Rawr 4 pelt mee ' Vows WEN hbk A Sire , " . f uF s ae De mete el! wig zi : ‘ ‘ x rf Na 4 Nabe ‘ We wee a ji tare Reed TL Foe eSiits juetreetel f nt , bis ose Gate Ee wee He a Han a a ei A ACY, whe ; igh aiMad were OE Miprate ot teag 7 pete sche Nicht ase ie Ld -) * of %. ie go eat Te Fea hee, f . 1 Et! fe 2 99 peette , it 7 ee aes TURN DVRS litiay ; re Vi BKM bh aite TN, ’ VEO Br a ate F CATS ES) . Alli i : 4 Hd the heath es 4G, fa age o are Weebl ihn ites sensi a “nn al iets awe ee ‘ ay) rh vay ’ oy my wih i ' on ©} ds ‘ ee " be ee i Ed eH ARM tl ba ' ; J) ‘ ard) ae i ‘ retaegt Ey a sh sees i j Aibvduparatateeg , ners vhs ein Bit tat a3} bee eee ee chon 4 19/4 LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN NOTICE: Return or renew all Litrary Materials! The Minimum Fee for each Lost Book is $50.00. The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN WAN 17 jo95 L161—O-1096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign htto://www.archive.org/details/oanamericangeolo91892desm THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS: SAMUEL CaLvIn, Lowa City, Towa. Epwarp W. CiayPoun, Akron, Ohio. Francis W, Cracin, Colorado Springs, Colo. JOHN EYERMAN, Huston, Pu. ANDREW C. Lawson, Berkeley, Cal. PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphi1, Pa. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, Madison, Wis. Rosert T. Hii, Austin, Texas. JosePH B. TYRRELL, Ottawa, Ont. Epwarp O. Unricu, Newport, Ky. IsrAEL C. Wurtet, Morgantown, West Va. Newton H. WINcHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. VOLUME IX. - JANUARY’ TO JUNE, 1892. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN, "THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY. 1892. i. KIMBALL PRINTING CO., PRINTERS. lit CONTENTS. JANUARY NUMBER. Joseph Leidy. ([Portrait.] PrRsiror FRAZER...... ; i The Chemung and Catskill (Upper Devonian) on the inatern Side of the Appalachian Basin. J. J. STEVENSON 6 Principles and Methods of Geologic Correlation by Means Gieriants, Lester F7 WARDEr ot le. SE meee d4 Age of the Limestone Strata of Deep Creek, Utah, andthe Occurrence of Gold in the Crystalline Portions of the Hormation:-“ “Ww. P. BUAKE ES 623.2%... a. oe 47 Editorial Comment.—Archexan eruptive rocks of Finnland, 49.—Earliest Man in America, 52.--Companions of Eozoon, 53. - Review of Recent Geological Literature —Geological Survey of Missouri; Age and originof the crystalline rocks. Erasmus HAwortu, 55.— Descriptions of four new species of fossils from the Silurian rocks of the southeastern portion of the district of Saskatchewan, J. F. Wurteaves, 56.—Contributions to Canadian mico-paleon- tology, T. Rurperr JoNEs, 56.—Laboratory practice, a series of ex- periments on the fundamental principles of chemistry, J. P. CooKE, 56.—Report on the geology of the four counties, Union, Snyder, Mifflin and Juniata, E. V. D’INviniiers, 57.—On some new fishes from South Dakota, E. D. Corr, 57.—On a new horizon in the St. John group, G. F. Marrnew, 57.—The story of the hills, a book about mountains for general readers, H. N. Hutrcurnson, 58.—Correlation papers, Devonian and Carboniferous, H. §8. W11- LIAMS, 58. List of Recent Publications, 61. Correspondence.—The Middleton formation of Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama, with a note on the formations at La Grange, Tennessee, Jas. M. SAFFORD, 63.—Bibliography undertaken by the Interna- tional Congress of: Geologists, G..K. GILBERT and Em. DE Mar- GERIE, 64, Personal and, Scientific News.—Pre-historic horses, 67.—Archeological exhibition at Madrid, 68.—The late Dr. P. Herbert Carpenter, 69. FEBRUARY NUMBER. Alexander Winchell. [Portrait.] An Editorial Tribute. Iv Contents. MARCH NUMBER. John Francis Williams. [Portrait.] J. F. Kemp..... és 149 The Pre-Cretaceous Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of the California Coast Ranges. HaArotp W. FarRBANKS. 153 Relative Abundance of Gold in Different Geological Forma- tions. - W..P2BuAKE)...., meee Set (ay Pe ee The Cretaceous Covering of the Texas Paleozoic. RALPH a: 6 ee es 169 Notes upon Nebraska Tertiary. F. W. RussELL........ 178 On Fossils in the Lafayette Formation in Virginia. N. H. DART ON 5 /s:00in 0 «'s <0 + vgn Pecan . Quaternary Geology of Keokuk, Lowa, with Notes on the Underlying Rock Structure. [Illustrated.] C. H. QOBDON : caleb at oe «e/a SS see «aaj @:6 «inet! Origin of the Gravel Deposits Beneath Muir Glacier, Alaska. TC ROSSELL. os 54 ee er OEE Editorial Comment.—The so-called Laurentian Limestones at St. John, New Brunswick, 198 —In Need of an Editor, 200. Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Notes on the genus Acidaspis, J. M. CLarKkeE, 209.—Observations on the Terataspis grandis Hall, the largest known trilobite, J. M. Cuarke. 203,—Note-ob.Coronura aspeétuns Conrad: the Asaphus diurus Green, J. M. CLARKE, 203.— Correlation papers, Cambrian, C. D. Watcort, 203.—A Classifica- tion of Mountain Ranges according to their Structure, Origin and Age, WARREN UPHaM, 205 —General Account of the Fresh Water Morasses of the United States, with a Description of the Dismal Swamp District of Virginia and North Carolina, N. S. SHaLer, 206.—The Penokee Iron-bearing series of Michigan and Wiscon- sin, R. D. Irvine, and C R. Van Hise, 207.—Systematic Mineral- ogy, based on a natural Classification, T. StERRY Hunt, 209.— Baltimore, a Guide-b.ok, with an account of the Geology of its Environs, GEoRGE H. Wiu.rams and N. H. Darton, 210.—Ele- ments of Crystallography, GEorRGE H. WILutaMs, 208. Correspondence.—Are the Eozoonal Limestones at St. John, New Bruns- wick, Pre-Cambrian? G. F. MaTrHew, 212. Personal and Scientific News.—The Winter Meeting of the Geological Society of America. Obituaries, Dr. Ferd. Roemer, Sir Andrew Ramsey, and T. Sterry Hunt, 214. APRIL NUMBER. A Hitherto Undescribed Phenomenonin Hematite. [Illus- trated. ] W: 8S) Gresiuy) Jeera... beeen 219 The Lower Coal Measures of Monongaliaand Preston Coun- ties, W. Va. [lllustrated.] §. B. Brown. ...... 224 The Tin Islands of the Northwest. E. W. CLAYPOLE,... 22 Discovery of the Second Example of the Macrouran De- capod Crustacean, Paleopaleomon Newberryi._ R. PB, WEITHIRLD Soi ow ate, oo CREA n se Uae sida on Contents. Vv Physics of Mountain Building; Some Fundamental Con- Peoviong. 2.8: MELLARD READE. oo de. 238 Note on the Occurrence of Erratic Cambrian Fossils in the Neocene Gravels of the Island of Martha’s Vine- yard. ([lllustrated.] J.B. WoopworTH........ 243 Isobases of Post-Glacial Elevation. BAron DE GEER... 247 Bibliography of North American Vertebrate Paleontology for the year 1891. JoHN HYERMAN.,........... 249 ‘Observations on Llama Remains from Colorado and Kan- Bee N CURAGIN | cu eiestsieaeeve tik a0 ove wha ae 257 Editorial Comment.—Progress of American Glacial Geology, 260. Review of Recent Geological Literature.—The Cause of an Ice-Age, Srr Robert Bayi, 261.—On the Lower Devonian Fish Fauna of Campbellton, New Brunswick, A. 8. Woopwarp, 263.—On the Characters of Some Paleozoic Fishes, E. ). Corr, 263.—Strati- graphy of the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia, I. C. Wurrr, 264.—On a Group of Volcanic Rocks from the Tewan Mountains, New Mexico, and on the occurrence of Primary Quartz in certain basalts, Jos. P. Inprxes, 264—On a late volcanic eruption in northern California, and its peculiar lava, J.S. DILLER, 265.—The relations of the traps of the Newark sys- tem in the New Jersey region, N. H. Darton, 266.— Earthquakes in California in 1889, J. EP KEELER, 266 —A classed and annotated bibliography of fossil insects, 8S. H. ScuppEr, 266.—On the Bear River formation, CHARLES A. WHITE and the Stratigraphic portion of the Bear River formation, T. W. Stanton, 266.—Notes to ac- company a tabulation of the Igneous rocks, based on the system of Rosenbusch, F. D. ADAms, 267. —Report on the Sudbury Min- ing District, Canada, Rosert BELL, 269. List of Recent Publications, 270. Supplementary List of the writings of Alexander Winchell. 2738. ‘Correspondence.—Arrow Points from the Loess at Muscatine, Iowa, F. M. WitrER, 276.—The Serpentines of the Coast ranges in California, M. E. WaApsworTH, 277.—Englacial drift of Long Island, JOHN Bryson, 287. Personal and Scientific News.—Prof. Wright’s lectures at Boston, 280.— Preparations for the sixth session of the International Congress of Geologists, 281.—Princeton Scientific Expedition of 1891. MAY NUMBER. An experiment designed to show the upward movement of sub-glacial debris. [[llustrated. ] OsstAn GUTHRIE. 283 Preliminary descriptions of new brachiopoda from the Trenton and Hudson River groups of Minnesota. N. H. WINCHELL and CHARLES SCHUCHERT....... 284 ‘The drift of the North German lowland. Rotuuin D. SAt- SD UR) Yarn ee eiee a eck « -s, s'e SOR ORM R BR Stes oc stavtt ofemene: elec ctace’’s 294 ‘Gas wells near Letts, Iowa. F. M. Wirrer. ps 319 ‘Climatic changes indicated by the Glaciers of North rea ica. ISRAEL G Rmeamengue ws... sak inn 322 Editorial Comment.—Sir Andrew C. Ramsay, Bark ‘336. VI Contents. Review of Recent Geological Literature—Tenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, J. W. PowE 1, 337.— Mount St. Elias and its glaciers, I. C. RussEux, 340.—Parka decipiens, J. W. Dawson and Pror. D. P. PENHAL- LOW, 341.—Altitudes between lake Superior and the Rocky Moun- tains, WAR EN UPHAM, 541.—Viscosity of solids, CARL Barus, 342. —The minerals of North Carolina, FREDERICK A. GENTH, 342.— Record of North American Geology for 1887 to 1889, N. H. Dar- TON, 342.—A dictionary of altitydes in the United States, HENRY GANNETT, 342.—Travels amongst the great Andes of the Equator, EpwakD WHyYMPER, 343.—The genus Lituites, Breyn, Dr. G Hom, 343. Recent Publications, 343. Correspondence. —-The deltas of the Mohawk, F. B. Taytor, 344.—A cor- rection; the geology of Buchanan county, Towa, 8. CALVIN, 345. Personal avd Scientific News, 346. JUNE NUMBER. The Double Mountain Section [Illustrated]. E. T. Dum- BLE. and W. F. Cummins oe 4 347 Prof. I. C. White's CS of the Sitamnde Coal Field of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia, JOHN J. STEVENSON. ne : 352 Note on the differences ataeek Acoumien ia aa Hall and Acervularia davidsoni, Ep. and H. 8. CALvin.. 3090 The Kawishiwin Ageglomerate at my Minn. pnseaatante NCW ENGR: «ost cee a : 4 ee Boo x. A new species of Larix from the Tnteemtacial of ‘Manitoba: DE VP EN TaATDOW ss «sate ay = bt ene 368 Gold in Placers iinetrated]. Heseeer R. Woon! seeks tede 371 On the North American Species of the Genus ai: [Wustrated], A. W. -VoGDpESmaeee- Bert MENS ois Striation of Rocks by River Ice. J. EE. oun. Rr a to 396 Review of Recent Geological Literature —Bulletin of t the Gea ‘Sau Am., 400.—The Labrador Coast; Journal of a Summer Cruise, A. S. PackKaRpD, 401 Exploration on Grand river, Labrador, AUSTIN Cary, 402.—On the Osteology of Mesohippus, and Leptomeryz, with observations on the Modes and Factors of Evolution in the Mammalia, W. B. Scorr, 402. Recent Publications........ see delete sbabeieremetetsiete lebe:si< on j .. 404 Correspondence —Rocks of fie Niapard Age in Indiana, C. '§ Bracuumms 409.—Prizes awarded by the Boston Society of "Natural History; S. Hensuaw, 409.—Deltas of the Hudson and Mohawk valleys, WARREN U PITAM, 410. Personal and Scientific News... osven: ccna emses sugiesess sus von ANE ERRATA. Vol. VIIIL., page 353, eighth line form the bottom, for ‘‘costal”’ read coastal. Vol. VIII., page 279, fourteenth line from the bottom, for ‘cwas”’ read were. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. Vol. 1X, Plate I. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST Vou. IX. JANUARY, 1892. No. lL. JOSEPH LEIDY, M.D., LL.D. By Prenrsrror FrRAzer, Philadelphia. There is no more striking ditference between the past and present generations of scientific men than the universality of the knowl- edge of the greatest men of the past and the absence of any pre- tension to it in our present representatives. It could not be other- wise. In classic times as well as in the middle ages the distinc- tion between words and things was not always clearly made. The same class of mind which would successfully grapple with the paradoxes of the schoolmen was equally serviceable in speculations on the philosopher's stone, the existence of phlogiston, or the inter- pretation of a Greek text. Words were all important, the methods of logic were conventional, and no extraordinary memory was re- quired to master at least in outline all that man had attained; while the discussion of this knowledge could always be turned into: the channel of the then philosophy, after which the battle was en- tirely with words and a skillful word-fencer could never be silenced however little progress he made in convincing his opponent. With the closing half of the last century, however, methods were improved, the number of facts increased in geometrical pro- gression with the years, and out of chaos and clamor, orderly classification and definite shapes were evoloved, each one requir- ing a different interpretation, claiming different classes of men, and requiring different instruments of precision. As the paths of research diverged it became more and more difficult for any one: man to understand all the regions through which they passed, andi one by one the philosophers became specialists. [In the early part of this century the enormous development of natural and ex- Zi The American Geologist. January, 1892 perimental science caused the strain ever to increase on those who would keep abreast of all departments of research, but still there remained the Humboldts, the Herschels, the Faradays, the Reg- naults, and in this country the Baches, the Lecontes, the Leidys and some others. Joseph Leidy was almost the sole survivor of that class of intellectual giants which seemed to be able to assimi- late as much as Science in her many forms could produce. Such a race could not exist forever and it has passed away with him. After him there are only specialists in one or more subjects, and generalizers who seldom come nearer to the truths of nature than their description in a book . The father of Joseph Leidy, Philip, was born in Montgomery county (one of those adjacent to the county which is the city of Philadelphia), December 5th, 1791 and moving in his youth to Philadelphia successfully pursued the business of a hatter. By Catherine Melick he had four children of whom the subject of this sketch was next to the youngest. Through the death of his mother and the marriage of her sister by his father during his early infancy, Joseph only knew this kind stepmother who was as watchful of him as his real mother could have been. He was educated at private schools and early evinced interest in natural objects and exhibited that talent for drawing of which he made such admirable use to the last period of his life. An acei- dental opportunity to visit a drug shop, was taken advantage of by him to perfect himself in pharmacy in a very short time, while the dissection of some domestic animals turned his attention to a study which he was destined to link closely with his name. He be- gan the study of medicine in 1842, in the University of Pennsyl- vania at 19, and in 1844, received the degree of M. D., and in 1845 was appointed Prosector to the chair of Anatomy, under Prof. Horner. In 1848 he went to England, France and Germany with Dr. Horner, and again in 1850 with Dr. George B. Wood. He had been elected a member of the Boston Society of Nat- ural History, and the Academy of Natural. Sciences in Philadel- phia in 1845, and of the American Philosophical Society in 1849 In 1852 he was appointed in Dr. Horner's place professor of an- atomy having been elected to the College of Physicians the year previous. On the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed surgeon of the Satterlee hospital in Philadelphia. In 1864 he . married Anna Harden. During the succeeding years, thickly strewn with contributions to science of the highest value, he re- Oo Joseph Leidy.— Frazer. ceived many honors from American and European. scientific so cieties. The long list of them will be found in the careful and admirable memoir of Dr. H. C. Chapman in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences for June 30, 1891, to which I am indebted for the statistical information as to his early life given above. Among these honors, however, his unanimous and enthusiastic election as President of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1881; his installation as Director of the Biological department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1884; his election as President of the Wagner Free Institute of Science; and the degree of LL. D., which he received from Harvard in 1886; the gift of the Walker prize of $500 from the Boston Society of Natural History raised to $1,000 as a special recognition of his great services to science; the prize of the Royal Microscopical Society in 1879; the Lyell medal by the Royal Geological Society in 1884; and the Cuvier medal from the Academy of Sciences in Paris in 1888 should not be forgotten. Dr. Leidy was elected a member of the National Academy of Science in 1884. The bare enumeration of his published works extensive in length and in variety though it be, would give those who had never seen this great naturalist no idea of the man or of the source of this combination of versatility and accuracy which ren- dered almost every observation he made directly or indirectly an addition to science. In all that pertained to the acquisition of facts and to cobrdinating them afterwards he made of himself a perfect machine in so far as he was insensible to and unaffected by the ordinary passions of ambition or rivalry which influence even the best scientists. He had a marvellous eye for noting the minutest phenomena and appreciating the most insensible dif- ferences; he had an unusually retentive memory for recording and keeping in order the vast fund of his observations and the records of those made by others; and he was conscious of the limitations of pure inductive philosophy to an extent which made the conclusions reached by him safe. It is usually said that he never made an enemy. This seems to be too much to say, for ene- mies are made by the very fact of superiority, and ne doubt this great man had them, but if so they were prudent enough to refrain from declaring themselves. He would never quarrel, and his de- sire for peace at all hazards would have subiected a less earnest 4 The American Geologist. January, 1592 and pure minded man to the charge of lack of tenacity, but those whose cause he refused to espouse although he thought it just, gave him credit for a higher motive for his action. As an instance of the extreme delicacy of his vision, by a single glance through a glass case in one of the great University museums of this country he detected as imitations a number of specimens of so-called quartz which had been purchased, examined, and mounted by the pro- fessor of mineralogy as genuine. When these specimens were removed from the case and carefully tested it was found that those and only those which he had indicated were artificial. He has told us of the prosecution of his study of Rhizopods when he expected an Ameeba-like mass to break into two, or an enveloped diatom to be extruded, and the patience and endurance required to keep the eye at the instrument for hours waiting fora change that would occupy but a few seconds. He would wait and would see the phenomenon while a student with much more time at his disposal would have grown tired and missed it. In the Brazilian department of the Centennial Exposition were many valuable tourmalines, diamonds, topazes and beryls together with a large amount of nearly worthless material. This was put into the hands of the writer for determination and arrangement. He well remembers the glance of Dr. Leidy at a large mass labeled beryl and his suggestion that it be more closely examined to de- termine if it were not a white topaz. The size of the specimen as well as its color had deceived the American geologist who had shipped it from Brazil,and the writer. But subsequent investigation proved it to be in fact a white topaz and the largest then known. Dr. Leidy was a rare example of a simplicity of character which neither adulation nor adversity could tarnish. In his very early life a less sincerely devoted student of science would have had his head turned by his rapid promotion, by the unusual confidence and liking of his superiors, and most of all by the extraordinarily flattering attention of the social world, but he was not spoiled. Tle probably noted his sensations on those oc- ‘asions as so many psychological experiences. Scientific men in all countries, very generally despise conven- tionalisms of dress, conversation, and carriage and there is a cer- tain external resemblance between them all. Dr. Leidy was one of the best American representatives of the scientific class in all these respects. A splendid head with kind expression, set upon broad stooping shoulders, a deep chest to which an arm generally pressed Soseph Leidy. —Hrazer. a) books or papers while the other hung free at the side; a straight toed walk with a sailor’s swing from one side to the other at each of his long and easy strides; these things made him noticeable anywhere. People who knew him but slightly would go out of their way to wish him good morning, and would feel a touch of satisfaction at receiving his always hearty response. There is a beautiful conservatory in Philadelphia, on Chestnut street, near 'l'welfth, where he often stopped to admire the exquisite flowers which the generous owners expose to the delectation of their fellow citizens, The lucky acquaintance who joined him at such times was treated to an exposition of the peculiarities and beauties of the various flowers which ran as smoothly and unconsciously from him as if he were simply discussing the weather, but which opened new vistas of admiration, both of him and of the works of nature in his listener. For years he was accustomed to pass a part of every Sunday in the mineral cabinet of the late Richard L, Vaux and after Mr. Vaux’s death in that of Mr. Clarence Bement. Many were the un- sound determinations set right and many the fruitful discussions over minerals and everything else, Like the true naturalist that he was, he bequeathed his body to his colleagues in the interest of amthropometric science, his friends and pupils Dr. Harrison Allen and Dr. Francis X. Dercum having extracted, weighed, measured and preserved that wonderful brain. His remains were cremated, and thus passed from earthly form one of the loveliest, wisest, and gentlest of men. May his exam- ple be of service to us all. Novre:—Since writing the above | am indebted to the nephew of the subject of this sketch, himself an eminent physician, for the following additional facts: * *« “The weight of the brain was 454 0oz., somewhat smaller than normal, and the appearance of the surface presented an unusual increase in the convolutions. No microscopic examination has as yet been made. The points of pathological interest were the presence of a hemorrhagic pachymeningitis on the right side and an unusual hardness of the blood vessels at the base due chiefly to atheroma. By a singular coincidence the brain of my father (Dr. Philip Leidy who died within a few hours of his brother, P. F.) weighed exactly the same to a grain and presented very much the same microscopical appearance, showing a decided fam- ily trait. They both suffered from anurism, Dr. Joseph Leidy of the aorta and Dr. Philip Leidy of the heart. In all my experience, which has been large, at the post mortem t-ble, I never saw the blood vessels at the base of the brainso largeand hard. They were typical pipe stems.” In a subsequent note, he adds: “Dr. Harrison Allen assisted by Dr. Dercum, as representatives of the anthropomoric society, performed the autopsies in both cases. Drs. Wm. Hunt, J.J. Levick, John Packard and Joseph Leidy, Jr. (the writer P. F.) were present. * * Both bodies were cremated in the Germantown crematory.” 6 The American Geologist. January, 1842 THE CHEMUNG AND CATSKILL (UPPER DEVON- IAN) ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE APPALACHIAN BASIN. By Joun J. STEVENSON, New York. | Vice-Presidential address delivered before Section E, American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Washington, August, 1891. | I have chosen as a topic, the Chemung and Catskill on the eastern side of the Appalachian basin, indicating by this term the area between the Blue Ridge region at the east and the line of the Cincinnati uplift at the west. It embraced as a water-area during the later Devonian much of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. There is reason for the belief that the southern outlet through eastern Tennessee was closed during this time, so that communication with the ocean was at the west. The Upper Devonian on the eastern side of this area has al- ways attracted its full share of attention. Paleontogically, it has intimate relations with the Lower Devonian and in some re- spects close relations with the Carboniferous, so that its place in the column remains even now, for some, an open question. The equivalence of Upper Devonian within the Appalachian basin to that beyond the line of the Cincinnati uplift is still a sufficiently perplexing matter; while the origin and grouping of the beds within the basin itself are far from being finally settled. The earliest positive reference to the Old Red sandstone is that by Amos Katon,* who in 1821 regarded the red sandstone of the Satskill mountains as typically the same with the Old Red sand- stone of Werner and as distinctly different from the Red sandstone of the Connecticut Valley; at the same time recognizing its rela- tions with the Carboniferous and placing it in the Transition series. Marcou statest that Richard C. Taylor published a paper in 1831, discussing the relations of the Old Red sandstone to the Carboniferous; the same author} ina later paper exhibits clearly the place of the Red sandstone in central Pennsylvania and its relations to the overlying Carboniferous. He appears to include *Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture of the State of N. Y., vol. 1, Albany, 1823, p. 6. The letter to Mr. Van Rensselaer is dated Dec. 17th, 1821. A similar reference was made ina Geological and Agricultural Survey of the District adjoining the Erie Canal, Albany, 1824, p. 92. +Geology of North America. Zurich, 1858, p. 114. This paper by Taylor I have not seen. tTaylor. Transactions of the Geological society of Pennsylvania. Phila. 1835, vol. 1, p. 177. Chemung and Catskill.— Stevenson. it in the Secondary with the coals west of the Alleghanies, thus separating it from the graywackes below. The first systematic classification of American rocks older than Carboniferous was presented in 1836 by H. D. Rogers,* who placed in two groups the beds between the ‘ fossiliferous sand- stone,” (or Oriskany, as we now know it) and the Lower Carbonif- erous sandstone ( Vespertine or Pocono of later classifications. ) These groups, Nos. VIII and IX of his column were distin- guished from the Carboniferous, which he divided into four groups, afterwards numbered X, XI, XII and XIII. The same classifica- tion, with rather more of detail, was repeated in the Second Pennsylvania reportt, as well as in the Second Report of W. B. Rogers{ on the survey of Virginia. . No distinct effort to subdivide the upper portion of the Devonian column of New York was made prior to preparation of the Third Report of the Geological Survey. In that report Mr. Conradé defines the ‘‘Old Redstone Group (Murchison )” as embracing 9. Olive sandstone.—Old Red sandstone ? 8 { Dark-colored shales, | Black slate. thus carrying it down to the base of the present Hamilton. In the same report, James Hall|| introduced the term ‘+ Chemung ”’ for gray beds in Chemung county, overlying those of his Ithaca group. ; The fourth report contains Vanuxem’s description] of the series in his district, giving a complete grouping of the higher rocks and placing the Montrose or Oneonta sandstone at the top of the column. The same report contains the general classifica- tion by Prof. Hall** in which the terms, Old Red sandstone, Chemung group, Portage group occur in the order given. One year later Matherty used the term ‘‘ Catskill Mountain Series ” to designate all the rocks of the Catskill mountains from the Lower Carboniferous sandstone ( Pocono ) of Rogers down to the base of *First Annual Report of State Geologist, Harrisburg, 1836, pp. 12 to 15. Second Annual report on the Geological Exploration.of the State of Pennsylvania, by H. D. Rogers, Harrisburg, 1838. {Second Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Virginia for the year 1857. W. B. Rogers; 1838, pp. 75-80. SAssembly Document, No. 275, Albany, 1839, p. 72. \|Loc. cit. p. 322. "Assembly Document, No. 50, 1840, p. 381. **Loc. cit. pp. 452-453. +tAssembly Document, No. 150, 1841, pp. 77-82. . 5 The American Geologist. January, 1892 the Marcellus shale, thus making it equal to Formations VIII, IX and X of the Pennsylvania column. The term Catskill group appears for the first time in Vanuxem/‘s* final report, where it is used to designate the rocks at the top of the Devonian, which are regarded as fully equalling in importance the underlying Chemung and Hamilton, forming his Erie division; so that the Krie and Catskill are equivalent to the VIII and IX of Rogers. No line of demarcation between Erie and Catskill was determined. Hall’st final report appeared one year later and contained the grouping which has remained unchanged: Old Red sandstone or Catskill. Chemung group. Portage group. Fifteen years later appeared the final report on the Geologyt of Pennsylvania, in which Chemung and Portage are called Ver- gent, and the Catskill is the Ponent of the palzozoic column. This report took shape long after the original corps of observers had been scattered and the field-note books were not worked up in all cases by those who had made them; so that the statements are sometimes obscure and local details are too often perplexing to readers not familiar with the ground. Little additional sys- tematic information became available after the publication of Rogers’ final report until the results obtained by the Second (reological survey of Pennsylvania became known, The studies by assistants on the Second Pennsylvania Survey were very much in detail, owing largely to the immense economic importance attaching to the upper portion of the Devonian col- umn. But this detailed study, though leading to close concord in record of stratigraphical work, has led to wide difference of opinion in respect to lines of separation between the groups. As the area of Pennsylvania is large, great variations exist in physical characters of rocks and in vertical distribution of fossils, so that difference of opinion arose to a greater or less degree respecting the limitations of every group: but the difference is especially noteworthy in the case of Catskill and Chemung, for one observer carries the upper boundary line of Chemung almost 2,000 feet further up in the column than is done by another. *Geology of New York, part III, Albany, 1842. p. 12. tGeology of New York, Part IV. Albany, 1848 pp. 18-19. rGeology of Pennsylvania, H. D. Rogers, Philadelphia, 185s. Chemung and Catshill.— Stevenson. y One Observer coming from the northeast along the easterly out- crop of the Devonian finds good reason to mark Catskill as be- ginning with the first appearance of red shales, while another coming from the west and south thinks that Chemung should close only with the final disappearance of the marine fauna. When these observers joined their work, their sections were in practical agreement, but were labeled very differently. The uncertainty respecting the relations of Chemung and Catskill is due in no small degree to the fact that the earlier studies of those groups were made in New York and adjacent portions of Pennsylvania, without much knowledge of the con- ditions elsewhere. Had the study been begun at the south in Virginia, then carried northward along the easterly outcrop through Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania into New York; then begun again in western New York or Pennsylvania and carried eastward to the outcrop, many difficulties, now apparently so formidable, would have been unknown and the problem of re- lations, seemingly so perplexing, might have been easy of solu- tion. At this time, however, the study can be prosecuted to better advantage than was possible even ten years ago, for the oil-borings of western Pennsylvania enable one to trace the beds through that region also, where in some localities they are more than 2,000 feet below the surface. Let us follow, then, the courses indicated, depending on the work of I. C. White, J. H. Carll and C. A. Ashburner in Pennsylvania, and that of J. J. Stevenson in Virginia and Pennsylvania, with references to the work of James Hall and H. 8. Williams in New York. i In the southwestern portion of Virginia, near the Tennessee line, the Devonian is represented only by black shale,* belonging at the base of the Hamilton; but within a few miles the Hamilton shows a greatly increased thickness,+ while between it and the Lower Carboniferous there are 350 feet of rock carrying Chemung fossils to within fifty feet of the top. The fossils are most abundant in a red or bluish rock with conchoidal fracture, which is the same in all respects, physically, with some non-fossiliferous *Stevenson, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. XIX, pp. 223, 233, 243. Stevenson, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. XXII, p. 136. 10 The American Geologist. January, 1862" beds higher up in the section. Within sixty miles along the strike, this 350 feet has developed into a great series with well marked horizons in the lower part,* while the upper part has become flaggy with not a few massive beds. The succession now is, the thicknesses being estimated, 1. Not fully exposed, containing much red sandstone 700’ 2. Conglomerate 40’ 3. Shales and sandstone 1,000’ 4. Conglomerate 30! 5. Shales and flags 1,500' But the No. 1 of the section contains gray beds in the lower portion, which, in some localities, have yielded Chemung mol- lusks at not less than 300 feet above the conglomerate, while on New river, Va., where the thickness is somewhat greater, Che- mung forms were seen at about 500 feet above the conglom- erate. But the reddish beds which prevail toward the top seem to be non-fossiliferous. The tint of these beds becomes more and more pronounced toward the northeast, until in Catawba mountain, somewhat more than twenty miles southwest of James river, they have the dismal red and greenish color, so character- istic of the series along the Potomac. And yet, in McAfee’s gap, only eight miles northward, Sprrifera disjuncta and some other Chemung forms occur very near the top of the series, within a few feet of the Vespertine ( Pocono) sandstone, The other parts of the section can be observed at many places; the upper conglomerate (No. 2) contains flat pebbles, which frequently show the longer axis vertical to the plane of bedding; No. 3 contains concretionary sandstones passing downward into shales, with brown, blue and red to deep red flags and flaggy sandstones. Chemung mollusks are especially abundant near the top. The lowest division consists of flags and shales, olive, gray, yellow, blue and drab, with but few fossils. This is the section to James river, somewhat more than 150 miles from the Tennessee line. Details of measured sections made in recent years between the James and Potomac rivers, a distance of not far from 200 miles, have not been published; but we need not wait for detailed measurements in this interval. Ob- servations by the writer and by others at many localities have proved the section persistent; and the same succession *Stevenson, Amer, Phil. Soc. Proc. vol. XXIV, p. 81 seq. Chemung and Catshill.— Stevenson. 11 is shown along the Baltimore and Ohio railroad as it follows the Potomac river. Of course there are variations in struct- ure; Mr. N. H. Darton tells me that the conglomerates are wanting in the section near Staunton, Virginia, but this is merely local as they are present elsewhere. Further north, the upper beds, or Catskill, have an increased proportion of shale, often blood-red, and the sandstones show a more marked conchoidal fracture, while the whole section has a greatly increased thickness. The Pennsylvania line is reached but a few miles north from the Potomac along the outcrop. Crossing that line, one enters Fulton county, where the succession is:* 1. CatskrLu. Shales 1,600' Sandstone and shale 2,100’ 3,700! 