale, 1 foot 10 inches quite mas-
sive sandstone, 1 foot 5 inches bluish argil-
laceous shale and 1 foot 2 inches sandstone; at
the northern end of the same bank the lithol-
ogy has changed as follows: 3 inches shale, I
foot 1 inch sandstone, 1 foot 1 inch shale, 1
foot 2 inches sandstone, 4 inches shale and I
foot 1 itich sandstone. On the southeastern
wall the section of this zone from the base up
is 514 inches blue shale, 2 feet 5 inches sand-
stone, 1 foot 8 inches shale with 1 toot of sand-
stone at the top. The quarrymen tell me that
the middle sandstone noted at the northern
end of the western bank begins with a harder

338

Io.

The American Geologist.

layer of shale in the 20 inch shale stratum of
the southeastern wall and gradually increasing
in thickness could be followed, before the
bank was partly covered by talus, from this
point to the northern end of the quarry’s west-
ert: wall. The section of this zone on the east-
ern bank is as follows: 5 inches thin sandstone
to shale, 1 foot 5 inches light gray sandstone,
1o to Ir inches dark gray argillaceous shale,
1 foot sandstone, 5 inches argillaceous shale,
1 foot 3 inches light gray sandstone and 8
inches sandy shale to thin sandstone. This
zone is shown in Fig. 1 where Mr. Wilkin-
son’s hand indicates its top while he stands on
top of No. 10.

A massive, fine graimed light bluish sand-
stone which is the most valuable stratum in
the quarry, varying in thickness, as meas-
ured on the quarried blocks, from 3 feet 2
inches to 3 feet 9 inches, and the quarrymen
report that it varies from 2 feet 6 inches to 4
feet 2 inches in thickness.. This layer is a valu-
able freestone, and Mr. Leyndecker states that
it received a prize at the Columbian Exposition
at Chicago.

Banks of the creek below the covered bridge
show that this interval consists of dark gray
shales alternating with sandstones, which va-
ry from 5 inches to 1 foot 2 inches in thick-
ness. This is a rather difficult interval to
measure with a hand level and the results dif-
fer somewhat; but the writer recently made
it 25 feet and his assistant Mr. J. A. Wilkin-
son 27 feet 3 inches.

Sandstone stratum 1 foot 7 inches thick, 10
inches shale and heavy bluish sandstone stra-
tum 2 feet 3 inches thick at base.

Gray somewhat arenaceous shale, and thin
sandstone layers.

A heavy layer of blue, iron-stained sandstone,
which forms a small fall in the stream and a
little below may be seen on its eastern bank.
In the fall about 8 inches of the sandstone
remains which is shown in Fig. 2. This ap-
parently corresponds to the “City Ledge”
in the Ohio cliffs near Buena Vista.

Gray argillaceous shale, which is very soft and
gritless. On the bank of the stream a little

December, 1904.

36"

2st"

83/2”

79/8"

43

4.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser,

below the fall 4 feet 2 inches is shown and

probably the thickness of the zone is a few
inches greater. Mr. Cumings gave this shale

as 5-+ feet and Mr. G. F. Lamb makes it just 5

feet. The base of the shale marks the base of
the Cuyahoga formation.

Sunbury shale. Black, fissile shale, in very

thin laminz, considerably iron-stained on old
exposures. A little above its contact with the
Berea the shale forms a bank 15+ feet high on
the western side, where some of it is rather
grayish in color and softer than it is generally
found. Farther up the stream on the op-
posite side is another 15 foot bank of black
shale, above which is the mainly covered gray
shale zone at the base of the Cuyahoga forma-
tion, capped by the overlying sandstone. The
contact of the Sunbury shale and the shale
zone at the base of the Cuyahoga formation,
however, may be seen in the bed of the stream
a short distance below the fall formed by No.

6 of this section.

In the bed of the stream, 3% inches above
the top of the Berea grit, is a thin, but
very fossiliferous zone. This is the one al-
most universally found very near the base of
the Sunbury shale and at this locality con-
tains numerous specimens of Lingula melie
Hall, some of a larger Lingula, Lingulodis-
cina Newberryi (Hall) Schuchert and frag-
ments of fish. It is somewhat difficult to
measure the thickness of the Sunbury shale
with a hand level on account of the distance of
the sights, but careful measurements by
Messrs. J. E. Hyde and G. F. Lamb make its
total thickness 28 feet.

Berea grit. The top of this sandstone forms
the floor of the stream and a small rapid just
below the base of the black shale. The upper
part contains plenty of iron pyrites and ripple
marks occur in the upper layers. The rock
which is fairly coarse grained, gray in color,
but greatly iron-stained on the weathered sur-
face, forms a ledge on the eastern bank of the
creek, just below a fence. On the bank 4
feet is shown, to which perhaps a foot or more
ought to be added in order to reach the top of
the sandstone in the bed of the stream. From

28’

es

339

38’

10

340 The American Geologist. Deeeek aes

the base of the sandstone as exposed in the
bed of the stream to its top 4 feet 8 inches

is shown.

2. Very soft argillaceous shale, of drab color z 5
which probably is at the top of the Bedford
shale.

1. Covered to stream level. 7, et

Several important stratigraphic facts are brought out by a
study of the Lithopolis glen and others to the southwest of that
town which will now be discussed. In the first place it will
be noted that there is a remarkable thinning in the Berea sand-
stone when this section is compared with the one on Rocky fork,
where it has a thickness of 37 feet,* as shown in a vertical sec-

*In my former descriptions of Rocky fork there has been some uncer-
tainty regarding the base of the Berea grit and its thickness (See Journal of
Geology, Vol IX, 1901, pp. 217, 218 and Vol. X, 1902, pp. 276-278, 328.) In
the latter paper a concretionary layer of sandstone—No. 2 of the section on
page 278—was described, which showed a lithologic change from the clay
shales of the Bedford, regarding the stratigraphic position of which there
was uncertainty as to whether it should be included in the Bedford forma-
tion or regarded as forming the base of the Berea. In going up the stream
this concretionary layer is clearly shown in the next cliff, on the same side
of the stream as the one mentioned above, and then may be found at the
base of the lower end of the cliff on the opposite bank and somewhat farther
up the stream. Formerly the lower part of this cliff was covered with debris
but the floods of the winter and spring of 1904 have swept it clean so that
the bed rocks are shown to water level. The stratigraphy of this portion
of the three cliffs is in harmony; the concretionary layer was carefully lev-
eled from the middle to the upper cliff and found to occur at the same ele-
vation; while the concretionary layer at the middle of the upper and lower
cliff is so nearly at the same level that no difference could be noted in the
barometric readings. It might be considered better by some to regard the
base of the Berea as beginning with the sandstone No. 5 of the section on p.
278; but the tnickness of the shale zone, Nos. 3 and 4 decreases as it is fol-
lowed up the stream, apparently by the lithologic change of the upper arena-
ceous shales into thin sandstones, and hence it is believed preferable to con-
sider the concretionary sandstone—No. 2— as marking the base of the Berea
formation. The thickness of the shale zone is 10% feet in the lower cliff,
7 feet 4 inches in the middle one, and 3 feet 4 inches in the upper. Near
the lower end of the upper cliff an almost vertical wall gives 37+ feet as the
total thickness of the Berea formation. The section of the cliff is as follows:

Total

No. Thickness. thickness.

7. Sunbury black shale, only base shown. god oe 41’8”

6. Top of Berea sandstone. Mainly fairly massive 15’8” 40’2”
sandstone.

5. Alternating shales and sandstones, the layers 14/11” 24’6”
of the latter 64 inches in thickness.

4. Arenaceous shales with thin sandstone layers, 2/O% Me
lowest one with ripple marks.

3. Shale zone with quite arenaceous shales at the 3/4” 6/10”
top.

2. Sandstone stratum at base of Berea formation 6”’4 3’6”
which is concretionary in places. :

1. Top of Bedford shale, which is bluish-gray and see ty

quite arenaceous at the ton, 34+ to the bed
of the stream.

This cliff is shown in Fig. 8 where the lower student stands on top of
No. 2, while the upper students indicate the top of the Berea sandstone.

The section published on page 276 of the former paper was measured
near the upper end of this cliff, when the concretionary stratum was coy-
ered, and the shale at the bottom—No. 1—is the continuation of No. 3 of
the section at the lower end of the cliff and therefore belongs in the Berea
formation instead of the Bedford.

A later measurement near the upper end of this bank gave the following
section:

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 341

tion of the bank of the stream, about two miles northeast of
Gahanna and fifteen miles north of its exposure in the Lithop-
olis glen.

Second, in this and other glens to the southwest of Lithop-
olis the entire thickness of the Sunbury shale is shown, while
the previously best known section in central Ohio, the one on
Rocky fork, exposes only the lower eight feet of this shale.

Third, the close agreement in lithologic composition and ar-
rangement of the strata in the upper part of the Buena Vista
members and the succeeding beds as shown at Lithopolis and
in southern Ohio.*

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
4. Sunbury shale at top of cliff, where estimates of 314’ 40°
thickness vary from 2% to 3% feet.
3. Berea sandstones, the lower ones alternating $2’ 36%
with shales.
2. Arenaceous and argillaceous shale. 4’ 41%,’
1. Sandstone layer. Yy’ Y,’

C. S. Prosser.

*Buena Vista as the name of a geological division was first used by Dr.
Orton in his report of Pike county and published in 1874. In this description
he wrote as follows regarding what is now called the Cuyahoga formation:

“The next division in ascending order has for its chief characteristic the
well-known and very valuable quarries of the Waverly svstem that lie along
the Ohio river below Portsmouth. This subdivision has a definite base.
viz., the upper surface of the Waverly black slate [Sunbury shale] but there
is no characteristic stratum that constitutes a convenient superior limit.
As the most valuable of the building rock, however, that is furnished by this
part of the series in southern Ohio occurs within fifty feet of the slate, these
fifty feet next above the slate may be somewhat arbitrarily taken as a sub-
division. It may be designated as the Buena Vista section—the name being
derived from a locality on the (*hio river that furnishes a large amount of
stone of unequaled quality’ (Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Vol. II, pt. I, p. 626).
It is now proposed to revive this name, define the upper limit and use it for
the lower member of the Cuyahoga formation.

Dr. Orton’s usage of the term Buena Vista was not uniform, for in the
general sections of the rocks of Ross and Pike counties in the same report
the name was restricted to 10 feet of sandstone between which and the top
of the Waverly black slate [Sunbury shale] was a shale zone 5» feet in
thickness (Fig. 1, op. p. 615 and Fig. 2, op. p. 618). In the Ohio valley
very near the base of the Cuvahoga formation is an excellent sandstone
which has been quarried for many years in the vicinity of Buena Vista.
This stratum was noted by professor John Locke in his geological account of
Adams county and termed the “City ledge’ on account of the great extent of
its use in Cincinnati (Second Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, 1839, p. 264). In
1884 Dr. Orton apparently restricted the name Buena Vista to this stratum
for he wrote “Grains and nuggets of nvrites appear in the shales associated
with this sandstone, but are not very perfectly visible to the naked eve in
the city ledge (the name now applied to the stratum proper of Buena Vista
stone)” (Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Vol. V, p. 602). The same statement by
Dr. Orton also appears in the Tenth Census U. S., Vol. X, 1884, “The building
stones of the United States and statistics of the quarry industry,” p. 198.
In 1888, however, Dr. Orton apparently returned to the opinion expressed
in the text of his report on l.xe county for under the description of the
Cuyanoga shale he wrote as follows: “By good rights the shale should suffer
one more reduction at its lower extremity. Everywhere through the state
there is found directly above the Berea shale, or at a short remove from it,
a number of courses of fine grained stone. * * * * *

It would have been well if the thirty or forty feet containing these
courses had been cut off from the Cuyahoga shale, in which case the division
thus formed would have been well named the Buena Vista stone, but inas-
much as the series does not absolutely require the change, it is left unmodi-
fied’ (Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Vol. VI. pp. 37, 38; and the same statement
was republished by Dr. Orton in 1895 in Vol. VII, on p. 31). Apparently in
these last two accounts of the Geological Scale of Ohio Dr. Orton had forgot-
ten that in 1874 in the Pike county report he had proposed that the fifty

342 The American Geologist. pee ee

Fayler run, a tributary of Big run, on the S. M. Oyler
farm, about one-half mile west of Lithopolis, shows part of the
Bedford and Sunbury shales ‘and the Berea sandstone. The
farm is on the road leading southwest from Lithopolis to the
county line road and the exposures are to the northwest of the
road and house. The section is a short one; but the run cuts
through the entire thickness of the Berea sandstone as is shown
below:

feet of sandstone and shale. succeeding the Waverly black slate [Sunbury
shale] should be ‘designated’ as the Buena Vista section.’’ At the time
of the preparation of my paper on the Sunbury shale or Ohio I had overlooked
the Buena Vista section so proposed by Dr. Orton in the text of the Pike ©
county report and at that time I thought he had definitely anplied the name
Buena Vista sandstone only to the “City ledge’’ or what was considered its
equivalent and hence I used the name in that sense (See Jour. Geol., Vol. X.,
1902, pp. 288-292). Prof. C. L. Herrick in 1891 in his Portsmouth section
gave the “Flags of Buena Vista’ with a thickness of 25 feet (Buli. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Vol. II, p. 40).

Since the stratigraphic term Buena Vista was used by Dr. Orton with at
least two values, it is necessary to make a selection and its definite applica-
tion in the Buena Vista section of the Pike county report to the fifty feet
of shale and sandstone overlying the Waverly black slate (Sunbury shale)
is the one which has been adopted. This will designate the lower portion of
the Cuyahoga formation which in at least central and southern Ohfo con-
tains valuable layers of building and construction stone and may very ap-
propriately be regarded as forming a lithologic division which is designated
the Buena Vista member of the Cuyahoga formation.

In southern Ohio the upper part of the member contains a variable num-
ber of even bedded sandstones which are extensively quarried and to this zone
apparently protessor Locke applied the term ‘beautiful quarry’ on account
of “the perfect parallelism, and, in many instances the uniformity of the
thickness of the strata’ (Second Annual Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, 1859, p.
264). In the Ohio valley the top of this zone of even bedded quarry stone
is apparently a definite and well marked stratigraphic horizon above which
are thicker beds of shale with sandstone which is not valuable for quarry-
ing. This contact is admirably shown in the quarry of Mr. John Wright about
21% miles up Carey run from the river road after crossing the Scioto valley
west of Portsmouth, and is shown in Fig. 4, where Mr. Wilkinson is point-
ing to the top of the Buena Vista member.

Succeeding the quarry stone is a zone of blue to olive shale three feet or
more in thickness, then a zone of shale and sandstone varying from 2+ to
3+ feet in thickness, both of which are clearly shown in Fig. 4, above which
is a conspicuous argillaceous shale zone about 5 feet in thickness. The lith-
ologic similarity of this part of the section was found to remain quite con-
stant in the various quarries and outcrops studied in the hills for several
miles below Portsmouth. The top of the Berea sandstone and the Sunbury
shale are nicely shown in Stony run, several miles below Portsmouth. About
three-fourths of a mile up the run, a bank and the James Amlin quarry gave
the thickness from the top of the Sunbury shale to the top of the quarry
stone as 48% feet. This thickness of 48% feet for the Buena Vista
member is in close agreement with Dr. Orton’s original statement of
fifty feet. Professor Andrews gave the thickness of what is regarded
by the writer to represent the Buena Vista member as 75% feet (See
his “Section of Waverly rocks from the Great Black Slate to the Sub-
Carboniferous Limestone, as seen on the Ohio river,” on “Maps showing
the Lower Coal Measures” in Geol. Surv. Ohio, pt. II Rept. Prog. Sec. Dist.
[in 1869], 1870.) ; but in this part of the section is the statement that a
sandstone and shale interval of 2914 feet was not measured and it is
thought the tuickness of this interval was over estimated.

At Lithopolis it is more dirficult to accurately measure the thickness of
the Buena Vista member than at the locality cited below Portsmouth; but
at the former locality Nos. 5 to 11 inclusive of the section are referred to
the Buena Vista with an approximate thickness of 4914 feet. A _ recent
measurement of this member by Mr. George F. Lamb gave 51 feet 11 inches.

Succeeding the even bedded quarry stone at the top of the Buena Vista at
Lithopolis is a conspicuous shale zone capped by a sandstone which is in
striking agreement with the section below Portsmouth.

C. S. PROSSER.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio,—Prosser. 343

: . Thickness.
3. Sunbury shale, thin laminated black shale only 20'9”
the base of which is shown‘in the run, but
higher in the field 2034 feet.
2. Berea sandstone. Thin, irregular bedded 37
brownish to rusty colored sandstone, 3 feet
7 inches on the northern bank and q feet 2
inches on the southern. ,
1. Bedford shale. Upper part is bluish-gray 136”
soft argillaceous shale. A little farther down
the run near the base of the exposure is some
mottled gray and faintly chocolate colored shale.

SECTIONS SOUTHWEST OF LITHOPOLIS

Big run, the largest southern tributary of Little Walnut
creek, crosses the county line road near where Franklin, Pick-
away and Fairfield counties corner. Bedford shale is soon
reached on this stream when it is followed above the county
line road crossing, considerable of which is of reddish color.
Less than half a mile above the road crossing on the land of
Mrs. L. J. White, the western bank of this run is about 35 feet
high and composed entirely of Bedford shale. The lower nine
feet is chocolate to mottled in color, while the remaining part
is mostly grayish. In the shale about 18 feet above the stream
- level is a large concretion. The shale in the bed and banks of
the stream from the base of the cliff just described to a point
above the second branch from the east is mainly reddish in
color.

Hartman Run Section

The first branch from the east, a few rods above the high
western bank, is on the land of Mrs. S. E. Hartman and may be
called Hartman run. It gives the following section:

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
7. Cuyahoga formation.. Alternating beds of 21 80’8”
grayish fine grained sandstone and bluish
argillaceous shales are shown for some dis-
tance up the run.
6. Fairly massive, grayish, argillaceous sand- s+ 5908”
stone which has been quarried to a slight ex-
tent,
5. Drab, very soft argillaceous shale which 4— 548"

measures on the bank 3 feet 11 inches. Base
of Cuyahoga formation.

344 The American Geologist. saeehite cat oy

4. Sunbury shale. Black, thin, even layered 237— 508”
shale, the base resting on sandstone at top
of cascade. About two inches above the base
a thin layer containing Lingula melie Hall and
Lingulodiscina Newberryi. (Hall) Schuchert.

3. Berea sandstone. A massive ledge of some- 6+ 27'8”
what coarse grained grayish sandstone below
the Hartman barn, which is shown in Fig. 5.
A little above, it makes a small cascade in the
run where 6 feet 3 inches is shown, in which
two layers show ripple marks.

2. Drab, soft very argillaceous shale just be- 168” 21'8”
low the sandstone, which is probably the top
of the Bedford shale. Most of this interval
covered.