2. CuEMUNG. Shales 1,000' Upper conglomerate 10’ Shales and sandstone 950/ Lower conglomerate 10’ Shales and flags 1,850’ 3,820’ The close resemblance to the Virginia section is apparent at once, the most notable change being simply the great increase in thickness of the upper portion. The upper Catskill consists for the most part of soft deep red shales with occasional sandstones ; but the lower Catskill is made up of brownish or greenish to red, eross bedded, almost laminated sandstone, often looking as though it were worm eaten. Sometimes a large fragment re- mains on a hill top, resembling much a pile of thin boards. Occasionally more massive sandstone prevails, as along the Juniata river in central Bedford county of Pennsylvania, where no tendency to lamination was seen. The Catskill appears to be wholly non-fossiliferous along the eastern outcrop from central Virginia into New York. The absolute limit between Catskill and Chemung is indetermi- nable, for the passage from one to the other is practically imper- ceptible at most localities; the line drawn at any locality, whether on stratigraphical or on paleontological grounds, is almost certain to be unsatisfactory at any other. In Fulton county, however, a marked lithological change occurs at about 1,000 feet above the Upper Chemung conglomerate, for there the alternations of red *Geology of Bedford and Fulton counties, J. J. Stevenson, Harrisburg, 1882, pp. 73,75, 82. I have re-arranged the section somewhat, placing the line between Chemung and Catskill 200 feet higher than in the original. 12 The American Geologist, January, 1892 and yellow shales cease and the Haggy,almost laminated, red sand- stones begin. The last horizon of Chemung mollusks was found at 200 feet lower, where, at approximately 800 feet above the conglomerate, the writer orginally drew the line between the two groups. The interval between the conglomerates is filled with yellow to red shales and gray, brown, blue or red sandstones; the red beds form an insignificant portion of the section, but such as are pres- ent are strikingly like Catskill, for the shales are often bright red and the sandstones cross bedded or in thin flags. Many of the beds in this interval are richly fossiliferous and the important horizons of Chemung lamellibranchs are at but a little way be- low the upper conglomerate. The lowest beds of the Chemung are shales and flags; the shales overlying the flags are yellow, gray, olive, dark brown and reddish; while the flags, which doubt- less represent the Portage of New York, are almost wholly olive, and, unlike the overlying shales, appear to be very sparingly fos- siliferous. seyond Fulton county northward into New York, we must de- pend almost wholly upon the work of Prof. I. C. White, who has— demonstrated the stratigraphical relations of the beds under con- sideration to those of the Catskill area of New York, and has told the story with such clearness that there is no opportunity for any one to cavil. His grouping of the rocks, however, differs from that already given; he prefers to include as Catskill all beds down to 100 feet below the upper conglomerate, which is the lowest horizon at which he found fish remains; he regards as transition the beds be- low that fish bed to the lowest red bed, 150 feet above the lower conglomerate, and applies to them the term Chemung-Catskill: while the remaining beds of the section are taken by him to rep- resent the Chemung and Portage of New York. He identifies the Upper Chemung conglomerate of Fulton county with his Luckawacen conglomerate of the New York border and he gives the name of A/legrippus to the lower conglomerate. The succession in Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania, * is : *I. C. White in Geology of Huntingdon County, Harrisburg, 1885, pp. 92-104. As given here Nos. 1, 2, and 100 feet of No. 3, of the Chemung belong to Prof. White’s Catskill; the rest of No. 3, except 150 feet at the base forms the Chemung-Catskill of the same author. All sections along this outcrop, quoted from Prof. White, have been re-arranged in this way. STEVENSON. es Chemung and Catskill. 1, CATSKILL. 2,500 2. CHEMUNG. 1. Haun’s Bridge group 1,000° 2. Lackawaxen conglomerate 20" 83. Sandstones and shales 1,000’ 4, Allegrippus conglomerate 5! 5. Shales and flags 3,250’ 4,675’ The Haun’s Bridge group consists largely of greenish gray sandy shales and flags with some red beds, and holds from bottom to top Chemung mollusks, some of which are very abundant. Prof. White’s measurements near Catawissa, in Columbia county, Pennsylvania, about sixty miles further along the strike, show the section still persistent, the suecession being :* J. CATSKILI, 3,280 2. CHEMUNG. 1. Shales and sandstones 923’ 2. Lackawaven conglomerate 40’ 3. Shales and sandstones 1,180’ 4, Allegrippus conglomerate 10’ ». Shales, sandstones and shaly beds 2,800' 4,453’ The Catskill exhibits little change in structure and, as before, appears to have no fossils aside from obscure fish remains. No. 1 of the Chemung is the same with the Montrose shales of Susquehanna county as well as the Haun’s Bridge group of Huntingdon county. It consists, as it does further south, of variegated shales and sandstones, greenand red predominating, and in the lower half has many beds carrying Chemung mollusks. I have drawn the line between Chemung and Catskill somewhat arbitrarily, where sandstone ceases to predominate, for there is no noteworthy physical change in character of the rocks anywhere above the Lachkawaxren conglomerate. That conglomerate is now irregular in structure, sometimes not conglomerate, but still con- taining fish-bones as it does further south. The fragments of bones are larger and in better preservation than at the more southern localities. The interval between the conglomerates contain some red beds but as usual they form only a small part of the section, little more than ten per cent of the whole. A bed containing frag- ments belonging, apparently, to //oloptychius associated with Pleurotomaria sp. and Lingula spatulata, was observed at 150 feet below the Lachawaxen conglomerate. Vegetable remains *The Geology of the Susquehanna river region, I. C. White, Harris- burg, 1883, p. 57. 14 The American Geologist. January, 1892 are not wanting, for Archwopterts hybernica is abundant above the fish bed. The Allegrippus conglomerate is no longer a constant member of the series, though occasionally it is recognizable without difficulty as a massive sandstone, sometimes containing flat pebbles. Thus far, the section observed beyond the James river in Virginia has been persistent, the distance along the line of out- crop being not far from 500 miles. In Columbia county, how- ever, the interval between the conglomerates is no longer richly fossiliferous, while fossils reach to but 516 feet above the Lacka- waxen, instead of to 1,000 feet as in Huntingdon county. The section is still sufficiently distinet at Hartville,* Luzerne county, Pa., about twenty miles further along the strike; but thence northeastward changes in structure become marked and are ac- companied by a still more rapid disappearance of animal remains, so that within a few miles such remains seem to be almost wholly wanting in beds above the place of the A//egrippus conglomerate. Prof. White's Pike county section was measured along the Delaware river about fifty miles northeastward from the Catawissa locality and practically on the same line of outcrop. It illus- trates the conditions in New York forthe Delaware river there cuts across the Catskill mountain region. The succession ist: CATSKILL. Honesdale sandstone 100’ ‘Montrose sandstone 125' CHEMUNG. 1. Montrose red shale 100° 2. Greenish-gray sandstone 3 3. Lackawaxen conglomerate 50’ 4. Greenish sandstone and shale 300’ 5. Red shale 50! 6. Delaware flags 1,000 7. New Milford shales and §. 8. iio 8. Starucca beds 600' 9. Sandstones and sandy shales 1,850’ 4,055’ The highest beds of the Catskill, the Cherry Ridge shales, were not measured, but they add barely 150 feet, so that, within little more than fifty miles, the Catskill has lost almost 3,000 feet, while the Chemung is but 400 feet thinner. But it should be noted that the upper portion of the Chemung has lost much, while the lower portion has increased greatly. The Allegrippus —*W ‘hite, Loc. cit. p. 196. +Geology of Pike and Monroe counties, I. C. White, Harrisburg, 1882, "3 pp. 73 and 94, Chemung and Catshill.— Stevenson. bo conglomerate belongs at the base of the Starucca beds but it is not present. Even the Lachawaxen is no longer persistent as a conglomerate and in some localities it is not even massive. The most interesting feature of this section, characterizing also those obtained along fragmentary outcrops in Carbon and Monroe counties, say 25 miles southeast of that which has been followed, is the apparent absence of animal remains from the whole series above the lowest member of the section, there being no trace aside from what seem to be fragments of fish-bones in breccias of the Honesdale sandstones.* Archwopteris jacksont is plentiful near the base of the Montrose shales. We have followed this section along practically one line of out- crop for nearly 600 miles, from the northern boundary of Ten- nessee into southeastern New York. Its persistence, stratigraph- ically, is remarkable, since variations in structure are inconsider- able until within thirty miles of the New York border; but serious changes of some sort occurred during the long period of deposit, for in the extreme south, even the representative of the Montrose sandstone carries Chemung fossils, while in northeastern Pennsy|- vania and the immediately adjacent portion of New York, animal remains practically disappear above the horizon of the A/legrippus conglomerate. Let us now return to southern Pennsylvania and follow the section westward; but first let us re-label the Fulton county sec- tion, giving to its parts the geographical names applied in the counties between that and the Delaware river, so that the relations of the different parts of the section may be remembered. It be- comes CATSKILL, Cherry Ridge shales 1600' Montrose sandstone 2100' 3700! CHEMUNG. 1. Montrose red shales 1000’ 2. Lackawaxen conglomerate 10’ 3. Shales and sandstones, including Dela- ware flags and Starucca beds 950! 4, Allegrippus conglomerate 10’ 5. Shales and flags, including Portage of New York 1850’ B820' The thickness of the section diminishes rapidly toward the west, so that on the western border of Bedford county, near the *Mr. C. 5. Proser informs me that he has discovered some lamelli- branchs in the Delaware flags and some Sp/iriéfers in the Honesdale sandstone, or possibly at the base of the Cherry Ridge shale. 16 The American Geologist. January, 1892 Maryland line, the Cherry Ridge shales have almost disappeared and the total thickness of Catskill, including doubtless some of the Montrose shale, is but 1980 feet. No outcrop is seen in the adjoining county of Somerset until the western edge has been reached, where under the great anticlinal of Laurel hill, the Youghiogheny river has cut down to the Delaware flags. There the Montrose sandstone is present, but only a few feet thick; while at not more than three miles further west, on the other side of the anticlinal, the Catskill has disappeared and the Vespertine (Pocono) rests directly on the Montrose shale. ; The Chemung shows a similar decrease in the same direction; for on the railroad section in western Bedford, the whole interval of Chemung and Hamilton is represented by a concealed space* of 2,630 feet, giving to the Chemung a thickness of somewhat more than 1,800 feet. The exposures under Laurel hill in the Youghiogheny and Conemaugh gaps suggest a continuance of the decrease, certainly in the upper portion. The gaps through Chestnut ridge, ten miles west from Laurel, afford the last ex- posures, in this direction, of any part of the Devonian on the eastern side of the basin; the section in the Conemaugh gap, barely fifty miles in a direct line from Pittsburg,t is Pocono 443° Montrose red shales 125% Lackawaxen conglomerate 20° Shale and sandstone 120’ Concealed to river 150’ The Montrose shale is composed of duil, grayish-red shale and thin streaks of sandstone, carrying Chemung species up to with- in one foot of the Pocono. The Lackawaxen is characterized by flat-pebbles as it is also on the ‘‘National road” in Fayette county, where some of the larger pebbles are felsyte-porphyry.{ Exea- vations made since these measurements were obtained show that there is much dull red shale below the Lackawaxen, especially in the concealed portion. The interval from the top of the Pocono *Stevenson, Geology of Bedford and Fulton counties, p. 81. +Geology of Fayette and Westmoreland Counties. J. J. Stevenson, Harrisburg, 1877, p. 291. An annoying error occurs in my report on the Ligonier Valley (Harrisburg, 1878). Part of the notes referring to this rock were copied under the Pocono, and some of the Pocono transferred to this; so that this conglomerate is described as not containing flat pebbles. EE Stevenson. 17 Chemung and Catskill. to the Lackawaxen is 568 feet; in the deep boring at Pittsburg it is given as 519 feet. Mr. J. H. Carll has tabulated the oil-well records in the west- ern oil-bearing counties of Pennsylvania, and we must depend largely upon his work as we follow the series northward in west- ern Pennsylvania; though one may sometimes fail to accept his identifications, yet all must acknowledge the patience with which he has worked and the excellence of his results. At Washington, about thirty miles southwest from Pittsburg, the interval to the Lackawaxen is from the top of the Pocono is 518 feet, and the rock is termed by Mr. Carll, the ‘‘gas sand.’* The section there is Pocono (Shenango sandstone of White) 152’ Interval 366 Lackawaxen conglomerate 20’ Interval 87’ Gantz oil sand 40’ The Pocono has become less coarse. At Pittsburg it contains much shale, while in Washington county its sandstone is often less than 150 feet thick. Mr. Carll recognizes in the Gantz sand, the upper or first of the Venango group of oil-sands, which consists of three well marked sandstones separated by shales and showing few variations in Venango county. It is not easy, however, to accept this identifi- cation after a careful study of his sections as tabulated in the Annual Report for 1886, and I am compelled to regard the upper gas sand of Weirick’s well as the first oil sand of Venango, and as the Lackawazxen.t The distribution and variations of the “Venango group are shown in the very numerous records of oil- wells which Mr. Carll has preserved and published in his volumes on the western counties of Pennsylvania. ette county is reached; there, however, the whole mass, 3,700 *Fourth Annual Report, p. 227. Geology of N. Y. Part I, p. 299. +Geology of New York. Part III, p. 186; 4th Ann. Rep. p. 381. 24 The American Geologist. January, 1892 feet thick in Fulton county, is wanting. In northern Pennsyl- vania, the decrease in thickness is abrupt for a few miles, but the final disappearance of rocks of the Catskill type is in Warren county, just as in New York it is in Allegany county east from the Genesee river.* In southwestern Pennsylvania the Catskill is wanting, because the rocks have thinned out; whether the dis- zippearance in northwest Pennsylvania is due only to thinning or to interlocking with rocks of different color, cannot be determined in our present state of knowledge. The upper sub-divisions of the Chemung, when followed west- ward, are found to vary much after the same manner throughout. The abrupt changes observed in the Catskill had no predecessors in the Chemung, except in southwestern Virginia, where the whole series, Chemung and Catskill, as well as most of the under- lying Hamilton and much of the overlying Pocono have disap- peared. The Chemung section thus grouped Shales | Sandstone VENANGO- Shales and sandstone | Sandstone Shales and flags can be recognized not merely along the eastern outcrop from New York to far beyond New river in Virginia, but also in western Pennsylvania many miles beyond the western limit of the Catskill beds. It is sufficiently clear that, at the close of the time embraced in the Chemung group, a physical change occurred, which, though not observable along the eastern outcrop, becomes very distinct within 100 miles westward or northwestward. During the whole of the Chemung period, the subsidence was less and less rapid toward the west and northwest, though doubtless keeping pace there as at the east with accumulation of deposits, which, in that direction, became less in quantity and finer in grain, as the rocks at the west and northwest were not such as to yield much coarse material. But at the close of the Chemung, the subsidence be- came still less rapid toward the west and northwest, so that the area in which Catskill was deposited became narrower toward the south.+ It is altogether unnecessary to resort to the concep- tion of elevation in western Pennsylvania or Virginia; indeed +Because of the southwestward trend of the Appalachian land area. Chemung and Catskill.—Stevenson. 25 any such conception would be at variance with such evidence as from study of the stratigraphy. For the most part, the changes we have. That region was not above water at any time so as to make the Catskill deposit in a closed sea; no subaérial erosion took place there after the close of the Chemung, for the thickness of Montrose shales in the oil-wells and in northwest Pennsylvania, where they are Prof. White's Riceville shales, varies immaterially from their thickness in Somerset county, where they underlie the western edge of the Montrose or Honesdale sand-stone. But while making use of these variations in rate of subsid- ence as affording a convenient method of separating the Catskill and Chemung groups, we must not forget that in by far the greater part of the area, the conditions exhibited in the Catskill are but a continuation, and as it were an intensification of those existing in the Venango portion of the Chemung. The appear- ance of red rock with green and greenish gray sandstone begins in Pennsylvania very little above the Allegrippus conglomerate, and continues in irregularly increasing quantity to the top of the column, while in New York, red rock makes its first appearance in the Portage.* The amount of red between the conglomerates varies greatly, being seldom more, though often less, than ten per cent. along the eastern outcrop, while at some places in western Pennsylvania itis much greater. The Montrose shales are largely red along the easterly outcrop, but they show not a little varia- tion even there; while at the west, they are sometimes wholly red and at others without any red beds whatever. (rreenish gray and brown or reddish brown sandstones occur in large proportion in the Catskill itself. All observers agree that the passage of Chemung into Catskill is so gradual that, lithologically, no absolute line of separation ean be drawn in a great part of the Appalachian basin, The bond between Catskill and upper Chemung is even more intimate, as far as structure goes, than is that between the upper Chemung and the lower Chemung or Portage. As far as physical character- istics are to be depended on, the whole series is one, and the terms Catskill, Chemung, Portage might well be taken as names of epochal divisions of the Chemung period. The paleontological record confirms this conclusion drawn *James Hall in 28th Annual Report of the Regents on the State Museum. 1876, p. 15. “ 26 The American Geologist. - January, 1892 in general conditions were insignificant from the beginning of the Portage to the close of the Chemung; at all events the changes in by far the greater part of the area under consideration, were not such as to interfere materially with the existence of the molluscan fauna known as Chemung, though as we have seen, there were circumscribed areas in which the conditions did prove very injurious to animal life. The Chemung and Catskill are very distinct, paleeontologically, along the eastern outcrop in southern Pennsylvania. The Cats- kill, almost wholly red shale and red or greenish-gray sandstones, appears to be non-fossiliferous; but the Chemung carries its fos- sils to practically the top of the Montrose shales. The condition is unquestionably the same in northern Virginia. Near the Ten- nessee border, the equivalent of the Montrose sandstone has Chemung fossils; at New River gap, Chemung fossils were not found in the upper half of the interval between the Lackawaxen and the Pocono; in MecAfee’s gap in Roanoke county, proof is shown that Spirifera disjuncta survived all changes to the end of the Catskill; while at eight or ten miles southeast in Catawba mountain, the whole succession of red greenish-gray sandstones seems to be absolutely non-fossiliferous; and this is the prevailing condition thence northward. It is evident, then, that from, say, twenty-five miles southwest of James river in Virginia to New York, the group called Catskill by Vanuxem is either non-fos- siliferous or practically so. But the Chemung group contains its characteristic species above the Lackawaxen conglomerate in Vir- ginia and along the eastern outcrop into Montour county of Penn- sylvania; so also in southern Pennsylvania* westward to where it passes beneath the surface beyond the final disappearance of Catskill in Fayette and Westmoreland counties; while in north- western Pennsylvania and along the northern line of the state, Chemung forms are present in the same upper horizon from the Ohio line eastward into Bradford county. In New York on the northwest border of the Catskills themselves, Chemung fossils occur abundantly above the Oneonta? sandstone which Vanuxem identified with the Montrose sandstone of Pennsylvania. *In my report on the Geology of Bedford and Fulton counties, p. 81, I identified the conglomerate of the Laurel and Chestnut ridge gaps with the Lower (Allegrippus) conglomerate. The error was discovered too late for correction. +James Hallin Sczence 1880, p. 290. Chemung and Catshill.— Stevenson. 27 A remarkable feature of the Chemung is the non-fossiliferous area of southeastern New York and the adjacent portion of Pennsylvania, northward from Huntingdon county, of Penn- sylvania, the upper limit of the Chemung fauna descends; in Columbia county the upper half of the Montrose red shales yields no fossils, while in Carbon county, no fossils were found until practically below the place of the A//egrippus conglomerate ; and, even in these lowest beds, fossils are rare and usually not “well preserved. No molluscan fossils were found by Prof. White in the Delaware river section until considerably below the place of the Allegrippus, whence downward ‘‘the whole series is sparingly fossiliferous.”* Hven remains of fishes are wanting aside from ‘the occasional appearance of what appear to be fish-bone frag- ments in calcareous breccias.” A similar condition is observed as one comes eastward along the border of Pennsylvania and New York; Chemung fossils reach the top of the group at the western border and in McKean county; but in Tioga county the barren space at the top of the column is 165 feet; in Bradford, 800 feet, in Wayne, 1,170 and in Pike, 2,650 feet, in each case inclusive of the Catskill, which, however, does not exceed 300 feet even in Pike county. The area in which the lifeless portion of the column reaches much below the horizon of the Lackawavcen conglomerate, em- bracing parts of Carbon, Monroe, Pike and Wayne counties of Pennsylvania, and of Sullivan, Delaware, and Greene counties of New York, contains rather more than 4,000 square miles, while the whole area under consideration is more than 30,000 square miles. ‘To explain the absence of life is not easy; it cannot be due merely to an agent which caused the redness or greenness of the beds, for, in Huntingdon and Fulton counties of Pennsyl- vania, the Montrose shales have many fossiliferous beds though having also many green and red beds. Besides, the Delaware section shows a great thickness of beds of other colors, which are equally without animal remains. It cannot be due to chemi- cal conditions existing in a closed sea, for the successive subdi- visions of both Catskill and Chemung can be traced directly into the lifeless area equally from the open sea at the west and along the Appalachian shore from the south, thus showing that no closed sea existed in that area. Kven plant remains are rare, being *Geology of Susquehanna River region. pp. 103 and 105. 2S Th 6 x | merican Geologist. January, 1892 found at but few localities; and as a rule the specimens are im- perfect, good specimens occurring at only a very few places. There is little room to suppose from the condition in which the plants are found that alternations of land, fresh and brackish water conditions caused the absence of animal life. It is certain that from the beginning of Oriskany to the end of Catskill, even during the formation of the Corniferous coral reefs, the Appa- lachian gulf was shallow everywhere. During the later time, when subsidence did little more than to keep pace with the inflow of sediment, the area nearest to the region of great drainage, whence large streams with rapid flow poured their material into the shallow basin, would show muddy bottoms and muddy, more or less brackish water, which would be unfavorable to animal life of Chemung types. As the Appalachian land became nar- rower southward, the untoward conditions are less marked in that direction. Within the portion of the area lying within south- sastern New York and the immediately adjacent portion of Penn- sylvania, these conditions may have been begun as early as the Hamilton, as suggested by Prof. Hall.* The molluscan fauna of the Chemung and Catskill is unques- tionably marine. Even the mollusks found in New York above the Oneonta sandstone belong to the ordinary forms. Of course it is possible, even probable, that at the extreme northeast there were small areas at the mouths of large rivers, where fresh water prevailed and fresh water mollusks lived; but positive evidence of this iswanting. The Amphigenia found in the Oneonta sandstone of New York may be a freshwater form, but it occurs in the Montrose sandstone in southern Pennsylvania so far away from the old shore line that freshwater conditions seem, certainly, improbable. The stratigraphical relations of the fishes have been generally misunderstood, The fishes exist for the most part not in the Catskill but midway in the Chemung; the celebrated /oloptychius Bed, is the second ore bed of the ‘Mansfield Reds,” and belongs at but a little way above the A//egrippus conglomerate, the Falls Creek sandstone of Bradford county. It has yielded large num- bers of fish remains at several localities and it Contains marine fossils.t The Coccostens bed of Warren county is taken by Prof. *“Setence 1880, p. 290. Prof. H. 8. Williams makes the same suggestion in Bulletin U.S. G.S. No. 41, but I have mislaid the references. *Sherwood in Report on Bradford and Tioga, pp. 63, 65, '79, 80. sae i STEVENSON. 29 Chemung and Catskill, White to be the same with the first Venango sand (Lachkawacen conglomerate). Wherever the fishes are associated with any other form of animal life, that form is marine, so that the ordinary presumption should be that the fishes themselves are marine. A study of the fauna and its distribution shows us that, as far as any evidence exists, the conditions were marine from the be- ginning of the Chemung period to the close of the Catskill; that in the early Chemung, or possibly in the Hamilton, the conditions within northeast Pennsylvania and the adjacent portion of New York became unfavorable to the free development of animal life; and that as time went on, these conditions were gradually ex- tended southward and westward, so that, toward the close of the Chemung, they prevailed in Columbia county, fifty miles south- east from the Delaware river and in Bradford county, about the same distance west from the outcrop line. Before the close of the Catskill they had reached southward beyond James river in Vir- ginia, but had not extended much further west in Pennsylvania and New York. But, though prevented from existing in the muddy shallows, the animals existed further west in the basin, beyond reach of the river silts, so that just as soon as an oppor- tunity was afforded by a lull in the untoward conditions, the active fishes found their way eastward again, to be followed, if the interval were long enough, by the more sluggish mollusks as in New York and in Roanoke and Russell counties of Virginia. a few words concerning it, and T have One matter still remains done. What are the relations of this great Chemung-Catskill group to the Lower Carboniferous? The Pocono or Vespertine or Lower Carboniferous sandstone, the lower division of the Lower Carboniferous, is practically non- fossiliferous throughout central and southern Pennsylvania, the only animal remains thus far discovered being those of mollusks, seen by Prof. White* in Bedford county, Pennsylvania, and those of fishes seen by Prof. Stevensont in Fayette county; but these have not been studied and their relations are stillunknown. The upper beds of the Pocono become calcareous in southwest Vir- ginia where the mollusks are unquestionably Lower Carboniferous. The plant remains, obtained in Pennsylvania, are for the most *Geology of Huntingdon County, p. 81. tGeology of Ligonier Valley. p. 57. 30 The American Geologist. January, 1892 part imperfect, but an abundant flora exists near New river in Virginia, which has been collected by Mr. R. D. Lacoe. It has not been studied in detail, but enough has been ascertained to show that its facies is Devonian rather than Carboniferous.* The lower Pocono in’ Pennsylvania, containing thin coal beds, may prove to be the same with the series near New river, which disappears altogether before the state line is reached at the south. f The molluscan fauna of the Chemung shows no intimate rela- tion to that of the Lower Carboniferous. True, not a few Car- boniferous genera characterize the Chemung, but in like manner some Devonian genera characterize the Upper Silurian. The plant remains of the Chemung show somewhat greater affinity. to the Carboniferous, but there is not enough of the material to jus- tify positive conclusions in any direction; at the same time these plants are closely allied to the Erian flora of Canada, occupying a somewhat similar position in the general column. The physical break between Pocono and Catskill seems to be sufficiently well marked at most localities along the eastern out- crop, as well as along the southern border of Pennsylvania; so that where Pocono and Chemung go beneath the surface they are sharply separated. The Pocono goes under in Fayette and West- moreland counties of Pennsylvania, as a sandstone containing very little shale; but when it reappears in northwestern Pennsyl- vania, in Crawford county, it is sandstone on top with much shale below, so that the separation from the underlying Chemung is by no means so distinct. Prof. White, in making his correlations with Ohio, found difficulty in determining the equivalents of the Cleveland and Bedford shales of that state, which were regarded then as belonging to the Waverly or Lower Carboniferous. But Prof. Edward Orton, several years ago, found it necessary to place the Cleveland shales in the Devonian; and _ still more re- cently, Prof. Herrick’s detailed studies have shown that the Bed- ford shales carry the Chemung fauna, as was suggested many years ago by Prof. Hall. But beyond all doubt, the lower por- *J. P. Lesley in A Dictionary of Fossils Found in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Vol. I1I. Addenda, p. x1. tIt is worth noting here that, during the study of Wayne and Susque- hanna counties, Prof. White placed the upper limit of Catskill nearly 400 feet higher in the column than he did in his later publications. It is not at allimprobable that his original plane of division may prove to be the proper one for the whole eastern outcrop to beyond New river. Chemung and Catshill,— Stevenson. 51 tion of the Pocono in Crawford county shows an unexpected re- lation to the Devonian,* for at about 200 feet below the Shenango sandstone, there is a persistent limestone, which, though non- fossiliferous in Crawford, carries many fossils in Warren and Venango counties. It is found also in McKean. The fossils from Warren and Venango have not been studied, but Prof. White says that one of the spirifers suggests SN. disjuncta. Chemung forms occur at the base of the Corry sandstone, which Prof. White thought to be the equivalent of the Berea grit of Ohio. In McKean county? Prof. Hicks found Chemung forms passing up into the Mauch Chunk or upper division of the Lower Car- boniferous and associated there as well as in lower beds with ‘Waverly forms’, seven Chemung species having been found with seven determined and eleven undetermined species, regarded by him as of ‘‘Waverly type.” Prof. H. 8. Williamst has shown, in his discussion of the fossil faunas of the Upper Devonian, that, at some localities in southwestern New York and northwestern Pennsylvania, species belonging to the Chemung fauna lingered even into the shales underlying the Olean conglomerate, which is the floor of the Coal Measures. — It is sufficiently clear that, while the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous along the eastern outcrop and for many miles west and northwest from it, was marked by great physical changes, no serious disturbance oc- curred in the region of northwestern Pennsylvania and the ad- joining portions of New York and Ohio, where the passage was so gradual as to permit the Chemung fauna to overlap that of the Lower Carboniferous. But the fact that, at some locality or in even a somewhat considerable area, the passage from Chemung to Carboniferous is not marked by abrupt change in sedimentation and by a sharp limitation of faunas is not a good reason for em- bracing Chemung in Carboniferous. Other portions of the Ap- palachian region might be selected which would afford material for very different generalizations. If local continuity of sedimentation is to be accepted as of itself a good basis for grouping rocks into ages, one would be compelled, within a considerable area of Virginia, to inelude in *Geology of Crawford and Erie counties, p.88. | tL. E. Hicks in Report on Geology of McKean County, etc. pp. 30-31. fH. 8S. Williams; Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, No. 41. Chapter tv. 32 The American Geologist. January, 1892 one age all rocks from the Hudson River shales to the top of the Pocono, for there one finds no interruption, except a streak of Lower Helderberg, so thin that only one observer* has seen it in place, though others have seen fragments of chert suggesting the presence of that group. Nor is the fact that there are localities. where the passage is not abrupt, is not marked by destruction of the fauna, necessarily a good reason for joining two consecutive groups. On such a basis one would have no difficulty in carrying: the Carboniferous downward so as to include the Lower Silurian, or upward to include the Pliocene. Thus in northwestern Penn- sylvania, Chemung fauna lingered into the Lower Carboniferous: in south central Pennsylvania and Maryland, Oriskany and Lower Helderberg fossils are mingled together in a transition bed.t Ordinarily the break between Lower and Upper Silurian is well marked, but in southern Pennsylvania,{ the Hudson river forms. occur sparingly in the lower Medina, while in southwest Virginiaé: Hudson River fossils occur abundantly to within a few feet of the: upper Medina; so that even on the easterly side of the Appa- lachian basin it would be easy to prove no break between Lower and Upper Silurian, Upper Silurian and Devonian, De- vonian and Lower Carboniferous, Lower and Upper Carbon- iferous. Dr. C. A. Whitel] has told us how the line between Paleozoic and Mesozoic disappears in the southwest, while to not a few of us the gradual shading away of Mesozoic into Cenozoic brought a sufficiency of burdens in the past. General, not circumscribed, conditions must be taken as the basis of subdivision of the column. The separation between Lower Carboniferous and the Upper Devonian is too well marked, physically as well as paleontologically, over an immense area to: be ignored for any but the most cogent reasons. But may not the Catskill as well as some portion of the Chemung be contemporaneous with the lower beds of the Lower Carboniferous of Ohio? Prof. Herrickf has shown that the base of the Lower Carboniferous there cannot come below the Berea *Capt. C. R. Boyd, in personal communication. +Geology of Bedford and Fulton Counties, p. 86. {Loc. cit. p. 92. §Stevenson; proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol. xx, p. 138, xxrv p. 89. Address as Vice President before Section E of A. A. A. S. 1889. *C. L. Herrick; Bulletin Geological Society of America, Vol. 1, p. 34 et seq. Stevenson : V2 : Chemung and Catskill, grit. He has shown also how intimately related the Bedford | shale is to the underlying Cleveland-Erie shale, and that forms of Lower Carboniferous type made their appearance only toward the close of the former, so that there the faunas overlap as in north- western Pennsylvania. It is possible that when the detailed re- vision of the Devonian column has been carried across from eastern New York by Prof. H. 8. Williams into Ohio, the beds of the Catskill will be found interlocking with beds of other tints, which in Ohio become the Bedford and Cleveland shales. If we bear in mind these facts: First, that the Chemung and Catskill deposits were laid down in a shallow basin subsiding most rapidly at the east and along a line rudely parallel to the Blue ridge trend. Secondly, that the deposits would be much greater near the main land at the east than at 200 miles away; so that 600 feet more or less of fine material in Ohio would more than fairly represent the 4,000 feet, more or less, of Chemung in eastern Pennsylvania. And Thirdly, that the water beyond the reach of the great land wash held a Chemung fauna throughout the whole time of Cats- kill deposit-—there will be no serious difficulty in the way of ac- cepting this suggestion, The conclusions to which I am led are First. That the series from the beginning of the Portage to the end of the Catskill, forms but one period, the Chemung, which should be divided into three epochs, the Portage, the Chemung and the Catskill. Secondly. That the deposits of the Catskill epoch were not made in a closed sea or in freshwater lakes. Thirdly. That the disappearance of animal life over so great part of the area toward the close of the period, was due to gradual extension of conditions existing in southeastern New York as early, perhaps,,as the Hamilton period. Fourthly. That the Chemung period should be retained in the Devonian. 34 The American Geolog ist. January, 1892 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF GEOLOGIC COR- RELATION BY MEANS OF FOSSIL PLANTS * By Les'rer F. Warp, Washington, D. C. In all work on geologic correlation, whether by means of fossils. or of stratigraphy, the modern doctrine of homotaxis should, I think, be carefully kept in mind, as it is now well recognized that identical forms do not necessarily indicate indentity of age. In the eighth chapter of his well known work on Paleontology, M. Pictet lays down the following general principle: ‘‘Contem- poraneous deposits, or those formed at the same epoch, contain identical fossils. Conversely: deposits which contain identical fossils are contemporaneous, ’'t Schimper, in his Vegetable Paleontology accepts this state- ment and adapts it to plants in the following form: ‘‘Contempo- raneous deposits, or those formed at the same epoch, contain floras, if not completely identical, at least homologous, and con- sequently deposits that contain identical or homologous floras are contemporaneous. ’’+ Nine years after the appearance of the second edition of Pie- tet’s work, above quoted, and seven years before that of Sehim- per’s first volume, viz., on the 21st of February, 1862, professor Huxley, in his annual address as president of the Geological Society of London, gave utterance to sentiments widely at vari- ance with these, but the soundness of which has been more and more clearly felt with each addition to geologicaf knowledge. Although in this address Prof. Huxley did not cite the above propositions of Pictet, and contented himself with making a much milder statement of the position of paleontologists, he took up the question of the assumed contemporaneity of the deposits con- taining identical fossils and apropos thereof expressed himself in the following language: -++Suecession implies time; the lower members of a series of sedimentary rocks are certainly older than *Read before the Geological Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington meeting, August 21, 1891. +Les terrains contemporains ou formés i la méme ¢poque renferment des fossiles identiques. Réciproquement; les terrains qui contienent des fossiles identiques sont contemporains.” Traité de Paléontologie, etc., par F. J. Pictet, 2d ed., Vol. I, Paris, 1858, p. 100. {“Les terrains contemporains ou formés i la m@éme epoque renferment des flores, sinon complttement identiques, du moins homologues, et par cons¢quent: Les terrains qui renferment des flores identiques ou homo- logues sont contemporains.” Traité de Paléontologie Végé¢tale, etc.; par W. Ph. Schimper. Vol. I, Paris, 1869, p. 100. : Geologic Correlation.— Ward. 35 the upper; and when the notion of age was once introduced as the equivalent of succession, it was no wonder that correspondence in succession came to be looked upon as correspondence in age, or contemporaneity; and, indeed, so long as relative age only is spoken of, correspondence in succession ‘s correspondence in age; it is relative contemporaneity. But it would have been much better for geology if so loose and ambiguous a word as ‘‘contemporaneous” had been excluded from her terminology, and if, in its stead, some term expressing simi- larity of serial relation, and excluding the notion of time alto- gether, had been employed to denote correspondence in position in two or more series of strata. In anatomy, where such correspondence of position has con- stantly to be spoken of, it is denoted by the word ‘homology and its derivatives; and for geology (which after all is only the anat- omy and physiology of the earth) it might be well to invent some single word, such as, ‘‘homotaxis” (similarity of order), in order to express an essentially similar idea,” The term ‘‘homotaxis”, thus introduced into geologic terminol- ogy, has been widely accepted, and is now in constant use, even by those who have not taken the trouble to inquire how it origi- nated, The geologist considers the stratigraphical and lithologi- cal relations and the paleontologist the related organic forms. As regards the latter class of workers, they are, I believe, agreed that two deposits should be considered homotactic* when their floras or faunas show a sufficiently large number of identical or closely allied species, or contain to a considerable extent the same types of life. I fully share with Dr. Newberry the view that fossil plants may be made of great value in the correlation of geologic strata, and also that when properly understood there will remain no con- flict between animal and vegetable fossils. The difficulty has all along been that the science of paleobotany is in an unsettled and unorganized state, and that correct principles have been wanting for the application of paleobotanical data. It is not claimed that the science has advanced to the point where its usefulness is at its highest stage; it is still as it were inits infaney. Nevertheless a sufficient body of facts now exist to make it a useful aid to geology. *This seems the proper adjective form, and not “homotaxial” as some authors write it. 2 ry . . ob The American Geologist. January, 1892 I propose, in this paper, to first set forth a few principles which, as it seems to me, should govern the study of paleobotany as an aid to geologic correlation, and then to explain the methods which I have adopted for their application. I. PRINCIPLEs. Bearing in mind the law of homotaxis, and not forgetting that similar floras may have flourished in different parts of the world at different times, it. nevertheless still remains true that the oc- currence of similar floras in different parts of the world, has a strong bearing upon the question of the age of the strata in which these floras occur. That is to say, although these floras may have flotrished at different times, the difference between the epochs at which they grew cannot be very great, and while an exact identity of age cannot be predicated, still it is safe to say that deposits containing similar floras must have been laid down at no great distance apart chronologically speaking. The great types of vegetation are characteristic of the great epochs in geology, and it is impossible for types of one epoch to occur in another. For example: It frequently happens in a region which is much broken up that the stratigraphical geologist is greatly puzzled to determine the relative position of certain rocks, The time has gone by when geologists rely implicitly upon the appearance of the rock in determining age, and rocks of Carbon- iferous age may have so close a resemblance to those of Tertiary age that it is impossible to distinguish them lithologically. In such cases a single characteristic fossil found in place is sufficient to settle the question. The fossil may be a mere fragment not specifically determinable, but if its reference to a great type of vegetation is certain this is as conclusive as if it were known to what species it belonged. For example, a dicotyledonous leaf from a stratum supposed to be Carboniferous, enables the paleo- botanist to say with absolute certainty that such a reference is impossible. On the other hand a single sear of Lepidodendron or Sigillaria from a deposit supposed to be Tertiary or Mesozoic is equally conclusive. It may be said that such cases are not common, but [ have had in my limited experience a number of instances of precisely this nature where thoroughly competent geologists were much perplexed, and were set right by such a single fact. Geologic Correlation.— Ward. 57 The celebrated case of the beds of Chardonet, department of Hanutes-Alpes, studied by Elie de Beaumontin 1828, and positively referred to the Mesozoic, but in which fossil plants of the genera Calamites, Sigillaria, and Lepidodendron were identified by Brongniart, is one of the best illustrations of this principle. And although, so young was the science of paleobotany at that time, that Brongniart himself was inclined to admit that these genera might occur in the Mesozoic, still, long before his death this was known to be impossible, and no paleobotanist would now hesitate in a similar case to tell the geologist that he had cer- tainly made a mistake in his stratigraphy. But in the determination of nearly related strata this is not possible, and limited material or single fragmentary specimens are not adequate. For such cases in order to be certain it is necessary to have a body of facts; in other words a fair series of good specimens of fossil plants is required before the paleobotan- ist ought to attempt to express his opinion with regard to the exact age of the deposit in which they are found. Most of the serious mistakes which have been made, and which have gone far to bring the science of paleobotany into disrepute, have resulted from neglecting this principle. Purely stratigraphical geologists have no conception of these laws, and a paleobotanist has to deal with them very much as he would deal with the notions of un- scientific persons. They are constantly bringing him mere frag- ments and only isolated specimens, not perhaps specifically de- terminable, and they expect of him that from such material he will be able to tell them the exact age to which it belongs. This is simply impossible, and the paleobotanist who will base definite conclusions upon such material is certain to err. On the other hand, where such a sufficient body of facts exists paleobotany becomes as conclusive for more nearly related forma- tions as for more widely separated ones. As an_ illustration of this, take the clays of Gay Head, Massachusetts. There is no spot more tempting to the stratigraphical geologist in this coun- try than Gay Head. Beautifully stratified clays of varied hues marking the dip and always freshly worn, form a precipitous cliff visible as a gayly colored object from great distances at sea’; and about the first work that geologists did in America was to attack the problem of the age of this cliff. The records’ of this work date back one hundred yews, and the names of the most eminent O8 The Americun Geologist. January, 1892 geologists of the United States have been associated with it. As a final outcome of all this stratigraphic work in such an inviting field, the conclusion has been at last announced by Professor Shaler, within the last two years, that these clays are of Tertiary age (Miocene or Pliocene). Almost simultaneously with this authoritative announcement, a young paleobotanist, Mr. David White, of the United States Geological Survey, visited this spot and spent a summer in obtaining a collection of fossil plants. A few fragments had hitherto been found, and one or two of them had been figured in the works of Dr. Hitchcock. But such limited material was of no value. The specimens were obscure, and nothing could be concluded from them. Mr. White made a large collection of fine specimens of fossil plants. They were shipped to Washington, and he has determined them. They are found to be nothing more nor less than types of the Amboy clays of New. Jersey, and therefore represent the Cretaceous. This discovery has a wider significance than the mere proof that the plant bearing strata at least, of Gay Head are Cretaceous; it also proves that the Amboy clays of New Jersey, after passing eastward and reappearing on Long Island stretch still farther in that direction, and probably underlie most of the glacial deposits of Block Island, the Elizabeth Islands, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket. Thus has paleobotany, legitimately employed, set at rest a question which stratigraphical geology could probably never have answered. Many other illustrations of this principle might be given, but this one will suffice for all. There is one other principle to be considered, the ignoring of which has long been a stumbling block to geology, and to paleo- botany as well. It is indeed impossible to overestimate the im- portance of the correct systematic determination of fossil plants. The doubts which exist with regard to the true nature of many of the vegetable objects found in the earth’s strata, have led to great skepticism on the part of many with regard to the value of paleo- botany asa science. Botanists in particular, who have had some- thing to do with paleobotany, are as a rule much disappointed. Accustomed as they are to having before them the entire structure of the plant, all its parts and organs, not only of vegetation, but of reproduction, they have little patience with such fragmentary material as constitutes the bulk of most collections of fossil Geologic Correlation.— Ward. 39 plants. And geologists are apt to reflect their opinions and to join with them in condemning paleobotany. There are two answers to all these objections. There is an answer to the botanist, and a separate answer to the geologist. The answer to the botanist is that, considering the conditions under which we find these specimens, there really does exist a large amount of information of a somewhat exact and reliable kind with regard to the past history of vegetation. Aside from the fact that at some points on the earth’s surface fossil floras are known to exist which almost equal in number of species the ex- isting floras of the same localities, there is the further answer that paleobotany teaches us to study more carefully the fragmentary remains that we find; it sharpens our powers of observation upon the facts which are in our possession and has added not a little to our knowledge of botany proper. For example, it is the habit of botanists to figure leaves so carelessly that the paleobotanist is un- able to tell the genera to which they belong. This is chiefly due to the fact that they ignore, as a rule, the exact nervation of leaves, and are content to figure them almost from the stand- point of the artist, merely for the sake of the effect. Paleobot- any has taught the botanists that the nervation of leaves is im- portant, and that wherever possible it should be carefully figured. We are indebted to fossil plants for the discovery that nervation in leaves is of generic rank, whereas form, upon which the bot- anist chiefly relies, is usually only of specific rank. Leaves, therefore, which show nervation are not useless in determining species, but are valuable, and by them alone genera may in many cases be made out with certainty. Still answering the botanist, it may be further urged with jus- tice, that in the case of nearly all problematical forms as ancient as the Cretaceous, it must not be supposed that the genera can be determined by comparison with genera of living plants. It is to be expected that the genera with which we are dealing in these ancient strata, are extinct, and all that we are called upon to look carefully for is evidence of their being related to or the ancestors of our modern plants. The answer to the geologist is still more conclusive; in fact he has no right to raise any objection whatever, It really makes no difference to him whether the form that the paleobotanist has named, is correctly named or not; this question is one of purely biological importance, it is one of no geological importance. But 40 The American Geologist. January, 1892 that which is of geological importance, is that the form in ques- tion be distinctly recognized, that it be carefully portrayed, and that what has been found be characterized in accurate descriptive language and represented by clear and careful delineation. There must be no doubt when the same form is seen again at a different locality, as to whether it is really the same form. This is a vital point with the geologist. If the form, no matter what it may really be, is something clear and distinct, which can be recognized when seen anywhere, and if it is characteristic of a given horizon or locality, it becomes to that extent of value in fixing the rela- tive age of any other deposit in which it may be found. If only found in two localities or at two points on the earth's surface the deduction, though not absolute, is legitimate that unless there is evidence to the contrary the two localities are of somewhat simi- lar geologic age. But if the object be very abundant, and char- acteristic of some well known group or horizon, then it is that it becomes of great importance as a characteristic fossil, independ- ently of how much may be known of its true botanical nature. Il. Mernops. I propose next to indicate the general method which I have adopted in the application of these principles to geologic correla- tion by the aid of fossil plants. In a broad sense this, of course, consists in the comparison of similar floras, and the conclusion from them of similarity of age; but there are many limiting circumstances to be taken into the account. If the localities at which similar floras occur are not widely separated geographically, the conclusion of similarity of age is more or less reliable. For example, when we find that the flora of the Richmond coalfield is very similar to that of the North Carolina coalfield, the inference that these two coalfields are of similar age is wholly legitimate. And even when we find the same species, to a considerable extent, in the Triassic of New Jersey and in that of Connecticut and Massachusetts as occurring in Virginia and North Carolina, the inference cannot be very wide of the mark that the strata containing these plants were de- posited at about the same time from Massachusetts to North Carolina, In proportion as these similar floras are separated geographi- cally the inference of the similarity of age and deposition grows weaker, but it will remain strong as long as the two localities are on the same continent, or as evidence exists that an unbroken sea Geologic Correlation.— Ward. 41. once stretched all the way from the one to the other, or that sim- ilar lakes or estuaries existed in both parts of the continent at the same time. Such is the case when we compare the Triassic of the eastern states with that of New Mexico, Arizona, and Central America, and although the floras of these widely sep- arated parts of the American continent are considerably differ- ent, still it has been argued by eminent geologists that the oc- currence of a large number of identical species, and a similar facies in the type of plants indicate the former existence of a great Triassic sea of nearly uniform age, from New Mexico to Honduras; and not widely different in age from the correspond- ing one which extended on the eastern side of the continent from Massachusetts to North Carolina. The same principle could be applied to many other epochs in geologic history. What then is the specific method adopted in comparing floras? It may be briefly defined as the preparation of tables of distribu- tion and their discussion. As already remarked, the more com- plete the flora of any group to be considered is the more accurate will be the comparison. Therefore the first work to be done is to make a complete list of all the fossil plants that have been found in the given group. This list of species may be primarily re- ‘garded as wholly unknown geologically. If there are several distinct localities, areas, or basins which are suspected to be of similar age, the species or forms that occur in each of these must first be enumerated separately and compari- sons made to ascertain to what extent they are the same or simi- lar for the different florules. This is what, in my Triassic work I have called the American distribution. The number of forms common to any two such areas will indicate the botanical resem- blance between such two florules. Thus in the Triassic flora of the United States as known at the present time, the following table shows the number of species common to twoor more of the basins: Areas Areas New Jersey New Mexico and Virginia. North Carolina and Pennsylvania. Arizona. Connecticut Valley D 5 6 1 New Jersey and 7 10 2 Pennsylvania... 20 2 Preis hs ee 8s 2 North Carolina.... But as the number of species occurring in the different basins , 42 The American Geologist. January, 1392 is very different these figures might lead to an erroneous im- pression. What it is desired to learn is the relative preponder- ance in any florule of species common to other florules. This can only be shown by a table of percentages. For the Triassic basins of the United States I present this information in the following form: Commontoand Basins or Areas. | Occurring in | Confined to— some other Per cent. in 5 basin other basins. Connecticut Valiey 23 13 i) 39 New Jersey and } | 18 5 13 792 Pennsylvania. § Wate seen ss: 56 34 22 39 North Carolina.... a2 25 27 52 New Mexico and } 1B 1 9 15 Arizona. ..... ) * Considering the well known fact that in almost any new local- ity for fossil plants, the majority of the forms found will be new to science, the percentages of common species here shown, with the exception of the western basin, are large and may fairly be taken to prove actual or approximate contemporaneity of de- position. The next step is to ascertain how many of the species have been found at other localities and horizons. This is what I have denominated their fore‘gn distribution. To show this a table is prepared with columns for such different foreign localities, ar- ranged in ascending geological order, the lines of which are oc- cupied by the species found in the locality to be compared. The species that have been already described from other localities and horizons are then indicated in the proper column by some char- acteristic mark. The range or geologic history of each species is thus recorded upon the same line on which the species is written. Such a detailed table of distribution of the species of any given group, is exceedingly simple and elementary; and in so far as it goesrequires no explanation. But there are other considera- tions to be taken intothe account. Inall the lower forms, consist- ing chiefly of cryptogams, cycads, and conifers, two facts are to be considered: In the first place it is to be remembered that our knowledge of the nature of these ancient forms is not sufficient for us to predicate with certainty their generic relationships. They are usually extinct forms and are given names accordingly as ex- tinct genera. In the second place, as all paleontologists now know, the ancient forms of life on the globe were less definite, or Geologie Correlation.— Ward. 45 as it is expressed in modern scientific language, less completely differentiated than they are at the present day. The consequence is that we are all the time changing from one genus to another, and from one family to another as the evidence accumulates. Now there is no doubt that the later forms of life, both animal and vegetable, have developed from earlier forms, and_ these transition stages in the paleontologic record enforce this truth far more strongly than any facts in the living faunas and floras of the globe. Assuming then that the later floras are derived from the earlier ones, it is of the utmost importance, not only to the botanist, but also to the geologist, to: trace these ancestral rela- tionships of plants, and this can be done with considerable suc- cess. Therefore in the preparation of a table of distribution we must not confine our attention exclusively to the species which are found in the group to be compared. In fact so variable are these ancient forms that it would be impossible to do this. It would be very misleading to be guided exclusively by the names given to the species. The forms differ in different localities by such slight divergences that the personal equation of the describer would vitiate such a calculation. Some would join similar forms from different localities, others would separate them as distinct species, and the history of the nomenclature of paleobotany is merely a record of these apparently conflicting determinations, but which in reality after all, merely show that the forms are more or less closely related, although they can never agree in all respects. This, therefore, is the difficult part of the preparation of a table of distribution, viz., to select not only the species which are universally regarded as identical in two or more horizons, but also such as are believed to be related to those of the group under consideration. There is danger on the one hand of leaving out important related species, and on the other hand of introducing, as related species, those which really have no affinity. Without dwelling upon the details of this difficult part of the task, it must be assumed that the paleobotanist, if skilled in his craft, possesses that judgment which will enable him to distinguish the truly re- lated species from those which are only apparently so. To the species then which all admit to occur at more than one horizon or in more than one place, and which we will, for the sake of brevity, de- nominate identical species, must now be added to those which are related to species of the group, and which may be ealled related t4 Th e AA merican Geologist. January, 1892 or allied species. But this introduces a new element into the table since it is manifestly impossible to indicate these relation- ships by the same means which were used to indicate identity. It is necessary to use a separate line for each of these related species; also to use an additional column at the left hand of the margin in which to write their names. It is then possible to use the same sign for the related species as was used for identical species, and to carry out its geological distribution in the col- umns as above described. Such a table is useful when one wishes to follow out any one particular species, and to‘trace its distribution to other localities and horizons. But it does not give a comprehensive view of the relationships of the flora in general; the data which it contains require to be condensed into more convenient form. The first step in such condensation should probably be the ar- rangement of all the species in the ascending geological order, of the formations in which they also occur. It is instructive in such a table to show the indentical and the related species for each formation separately; that is to say, all the species together which are found at the lowest, next lowest, third lowest forma- tion, etc., of the entire range of the group. In this way those horizons at which the largest number of species occur are clearly g } ) brought into view, not only by the number of species which occur in them, but also by the relative number of those which are identical to those which are merely allied. This condensation may be still further generalized by the re- duction of the list of species to the numerical form; that is, by a statement of the number occurring at each horizon without enumerating the species at length. Just as in the table last men- tioned the same species will often be several times repeated, so in the table now under consideration,* the numbers in the columns include such over-lappings. | Hitherto we have considered the sub-- ject only from the geological standpoint, but it is of interest to geology as well as to botany that some classification be made of the principal types of vegetation embraced in any flora. As the table last described is very short it is possible to introduce some such classification in it. In discussion the Triassic flora, which has. *This table appears in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. iii, p. 29. The larger tables used to illustrate this paper will be published in my essay on correlation, in preparation. Geologie Correlation.— Ward. 45 been the basis of my remarks upon the method pursued, I have here shown the number in each horizon respectively, of ferns, equiseta, rhizocarps, cycads, and conifers, these being the only types represented in the foreign distribution of that flora. The method of reasoning with regard to the age of the forma- tion from data of this kind, is important to be considered. The usual way is to prepare only some such extended table as the first one described, often without taking account of related species, and then to proceed to discuss each species and its bearings upon the age of the group. The data thus considered are only abso- lute, not relative, and conclusions drawn from them are apt to be very misleading. I have frequently pointed out that the great mistakes of Heer and Lesquereux in placing the American plant- bearing strata too high in the geological scale was due to this fallacy. These geologists compared the Dakota group flora, the Laramie group flora, and all the higher floras of the United States with those of the Miocene of Europe and of the Tertiary of the polar regions. They laid great stress on the fact that species were found in these formations which could not be dis- tinguished from American species, or which could scarcely be so distinguished. Such an argument is of little value in view of the immense magnitude of the Tertiary floras considered. The Ter- tiary flora of Europe embraces elements of antecedent floras, and it is so well preserved that the number of these pre-Tertiary forms, holding over into the Tertiary, is far greater than the number of pre-Tertiary forms that have thus far been found in lower formations, which have yielded comparatively few plants A comparison, therefore, of the American Laramie group, for example, with the European Tertiary alone without considering the European Cretaceous flora, and without noting this continu- ance of Cretaceous types into Tertiary time, proved to be ex- tremely misleading, and resulted in the general impression, which still prevails in Europe, that our Laramie group is of Tertiary age. Perceiving this fallacy | was the first, and so far as | know, am the only one, to attempt an enumeration of the Cretaceous species of fossil plants with a view to their comparison with those of the Laramie group of the United States. * The system which I have just described obviates this fallacy. *Synopsis of the Flora of the Laramie Group. Sixth Ann. Rept. of the U.S. Geol, Surv., pp. 445-514. 46 The American Geologist. January, 1892 In fact it makes a comparison of the forms determined with those of all the formations in which any of its species occur, In rea- soning with regard to it, therefore, one is constantly checked in considering any particular horizon, by the facts relating to the horizons both above and below. For example, in treating the Triassic flora in the numerical table last described, if one’s atten- tion were confined either to the Oolite or to the Lias, one might conclude that either of these formations was near to the one to be determined. But dropping the eye down the column to the Rhetie it is observed that a considerably larger percentage of the same species, both identical and related, occur in this. So great was this similarity that Professor Fontaine decided that this must represent the nearest approach in geologic age to the Richmond coalfield. But the subsequent researches of Stur, with which Professor Fontaine was, of course, unacquainted, in the Keuper formation of Lunz, in Austria, and in the Keuper floras of Europe of nearly the same age, especially those of Raibl in Carinthia, and of Neue Welt in Switzerland, have shown that the Keuper flora of Europe, although much less abundant, contains a larger number of American Triassic forms than does the Rhetic flora of Franconia, South Sweden, Brunswick, ete. So that al- though only a very few American forms occur at any horizon lower than these, nevertheless we seem compelled to conclude that this Upper Keuper horizon of Lunz, Austria, comes nearer to that of the American plant-bearing Triassic deposits than does any other in the world. Now the question may arise whether all this really proves any- thing. Where two floras as old as the Trias and as widely sepa- rated as Austria and Virginia are found to agree so remarkably in the forms they contain, is it legitimate to conclude that the age of the one was the same as that of the other? Certainly not. And yet, if facts like this do not prove that there existed an epoch on both sides of the Atlantic, which to all intents and pur- poses may be regarded as simultaneous, then all paleontologic data are without value. The fact to be borne in mind is that the correlation established by such data is homotactic and not neces- sarily chronologic. Reasons may exist why the same types may have come upon the stage at a later or earlier period at one of these localities than at the other. But of the nature of these retardations or advancements we are without scientific explana- Limestone Strauta.