1. Chocolate and mottled shale to the level of = 5’ 5
Big run.

Snuth Run Section

About one-eighth of a mile to the southeast of the Hartman
run is a similar and parallel one on the farm of Mr. Smith,
which may be called the Smith run. On the bank of this
stream is shown the entire thickness of the Berea sandstone
and also above, that of the Sunbury shale in a shorter distance
than in the Hartman run so that the conditions are more fa-
vorable for measurement. The section is as follows:

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
6. Cuyahoga formation. Sandstones alternating 2 gr’
with shales, some of the sandstone layers a
foot or more in thickness.
5. Two layers of sandstone in similar strati- 44° 50°
graphic position to that of the “City ledge.”
4. Bluish-gray argillaceous shale which varies 56" 548”

in thickness from 5% to 6 feet. Two feet
four inches below the top of the shale is a 3%
inch layer of sandstone.
3. Sunbury shale. Thin, even layered black shale 20'8” 49'2”
which is well shown in the narrow portion of
the glen. About 3% inches above its base
Lingula melie Hall, Lingulodiscina Newberryi
(Hall) Schuchert and fish scales occur. <An-
other measurement gave 20 feet to inches for
the entire thickness.
2. Berea sandstone. A prominent ledge of sand- 6'6" 28’6”
stone on both sides of the run of variable
thickness ranging from 3% to 7 feet on the

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 345

northwest bank, and perhaps 6% feet is near
the thickness of the main part. The base of
the sandstone on this bank is not a uniform
line and the underlying shale to the level of
the run varies in thickness from 6 to 9 feet.
This character is shown in Fig.6. The weath-
ered ledge is much stained, rusty to brown-

ish in color and the upper part contains much
marcasite as is generally the case in the various
sections reported. ;

1. Bedford shale. Bluish-gray to gray in color, 22’ 22’

on the bank beneath the Berea sandstone; but
down the run are mottled and reddish shales
before reaching Big run.

On the western bank of Big run above the mouth of
Smith run and the house of Mrs. Nancy Cole is a ledge of the
Berea sandstone, although it is not so well shown as in the
two glens just described. Drift and boulder clay fill the val-
ley of Big run above the ledge of Berea sandstone, so that the
Sunbury shale is not shown.

Along the stream about one mile southwest of Big run and
parallel with it, exposures of Ohio shale commence where the
stream and highway cross the Franklin-Pickaway county line
one and one-half miles west of the Fairfield county line.
The shales are uniformly black, even, highly fissile and weath-
er brownish. They are exposed almost continuously for
one-half mile up the stream, although at no place rising more
than about ten feet in the stream-banks, with a thickness of
forty feet, according to barometric readings. One-half mile
up the stream the Bedford shale appears, almost in contact with
the Ohio shale, and where it first appears there is an exposure
of fifteen feet, the lower part of which is bluish, the middle
portion mottled and the upper five feet dull red in color. The
texture of the shale is typical, being gritless, much jointed and
passing rapidly into small flakes or into a stiff clay. About two
feet of Berea sandstone is shown near the head of the south
fork of this run.

Along the east and west road one mile south of the Frank-
lin-Pickaway county line, at a point just one mile west of the
Fairfield county line is another exposure of the Berea which at
this locality is a brownish, coarse grained sandstone, two

346 The American Geologist. December a0 %

and one-half feet of which is shown but neither the top nor
bottom.

The large stream which heads on the Fairfield-Pickaway
line about one and three-fourths miles south of the Franklin-
Pickaway-Fairfield corner and flows nearly west through a nar-
row ravine affords exposures of nearly all the Bedford forma-
tion. The shale usually rises only a few feet in the banks of
the stream of which it often forms a clean cut bed: in places,
however, it forms banks fifteen or twenty feet in height. The
shale is invariably red, sometimes mottled with grayish-blue
and may contain concretions of considerable size.. The soil in
places at some distance from the stream is reddish in color and
contains fragments of the red shale. In this locality, therefore,
the drift cover over the divides is apparently not deep. The
upper part of the Bedford in this area is usually red and not
mottled or grayish as to the east and northeast of Columbus.
The stream to the north of the one just described affords very
good exposures of Bedford shale of similar lithologic appear-
ance.

Section Northwest of Marcy

One-half mile north of Marcy post-office is the source of
a stream flowing west and northwest, receiving as eastern
tributaries the small streams just mentioned, and emptying into
Little Walnut creek two and one-half miles north of St. Paul.
Pickaway county. The upper course of this stream is through
a narrow glen cut in the Cuyahoga, Sunbury and Berea forma-
tions on the farm of J. M. Hensel. The following section is
shown on this stream:

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
5. Cuyahoga formation. Blue, fine-grained sand- Pais a 6624’

stones with some intercalated soft gray shale
which contains very little grit. At the base
are thin bedded sandstones with shales and
shaly sandstones, above which are shales con-
taining concretions.
4. Gray argillaceous shale which is very soft and 824’ 4124’

gritless, with the exception of a 6 inch com-
pact gray sandstone the base of which is 3
feet 2 inches above the base of the shale. This
zone is well shown on the northern bank of

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser.

the creek a few rods below where the top of
the gray shale is seen in the stream’s bed.
Sunbury shale. Thin, black, laminated shale.
The contact of the gray shale at the base of
the Cuyahoga is beautifully shown in the bed
of the stream with an inch layer of mottled,
black shale, the mottling due to cylindrical
ramose, infilling of gray material similar in ap-
pearance to the gray shale above. The line
of contact between the gray and black shale is
perfectly distinct and sharp. The base of the
black shale is in contact with the subjacent
sandstone, the lowest layer of which is arena-
ceous, strongly pyritiferous and contains Lin-
gula melie Hall, which is common, Lingula
sp. and plants. On the southern bank
ci the stream a little above the Berea
ledge is a bank of Sunbury shale 22 feet high
by tape measure, and the highest exposure of
shale by hand level is 26 feet above the top of
the Berea. The second exposure up the stream
above the one just described, which is on the
northern bank, shows 12 feet of Sunbury shale
capped by 9 feet of shale and the latter by a
sandstone. The base of this exposure by hand
level is from 12 to 14 feet above the top of the
Berea sandstone. A recent measurement of
this shale by Mr. George F. Lamb gave 24
feet 8 inches.

Berea sandstone. Coarse, gritty, bluish sand-
stone in a single stratum which varies in
thickness from 1 to 6 feet. In the stream
where the contact with the Sunbury shale
occurs it is only a foot or a little more in
thickness ; but on the bank 50 feet below it in-
creases to 6 feet and then thins when followed
a few yards down the stream to 2 or 3 feet.
The upper part of the sandstone contains
plenty of marcasite and its top surface is even,

so that the irregularity is in the lower sur--

face. Other exposures in the vicinity show as
great a thickness as 10 feet.

Gray fine grained shale, iron-stained, contain-

ing occasionally lenticles of sandstone; but in
general a soft argillaceous shale which in
places is nearly a clay. At this locality it
varies in thickness, according to thickness of
the Berea sandstone, from less than a foot to 5
feet.

26’

6+

1+’

347

348 The American Geologist. December 2A =

Farther down the stream are outcrops of the reddish Bed-
ford shale below which are excellent ones of the Ohio shale,
which in places forms banks from 30 to 40 feet in height. This
shale may be followed for a mile along the creek to the four
corners where are good exposures both east and west of the
road bridge, fifteen feet or more in height, very clean cut and
characteristic.

The stream to the north of the one just described gives per-
haps the best exposures of the Bedford shale for this region;
below which is the Ohio shale. ‘

WATERLOO AND JEFFERSON

On the southern bank of Little Walnut creek, just east of
the covered bridge three-fourths of a mile southeast of Wat-
erloo on the George Loucks’ farm is an exposure of twenty
feet of red Bedford shale. This outcrop extends to water
level and is capped by the Berea grit, which forms a small ledge
on the bank of the creek at this locality. This exposure shows
that in this region the red color of the Bedford shale extends
nearly to the base of the Berea grit. This bank of red shale
is about one mile south of the Hocking Valley railroad.

Chestnut ridge, two miles east of Lithopolis, forms a con-
spicuous feature of the landscape in a region of such uniformly
low relief as that of central Ohio. The ridge is composed of a
coarse grained, vellow, massive sandstone which is the base of
the formation so conspicuously shown in the Hocking valley
twelve miles to the southeast, near Lancaster. This ridge is,
therefore, geologically and topographically the outlier of the
picturesquely eroded cliffs and slopes which give to the Hock-
ing valley its beautiful scenery.

Jefferson Section

At the northern end of Chestnut Ridge is the small village
of Jefferson to the. south of which on the hill is the quarry of
Mr. J. E. Cross. The following section was obtained com-
mencing at the rear of the school-house vard and extending up
the hill to the top of the quarry:

Total

No. Thickness. thickness.
T0., sol: ot 156°
g. Rather thin bedded brownish to yellowish 10° 151’

sandstone, Fairly massive stratum at the base.

ae

Waverly Formations of Central Olio.—Prosser. 349

8. Apparently two layers of yellowish sand- 14 141
stone similar to the zone below with a shaly
sandstone to shale a little above the middle.

7. Massive stratum of yellowish, coarse grained 8’ 127’
sandstone, which is friable.

6. Iron-stained sandstone, irregular, somewhat 2'4” 119’
shaly, and contains pockets of shale.

5. Light gray to bluish coarse grained sandstone. 18” 1168”

4. Sandstone similar to the zone above. 4 Tr

3. Covered to base of quarry. 460 ist haf

2. Alternating shales and thin sandstones which 60° 65"

are bluish at the base, becoming more iron-
stained and coarser toward the top, shown
along quarry road. Cuyahoga formation.
1. Covered from school yard. 5 5

In the above section the shales and sandstones of No. 2 be-
long in the Cuyahoga formation, while the rocks from No. 4
to the top of the quarry apparently belong in the lower part of
the Black Hand formation.

From the base of the Cross quarry to the base of the Berea
sandstone on the southern bank of Little Walnut creek to the
southeast of Waterloo the barometer gave a difference in ele-
vation of 200 feet. The latter locality is one and one-fourth
miles farther west than the Cross quarry while the dip in this
region is about 20 feet per mile to the east. As the thickness of
the Berea sandstone and the Sunbury shale at Lithopolis is
33 feet it indicates that the Cuyahoga formation in this section
has a thickness of about 200 feet. Estimates made in other lo-
calities in this general region indicate a thickness ranging from:
200 to 250 feet for the Cuyahoga formation. ~

EASTERN FRANKLIN COUNTY

In the eastern part of Franklin county near Blacklick and
Reynoldsburg and on Blacklick creek are exposures of the
lower formations of the Waverly series. This region has neither
been very carefully described nor the formations in all cases
correctly identified.

Blacklick Creek and Village

On the eastern bank of Blacklick creek a little above the
Broad street pike crossing and one mile below the railroad
bridge at Blacklick, is a good outcrop of the Sunbury black

350 The American Geologist. Decenter eae

shale, the upper eight and one-half to ten feet of the formation
being shown. The complete section is as follows:

Total

No. Thickness. thickness.
4. Soil to top of bluff. 8’ 28’8”
3. Soft bluish sandstones, weathering gray and ra 20'8”

strongly iron-stained, which are medium thin

bedded.
2. Gray very soft, gritless shale with an arena- 102” 188”

ceous layer near the middle. The line be-

tween this shale and No. I is very clear and

sharp.
1. Sunbury shale. Very thin, laminated, black 86" 86”

smooth shale which weathers to small sharp
edged flakes.
Creek level opposite sycamore tree.

A little farther down the creek about ten feet of the Sun-
bury shale is shown. The lower exposures are on the farm of
Frank Milburn and to the north on the farm of J. W. Miller.
The Sunbury shale is shown for some distance up the stream
and after a covered interval of about one-half mile its last
appearance is on the J. K. Black farm, where on the eastern
bank a few rods below the swing bridge one foot is shown.
On the same side of the creek a little below is a higher bank in
which the lower Cuyahoga sandstones occur. The Black farm
was formerly owned by E. Compton and this is undoubtedly
the locality where Dr. Orton stated that the contact of the
_ Huron and Waverly formations is shown.* It is to be noted,
however, that the black shale is the Sunbury instead of the
Huron (Ohio).

Perhaps rather more than one-quarter of a mile up the
creek are exposures of higher rocks on the Frank Cornell farm
which was formerly that of S. R. Armstrong. About east of
the Presbyterian church in the southern part of Blacklick vil-
lage on the western side of the creek is a partly covered sand-
stone bank, below which is shown the upper half of the soft
shale zone at the base of the Cuyahoga formation. At low
water the lower part of the shale zone is shown a little farther
down the stream and the following section may be obtained:

* Geoi, Surv. Ohio, vol. iii, 1878, p. 639.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 351

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
11. Soil to top of bank 5 to 10 feet.
10. Mainly thick to thin bedded sandstone, buff 30° 55”

to gray and iron-stained on weathered surface,
but blue to gray on fresh fracture.
9. Mostly covered, occasional outcrops of sand- 196” 25+
stone commencing about 12 feet above the base
of this zone.
8. Layer of hard, bluish-gray sandstone, coars- 0'6” a9
er grains than in the thin layers below; 6
inches shown in the bank and covered above,
so that the layer is probably thicker.

7. Blue argillaceous shale. ’ Li

6. Hard layer of fine grained sandstone of O14” 4/10”
rusty color as weathered.

5. Soft argillaceous bluish shale, which has PL te 48%”
very little grit.

4. Thin sandstone, similar to lower one, from 024%" 2'314”
2% to 3 inches in thickness which weathers
rusty on its edge.

3. Bluish argillaceous shale. O10} * -2'T"

2. Fine grained argillaceous sandstone, bluish- 03” ig
gray in color and perhaps slightly calcareous.

1. Very argillaceous shale, bluish as low as ex- r+ ‘fs

posed in creek.

The barometer gave an interval of five feet from the base
of this section to the top of the Sunbury shale on the Black
farm. The shales and thin sandstones from No. 1 to 7 inclu-
sive with a thickness of five feet one inch are regarded as
representing the upper half of the soft shale zone at the base
of the Cuyahoga formation which, with the five foot interval
to the Sunbury shale, has a thickness of ten feet one inch at
this locality. It will be noted that this thickness is in close
agreement with that of the same zone described in the section
three-fourths of a mile farther down the creek in the bank
above the Broad street pike, where it is ten feet two inches.
Again the fall in the creek from the shale bank below the
Presbyterian church to the Sunbury shale bank above the
Broad street pike is about fourteen feet so that the bed of the
stream at the former locality would be about five and one-half
feet above the top of the Sunbury shale.

A few rods farther up the creek than the section just de-
scribed is a conspicuous steep, rocky bank on its eastern side

352

The American Geologist.

December, 1904.

in which the Blacklick Stone Company has opened during the
last two years a somewhat extensive quarry. This quarry is
but a few rods below the railroad bridge and furnished the
following detaile( section:

No.
14.

13;

go ee ONS

Thickness

Mainly covered, but occasional layers of sand-

stone shown in run to the northeast of the

quarry for 15 feet above its top. No indi-

cation of black shale in run.

Three layers of buff sandstone alternating with
shale and extending to the top of the quarry

bank.

Yellowish-gray shale, 3 to 4 inches in thick-
ness.

Probably top of the Buena Vista member.
Buff, friable sandstone similar to lower thick

stratum.

Shale parting.

Buff sandstone appearing as a massive stratum
which splits into thin layers on the weath-

ered surface; somewhat friable.

Partly bluish shale and in part buff, rather
thin bedded sandstone.

Grayish, compact massive sandstone.

Blue shale.

Gray massive sandstone.

Mainly bluish shale with some rusty, thin
sandstone.

Buff, compact sandstone.

Layers of bluish-gray to gray sandstone, 16
inches and thinner, alternating with bluish

shales. Some of the sandstones are consid-

erably iron-stained or rusty in color. Present

floor of quarry.

Partly covered. Buff sandstone at the base in
bed of stream which is apparently the one just

above the shale zone near the base of the

Cuyahoga formation, or No. 8 of the section

farther down the creek. At this point

below the sandstone is about 3 inches of

bluish shale below which is a thin some-

what concretionary sandstone similar to No.

6 of the lower section.

Creek bed.

,

15

PAROS
, ”
14/10

S'+

Total

. thickness.

61’

If to the above section of sixty-one feet the ten foot zone of

shale with thin layers of sandstone, at the base of the Cuyahoga

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 353

formation be added, it will give seventy-one feet of the lower
part of that formation. There is not such a sharp lithologic break
in this quarry as in the Lithopolis one; but perhaps as marked
a lithologic change as any is to be found at the top of No. 11,
or the first sandstone layer overlying the thick sandstone near
the top of the quarry. The top of No. 11, therefore, has been
provisionally selected as the top of the Buena Vista member,
which will give it a thickness in this section of fifty-three feet
eight inches, which is four feet four inches more than in the
one at Lithopolis.

Just below the railroad bridge is an old quarry in which
some work has been done during the last two years. The
section of tlie eastern bank is as follows:

‘ Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
10. Mainly thin sandstone alternating with ar- vhee 41’

gillaceous shales, none of the sandstones ap-
parently thick enough for use.

9. Buff sandstone, probable top of the Buena 07 3466
Vista member.

8. Shale parting. O11". 33'634"
7. Buff sandstone, which in places splits into eh 33514”
_ two layers.

6. Shale to sandy parting. 03%" 32'4%”
5. Massive layer of buff sandstone which is much 6’ aa

rusted or iron-stained in places and consider-
ably on the surface. Somewhat friable, but
these older exposed surfaces are not so friable
as in the new openings in the lower quarry.
This stratum is conspicuously shown on both
sides of the creek below the railroad. The top
of this sandstone by the hand level apparent-
ly corresponds with the top of the heavy layer,
or No. 9, of the lower quarry. Thickness va-
ries from 6 feet to 6 feet 3 inches.
4. Rather buff sandstones, the upper ones con- 4.215 126%
taining numerous specimens of Spirophyton,
alternating with bluish shales.
3. Bluish shales. ite 22'2”
2. Thick layer of sandstone, considerably iron- 22 5 202
stained in many places. This layer is No. 7 of
the lower quarry.
1. Bluish to bluish-gray sandstones alternating 19 19
with shales, one layer 1 foot 11 inches in thick-
ness, but most of the sandstone layers are Io
inches or less in thickness.
Creek level.

:

354 The American Geologist. Deen

The massive layer (No. 5 of the above section) is seen
near the top in ail the sections in the vicinity of Blacklick vary-.
ing in thickness from 4 to 6 feet. The fall in the creek from
the railroad bridge to the shale bank, below the Presbyterian
church is about nine feet which, therefore, makes the top of the
section at the railroad bridge about fifty-seven feet above the
base of the Cuyahoga formation. The top of the Buena Vista
member in this section was drawn provisionally at the top of
No. 9, which would make its thickness in this section about
fifty feet. The highway to the east affords occasional outcrops
of sandstones similar to those seen in the banks of the creek at —
Blacklick.

Two miles to the southwest of the Blacklick railroad bridge
the railroad cut at Taylors exposes rather thin bedded sand-
stones. These sandstones are buff in color, with rather fri-
able texture like that of the Berea sandstone, they show plenty
of ripple marks and some of the layers are contorted or con-
cretionary in structure. About one-fourth of a mile to the
west, smal! gullies show the presence of the red Bedford shale,
some of the soil is reddish and two brick plants use this shale
which is obtained from quarries located some distance north
of the railroad on the Andrew Morrison farm. The strati-
graphy and lithological characters apparently show conclusively
that the sandstones in the railroad cut at Taylors belong in the
Berea formation.