— Blake. AT tion. What we possess is the general fact that a similar flora once existed in two partsof the world very widely separated, and until some other facts are discovered which complicate and vitiate such a conclusion, it is both safe and useful for the geologist to regard the two deposits as belonging to the same geologic age. There are certain limitations within which this must be true, and when these limitations are recognized the paleontologist may as safely draw his conclusions as he could before the law of homo- taxis had been formulated. Age or FHE LIMESTONE STRATA OF DEEP CREEK, UTAH, AND THE OCCURRENCE OF GOLD IN THE CRYSTALLINE POR- TIONS OF THE FORMATION. By WitiraM P. Biake, Shullsburg, Wis. The Deep Creek region, so called, lies along the western border of Utah territory and nearly southwest of the Great Salt lake. It borders upon the state of Nevada, and has lately been brought into prominence by reason of the development of deposits of argentiferous lead ores and of auriferous copper ores. The pre- vailing formations are granite and limestone. The limestone is largely developed, and forms ranges of hills and mountains of considerable extent, trending generally in a northerly and southerly direction, parallel with the ranges of Tintic and of the southern end of Salt lake. The principal range, known as the Ibapah, forms the eastern side of Deep Creek valley. Ibapah mountain, the highest peak of the range, is said to be the highest mountain in Utah; higher even than any of the grand mountain masses of the Wahsatch, not excepting Mt. Nebo. Ibapah is flanked on the north by massive strata of limestone, which in some places, notably at Gold Hill, are much uplifted and metamorphosed apparently by intrusions of granitic and porphyritic dykes, the alteration consisting in loss of color (the ordinary grayish-blue color being changed to white), a coarse crystallization, and the formation of a variety of silicates, such as garnet, tremolite and tourmaline, especially near the planes of , 48 The American Geologist. January, 1892 contact with the dykes. There is also more or less mineralization in places, either in the form of vein-like beds, or in isolated patches and bunches at a considerable distance from any erystal- line rock—hbut not outside of the crystalline and whitened por- ly tions of the limestone. his last observation applies particularly to some of the copper ores found in the midst of the limestone existing primarily as the variegated sulphuret—erubescite. These. ore nodules have decomposed and have formed green carbonate of copper, which stains the rock for a considerable distance around and beyond the original nodule, or bunch, of sulphide. In such places free gold of high grade may be found by crushing and washing the rock. This noble metal occurs also independently of any cupriferous mineralization in the midst of masses of colorless tremolite, in coarse grains and strings in very much the- same form in which it is found in other regions ramifying through quartz. This is an unusual and unique association of gold. It has been found, but rarely, in close association with greenish black hornblende in veins composed partly of quartz and partly of dolomite, but never before, to my knowledge, in white tremo- lite. This tremolite carries, also, some small disseminated erys- tals of iron pyrites. The limestone in which the gold occurs appears to be the Lower Carboniferous, or Mountain limestone, as shown by an abundance of fossils, chiefly of the genus Productus, founda short distance vast of Gold Hill. From the fact that coarse gold in placer deposits has been found at Osceola and its vicinity, nearly south of the [bapah mountain, it would appear that there is a gold region extending north and south near the Nevada and Utah line, and that the placers were formed during the period of great precipitatiom or rainfall which preceded the present era of gradual dessication At the place where gold is now taken from heavy deposits of boulders and gravel, the flow of water is wholly inadequate to the formation of such deposits. Probably the deposits were formed during the great glacial epoch of which there are such magnificent records in the Sierra Nevada, and the Wahsatch as well as in the ancient beaches of lake Bonneville. A good supply of water, even for ordinary purposes, is now one of the greatest needs of the Deep Creek region. EDITORIAL COMMENT. ARCHEAN ERUPTIVE ROCKS OF FINNLAND. Studien ueber achaische Hruptivgesteine aus dem sud westlichen Finnland. yon J.J. SEDERHOLM. (Minerulog. und petrogr. Mitth. XIT, 1891. This paper is an interesting and clear statement of the results of detailed geological and petrographical.studies, in a field whose general features have already been described and mapped by Dr. Sederholm, in the Swedish language. The Archean age of the rocks investigated is determined by the geological condition which obtains generally throughout very extensive regions in Finnland, viz: that the Cambrian and Silurian rocks are found constantly in a perfectly horizontal and undis- turbed attitude, while the underlying pre-Cambrian have been much folded and altered. In the field described by Dr. Seder- holm the immediate superposition of the Cambrian is not ob- served, but the rocks he treats of are identical petrographically and in the conditions of their occurrence, disturbance and altera- tion with rocks the pre-Cambrian age of which is demon- strated; so that he infers them to have been in existence prior to the great epochs of disturbance and erosion, which antedated the Cambrian in this part of Kurope, and hence Archeean. Among the different formations which the author recognizes and describes may be mentioned first a series of phyllites, mica schists and hornblende schists, all of which appear to be altered sedimentary rocks. These altered sedimentary formations are surrounded by granite rocks, which penetrate them in innumer- able dykes and veins, both transverse and parallel to the planes of schistosity. Fora-portion of these granites the term ‘‘Adergueiss”’ is used as descriptive of its intimate interveining with the schists. Occurring in extensive masses there are two chief varieties of granites of quite different age, viz: (1). A gray granite, rich in plagioclase and having generally hornblende as a constituent. This possesses often such a well marked parallel structure that it is commonly alluded to as gneiss. This parallel structure is held to be a pressure effect. In the midst of this granite there occur masses of basic rocks sometimes several kilometers in extent, but generally much smaller. These pass by gradations into the envel- oping granite, and are held to be more basic separations or seere- 50 The American Geologist. January, 1892 tions from the same magma. These basic masses are now in part much altered, but they may be classed with the d/orites. gabbros and peridotites. This gray granite formation is shewn to cover a much more extensive area than the schists, and it is held to constitute a geological unit and to be younger than the schists with which it is in contact. (2.) A reddish granite with garnets The feldspar is chiefly microcline, which is often in part intergrown with quartz in the manner of pegmatite. The mica is chiefly and sometimes exclu- sively muscovite. The coarser varieties of this muscovite gran- ite pass into pegmatite. This red granite is younger than the gray granite. The red granite also shews very commonly a parallel structure, but this cannot be ascribed so definitely to. pressure effects as in the case of the older granite, but it is rather to be referred to some primary condition. Associated with these formations there is in the middle portion of the region examined a long belt, varying in width from two to seven kilometers, composed of fine grained rocks rich in hornblende, of which the most typical variety possesses a well marked porphyritic structure, and is known as wrulitporphyrite. There are some minor varieties referred to, as melaphyre, plagioclase porphyrite, and amygdaloid, which are genetically allied to the typical uralitporphyrite. Out- side of this belt there are other occurrences, but of limited extent. Notwithstanding the great alteration which these rocks have under- gone, it is possible to recognize their original characters. They constitute a series which accords perfectly with some of the younger volcanic rocks. The occurrence of vesicles, of rocks which were originally glassy, and of tuffs and other volcanic ejectamenta is proof of the fact that for the development of these great eruptive formations there must have been a true voleanic activity. There was first an eruption of a comparatively acid magma, which solidified as a highly feldspathic andesite. There was at the same time, however, also a basic magma produced, from which arose melaphyre and plagioclase porphyrite. The cause of the metamorphism of these rocks is sought for in the strong mountain folding which occurred in pre-Cambrian time. By this agency the eruptive formations buried deep in the crust were folded together and altered apparently under the influence of solution. The relative age of these various geological forma- tions is determined by the following facts: The wralite porphyrite kditorial Comment. 51 formation is found in contact with the gray granite and the dio- ritic rocks genetically associated with it; it is also found in con- tact with the schists and with the red granite. From a critical study of these various contacts it is evident that the uralite por- phyrite formation is younger than the gray granite and the schists, but older than the red granite. Since the gray granite pierces the schists the latter are the oldest formation. The sequence of formations in order of relative age is therefore as follows: 1. Phyllites and schists. 2. Gray granite and associated diorites. 3. Uralite porphyrite and associated rocks. 4. Younger red granite. At the time of the extravasation of the uralite porphyrite the schistose rocks had already been folded, and so deeply eroded that the underlying granitic masses were exposed. — It is probable, however, from the fact that the uralite porphyrite sheets are so often found in contact with the schists and phyllites, that the lat- ter were not extensively or completely folded up at the time of the outflow of the voleanic rocks, and that a great portion of the disturbance was effected after that event so that the porphyrites were effected by it. . The red granite traverses the uralite porphyrite in numerous places, but the contact metamorphism is insignificant, and the alteration of the volcanic rock is, as above stated, ascribed rather to agencies attendant upon crust crumpling forces. A perusal of the paper suggests some interesting points of analogy with the geology of the somewhat similar regions of Canada. For instance the horizontality of the Cambrian of Finn- land is comparable with the flat undisturbed attitude of the Animikie rocks of lake Superior. The absence of any observable basement for the altered schistose sedimentary formations and the occupancy of the place of that basement by an irruptive and younger granite appears to be very analogous to the conditions which obtain in central Canada, as observed by Dr. A. C. Lawson, in British Columbia as described by Dr. G. M. Dawson, and in Nova Scotia as inferred from the descriptions of Mr. Faribault. The gneissic character of the irruptive granites is also another feature which the rocks of Finnland and Canada have in common. And the establishment of the existence of true voleanie rocks, though much altered, in the Archean of Finnland is in harmony 52 The American Geologist. January, 1892 with the conclusions which have been reached regarding the char- acter of many of the rocks of the Keewatin (Archean) group in the region northwest of lake Superior. EARLIEST MAN IN AMERICA, The AmeERICAN GxEoLoGIstT, Vol. VIII, p. 180, September, 1891, and the American Naturalist, Vol. XXYV., pp. 991 and 1054, November, 1891, note the important additions that have been made to our knowledge of ancestral human types by the discoveries of MM. Lohest and Fraipont, of Liége, Belgium. These discoveries, together with similar discoveries at Canstadt and elsewhere in Europe, establish the fact that the anomalous cranium, known as the Neanderthalskull, which has been discussed with more or less energy since 1857, represents a race of men once widely distributed throughout Europe, and not, as has been over and over again suggested, a mere individual peculiarity. The object of this-note is not to discuss these discoveries, but to point out the fact that America was once occupied by a race of low-browed men, that were in all respects as degraded as the men of Neanderthal or Canstadt. Dr. J. W. Foster* was among the first to call attention to the fact that tumuli in the Mississippi valley furnished crania char- acterized by great development of the supra-orbital ridges, low, retreating forehead, and zygomatic arches projecting beyond the general contour of the face. The skull from ‘‘Kennicott’s mound,” near Chicago,7 had it been found in Kurope, would be regarded as a fairly typical cranium of the Neanderthal or Can- stadt race. A cranium from the region of Dubuque, Lowa, is equally as flat and as destitute of forehead as the famous Nean- derthal skull. Dr. Lapham, speaking of the peculiarities of two skulls preserved at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, refers in particular to the ‘low forehead, prominent superciliary ridges, the zygomatic arches swelling out beyond the walls of the skull, and especially the prominence of the occipital ridge. ”’t Four crania exhumed and described by Mr. C. L. Webster be- long to the same degraded type. One of these from near Floyd, Towa, is figured in the American Naturalist, Vol. XXII, Plate *Pre-historic Races, Chap. VIII. tFoster’s Pre-historic Races, p. 280. {Private correspondence of Dr. Lapham quoted by Foster. Pre-his- toric Races, p. 290. . ee; Editorial Comment. 53 VIII, Figs. 1 and 2. Three others were from Old Chickasaw, Iowa, and are referred to on page 650, of same volume of the Naturalist. Mr. M. W. Davis, of Iowa City, Iowa, has a cranium taken from a mound in Johnson county, which exhibits many of the same racial characteristics. Skulls of the same type are known from Indiana. In fact a low-browed, ape-like race of men was as fully developed and as widely distributed in America as in Europe. There is reason also to believe that man was present in America at as early a period as the first record of his appearance in Europe. The arrow points found by professor Aughey in undisturbed beds of Loéss* at different points in Nebraska and lowa, attest the presence of man in the Missouri valley in close proximity to the edge of the retreating glaciers. The human implements found in the Lquus beds of the basin region indicate the presence of man in Nevada about the time he made his appearance in lowaand Nebraska. The early low-browed American had for contemporaries an as- semblage of animals similar to those with which the Neanderthal man was associated. The Lyuus beds contain remains of two or three extinct horses, an elephant similar to the hairy elephant of Quaternary Europe, a musk-ox, Ovibos cavifrons Leidy, and others for which see the writings of Cope,t Russellf and Gilbert. 2 Some recent discoveries in South America point to a race even more ancestral than that indicated by the flat crania of the Mississippi valley. The question may now arise whether man did not originate on the American continent. The eastern continent received its horses and camels from America; why may it not also have received from the same source its earliest stock of flat- skulled men? COMPANIONS OF EOZOON. The constant recession of the beginning of life to lower and lower horizons, is like the constant retreat of the rainbow before the boy who follows it in the hope of finding the promised pot of gold. Most geologists of middle life can recall the time when the lowest fossiliferous strata were those lying about the base of the Ordovician or Lower Silurian system. Below this was a chaos, *Hayden’s Annual Rept. of the U. S. Geol. & Geog. Survey of the Territories for 1874. Washington, 1876. p. 250. tBulletin U.S. Geol. & Geog. Survey of the Territories. Vol. V. p. 48. Am. Naturalist, Vol. XVI. p. 194. {Fourth Ann. Rept. U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 460. SLake Bonneville, U.S. Geol. Survey. Monographs, I. p. 394, 54 The American Geologist. January, 1892 not indeed without fossils but in which fossils were exceedingly scarce. Now, however, the immense Cambrian system has been erected in this chaotic region with its three divisions, each holding a characteristic fauna, and geologists are venturing on yet farther conquests in the same direction. The vast Pre-Cambrian masses intervening between the Cambrian and the true Archzean are be- coming more and more a field for careful investigation, and slowly we are finding traces of forms of lowly life that inhabited the an- cient seas wherein those rocks were formed. Behind these zons of Pre-Cambrian time lie the Archzean ages, and even these are not too old to yield traces of life. For thirty years has the spectral Hozoon canadense stood before the world as u paleontologic problem; on one hand stoutly defended by its foster father, Sir William Dawson, and a few faithful friends, and on the other attacked by almost all other students of the Foramini- fera. In the report of Dr. Frazer to the International Congress in 1888, as given in this magazine for September of that year, are the opinions of fourteen geologists, of whom only three, Daw- son, Hunt and Walcott, pronounced in its favor. It is scarcely possible to doubt that not a few of these were in- fluenced against Kozoon by its loneliness. Standing solitary as the single relic of the life of the dim and distant Archeean, it was surrounded with a haze that no geological telescope could entirely pierce. For this reason it was exposed, and naturally so, to sus- picion that would not have been felt had other organisms of similar date been known or even suspected. From this point of view some of the recent work of Canadian geologists is of very great interest. In his address as president of the Natural History Society, of New Brunswick, Mr. G. F., Matthew has reported some remarkable discoveries among the Archean rocks of Canada, After noticing several connected matters, Mr. Matthew says: “It is with pleasure that I am able to call your attention to the existence, in your neighborhood, of remains of organic forms of an antiquity far antedating the Cambrian age, “As we have at St. John a definite base to the Cambrian sys- tem, and since these basal rocks carry the very oldest Cambrian fauna known, we are sure of the greater antiquity of the organic forms to which IT refer. ‘ — Review of Recent Geological Literature. 55 ‘The rocks have been described in the reports of the geological survey of Canada, as the ‘‘Upper Series” of the Laurentian area, and in this the fossils to which I refer have been found.” In a subsequent paper read before the same society, Mr. Mat- thew described these organisms. The first which he has named Archwozoon acadiense is, he says, more nearly related to the Cryptozoon of Prof. Hall than to Kozoon, but differs from both. Jo the naked eye it resembles pieces of fossil wood, and it occurs in immense numbers in a reef of limestone. Again in a later paper Mr. Matthew describes some other forms. One is Cyathospongia? eozoica and consists of parallel and forked spicules crossed by others at right angles ornearly so. The other is Halichondrites graphitiferus, also a sponge, the spicules of which occur in immense numbers on the surface of the graphitic shales of the Upper Laurentian rocks of St. John, N. B. The importance and interest of these venerable fossils it is diffi- cult to overestimate. ‘If sponges and Foraninifera have come down to us from the Upper Laurentian rocks there is less reason to be sceptical regarding the organic nature of Eozoon, if the Archzean seas were tenanted by such creatures we may yet hope one day to have a fauna and flora of reasonable abundance from these old and crystalline limestones and their metamorphosed shales. We can no longer say that Eozoon stands alone a soli- tary relic, and scepticism on this ground has no longer any logical standing-place. There remains, however, still unsettled the question of the age of this ‘‘Upper Laurentian,” or so called Archean. Recent studies in the ‘‘Archzean” in the United States have shown that much of the limestone and quartzite, which by geologists thirty and forty years ago, were placed in the ‘Laurentian,’ or more frequently in the ‘‘Upper Laurentian,” belong in the primordial zone. ‘This evidence is not only stratigraphic, but is also pal- eontologic. On this recourse the opponents of the Kozoon may still object to its Archean age, if not to its assumed organic origin. REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LV RA eer: Geological Survey of Missour?. Anruur WINSLOW, state geologist. Bulletin No. 5 contains: The age and origin of the crystalline rocks of Missouri, Erasmus Haworrnu, and Notes on the clays and building-stones 56 The American Geologist. January, 1892 of certain western-central counties tributary to Kansas City, G. E, Lapp. Mr. Haworth apparently reverses at once the prevalent idea of the origin of the crystalline rocks ofMissouri. Formerly Prof. Pumpelly had repre- sented them as largely or wholly derived from sediments, and Swallow had only admitted the granites and the porphyries to be eruptive. Mr. Haworth notes in the field the following evidences of their eruptive origin, (1) absence of true bedding, (2) flow and banded structure and lithophysve, (8) breccia, (4) scoria and amygdalcids, (5) tuffs, (6) absence of gradation of crystalline into non-crystalline rock. The petrographic evidence he discusses under the following divisions, (1) texture of the ground mass in the porphyries and breccias, (2) flow structure in the porphyries and breccias, (3) broken crystals due to flowage of the lava after the crystals were formed, (4) Magmatic corrosion of porphyritic crystals and of fragments in the breccia, (5) amygdaloids, (6) absence of metamorphic minerals. The rocks, taken together, he accepts as “Archean,” but he does not define Archean. When it be remembered that “Archean” has been made, very generally, until quite recently, to embrace all crystalline rocks below the Lower Silurian, but that there is a complex of primordial crystallines, as lately demonstrated in Minnesota and New Jersey, which has an im- portant bearing on the limits of the true Archean, it would have been wellif Mr. Haworth had gone a step further, if possible, and indicated whether it is not likely that the crystalline rocks about Pilot Knob belong to the crystallines of Taconic age. Their lithology seems to exclude them from the true Archean, and to point to the Labradorian, or erup- tive age of the Taconic. Descriptions of Four New Species of Fossils from the Silurian Rocks of The Southeastern, Portion of the District af) Baskatchenan, By asain Wurrkaves. This small pamphlet of ten pages and one plate is re- printed from 7’he Canadian Record of Science. April, 1891. The fossils described were discovered by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell while making explora- tions for the Geological Survey of Canada. The localities are on Cedar lake and on the Saskatchewan river below Cedar lake. The horizon is Upper Silurian. The species are Strophomena acanthoptera, Pentamerus decussatus, Gomphoceras parvulum, and Acidaspis perarmata. Contributions to Canadian Micro-paleontology. Part Ill. By Pror., T. RureErt Jonsgs, F. R.S., F. G.S. The sub-title of this paper, Ov some Ostracoda from the Cambro-Silurian, Silurian and Devonian Rocks, fully expresses its scope and object. There are forty-one pages of text and four plates. Laboratory Practice, « series of experiments on the fundamental principles of chemistry. A companion volume to“The New Chemistry.” By Jostan Parsons Cooke, LL.D. 12 mo, 192 pp., 1891, D. Appleton & Co., New York. This little book is what it purports to be; the chemical principles are demonstrated by simple experiments, and during their performance exact observation and careful noting of all phenomena are inculcated. There are first several experiments with water, demonstrating its density, expansion by heat and by freezing, its distillation, conductivity of heat, . Review of Recent Geological Literature. 5T its latent heat, its conversion to steam, its solvent power and its action as a chemical agent and compound. Air is then taken as an example of aériform matter, and the student is put through various experiments, under the guidance of an instructor to show the weight of air, its relation. of volume to pressure (Law of Mariotte), its eXpansion, and tension in relation to heat and to its content of aqueous vapor. Oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur and indeed all the common elements are thus analyzed, together’ with their combinations, their properties discovered, or demonstrated, and made familiar by repeated operations and accompanying questions. which present the substances in different lights. Thus all the funda- mental principles also of molecular and atomic weights and their calcu- lation are illustrated. This leads on to chemical symbols and notation and quantivalent expressions. The beginner who conscientiously pur- sues the course marked out cannot fail to become grounded thoroughly in the fundamental principles of chemistry, and he must conceive a sin- cere love for the science and a reverence for the constancy of nature’s. laws, if not for the simplicity with which they may be demonstrated. Report on the geology of the four counties, Union, Snyder, Mifflin and Juniata, with descriptions of the fossil ore mines, Marcellus carbonate ore mines, Oriskany glass sand mines and Lewistown limestone quarries; illustrated by two colored geological maps. E. V. D’INviniiERs. Re- port F,, of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; a report of progress, 420 pp., 1888-1889. Harrisburg, 1891. This adds another valuable number to that large series of publications devoted to the detailed description of the counties of Pennsylvania. The accompanying maps show that the area described is one of the most complicated in the Appalachian region of the state. Mr. D’Invil- liers has wrought patiently and well, and has put his results simply yet clearly and compactly into print. The volume will bear with important testimony on the correlations which yet have to be made of the forma- tions of the state, whether between those of New York or Virginia and those of Pennsylvania, or those of Pennsylvania within the limits of Pennsylvania. It is an important and a great service yet due to geology in America, that the elaborate survey that has been carried on in Penn- sylvania for so many years under Dr. Lesley, shall be rounded out with a final report, showing some symmetry and general conclusions. The re- ports printed otherwise will fail of much of the good which their cost seems to warrant us to expect from them. We judge from Mr. Lesley’s letter of transmittal that such a report is in preparation. On some new fishes from South Dakota. FE. D. Cork (Am. Naturalist, July, 1891, pp. 654-58). Five new species are described, G.phyrura con- centrica,? Sardinius blackburnti, Proballostomus longulus, Oligoplarchus squamipinnis and Mioplosus multidentatus. Mr. Cove regards their characters sufficient to exclude them from the Cretaceous. Their age is. Cenozoic, but whether Eocene or Neocene is uncertain. The rock is soft and chalky, and the fossils are from the Ree hills. Onanew horizon in the St. John Group. G. FE. Marrnew (Canadian 58 The American Geologist. January, 1892 Record of Science, Oct., 1891, pp. 139-43). By the aid of Mr. G. Stead, Prof. Matthews has found, on Navy island, in St. John harbour, abun- dant specimens of Dictyonema flabelliforme, in black shales of Division three (Bretonian) of his St. John group. The Tremadoc fauna, however, which is near the same horizon, is thought not to be on the island, but to the north of it, in the channel of St. John river. Associated with Dicty- onema he found also the brachiopods Obolus, somewhat like O. apollonis, Obolella, Linnarssonia and a Lingula or Linguella. The Story of the Hills, a book about mountains for general readers. Rev. H. N. Hurcurnson, 12mo, pp. 357, Macmillan & Co., New York and Lon- don, 1892. Although this is a popular work it is based on a thorough knowledge of the geology of the subject. It illustrates how vastly the popular science of the day is improved over that of a century ago. In- deed the work here put forth as adapted to general readers would have been welcomed then as an addition to technical, or at least to philosoph ical geology. It embodies in a pleasant style much of the philosophy of the formation, age, erosion and uses of mountains, volcanoes, glaciers, sedimentation, pressure and upheaval. Correlation Papers of the U. S. Geological Survey ; Devonian and Carbon- iferous. H.S. Wii11aMs, Bulletin No. 80, Washington, 1891. In his consideration of the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks profes- sor Williams discusses several problems connected with the subject, after he has given a general review of the literature. He examines in considerable detail the state of opinion regarding classification and nomenclature from the beginning of the century up to 1851. The Wer- nerian system, based upon mineralogical characters, long retarded the advance of geological knowledge, and it was only after the completion of the report of the geological survey of New York that the science advanced with any rapidity. The New York geologists, following the methods of Sedgwick and Murchison, finally gave to the world the ““New York system,” which, although somewhat defective, established a standard for the rocks of this country. Prof. Williams advocates the separation of the study of the geologist and the paleontologist; he believes the work of the former should be to carefully observe the characters of the formations, describe their various features, preserve their fossils and so arrange his observations that “distinct association will be found in the name applied to each formation with the observations actually made in the field. The refer- erence,” he says, “of each particular formation to a place in some stand- ard scale should not be made without careful study. This careful study cannot be made independently of the fossils, for fossiliferous rocks, and in order that the paleonto'ogist may make his studies without prejudice, the names of the formations, their localities, and their petrographic characters should be described and recorded, quite independently of the fossils which they contain.” (p 55.) The use of the term “ New York system” is argued against inasmuch as it is considered an imperfect division of geological time. He advo- Review of Recent Geological Literature. 59 cates the addition of the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania, and then a natural group of the first order would be produced, nearly equal to the Paleozoic era. “Were we to adopt for this grand terrane the name Appa- lachian group, we should have a properly constituted name for an actual, existing geologic group, free from theory, and its use would probably assist in the progress of science.” (p 60.) He would discard certain lithological names still used in classifications, as age can never be de- termined by lithological characters. “It can be indicated only by that which changes with time under the influence of some definite law, and fossils alone have this value.” In addition to his disbelief in the value of lithological features in determining the age of rocks, Prof. Williams has but little faith in what is called “persistent parallelism of strata,” without the aid of fossils. He points out several erroneous correlations made by this “parallelism.” One of these was by Hall who, claiming he had traced the rocks step by step from New York to the Mississippi valley, stated that the Waverly sandstone of Ohio was the same as the Chemung and Portage groups of New York. (p. 63.) Other mistakes were made by the geologists of the Second Pennsylvania Survey, who, assuming an average direction and rate of dip, identified formations by their altitude. The outcrops were followed from ravine to ravine or from quarry to quarry, and though the same method was pursued by both Mr. White and Mr. Carll, when the correlations reached Chautauqua county it was found that Mr.White cor related the Panama conglomerate with the third oil sand of Venango county, while Carll placed it entirely below the Venango oil group. Prof Williams says: “The fact seems to be, as we review the records of the survey, that the data of lithologic character of rocks and of thickness of the deposits were so constantly variable that the ‘theory of persistent parallelism of strata’ was little more than a theory, the exceptions to which were as numerous as the illustrations. It was a cut-and-try system of match ing together innumerable sections made up of irregular combinations of shales, sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones of various color, thickness, and texture. Whenever the gaps were over a mile or two long the adjustment of the theoretical dip, a few feet more or less to the mile, would enable the parallelism to fit any particular stratum in a given section. The fact that those who showed evidence of having noted the fossils, although they may not have identified them, were invariably nearer right than those who neglected them, strengthens the belief that the fossils, even in this case, were the most valuable means of -correlation.” (pp 111-112.) Among the various problems discussed we find the differentiation of the Carboniferous system: the Coal Measures or Pennsylvanian series: the Lower Carboniferous of the Appalachians and of the Mississippi valley: the Chemung-Catskill problem: the Waverly problem: and the Permian problem. The use of the name “Carboniferous” is considered unfortunate, and Prof. Williams advocates its abandonment in favor of the “Pennine system,” inasmuch as it is in the Pennine chain of hills 60 Js he American Geol Og ist. January, 1892" that the typical Carboniferous section is found. (p. 81.) The limits of the system here are well defined both above and below, but in other places it shades off into the Devonian below or the Permian above. In these cases an arbitrary line must be drawn to indicate the limits of each.. Again in the discussion of the Lower Carboniferous strata of the Mississippi valley, it is proposed to use the term Mississippian series in place of the old name Subcarboniferous, upon the ground that the old name is inappropriate, and was ‘introduced as an expression of confus- ion and dissatisfaction with the correlations attempted.” (p. 142.) This is a slight modification of the late Dr. Winchell’s term Mississippi, ap- plied by himto the same series of strata. American geologists have not hitherto fallen in with the recommendation, and they may be slow to follow Prof. Williams in both of these proposed changes. The scheme proposed for the Subcarboniferous rocks of the Mississippi valley is as follows: ee { Chester. Genevieve Group..~ St. Louis. | Warsaw (in part). MISSISSIPPIAN t Series. | Osage Group....... | Subcarboniferous. | } ) Keokuk. | Burlington. j Chouteau lime-stone and the **Verm- Chouteau Group...- icular” and “Lithographic” formations | ( of Broadhead. In the chapter on the Permian problem the conclusion is reached that as far as the strata of Kansas and Nebraska are concerned there is no Permian system, the passage from the Coal Measures being gradual and not abrupt. The application of the term is here considered purely artific- ial, and induced by those who sought to force a correlation between the rocks of Europe and America. As for the Permian ranking asa separate system he says it is still an open question, “and bids fair to continue so: until a natural method of classification for the time-scale be devised, which shall be independent of the lithologic character of the rocks.” (p. 209.) The general remarks and conclusions are well worthy of careful pe- rusal. That to paleontology is given the first place in all correlations is. evident throughout the work. We have already shown his opinion of the theory of “persistent parallelism of strata” and it is reiterated on page 263. Here, also, he refers to the value of fossils, correlations by their aid being based upon actual evidence, which can be corrected by a criti- cal review; while the particular form of any organic structure is consid- ered determined by heredity and environment. “Hence we may deduce the law that, given the locality and the conditions of environment, the fossil has in itself the evidence of its geologic age.” (p. 263.) In the Mississippian province he advocates a structural and a time scale of for- mations. From the first point of view there should be an increase in the number of formations; while from the paleontological standpoint the classification is too minute and the number of formation should be re- duced. A new feature is introduced in the consideration of geographical features as modifying geological classification, but it is not elaborated to =—— oa Recent Publications. 61 anyextent. It having been demonstrated that classification cannot be based upon the uniformity of lithological constitution, and that uni-. formity of stratigraphy cannot be relied upon for correlations “the modern school of paleontologists are demonstrating the fact that the divisional lines marking the biologic or time scale do not correspond to those of the structural or stratigraphic scale, but are determined by in- dependent factors. In the classification of rock furmations the character of the formations should receive chief consideration, but the particular geologic period in which the sediments are deposited has practically no relation to the nature of the sediments or their amount or their physical arrangement as geologic deposits. It is, hence, a grave question whether the development of our science does not demand that geo- graphic factors should take precedence of time factors in all classi- fications of geologic formations.” (p. 267.) The standpoint of the new school of paleontologists of which professor Williams is an able exponent, is summed up in the concluding para- graph of the Bulletin. According to the Darwinian idea of species, as opposed to the Cuverian, “the modification of organic form is conceived as not an arbitrary matter, but as correlated with difference of envi- ronment and of genetic relationship, so that the lesser variations of specific form are of as great value to the modern paleontologist for pur- poses of correlation as is the identity of species. Comparison of allied species in the same genus exhibits to him the rate and direction of modification taking place in the genetic history of the genus, and in the plastic or variable characters he finds a sensitive indicator of the stage of development attained by the race when the particular individual lived. Biological study shows him that the fossils must contain intrinsic evidence of their geologic age independent of the formations in which they were buried,and his chief work is to learn what this evidence is and how to interpret it. To such evidence the final appeal must be made in all cases of the correlation of geologic formations.” (p 269.) Taken as a whole the Bulietin under review cannot but be regarded as a valuable contribution to the philosophy of geology; and while some of the conclusions of the author may not meet with the approval of all, they at least merit consideration. Some portions of the volume show signs of haste in preparation; and it would have been a valuable addi- tion had there been given a list of the books and papers consulted or re- ferred to in the course of preparation of the Bulletin. RECENT PUBLICATIONS. I. State and Government Reports. Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas, 1888. Vol. IV. Part I. Geology of Washington County; Part IT. List of the Plants of Arkansas. Ditto, 1890. Vol. I. Manganese: Its Uses, Ores, and Deposits. By R. A. F. Penrose, Jr. 62 The American Geologist. January, 1892 Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Can- ada. Vol. IV. (N. 5.) 1888-89. Il. Proceedings of Setentifie Societies. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1891. Part II, April-August, contains: Echinoderms and Arthropods from Japan, by J. E. Ives; Notice of Some Entozoa, by Joseph Leidy; Note on Mesozoic Mammalia, by O. C. Marsh; Fossil Faunas in Central Iowa, by Charles IR. Keyes; On Paramelaconite and the Associated Minerals, by G. A. Koenig; Echinoderms from the Bahama Islands, by J. E. Ives; Memoir of Joseph Leidy, by H. C. Chapman; Mollusca from Nantucket, Mass., by H. A. Pilsbry; Geological Features of the Meteoric Tron Locality in Arizona, by A. E. Foote. III. Papers in Scéentifie Journals. Am. Jour. Sci -tug. Vo. contains: Some features of the non-voleanic ejections as illustrated in the four “rocks” ofthe New Haven region, West Rock, Pine Rock, Mill Rock and East Rock, James D. Dana; Notes of a Reconnaissance of the Onachita mountain system in In- dian Territory, Robt. T. Hill; Note on the asphaltum of Utah and Colo- rado, by Geo. H. Stone; A gold-bearing hot spring deposit, Walter H. Weed; Restoration of Stegosaurus, O. C. Marsh. Sept. No. contains: Pleistocene fluvial planes of western Penn'syl- vania, Frank Leverett; Genesis of iron ores by Isomorphous and Pseud- omorphous replacement of Limestone, etc., James P. Kimball; Constitu- tion of certain micas, vermiculites and chlorites, Clarke and Schneider. A further note on the age of the Orange Sands, R. D. Salisbury; Note on the causes of the variations of the magnetic needle, Frank H. Bigelow; Notice of new vertebrate fossils, O. C. Marsh. Geol. Mag. August No. contains: Glacial geology, G. W. Bulman; The Pleistocene beds of Gozo, J. H. Cooke; On orthoceratites vaginatus Schloth., Arthur H. Foord; Physical studies of an ancient estuary, A. Irving: On the British earthquakes of 1889, C. Davison; The age of the Himalayas, W. T. Blanford. Scpt. Vo. contains: Restoration of Stegosaurus, O. C. Marsh; The Scandinavian glacier and some inferences derived from it, T. F. Jamison; Transverse valleys in the eastern Caucasus, Hjalmar Sjogren; On the sands and gravels in the boulder-clay, G. W. Bulman; Re- cent geological investigations in the Salt range, India, A. B. Wynne; Rock specimens from Kimberly, Prof. Bonney and Miss C. A. Raisin, with a note by 'T. Rupert Jones; Glacial mound in Glen Frain, Dugald dell. Oct. No. contains: On the origin of concretions in magnesian limestone, E. J. Garwood; Elevation of the American Cordillera, H. H. Howorth; On the British earthquakes of 1890, C. Davison; On the lower Greensand and Purbeck beds, P. B. Brodie; The lower Greensand or Vectian in Dorset, A. J. Jukes-Browne; On color-bands in Waldhedinia perforata, Edw. Wilson; Note on the Coniston Flags, W. M. Hutchins. CORRESPONDENCE. THE MippLEToON FORMATION OF TENNESSEE, MIssIssippr AND ALA- BAMA; WITH A NOTE ON THE FORMATIONS AT LAGRANGE, TENNESSEE. The party of geologists, spoken of on page 403, Vol. VIII, of this jour- nal, stopped in their travels, for a couple of days, at Oxford, the site of the University of Mississippi. The chief object was to inspect the fos- sil plants, collected in Mississippi and now in the museum of the Uni- versity. While there, observing, with the other members of the party, the many interesting specimens, I happened upon a lot of peculiar rock fragments, containing casts of fossils, which had a very familiar look and which I thought must have come from some one of certain locali- ties in Tennessee. I at once called Dr. Hilgard’s attention to them. “No,” he says, “they are from the Reeve’s locality in Tippah county of this state, and from the ‘clay sandstone’ found there.” He then referred us to page 112 of his “Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi,” where a section of the rocks at Reeve’s is given. “The clay sandstone is No. 2 of the section and from this the rock-fragments in question came.” Dr. Eug. Smith, who was standing near, recalled the fact that the same rock occurs in Alabama. All this was a revelation to me. I had known the rock for many years in Tennessee, and did not know of its occurrence elsewhere. With us, it is found at a number of localities. One is on the Memphis & Charles- ton railroad, at Middleton, in Hardeman county. An extensive outcrop of the rock is seen along the Bolivar and Purdy dirt road. It begins about eight miles from Bolivar and extends easterly two miles, or there- abouts, and nearly to Wade’s creek. This is also in Hardeman county, through which county, indeed, the formation outcrops in a belt running north-northeasterly and south-southwesterly. The rock referred to, is one of the most characteristic of a group of layers. It is about two feet thick, a sort of conglomerate, consisting of lumpy clay mixed with sand, and more or less consolidated into a bluish gray mottled mass. It contains also green, glauconitic grains and casts of fossils. Dr. Hilgard, in the section referred to, speaks of it as “clay- sandstone, spotted blue and yellow, with green grain dots.” The fossils he mentions as occurring in it are “Venericardia planicosta, Cardium nicolleti? Trochus, Ostrea, etc.” The particular rock described is one of a group, or formation, which is evidently the lowest division of the Eocene of this region. From the interest attached to this group and the very considerable extension it proves to have, it deserves adistinct name. Drs. Hilgard and Smith approving, I have named it the Middleton formation from the name of the town where its outcrop is intersected by the Memphis and Charleston railroad. Immediately to the east of the formation, in Tennessee, lie the Cre- taceous (Ripley) beds, while to the west are the Flatwoods (Porter's 64 The American Geologist. January, 1892 Creek) clays. The formation will be further considered and reported upon hereafter. Another place visited by the party mentioned above, was the noted La Grange locality in Fayette county, Tennessee. Those of the party visiting this point, in addition to the gentlemen already referred to, were Messrs. McGee, Ward, Hill and Holmes. All were much interested in the great display presented here. La Grange is located on the edge of a high table-land. Immediately to the south of the town, this table- land breaks away in a steep, bold escarpment down to the bottom-lands of Wolf river. The washes along the old roads leading from the town down the escarpment have displayed in grand sections the strata of the region. The Lafayette (Orange Sand) formation makes up by far most of the slopes. At the base of the slopes, come in a group of laminated sands and clays, with shelly, siliceous shales and sandstones containing leaves, which it was agreed pertain to the La Grange formation. At the top of the slopes and sections, making the floor of the table-land and resting upon the Lafayette, is the “Yellow loam,” a division of Mr. McGee’s ‘Columbian formation. T add that the La Grange formation, which is so low in the sections at La Grange, rises, at points in Fayette and adjacent counties, to much higher levels, even appearing and outcropping, now and then, at the surface of the table-lands. The La Grange had an uneven, more or less eroded, surface upon which the sands of the Lafayette were deposited. James M. Sarrorp. * Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. BIBLIOGRAPHY UNDERTAKEN BY THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GroLoGists.—Mr. G. IK. Gilbert communicates to the GEOLOGIST the following letter from Mr. Em. de Margerie, Secretary of the Interna- tional Committee on the Bibliography of Geology. It sets forth the organization and plans of the Committee. Geologists residing in North America who have prepared or are preparing bibliographies of any por- tion of the literature of geology, are requested to communicate with Mr. Gilbert (address: G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geological. Survey, Washing- ton, D. C.) INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS: COMMITTEE ON THE BIBLIO- GRAPHY OF GEOLOGY. Paris, Rue de Grenelle 132, Nov. 20, 1891. Sir: Atthe meeting of Tuesday, September 1, 1891, the International Congress of Geologists, assembled at Washington, on motion of Messrs. Hf. 5. Williams and de Margerie, appointed a permanent international committee charged with the duty of centralizing the information relat- ing to geologic bibliography. This committee, which is authorized to add to itself new members in unlimited numbers, comprises at present Messrs. Frech (Germany), Gilbert (North America), Golliez (Switzer- eS Correspondence. 65 land), Gregory (England),de Margerie (France), Reusch (Scandinavia), Steinmann (South America), Tschernyschew (Russia), Tietze (Austria- Hungary), and Van den Broeck (Belgium). ‘The end to be attained is threefold: (1) to preparea list of the geologic bibliographies already in existence; (2) to prepare an inventory of those parts of geologic literature, which have not as yet been the subject of such methodic abstracting, in order to prepare the way for undertaking, comprehensively, the retrospective bibliography of the science; and (3) to proceed to the periodic registration of its current bibliography. The first meeting of the committee took place during the excursion to the Rocky Mountains. The following are its minutes: “The International Committee on the Bibliography of Geology met September 20, at 8 o’clock in the evening, in one of the cars of the special excursion train, between Manitou and Denver (Colorado). Present, Messrs. Frech, Gilbert, de Margerie, Reusch, Steinmann, Tschernyschew, Tietze and Van den Broeck. Prof. H. 8S. Williams also was present at the meeting. “Mr. Gilbert was by acclamation elected President of the Committee, and Mr. de Margerie, Secretary. Mr. de Margerie will take charge of the correspondence for Europe, and undertakes to transmit to Mr. Gil- bert all the documents intended for printing. “In regard to retrospective bibliography, Mr. Golliez announced to the committee that the Geological Survey of Switzerland, is preparing a geologic bibliography of Switzerland, which it will probably take several yearsto complete. Mr. Tschernyschew announced the existence of a catalogue of the same nature onthe North of Russia, as yet un- published, of which he is the author. Finally, Mr. Van den Broeck called attention to the general bibliography of Belgium, which is to comprise a list of all documents relating to the geology of that country published in the course of the 19th century. “After a short discussion, the committee decided to confine its efforts for the time being, to the preparation of a list of the partial geologic bibliographies already in existence. Each member of the committee is to perform that part of the work which relates to the country he repre- sents. For Spain, Italy and Portugal, which countries sent no represen- tatives to Washington, the committee will address itself to the directors of the geological surveys of these three states. Mr. Tietze agrees to take charge of the bibliography of the Balkans, and Mr. de Margerie will try to fill out any gaps that may exist in the collection of documents gathered by the various members of the committee as regards Asia, Africa and Oceanica. The manuscripts must be sent to the Secretary before Easter, 1892, in order to be printed with the proceedings of the Washington meeting. “The projected list will comprise the detailed titles of works entering into the following categories: “(1) Regional or local bibliographies. (Examples: Geologic Bibliography of Italy; Geological bibliography of the counties of England, by Whitaker; Catalogue of the publications of the American surveys, by Prime.) . 66 The American Geologist. January, 1892 “(2) Systematic bibliographies, that is to say, relating to a defined group of facts. (e. g. Bibliography of the various classes of rocks, inserted in Rosenbusch’s Petrography; Bibliography of the upper Jurassic, by Neumayr; glaciers, volcanoes, etc.) “(3) Personal bibliographies. (Catalogues of the geologic publications of one author, like those that often accompany necrologic notices; Royal Society’s catalogues of scientific papers, etc.) “(4) Catalogues of geologic maps. (e. g. Mapoteca geologica Ameri- cana, by Marcou.) “(5) Annual geologic bibliographies either general (e. g. Geological Record: Revue de geologie, by Delesse and de Lapparent; Annuaire geologique, by Dagincourt), or special (e. g. Revue geol. Suisse, by E. Favre and Schardt; Bibliotheque geologique de la Russie, by Nikitin; Record of American Geology, by Darton.) “(6) General tables of special periodicals or series. (e. g. the Reperto- rium to the Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie; Index to the publications of the Geological Society of London, by Omerod; Table of Paleonto- graphica; List of the geological maps published in the Quarterly Jour- nal, by R. Bliss.) “(7) Printed catalogues of special libraries. (e. g. Catalogue of the library of the Geological Society of London. Catalogue of geologic works found in the libraries of Belgium, by Dewalque.) “As regards the scope to be given to the work, the committee thinks proper for the present to exclude all documents of purely mineralogic or paleontologic nature; on the other hand, information relating to petrography, physical geography, applied geology, mineral waters and prehistoric archeology will be included. For the rest, full latitude is left in this respect to the collaborators, the editor being empowered to extend or abridge manuscripts with a view of securing proper uniform- ity in publication. “Important maouscript bibliographies, the existence of which may be known to the members of the committee, are to be indicated in the proper places, stating name and address of author. “The publication will be in French, but manuscripts may be prepared in the language of the country whence they come, to be translated after- ward under the direction of the editor. “Titles must always be given in the language of the original publica- tion; they will not be followed by a French translation except in case they belong to a language other than English, German, Italian or Span- ish. The indication of the author’s name, place of publication (with the publisher’s name in the case of a separate work), date, size and number of pages, shall be as exact and detailedas possible; furthermore it is desired to have stated the approximate number of entries contained in each bibliography, adding summary information regarding its nature, such as: ‘Alphabetic catalogue by authors’ names; Catalogue classified by order of dates; Simple list of titles; Each article is followed by a re- sume; The number of plates is not given; etc.’ The limiting dates of Personal and Scientific News. 67 the publications catalogued in the bibliographies are also to be noted. (e. g. 1802 to 1888.) “In case a bibliography bears no printed title, which often happens with such as are appended to special works or memoirs, it will be proper to define its subject by means of a phrase én brackets: |....], giving after this the complete title of the document in which the bibliography is comprised. “Publications which, without pretending to take the form of a methodic bibliography, contain the detailed history of the study of a question of general interest or of a country, are to be mentioned. “In order to facilitate the final classification of subjects for the pur- pose of printing, the collaborators are requested to prepare their work on separate slips.” The Secretary, é EMM. DE MARGERIE, To Mr. G. K. Gilbert, Member of the Committee for North America. PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. PREHISTORIC HorsEs.—The genealogy of the horse has been most admirably worked out in various publications, and the fact has long been established that the genus originated on the North American continent. The question, however, as to whether pre- historic man in America had the horse as a contemporary has been a disputed point, This question may now be considered set at rest by the discovery of a skull of an extinct species of horse in strata with human implements. This discovery was announced by Prof. E. D. Cope at the last annual meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. A skull of a horse was exhibited to the mem- bers by Prof. Cope, who pointed out the characters of the teeth and who stated it would be impossible for any one to separate the fossil teeth from those of the quagga and zebra if the three were all thrown together. In minor characters, such as those of the size of the bones, the differences are preceptible. So there is no doubt the skull represents an animal different from any now living. That it was a horse, however, any one could see. The most curious thing about the skull was its condition. The frontal bone had been crushed in exactly as we see in the case of animals slaughtered for food. The friable bones protecting the eye sockets were intact, as were also the long nasal bones. Found in the same bed with the skull was a stone hammer that bore evident marks of having been fashioned by the hand of man. What inference was to be drawn from this? In the first place it has been suspected and considered probable that early man on this continent had been contemporaneous with a horse, though not the present living species, but no direct proof had hitherto 68 The American Geologist. January, 1892 been found. When Europeans landed on the new continent the horse was an unknown animal to the natives. So it had evidently long been extinct. All the horses now found in either North or South America came from stock originally brought over by Europeans. But here we have evidence in the association of a human implement and a horse’s skull that man and horse had lived together, and the peculiar fracture of the skull of the latter leads to the belief that the animal had met its death at the hands of man. This fact opens several questions. What became of the race of horses that once lived on the continent? Were they exterm- inated by savage man as civilized man has exterminated the bison? Did they once serve as beasts of burden or were they used only as food? Were they wild or domesticated? It seems probable that they were not used for any other pur- pose than as food, and that they existed only in a wild state, for it is scarcely reasonable to suppose that having once been used by man and so domesticated their use would ever have been forgotten or the breed allowed to die out, Neither is it probable that they were exterminated solely by the agency of contemporaneous man, for we know that in spite of the use of the bison by the Indians of North America their numbers did not decrease to any great ex- tent. It was only when civilized man began his destructive work that the bison began to disappear. What then was the cause of the disappearance of the horse? If it were demonstrated that this early horse existed prior to the ice-age his disappearance might be attributed reasonably to the cold that prevailed, or to some of the attendant conditions. While Dr. Cope considers the ‘‘Equus beds” as of Tertiary age, Messrs. Gilbert, Russell and McGee have given much evidence that they are middle or late Quaternary. The coérdination of the strata of the southern states with the drift sheet of the northern has not yet been elucidated. The early Pleistocene was connected by a link which has not yet been discovered, with the latest Pliocene. Whether that link consisted largely of the advent of the ice-age, or the outburst of the Quaternary eruptive forces that characterize this date in the western and Pacific states, or both of these cotemporaneously, it is evident that it was marked by great physical changes such that the habitability of the country by many of the larger mammals was destroyed. Mr. Cope has given a description of this skull in the October number of the American Naturalist. He considers it Equus excelsus Leidy,and remarks that it is the first that has come to light inthe United States. THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT HAS DETERMINED to hold a _his- torical and archeological international exhibition next year, and especially honors the United States by its invitation and applica- tion for aid. The Spanish exposition will in no wise compromise Personal and Scientific News. 69) the success of the great Chicago world’s fair of the following year. On the contrary the more perfect the first display, the bet- ter will the departments of archeology and history be represented at our own; for the Spanish government has generously proposed to transfer a large part of its treasures to our buildings during the six months which intervene between the closing of the one and the opening of the other. All persons having collections of archeological, ethnological (mumismatic), or historical material connected with the history of this country both before the dis- covery and after the discovery, up to 1750, are urgently invited to loan it under the safe guarantees offered by the circular of the Spanish government, forwhich apply to Senor Campillo, Sec’y of the Spanish legation at Washington. Ir APPEARS THAT GEOLOGICAL FRAUDS are not confined to this country, as the following extract from a late number of Nature proves. ‘‘A notice which will be read with interest by all owners of gems, has been issued by Dr. A. Brezina, of the Natural His- tory Museum of Vienna. It relates to the doings of a young man who on September 26 contrived to conceal himself in the department just before the time for the closing of the Museum. He was caught and found to be armed with a revolver, and to have in his possession files and other implements. He had also in his possession nearly 600 gems, some of them cut, but the majority in their natural state. He has a passport, in which he is described as Hugo Kahn, of Berlin, but he has also called himself Krony, Kronek, Kornak and Kronicsalsky. His age is 24, he measures in hight 170 cm., he is slender, has a longish handsome face, is of a brownish complexion, has dark hair, grey eyes and a light brown beard, of feeble growth. Upon the whole he is an attractive looking person. He has made several journeys in Ger- many, France, Switzerland and Italy; and between the middle of last July and the beginning of September he travelled through Pyrmont, Kms, Strassbourg, Basel, Milan, Genoa, Nice, Monaco, Genoa and Venice to Vienna. Most of the gems (the names of which with the exception of a rock-crystal, he does not know), he professes to have bought from a barber in Marseilles. As it is important that the former owners should be known, Dr. Brezina prints a list of the gems, with a request that any one who has in- formation about them will communicate with him.” Evidently this man is not nearly so finished and thorough-going a scamp as the one lately exhibited in the rogue’s gallery of the Grotoaisr. The narrative given above well illustrates the danger to which all costly and valuable collections are exposed, when they are opened to the public, and the necessity of the utmost vigilance for their protection. THE LATE Dr. P. HERBERT CARPENTER was the fourth son of the late Dr. W. B. Carpenter, C. B., F. R. 8. He was found dead in his dressing-room on Oct. 21. At the inquest it was found 70 The American Geologist. January, 1892 that he had killed himself by the administration of chloroform during temporary insanity. Dr. Carpenter had been Science- master at Eton since 1877. The Zimes gives the following ac- count of his scientific work: ‘‘He was a member of the scientific staff of the deep-sea-exploring expeditions of the ‘ Lightning’ (1868) and the ‘Porcupine’ (69 and ’70) and in 1875 he was appointed assistant naturalist to the ‘ Valorous’ which accompa- nied the Arctic expedition of Sir G. Nares to Disco I., and he spent the summer in sounding and dredging in Davis strait and the N. Atlantic. Dr. Carpenter devoted himself exclusively since 1875 to studying the morphology of the Echinodermata, especially the crinoids. In 1883 he received the Lyell medal from the Geologi- cal Society of London and in 1885 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. His chief papers were ‘Notes on EKchinoderm | Morphology,’ ‘On the Genus Actinometra,’ ‘Report on the Crinoidea dredged by the Challenger,’ ‘The Stalked Crinoids,’ ‘The Comatule,’ ‘Report on the Comatule dredged by the U. 8. Coast Survey in the Caribbean Sea,’ and numerous papers in the Transactions of the Royal, Linnean and Geological Societies.” Pror. P. WHITFIELD DESCRIBES in Science, Dec. 18, the dis- covery of the remains of a mastodon on New York island, at the eastern end of Dyckman’s creek at its junction with the Harlem river, sixteen feet below mean low-water. Mr. J. W. KIRKPATRICK IN THE SAME NUMBER OF Science, de- scribes the finding of a nugget of copper, also northern boulders and stre, near Fayette, Mo., near the central part of the state, the nugget weighing 23 pounds. THE FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA was convened at Columbus, O., Dec. 29, 1891. The acting president was G. K. Gilbert. The numerous articles read will be noted as they may be published in the Society’s bulletin. fay arn ce Wee u1CAN GEOLOGIST. IX, Plate Il. THe AMEI Vol. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST pe Vou. IX. “FEBRUARY, 1892: No. 2 ALEXANDER WINCHELL. AN EDITORIAL TRIBUTE. Nore. The following memorial sketch of Alexander Winchell, who died February 19, 1891, is a tribute of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIK? to a deceased member of its editorial corps. As one of its founders and as its zealous friend and its most able and voluminous writer, his memory and his eminent services in the infancy of the magazine can most fittingly be commemorated by this sketch of his life and work. At the same time this account of one whose name has for the past forty years been seen frequently in geological, ednca- tional, philosophical, and even in theological literature, will satisfy not only a demand, but a just expectation which has often been expressed since his death. We are con- vinced also that the readers of the GroLoaist in general will take pleasure in receiving, in lieu of the miscellaneous contributions with which the Groxoeisr usually is filled, this joint memorial of one whose voice, now silent forever, they have many times heard, perhaps, either in theclass room or on the public platform. I. _ SIGKNESS, DEATH AND FUNERAL, Probably the first apprehension of serious bodily ailment of the late Dr. Alexander Winchell, by others than himself and family, was experienced while he was in attendance at the Washington meeting of the Geological Society of America (December 29-31, 1890), where he served as the presiding officer in the absence of the president (Dana) and of the first vice-president (Newberry). Several noticed the ashen hue of his countenance, and those more intimately acquainted with him knew of a weakness of limb, and a shortness of breath with which he suffered. He persistently adhered to the discharge of his duties, however, in connection with the Geologi- “al Society, whether of an official or of a social character, and after adjournment he repaired immediately to his home at Ann Arbor, where he was inclined to remain until his strength should return. Having, however, several engagements to lecture he 72 The American Geologist. February, 1892 remained quiet but a very few days, when he visited Highland Park (near Chicago) and Milwaukee, where he gave publie lee- tures. Immediately on returning home again he entered on a course of four lectures on Lvolution, delivered before the Geolog- ical Society of Ann Arbor. His weakness increased, and he could with difficulty walk to the lecture hall in the University buildings. The fourth lecture was never given, because the family physician, summoned against his protest, interposed, and before he could be restored death had put his veto upon it. The malady with which he had suffered for many years, and which he fully understood himself, but never mentioned to his family, crept upon him very slowly to its fatal termination. He had noted for several months that he became easily wearied physically. His breathing was difficult, and he had asthmatic symptoms. Nights he slept little, sometimes being compelled to rise in order to obtain relief from hard breathing, or panting. This he attributed to heart disease, but still kept about his work. Finally, when confined to his room, and mostly to his couch, he was regretful of the time he was compelled to lose in that way. His mind apparently ran over the themes of his lectures, and he planned new topics. ‘You must not think Lam idle, though lying here,” said he, ‘‘for T have laid out two or three articles to be written.” Later, the same day, he said: ‘I believe I can dem- onstrate mathematically the necessity of a modification of the nebular hypothesis of La Place.” Still later he explained what he meant by the modification which should be made in the nebu- lar hypothesis. ‘I believe I can show mathematically that each successive annulation was accompanied by, and caused, an en- largement of the orbits of every earlier ring; and that the various orbital diameters of the resultant planets have been enlarged from time to time, or pushed away from the residual mass.’’ When it was remarked to him that the La Placean hypothesis required a constant shrinkage of the central mass, having once been extended to the utmost limits of the solar system, and that by loss of ring after ring it had been reduced to its present condition and size, ‘‘Ah well,” said he, ‘‘let those defend that who believe it, I be- lieve that, like an exogenous tree-trunk, the outer diameters can be shown to have been enlarged from time to time.”” This seems to be a new conception. It certainly would have been embraced in his ‘‘World Life,”’ had it ever been presented before, but we - Alewander Winchell. 73 find nothing of it in that volume. The suggestion seems to be a fruitful one, and may be established or refuted by some compe- tent physicist. | The immediate cause of death was suffocation, superinduced by dropsical secretions which permeated his whole system, and finally filled his lungs. The primary pathologic cause was aortic stenosis, by which the aortic orifice was so reduced that the neces- sary amount of blood could not pass it, deranging the whole cir- culation. The cause next more remote was a severe attack of ‘inflammatory rheumatism” in the spring of 1865, and the origi- nal cause, as traced back by himself, at the time, was long ex- posure, in February, to cold in working inthe University museum at Ann Arbor without fire. His old-time college friend, Rev. Wm. 8. Studley, D. D., of Evanston, Ill., conducted the funeral, and delivered an appro- priate and eloquent address.* The burial was in Forest Hill cemetery, Ann Arbor, where four of his children had preceded him. His death brought forth numerous expressions of sorrow and testimonials of esteem, some of which were dispatched from points as remote as San Francisco and Boston, and from several in Europe. One came from Central America, bearing a sprig of edelweiss from the Swiss Alps. The geologists of the United States Geological Survey gave expression of their sentiment and sympathy, in the following words: WasHINGTON, D. C., February 20, 1891. * *£ * * By his unflagging devotion to science and his equally constant and successful efforts to promote and extend beneficent knowl- edge among men, Professor Winchell justly won the respect and ad- miration of his fellow-students throughout the world; and by his per- sonal uprightuess, the honorable motives manifested in his daily life, and his unfailing courtesy, he inspired the esteem and friendship of his pro- fessional associates in those scientific gatherings and institutions in which he always took so active and worthy a part. As students of geology we deplore the death of one of the foremost geologists of the century; as personal friends we mourn the loss of one of the most highly esteemed in our circle; and in this, our common be- *This address with several others delivered at a memorial service at the Methodist church, May.10, 1891, has been published in pamphlet form. The “University memorial,” embracing the address of Prof. M. W. Harrington, May 3, has also been put into pamphlet. The memorial address delivered before the Geological Society of America, in August, 1891, by his brother, Prof. N. H. Winchell, is included in Vol. IIT, of the Society’s bulletin, together with resolutions adopted by the Society. 74 ‘The American Geologist. February, 1892 reavement, our hearts go out in sympathy to the stricken family whose sorrow we share. Signed: J. W. POWELL, G. K. GrLBenrr, CoA. Writer, ARNOLD HaGuE, Marcus Baker, S. F. Emmons, J.S. DILLER, W. H. Homes, CHas. D: Waxcort, C. WiLLARD Hays, Wo. H. Dann, IsrAEL C. RussELL, A. H. THompson, HENRY GANNETT, Watrer H. WEED, NeExson H. Darron, BAILEY WILLIS, GARRICK MALLERY, . W.J. McGeEr, Henry W. HENSHAW. The University Senate, Ann Arbor, adopted a memorial ex- pression of the loss sutfered by the University, from which the following is taken : * * * * 'Tosome of his books it was given to guide to a degree rarely accorded to books in these days, popular thought on the subjects on which they treat. They have had an influence which few scientific books have ever reached. They have not only made their author one of the most prominent figures in American science, but have made his name- a household word in thousands of families. But we feel the loss of Dr. Winchell not only because of his eminence in his chosen field of work, but also because of his personal qualities. He was a man of impressive appearance and dignified bearing, a court- eous colleague and a faithful friend, and those who knew him best found in him depths of gentleness and affection which are found but seldom. He was absolutely unswerving in his allegiance to what he believed to- be the truth. With true scientific instinct he firmly believed that all truth was one, and he devoted himself for many years to proving that science and revelation could not be in conflict. His faith in ascertained science was no less unwavering than his faith in religion, and in earlier days when such an assertion provoked hostile and even bitter criticism, he dared to assert and maintain that geology and revelation were in ac- cord. Unmoved by the storm which he had raised, firm in his convie- tions of scientific truth, and devout by nature, he then passed on to the study of the great problems of creation—problems to which his deeply religious feeling, his love of nature and his natural bent and grasp of mind all irresistibly turned him. With a reverent but master hand he endeavored to lift the veil of the past, to follow the steps of creation, ascertain its laws, and follow its evolution. These were the problems to which he delighted to devote himself. His other studies were only inci- dental to these, or to the duties of instruction. It was under the inspira- tion of these grand problems that his most influential books were written, and his most eloquent discourses delivered; and, as it happens, his iast pub- lic lecture, the last lecture he was destined to deliver, when the feeble- ness of mortal disease was overcome by the inspiration of his subject, a Alerander Winchell, 75 lecture which called together so many that his class room had to be ex- changed for University Hail—that his last public address was again devoted to one of the noble problems of creation. It was a fitting sub- ject for the last discourse, and a fitting close for the public life of so great, so able and so devout a man. A noble and striking personality,a man of great learning and lofty ideals, has been stricken down, and-we grieve at his loss; a gentle and earnest spirit has left us, and we mourn. * * * The University Musical Society, the Ann Arbor Geological Society, the Wesleyan Guild of the University of Michigan, and the trustees of the Methodist Episcopal church at Ann Arbor, of all of which he was president, adopted similar tributes. The Hamilton (N. Y.) Theological Seminary and the Davenport Academy of Science adopted resolutions of regard and sympathy. The Geological Society of America, of which he was also pres- ident, at its meeting in the following August, had an appropriate memorial address, delivered by his brother, Prof. N. H. Winchell, and adopted resolutions presented by a committee, of which Prof. Edward Orton, of Ohio, was chairman, The address and resolu- tions are published in the Bulletin of the Society for 1891. A multitude of tributes from personal and _ scientific friends were received by his stricken family, but they need not here be further referred to. An extract from one simply will suffice: My admiration for him was boundless. He was the most learned man I have ever met, and I preferred his society to that of any other Ameri- can scholar.