The topographic map gives the elevation of the railroad
cut at Taylors as nearly nine hundred feet and the nine hun-
dred foot contour line extends up Blacklick creek to the rail-
road bridge, so that the bed of the creek at Blacklick and the
railroad cut at Taylors have about the same elevation. Hence,
the easterly dip of twenty feet or more per mile must carry the
sandstones shown in the railroad cut at Taylors below the bed
of Blacklick creek at the village of Blacklick.

Dr. Orton in the “Report on the Geology of Franklin coun-
ty’? mentioned ten feet of bedded sandstones in the railroad
cut at Taylors which he called. “the sandstones of the lower
Waverly,’* evidently referring them to that division of the
Waverly group which he called the “Wavery quarry system.” 7

* Rept Geol. Surv. Ohio. vol. iii, 1878, p. 638.

+ For the classification of the Franklin county Waverly, see p. 639 of the
report cited above.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio.—Prosser. 355

The writer has already shown that this division is the same
as the Berea sandstone,* hence the correlations of the sand-
stones shown in Taylors railroad cut are in harmony. The
identification, however, of the rocks shown in the “section of
Waverly sandstone at Armstrong’s quarries, Blacklick sta-
tion,’ is erroneous. The writer has shown that the Waverly
shales of the Franklin county report are the upper portion of the
Bedford shales.¢ .

The ten feet of Waverly shale, however, given at the base
of Dr. Orton’s Blacklick section is not the top of the Bedford
shale but the zone of soft shale at the bottom of the Cuyahoga
formation which has been described in this paper at the expo-
sures on Blacklick creek above the Broad street pike crossing
and below the Presbyterian church in Blacklick. The overlying
torty-eight feet, ten inches of sandstones and shales in this. sec-
tion referred to the Waverly quarry system (—Berea sand-
stone) instead of being the Berea belongs in the lower part
of the Cuyahoga formation. Apparently this quarry is referred
to the Berea grit in the Tenth Census “Report on the building
stones of the United States, and statistics of the quarry in-
dustry for 1880,’ compiled from notes of Dr. Orton.$

Reynoldsburg and Vicinity

On the bank of a small run a short distance east of Rey-
noldsburg, about cpposite a street turning south, on the Sam
Chamberlain farm is an outcrop showing the top of the Sunbury
shale and the lower part of the Cuyahoga formatiori. The sec-
tion is as follows:

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
4. Thin bedded, grayish sandstone with perhaps 4'+ 1734’
‘a shale zone in this interval; partly covered.
3. Greenish-gray sandstone containing numerous 13%4’+ 1334’

specimens of Spirophyton, which on weathered
surface tends to split into thin layers but
probably under cover it is massive. A loose
block on the bank is 1 foot 9 inches in thick-
ness, its top covered with fucoid (?) mark-

* Jour. Geol., vol. ix, 1901, p. 218.

+ Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. iii, p. 641, which are described on pp. 639 and
640.

t Jour. Geol., vol. ix, 1901, p. 217. :

§ Vol. x, 1884, p.195. Also republished in Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. v,
1884, p. 595.

anise The American Geologist. December, 2

ings; the basal sandstone of the Cuyahoga
formation.
2. Upper part of shale zone gritty, below which it 10+ 12
is argillaceous and 4 feet below the top is a
somewhat gritty and coarser band. The lower
6 feet drab, soft argillaceous shale which is
apparently without grit.
1. Sunbury shale. Black fissile shale to bottom 2+ 2

of the run.

A few rods to the west is another run on the same farm,
which flows southerly, on which a few yards above its mouth is
shown eight feet of the upper Sunbury shale; but none of the
clay shale at the base of the Cuyahoga formation. A little far-
ther up the run is another outcrop of the Sunbury shale under
a clump of trees.

About one and one-half (?) miles to the northeast of Rey-
noldsburg is the Wm. A. Forrester quarry, which he has work-
ed for forty vears. The following section was obtained at this
locality :

Total
No. Thickness. thickness.
15. Rather thin bedded sandstones of light gray e+ rit
color, which on weathered surface are brown-
ish gray or iron-stained, that alternate with
thin layers of shale. Thickness 8 to Io feet.
14. Sandstone zone which is more or less solid. 3 66’10”
13. Olive shale. 8” 63’ 10”
12. Sandstones which weather to a brownish-gray O04". SG
or iron-stained color, alternating with shales.
11. “Block layer” of quarrymen from 1 foot 3 WAS 53 10”
inches to 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, which
stains badly on weathering and is not used.
Shale parting.
10. Bluish-gray sandstone. 03%" 52'6’+
g. Blue shale. Or 523°
8. Bluish-gray sandstone. This and the sand- 03” 522.
stones above discolor badly on weathering.
7. Blue arenaceous shale. on: SI’rr”
6. Probable top of Buena Vista member. Three a 519”
courses of bluish-gray sandstone, each one 8
inches in thickness, which are fairly soft, and
are sawed into flagging. These sandstones do
not discolor on weathering.
s. Arenaceous shale to thin sandstone. O’I0” 499°
4. Bluish-gray sandstone, which contains vertical TO. 4B iE

tubes like worm borings.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohio —Prosser. 357

3. Similar bluish-gray sandstone. 2’2"+ ° 47'2”
2. Bluish-gray sandstone (freestone of quarry- 34" 45°
men) which cuts well. This layer and the two
superjacent ones are sawed into flagging, win-
dow sills, ete. This layer sometimes splits
into two, the upper one 2 feet in thickness.
Mr. Forrester considers this layer identical’
with the massive 3% foot layer (No. 10) in
the Lithopolis quarry.
1.. Mainly covered down the stream to the top 418
of the Sunbury shale, with the exception of
the section described on the Chamberlain
farm. Mr. Forrester stated, however, that in
one part of the quarry they went down 30 feet
below the bottom of the quarry and found the
rocks blue sandstones alternating with “soap-
stone” (shale), but not valuable for quarrying.

418

On the northern bank of the quarry, which is the old wall,
it is twenty-six feet from the top of No. 6 to the top of the ex-
posed rocks, or two feet and nine inches more than on the east-
ern and newer wall of the quarry. This gives about 78 feet of
rocks exposed above the top of the Sunbury shale all of which
belong in the lower part of the Cuyahoga formation. It is to be
noted that these rocks are the same as those exposed on Black-
lick creek at Blacklick with more than twice the thickness of
the entire Berea formation on Rocky fork, five miles north-
west of this section. The change in lithology from the rocks
referred to the Buena Vista member to the overlying ones is
not so conspicuous as at Lithopolis; but the line has been pro-
visionally drawn at the top of the three courses of eight inch
sandstones or No. 6. The sandstones of No. 6 and lower ones
are bluish-gray from which there is a considerable change to the
overlying grayish sandstones which weather to a rusty color.
The rocks, however, overlying the Buena Vista member contain
a much larger proportion of sandstone than is found in the
similar part of the section at Lithopolis. This section gives
the Buena Vista member a thickness of fifty-one and three-
fourths feet which agrees quite closely with the fifty-three and
two-thirds feet of the Blacklick section and the forty-nine and
one-third feet of the Lithopolis section.

A well was drilled near this quarry, which, according to
Mr. Forrester’s record, began near the top of No. 6 and at a
depth of forty feet reached what he called soft mud. This mud

358 The American Geologist. Deceit

was probably the shale zone at the base of the Cuyahoga for-
mation in which case the well record of forty feet from the top
of the Buena Vista member to the shale agrees closely with the
forty-one and three-fourths feet of the above section. Below
the soft shale the well passed through black shale and then en-
tered sandstone to the distance of two feet. The distance from
the top of the soft shale to the top of the sandstone, according
to Mr. Forrester, is 20 feet and the sandstone below the black
shale is apparently the Berea grit.

SECTION SOUTHEAST OF NEWARK

Investigations made during the last two years have changed
considerably my ideas regarding the lower limit of the Black
Hand formation, as exposed to the southeast of Newark, and
the results will now be briefly stated.

The following section is compiled from outcrops in Havens’
quarry, down Quarry run to Licking river, the first run to the
east and the cliff farther east near the house of Mrs. Mary M.
Stasel which is one and one-fourth miles east of the Court
House in Newark:

Total

No. Thickness. thickness,
1o. Alternating shales and sandstones to the tcp 14’ 17514"

of the east wall of Havens’ quarry.
9. Fairly massive buff sandstones. 16 16114"
8. Bluish shales; base of Logan formation. 5 145%’
7. Top of Black Hand formation. Grit stratum ru 140%’

varying in thickness from Io to 13 inches. Con-

glomerate II of Herrick.

Allorisma shales. 74” 1306"
5. Massive buff freestone, lower part thin bedded 236" 732"

to shaly layers.
4. Rather coarse quartz pebble conglomerate 38” ~=103'8”

which varies in thickness. Conglomerate I of
Herrick. In the run below Havens’ quarry
3 feet 8 inches is clearly shown, although the
thickness is somewhat greater (4 feet 11
inches in a former measurement when it was
exposed to better advantage). On the Stasel
cliff buff sandstones alternate with layers of
grit and conglomerate with a thickness of
about 7 feet 11 inches of which the following
is a detailed section:

ness of 100™% feet.

Waverly Formations of Central Oluo.—Prosser. 359

Feet. Inches.

Ca eee ee ee eae oor

Conglomerate .......
Shaly sandstone .....
(Gtitsi/s stadia ote sed «
DANUSTOM anil afte ss,
Conglomerate ....... I

m onowowo wo mw

STR 04 ene ae 2 ee pea DY

This interval down Quarry run is mainly
covered, except at the base where 11 feet of
massive buff sandstone is shown. In the first
run-east, however, 21 feet of buff rather coarse
grained sandstone is shown at its base and on
the Stasel cliff about 35 feet of similar sand-
stone directly underlies Conglomerate I. Sev-
eral barometric readings give the difference in
elevation from the base of the coarse grained
sandstone on Quarry run to the base of Con-
glomerate I on the same stream as from 55
to 65 feet, so that the rocks for the greater
part of this interval are shown.

Top of Cuyahoga formation. Mainly bluish-

gray arenaceous and argillaceous shales with
some alternating layers of sandstone which are
occasionally a foot or more in thickness. On
west bank of Quarry run there is a buff sand-
stone stratum 1 foot 7 inches in thickness. Fos-
sils occur in this part of the formation. The
lowest shales are exposed in the bed of the run
just above Summit street bridge.

Covered interval to level of Licking river.

60° 100"
30+’ 40"
10+ 10°

In the above section the Black Hand formation has a thick-

When my former paper was written the
Stasel cliff and coarse sandstones in the two runs to the west
had not been seen by the writer and it was supposed that
shales occurred directly below Conglomerate I as had been de-
scribed by professor Herrick for the Newark region.* Hence
the base of this conglomerate was regarded as the base of the
Black Hand formation.+ The present section shows that to the

east of Newark, coarse grained buff sandstones extend for

* Bull. Denison Univ., vol. iii, 1888, p. 26, and Ibid., vol. iv, 1888, pp. 100,

105, 106.

+ Jour. Geol., vol. ix, 1901, p. 224.

360 The American Geologist. Decenther, 1005:

about sixty feet below the base of Conglomerate I, at which
horizon is the most marked lithologic change in the rocks,
and the base of these sandstones has been selected as the line
of division between the Black Hand and Cuyahoga formations.

In the quarries southeast of Newark the most marked litho-
logic change in the upper part of the formation occurs at the
top of the massive freestone (No. 5). In professor Hicks’ or-
iginal description of the formation he included in it, overlying
the compact drab sandstone, a “Fucoid layer” seven to twelve
feet in thickness and a “coarse sandstone and conglomerate”
three to eighteen feet in thickness.* It is thought that the Fu-
coid layer represents the Allorisma shale of Herrick and the top
sandstone and conglomerate Herrick’s Conglomerate II. For
the above reason. Conglomerate II has still been considered in
the sections of the Newark quarries as the top of the Black
Hand formation.

The continuation of the section from Havens’ quarry is to
the eastward up “the gorge,’ which is the stream that joins
Quarry run some rods to the north of the quarry, along which
is shown, according to the barometer, about ninety feet of buff
arenaceous shales to thin bedded sandstones to the base of the
Sharon conglomerate. The shales predominate in the lower
thirty feet of the section and apparently about the lower ten
feet are shown in the upper part of the Havens’ quarry wall.
These rocks and those of the Havens’ quarry succeeding Con-
glomerate II or No. 7, are referred to the Logan formation
which has a thickness in this section of about 115 feet.

The thickness of 100% feet for the Black Hand formation
in the above section agrees closely with that of the formation
in the vicinity of Clay Lick, seven miles east of the Newark
section. On the Bell farm one-half mile east of Clay Lick, the
formation is well exposed on the point just east of the house.
The barometer gave 85 feet from the B. & O. railroad up to
the top of the ledge of coarse grained rock (mainly grit) with
some pebbles which are arranged somewhat in layers and occur
from the top to the bottom. It is mainly of yellowish color,
but with some brownish and an occasional reddish layer. In
the creek at Clay Lick are coarse sandstones apparently be-
longing in the Black Hand formation which barometrically

* Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xvi, 1878, p. 218.

Waverly Formations of Central Ohto.—Prosser. 301

give it a thickness of 100+ feet. The thickness is in close
agreement with professor Herrick’s statement that “one-half
mile east of Clay Lick there is a nearly continuous exposure of
about 100 feet of alternating conglomerate and coarse sand-
stone of prevailingly red color.’’*

THE UNTENABLENESS OF THE NEBULAR
THEORY.

By N. MISTOCKLES, Minneapolis, Minn.

Ill.

(Continued trom page 319.)

THE RELATION OF THE EXCENTRICITY IN THE ORBITS OF
THE PLANTS TO THEIR SIZE AND THEIR DISTANCE
FROM THE SUN; HOW THE MOONS HAVE
COME TO THE PLANETS.

The scientific investigator often discovers that matters to
which he has before paid but little attention on account of
their apparently small significance, prove to be of decisive
importance in arriving at a correct understanding of the law
or natural phenomenon which he is studying. This we our-
selves shall experience before we close this chapter; for we
shall find that the solution of a very comprehensive problem
concerning the arrival of the moons to the planets depends
greatly on a correct conception of the excentricity of the plan-
etary orbits, to which, in general, but little attention has been
paid. Let us, therefore, preliminarily, proceed to the discus-
sion of this subject, in order, thereby, to gain a better under-
standing, than would otherwise be possible, of matters de-
pending thereon.

The excentricity of the orbits of the planets stands in re-
lation to the size of the planets and their distance from the
Sun. The truth of this statement may not be readily ac-

* Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., vol. ii, 1887, p. 15.

362 The American Geologist. Decent, eee.

cepted, perhaps, since it is contrary, in part at least, to all ac-
cepted astronomical theories. But he who seeks a solution of
problems presented by natural phenomena, must not pay too
much attention to existing theories, nor must he fear the au-
thorities; for these will, in most cases, oppose the most self-
evident truths, if they find their own theories in danger. His-
tory teaches us that. We admit, however, that the conserva-
tives have a perfect right to stand by and defend the old ideas
until the new ones have been presented and established. But
the trouble is, that many of these conservatives shut their
eyes to the truth and will not allow themselves to be con-
vinced. According to Flammarion the Academy of Cortona
unanimously declared the discovery of Jupiter's moon to be an
optic illusion; and Libri, a philosopher in Pisa, would not con-
descend to put his eye to the telescope to see Jupiter’s moons.
There is nothing of the kind to be feared in the present in-
stance, however.

According to the nature of the excentricity, as stated above,
it follows, that a small planet, even close to the Sun, has a
very excentric orbit, while the orbit of a large planet, quite
far from the Sun, has a small excentricity. The planets Mer-
cury and Jupiter may be mentioned as illustrating this point.
The former has an average distance from the Sun of 36 mil-
lion miles and its diameter is 3,200 miles; but it has an orbital
excentricity of more than 7 million miles and varies about 15
million miles in its distance from the Sun. The latter planet,
on the other hand, has a distance of 480 million miles and is
88,000 miles in diameter, while its orbital excentricity is only
23 million miles. It follows, then, that in Jupiter’s orbit Mer-
cury would have reached an excentricity of about 90 million
miles or more; and that Jupiter, if he were 300 million miles
nearer the Sun, would have no excentricity. Venus, the Earth,
and Mars may serve as further examples to explain this point.
The first of these, which has a distance from the Sun of 67
million miles and is of about the same size as the Earth, has
an orbital excentricity of not quite 500,000 miles, while the
Earth’s orbit, which is 26 million miles farther from the Sun,
has an excentricity of one and one-half million miles. The
little planet Mars, on the other hand, which is 141 million
miles distant from the Sun and which is only 4,200 miles in

—_—-

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 303

diameter, varies over 26 million miles in its distance from the
Sun.

We find that the same rule applies to the more distant
planets. Saturn, having a distance of 867 million miles from
the Sun and a diameter of 76,000 miles, varies in its distance
about 100 million miles. Uranus, with a distance of 1,765
million miles and a diameter of 32,000 miles, varies 176 mil-
lion miles in its distance. Finally we come to Neptune, which
seems to make an exception. His average distance from the
Sun is figured to be 2,764 million miles and his diameter is
calculated to be 37,000 miles, while the variation in his dis-
tance is accepted to be the same as that of Jupiter, that is,
about 50 million miles. But tue astronomical calculations
may easily be erroneous in this case. I am confident that the
variation in Neptune’s distance amounts to about 200 million
miles. I shall produce proofs later, which will make the mat-
ter clear and show my opinion to be correct. In the mean-
while it is important to take notice of the calculations of
Adams and Leverier concerning the perturbations of Uranus.
Both of them ascribe great excentric:ty to the disturbing planet,
Neptune, and there is reason to believe that the excentricity,
which was found as a result of these men’s calculations, which
also led to the discovery of Neptune, is more correct than the
one accepted by modern astronomers and based on the third
of the so-called Kepler’s laws. We must remember, that the
reasonable correctness of this law for the inner part of the
solar system does not guaranteé its correctness in an unlimited
application, for which reason it may not hold good as to the
most distant planet and cannot be safely applied unless we
have other things to go by. Bode’s law held good for all the
planets until it was applied to Neptune when it proved to be
not even approximately correct. But these matters we shall,
as before said, take up and discuss later on. Let us, how-
ever, in connection with these remarks direct our attention to
the fact that to the present time there have been discovered
about 500 small planets between Mars and Jupiter, which
have a variation in their distance of from 100 to 200 million
miles, which shows that the excentricity of the planetary orbits
everywhere stands in relation to the size of the respective plan-
ets and their distances from the Sun. We may, therefore, con-

’

364 The American Geologist. Decora ee

clude with reasonable safety, that what in this respect is true of
all the planets from Mercury to Uranus and which also holds
good as to hundreds of minor planets, will, no doubt, hold
good also as to Neptune.

815 HOW THE MOONS HAVE COME TO THE PLANETS.

It appears clearly from what we have already said, that he
relation with regard to age in which one planet stands to an-
other, cannot be determined by the planet’s distance from the
Sun, since their origin is independent of that body. As we
have shown, further, that no heavenly body appears origin-
ally with a satellite, the moon has, consequently, been develop-
ed out of a nebula different from that of the Earth, and has
at some time revolved around the Sun. The moons of the
other planets have commenced their existence in the same
manner, that is, as free bodies circling around the same center
of force. But how, then, has it happened that these little
bodies have been captured by the larger ones, and lost their
original orbits?