— Bishop Newman. - Il, PERSONAL HISTORY. Alexander Winchell was born of parents in humble but com- fortable circumstances, December 31, 1824, in the town of North- east, Dutchess county, New York. The ancestral homestead, a large frame farm-house, for many years used as a hostelry by his grandfather, Col. Martin EK. Winchell, for the accommodation of the travelers who passed by the stage route between the Hudson valley and the towns of southwestern Massachusetts, still standing, is surrounded by an undulating mountain plateau forming one of the spurs of the Taconic mountains, and long known as Win- chell mountain, His father was Horace Winchell, fifth child and third son of Col. M. KE. Winchell. His mother was Caroline McAllister, of Northeast, of Scotch-Irish ancestry, from the Protestant families of the north of Ireland. His father’s descent is traceable directly to Robert Winchell, an Englishman who set- 76 The American Geol. ogist 3 February, 1892 tled at Dorchester, Mass., in 1634, and removed with the first settlers to Windsor, Conn., in 1635.* His father died in 1873, at Lakeville, (t., at the age of 77 years. His mother still lives, at Lynn, Mass., with her daughter, at the age of 85. Some of the dominant traits of Alexander's mental, as well as physical constitution were derived from his mother. 1824. He was the first-born, and under his father’s fond tuition he received not only the first elements of his education but the earliest impressions of honorable striving and achievement. His father and mother had both been teachers in the public schools of the town, and Alexander's training profited by that experience. On the day that he was seven years old he recited, without mis- take, the entire ‘‘Multiplication Table” to twelves, and had com- pleted Emerson's First Part of mental Arithmetic. When three months past ten he had been through W///ett's Arithmetic (similar to Daboll’s) and had transcribed all the definitions, rules, prob- lems, and full solutions in a manuscript book, which is still ex- tant among his papers. This early bent for mathematics re- mained through his entire life, and gave shape to numerous discussions and arguments. 1838. He was at first destined for the profession of medicine, and spent two years with a great uncle, Dr. Charles McAllister, in South Lee, Mass., attending the ‘Stockbridge Academy” in the summer and the village school during the winter. The Latin which he had begun with his father in 1837, was here resumed. In 1840, being still too young to begin the study of medicine, he visited his parents, intending to remain a year. Having one day expressed to his father a desire to teach, though not yet 16 years of age, his father immediately responded that he would obtain a position for him, and a district school was engaged, which he taught during the winter of 1840-41, his patrons supposing him to be a young man of 21. Here one of his amusements was the collection and solution of arithmetical problems. He began here the practice, continued ever afterward, of putting on record the results of his read - ing and study. He had already filled two volumes with arithmetical solutions and rules. Here also he began the keeping of a diary,and a strict account of expenditures, forming a habit which he never lost, and which furnishes the materials for this personal sketch. *Genealogy of the Family of Winchell in America, embracing the etymology and history of the name. Alexander Winchell, 1869. Ts Alexander Winchell. (6 1841. His fondness for teaching being confirmed, he engaged another school for the summer of 1841, and during its progress he pursued, at his leisure, the study of some higher mathematics. Day’s Algebra he completed by himself, resolving every equation and problem, absolutely without assistance, and writing all the results in a book. Before autumn he had also finished Davies’ Surveying, and then Flint’s Surveying, writing as before all the solutions in a book. During the winter engagement of 1841 and 1842 he taught Gummere’s Surveying.. In March, 1842, he joined tae M. EK. Church, in Pine Plains, Dutchess county, N. Y., and this membership he maintained to the time of his death. 1842. By this time he felt that the study of medicine must be postponed for a more extended course of preparation. In fact the resolution was virtually formed to devote himself to the life of ateacher. In the summer of 1842 he took up Greek by him- self. All this time he received spirited encouragement from his father, although he had now passed beyond the limits of his father’s education. He was working with Goodrich’s First Les- sons, When Rey. Davis W. Clark, then principal of Amenia Sem- inary (afterwards bishop) made his acquaintance and urged him to enter the Seminary, which he did September 6, 1842. The winter of 1842-43 was, nevertheless, spent in teaching a district school; though he pursued by himself the study of the #neid, and of Sallust’s Cutiline. Astronomy, which he also studied, fired his imagination, and aroused latent perceptions which later became longings, and blossomed into beautiful fruition in his World Life. 1843. He rejoined his class in the spring of 1843, and stood with them the examinations in the studies of the year. During the winter of 1843-44 he was Assistant in the Seminary in the English department, in the spring taking Principal Clark's classes in Algebra. His studies this term took a remarkably wide range, Besides completing his preparation for a collegiate classical course, he finished the ‘‘teacher’s course” in the seminary (including geology, mental philosophy, Paley’s Leidences of Christianity, and natural theology), and received the diploma. He was vale dictorian of his class, and acted a part in a dramatic sketch (writ- ten by himself) entitled Zhe Reign of Terror. There remain to this day, among the older, andespecially among the later students at Amenia Seminary, traditions of the mathematical achieve- 78 The American Geologist. February, 1892 ments of ‘‘that boy Winchell” during the last year of his study there. 1844. He was now prepared for college, but the difficulties that beset a youth who at that time aimed to acquire more than a common school education, if without means to meet the financial obligations, in any of the colleges of New England, can only be enumerated by those who have encountered them. Tis friends generally regarded the idea as chimerical. Fora sustained aspira- tion to secure the benefits of such a course he here acknowledges himself indebted again to his father, who was educated at Phillips Academy, Andover, and to his uncle, Abraham Winchell, who had received a liberal education at Yale and Harvard, THow- ever, in September, 1844, he was matriculated as sophomore at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Here he encountered, with indignation, the first check in his educational ardor and sue- cess, in a rigorous ‘‘marking system,’ which at that time laid special stress on the literal reproduction of the words of the text-books, Like most of his class-mates—among whom were Kdward Gayer Andrews (now bishop), Cornelius Cole (since con- gressinan from California), Orange Judd (benefactor of his alma mater and long the distinguished agricultural editor), Joseph EK. King (the well-known president of Fort Kdward Institute)—he left the struggle for college honors to the very few who could cramp their natures to the narrow conditions of success. Here- tofore he had always expected to win the first premium whenever a prize was offered for competition, but from college honors prof fered under so narrow conditions he turned in disgust, and he always recollected with indignant condemnation the contrast be- tween this discipline and that more generous and encouraging which he had experienced at Amenia Seminary, under Principal Clark and Joseph Cummings. 1845. The winter of 1844-45 he taught the village school at Winsted. Conn... and in 1845-46 he was assistant in Simmons’ Classical School in his native town, He graduated with his class in 1847, being assigned the ‘‘honor’ of the ‘modern classical oration.”’ His theme was The Dayspring of Italian Literature. He then became teacher of natural science at Pennington Male Sem- inary, N. J., where he entered with irrepressible zeal and delight upon the study of the flora of the vicinity, by the aid of that ad- mirable work, Darlington’s #’/ora Cestrica, As the Morse electric Alerander Winchell. 79 ‘telegraph had just been put in operation between Baltimore and Washington he set himself to the task of producing, with his own hands, a working instrument, and though nothing beyond the fundamental principles had been made known to him, he sue- ceeded perfectly. At a public exhibition and lecture he em- ployed an alphabet of his own invention for transmitting intelli- -gence to the farther corner of the hall. By popular request this lecture was repeated. Here also he gave a series of popular lec- ‘tures on astronomy, During this year he devoted considerable attention to the study of Hebrew, under the instruction of prin- cipal Rev. 8. M. Vail. The grammar used was that of Seixas; and as no copies were found in the market, he did not hesitate to make a manuscript copy for himself. Years afterward, his honored instructor, remembering the incident, presented him a printed copy. 1846-49. He now began to feel that the field of mathematics was less spacious and inviting to enterprise than that of modern science, and, declining the tutorship in mathematics tendered him by president Smith of Wesleyan University, and the offer of con- tinued position at Pennington Seminary, he returned to the Semi- nary which had prepared him for college, where he accepted the ‘chair of natural science. Here he gave his first public geological lectures. During 1849 he made a thorough exploration of the flora of the vicinity. With the small reflector of the institution he made some observations on solar spots, which were published in the New York Z7ribune for November 5, 1849. He began here also a series of meteorological observations which were reported to the New York regents, and published in the report for 1850. These and later observations are incorporated in the quarto vol- ume on New York meteorology by Dr. Hough. He was married De- cember 5, 1849, to Miss Julia F. Lines, of Utica, N. Y., who was the teacher of instrumental music at the Seminary. 1850. In 1850 he transmitted to the New York Board of Re- gents his first contribution to science, being a Catalogue of plants found growing without cultivation in the vicinity of Amenia Sem- inary.* In July, 1850, he received from his alma mater the de- gree of muster of arts, delivering on the occasion, by appoint- ment, an oration on Work. Having accepted the charge of an academy at Newbern, Greene *Regent’s Report. 1851, p. 256. 80 The American Geologist. February, 1892: Co., Ala., he presented his botanical collection, numbering 1,000) plants mounted and labeled, to Amenia Seminary, and set out with his wife, October 5, 1850, for his destination in the then distant south. Here, with the expectation of a larger field for observation and study, he found the ‘‘Academy” was located in the woods, in a small settlement, in the heart of the richest cotton lands in the state. It was materially unlike the situation which his imagina-- tion had pictured, but with the cobperation of his wife, and with the calculation of eclipses for an amusement, he entered upon the: work of ‘building up” an institution-—and not without some suc- cess, but the beginning was too small to suit him; and, having: visited Kutaw, in the same county, for the purpose of purchasing some unused apparatus from an inanimate institution, he was induced to change his plans so far as to use the apparatus where it was, and attempt the resuscitation of the institution. Aecord-- ingly in the spring of 1851 he opened the ‘:Mesopotamia Female Seminary, with a full corps of assistant teachers, and the usual paraphernalia, accompanied by the seductive announcements suited to the occasion and the latitude. 1851-52. There had always been an unrealized vision floating before his mind, of a course of scientific investigation. Here he entered with zest upon its execution. He fitted up a chemical laboratory, and, making some quantitative analyses, they were published in the Kutaw papers. He had already communicated to the American Journal of Science and Arts notes on the cold of: January at Kutaw, Ala., and on the aurora borealis of September 29, 1851. He also opened correspondence with the Smithsonian Institution, and, kindly encouraged by Prof. 8. F. Baird, assist- ant secretary, busied himself in making collections of plants, ani- mals and fossils. During 1852 he transmitted to the Institution a large collection of plants and a considerable number of alcoholie specimens and preserved skins. Among the fishes was a new species, afterward described by Girard as Hybopsis winchelli. The Cretaceous formation of his vicinity interested him exceed- ingly and he made a faithful study of Choctaw Bluff, on the Black Warrior river, the results of which he communicated, through Prof. Baird, to the Cleveland meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1853. This was the first scientific description of the locality. Some of the Alexander Winchell. St scientific papers published in the Eutaw journals in 1851-52 and 1853 were as follows: Yellow Rain, in which he first announced the nature of the sulphur-like substance appearing in little pools after a spring rain. By chemical analysis and by microscopic examination he proved it to be pollen from the pine regions of the Gulf border. Other topics were Venomous Serpents; Analy- sis of Artesian Water; On the Use of green wood for Fuel; Ex- amination of ‘Sandy Land” Soil; The Garpike. 1853. In 1853 he had the satisfaction of witnessing the veri- fication of his first geological opinion, ventured on an economical question. Artesian wells were extremely common throughout the region south of Eutaw, and it was much desired to have such a well in the village. He pronounced against its possibility, basing his judgment on the fact that the water-bearing stratum at the bottom of the Upper Cretaceous outcropped half a mile south of the village, while the Lower Cretaceous was composed chiefly of non-porous, argillaceous beds. The authorities, nevertheless, ex- pended a thousand dollars in an unsuccessful experiment. In July, 1853, he made the acquaintance, at the ‘‘Commence- ment” of the University of Alabama, of Prof. M. Tuomey, who proved a valuable friend. Here he saw for the first time those classical works for the southern geologist, Morton’s Synopsis of the Cretaceous system of the United States, and Conrad’s Deserip- tion of Tertiary Shells. The former he transcribed for himself, and returned to Eutaw with new impulses toward investigation. Successful management of a southern female institution of learning required, at that time, a large amount of personal solici- tation, and much pandering to the southern love of display. To this he could not willingly stoop, even had he not determined to devote his vacations to scientific work. Partly for this reason, and partly for reasons for which he was not responsible, the sem- inary did not prove as prosperous as might be desired; and, hay- ing been elected president of the ‘‘Masonic University” at Selma, Ala., he sold out his affairs at Eutaw, and in July, 1853, entered a new field. Armed with a ‘Prospectus,’ he started out, with a horse and buggy purchased for the purpose, to spread the claims of the University before the people of southern Alabama. The unan- nounced secret of the expedition, however, was the purpose to make it a yeslogical tour. Not neglecting business interests to 82 The American Geologist. February, 1892 any glaring extent he traveled by Cahaba, Prairie Bluff, Clai- borne and the Zeuglodon locality in Macon county, as far as St. Stephens on the Tombigbee; and thence by Camden and Allen- ton, on the east side of the Alabama river, to Selma. No richer or more attractive region was ever open to the geologist. He stood where the veteran geologist Conrad had stood; he studied where the distinguished Morton had studied; he explored the hole where Dr. Koch had exhumed his //ydrarchos,and picked up . the vertebre of that serpent-like cetacean with his own hands. He gathered large quantities of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils, and from Claiborne he shipped two barrels full to the Smithsonian Institution. The yellow fever was raging in Mobile, and had almost reached the districts which he visited; but a different fever was raging in his veins. At Claiborne he collected a quantity of undescribed fossils from the lowest beds of the Kocene, and fixed the northern limits of that formation twenty miles further north than had been mapped by Tuomey. For miles south of Selma he saw the fields overstrewn with ///ppurites which the planters profanely burned into lime—as in Macon county they were using the precious vertebre of Zeuglodon for ‘‘dog-irons” (andirons), stiles and gate-weights. His collections arrived at Selma in good condition, and he devoted the remainder of his vacation to assort- ing and determining them. The collections sent to the Smithsonian Institution were highly appre- ciated by Prof. Baird, who wrote, December 26, 1853; “The collection of fishes is magnificent, nearly all undoubtedly new, six species of Pomotzs alone, cannot give complete lists at present as the genera, even, of some are indeterminable. The whole is the richest collection we have ever received from the south. * * * Unless I much mistake you and your abilities it won’t be many years before you will be called to a big professorship somewhere north or east. Mark my words for that ”— Nine days after these words were penned he was elected to a chair in the University of Michigan. It will illustrate how long the scientific investigator must wait, some- times, after the seed is sown, before he can reap his harvest, to note that the geological specimens collected on this southern Alabama trip in 18538, and sent to the Smithsonian Institution, were investigated first in L880, when Dr. C. A. White took them in hand, and among others de- scribed Lvogyra winchelli from those sent from Prairie Bluff, on the Ala- bama river.* *Proceedings U.S. Nat. Mus., 20 May, 1880, p. 294, pl. 1, figs. 2 and 3, and pl. 11, figs. 1 and 2; also Annual report of the Hayden Survey for 1876, pl. x11, figs., 1 a,b,e,d. Compare the Annual Report of the Institu- tion, 1853, pp. 51, 52, 57. a Alewander Winchell, 83 The ‘University’ opened with encouraging prospects; but within a few days the yellow fever made its appearance in the city in a very malignant form, Half the population fled; the institution suddenly suspended operations. Two deaths occurred in the house where he, with wife and little daughter, was residing, but he and his family remained at their post. In November he received a letter (dated November 16) from president Tappan of the University of Michigan, announcing his election to the chair of ‘Physics and Civil Engineering” in that University. This. position he quickly accepted, and the Masonic University was. abandoned for a long vacation. His fossils were packed for the journey, during the long, silent and solemn days of visitation of the yellow fever. Before leaving the state he paid another visit to Prof. Tuomey, taking with him a trunk full of fossils, from which Prof. Twomey was permitted to retain all he chose. Among them were the un- described Kocene fossils from Allenton. These remained in his hands awaiting attention until the federal army visited Tuscaloosa during the war, when, with the treasures gathered by Prof. Tuo- mey himself, they were devoted to destruction. 1854. He entered upon his duties at Ann Arbor, the 24th day of Jan., 1854, at the full professor's salary of $1,150 per year. His family who had visited in Utiea, N. Y., joined him a month later. The work of the chair devolved upon him a large amount of preparation, Instruments and apparatus were wanting, and he visited New York to make purchases. No good elementary text- books in civil engineering were in existence—a deficiency specially felt in the department of railroad surveying. He was obliged to compile and originate matter and methods; so that within a year or two he had wrought out the material for an original work on civil engineering. As a branch of physics he attended to the keeping of a complete series of meteorological observations which, while he held the chair, he reported to the Smithsonian Institution, The State Agricultural College of Michigan, then lately estab- lished, had not yet been definitely located. The question of site had been referred by the Legislature to the executive committee of the State Agricultural Society. Seeing that they were about to decide, if they had not already decided, on a location in the 84 The American Geolog ost. February, 1892 unsettled interior of the state, he drew up a communication on the subject, addressed to the executive committee, urging reasons for connecting it with the State University. The argument did not prevail, but the paper was published by the State Agricultural Society in its report for 1854. During the summer vacation of 1854 he made some excursions in company with Profs. A, Sager and Charles Fox, for the pur- pose of making collections in natural history. A specimen of shell-marl collected was analyzed quantitatively, and the results published in the Michigan Furmer. Hegavea good deal of study to the land and fresh-water-shells of the state, as well as to the reptiles and fishes. ; 1855. In the spring of 1855, he became enlisted in an effort to found a state Natural History Society, in connection with the State Teachers’ Association, and read a paper,—published in the Michigan Journal of Education for March, 1855—On the Pursuit of the Natural Sciences. He also published a scheme of opera- tions proposed. But interest in such subjects was at a low ebb, and the organization was so loose, and scattered, that this project never produced much fruit. During 1855, Prof. L. Agassiz’ prospectus for a voluminous work on the Natural History of the United States was issued, and through personal request Prof. Agassiz appeals were addressed to the public by Prof. Winchell through the papers of Eutaw, Ala., and of Ann Arbor. In August he made a railroad survey from Ann Arbor toward Jones- ville, as far as Manchester. On the basis of an understanding reached, on his assuming the chair of ‘Physics and Civil Engineering,’ the University created, this year, the chair of ‘‘Geology, Zoology and Botany,’ and to this chair Prof. Winchell was transferred. The meteorological instruments which he had purchased and used, impelled by his interest in natural physics, were surrendered regretfully to his successor. Prof. Winchell had indeed kept up a continuous series of observations ever since 1848, first at Amenia, under instruc- tions from the New York Regents, then at Newbern, Eutaw and Selma on the blank forms of the Smithsonian Institution, and lastly at Ann Arbor. He still continued, however, with his own instruments, the full series excepting the barometric records. The habit established of regular observations of the weather is traceable even through the last weeks of his life, since his diary io 4) oC - Alexander Winchell. nearly always records the morning temperature, and also makes mention of all extraordinary meteorological changes. His Ann Arbor observations were finally worked up under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, and also by himself in connection with the geological survey of the state. 1856. He read a paper, in 1856, before the State Teachers’ Association; On the importance of the Study of Natural History, in which he advocated the introduction of these studies into the Union schools and the lower classes of the colleges. He read also papers before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Albany, N. Y., on the Geology of Middle and Southern Alabama, and Statistics of some Artesian wells of Ala- bama.* Much attention was given also this year (1856) to micro- ‘scopical studies; and a large number of drawings in colors were executed with the camera lucida. 1857. In the early part of 1857, he contributed, by invitation, a series of seven articles on Popular Education, under the signa- ture of ‘‘Scholasticus,”’ to the Detroit Tribune. In one of these, having animadverted on the ‘‘Prussian system,” president Tap- pan put in a reply, extending over several numbers of the paper, Tt was stated at the time that the first articles emanated from the president of Kalamazoo College, Dr. Stone, and that president Tappan imagined himself replying to him. At the request of Mr. B. F. Meek he made out a general table of the Cretaceous rocks of Alabama, which has entered perma- nently into the literature of the Cretaceous system.t He pub- lished this year also A Guide to the Pronunciation of Scientific Terms —a pamphlet intended for his own students, but which had quite a circulation among scientific men, until the edition was exhausted. During the summer of 1857 he made a minute microscopic in- vestigation of Lumbriculus, with colored drawings and descrip- tions. Inthe autumn and winter he drew up a detailed deserip- tion of the osteology of Marobranchus (Necturus) lateralis. He opened in the autumn a class in comparative osteology, which was attended by about eighteen students from the Medical College, besides those from the Literary department. In subsequent years the professor of anatomy instituted a similar course for the medi- cal students. *See Proceedings, pp. 82 and 94, tSee Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, May, 1857, p. 126. 86 The American Geologist. February, 1892 1858. During the winter of 1857-58 he delivered a series of public lectures, by request of the Young Men’s Association of Ann Arbor, in the hall of the Union school, Except the public geological lectures of Dr. Douglass Houghton, in Detroit, this was the first presentation, before public audiences of the state, of the popular truths of geology. The final lecture, entitled, Creation the work of one Intelligence, and not the Product of Physical Forces, was published in pamphlet form by the Association. | This was inspired, confessedly, by Agassiz’ splendid Lssay on Classi fica- tion, in the sentiments of which he felt a profound sympathy. In May, 1858, he published, for the use of his students a Synop-- tical view of the Succession of Organic Types, which went through three editions. He carried through the Michigan Journal of Edu- cation a series of nine popular articles under the general heading Leaves from the Book of Nature. During the summer he visited Missouri, and held a quasi-connection with the geological survey then in progress under Prof. Swallow, sending to the Ann Arbor papers some account of what he saw. 1859. In January, 1859, he memorialized the State Legisla- ture on the subject of a geological survey (House Document No. 29); and the survey having been ordered he was commissioned by Gov. Moses Wisner, as director. On the 16th of May he set out, with a camp-outfit and one assistant, A. D. White, for the per- sonal examination of the southern portion of the Lower Peninsula. He served this year also as editor, and against his will, as pub- lisher of the Michigan Journal of Education, to which he con- tributed numerous articles and criticisms—among them a popular solution of the celebrated ‘‘Pendulum, Problem.” As president ot the State Teachers’ Association he managed its interests, and delivered the annual address on What Coustitutes the Successful Teacher, In October, having, during the season, studied the geo- logical relations of the various brine springs of the state, he pub- lished, in one of the Grand Rapids papers, a general conclusion from which he never had occasion to recede. He discouraged the attempt to produce salt at Grand Rapids. His exploration of the Saginaw region enabled him to locate the salt formation at the depth of 650 feet beneath Kast Saginaw. This was before the first well was bored. Experiment revealed the existence of a sup- ply of brine at 648 feet. As, during the same season, he had to oversee the erection of his new residence, costing about ten ‘ EE Alerander Winchell. 87 thousand dollars, it is apparent that this was a year of unceasing activity. 1860. In 1860 the work of the survey called him to spend most of the summer season in camp around the lake shores. He was able to cojrdinate the salt wells at different points along the Saginaw river. The leisure of the year was occupied by paleon- tological investigations. } 1861. His Report of Progress of the Geological Survey, an octavo volume of 339 pages, was published in August, 1861. In this he fully anticipated the vast development of the salt inter- est in the Saginaw valley. In consequence of the outbreak of the war the Legislature made no provision for the continuance of the survey, but the paleontological investigations were carried on privately through the year. As with all surveys the Michigan survey entailed on the director a burdensome correspondence relat- ing to possible and projected economic measures in various parts of the state. One only need here be mentioned. ‘lo an appli- cant for information respecting the existence of gypsum in the vicinity of Tawas, he indicated a ridge near the lake shore, which he had inspected during the season’s examinations (not the well- known outcrop by the water's edge further south) as a locality containing probably a large supply of gypsum. Some experi- menters had already pronounced the locality barren; but his cor- respondent, taking a location for the price of an old gun, sold it, after the discovery of 18 feet of pure gypsum, for some thou- sands of dollars. On this spot has since been developed one of the finest gypsum quarries in the world. 1862-63. His special paleontological study was directed toward the series of strata which he had designated the ‘‘Mar- shall group,” a Carboniferous assemblage which had been regarded by American geologists as the equivalent of the New York Chemung. He published a communication on these rocks in the Amer. Jour. Sci. [2], vol. xxxu, p. 353, which contained his first descriptions of new species. Further descriptions were pub- lished in the Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sei. Phil. for Sept., p. 405. He also published an article in Hunt’s Merchants’ magazine for September, on The Salt Manufactureof the Saginaw Valley Researches in the Marshall group were continued through 1865, and the following articles were published: On the Identifica- tion of the Catskill Red sundstone group with the Chemung (Am. SS Th e American Geolog ist. February, 1892 Jour. Sci. [2], xxxv, 61); Descriptions of fossils from the Yel- low Sandstones lying beneath the Burlington limestone at Burling- ton, Iowa. (Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Jan. 1863). He also published Descriptions of elephantine molars tu the Museum of the University of Michigan. (Canadian Naturalist, October, 1863, p. 398.) He also investigated minutely the ‘‘Cherry slug,” Celandria cerasi, and his report was published in the Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1865. 1864. In 1864 he made a detailed study of the ‘Currant worm” microscopically and embryologically. The results were published in the Detroit Free Press and republished in the Ameri- can Journal of Ncieiwee, September, 1864. The following further papers were published this year, Fossils from the Potsdam Sand- stone of Wisconsin and Lake Superior (Amer. Jour, Sei. [2] XXXVI. p. 226); Notice of a Mastodon recently discovered in Michigan. Ib. [2] xxxvin. p. 223; Description of a garpike supposed to be new (Lepidosteus oculatus), (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philadelphia, Aug., 1864); Geological map of Michigan: On the origin of the Prairies of the Mississippi valley (Am. Jour, Sei. (2). Xe VID, pp) 332). 1865. In January, 1865, he delivered an address at Lansing, before the Executive Committee of the State Agricultural Society, on The soils and subsoils of Michigan, which was published by the Committee in pamphlet form. In this he insisted on the agricultural value of the -‘pine lands” of the state, and pointed out the existence of a large calcareous constituent in the sandy soils about Grand Traverse bay. He continued his investigation of the fossils of the +*Marshall group,” and published another series of descriptions of new species in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. July, 1865. About this time his attention was much taken up with the phenomena of oil wells, and he was called to many and distant places for the purpose of making surveys. He visited and studied, in this way, all the oil-producing regions of the United States and Canada; and a large number of his reports were published by the proprietors in separate pamphlets. He wrote numerous articles also on these subjects for the public journals. It was in February and March of 1865 that the germs of the malady which finally caused his death, were made apparent in an impairment of his general health and rheumatic pains. On the Alewander Winchell. SY invitation of Prof. James Hall, he visited Albany, carrying along with him a ‘‘trunkful” of fossils for mutual study and compari- son in Prof. Hall’s laboratory. Simultaneously with the com- mencement of preparations for this trip, according to his diary, rheumatic pains were perceived in various parts of the body. These were attributed to having takena bad cold through exposure in the Museum, where he had to work without fire. Once only (February 14) while at Albany, he notes ‘‘continual fluttering and palpitation about the heart. Earsring. Stomach impaired. No difficulty in drawing a long breath.” Repairing to his father’s home (Lakeville, Conn.) on February 16, he became much worse and passed through a severe siege of intlammatory rheumatism, under the faithful nursing of his mother, leaving there again for Albany on March 15, and reaching Ann Arbor, March 22. A\l- though his rheumatic pains ceased gradually, the cardiac mani- festations were kept up, and increased alarmingly. His diary for the next two or three years is burdened with references to the “thumping” and the ‘‘spasms” which he constantly experienced about the heart. He consulted Dr. Abram Sager soon after returning from Lakeville, and from his treatment he experienced some temporary relief. He carefully analyzed his own case, and the following may be taken as samples of many passages in his diary written when, at Lexington, Ky., he was inaugurating, un- der Regent Bowman, the courses in natural science, at Kentucky University. For years, and apparently until he was wholly in- capacitated by the encroachment of the disease, he lived with the impending probability of sudden death constantly before him. After considering the question whether the peculiar sensations he felt might not be centered in the stomach instead of the heart, he writes: Be that as it may the circumstances have been such that I have been led to think much about the probable shortening of my life. No one can think of death without some shrinking back. To go out of the world into the untried uncertainties which lie the other side of death is a serious business—to drop half-finished plans—to leave life’s work but half completed—above all to leave a little destitute family—to break their hearts with bereavement —to leave my little daughters to the trials, griefs and exposures of an orphan life—poor, education and accom plishments not yet secured—Oh, this is trying. But it is after all for them rather than myself, that regret arises. As for me—the individual I must die sometime, and the uncertainties of the future will be as reat twenty years hence as now, and so far as regards nature’s reluctance to 90 The American Geologist. February, 1892 go down into non-existence, I have no desire to postpone the day. For the world’s sake, for my name’s sake, for surviving friends’ sake, I had hoped to do more for humanity, more for science than I have, I seem to be now prepared to labor efficiently in the field of well-doing, I had hoped to complete my work on Natural Theology—my Geologic Ages and my Physiological Zoology. And then [ am half prepared to mono- graph the horizon of the Waverly sandstone. Would that I might be spared to do that. But there are real attractions on the other side of the dark river. I daily see, in imagination, my little angel trio standing hand in hand and i00king longingly toward the shores of earth and wondering when papa will come. Oh, if I could feel the firm assurance that I should meet and know them there, I should cast every regret aside, and joyfully, joyfully, await the day. It may be that I can attain to this assurance. I under- stand that others have enjoyed it; and I pray God his spirit may guide me to the same acquisition. (26 Jan., 1867.) Again he writes (Feb. 11, 67): The other night as I was lying in bed and considering what could be the nature of the phenomenon, I concluded the most probable expla- nation is this: The spasm occurs during the time of contraction of the ventricles, as is shown by the suppression of the pulse, and by the failure of the sharp, “deep” sound caused by the closing of the mitral valves. It must be then that the mitral valves do not close when the ventricle contracts, and thus the blood from the left ventricle instead of being thrown into the aorta is forced back into the left auricle, meeting the blood just entering that auricle from the polmonary vein. This sudden and unusual influx of blood from both directions into the auricle pro- duces a concussion and distension of that auricle and possibly an un- usually spasmodic struggle of the whole heart. As the right auricle is situated near the centre of the thorax and contiguous to the stomach, the unusual movement which it suffers is felt by the stomach, and thus that organ seems illusorily to be the seat of the abnormal action as it is the seat of the sensation. But in reference to this explanation it should be marked, 1. A regurgi- tation of the blood into the right auricle and a prevention by this means of the contents of the pulmonary vein from proceeding forwards would result in a momentary congestion of the lungs, which should be indi- cated by a sense of suffocation. 