In §12 it was pointed out that the excentricity of the plane-
tary orbits depends on the size of the planets and their dis-
tances from the Sun.

We have mentioned that Mercury’s diameter is about 3,-
200 miles, its orbital excentricity somewhat more than seven
million miles, and its distance from the Sun 36: million miles;
also that its aphelion distance from the Sun is about 15 mil-
lion miles greater than its perihelion distance. From this it
follows, that the Moon, which has a diameter of 2,160 miles,
would, if it had Mercury’s average distance from the Sun,
and in obedience to the law of excentricity, have a greater or-
bital excentricity than Mercury. We understand, thus, that if
the Moon had an orbit of about double the distance of Mer-
cury’s from the Sun, it would have an excentricity of rather
more than 12 million miles or thereabout, and it would reach
about 25 million miles farther from the Sun at aphelion than
at perihelion. But now the question is this: Was the dis-
tance of the Moon somewhere between 70 and 80 million
miles?

Inasmuch as it was not captured by Venus, it must have
occupied a place so far outside of this planet, that it did not

4

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 305

reach her orbit at perihelion, which shows that its distance
from the Sun must have been more than 70 million miles.

It is, indeed, possible, that its average distance from the
Sun reached roo million miles, and that it had its orbit out-
side of the Earth; but the most reasonable assumption is, that
its average distance from the Sun was about 80 million miles,
and that it, thus, reached several million miles outside of the
Earth’s orbit at aphelion.

Now since the Earth’s nebula appeared inside of the
Moon’s aphelion-distance and outside of its average distance

.from the Sun, the Moon could not, for any length of time,
escape crossing the orbit of the Earth to or from aphelion.
The result would have been exactly the same, if its orbit had
been just outside of the Earth’s since this would have occas-
ioned the Earth to have caught it at perihelion.

In this manner, then, the Moon was captured and became
the satellite of the Earth, which the following illustration will
serve to make clear.

Fie. 1. Fic. 2.

The orbits of Venus, the Moon and the The M tured by the Earth
Earth, respectively, around the Sun. x ieee ee Nate Tete

We have spoken of the Moon as a planet when the Earth
appeared as a nebula. It may be argued against this, that we
lack proofs. If so, it is most fair to remark, that observations
establish nothing more clearly than that the Moon is older
than the Earth. Besides, it would not affect the result if eith-
er the Earth or the Moon is the older, for even if the Earth
had been a planet when the Moon assumed the shape of a

306 The American Geologist. December, aoe

nebula, the orbital excentricity or the latter would have been
the same and the Earth would have been just as much in its
way, and it could not in any way have escaped to become the_
Earth’s satellite, provided it crossed or reached up to its orbit.

If the reader has paid careful attention to our argumenta-
tion against the nebular theory, he will the more easily under-
stand, that this is absolutely the only way in which the Moon
can have come to the Earth, If we consider Mars and his
moons, it is equally clear, that wherever these exceedingly
small planets had their orbits between Mars and the Earth
and so far outside of the latter that they did not reach its
orbit at their perihelia, they would, on account of the great
excentricity of their orbits, cross or reach the orbit of Mars at
their aphelia, and thus not escape being captured in the same
manner that the Moon was captured by the Earth.

We may, then, safely conclude that what is true about the
satellite of the Earth and of Mars is true also of the satellites
of other planets to the uttermost limit of the solar system. If
a large nebula would arise between Mars and Jupiter, where
a large number of small planets with great excentricity have
their orbits, it is clear that it, with its more circular orbit,
would get a great number of moons.

It may be urged in opposition at this point, that there are
no small planets beyond Jupiter; but since such an objection,
if it were made, could not be based upon anything else than
that we have, so far, not discovered any small planets beyond
Jupiter, it would be of no avail. In reply, it would be suff-
cient to call attention to the fact, that before Piazzi discovered
Ceres on January first, 1801, there was not a single small
planet known in that region, where since that time about 500
have been discovered. In view of this, we understand, that
before the discovery of Ceres, a statement might have been
made with as great, or still greater force, that there were no
small planets beyond Jupiter or Saturn or farther out. Such
an objection is, therefore, not worthy of serious attention. We
must, furthermore, be on our guard, both here and elsewhere,
against limiting the scope of scientific development by barriers
based only on ignorance and preconceived opinions.

As the number of discovered minor planets: has increased
from time to time, these have also been discovered farther and

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 307

farther away from the Sun, until they have now been found
to exist near to the orbit of Jupiter. There is, therefore, no
reasonable ground on which any one can claim, that such plan-
ets may not exist beyond the most distant one which has been
discovered. This forces us to admit, that minor planets may
be found outside as well as inside the orbit of Jupiter. When
it is admitted, further, that if a small planet would intersect
or reach the orbit of Jupiter, the result would be, that the less-
er planet would be attracted to the larger at a point where
their orbits cross each other or somewhere in that vicinity,
then it is practically admitted, that this is the manner in which
this mightly planet may have received its many moons.

It may be of interest now to find out how near one of the
minor planets might approach one of the great ones, Saturn,
for instance, in order to be captured by it. Astronomers have
figured out mathematically that one of Saturn’s moons would
have to recede a distance of 30 million miles before the planet
would lose it. It follows, then, that a small planet a
within that distance would be attracted by Saturn.

It may be, that this distance is rather large, and we shall
therefore, try to determine it also on a different basis and
compare the result with that given above. Let us consider,
for this purpose, the relation in which the velocity and dis-
tance of Neptune stand to the distance and motion of Mer-
cury, which will give us the diminution of the Sun’s attraction
in proportion to the increase of the distance. Next we may
apply the same principle to Saturn’s moons, and thus deter-
mine fairly accurately the limits which we wish to know. The
distance of Neptune is 77 times that of Mercury, the velocity
of the latter is 29 English miles a second and that of the for-
mer 3.2. This shows that the power of the Sun’s attraction in
the orbit of Neptune has fallen to one-ninth of what it is in
Mercury’s orbit. In considering the satellites of Saturn, let
us take, for instance, the fifth one, Rhea. This has a distance
of 336,000 miles, according to Flamarion, and a sidereal per-
iod of 4 days, 12 hours and 25 minutes, which gives it a veloc-
ity of 323.5 English miles a minute. By multiplying the given
distance by 77 we find the distance from the planet to be 25,-
872,000 miles. At this distance the power of attraction has,
thus, fallen to one-ninth of what is in Rhea’s orbit. Further,

368 The American Geologist. Dees ae

if we divide Rhea’s velocity, 323.5 miles a minute, by 9, we
find that 35.8 miles a minute would be the velocity by which a
moon would move around Saturn at a distance of about 26
million miles. Now since this is still nearly the velocity of the
Moon around the Earth, it seems that a moon would revolve
around Saturn at a considerable greater distance than 26 mil-
lion miles. It appears, thus, that the mathematical computa-
tion mentioned above has come very close to the truth. We
need not go to any extreme, however; it is satisfactory to
know, that we have assured ourselves of the fact, that Saturn
can overpower and attract small planets within a radius of at
least 26 million miles.

The discovery of Saturn’s ninth moon by professor Pick-
ering in 1899 and the fact that this moon still has a distance of
8 million miles most strongly indicates that Saturn may have
received its moons in the manner which we have now de-
scribed. This appears still clearer when we remember that
the small planets, which have an average distance from the
Sun of 600 to 700 million miles, intersect the orbit of Saturn
at their aphelia, and those which have an average distance of
1,000 to 1,200 million miles will intersect it at their perihelia;
besides that, Saturn himself varies his distance about 100 mil-
lion miles, and sweeps along in his orbit with a gravitative
sphere so great that it measures about 56 million miles in di-
ameter within which no small planet can come without being
captured.

Having now come to an understanding of this matter, we
understand: also, that the two most distant moons, especially,
are continually being drawn closer to the planet, and that
the one farthest away is attracted most rapidly. The last one
may, for all we know, just have been captured when it was
discovered. But it is also possible, that it began its revolu-
tion around Saturn at a distance of about 20 million miles or
more. - Moreover, it is good reason to believe that small plan-
ets which yet have their orbits around: the Sun, will in the fut-
ure: be discovered as moons of Saturn; and we may also con-
clude that what is true about Saturn in this respect is true
about the more distant planets also.

Finally it may be of some importance to call attention to
the fact, that the attraction which Saturn exerts on its distant

Nebular Theory.—Mistockles. 369

moons is the combined attraction of himself and his inner
moons: This latter factor is of considerable importance, since
one of the moons, Titan, is of about the same size as the
planet Mars. This is true of all large planets with many
moons and of the Sun as well as the planets. The velocity of
Uranus, for instance, which is 258 miles a minute, would be
about 300 miles less a day, if it were not for Jupiter.

As answer to the question, how near a small planet must
come to Jupiter in order to be attracted by. him -we need
only call attention to the fact that Jupiter is two-fifths
stronger than Saturn, and that the power of the Sun’s attrac-
tion is about two-eighths stronger in his orbit than in Sat-
urn’s. From this we find, that Saturn, if placed in Jupiter’s
orbit, would have lost about two-eighths or 7 million miles
of the radius within which he can now attract smaller
planets, and that Jupiter himself exercises this influence at
a distance of about 35 million miles in all directions from
his center.

If we next direct our attention to the most distant planets
and notice that Neptune exerts a disturbing influence on the
large planet Uranus, which is 1,000 million miles nearer
the Sun, we find this natural order no less self-demonstrating.
Since we know that Neptune disturbs Uranus, it is easy to
see what the result would be, if a small body, say about the
size of our Moon, being 7/,.,, of Uranus, came within a
few million miles of Neptune. Its capture as a moon would
be absolutely certain.

§16. The number of moons of the distant planets must,
as a rule, stand in relation to the size of those planets and
their distance from the Sun, no matter whether the moons
have been discovered or not. The reason for this is a com-
bination of several causes. As one of these causes we notice
the increasing sphere of a planet’s attractive power as its
distance from the Sun increases. A second cause is the in-
crease in the orbital excentricity of all the planets in pro-
portion to their size and their distance from the Sun. A third
factor is found in the circumstance, that the orbits of the
minor planets are more analogous to the orbits of the larger
ones the greater the distance from the Sun; this, again, be-
ing caused by the diminution of the power of the light-stuff,

370 The American Geologist. December, 1904.

which causes the large inclination of the orbits of the minor
planets to the ecliptic between Mars and Jupiter, but which
diminishes as the distance from the Sun increases. We may
mention, also, as a fourth factorof somewhat minor im-
portance, that the large comets, far from the Sun, may at
times, draw the minor planets out of their orbits and thus
put them in danger of being captured afterwards by the ma-
jor planets.

Let us remember, then, that the small planets that reach
the orbit of Neptune at their aphelia, reach or approach near
the orbit of Uranus at their perihelia; and that the same class
of bodies, which reach Uranus at their aphelia, reach in
many cases, Saturn at their perihelia. This shows clearly
that the small planets far out in the sea of ether, where the
large planets rule, run a greater risk of being captured than
those in the vicinity of Jupiter. Those large distant planets
have for the same reason, greater opportunities to enrich
themselves with moons than, for instance, Jupiter has. This
opportunity becomes still greater by reason of the fact that
the minor planets out there move in orbits analogous to the
major ones and are, consequently, subjected to the attrac-
tion of these for a greater distance of their orbits than is
the case in the inner part of the solar system.

The reader will then, finally, remember the fact, that a
smaller planet which reaches or intersects the orbit of a
larger one cannot escape being captured eventually by the
larger one and being made its satellite; and that this has at
some distant time happened to the Earth’s Moon, and, in fact,
to all the moons of all the planets.

(To be continued.)

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 371

TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY OF EASTERN ASIA.
‘Ke

Reviews and Translations by
WILLIAM HERBERT Hopss, Madison, Wis.

(Concluded.)

In earlier numbers of this series there have been reviewed
or translated recent papers dealing with the tectonic geography
of the eastern border of the continent as well as special papers
treating of Korea, Manchuria, and Japan. There remain for
consideration the Riukiu (Loochoo) Islands, Formosa (Tai-
wan), the Philippines, and the complex of islands to the south

Pay 80 90 700° YO VLO YO VAD

372 The American Geologist. December, 1904.

and west, which with the Philippines have together been desig-
nated as the Malayan Archipelago. In taking up for consider-
ation this remaining portion of the region, the tectonic sketch
map of Fig. 1 will serve for orientation. It has been construct-
ed from several maps. On the main land of Asia the great ser-
ies of arcs and the dominant lines of faulting have been entered
from von Richthofen’s studies. The tectonic lines sketched in
for the Korean peninsula and about the gulf of Pechili are from
dominating ones which appear upon the maps of Koto and von
v. Cholnoky. The volcanic zones and the arcs in Japan have been
taken from the new official map of Japan issued by the Japan-
ese government and from vy. Richtofen’s sketch map, and the
last mentioned author has been followed in Formosa and the
Riukius. In the Philippines and other portions of the Malayan
Archipelago the data have been furnished by the maps of Suess
and Koto. The volcanic zone to the eastward from the Malayan
_ Archipelago is entered from Berghaus’s excellent Atlas der
Geologie.

Riukin:Arc: The island of Formosa and the island arc
which connects it with Japan (Riukiu or Loachoo arc) has been
made the subject of a special paper by v. Richthofen*, a paper
based largely upon the monographs by Yamasakit and Yash-
iwarit; both of which papers contain excellent maps, the first
mentioned of Formosa and the other of the Riukius. It has al-
ready been pointed out that the double series of arcs upon the
continent border is paralleled by a third series that is outlined
by the festoons of islands which inclose shallow seas and are
surrounded by great ocean deeps. This latter and seaward
series seems to end southward at Formosa, the structure of
which appears to be of a different nature, and which is succeed-
ed to the southward by more contracted series of arcs, ex-
tending, as Suess has shown, as far as the bay of Bengal.

The Riukiu islands arc while convex toward the sea ap-
pears to have a different character from the arcs to the north-
ward. If one joins upon.the map the islands of the outermost

* Von. Richthofen: Geomorphologische Studien aus Ostasien, III, Die mor-

phologische Stellung von Formosa und den Riukiu-inseln. Sitzungsber. d.k. pr.
Akad. d. Wiss. z. Berlin, vols. 39 and 40, 1902, pp. 944-975, with pl. 3.
+ Dr. N. YAMASAKI: Unsre geographischen Kenntnisse von der Insel
Taiwan (Formosa). Peter. Mitth., vol. 46, 1900, pp. 221-234, with plate 19.
tS. YASHIWARI: Geologic structure of the Rinkiu (Loochoo) curve and its
relation to the northern part of Formosa. Jour. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo,
vol. xvi, art. 2, 1901, pp. 3-67, with five plates.

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 373

series and in like manner the innermost projecting points of the
larger islands, the two nearly parallel lines of arcs are obtained,
which are distant from each other about 60 k. m.—the breadth
of the island zone. (See Fig. 2.) To the southward this dis-

4
The RiukiuArc

After « Rishthofen}

> ----++--& Strike
t \Paults
— a « Aypotreriee!
Boundaries Zonés*

ma Oss Neo -Veleanic Zones
Zs Bathymetric lines,-

Depbtiisin meters

tance is, however, contracted to less than 34 k. m. The inter-
ior of the two arcs consists of older, presumably Palaeozoic
sediments, which are intruded by granite. The outer arc, on
the contrary, is occupied by rocks of Tertiary age. The zonal
structure of the double arc and the conformity of the strike
of the rocks to the direction of the arc, as well as the constant
dip of the beds toward the inner side, render it probable that
fold structures, perhaps accompanied by overthrusts, may be
largely responsible for these areal peculiarities, Landward from
the double belt of islands and closely following its inner mar-
gin, runs the zone of new volcanic islands which are strung like
pearls upon a string. To the southward the outer Riukiu arc

374 The American Geologist. DET a

is interrupted by later cross dislocations within the Sakischima
group, which is the southernmost in the belt and meets the east-
ern coast of Formosa in the high and steep peninsula of Dom-
kaku. From v. Richthofen’s map, it would appear that the arc
where it enters Formosa marks a dividing line between domin-
ant strike directions to the northward and southward, and finds
here its southward end.

To the northward the arcs are joined to Kiusiu, the south- ©

ernmost of the Japanese islands, and continued upon it, the out-

er arc by a great fault along the eastern coast of the island, and »

the volcanic zone in the great Graben depression bounded by
high and steep walls and terminated northward by an amphi-
theater (Kesseleinsenkung). In the bottom of this depression
are located important volcanic vents. This important depres-
sion separates the two southern wings of the Palaeozoic base-
ment.

Formosa: Following the Chino-Japanese war, by which the
Japanese came into possession of Formosa, an exploring ex-
pedition was sent out in 1896, and what had before been known
to science chiefly through its aspects from the sea gradually
came to be fairly well known. It had been observed that the
eastern coast was very steep and was backed by high moun-
tains, two of which received from navigators the names Sylvia
and Morrison. The western aspect of the island, on the con-
trary, was one of flatness. The sharply serrated eastern high
range slopes away to the flat western coast. One of the most
important discoveries was the remarkable ‘Taito furrow,”
which sharply cuts off upon the east the connected massif of
ancient rocks along an almost straight line 155 k. m. in length
and directed N 20° E. This furrow is occupied by three distinct
streams separated by low divides, two streams passing out at
the ends of the furrow, while a third intermediate and T-
shaped one escapes through a gorge in the eastern range. This
eastern range is known as the Taito range. Between the Taito
furrow andthe similarly directed line about 50 k. m. to the
westward, runs the dominating Taiwan range, with its peaks
Sylvia, Kantaban and Morrison, respectively about 11,000,
9,000 and 13,000 feet in height. These peaks also are in a line
running N 20° E. Farther west follows a range consisting of
Tertiary rocks likewise directed N 20° E. \V. Richthofen adds:

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 375

“The significance, of the strike given, N 20° E, as determining the
structure of the Taiwan range, is even more sharply brought out when
one considers an always important factor in the estimation of mountain
structure, viz., the courses of the small head streams. . . . It is
easy to sce that the valleys, so far’as they follow the longitudinal di-
rection, strike N 15-20° E., and, what appears to be characteristic of
parallel structure, they are many times joined, to the trunk streams
through short cross stretches,”

In the northeastern part of the island, however, the direc-
tion of the ranges and likewise the strike of the beds is east-
westerly, or almost at right angles to that of the large southern
portion. This east-westerly structure would seem, moreover,
to correspond more nearly to the extension of the Riukiu arcs.
The volcanic zone of the Riukius also extends along the north-
ern coast of Formosa in confirmation of this view. West of
Formosa, however, the volcanic Pescadores islands trend in a
direction N 15° E and conform to the tectonic lines as well as
to the strikes within the greater part of Formosa.

In the transverse dislocations and in the abnormal strike
directions characteristic of the southern or Sakischima group
of the Riukius, von Richthofen sees a parellel to the case ex-
emplified by the island of Crete in the Mediterranean, which
while clearly a part of an arc that comes out from the Pelop-
onnesus has tongues of land’ projecting northward into the sea
from the western portion of the island, and these are explained
by cross faults and Graben depressions along them.

To sum up, the Riukiu are and the arc fragments of For-
mosa differ from the arcs of the continental series for the rea-
son that in the meridional arms, the strikes characteristic of
the fold structures accord with the lines of depression (Absen-
kungslinien), whereas, the rule upon the continent is that in
the meridional arms arc-like dislocations quite generally cut
across the prevailing strike. In conclusion the author says:

“The facts are augmented which fora series of different arcs lying
to the north of the parallel of 22° in eastern Asia, allow of the conclus-
ion that the normal structure of those parts of each individual arc
which are included in the equatorial components, has been brought
about before that of the meridional components; and that after the
arc-like closing together, both the tectonic processes which after sub-
sequent longitudinal depressions and disruptive longitudinal fractures
gave to the meridional arms the normal form, extended over in the
equatorial arms to the arc next adjacent upon the north, bringing about
there abnormal! cross dismemberment and transverse fracturing.”

376 The American Geologist. eae eee

The Philippine Islands: It is unfortunate that we should
possess so little knowledge of the geology of the Philippine
islands. After six years of occupation by the United States
the only reports published are those by Becker* which review
the scattered papers, mainly in foreign languages, which at
different times have referred, however cursorily, to the geology
of the Philippine islands.

Of great interest, however, and especially so because of our
meagre knowledge, is the collection of ores, minerals, and rocks
which have been gathered from many sources and placed upon
exhibition in the Philippine Mines building at the St. Louis
Purchase Exposition. With the knowledge that valuable de-
posits of coal (including good steam coal), iron, and copper
occur in the islands, and that some of these are soon to be
vigorously exploited, it seems unlikely that the geological ex-
amination of the islands can be much longer delayed. The
importance from a strategic as well as from an economic stand-
point, of developing these deposits it would seem would be
generally appreciated. For our knowledge of the structure of
the islands, we are especially indebted to Austriant+ and Japan-
eset geologists. |

In the paper on the island world of southeastern Asia, Koto
has included a brief section upon the Philippines, which, mea-
gre as it is, contains important conclusions regarding the areal
and geologic structure of the islands. In the larger archipel-
ago of which the Philippines form a part, mountain ranges and
chains of voleanoes radiate from the inner group, which con-
sists of the islands of Borneo, Celebes, and Gilolo. These
mountain ranges comprise parallel ridges, separated by tec-
tonic valleys, one of which extends from the bay of Butuan to
the bay of Davao in Mindanao, and another from the bay of
Lingayen to Manila, so as to separate the main Luzon chain
from the westerly Zambales. The volcanic zones and the prin-

* GReorGE F. BECKER: Brief memorandum on the geology of the Philip-
pine Islands. U.S. Geol. Surv., 20th Ann. Rep., pt. ii, pp. 3-7, 1900.

GeorGE F. BECKgR: Report on the Geology of the Philippine Islands. U.
S. Geol. Sury., 21st Ann. Rept., pt. iii, pp. 493-614. This paper includes a list
of sources and a translation of C. Martin’s paper concerning Tertiary Fossils
in the Philippines (pp. 615-625.)

+SuxEss: Antlitz der Erde, vol. i, 1885, pp. 585-588; vol. ii, 1888, pp. 206-
217; vol. iii, 1901, pp. 308-332, plate II.

t Koro: On the geologic structure of the Malayan archipelago, Jour. Coll,
Sci. Imp, Univ. Tokyo, vol. ii, pt. ii, 1899, pp. 83-120, with plate I.

Tectonic Geography of Eastern Asia.—Hobbs. 377

cipal tectonic lines of the archipelago as they have been made
out by Koto, have been indicated in figure 1.

BRecker*, after a careful review of the literature, expresses
the opinion that too much effort has been made to show un-
broken continuity of the volcanic zones in the archipelago, and
adds:

“Fissures occur far more often in parallel systems than singly, and
just as dikes frequently jump from one fissure of such a system to
another, so, [ think, do the greater volcanic phenomena. Fissures,
furthermore, commonly occur in two systems, cutting one another at
a large angle, and there are somewhat clear indications that such is
the case with the volcanic belts in the Philippines south of Manila.
These two systems are approximately parallel to the two prongs of
Masbate, but each is curved, the centers of curvature lying in the
China sea, one of them much to the southward of the other. I should
consider, provisionally, that the elevations of northwesterly trend, such
as the mountains of eastern Mindanao, Leyte, Tayabas, Mindoro,
northwestern Panay, and perhaps the northern extremity of Palawan,
belong to the one system, but represent a considerable number of dif-
ferent though associated fissures. The trends of the northeasterly
character also seem to belong to one system. The western fork of
Masbate appears to continue to northeastern Panay, but to be inter-
rupted with an offset in the southwestern portion of that island. The
southerly prolongation, it seems to me, is to be found in the Cagayanes.
Of course Palawan, Negros, excepting the southern end, and the Bas-
ilian-Jolo group belong to this system. So nearly as I can make out
by plotting, the two systems intersect at pretty constant angles of about
60°. A fairly consistent and satisfactory scheme of short arcs can be
arranged in this way for the ranges south of Manila, but I hesitate to
print’my diagram, because a map conveys an impression of certainty
and definiteness which in this case would be erroneous.+

“To the northward of Manila the same scheme of ranges seems less
plausible. I am almost inclined to think that the Sierra Madre and the
Caraballo del Norte, which are composed largely of crystalline schists,
are each made up of short arcs belonging to each system. Some
support for this guess is to be found in Mr. d’Almonte’s large map
of Luzén, where the watersheds show several zigzags. This region is
perhaps a ‘horst’ in Mr. Suess’s sense. As for the Sierra Zambales, it
seems to me most probable that it continues southward through Pico
de Loro and cape Santiago to the lofty Alcon peak, in Mindoro, and
so into Mariveles through Pico de Loro to Balayan, near cape Santi-
ago, in Batangas province. The western range of middle Luzén would

tS, pp 46:

+ Dana called attention to the symmetry exhibited in the trends of the
islands. ‘‘Thus the body of Luzon is at right angles with the southern extrem-
ity; Palawan is at right angles nearly with Mindoro,”’ etc. He also points out
that both of the two systems of trends are curved.

-

378 The American Geologist. Dercmber ea

thus be affiliated with the system with a northwesterly trend. Mr. von
Drasche, however. calls attention to the fact that the Sierra Zambales
exhibits a remarkable double repetition of the two main directions of
Luzon, one northerly, the other northwesterly. With Arayat I can do
no better than leave it in its impressive loneliness.”

The latest information regarding the outer groups of the
Malayan archipelago is contained in Koto’s paper, already cited.
In his geomorphologic studies von. Richthofen has included a
general and, except that Japan is not included, a summary
paper especially devoted to the genesis of the island arcs.* He
ascribes the dislocation planes represented in the arcs
to the operation of tension, as has already been par-
tially explained in an earlier review of this series. This theory
advanced in the studies to the present writer appears less
satisfactory than the descriptive portions which have been al-
ready reviewed, and on this account is left without further com-
ment to the reader. The paper is of especial interest to an
American reader for the reason that it presents the views of
this great geographer and illustrates by examples the terms
which have gradually come into use by the Austrian and Ger-
man schools to describe the composition of mountain systems.

University of Wisconsin,

Madison, Wis.

A THEORY OF ORIGIN FOR THE MICHIGAN
GYPSUM DEPOSITS.+

By G. P. GRIMSLEY, Morgantown, W. Va.

The most generally accepted theory of origin of the large
deposits of gypsum and salt, has been the evaporation of salt
water lakes, bays, and seas, cut off from the main ocean. This
theory has been given for the Iowa, New York, and Kansas
deposits in the reports on salt and gypsum in those states. In
the Kansas report, the writer endeavored to picture the his-
tory of the changes resulting in the deposition of gypsum in a
bay whose waters retreated to the southwest in Permian time.

*Von Richthofen: Geomorphologische Studien aus Ostasien. IV. Uber

Gebirgskettungen in Ostasien, mit Ausschluss von Japan. Sitzungsber. d. k.
pr. Akad. d. Wiss., vol. 38, 1903, pp. 867-891.

+ Published by permission of the Director, Michigan Geological Survey.

Michigan Gypsum Deposits—Grimsley. 379

When such a body of salt water is cut off and evaporated,
the gypsum is deposited after 37 per cent. of water 1s removed
and common salt only after the removal of 93 per cent. The
normal order of these formations would be a deposit of gyp-
sum, and then a much heavier deposit of salt. But since 93
per cent. of the water must be evaporated before the salt would
be thrown down, the evaporation might go far enough for the
deposition of gypsum, but not far enough for salt; or the salt
might be deposited and subsequently removed by solution. The
first condition apparently took place in the Kansas gypsum area
and both conditions probably occur in Michigan.

In most areas, the amount of gypsum found is far greater
than the amount that would be found in a body of ocean water
sufficient to cover the gypsum area at reasonable depths. This
has led to a number of modifications of the salt sea theory. In
Oklahoma and in Canada, the salt sea theory was set aside and
the origin of gypsum in those areas was given as due to an
alteration of limestones through action of swiphur vapors or
waters of springs of volcanic origin. In Iowa, and in some of
the reports of Kansas, and in the older reports on the Michigan
gypsum, the former salt sea has been compared to the present
Mediterranean sea with its upper inflowing and lower outflow-
ing currents over the submarine ridge at the strait of Gibral-
tar. In this way the waters of the interior sea while evaporat-
ing would receive an influx of additional salt water adding in
its evaporation to the total quantity of deposits. The same
theory is used to explain the great thickness of salt at Stass-
furt (1000 feet) and at Sperenberg (3000).

GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN GYPSUM DEPOSITS.

The geological formations of the Lower Peninsula of Mich-
igan are represented by an interior Coal Measure basin sur-
rounded by more or less complete and irregular concentric cir-
cles of the older formations down to the Lower Helderberg, or
Monroe dolomyte, the uppermost stratum of the Silurian.

In Michigan, Winchell in 1862 described a series of sand-
stones, 296 feet in thickness, whose upper portion was more
firmly cemented and more homogeneous than the lower, and
further contained fewer fossil remains, in fact was almost with-
out organic remains. The upper part was called the Napoleon

380 The American Geologist. December, 1904,

group, or the Upper Marshall, and the lower portion was called
the Marshall group, equivalent to the Waverly in Ohio, and
the Kinderhook of Illinois,

Above this series, in the vicinity of Grand Rapids, is a group
of shales, limestone, and gypsum layers, called by Winchell the
Michigan Salt group. This formation has been shown by Rom-
inger and Lane to be destitute of salt beds, and the Saginaw
valley and principal Michigan brines come from below this hor-
izon, so that it seems advisable to follow Lane* and call it
merely the Michigan group.

Above the Michigan group comes the Carboniferous lime-
stone of Winchell, exposed at Grand Rapids and other places
around the border of the Coal Measure basin. It is equivalent
to the Bayport limestone of eastern Michigan, to the Maxville
limestone of Perry and Muskingum counties in Ohio, and to
the upper part of the St. Louis limestone of the Mississippi
valley. Over the Carboniferous limestone, the Saginaw Coal
Measures are found forming the interior basin. The Waver-
ly group of Michigan, including the rocks described up to
the Carboniferous limestone, according to Rominger,t “forms
underneath the drift, the surface rocks over half the extent of
the Peninsula, but its natural outcrops are very limited, either
horizontally or vertically.”

The Mississippian series in Michigan forms a pastv-sieagen
fold, and in the center of the Peninsula it is overlain by the
Coal Measures, and can only be mapped in such sections by
the aid of well records.

The whole series of Michigan presents more or less irreg-
ularity, in places represented by shales, and again by sandstone
apparently contemporaneous. The Michigan group in places
is cut out entirely on the border of the Coal Measures, and
again the Bayport limestone is present and the lower gypsum
beds are gone. This limestone at Grand Rapids is about 50 feet
thick and rests on the gypsum formation.

In the interpretation of the geological history revealed by
these rocks and their relations, the writer wishes to acknowl-
edge his indebtedness to the various papers of Weller, Lane,
and Keyes.

* Mich. Geol. Survey, vol. vii, part 1J. p. 18.
+ Mich. Geol, Survey, vol. iii, part I, p. 69.

Michigan Gypsum Deposits—Grimsley. 381

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE MICHIGAN BASIN.

At the opening of the Carboniferous period, Lower Michi-
gan, Ohio, and a large part of Pennsylvania, were covered by
a gulf which opened to the northwest across Illinois and Min-
nesota. In the earlier part of the Mississippian epoch, the land
was sinking around this gulf, especially to the south and south-
west and in this sinking area were deposited the sediments of
the Kinderhook stage, forming limestones, sandstones, and
shales, mainly shallow water deposits irregular in extent, vary-
ing in fossil contents, so that the same series of rocks has been
given a variety of names by geologists. These names are often
used in local geology, but now are known to be contemporan-
eous, and they are included under the name of Kinderhook.

By the close of this divison of time, the large gulf extended
south into Arkansas and Tennessee and west to the Rocky
mountains, and opened northwest across the Dakotas.

_ For a long period of time the salt water gulf remained
stable and quiet, supporting a rich fauna of corals and crinoids,
which have formed the Burlington and Keoxuk limestones,
known throughout the world on account of the variety and per-
fection of their crinoid and brachiopod fossils. [hese lime-
stones and other formations, related in time, have now been
grouped under the name of Osage or Augusta.

While there were many local and minor varrations in the
physical conditions, and therefore in the life characters in
this gulf, there was a greater and more important contrast in
these characters between the eastern and western portions, sep-
arated by the Cincinnati island. These have been named by
Weller* the eastern or Waverly province, and the western or
Osage province.

In the Kinderhook gulf the faunas were intermingled to a
very considerable extent; but in the Osage age the clear waters
of the Osage gulf supported a fauna which could not flourish in
the sediment-laden waters of the Waverly province.

The land to the northeast of this Carboniferous gulf was
above sea level, the drainage system of that highland carried a
large quantity of mud and sand sediment into the Waverly gulf,
forming the conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of that area.

* Journal of Geology, vol. vi, p. 308.

382 The American. Geologist. Decembes, Sees

The Cincinnati island afforded a partial barrier to the drifting
of the sediment into the clearer Osage waters beyond.

At the close of the calm Osage age came a series of uplifts
and depressions, whose effects are seen in the Miss*ssippi valley
and at the east. The St. Louis limestone was formed in waters
extending 200 miles further north than those of the Osage,
and this northward extension was followed by a retreat of 400
miles to the south.

In the eastern part of the Waverly gulf, the changes began
earlier than in the Osage gulf, and the coast line, according to
Lane,* receded westward from western New York and central
Pennsylvania, until a large part of Ohio and Indiana were out
of water by the end of the Marshall or Waverly age. This left
the Michigan basin enclosed between the mass.of land at the
northeast, and probably also at the northwest, and the low land
over northern Ohio and southern Michigan.

On the south side of this low land were deposited the sedi-
ments forming the coarse sandstones and conglomerates of the
Logan group laid down irregularly in Ohio with an average
thickness of 200 feet. To the north side were deposited the
sediments forming the rocks of the Michigan group, shales,
limestones, and beds of gypsum.

The Mississippi extension of the St. Louis is represented in
Michigan by the Bayport limestone, in Ohio by the Maxville,
which come above the Michigan group. Tiss group would
correspond in time with the Burlington and Keokuk, or the
Osage (Augusta) of the Mississippi valley. The thickness of
the group in Michigan is 232 feet (Lane, Vol. VII, Part II, p.
16), the Augusta in Iowa is 230 feet, the Logan in Ohio is 200
feet.

MICHIGAN GROUP.

The Carboniferous, Bayport, or St. Louis, limestone in
Michigan is also called by Lane the Upper Grand Rapids ser-
ies, and the Michigan group is known as the Lower Grand
Rapids.

At Grand Rapids, the typical locality for the section, the
lower series outcrops to the south of the city as a group of
shales, thin bedded limestones, and gypsum layers, while the

* Michigan Geological Survey, vol. vii, part II, p. 15.
+ The extension of the Cincinnati island above mentioned.

Michigan Gypsum Deposits—Grimsley. 383

upper series outcrops along the river in the city nearly to its
north limits.* A number of quarries have been opéned in the
bed of the river, and, according to Rominger, the contact. could
be seen at the foot of the rapids in the earlier history of the city.
This limestone is about 50 feet thick.

The only localities in Michigan where gypsum is found in
this formation near the surface, are in the vicinity of Grand
Rapids and at the east near Alabaster. The formation, how-
ever, is found in a belt of varying width bordering the coal
basin, and through most of the area it is more or less concealed
by the overlying drift.

QUANTITY OF GYPSUM IN THE ANCIENT MICHIGAN SEA COM-
PARED WITH THE PRESENT SUPPLY.

The area of rocks in Michigan after the Marshall or Kin-
derhook series is approximately circular in outline with a rad-
ius of 85 miles giving an area of 22,686 square miles. As will
be shown later the sea covering this area in Osage times was
approximately ‘700 feet in depth and assuming an average depth
of 326 feet, based on well records, there would have been about
1,280,000 billion gallons of water.

The analysis of Atlantic ocean water shows 93.3 grains of
gypsum to the gallon. If this Michigan sea had this same pro-
portion, it would have yielded 8,500,000,000 tons of gypsum.

The thickness of gypsum at Grand Rapids is 18 feet and at
Alabaster 20 feet.: The approximate area:‘at Grand Rapids is
24 square miles and at Alabaster 10 square miles, and while the
gypsum does not by any means keep the thickness given over
the entire area and is even absent in places, it has probably been
removed by solution since its deposition.

These figures would give a total quantity of 1,237,764,000
tons of gypsum. Where gypsum is found in the deep wells it
is usually in thin beds and in many of them it is entirely absent.
It is thus evident that the quantity of gypsum held in this old
Michigan salt sea is sufficient to explain the quantity of gypsum
actually in existence today in its basin.

If the:assumption is made;‘and there is no basis for it, that
the gypsum covered all the interior sea area with a thickness of
20 feet, then it would require 917 billion tons of lime sulphate in

' * See Whittemore Proc. Mich, Acad. of Scierices. Also Strong. Proc. Kent
Sci. Inst. No. 3.. ,

384 The American Geologist. December, 1904.

the sea, more than a hundred times the quantity that probably
existed in the basin.

CASPIAN SEA AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE MICHIGAN SEA,

The gypsum deposits in Michigan do not occur uniformly
distributed through all parts of this old sea basin, but they ap-
pear concentrated in certain areas of comparatively small size.
For the cause of this localization of the deposits we may look
for a modern illustration to the conditions in the Caspian sea.

Into the northern part of the Caspian sea empty the Volga,
Ural, and the Terek rivers bringing in a large quantity of fresh
water so that in this portion of the sea the water is nearly pure
with a specific gravity of 1,009. This small percentage of salt
is, according to Van Baer, due to the number of shatiow lagoons.
surrounding the basin, each being a sort of natural salt pan.
At Novo Petrovsk a former bay of the main sea is now divided
into a number of basins showing all degrees of saline concen-
tration. One of these has deposited on its banks only a thin
layer of salt, a second has a compact mass of salt on its floor,.
and a third has lost all the water and is a mass of salt covered
with sand.