2. As I have never experienced symp- toms of any real inflammatory action in the heart, or the region of the heart, and have never even suffered any pain except occasional wander- ing or shooting pains, which many times were seated in the muscular layers of the chest, I do not perceive it possible (aside from the exist- ence of the spasms), that any sach disease has existed in the structures of the heart as to cause an alteration in the constitution or efficiency of the valves. 5. There exists therefore room for some other explanation of these abnormal symptoms. At the same time irregular or intermittent action of the heart is caused frequently by the state of the nervous sys- tem; and at the same time these spasms and the pathological condition on which they depend, produce no perceptible influence upon my health. a i a i Alevander Winchell. QI On the whole, therefore, I am left in a state of uncertainty as to the fact of valvular disease. Two things I have neglected to mention. 1. These sensations are about the same as are produced by a sudden shock—as when a window falls, ora door slams, or some person suddenly starts up before one. This would affiliate them to nervous affections. 2. Occasionally, lately, when lying quietly in bed, listening to the sound of the heart, I have fancied that the “deep” sound produced by the closing of the mitral valves is not as sharp as it used to be—but somewhat softened and pro- longed. This is as I believe it should be if there isan imperfect closure of these valves, and some of the blood reguryitates into the auricle. But if this is the constant mode of action Iam sure some impression should be made on my respiration, which I have not yet detected. I breathe as long as ever, and I am no more inclined to pant than ever. In hypertrophy of the heart, the ventricles, from over nutrition, lose the requisite capacity; but so far as I can see this would result only in a more sluggish circulation of the blood, producing a sense of faintness. and suffocation—instead of ¢rregularity in the pulse. 1866. He applied himself, notwithstanding these solemn pre- monitions, and perhaps partly through the sense of the brevity of his remaining years, to his duties and to all his plans, with great diligence and effectiveness. In 1866 he published, in con- nection with Prof. Oliver Marcy, who supplied most of the speci- mens, ‘‘An enumeration of fossils in the Niagara limestone, col- lected at Chicago, Ll. ,”’ with two lithographic plates of illustrations drawn by himself. This contained descriptions of numerous new species. He made this year an economic survey of the Grand Traverse region, on which he published an octavo report of 82 pages, witha map. In an appendix of 20 pages were embraced descriptions of a considerable number of new species of fossils, This report first brought to notice the remarkable influence of lake Michigan upon the climate of the region, and the wonderful capacity of the latter for agricultural and horticultural produc- tion. The statements of the report aroused the incredulity of some of the state officials, and an independent survey was made which fully confirmed the report. He read before the American Association at Buffalo, a paper on the Pruit-bearing belt of Mich- ‘gan, in which, as in the report, he brought statistics toexemplify the hitherto unexpected influence of lake Michigan in ameliorat- ing the winter climate of the state of Michigan and prolonging the growing period. He read at the same meeting a paper on Stromatoporide, in which he described two remarkable new genera of fossils, and established a new family, 92 The American Geologist. February, 1892 Having declined the chair of Geology, Zoology and Botany in Kentucky University, he was induced to accept a three-months winter engagement, and accordingly attended the Commencement in June, and delivered an inaugural address entitled A plea for Scrence, which the authorities published in pamphlet. In Janu- ary, 1867, he entered upon the temporary engagement. He was unwilling to sever his connection with the University at Ann Arbor. He also served the Kentucky University in 1868, and Regent Bowman now pressed upon him unsuccessfully the presi- dency of the Agricultural college, which at that time conducted nearly all the scientific instruction of the University. About the same time he declined also the presidency of the University of (reorgia, 1867. During the year 1867 he contributed to the Northwest- ern Christian Advocate, published at Chicago, by special request of the editor, Dr. T. M. Eddy, a series of twenty-two articles en- titled Christian Theology iMustrated from Nature. Dr, Eddy had witnessed his method with a so-called ‘Bible Class” at Ann Arbor, and desired some of the results spread before the readers of the Advocate. The fundamental conception of this series of articles was the harmony between the indications and doctrines of science and the central doctrines of the Christian religion. The scope of the discussion appears from the following analysis of the course: INTRODUCTORY. 1. Nature and scope of the subject. 2. Nature of the two revelations. 5. Harmony of the two revelations. THE EXISTENCE OF DErry. 1. Human conception of Deity. 2. Direct evidences. THE UNITY OF Derry. Harmony of creation in reference to space. Harmony of creation in reference to time. 3. Harmony of creation in reference to plans. DIVINE OMNISCIENCE AND OMNIPOTENCE. DIVINE BENEVOLENCE. 1. >) 1. Indications of divine benevolence. 2. Vindication of divine benevolence. Divine TRUTH. 1. Untruth incompatible with divine benevolence. — 2. Untruth is unnatural. DIVINE JUSTICE. 1. Hangs on the proof of moral law. oo Alexander Winchell, 2. The moral law written on the heart of man. 3. Lhe moral law revealed in the material creation. ‘CREATION A DIVINE WORK, AND NOT THE RESULT OF DEVELOPMENT. 1. The inorganic history of creation. 2. The organic history. THE DURATION OF MATERIAL EXISTENCE FINITE. 1. The present organism had a beginning. 2. The same hastening to an end, ‘THE ORDER OF CREATION. 1. The order indicated by Moses. 2. The order taught by science. MAN THE LAST TERM OF THE ORGANIC SERIES. ‘THE ORIGIN OF OUR RACE IN THE ORIENT. Tor NOACHIAN DELUGE. 1. Uninspired evidences of its occurrence. 2 The deluge not universal. CORPOREAL DEATH NOT THE CONSEQUENCE OF SIN. SIN, PUNISHMENT AND FORGIVENESS. "THE EXISTENCE OF THE SOUL. 1. Innate convictions. 2. Mind in nature. 5. Correlative of the brain. FUTURE EXISTENCE. 1. Innate beliefs. 2. The indestructibility of spirit. 3. The incompleteness of earthly existence. 4, The attributes of Deity pledge future existence. FUTURE PROGRESSION. AUTHENTICITY OF WRITTEN REVELATION. INSPIRATION OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES? THE NECESSITY OF FAITH. CONCLUSION. These articles attracted wide-spread attention in the circle of intelligent readers to whom they were addressed, and they received many testimonials to their value. It was critically pointed out that their method was much broader than had commonly been introduced into natural theology. He was solicited to put these contributions into book form, and especially by the late Dr. B. F. Cocker, his beloved colleague at Ann Arbor; but the treat- ment fell so far short of the degree of thoroughness which seemed to him befitting the theme that he resisted all solicitation to re- publish, entertaining the belief that within a year or two he would be able to offer the public a more adequate discussion. He began at once a re-cast of his argument, but the more he studied the more he became convinced that the apodictic and therefore the d+ Th eA MePrican Geologist. February, 1892 satisfactory proof of the being of God must be rooted in « priori evidence. Illustrations from nature are all useful on the ante- cedent proof that there is any reality whose being and attributes are illustrated. With such maturing views he wrote one or two hundred pages again and yet again, during the succeeding years ; but a few months lapse of time so changed his conception of the most appropriate treatment that all which had been written was rejected. Out of some portions several articles were prepared for the Methodist Quarterly Review (April, 1875, and Jan., 1874), viz: The unity of the physical world, and Religious ideas among barbarous tribes (Jan., 1875). Some of his maturer views were also embodied in a review of Cocker’s Christianity and Greek Philosophy (July, 1872). 1868. During 1868 circumstances directed his attention par- ticularly to the popularization of science. He had written, in 1858, a series of popular geological articles for the Michigan Journal of Education, and later had written a similar series for the Ladies’ Repository, of Cincinnati, under the general title Voices from Nature, and at the special request of the editor, Rey. Dr. D. W. Clark. These Dr. Clark had suggested to him to have published in book form, under the title of Zhe Geologic Ages, but he was not satisfied with the treatment he had there given the subject, and resisted Dr. Clark’s flattering solicitation. He was beset, however, on every side, by requests for popular articles, most of which he hf&id to refuse. However, from his pen appeared three articles in-the ‘‘ University Magazine,” four in the ‘College Courant,” and three in the ‘‘Western Monthly.” He conceived also an extension of the project of popular lectures, in which the grand conclusions of the sciences should be set forth in more glowing and popular style than till then had been customary with scientific lecturers of good scientific standing. His ex- perience in composition had convinced him that the public pos- sessed an appetite for solid information, though they demanded it well spiced. Contrary, therefore, to the precedents of his elders and the strong conservative judgment of the leaders in science, he boldly took the risk of an attempt to present science in a popular garb. The result was about what he had anticipated. While fair audiences of deeply interested people attended his lectures, there were crowds who would be attracted only by a great and pop- ular name or a public entertainment which, either in its subject —S as wei Alerander Winchell. matter or its author, amounted essentially to a mere amusement or a spectacle. Though never devoting any portion of his time expressly to the business of lecturing, he gave annually twenty, thirty, or more such lectures and his voice was heard in nearly all the cities of the West and Northwest where literary societies or lecture courses are maintained. In October, 1875, when in Boston, he met Prof. R. A. Proctor, and attended two of the lectures in the course which he was then delivering before the Lowell Institute. In conversation he re- marked to Prof. Proctor the difference in the methods pursued by Proctor and himself to gain the attention of popular audiences. Proctor took a special theme of limited scope, and brought out all the details and personal and biographical history connected with it. This appeared to him the method of the story-teller. Winchell took a grand chapter of cosmical history, and pre- sented synthetically the grand conclusions attained by science, ranging them in logical rather than chronological order—appeal- ing to the understanding of his auditors for interest, and to their imagination for illustrative pictures. In later years it was eyi- dent that Proctor’s lectures more and more adopted Winchell’s method, at the same time also approximating more closely to the same themes. During his American tour of 1879-80 he made his lecture entitled ‘‘The Life of a World” the staple entertainment for the public. His other lectures, ‘‘The Moon,” ‘‘Death of Worlds,’ were simply amplified chapters in a general cosmic history. Dr. Winchell was perhaps the very first scientist in America who descended before popular audiences, from that high-caste and stately, but dry and unpopular, style in which the older scientists had thought it fit to cloak the dignity of science. Certainly no one but the elder Agassiz had previously attempted a true populariza- tion of science, but his lectures were never heard by the plain people in the smaller cities throughout the country. He simpli- fied zoological themes, rather than popularized them, and lifted up his voice only in New York, Brooklyn, Boston, Mobile, San Francisco, or other large cities where the select appreciators of science were numerous enough to constitute an audience. Since 1868 the popular platform has been occupied by a considerable number of lecturers of scientific repute, among whom may be named Waterhouse Hawkins, Richard A. Proctor and Kdward 3. “46 The American Geologist. February, 1892 Morse. But two of these have relied largely for popular interest ‘on what is really but some trick of black-board sketching. In (Great Britain have arisen also the illustrious names of Tyndall, Huxley, Lockyer and others. This lecturing did not divert him but casually from his perma- nent plans of scientific work. In 1869 he prosecuted his studies on the ‘*Marshall group;’ some of his contributions were included in Other state geological reports, and the scientific journals. His most voluminous publication on the subject appeared in two num- bers of the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. ‘This presents a general resumé of discussions bearing on the rocks in question, a study of their equivalency in the various western states and the lithological and paleontological evidences of the unity and distinctness of the group, and its proper posi- tion in the Carboniferous system. 1869. On the re-organization of the geological survey of the state, governor Baldwin re-appointed him director, and he was en- abled to resume the work which had been suspended by the inter- vention of the war of the rebellion. Nine years had elapsed, and he had learned much, in his private travels for economic surveys at various localities, of the rock-structure and physical features of the state. He assumed for himself the personal investigation of the Lower Peninsula, and committed to major T. B. Brooks the study of the Marquette Iron region. As director he drew up a plan of operations which major Brooks pursued to the comple- tion of his work, some four years afterwards. 1870). For several years he employed every opportunity to col- lect data relative to the Winchell name in America, and he put his information in systematic shape in a volume, which appeared in February, 1870, entitled Genealogy of the Family of Winchell, an octavo volume of 272 pages, containing names of about 5,000 of his relatives. In March of the same year appeared “Sketches of Creation,”’ a purely popular work embodying some of the grander views of geology which he had_ previously pre- sented either in print or from the public platform. ‘‘Some por- tions of it indeed surpass the requirements of a popular style and become sophomoric and stilted.”” So he himself criticised it. It presented accurately, however, some of the accepted doctrines of science, and contained many thoughts and speculations original with the author. His picture of the primeval condition of the Alerander Winchell. 97 world, and especially of the stormy period, antedated (in 1858 in the ‘‘Michigan Journal of Education”) the publication of the similar pictures of Figuier; and his speculations concerning the wastage of the land, the final refrigeration of the earth, and the sun, and the inevitable running down of the machinery of the solar system, were entirely independent; though it later appeared that Mayer had preceded him in reference to the doctrine of solar cooling, and Sir William Thompson had already an- nounced the germ of his doctrine of the ‘‘dissipationof energy.” The popular character of the work tempted several ignorant re- viewers to speak of it as a compilation, and as something similar to the attempts of Hitchcock and Hugh Miller. The Nation re- ceived it with that affectation of superior wisdom, and that pomp- ous superciliousness which have since been the recognized char- acteristics of that conceited journal. With these exceptions the work was received with a universal and cordial welcome. From his numerous scrap-books the following, from the New York Jide- peudent, is selected as a sample of the judgment of the best critics. But setting aside the engraver’s help toward the rich attractions of this volume, and confining ourselves simply to the author’s manipulation of words, we should call this a very picturesque volume. Dr. Winchell is a learned professor of the sciences of geology, zoology and botany; but more than that he is a singular master of the art of telling about these sciences. His mind is filled with the poetry of science; he brings his heart and his imagination into the field as allies of his analytic faculties; and his essays in the popularization of science are realiy extraordinary specimens of word-painting. Like Waterhouse Hawkins, Dr. Winchell is a popular orator of the facts of natural science; and like Hugh Miller, Tyndall, Huxley, Agassiz, he is also the graphic rhetorician of those facts. If any one has supposed that geology is a dry, dull science, he can be cured effectually by the perusal of the Sketches of Creation. It clothes the dry bones of an august science with the living flesh and splendid vestments of poetry. Its rehearsal of the tremendous story of the physical universe is a superb prose epic. In similar strain wrote the New York Evening Post, the Chicago Post, and nearly every other reviewer. The remarkable sale of the work combined with these commendations and many friendly let- ters, demonstrated that the author had reached the very audience for whom he wrote. The publishers accounted to the author for 4,181 copies sold within the first six months, and they testified subsequently that no scientific work ever published in America oS The American Geologist. February, 1892 had found so large a sale as the Sketches of Creation, A large demand has continued to the present date. Almost simultaneously appeared his Geological Chart, intended for the class-room of the college and the High School, 1871. But his principal activity was demanded by the duties of the geological survey. In the latter part of 1870 he drew up a preliminary cast of a report of progress, and in Jan., 1871, it was submitted to the Legislature. It was printed at once in pamphlet. This did not attempt to embody results, but set forth the plan of operations and the scope of the work contem- plated, producing estimates of final cost, with a degree of un- reserve more candid than judicious. The greater part of an octavo volume was substantially ready for the press. But a hos- tile influence had insinuated itself into the Legislature. The Senate very promptly passed a bill making appropriations for pub- lication ; but the House was now under the manipulation of one S W. Hill, from the Upper Peninsula, who had taken offense at the employment of Prof. R. Pumpelly, instead of himself or some other resident of the district, to prosecute the survey of the cop- per region. Mr. Hill had been a subordinate employe of the survey under Foster and Whitney, and was known as an exploring miner or ‘‘expert”’ in the Northern Peninsula. As director, Prof. Winchell had made a preliminary arrangement with Forster, who was well versed in the facts connected with the geological developments of the region, but Gov. Baldwin objected, because Forster was already one of the commissioners of the Sault canal. Hill was utterly incompetent and out of the question, though both ambitious and unscrupulous. Prof. Pumpelly was well known, even then, as a student of such ore-deposits, and was the ‘most suitable man, But Hill notwithstanding his assuring and frtendly letters, conceived an implacable hostility to the director and to the survey, and secured his election to the Lower House with the proclamation that he would kill the survey. So by the most industrious, insidious and unscrupulous misrepresentations and perversions of facts, he created a strong adverse sentiment. In this he was aided by Dr. Manly Miles, then residing in Lansing, who ten years before had so mismanaged the Zoological depart- ment of the survey then in progress, that the director got rid of him by having the Zoological department abolished. Between the two suflicient influence was exerted to induce a majority of Alewander Winchell. QQ the house to withhold appropriations for publication, and to this day the materials that were gathered under his administration in the Lower Peninsula for two seasons of field work largely remain unpublished. They fill numerous large record volumes of manu- script. Meantime governor Baldwin, whose authority had compelled him to take the step which roused such deadly hostility, neither assumed the responsibility, nor justified the director in any offi- cial way, and the latter was restrained by official etiquette from shifting upon another the responsibility for his official acts. The whole Geological Board had but recently fully endorsed all the plans and operations of the survey; but they had not the virtue to defend what had been done with their open and individual approval. So, on the failure, or impending failure, of the appro- priation, the director sent in his resignation, glad enough to be relieved from what appeared to be the tyranny of an ignorant and capricious Legislature. ‘‘A Remarkable Maori Manuscript,”’ published in Sparks from a Geologists Hammer, is a parody of this episode. At the dedication of ‘‘Orange Judd Hall of Science,” at the Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Ct., he delivered an address on Setentific Education. The institution was hisalma mater, and its benefactor was his classmate. This address assumed bold and forward ground, and was published in pamphlet. The Boston Advertiser said: ‘‘It will be likely to attract much attention among -all who are interested in the ‘modern protest,’ since it takes de- cided and strong grounds in favor of the new education, boldly advocating its advantages, not only for special training, but for that liberal culture and discipline of the mental faculties and the character, which, it is generally supposed, can be obtained only from the classics. It will take rank with the most thorough and able arguments yet presented on this side of the discussion.”” On this occasion he reeeived from his alma mater the degree of Doctor of Laws. His recent experience with the versatile lower, house of the Legislature of Michigan brought sharp confirmation of a convic- tion, which he had already entertained and expressed, as to the unrestricted extension of the elective franchise to the ignorant citizen. The progress of the institutions of American civilization he considered endangered by thus putting them into, the hands of LOO The American Geologist. February, 1892 ignorant and too often unappreciative trustees. Such views were embraced in a lecture entitled Auhistocracy, or Too Much Popular | Government. This was first delivered at Mattoon, Ill., Dee. 4, 1871. It appeared in the Mattoon Journal of Jan. 6, 1872. The lecture, as may well be imagined, created considerable excitement, as it went point blank against the short-sighted, material selfishness of the rabble, and the aspirations of the self-seeking demagogues who lead them. The lecture was, however, rewritten and delivered,. March 13, before the +‘‘Jetfersonian Society” of the Law Depart- ment of the University of Michigan. 1872. A series of articles adapted to the NSuwuday School Journal were published in that periodical in 1872, and subse- quently were amplified into a volume entitled Reconciliation of Nerence and Religion, We was this year vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; and poet for the twenty-fifth anniversary of his college class. On the latter occasion he delivered a very touching and melancholy, though perhaps appropriate, poem, which is.one of the rare occasions on which he allowed the outer world, which knew him chiefly by his scientific contributions, to have a glimpse of the inmost recesses of his heart. Here he poured out his grief *in an impersonal way, in beautifully flowing metre—of which there are also numerous- other examples scattered through his diary and his record books. 1873. He experienced a severe trial, on leaving, in 1873, the University of Michigan, and accepting the responsible position of chancellor of Syracuse University. The step was long debated, and he could scarcely bring himself to abandon all the ties which bound him to Ann Arbor and the State of Michigan. He had heretofore firmly resisted the personal solicitations of various committees to enter upon what they, with the world in general. regarded as ‘a wider field.” But now the representations of the authorities of Syracuse University were to the etfect that the insti- tution was in rapid progress of endowment, and had already : productive capital of $650,000, and that, as it was his scientific reputation which had attracted them to him, they wished him not to discontinue his relation to the scientific world. His salary would be more than double what he was receiving from the Univer- sity of Michigan, and he would not have to be worried with the financial affairs of the endowment, since there was a salaried “He had lost three of his children by early death. ANlerander Winchell. Lor officer to look after that. Hewas very cordially received and introduced by bishop Peck and Drs. Reid and Bristol. His inaugural address was a broad and searching discussion of The Modern University. A portion of the material intended for the report of the Geo- logical Survey of Michigan was condensed for Walling’s At/as of Michigan, embracing articles on the geology, topography and climate of the state. These memoirs subsequently were collected in a volume of 121 pages, accompanied by topographical, geolog- ical and isothermal charts—six in all. Resulting froin the same study he contributed to the Amer. Jour, Ser., July, 1873, a paper on The Diagonal Nystem in the Physical Features of Michigan. As soon as he had opportunity to learn the financial condition of the University, he discovered that it was not what he had been led to suppose, and that the financial stringency of the times (1873) bore heavily on even what there was of a firm foundation for future expectation. Notes which had been given on the opening of the institution were met with disheartening non- payment, and on others the productive interest was eaten up by second-hand men and bankers who had advanced money on them and held the short time notes of the University. However, he kept up good courage, outwardly, to the end of the scholastic year, and in July he sailed for Kurope, intending there to leave his family for a short sojourn while his eldest living daughter should enjoy the opportunity and advantages of musical instruction by the best foreign masters. He returned himself to Syracuse on the opening of the new scholastic year. He delivered a course of four geological lectures during the autumn at Cooper Institute, New York, and two on evolution before the ‘‘Drew Theological Seminary,” the latter, in April (1874), appearing as a small volume from the press of Harper Bros. Dio oie Shale a.c see coe 1 3 | Coalee en. iti ile 0 Only the two upper benches of coal are mined; the 15 inches of shale in the bottom being too much to remove for the 12 inches of coal beneath. The roof here is of thin bedded sandstone and is excellent. Elsewhere along the Chestnut ridge anticlinal, this coal is seldom over 2 feet in thickness, and usually has porous, sandy beds for a roof that are incapable of sustaining great pressure. Prof. White shows this coal to have the following structure in the Newburg shaft ; Coal Aiea sings eee ite Ooi) Slate.../izccuonewen oer 0’ 3" | Coal, slaty, “ccccce seme 2! UME (UE 7s Fireclay:... teens 2! Q" Coal; 00d 725. wes .te owe" 0" Immediately under this coal is a limestone about 2 ft. thick. THe AMERICAN GEOLOGISY. Vol. IX, Plate VI. PRESTON SYNCLINE M. RIVER Z Miles. Fie. 1, Prorme SECTION FROM NEAR MorGantown, W. Va., Tairvy MILES SouTHEAST WARD TO Higutry Cur. Fig. 2. PERPENDICULAR SECTION IN THE LowER Coat Measures, WHITE DAy CREEK, W. VA. Lower Coal Measures.— Brown. 2,4 bo ‘ At other places in the same neighborhood there is one foot of shale between the coal and limestone, while in the vicinity of Clinton furnace, the limestone is more siliceous, highly ferri- ferous and 10 ft. to 12 ft. of sandstone divides it from the over- lying coal. This limestone is the Johnstown cement bed of Pennsylvania. Descending, we next pass through 40 ft. of flaggy sandstones and shales and reach a stratum of black shale, usually about 1 ft. thick, filled with fossil plants, calamites, Lepidodendra, Neurop- teris hirsuta and Pecopteris of various species. | The black shale is the roof of a very important seam of coal, the Lower Kittan- ning, the most extensive coal seam of the Appalachian field. — It varies greatly in thickness, but is nearly always workable. In the western part of our section it is four feet thick; in the New- burg basin it is over seven feet in thickness. In the vicinity of Halleck, this coal shows the following structure: WOM errtesa nets isc « a1 050 2 SSIES) eucoteiain te ia\e x piers 2! Hee © (CORI BAGG Ac aie Semen NY OE oy 8 REISUEOS sapalalic'e ae vie) nv sje's 0) 2 COE ce Seen CR euninte 0 10 Although it is all good coal the lower stratum of ten inches is of very superior quality and is much used by blacksmiths. —In- deed, it is to its value for this purpose that the whole seam owes its high reputation, In the bottom of the shaft at Newburg, it shows the following complex structure: (Cle Les eortai Acats Recto aa 0’ Oe RUMEN eS OA Van Arete esxeioron treks 0! 10" COad See itis « aycie eins 0! 6” CORT, OMY sss alsc5 ot tes GO. chi hy ae SRS lala Coal, main bench......4' 6" DIAC KE SIALG Hea srurtetels 0! 6" (Comer tc severe? 2! 0" Under the Lower Kittanning coal, we have 35 ft. of shales and clays bearing iron ore nodules near the bottom. — It is this iron ore that furnishes a cause for the number of chalybeate springs that occur at this horizon along Chestnut ridge. Next comes a hard-pebbly sandstone that is usually about 15 ft. in thickness, filled with impressions of large plants, Sigillarids and Lepidodendra, and which resembles the ‘Great Conglomer- ate.” Thisis perhaps the Homewood sandstone, of Pennsylvania, the uppermost member of the Pottsville conglomerate series. 228 The American Geologist. April, 189 This rock makes a sharp change in the topography wherever it appears above the surface. It does not disintegrate easily, and hence usually makes an abrupt cliff, while its great boulders are scattered far down below its present outcrop. Under this hard sandstone, we find about 30 ft. of sandy shales filled with plant fossils. Then one foot of hard, black slate caps one foot to one and a half feet of coal. This coal is often worked and is of good quality. About 10 feet of shales underlie this coal, which brings us down. to the main mass of the Great Congiomerate. W. Va. University, Dec. 12th, 1891. THE TIN ISLANDS OF THE NORTHWEST. E. W. Ciaypore, Akron, O. if The Cassiterides or Tin islands of the ancients were the granitic masses of Cornwall and the Scilly islands. Hither came in days before the dawn of written history (except perhaps Egyptian) the enterprising mariners of Tyre, to buy from the Britons their much prized and very scarce metal. By craft and daring in nav- igation, they for many years kept the destination of their tin- ships a profound trade secret. Few dared follow them out be- tween the pillars of Hercules into the foggy and stormy Atlantic, and Pheenicia was consequently for ages the central mart for the sale of this metal—the stannary of the world. Not, however, for the sake of tin pure and simple, did these old Pheenician mariners undertake the voyage from the Levant to St. Michael’s Mount and back-—6,000 miles of sea, and often out of sight of land. Tin alone (the p/liambum album or white lead of the Romans) was of little use. Pliny,* it is true, speaks of tinning copper vessels, but Pliny lived at a comparatively late date. It was the peculiar and intense hardness that characterizes its alloy with copper that gave this metal its value among the ancients. Bronze was the material of which all metallic cutting tools were made before the discovery of steel, and for many years . afterwards until this latter became cheap and easily wrought. It is therefore needless to point out the great advantage possessed by the nation that held the secret of the Cornish tin. Others *“Staunum illitum aeneis vasis compescit aeruginis virus.” Plin. 34, 48, Tin Islands of the Northwest.— Claypole. 229 could buy the bronze after it had been made, but could not make it, and this, there is abundant reason to believe, was done. Even after the introduction of steel had destroyed the value of bronze weapons, so many uses for tin remained that the old Corn- ish mines were never entirely closed, though in the time of the English Plantagenet kings the royalty had dwindled down almost to nothing. jt Rising like islands from the vast prairies of the Northwest are the Black Hills of Dakota. They break through the monotonous plain that extends from Chicago to the foot of the Rocky mount- ains. Their steeply inclined axial strata are in strong contrast with the flat beds of the Cretaceous and Tertiary eras around them. To these, as to the new Cassiterides, much attention has been directed for some years past, in the hope that the future tin supply for the markets of North America will be drawn here- from. To the geologist these hills are equally interesting on account of the problems which they suggest, and the facts which they re- veal concerning the evolution of the Northwest. Prof. N. H. Winchell and Mr. Henry Newton were the earliest explorers in this field, and entered on its investigation while it was still in a wild state, and occupied by hostile tribes of Indians. To their work the present writer, and all who have followed them, are deeply indebted for facts and data. The writer’s own observations have been made mostly in the southern tin-district, and in some parts of the east and north of the Black Hills. ELE: The core or medial axis of the Hills consists of a ridge of schists and slates dipping at a high angle to the east, and often nearly vertical. Of these the schists are the older and underlie the slates. They are very micaceous, and often so full of garnets as to appear red, and have been likened by Profs. Blake and Crosby to the ‘‘Montalban” series of New England. These schists are heavily charged with lenticular sheets of a very coarse granite composed of quartz, albite and mica, which have been described by some as intrusive. But the evidence rather justifies the belief that they are really veins of segregation, as they uni- formly agree with the schists in strike and dip. These veins are 250 The American Geologist. April, 1892: very striking to one only acquainted with granite in its usual form—a finely granular mass. The quartz is as usual, dissemi- nated, but the albite, the chief ingredient, is found in very large erystals. and the mica in sheets sometimes a foot or more in diam- eter. With these occur crystals of black tourmaline occasionally weighing several pounds, and magnificent spodumenes, ten, twenty and thirty feet long in the rock. Here too, are found bery], cassiterite (tin-ore), columbite, and other minerals often associ- ated with these. These intercalated veins of coarse granite weather less rapidly than the schists and consequently stand out in bold relief on the hillsides, their wreckage strewing the ground so as to convey the impression that the granite area is much larger than is really the ease. No massive granite exists in the Hills, even the central Harney peak being composed chiefly of schists. The veins run in some instances for long distances—many hundred feet or yards —but eventually disappear to be succeeded by others in parallel lines. ; The presence of the cassiterite in them has drawn attention to these schists almost to the exclusion of the other strata of the Hills. We will return later to this topic when treating of the tin. * ry. The eastern slates overlying and conformable with the schists compose the younger part of the axis already alluded to. They occupy the whole eastern side of the mass of the Hills, and like the older schists dip steeply to the east. They are hard and blue or dark grey, have no true cleavage, and weather into ragged peaks or edges. So far as it is known they contain no useful minerals. Vast beds of quartzite are found in them so massive as to justify calling them at times sandstone deposits. V3 Both the formations above mentioned belong to those early ages of geologic history or rather legend, which are at present comprehended in the term ‘‘Pre-Cambrian.”” It would be more *It is worthy of remark in this connection that the stanniferous veins of Dakota are immensely older than those of Cornwall. The latter are all of post-Devonian age, and probably in some cases very much later than the Carboniferous. Indeed it would seem as if the process of the deposition of cassiterite were continuous, as it is not uncommon to find in Cornwall recent deer-horns so impregna ed with the mineral, that they are as rich as the average ore of the county. Tin Islands of the Northiwest.