The concentration is seen on the greatest scale in the Kara-
boghay (Black gulf) of the Caspian, where the nearly circular
shallow basin is about 90 miles across and almost entirely cut
off from the sea by a long narrow spit of land, so that the gulf
and sea are only connected by a channel not over 150 yards,
broad and five feet deep. Through this channel there passes
into the gulf a current with an average velocity of three miles.
an hour, but which is accelerated by the western winds.

This current is due to the indraught produced by excessive
evaporation from the surface of the basin due to the heat and
winds. The shallow depth of the bar prevents a counter cur-
rent of highly saline water into the Caspian. This current car-
ries into the Black gulf, according to Van Baer, 350,000 tons.
of salt daily. If this dividing bar of land should be elevated
and cut off the basin from the sea, the gulf would rapidly dim-
inish and become a salt marsh, which later drying up would
leave a large salt deposit.

With a greater depth of water over the dividing ridge the
counter cutrent would come in as at the straits of Gibraltar and.
the evaporation could go far enough for the deposition of gyp-

Michigan Gypsum Deposits—Grimsley. 385

sum while the concentrated salt brine would pass back into the
larger sea. This was more probably the condition in the Michi-
gan gypsum basins as will now be shown from a study of geo-
logical conditions and well records,

MICHIGAN INTERIOR SALT SEA.

The Kinderhook sea of the American continent was an in-
terior sea with a bay extending northeast into Michigan. In
this bay were deposited the Marshall sandstones. The close of
the period was marked by uplift in this area causing a retreat of
the sea southwestward finally exposing a wide area of land in
southern Michigan and northern Indiana. At Lafayette, Indi-
ana, the floor of this sea was at least 563 feet above sea level.
North of this barrier was a large interior sea with its floor 375
feet above sea level near Grand Rapids, lower by nearly 200
feet than the ocean to the southwest. This area was sur-
rounded by the Marshall series, at this time dry land, 777
(Kalamazoo), 983 (Coldwater), and 1000 (Hillsdale) feet
above sea level on the south; 700 (Huron county) feet on the
east; and 755 (Grayling) feet at the north. A sea, like the
Caspian, with a depth at first of probably 700 feet or more and
an area of 22,686 square miles.

In this sea were elevations and depressions, a ridge at
Lansing 500 feet above sea level and a depression east of Sag-
inaw 380 feet below sea level separated from the main basin by
a ridge 187 feet above the sea floor.

This sea probably had its tributary streams coming from
the highland at the north and northeast flowing down across
the recently emerged flats of the Waverly and Marshall land,
bringing a supply of sediment and doubtless salt from the Sali-
na beds at the north. The lake basins of Michigan and Huron
were not in existence at this time but belong to a much later
chapter in the geological history of our continent. The irreg-
ular clay seams and the clay dividing planes in the gypsum rep-
resent an influx of sediment, wind blown material, or tidal
currents.

As the evaporation of these waters went on, the first de-
posit would be carbonate of lime thrown down when the specific
gravity was raised to between 1.0506 and 1.1304; by further
concentration the gravity would reach 1.22 and in this interval
gypsum would be deposited. At this period 37 per cent. of the

386 ; -The American Geologist. . — December, 1904.

water must have been evaporated. If the sea was 700 feet in
depth, it would now be 440 feet still covering the Saginaw
ridge but exposing the Lansing ridge. Further well records
might give a clue to other basins separated by ridges of land:
The sea would gradually become like the Caspian with smaller
basins around it, in which all degrees of concentration would
be found.

In the deep basin near Saginaw the dividing ridge would
be exposed before salt was deposited. In such an evaporating
basin the deposit of salts would occur around the borders of
the basin first, and by the influx of water across the Saginaw
ridge the water in the concentrating basin was probably re-
newed, resulting in the 20 to 25 feet of gypsum now found in
that area.

The normal order of deposits should be lime carbonate, on
which would be a deposit of gypsum covered by layers of salt.
In the present developed areas the gypsum rests on a limestone
floor, but with no traces of salt over it. The salt deposits are
below the gypsum series in the underlying porous Marshall
sandstone. Further, in the salt series of Saginaw, Grand
Rapids, and other places, there are no traces of rock salt, but
the salt wells secure the salt from natural brines.

If the Michigan interior sea evaporated completely there
would have been, on the assumption its waters were like those
of the present Atlantic, 17.9 times as much salt as gypsum, and
the salt over the gypsum or in the lower part of the basins
toward the interior where the waters deprived of their gypsum
content had retreated.

If these conditions were true, the salt might later have been
removed by solution in downward percolating ‘waters which
dissolved the more soluble sodium chloride. The gypsum now
remaining does show marked effects of solution agents, the
surface being rounded and furrowed by solution, and in places
it is entirely removed. These effects would have been far
greater in common salt. The salt-laden waters or brines
would flow downward along the slope of the rocks and through
them, finally remaining at rest in the porous sandstones of the
Marshall where it is now found. Further, the salt seems to be
found in greater ‘amounts toward the interior of the basin than
near the edges; more at Saginaw, Ann Arbor, Lansing, etc.,

Michigan Gypsum Deposits—Grimsley. 387

than at Tawas and Grand Rapids, pate it is found in all these
places. . bog

Another possible lation of the final sini of this sea
is to be found in the great’ extension of the sea in the next epoch
when the St. Louis limestone was formed. The sea in the St.
Louis epoch extended its borders north and south and passed
across the interior basin of Michigan to Grand Rapids on the
west and to Huron county on the east. Possibly this renewal
of the waters took place before the Michigan sea had disap-
peared by evaporation or before it had evaporated enough to
deposit a large quantity of salt except in certain smaller basins
separated by the dividing ridges.

From the evidence of sandstones and shales of the Michigan

series found in the well borings of the interior it would seem
that the ocean flowed over the southern barrier into the interior
basin a number of times before the greater St. Louis inundation,
and at these times deposited the sediments which are lacking in
gypsum and salt contents. At these times the water would be
diluted, its specific gravity lowered so that precipitation of the
salts would not take place. These overflowing waters, local in
their occurrence, cannot be correlated with other sections unless
with those of the Logan series of Ohio, whose origin may be
similar.
In the deeper Michigan borings, gypsum appears to be re-
_ placed by anhydrite; but where the depth of concentrated wa-
ters is 325 feet, giving a pressure of ten atmospheres, anhydrite
- is formed instead of gypsum,

This theory as outlined for the Michigan gypsum deposits is
based on the study of a few-well borings: and a comparative
study of the conditions in the Caspian sea of today and those of
the Michigan area as far as they can be determined. There is
a wide range of probability involved and while the theory is
advanced as a theory resting on limited data, it may be taken
as representing approximately the spamucns of origin of these
deposits.’

388 The American Geologist. December, 1904.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL
LITERATURE.

A Treatise on Metamorphism. By CHARLES RicHARD VAN Hise. Wash-
ington, D. C.: Monograph XLVII. The United States Geological
Survey. Pages. 1286; illustrated with 13 plates. Price $1.50.

The following is a summary of the volume:

This treatise is\ an attempt to reduce the phenomena of metamor-
phism to order under the principles of physics and chemistry, or more
simply, under the laws of energy. Metamorphism is broadly defined to
include all alterations of all rocks by all processes. The metamorphism
of the sedimentary rocks was the first subject studied by the author and
metamorphism has been a chief line of investigation with him for more
than twenty years. Finding that the alteration of rocks was nowhere
systematically treated, he took up the task of preparing such a work.
It was supposed that this work would occupy two or three years, but as
a matter of fact it required seven years, and an eighth year has been
needed to put the volume through the press.

The book consists of twelve chapters. Chapter I discusses the geo-
logical principles upon which a classification of metamorphism may be
based. From this discussion it is concluded that the only practicable
classification of metamorphism is geological. It is found that the al-
terations of the outer zone of the earth are radically different from
those of the deep-seated zone. Moreover, it is shown that the altera-
tions in the upper zone result in the production of simpler compounds
from more complex ones, whilst those in the deep-seated zone result
in the production of complex compounds from more simple ones. The
upper zone is called that of katamorphism, and the lower zone that of
anamorphism.

Chapter II, upon the forces of metamorphism, discusses chemical en-
ergy, gravity, heat, and light. The manner in which each of the classes
of energy produces various mechanical and chemical effects upon rocks
is set forth.

Chapter III treats of the agents of metamorphism. The agents of
metamorphism are gaseous solutions, aqueous solution’, and organisms.
Under aqueous solutions the chemical and physical principles controlling
the action of ground water and the circulation of ground water are
fully discussed. This involves a full resume of the science of physical
chemistry so far as applicable to the alterations of rocks. This resume
is not simply a summary from text books of physical chemistry, but
discusses the applications of the principles to the phenomena of meta-
morphism.

Chapter IV, upon the zones and belts of metamorphism, discusses
these zones and belts from the physical-chemical point of view. It is
shown that the alterations of the zone of katamorphism occur with
liberation of heat and expansion of volume, the chief reactions being

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 389

oxidation, carbonation, and hydration. The alterations of the zone of
anamorphisni occur with absorption of heat and diminution of volume,
the chief reactions being deoxidation, silication with decarbonation, and
deliydration. Thus the alterations in the two oppose each other. The
zone of katamorphism is divided into two belts, that above the level of
ground water, the belt of weathering, and that below the level of ground
water, called the belt of cementation. While the physical-chemical prin-
ciples of alteration are the same in each of these belts, the geological
processes are very different. The belt of weathering is characterized by
solution, decrease of volume, and softening, resulting in physical de-
generation. The belt of cementation is characterized by deposition, in-
crease of volume, and induration, resulting in physical coherence.

Chapter V treats of minerals. Each of the rock-making minerals is
discussed with reference to its occurrence and alterations. The altera-
tions are considered from the physical-chemical point of view. An at-
tempt is made to write chemical equatiotis which represent the trans-
formations, and to calculate the volume relations resulting. It is found
that a great number of rock-making minerdls undergo two classes of
changes, one of which is characteristic of the zone of katamorphism, and
the other of which is characteristic of the zone of anamorphism. Per-
haps the most important generalization of this chapter is as to the re-
versibility of reactions in the two opposing zones. This generalization
is as follows: The equations which represent the reactions in the zone
of katamorphism are reversible in the zone of anamorphism; and so far
as there is expansion of volume and liberation of heat in the upper zone,
just so far is there condensation of volttme and absorption of heat in
the lower zone.

Chapter VI considers the belt of weathering. The belt of weathering
being the one which is most readily observed, has been treated by many
authors. The chapter in this volume on weathering differs from pre-
vious disctissions in that the phenomena are not considered mainly from
the descriptive point of view, the emphasis being given to the classifica-
tion of the pienomena and their explanation under physical atid chem-
ical principles. Also an important feature of this chapter is the consid-
eration of the phenomena of the belt of weathering in relation to the
alterations of the other belts of metamorphism.

Chapter VII treats of the belt of cementation. This belt is defined
as extending from the belt of weathering to the bottom of the zone of
fracture. The geological results are found to contrast very markedly
from those of the belt of weathering. In the latter belt solution is’ the
tile; openings are enlarged; the rocks degenerate. In the belt of ce
mentation, upon the other hand, the processes of metamorphism con-
tinuously deposit material, the openings are closed, and thus the rocks
are consolidated. Each of the cementing substances is considered, and
an explanation is offered as to why cementation rather than Solution
is a general process in this belt.

Chapter VIII treats of the zone of anamorphism. This is the zone
in which rock flow occurs. Full explanations of the meaning of rock

390 ayers Lhe American Geologist. <,Pecember, 1908

flow and of the development of such secondary structures as_slatiness,
schistosity, and the gneissosity.are offered. :Perhaps the most important
‘generalization is, that “Rock flow is mainly accomplished through con-
tinuous solution and deposition, that. is, by recrystallization -of the
rocks through the agency of the contained water. But rock flow is
partly accomplished by direct mechanical.strain:. At the beginning of
the process, during the process, and at the end of the process, the rocks,
with the exception of an inappreciable amount, are crystallized solids.”

Chapter IX treats of rocks. A classification of the sedimentary rocks
is given, their genesis is discussed, and the series of transformations
through which each of the rocks passes is traced out, the resultant rocks
being indicated. It was not found possible to give a ere treatment
for the igneous rocks.

With the ninth chapter the subject of metamorphism proper closes,
but the results contained in these nine chapters have an important bear-
ing upon other parts of physical geology. The remaining chapters con-
sider these relations.

Chapter X discusses the relations of metamorphism to stratigraphy.
It is shown that in consequence of metamorphism great difficulties are
introduced in stratigraphical work. The nature of the difficulties and
the manner in which they may be overcome are fully considered.

Chapter XI treats of the relations of metamorphism to the distribu-
tion of the chemical elements. , This is perhaps the most daring of the
various attempts at generalizing of the treatise. It is shown that. as a
result of the forces and agents of metamorphism the elements of the
original igneous rocks are redistributed, a given element being less
abundant in the larger number of sedimentary rocks than in the original
rocks, and corresponding with this depletion each of the elements is
segregated in one or more formations, An attempt is-maqde to treat the
problem of the redistribution of the elements quantitatively. Assump-
tions are made as to the total mass of the sediments and of the‘relative
proportions of the more important classes of sediments. Combining
these assumptions with the results of chemical analyses, the losses and
gains of various formations for each of the important elements of the
earth are considered. Many surprising results are reached. For instance,
we find the conclusion that. to oxidize the ferrous iron of the original
rocks to the ferric condition in which most of it occurs in the sedimen-
tary rocks, 35 per cent of the amount of oxygen in the, atmosphere has
been required. But still more startling isthe conclusion that to oxidize
the sulphur and iron of iron sulphides in order to produce the sulphates
of the ocean and gypsum deposits, and to transform the iron to the-ferric
form required one and one-half times the amount now in the atmos-
phere.

The final chapter of the book, XII, is upon the relations of meta-
morphism to ore deposits. It is probable that this chapter. will receive
more general attention than any other.. The material of the other
chapters is of a kind which is likely to be of interest to the geologist
only, whereas this chapter is of interest to all men concerned in the

ite

‘Review of Recent Geological Literature. 391

great mining industry.. The chapter upon ore deposits occupies 240
pages and, indeed, might have been named “The principles. of ore de-
position.” From the author’s point of view, the majority of ore de-
posits are produced by metamorphic processes. Having worked out the
general principles of metamorphism with reference to rocks, the author
found that the application of these.principles to ore deposition explained
the majority of-ore deposits. From his point of view the proper theory
of ore deposition consists mainly in bringing the particular phenomena
exhibited by ore deposits under the general -principles of metamorphism.
The chapter contains a new classification of ore deposits, the funda-
mental divisions of which are the same as those of rocks. Thus ore
deposits are divided into three classes, those of sedimentary origin, those
of igneous origin,.and those of metamorphic origin. Strictly the treatise
on metamorphism should, perhaps, have considered only the third class.
However, the first and. second classes are sufficiently discussed so that
the relations of these ores to those. produced by metamorphic processes
may be appreciated. The discussion upon ore deposits is too elaborate
to be summarized in this. general statement. But it may be remarked
that for the metamorphic ores an attempt is made to trace out the solu-
tion, transportation, and precipitation of each of the chief economic
metals. Also the alterations and further segregation of metals are fully
considered. The conclusion is reached that in-many cases an ore deposit
does not represent a single segregation, but is the result of repeated
segregations by the same general processes which result in the depletion
in certain elements of the various rock formations and their segregation
elsewhere. In other words. the principles of the development of ore
deposits are the principles of the segregation of those elements which
are of importance to man, but which, for the most part, are so rare
that they are not included in the discussion in the chapter upon the re-
’ distribution of chemical elements.

It is not possible in a;summary to give anv adequate idea of the
scope of this treatise on metamorphism. A very broad range-of facts,
extending. far beyond what might at first be regarded as a part of a
treatise on metamorphism, is considered from the energy. point of view.
It is believed that the volume marks a_ great stride in the reduction of
the entire subject of physical geology to order under the principles of
physics) and chemistry,-and points out the way for a treatment of the
entire subject from this point of view. - Henk

Volcanoes and Seismic Centers of the Philippine Archipe lobes By Rev.
M. Saperra Maso, Assistant. Director of the Philippine “Weather
Bureau. Bulletin. 3, Census of the Philippine Islands. Pages 89:
with maps, outlines, and views: from photographs. .. Washington,
D. C., 1904. ¥
This report, written. for the Philippine Census by Father Maso,

who, during the past fifteen.years has been, connected’ with the fully

equipped seismic observatory in Manila, presents descriptions,and his-;
tory of the volcanoes and tracts of origin of earthquakes in this great

392 The American Geologist. Bpeemben oe

group ot archipelago of islands, forming a part of the very long Pa-
cific volcanic belt. The archipelago contains twenty well-know1; aid
“recent volcanic cones, twelve of which are more or less active, rang-
ing in hight from a few hundred feet up to about 10,300 ferc.

Earthquakes are frequent in large parts of the island group, it-
cluding the neighborhood of Manila, slight shocks occurring at in-
tervals of every few days or weeks; while more severe shocks, doittg
injury to property and life, happen in sonie part of the archipelago al-
most every year. Seismographic records have shown that som2 of
these earthquakes, even though not destructive at their origin or epi-
center, send their waves or earth tremots entirely dround or across
the globe.

In Manila very violent and destructive earthquakes occurred in the
years 1600, 1645, 1658, 1665, 1728, 1796, 1824, 1852, 1865, and 1880: The
earthquake of June 3, 1863, destroyed the Manila cathedral, burying
many persons in its ruins, and also threw down 25 public and 570
private buildings. The average annual number of days having earth-
quakes at that city is twelve, with a minimum, for the years 1880 to
1897, of five; and a maximum of twenty-six. W. U.

Mount Stuart Folio, Washington. By Grorck Otis SmitH. Geologic
Atlas of the United States, Folio No. 106. Pages 10; with four
maps, and six sections. Washington, D. C., 1904.

The quadrangle which is here mapped and described extends half
a degree in latitude and longitude, lying on the eastern slope of the
Cascade range. On the north, it includes Mount Stuart, rising 9,470
feet above the sea, fifteen miles east from the main Cascade range,
of which an eastern spur, named by Russell the Wenatchee mountains,
culminates in this rugged peak. Southward the quadrangle reaches to
Ellensburg, in a broad flat expansion of the Yakima valley. Thus it
comprises a great range of geologic formations, from the oldest to -
the youngest rocks known in the region of the northern Cascades.

The oldest formations, constituting the Motint Stuart massif and
the lower peaks near it, are metamorphic sedimentary and eruptive
rocks, probably of Paleozoic age.

In the south and east parts of the quadrangle are strata of Ter-
tiary age; partly sediments, but most conspicuously represented by the
Miocene basaltic eruptions, in which thousands of cubic miles of lava
welled up from the earth’s interior through numerous vents.

During late Pliocene and early Pleistocene time a great uplift of
the belt forming the Cascade mountains took place, and subsequently
streams and weathering have sculptured the mountains into their
present otitlines. Glaciers in the valleys about Mount Stuart, and, west
of this quadrangle, on the headwaters of the Yakima river, largely aided
in supplying extensive alluvial deposits of gravel and sand in the
Teanaway and Yakima valleys, making the principal lands of agricul-
tural value. WwW. U.

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 393

Review of the Glacial Geology of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan.
By Frank Leverett. Reprinted pages roo-110, from the Sixth An-
nual Report of the Michigan Academy of Science, 1904.

This is an excellent condensed sutnmary of the author’s elaborate
observations and conclusions, from extensive field work, aided by Mr.
F. B. Taylor and others, for the United States Geological Survey. In
due time their detailed studies are expected to be fully published as a
monograph similar to the two of Mr. Leverett’s authorship already
issued, which describe the glacial and lacustrine formations south of
the great Laurentian lakes, from Illinois to New York.

The full monographic report on this peninsula, between lakes Hu-
ron and Michigan, will doubtless add much to our knowledge of the
methods of erosion, transportation, and deposition of drift formations,
as the following quotation from this. advance summary indicates:
“The structure of the drift is more variable in Michigan, both on the
surface and below, than in a large part of the neighboring states of
Ohio, Indiana, and Iilinois. In those states the till or commingled
drift greatly preponderates over sand and gravel, and contains a large
percentage of fine clayey material. In Michigan sand and gravel form
a notable part of the drift material, and much of the till is loose tex-
tured. This great amount of loose textured drift seems attributable to
the excessive glacial drainage resulting from the convergence of the
ice lobes. It is best developed in the high portions of the state which
were built up between the ice lobes. In the plains next to the lake
basins, where the ice was spreading out, the till or ground moraine is
compact and clayey, as it is in states to the south where the ice lobes
were free to spread.”

A bibliography of about 50 titles, comprising publications that have
added materially to the knowledge of the Pleistocene features and
deposits of Michigan, is appended to this short paper; and it is
stated that the geologic literature of the Great Lakes includes more
than 200 titles. Ww. U.

Manual of Chemical Analysis of Rocks, by Henry S. WASHINGTON,

Pu.D. New York. Wiley & Sons, 1904. pp. 183. $2.00.

The great advances that have been made of late years in silicate
analyses and the high standards set by modern petrographers, particu-
larly the advocates of new systems of classification, have, in many in-
stances, served but to discourage the worker who is dependent wholly
upon his own efforts for analyses as well as for microscopic research
and field work.

The excellent work done by Hillebrand* was a great help, but it has
remained for Dr. Washington to prepare a manual in which the whole
field of silicate analysis, so far as is necessary in petrography, has been
covered in such a manner that no one competent to make analyses at
all has longer excuse for poor work.

*Some Principles and Methods of Rock Analysis. Bull. 176, U. S. Geol-
ogical Survey.

394 ~~. The American Geologist. Dee ae

Dr. Washington is himself both a petrographet and a chemist. The
methods given are either his own or those of the best ‘workers in the
field and have been tested by himself.- They are, therefore, prac-
tical methods. A pleasing, but in this case not unexpected, ‘feature of
the work is Dr. Washington’s evident disposition to give full credit
to everyone upon whom he has drawn for information.- The boox
should be iri the hands of everyone who has occasion to make rock and
mineral analyses. G.! P. «M.

MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE

OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY,

AUBURY, LEWIS E.

Bulletin No, 32, California State Mining Bureau, Production and
use of Petroleum in California. pp. 230, Sacramento, 1904.

‘

BAILEY, L.,W.

Upen the Carboniferous system of New Brunswick with special
reference to the workable coal. (Geol. Sur. Can., Ann. Rep., 1900,
Rep. M, pp. 37, 1903.)

BAWDEN, H. H.

Clarence Luther Herrick. (Jour. Comp. Neurol. & Psychol, vol. 14,
pp. 515-534, with portrait and bibliography, Nov., 1904.)

BAUER, L. A.

Recent advancés in the analysis of the Earth’s permanent mag-
netic field. (Science, vol. 20, P. 634, Nov. 11, on at
BECKER, GEORGE F.

Fundamental Problems, (Eng, Min. Jour., vol. 78, p. 743, Nov.
10, 1904.)

BECKER, GEORGE F.

Present Problems in Geophysics. (Science, vol 20, pp. 545-556,
Oct. 28, 1904.) : z .
BELL, ROBERT.

On the geology of the basin of Nottaway river. (Geol. Sur, Can.,
Ann. Rep., 1900;-Rep. K, pp. 11, 1903.) - : ;
BOLTWOOD, B. B. ‘

Radio-activity of natural waters, (Am. Jour. Sci., vol, 18, p. 378,
Nov., 1904.) °° Gat
BRIGHAM, Al ek

Students’ Laboratory Manual of Physical Geography, pps Lbs, a
Appleton & Co., 1905.

COLE,:A:'D; oe :
Clarence L. Herrick. (Science, vol. 20, p. 600, Nov. 4, 1904.) -

Author's Catalogue. 395

COLLINS, H. F. res

The Mines of Laurium, Greece. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol 78, p. 75,
Nov. 10, 1904.) ’

CROSS, WHITMAN.

An occurrence of Trachyte on the sina of Hawaii. (Jour, Geol.,
vol. 12, pp. 510-524, Sept,-Oct., 1904.) :

CUSHMAN, A. s.

The colloid theory of plasticity. (Trans. Am, Cer. Soc., Cincin-
nati meeting, Feb., 1904.)

CUSHMAN, J. A.

Miocene barnacles from Gay Head, Mass,, with notes on Balanus
proteus Conrad. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 293, Nov., 1904.)

DAVIS, W. M.

Geography in the United States (Proc. A. A, A. S., 53rd geting,
St. Louis, pp. 471-502, 1904).

DAWSON, GEO. M.

Summary Report of the Geological Survey, 1900. (Ann, . Report,
Geol. Surv. Can,, 1900, pp. 1-203, 1903.

DOWLING, D. B.

On geological explorations in Athabaska,,. Baskatchewen and Kee-
watin districts. (Geol. Sur. Can., Ann. Rep., 1900, Rep. FF, pp. 40,
1903.) Nee ae

DRESSER, JOHN A.

On the Geology and Dati geranin of Shefford iat adi: Q. (Geol.
Sur. Can., Ann. Rep., 1900, Rep. L, pp. 34, 1903.)

EASTMAN, C. R.

Earliest mention of fossil fishes. (Science, vol. 20, p, 648, Nov. 11,
1903.) : ; vi

ECKEL, E. C. - vet 2Y ve

The materials and manufacture of Portland: cernent.. (Bull. 8,
Geol. Sur. Ala., 59 pp., Montgomery, 1904.)

FOERSTE, A. F. ‘

Ordovician-Silurian Contact in the Ripley island area of southern
Indiana, with notes on the age of the Cincinnati geanticline. (Am.
Jour. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 321-343, Nov., 1904.)

GIRTY, GEORGE H. i
The type of Aviculipecten. (Am: Geo., vol, 34, p. 332, Nov., 1904.)

GORDON, C. H. ; ;
On the origin and classification of gneisses, (Proc. Neb, Acad.
Sci., Nov. 1901, pp. 90-96.) .

HOBBS, W., H.
Teaqtonic Geography of Bastern Asia. (Am. Geol., vol, 34,.pp
283-291, Nov. 1904.)

HOFFMAN, G, C. ts

Report on the Section of Chemistry and Mineralogy. (Geol. Sur.
Can., Ann. Rep., 1900, Rep. R, pp. 67, 1903.) ;

396 The American Geologist. December, 200%

HOPKINS, T. C.

A short description of the Topography of Indiana, and of the
rocks of the different geological periods; to accompany the geologi-
cal map of the state, (20th Annual Report, Dept. Geol. and Nat. Re-
sources, 1903. Indianapolis, 1904. pp. 11-77.)

HOWE, ERNEST.

An occurrence of greenstone schist in the San Juan mountains,
Colorado. (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 501-510, Sept.-Oct., 1904.)

INGALL, E. D.

Section of mineral statistics and mines. ~(Geol, Sur. Can., Ann,
Rep. 1900. Rep. S, pp. 157, 1903.)

KEYES, C. R.

Unconformity of the Cretaceous on the older rocks In New Mex-
ico. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 360. Nov., 1904.)

LAMBE, L. M.

On the Dryptosaurus incrassatus Cope, from the Edmonton ser-
ies of the Northwest Territory. (Geol. Sur. Can., Cont. Can. Pal,
vol. 3 (quarto), July, 1904. 27pp., 8 plates.)

LANE, A, C.

The Theory of Copper Deposition. (Am. Geol., vol. 34. pp. 297-
309, Nov., 1904.)

LOW, A. P.

On the Geology and Physical Character of the Nastapoka islands,
Hudson Bay. Geol. Sur. Can., Ann. Rep., 1900, Report DD, pp. 30,
1903.)

LOW, A. P.

Report on an exploration of the east coast of the Hudson Bay,
from Wolstenholm to the south end of James Bay. (Geol. Sur. Can.
Ann. Rep. 1300, Rep. D, pp. 82, 1903.)

MERRIAM, JOHN C.

A new marine reptile from the Triassic of California. (Univ.
Cal., Bull, Dept. Geol., vol. 3, pp. 419-421. Oct., 1904.)

MISTOCKLES, N.

The untenableness of the nebular theory. (Am. Geol., vol. 34. p,
310. Nov., 1904.)

MORGAN, W. C. (and M, C. TALLMON).
Peculiar occurrence of bitumen and evidence as to its origin. (Am.
Jour. Sci., vol, 18, p. 363, Nov., 1904.)

PALLACHE, C,. (and H. O, WOOD).
Crystallographic study of millerite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p.
343, Nov., 1904.)

POOLE, H., S.
On the coal prospects of New Brunswick. (Geol. Sur. Can.,
Ann. Rep. 1900, Rep. MM, pp. 26, 1903.)

PRUTZMAN, PAUL W.

Production and use of Petroleum in California. (Cal. State Min-
ing Bureau, Bulletin No, 32, 1904, pp. 230,)

Author's Catalogue, 397

RICKARD, T. A.

Copper Mines of Lake Superior. V. and VI. (Eng. Min. Jour.,
vol. 78, p. 745 and p. 785, Nov, 10 and 17, 1904.)
ROWLEY, R. R.

The Echinodermata of the Missouri Silurian, and a new Brach-
iopod. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, pp, 269-282, Nov., 1904.)

RUSSELL, I, C.

Physiographic Problems of To-day. (Jour. Geol., vol 12, pp.
524-551, Sept.-Oct., 1904.)
SCHUCHERT, CHARLES.

Paleontologia Universalis. (Am. Geol., vol. 34, p. 332, Nov., 1904.)

SMITH, E. A.

The Cement Resources of Alabama. (Bull. 8, Geot. Sur. Ala., pp.
61-93, 1904.)
SPENCER, J. W.

Submarine great canyon of the Hudson river. (Am. Geol., vol.
34, p. 292, Nov., 1904.)
STOSE, GEO. W.

Physiographie studies in southern Pennsylvania. (Jour. Geol.,
vol, 12, pp. 473-485, Sept.-Oct., 1904.)
STRETCH, R. H.

Copper ores in the Cascade mountains. (Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 78,
p. 789, Nov. 17, 1904.)
TALLMON, M. C, (W, C. MORGAN ang).

Peculiar occurrence of bitumen and evidence as to its origin. (Am,
* Jour. Sci., vol. 18, p. 363, Nov., 1904.)
TYRRELL, J. B.

On the northeastern portion of the district of Saskatchewan and
adjacent parts of the district of Athabaska and Keewatin. (Geol.
Sur. Can. Ann. Rep., 1900, Rep. F, pp. 37, 1903.)

WEEKS, F. B.

Bibliography and Index of North American Geotogy, Paleontol-
ogy, and Mineralogy, for the year 1903. Bull. 240, U. S. G. S., pp.
243.)

WEIDMAN, SAMUEL,

Widespread occurrence of Fayalite in certain igneous rocks of
central Wisconsin. (Jour. Geol., vol, 12, pp. 551-562, Sept.-Oct., 1904.)
WILEY, H. W.

The useful properties of clays. (U. S, Bur. Chem., Circular 17,
July 25, 1904.)
WOOD, H.O. (C. PALLACHE and).

Crystallographic study of Millerite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol, 18, p-
343, Nov., 1904.)

398 The American Geologist. December, 1904.

ZIRKEL, FERDINAND. te oP eS

Ueber die gegenseitigen, Beziehungen, zwischen der Petrographie
und angrentzenden Wissenschaften, (Jour. Geol., vol. 12, pp. 485-
501, Sept.-Oct., 1904.)

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ..

Dr. J. C. Merriam, professor of Paleontology at the Uni-
versity of California, has returned from a summer’s European’
trip.

Tue UNIVERSITY OF THE Paciric, San José, California, has
secured the instructional services of Mr. J. C. Hartzell in Geol-
ogy,

Mr. FRANK SPRINGER, Las Vegas, New Mexico, was elect-
ed June 8 a corresponding member of the Geological Society
of London.

Mr. D. H. NEwLanp, one of the associate editors of the
Engineering and Mining Journal, has been appointed assist=
ant state geologist of New York. é

Dr. W. C. MENDENHALL, of the U. S. Geological Survey,
with headquarters in Los Angeles, has completed the investi-
gations of most of the artesian basins of southern California. —

Mr. E. H. Settarps, A.M.: (Kansas State.University) and
Ph.D. (Yale), has been appointed professor of entomology,
geology and zoology in the University of Florida, at Lake City.

Henry McCattey, assistant state geologist of Alabama,
died November 20, 1904, of pneumonia, aged fifty-three
years. He had been connected with the Alabama survey since
1878. saci

Rogert Stimpson Woopwarb, dean of the School of Pure
Science at Columbia University, has been elected president of
the Carnegie Institution to succeed Daniel Coit Gillman, re-
signed. = Y Pte
Dr. J. C. BRANNER, OF STANFORD UNIVversITy, has returned
from Europe and will be in Washington, D. C., until the'meet-
ing of the Geological Society of America at Philadelphia, in
January. NTR

Sir Jornn Murray, editor of the. publication of the. scien-
tific results of the Challenger expedition, lectured before the
Geographic Society of Chicago on Thursday evening, Novem-.
ber 3d. His subject was “The Ocean.”

Dr. RALPH ARNOLD, of the U. S. Geological Survey,. has
returned to Washington, D. C., after completing some special
investigations in the Tertiary formations of Washington, Ore-’
gon and California under the direction of Dr. Wm. H. Dall.

Personal and Scientific News. 399

THE CARNEGIE Museum or PirrsspurG has purchased the
library of the late J. B. Hatcher of that Museum and also that
of the late professor C. E. Beecher of Yale. The first is es-
pecially rich in works on vertebrate paleontology, and the latter
in works on invertebrate paleontology.

Dr. D. W. Jounson, of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, has just completed a report on the “Relation of
the Underground Waters to the Law.” It will be published in
the reports of the Eastern Section of the Division of Hydrol-
ogy of the United States Geological Survey. .

Dr. Gro. P. MERRILL gave a paper, Nov. 23, before the
Geological Society of Washington on “The Formation of the
vein of so-called Asbestos (fibrous serpentine) at Thetford
mines, Canada.” At the same meeting Mr. Bailey Willis gave
an illustrated lecture on ‘Some aspects of China.”

Proressor T. C. CHAMBERLIN gave an address at the
meeting of the Chicago chapter of the Society of the Sigma
Xi on November 22d. His subject was “The theories of the
origin of the earth.” At the same meeting an exhibit from
the department of paleontology of the University of Chicago
was shown.

THe SEVENTEENTH WINTER MEETING of the Geological
Society of America will be held at Philadelphia, beginning De-
cember 29, at 10 o'clock a. m. Headquarters will be at the
Walton Hotel, Locust and Broad streets. The meetings will
be at College Hall, University of Pennsylvania. The presi-
dent is J. C. Branner.

Dr. T. C. CHAMBERLIN UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
Sigma X1 Society on December 2nd gave a lecture in the
auditorium of the Ohio State University on ‘Some hypoth-
eses as to the origin of the earth.’ An audience composed
of students, professors and residents of Columbus, numbering
at least 1,000, listened for more than an hour to a most schol-
arly and interesting address.

Tue Unitep States GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY has just com-
pleted an arrangement with Dr. T. L. Watson, the recently
appointed State Geologist of Virginia, for cooperation in the
investigation of the artesian waters of that state. These in-
vestigations will be carried on during the winter and following
summer by Mr. M. L. Fuller of the United States survey in
conjunction with Dr. Watson of the State survey, and a joint
report will be prepared early in the fall of 1905.

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL Society. In the popular meet-
ings planned by the Society for the year 1904-05 is a lecture
on April 21, by G. K. Gilbert, on “Niagara Falls.” At the
scientific meetings the following subjects of geological inter-
est will be discussed : ‘‘Glacial erosion,” by W. D. Johnson and
G. K. Gilbert, November 18th; “Geography of Alaska,” by A.

400 The American Geologist. December, “1002

H. Brooks, December 2d; “A geologist in China,” by Bailey
Willis, December 16th; ‘‘Physiography of the American des-
erts,” by G. K. Gilbert, January 27th. ; '

‘“\ “TREATISE ON METAMORPHISM,” by President C. R.
Van Hise, has just been published by the United States Geo-
logical Survey as Monograph XLVII. The price is $1.50.
This is the most complete treatise on metamorphism yet pub-
lished, and comprises a volume of nearly 1300 pages. Besides
accounts of the metamorphism of various rocks there are dis-
cussions on the origin and changes of each rock forming min-
eral, on the origin and redistribution of the chemical elements,
and on the relation of metamorphism to ore deposits.

Pror, GEorGE J. BrusH’s COLLECTION OF MINERALS AND
Liprary have been presented by Prof. Brush to the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale University. The gift is accompan-
ied by a fund of ten thousand dollars the income of which is -
to be used for the increase and care of the collection and li-
brary. The value of the entire donation is estimated at about
forty thousand dollars. The collection has been made by
Prof. Brush during the last fifty years, and is rich in type
‘specimens of new minerals. It will be henceforth under the
charge of Prof. S. L. Penfield.

GEOLOGICAL Society oF WASHINGTON. At the meeting of
November oth the following program was presented: S. F.
Emmons, “Remarks on copper deposits near the Grand can-
yon, Arizona;” W. H. Weed, “Dilation fissures and their con-
tained ores; M. L. Fuller, “Evidence of caves at Put-in-Bay,
Ohio, on question of land tilting’; C. W. Purrington, “A
journey in the eastern Altai, Siberia.”

Tue University oF Cuicaco has arranged for the follow-
ing special courses in geology during the winter and early
spring. JI. Courses in non-metallic economic geology, by Dr.
E. R. Buckley, State Geologist of Missouri; these courses in-
clude an elementary course and an advanced course on struc-
turai materials; January 2d to February toth. IJ. A course
on Pre-Cambrian geology by Professor C. K. Leith of the
University of Wisconsin; this course will be accompanied by
laboratory work for those who so desire; February 13th to
March 24th. III. Courses on ore deposits by Dr. F. L. Ran-
some, of the U. S. Geological Survey; these include an ele-
mentary course on ore deposits in general, and an advanced
course on gold, silver, copper and lead (in part) ores; April
13th to May 12th.

Tue TueoporeE D. Ranp CoLLecTION of over 20,000
minerals and rock specimens has been presented by his daugh-
ter, Mrs. Charles Stillwell Eldredge, of Radnor, Pennsylvania,
to the geological department of Bryn Mawr college. This

Personal and Scientific News. 401

collection, which represents the enthusiastic and painstaking
labor of Theodore D, Rand, Treasurer for 31 years of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, is remarkably com-
plete. It contains many rare minerals, seldom found in priv-
ate collections and many valuable and interesting crystals.
The minerals have been secured by purchase and exchange
from all parts of the world. ‘The rock collection illustrates
a more limited geographic district. It is thoroughly represent-
ative of the rocks of eastern Pennsylvania and includes a fine
series of polished Serpentines, a rock type of which Mr. Rand
had made a special study. .

This collection is now being installed at Bryn Mawr col-
lege under the direction of Dr. F. Bascom, associate pro-
fessor, and Dr. Benjamin L. Miller, associate in Geology.

Dr. MarspEN Manson, of San Francisco, gave, by request,
a lecture at Washington on the ‘Evolution of Climates,’’ be-
fore the Washington Philosophical Society. :

Tue Coar Frieips or Care LispBurNE, ALASKA. Near cape
Lisburne, which is on the Arctic coast of Alaska, 300 miles
north of the arctic circle, are two coal-bearing formations of
economic importance. They were studied during the past sum-
mer by Mr. Arthur J. Collier, of the United States Geological
Survey, who, assisted by Mr. Chester Washburn, made his
way in an open dory along that distant shore as far east as
cape Beaufort.

Of the two coal-bearing formations, one, which lies east of
cape Lisburne, is of Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age, and
the other, which lies south of cape Lisburne. is either Lower
Carboniferous or Devonian. The Mesozoic coal-bearing for-
mation, which has been known for the last three-quarters of a
century, commences at a point 25 miles east of cape Lisburne
and is continuously exposed along the coast to cape Beaufort,
a distance of 40 miles. It contains the well-known Corwin and
Thetis mines, the location of which has been shown on many
recent maps of Alaska.

Geologic study shows that the coal measures of these fields
have a total thickness of at least 15,000 feet and contain not
less than 40 beds of coal, each over a foot thick. The aggre-
gate thickness of all the beds seen by Mr. Collier is over 150
feet. Eleven of them are more than four feet thick and contain
coal of good quality. Analysis of samples from some of the
beds shows the product to be low-grade bituminous coal. A
limited amount of coal has been mined here since 1879 for
whalers and revenue cutters. Several cargoes were mined in
Igot and sold at Nome markets for $18 and $20 a ton, in
competition with Comax and Washington coal at $25 a ton.

None of the coal beds has been permanently developed.
The coal produced was mined from the croppings along the

402 The American Geologist. December, 1904

sea cliff and boated off to the ships through the surf. There
is no harbor for vessels nor protection from any but south
winds. In 1903 a small amount of coal, probably not exceed-
ing 20 or 30 tons, was produced at the Corwin mine. In 1904
about 20 tons were taken by the steamship Corwin and about
IO more tons were mined for consumption at the Point Hope
whaling station.

The Paleozoic coals outcrop at three points along the coast,
4, 8 and 12 miles, respectively, south of cape Lisburne. The
coal-bearing formation extends southward for a distance of
about 40 miles, and reaches the coast again at cape Thompson,
Beds over four feet in thickness occur at each of the localities
noted. No analysis of these coals has yet been made. They
are bituminous and of considerably better grade than the
Mesozoic coals of the region. They are totally undeveloped,
but in 1903 a few tons were mined from croppings in the sea
cliffs and used at the Point Hope whaling station.

Tue AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS is plan-
ning for an excursion to British Columbia and Alaska as its
summer meeting. The excursion party is expected to leave
Chicago June 24th, by special train, running direct to Victoria.
After the sessions at Victoria, an excursion of about 21 days
will be made by chartered steamer and special train to Snet-
tisham bay, the Treadwell mines on Douglas island, Juneau,
Shakan, Skagway, White Horse, Lake Labarge, Dawson (at
the mouth of the Klondike), the neighboring mining camps,
and back to Victoria. On the way east from Victoria, five
days will be spent in visiting mining districts in British Colum-
bia (including, probably, Nelson, Rossland, Trail, Greenwood,
etc.) ; and the party will reach Chicago about August 3d.

Errata for Volume XXXIV.

Page 122, line 11 from the bottom, for ‘‘numerals,” read minerals.

Page 178, after line 17 from the bottom supply the omitted line: of
the Sacramento range dip with a long slope to the Pecos.

Page 194, line 7, for “Obolla’’ read Obollela.

Page 244, first line, for ‘“‘reconcentration” read recementation.

INDEX TO VOL. XXXIV.

A

Age of the Missouri river, Warren
Upham,
ar ea Coal fields of, A. J. Collier,

Alkali deposits of Wyoming, T. T.
Read, 104.

Amygdaloid in Manitoba, 132. ,

Aviculipeten, Type of, 200, 332.

Bagg, R. M., Jr., Earthquakes in
Socorro, New Mexico, 102.

Balanus proteus, 293.

Bandai Arc, of Japan, 285, 291.

a i Iron ore, N. H. Winchell,

Barnacles from Gay Head, Mass., J.
A. Cushman, 293.

Bascom, F., 401.

Beecher, Charles Emerson, John M.
rr a 1; 398.

Beede, J. W., Cottonwood Falls Fo-
lio, 262; 267.

Berry, E. W., Cretaceous exposures
near Cliffwood, N. - 3.5 200:

Blake, W. P., 67.

Bolson plains and the conditions of
their existence, C. R. Keyes, 160.

Bownocker, J. A., The -occurrence
and exploitation of petroleum in
Ohio, 261.

Branner, J. C., Stone Reefs of Bra-
zil, 182, 319; 39%.

Broadhead, G. C., The surface de-
posits of western Missouri and
Kansas, 66; The Saccharoidal
sandstone, 105.

Brooks, A. H., 399.

Brown, Barnum, 131.

Brush, G. J., 400.

Buckley, EB. R., 4vv.

Buena Vista, as a. stratigraphic-
“ term in Ohio, 341.

Cc
Calvin, S., 67, 68.

Cambrie Dictyonema Fauna of the |
slate belt of eastern’ New York,

R. Rudemann, 55; Fauna of
Haut-Alemtejo, Delgado, 192.
Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, 398.
Catalogue of the Ward-Coonly col-
Sy eg of meteorites, H. A. Ward,

Chamberiin, T. C., 67, 399.
Christian Faith in an age of Sci-
ence, W. N. Rice, 55.
Clarke, J. M., Charles
Beecher, is 202; Watkins and El-

mira quadrangles, 324.

Emerson |

Coal fields of mies 401.

Collier, A. J.,

Colossal baniocer of Utah, 189.

Condra, G. E., 67.

Contributions to Mineralogy, John
Eyerman, 43.

Copper deposition, Theory of, A..C,
Lane, 297.

Correspondence.

Eruption of Mauna Loa in 1903,
E. Wood, 62; The dolomytes of
eastern Towa, W. Knight, 66;
The Type of Aviculipecten, Ww.
rage 200; and George H. Girty,

Cretaceous exposure near Cliffwood,
INA Diy Ze bee Berry,

Cumings, E (C. 8.’ Prosser and)
The Wasverty formations of cen-
tral Ohio, 335.

Cushman, J. A., Miocene barnacles
from Gay Head, Mass., 293.

D

Daimonelix, cast of a burrow of
rodent, 268.

Dall, W. H., 110; Geology of the
Harriman expedition, 122.

Davidson, George, The Glaciers of
Alaska, 195.

Dean, Bashford, In the matter of
the Permian Fish Menaspis, 49.
Deepest oil well, 268.
Delgado, J. F. N.,

Alemtejo, 192.
Dictyonema Fauna of the Slate belt
of eastern New York, Ruede_
mann, 55.
Dodge, R. E., Elementary Geogra-

Fauna of Haut

phy, 197.

Dolomytes of eastern Iowa, N.
Knight, 64.

Don river, in southeastern Russia.

A. W. Paviow, 121.

E

Earthquakes in Socorro, New Mex-
ico, R. M. Bagg, Jr., 102.
Editorial Comment.

The colossal bridges of Utah, 189.
The stone reefs of Brazil, 319.
Echinodermata of the Missouri Si-

lurian, R. R. Rowley, 269.
Elementary Geography, ER. sind

- Dodge, 197.

Elmira Quadrangle, Clarke and Lu-
ther, 324.

Emerson, B. K., Geology of the
Harriman Expedition, 122.

Emmons, 8S. F., 400.

404

Erosion on the Great Plains and on
the Cordilleran mountain belt,
Warren Upham, 35.

Eyerman, John, Contributions to
Mineralogy, 43.

F

Fairchild, H. L., Glacial waters
from Oneida to Little Falls, 326.

Foerste, Aug. F., Variation in
thickness of the sub-divisions of
the Ordovician of Indiana, 87.

Fossils.
Aviculipecten, Type of, 200, 332.
Pisocrinus and other new Echi-

nodermata from Missouri, 269.

Skenicium nodocostatum, 280.
Balamus proteus Conrad, 243.
Daimonelix, 268.

Fuller, M. L., 406,

G

Gabbro, orbicular, of Dehesa, Cal.,
Kessler and Hamilton, 133.

Geology of the Watkins and Elmira
quadrangles, Clarke and Luther,
324.

Geology and water resources of the
Lower James river valley, Todd
and Hall, 325.

Geological Society of America, 399.

Geological Survey of New Jersey,
Annual Report, 119.

Gilbert, G. K., 399.

Girty, G. H., The type of Aviculi-
pecten, 332.

Glaciers of Alaska, Geo. Davidson,
195.

Glacial and modified drift in and
near Seattle, Tacoma and Olym-
pia, Warren Upham, 203.

Glacial waters from Oneida to Lit-
tle Falls, H. L. Fairchild, 326.

Goldthwait, J. W., 333.

Gordan, C. H., On the paramorphic
alteration of pyroxene to compact
hornblende, 40; 67.

Grabau, A. W., 334.

Granger, Walter, 131.

Grimsley, G. P., 202; Theory of Mi-
chigan gypsum deposits, 378.

Gypsum deposits of Michigan. The-
a of origin, G. P. Grimsley,
378.

H

Hall, C. M. (and J. E. Todd), Ge-
ology and water resources of the
Lower James river valley, 325.

Hallock, Prof.—268.

Hamilton, W. R. (and H. H. Kes-
sler), Obieular Gabbro of De-
hesa, Cal., 133.

Harriman Alaska Expedition, Geo!l-
ogy and Paleontology, 122.

Hartzell, J. C., 398.

Hatcher, J. B., 131, 398.

Herrick, C. L., Lake Otero, an
ancient salt lake basin, 174; 267.

Hind, Wheelton, The Type of Avi-
culipecten, 200.

Hobbs, W. H., Tectonic Geography
of Beier Asia, 69, 141, 214, 283,

dopkins, T. C. 67.

Index.

Hovey, E. O., 334.
Hudson river, submarine gorge. J.
W. Spencer, 292.

Index to the Mineral Resources of
Alabama, Smith & McCalley, 195.

Indiana, Variation m Thickness of
Members of the Ordovician. A. F.
Foerste, 87.

J

Japan, Tectonic Geography.
Hobbs, 214, 283, 371.
Johnson, D. W., 399.

K

Kessler, H. H. (and W. R. Hamil-
ton), Orbicular Gabbro of Dehesa,
Cal:, 138.

Keyes, C. R., Bolson plains and the
Conditions of their existence, 160.

Knight, N., The Dolomytes of East-
ern lowa, 64.

Knowlton, F. H., Geology
Harriman Expedition, 122.

Kraus, E. H., 333.

Kiimmel, H. B., 119.

W.. «EL

of the

i
Landes, Henry, 67.
Lane, A. C., 268; The Theory of

Copper Deposition, 297.

Leith, C. K., 400.

Leverett, Frank. Review of the
Glacial Geology of the southern
peninsula of Michigan, 393.

Luther, D.D. (and John M. Clarke),
Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles,
324.

M

Manson, M., 401.

Manual of the chemical anaysis
of rocks, Washington, 393.

Maso, M. S., Volcanoes and seismic
centers of the Philippjne islands,
391,

Mauna Loa, Eruption of 1903, E

Wood, 62.

McCalley, Henry, 398.

Meguma series of Nova Scotia, J.
E. Woodman, 13.

Mendenhall, W. C., 398.

Merriam, J.-C., 398.

Merrill; F. J.. Hi. -67-

Merrill, G. P., 399.

Metamorphism, Treatise by Van
Hise, 388.

Meteorites, Ward-Coonley collec-
tion, 120.

Michigan, Glacial geology, Frank
Leverett, 393.

Michigan gypsum deposits, Theory

of origin, G. P. Grimsley, 378.
Miller, B. L., 401.
Mineralogy, Contributions to, John
Eyerman, 43.
Mineral Resources of
Smith & McCaliey, 195.
Minerals.
Amphibolite, 47.
Biotite, 46,
Garnet, 47.
Natrolite, 44.
Orthoclase, 45.

Alabama,

v

Index.

Prochlorite, 46.

Prehnite, 44.

</ ea altered to hornblende,
4

Serpentine, 47.

Stilbite, 43.

Tourmaline, 45.

Zeolites from Moore station, 43.
Mining Bureau, Manila, 68.
Mistockles, N., Untenableness of the

Nebular Theory, 226, 310, 361.
Monthly Author's Catalogue, 56, 125,

198, 264, 327, 394.

Mount Stuart Folio, Washington, G.

9. Smith, 392.

Murray, Sir John, 398.

N

Newland, D. H., 398.

ok oP York Academy of Sciences,

North America, I, C. Russell, 193.

New York Geological Survey, Wat-
kins and Elmira Quadrangles, 324.

Notes on a section across the Sierra
Madre, W. H. Weed, 121.

fe)

Orbicular gabbro of Dehesa, Cal.,
Kessler and Hamilton, 133.

Orton, Dr. Edward, Use of the term
Buena Vista, 341.

Orton, Edward, Jr., 202.

Osborn, H. F., 131, 132.

Otero, lake, An ancient salt lake
basin in New Mexico, C. L. Her-
rick, 174.

Outer Glacial drift in the Dakotas,
Montana, Idaho and Washington,
Warren Upham, 151.

=)

Paleontologia universalis, Charles
Schuchert,. 332.

Palache, Charles, Geology of the
Harriman expedition, 122.

Paramorphic alteration of pyrox-
ene to compact hornblende, C. H.
Gordon, 40.

Pavlow, A. W., The Don river in
southeastern Russta, 121.

Penfield, S. L., 67.

Perry, Jos. H., 333.

Permian Fish, Menaspis,
Dean, 49.

Personal and Scientific News, 67,
131, 201, 267, 333, 398.

Peterson, O. A., 268.

Petroleum in Ohio, occurrence and
A J. <A. Bownocker.

Pettee, W. H., 67.

Pleistocene Fauna of Sankaty Head,
Mass., J. A. Cussmman, 169.

Prosser, C. S. (and J. W. Beede),
Cottonwood Falls Folio, 262; 202

Prosser, C. S., (and E. R. Cum-
ings), The Waverly formations of
central Ohio, 335.

Pumpelly, R., 131.

Purington, C. W., 400.

Bashford

405

R

Radio-Activity, E. Rutherford, 264.

Rand collection, 400,

Ransom, F, L., 400.

Read, T. T., Alkali deposits of Wy-
oming, 164.

Review of the Glacial Geology of
the southern peninsula of Michi-
gan, Frank Leverett, 393.

Rice, W. N., Christian Faith in an
age of Science, 55; 68.

Rejoinder to Dr. Dall’s criticism, J.
W. Spencer, 110.

Rizer, H. C., The United States Ge-
ological Survey, its origin, ete., 119.

Rowley, R. R., Echinodermata of the
Missouri Silurian, 269.

Ruedemann, R., Cambric Dictyon-
ema Fauna of the Slate belt of
eastern New York, 55.

Russell, I. C., North America, 193.

Rutherford, E., Radio-Activity, 264.

S

Saccharoidal sandstone, G. C,;
Broadhead, 105.

Sankaty Head, Mass., Pleistocene
Fauna, J. A. Cushman, 169.

Salt lake basin (lake Otero). C. L.
Herrick, 174.

Schuchert, Charles, 132, 268; Pale-
ontologia universalis, 332.

Sediments of the Maguma series,
J. E. Woodman, 13.

Sellards, E. H., 26%; 398.

Smith, G. O., Contributions to the
Geology of Washington, 54;
Mount Stuart Folio, 392.

Spencer, J. W., Rejoinder to Dr.
Dall’s criticism, 110; Submarine
canyon of the Hudson river, 292.

Springer, Frank, 398.

Stone Reefs of Brazil, J. C. Branner,
132, 319.

Submarine great canyon of the
Hudson river, J. W. Spencer, 292.

Surface deposits of western Mis-
souri and Kansas, G. C. Broad-
head, 66.

+

Tectonic Geography of eastern Asia,
W. H. Hobbs, 69, 141, 214, 283,
5h

Theory of Copper deposition, A. C.
Lane, 297.

Thompson, Albert, 131.

Todd, J. E., 267; (and Hall) Geology
and water resources of the Lower
James river valley, 325.

Type of Aviculipecten, Hind, 200;
Girty, 332.

U

Ulrich, E. O., Geotogy of the Harri-
man Expedition, 122.

United States Geological Survey,
Origin, ete., H. C. Rizer, 109;
Cottonwood Falls Folio, 262; Wat-
kins and Elmira Quadrangles, 324.

tntenableness of the Nebular The-
ory, N. Mistockles, 226, 310, 361.

406

Upham, Warren, ¥rosion in_ the
Great Plains and on the Cordiller-
an belt, 35; Age of the Missouri
river, 80; Outer Glacial drift in
the Dakotas, Montana, Idaho, and
Washington, 151; Glacial and
modified drift in and near pie)
Tacoma and Olympia, 203.

Utah, Colossal Bridges, 189.

Vv

Van Hise, C. R., 181; Treatise on
Metamorphism, 38s.

Variation in thickness of the sub-
divisions of the Ordovician in In-
diana, Aug. F. Foerste, 87.

Voegdes, A. W., z

Voleanoes and Seismic centers of
the Philippine islands, M. S.
Maso, 391.

Ww

Ward, H. A., CataYogue of the
Ward-Coonly collection of mete-
orites, 120.

Index.

Washington, Contributions to the
Geology of, Smith and Willis, 54.

Washington, H. S., Manual of the
chemical analysis of rocks, 393.

Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles,
Clarke and Luther, 324.

Wetson, Thos. L., 201, 399.

Waverly formations of central
Ohio, Prosser and Cumings, 335.

Weed, W. H., Notes on a secton
across the Sierra Madre Occiden-
tal, 121; 460.

White, I. C., 202.

Wilder, F. A., 68.

Willis, Bailey, Contribution to the
ine of Washington, 54; 399,

Wied N. H., The Baraboo Iron

re, Z

Wood, Edgar, The eruption of Mau-
na Loa in role, 6z.

Woodman, J. E., The sediments of
the Maguma series, 18.

Wyoming, Alkali deposits Of, Nee
Read, 164.

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