— Claypole. 231 strictly logical to write ‘‘Pre-Potsdam” because we can only prove that they antedate that era. But the total absence of fossils and their structure and immense thickness point strongly to a Pre- Cambrian date. Regarding the last character Prof. Newton writes: “The whole thickness of vertical rock with a width of about twenty-five miles, is believed to retain its original relation of parts.” So great a thickness of even Pre-Cambrian strata is scarcely credible. Immense beds of conglomerates are a featureof the slates, and are well displayed in many places, as for example, near Lead City on the railway. The pebbles consist chiefly of glassy quartz and quartzite, both of which are found in the older schists, but the conformability of the two series forbids our ascribing them to that source, and compels us to seek some other and more distant origin. The pebbles of quartzite are elongated, says Prof. Crosby, but those of quartz are not. Prof. Crosby has also called attention to a vast sheet of diorite (plagioclase felspar and hornblende), sometimes auriferous, which passes through the entire length of the easternor slaty series, and of which abundant fragments may be seen on the eastern slopes, and also to massive but very siliceous beds of hematite like those of the lake Superior region. He has further demonstrated from the presence of limestone pebbles in the Potsdam, that a bed of this material must be covered up somewhere in the Hills. This discovery may some day throw light on the age of the slates, some of which may, though such a supposition is searcely possible, be of lower Cambrian date. els After the deposition of the series above described in the sea of Pre-Cambrian age, an elevation of the region took place whereby the schists and slates were bent and folded at a very high angle and the Black Hills of Dakota were born. If we must regard the whole series as one unduplicated mass, they form a mono- clinal ridge with strong easterly dip. This movement alone indi- cates a long time, but the enormous erosion which the strata suffered before the Potsdam sandstone was laid down upon their basset edges forbids any doubt on this point. The interval rep- resented by this gap extends from the date of the latest slate to that of the Upper Cambrian, and may include the whole of Lower 232 The American Geologist. April, 1892 and Middle Cambrian time, with possibly some earlier eras. During all these aeons the Black Hills stood as an island or as islands in the Cambrian sea, supplying by their wear and tear under the action of the weather and the waves the sand required for the building of the Potsdam sandstone. The elevation which had set in after the deposition of the schists and slates, at length ceased and subsidence ensued. The sea began once more to submerge the sinking land, and the Pots- dam sandstone already forming in the surrounding sea encroached on the island. As the water advanced it destroyed the super- ficial parts of the old land, and deposited the material as the Pots- dam sandstone. This is seldom more than 250 feet thick, and is conglomeratic at base containing pebbles of all the harder rocks found in the hills, as well as of the limestone above mentioned. These last occur all round the Hills, and in some places compose almost the whole of the basal conglomerate. There can be no reasonable doubt of the identification of the Potsdam, though no fossils have yet been found. — It is probably continuous from its eastern outcrops beneath all the other pal- weozoic strata. But the slightly calcareous nature of its upper layers and the few fossils which they have thus far yielded, indi- cate that these may represent strata much higher in the seale. This will be more evident after consideration of the next topic. VII. If the sandstone be referred entirely to the era of the Potsdam, then there is a second long gap in the strata of the Hills, inelud- ing all the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian eras. But if the qualification just stated be allowed then the gap only includes the Ordovician and Silurian eras—a time sufficiently long. Prof. Carpenter has discussed this question, and has adopted a sugges- tion first put forth, I believe, by Prof. Crosby. The former says: “It was shown by the Challenger Expedition that in the truly abysmal depths of the sea, there is, properly speaking, no sedimentation. These are the red clay areas which form a characteristic feature of the deeper portions of the sea, and are found at all depths from 2,000 fathoms down to the deepest abysses. They consist of exceedingly fine clay colored red with oxide of iron. This clay is not a sediment, having its origin in the erosion of the land, but is derived from the aluminous portion of shells, decomposed pumice and fine volcanic ash.” “So slowly is this accumulation taking place that the ear-bones of whales and the teeth of Tin Islands of the Northwest.— Claypole. 233 sharks believed to have been extinct from early Tertiary times, have not yet been covered with it.” “The point that I wish to make is that if this section sank to these abysmal depths during Silurian and Devonian times, it reached a depth in which there was no sedimentation, and hence rocks of these ages are ab:ent. A slope of only one degree would in two hundred miles from the shore have carried it to the depth of 3,000 fathoms, or far into the red clay area,” Though the acute hypothesis above stated can scarcely be as- sumed at present, yet one fact strongly confirmatory must not be forgotten. When sedimentation again set in limestone and not sand was deposited, indicating distance from shore. Though apparently unique thus far in geology as an explana- tion of the absence of strata, it is certainly at least plausible, and none of the objections urged against it have sufficient weight to form an insuperable obstacle in the way of its acceptance. On this view the Potsdam subsidence continued until the area of the Black Hills had sunk below the 3,000 fathoms level, and of course the tops of the highest peaks were covered with water. On the cessation and reversal of this movement, the first sedi- ment that covered the bottom of the rising area was that of the Carboniferous limestone. This holds characteristic Carbonifer- ous fossils, and indicates oceanic conditions of deposit. It is 500 or 600 feet in thickness, exceedingly hard and durable. — Its position shows that at the time of deposition the area of the Hills was deeply sunk, because over a great part of the district this limestone lies horizontal on the horizontal Potsdam, and is never- theless elevated above the edges of the slates and schists except- ing on the very highest peaks. It has been raised without con- tortion, and shows only gentle dips around the margin of the Hill region. VILL. The incoming of sandstone near the close of the Carboniferous deposits indicates that some part of the Pre-Cambrian area had then risen above the water, and the lack of any decided break between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic as well as the variation in the material of the Trias shows an unstable condition of level during that era. The Trias contains beds of bright red clay, a very pure 30-foot limestone, hard and uniform, and enormous strata of gypsum cropping out all round the hills in quantity sufficient to supply the whole continent. The limestone forms a 234 The American Geologist April, 1892 rampart through which the streams have cut narrow channels, by which entrance is with difficulty gained to the central fastness. A fine illustration of this structure is seen along the narrow- gauge railway running up Elk creek from Postville to Lead City. Though the Jurassic beds that follow are conformable to the Trias, yet no greater contrast can well be imagined than that offered by these two formations. The former is absolutely desti- tute of all trace of life, while the latter contains some of the richest fossiliferous strata known anywhere on earth. What physical changes are indicated by this difference cannot now or here be discussed, but whatever they were, they permitted the abounding reptilian life of the Jurassic to invade the lifeless seas of the Trias. The rapid thickening of the former beds to the northwest, as pointed out by Prof. Carpenter and others, shows that the land whence they came lay in that direction, while the gypsum of the Trias would imply a closed sea and great evapor- ation. The vast and varied reptile fauna now accumulated by Prof. O. C. Marsh, at New Haven, has been chiefly taken from the Juras- sic of the region surrounding the Black Hills. Many of its members being in part or altogether terrestrial, indicate land at no great distance, and the Hills then probably rose as islands above the Jurassic waters. Of this fact there is no room for doubt at the commencement of the Cretaceous era, for the fine conglomerate at its base owes its origin to the Pre-Cambrian strata of the axis. But the emer- gence was apparently only temporary, and was followed by sub- sidence, which again carried the Hills under water, and allowed the deposition of the later Cretaceous beds over the whole area. These strata indicate marine conditions, but no great distance from land, as they consist of clays and shale, with little lime, and contain abundant and beautiful specimens of Baculites, Am- monites, ete. IX. It seems probable that the Cretaceous sea continued on into the Kocene era, and that Eocene strata were deposited over the Cre- taceous. As Prof. Carpenter has shown, there is evidently a gap in the record here. The Eocene is wanting in the Black Hills, and the Miocene lies immediately on the Cretaceous. During some part of this interval the central peaks, if not more, served ‘ a Tin Islands of the Northiwest.— Claypole. 935 as distributing centres of the Pre-Cambrian rocks which lie scat- tered over the surface to the distance of 150 miles from the peak. They lie below the Miocene beds, and disappear under them at their first occurrence, and are even seen below their outliers. The means and manner of the distribution of the boulders has been a matter of some speculation. Prof. Carpenter was once in- clined to believe that they proved the occurrence of an Kocene ice-age, but has since abandoned that view. It is not easy, how- ever, to see how such boulders could be scattered so far over the country merely by the ordinary agents of erosion. The Miocene deposits were laid down in a great fresh-water lake, and in them are entombed the remains of a gigantic mam- malia of that era, indicating the proximity of land. During all this time the Black Hills stood as islands in this lake, and were doubtless tenanted by the animals whose remains are found in the strata. Miocene deposits approach within 15 miles of the Hills. Here the geological record of the region ends. With the ex- ception of a few fragmentary notes of Quaternary time made by the usual stream erosion and of the relics of a few Pieistocene mammalia that occupied the Hills, the later annals do not exist. The great Ice-Age has left on the Black Hills no sculptured hieroglyphics of its ice-chisel, such as those that have immortal- ized it elsewhere. No erratic boulders, no arctic drift indicate an invasion by the northern ice, and no striation or grooving of the rocks leads to the belief that the Hills were an independent cen- tre of glaciation. This fact is full of significance. Lying four hundred miles north of the southern edge of the great ice-sheet they were yet out of the zone of accumulation, and even beyond the zone of waste. The ice of the northeast and of the north- west expended its strength in crossing the wide prairie regions that separate these hills from the great glacial centres of the con- tinent, X. But the chief interest of the region at the present time lies in the presence of the tin-ore mentioned at the outset of this paper, The economical importance of this mineral is greater than that of any other that the Hills are known to contain. Cassiterite is usually limited to the proximity of granite rocks, but in the Black Hills it is yet more closely limited to the granite veins deseribed above as occurring in the older schists. And in 236 The American Geologist. April, 1892 these it is, as usual, very irregularly disseminated. Some veins are altogether barren. In others is found a varying quantity of ore, never very large. Strings and threads and granules, often almost invisible, with occasionally a lump weighing a few ounces, or more rarely a few pounds, are the forms in which the cassiter- ite occurs. This, it may be remarked, is the usual mode else- where. In some instances, and probably either in choice speci- mens or in chosen localities, a yield of three and even of four per cent., has been reported. But a sanguine estimate for the productive veins of the region could not exceed two per cent., and even this could only be reached by careful work and the re- jection of poor material. The whole of the stanniferous material must be mined and picked over or crushed and washed in order to extract the ore,a process that entails considerable labor and expense. It would be premature to give any positive opinion regarding the contents of the veins as they are followed down, but judging from indications there is no ground to anticipate any change. The weathered material on the hill-side is scarcely richer than the lodes, nor are the ‘‘streamings”” to be compared in richness with those of some other parts of the world. Hence there is no rea- son to conclude that the portions of the veins already eroded were any richer than those now existing. Judging also from the ar- rangement and the structure of the veins they will run out down- ward as at the surface, and be succeeded by others, and they will a fact which certainly vary much in richness from place to place always renders lode-mining an uncertain occupation. There has been an immense expenditure of money during the past few years in the Hills,in mining machinery and other plant,and itis only reasonable to expect some return of metal from the outlay at no distant date. Enormous quantities of cassiterite undoubtedly ex- ist in the granite in spite of its sparse and fine diffusion in the rock, but the problem awaiting solution is whether or not it can be con- centrated and reduced at a figure that will afford a reasonable profit. [t is too early at present to say what can be done with better ma- chinery and methods, and the practice of the most rigid economy in the work. But the experience of a few years will show if the tin from the Black Hills can be produced at a figure sufficiently low to maintain itself in the open market of the world. If not, the subject of Dakota tin-mining will cease to be one of economic geology, and will become merely a question of the hight of the tariff-wall that can be built around it for its protection. 237 BPISCOVERY OF A. SECOND EXAMPLE OF THE MACROURAN DECAPOD CRUSTACEAN, PALAOPALAOMON NEWBERRYI. R. P. Wuirrietp, New York. The occurrence of decapod crustaceans in the Devonian, or Lower Carboniferous strata, is so rare that the discovery of an individual is well worth recording; and as Palwopalwomon new- berry/ is the earliest or first of the group yet known, its occurrence may well be considered as of special importance. A few weeks ago [received from Dr. A. 8. Tiffany, of Daven- port, Iowa, under the name of Hehinocaris sp., undescribed, a fossil crustacean so badly preserved as to be somewhat mislead- ing on first examination, but which, on being cleared from the rock in some of the critical parts, proved to belong to the genus Paleopalwonon, and so far as the specific features can be ascer- tained, to be identical with that species described in the Aer. Jour. of Science, 3d series, 1880, Vol. 19, pp. 40-41, and subse- quently in the Annals of the New York Acad. Set., Dece., 1890, ip. 005, Pl. XL, Figs. 19-21.* The specimen is of about the same size as that figured as above, but much less perfect, as it shows only a part of the carapace, the right side and anterior end being quite defective. The basal joints of the antennz shown in the first example are entirely ab- sent in this one, and the first two segments of the abdomen, although present, are so crushed and folded as to be practically useless except to_prove their existence. The other four segments are fairly preserved, and the central spine of the telson and right side of the flap are also tolerably well represented; while parts of several of the ambulatory feet can be detected at points in the rock. No marked variation from the typical specimen can be found on this second example. The central or median ridge of the car- apace is well marked, and the two halves are slightly disconnected along the posterior portion of its length; while the lateral ridge, or carination, shown on the type, is strongly marked on the left side of the present one, and appears as an elevated line, like a line of suture. There is also an area of depression extending from the * Figures of this and several other crustaceous fossils were distrib- uted on an albertype plate, with copies of the descriptions, extracted from the Amer. Jour. Sct., early in 1881, to the number of 150 copies. 238 The American Geologist. April, 1892 anterior margin, at the point of the lateral angulation, backward to the median line, at about half the length of the carapace, form- ing a large V-shaped depressed area over this part of the surface. The ornamentation has been only pustules and pits on the cara- pace and segments. This specimen is said by Dr. A. 8. Tiffany to have been found in the Kinderhook group at Kaskade, three miles west from the court house at Burlington, Iowa, in a forty foot bed of clay shale containing many nodules or concretions, one of which this has occupied. The type example of the genus and species above men- tioned was found in a concretion, from the Krie shale at Leroy, Lake Co., Ohio, which is probably of the horizon of the Chemung group of New York, though this is not entirely settled. PHYSICS OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING; SOME FU N- DAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS. T. MELLARD Reave, CE. F. G. 8., Park Corner, Blundellsands, Eng. One of the most frequently urged objections against the theory of mountain evolution with which my name is associated™ is its sup- posed inadequacy to the production of the requisite lateral pres- sure. [hope to be able to show that much of this criticism is founded upon misapprehension; that it in fact gives more play in this direction than any other theory consistent with geological facts, at present in the field. ; The fundamental idea underlying all these theories, and there are really very few of them, is that our globe is a cooling spheroid. It arises from this, that orographie changes can only occur from actual loss of heat by a part of the spheroid, or by redistribution of heat and pressure relative or absolute. These principles will become more obvious as we proceed in our inquiry. Changes directly brought about by actual loss of heat, or what is called secular cooling, have formed the basis of a theory that has held the field for a very long time, and when we do not in- quire too closely into the reasoning upon which it is founded, or indulge in quantitative investigation, it meets some of the first « prior’ Conceptions of the sort of an agent required to effect the gigantic corrugations seen insome of the world’s mountain chains. It has the merit of being a simple idea easily grasped, and the “Origin of Mountain Ranges. Mountain Building.—Reade. 239 postulates granted, capable of doing an immense amount of work. The conception is now pretty generally recognized as founded on a fallacy, for the nucleus of the spheroid is not cooling, but only the outer rind to a very small depth while the shell itself is cireum- ferentially contracting, except at the actual surface. The result *being,as [was the first to point out, that a much less thickness of the crust than was generally supposed isin compression. All this is matter of recent scientific historyt but for the further elucida- tion of. the position I have taken up in my ‘“‘Origin of Mountain Ranges,’ I purpose showing that the secular contraction principle will only act as a mountain building agent—granting all the im- possible postulates required for it—by an expenditure of heat and therefore initial energy out of all proportion to the work to be done. In order to illustrate my meaning and to get the conception well into the minds of my readers, I will assume a hard crust forming a shell 20 miles thick of equal temperature throughout, resting upon a heated nucleus such as we suppose obtains at pres- ent in our globe. Assume that this nucleus, cooling only on the outer surface to a depth of a few hundred miles, loses sufficient heat without in any way changing the temperature of the enclos- ing shell, to produce a contraction of 550 feet of a radial bar cut out of the nucleus, then in consequence of the principle of cubical contraction the radius of the earth would be reduced by three times this amount or 550% 3—1650 feet. The hard shell un- changed in dimensions would have to fit itself to the reduced nu- cleus either by thickening or by corrugation. Let us assume the adjustment takes place by corrugation, then we shall have 1650 6.28 or 10,362 feet of surplus circumference to dispose of in folds measured in any direction over a great circle of the globe. I have chosen the figure 550 for the purpose of easy compari- son because that is the amount of linear vertical expansion that would take place in a crust 20 miles thick as assumed in our ex- ampleZ raised 1000° Fahr. and is therefore an equivalent amount *Origin of Mountain Ranges, Chap. x1. +See Smithsonian Report. Record of Science for 1887 and 1888. McGee p. 240. {This is not obvious at first sight, but it arises from the circumferen- tial stretching of the cooling outer layer over the uncooled portion of the nucleus. $2.75 feet per mile per 100° Fahr. 240 The American Geologist. April, 1892 to the heat lost to produce 550 feet linear radial contraction in a cooling globe. Let us now examine the potency of the opposite principle of expansion which lies at the foundation of my theory. I have shown that if 10 miles of sediment were laid down on the crust of the earth, the underlying strata would be raised 1000° Fahy, in temperature by the rising of the isogeotherms, and the bottom layers of sediment to the same temperature gradually shading off to the normal at the surface. I have taken 20 miles in thickness of the under crust and overlying sediment combined raised 1000° Fahr. as representing my conception of the heating that would take place under the assumed conditions. I must also ask my readers, to assume that instead of the heat being lost, equal to the production of such a contraction of the earth it is, by some non-conducting covering over the whole earth prevented from escaping into space. Under these conditions the heat from the nucleus would flow into the assumed shell 20 miles thick, until the temperature of the shell and the nucleus became equalized. Let us now consider what would be the effect on this shell when it was raised 1000° Fahr. in temperature, intercepting the precise amount of heat lost into space in the previous example. It is evident, firstly, that if the co-efficient of expansion were the same at all temperatures in the shell as in the cooling mass it envelopes, the radius of the globe would remain the same, if we consider the radius as measured to the mean of the irregularities of the surface which would certainly come into being. Secondly, though the cubic contents of the globe would remain precisely the same, the redistribution of heat within the mass would produce certain stresses and strains which we may easily picture to ourselves. The shell 20 miles thick, if it were possible for it to receive this accession of heat and sustain itself as a spheroidal shell, would increase in diameter. Taking the mean diameter of the earth, considered as a sphere at 7912.41 miles,* and the ex- pansion 2.75 feet per mile per 100° Fahr., the mean diameter of the spherical shell would be increased 7912.41 x 27.5=217,591 feet=41.2 miles. But it is evident that this could not happen, but that the shell must adapt itself to the nucleus, so leaving out of account for the present the contraction of the nucleus, which would be the same as in the first example, there will be a surplus. *Herschel. Outlinesof Astronomy. Mountain Building.—Reade. 241 of 129.368 miles over every great circle of the sphere to dispose of in folds. Thus we see plainly that with the same loss of energy by the nucleus, very different effects are produced; the interception of the heat otherwise radiated into space, would provide lateral pres- sure by expansion compared to lateral pressure by secular cool- ing in the proportion of 129.368 to 1.96, or in round figures 66 times as much. Itis worth noting that any effect in corrugat- ing the 20 miles shell produced by contraction in the first example would add to and intensify the effect in the second example. These two comparisons are given merely as extreme illustra- tions to enable others to grasp the essential difference between expansion and secular contraction as mountain building agents— neither case is reproduced in nature, but both partially so. In place of the absolute non-conductor assumed to envelope the globe in the last example, put sedimentary deposits over a portion of it. Under these portions a re-distribution of heat occurs in precisely the same manner, though in less degree than in our ex- ample, for the sediments do not stop all the heat—only a portion thereof. The globe goes on losing heat as before, but much less under the sedimentary areas than where denudation ‘is taking place, or where the condition of the crust is completely stationary, like in the non-sedimentary depths of the great oceans. It is to the relative distribution of heat in the earth and its crust that we must look for our mountain building agents and for the requisite stresses and strains. Some physicists, by a confusion of ideas, have supposed, that because there is no actual increase of heat under a sedimentary area simply through the raising of the iso- geotherms, no mountain building can in this way take place. If the idea had been properly thought out the fallacy would readily have been detected. I have dealt with this fundamental idea of the expansion of the crust through the interception of heat that would otherwise be wasted into space because it underlies my theory of mountain formation. I trust my readers will not therefore take this part for the whole of the theory for the rising of the isogeotherms is the ‘nitiatory precedent condition only. I have described fully in my Origin of Mountain Ranges and in the outline of my ‘‘Theory of the Origin of Mountain Ranges by cumulative recurrent expansion” published in this magazine 242 The American Geologist. April, 1892 Noy, 2, 1891,* the manner in which the internal forces of the earth are thus unlocked. When we come to test physical theories by geological facts it is impossible to ignore the intimate relation that exists between sedimentation and mountain formation. It is quite unnecessary for me to dwell upon this in an American publication, for it is to the lasting credit of American geologists that they were the first to establish the fact, and no theory which does not take it into account as a first principle will ever be likely to establish itself as a reasonable explanation. This has been seen by many and from the time of Sir John Herschel down to the present, loading by sedimentation and unloading by denudation have been considered more or less a vera causa. It does not need deep thinking however to see that this can be but a partial explanation. It is a machinery that must in the absence of some other opposite force evidently come to an end—it must run down. Some of the geologists of the Indian Survey account for the supposed con- tinued rising of the Himalayas in a similar way by the denudation of the mountains and the laying down of sediment on their flanks and onthe Gangetic plain. At the best, whatever value we may be inclined to attach to the explanation, the Himalayas can- not have or/ginated in this manner. It is nota theory of ‘‘origin” but of ‘‘matntenance’ and the lateral pressure that it provides, is, compared with any form of the contraction or expansion theories, almost zero. Mr. Fisher has lately introduced the conception of a fluid zone subject to convection currents. These convection currents flow- ing from under the crust under the great oceans are supposed to drag the crust towards the continents and to produce lateral pres- sure and mountain folding on their margins. Granting all the hypothetical conditions required—and this is granting a great deal—it is difficult to conceive how convection currents which can only originate from differences of specific gravity in the fluid itself, due to differences of temperature, could produce the necessary force, and still less, act continuously in certain (lirections through all the great time occupied in the building of i mountain range. A mountain range is too permanent a feature of the earth's surface to have originated or been maintained in this manner. *Originally published in the Phil. Mag. teratice Cambrian Fossils.— Woodworth. 943 But perhaps I am unable to do justice to Mr. Fisher's views as I feel insurmountable difficulties in looking at the problem from his standpoint. We have now almost exhausted the catalogue of initiatory compressive agents invoked by various authors for the production of mountain ranges. It remains to consider a final one, namely, the intrusion of molten matter into the crust, and the detrusion and throwing back of the upper strata due to the forcing up of tongues or folds of the strata below. These agents can, however, be only secondary effects of expansion or compression, not initiatory forces. Nevertheless they play a very important part in the fold-— ing and building up of a mountain range which I have explained very fully in the ‘Origin of Mountain Ranges.” I trust I have now said enough to show that simple expansion by increase of temperature is by far the most potent of any known cause in the production of lateral pressure in the earth’s crust. If to this we add recurrent expansion and the other agencies I have endeavored to show from geological and physi- cal data are concerned in the building of a mountain range, we arrive at a satisfactory solution of the great problem of the fold- ing and elevation of mountain chains. Jan, 18, 1892. NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ERRATIC CAM- BRIAN FOSSILS IN THE NEOCENE GRAV- EES OF THE ISLAND OF MARTHA’S VINEYARD. By J. B. Woopwortu, Somerville, Mass. In the course of an examination of the dislocated Neocene® strata of the island of Martha's Vineyard, carried on under the supervision of Prof. N. 8. Shaler, for the U. 8. Geological Survey, during the summers of 1889 and 1890, I collected a number of chert peb- bles from the white quartz gravel or ‘‘osseous conglomerate” of Gay Head, and from an outcrop of the same age in the village of West Tisbury. Several of these specimens proved to be fossilif- erous; one from the locality in West Tisbury contains a_ fossil which, on close examination, is seen to be the zoantharian coral, Ethmophyllum, Meek, of the Lower Cambrian. *Neocene is here used to designate the Miocene strata of Gay Head, See 10th annual Rept. U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 65. Y44 The American Geologist. April, 1892 The accompanying diagram, Fig. 1, represents a cross section of the coral, the outer wall, where wanting, being indicated by the dotted line. The fragment found is 6 mm. in diameter, Fig. 2 represents a longitudinal section of the inner poriferous structure. This form bears a close resemblance to Ethmophyllum whitney?, Meek,* except that the radiating septa meet the outer wall ata much less distance than in the figured specimens of this species. The number of septa is about the same, being at least 36. Some Fie. 1 is drawn twice the diameter. Fic. 2 is about five times as large as: as original section. doubt is entertained as to the exact equivalency of the number by reason of the partial loss of the outer wall and some of the septa in the specimen, The pebbles of chert from the osseous conglomerate at Gay Head show less clearly their organic contents, but coralline strue- ture has been detected in a number of pebbles. Those contain- ing fossils are of dark blue, almost black chert, are more or less rounded, smoothened and polished, and range in :diameter from half an inch to pieces two or three times this size. Occurrence of the Pebbles: These fossiliferous pebbles have so far been found by me only in the Neocene beds carrying the remains of Cetacez and sharks, and in the base of the overlying ereensand in the places where the osseous conglomerate was par- tially or wholly reorganized in the deposition of the greensand, At Gay Head, the osseous conglomerate is on the average about one foot thick, but in West Tisbury it attains a thickness of at least two, and in some places, three feet, being apparently the fossiliferous upper portion of the white sands and clays which were deposited upon the plant-bearing Cretaceous beds described by Mr. C. D. White.t The number of these chert pebbles in the Neocene gravel beds is relatively small, the mass of the deposit being composed of quartz of vein origin. In the Gay Head sec- *C. D. Walcott: 10th Annual Rept. U. 8. G.S., p. 601, pl. LV. +On Cretaceous Plants from Martha’s Vineyard, Am. Jour. Sed., (IIT) XXXTX, 1890, pp. 93-101. Erratic Cambrian Fossils.— Woodworth. 945 tion, perhaps one per cent. of the pebbles in the osseous con- glomerate are of chert. Immediate origin of the Chert: The immediate source of these fossiliferous Cambrian pebbles is apparently to be found in the coarse sands and gravels underlying the Neocene formations. The age of these beds has not yet been definitely settled: They lie, unconformably, by slight erosion of their upper surface, below the marine Neocene or osseous conglomerate, and they overlie, without recognizable unconformity, the plant bearing Cretaceous beds which include the Gay Head lignites. On account of this apparent continuity of deposition succeeding the Cretaceous beds, the sands and gravels may tentatively be con- sidered of the same age. No fossiliferous pebbles have as yet been PLEISTOCENE. ( Green sand. N EOCENE. ? Osseous conglomerate. White e Sands = and 2 Y s Clays. Leaf beds. Lignites. _ Fie. 3. Correlation section of the strata involved in the Gay Head dislocation, show - ing position of osseous conglomerate, and Cretaceous gravels. found in the exposures of these Cretaceous sands and gravels, although they are probably present in these beds, as is shown by the consideration of the origin of the detritus in the osseous conglomerate. The detritus of the osseous conglomerate appears to have been derived as follows: Sometime after the deposition of the Creta- ceous sands, clays and gravels, the surface of this formation was exposed to ablation in a manner to assort out and carry further down the coastal slope much of the finer material, leaving behind after a short carriage. a stratum of coarse gravel of the thickness previously described. That this quartz pebble conglomerate at the base of the identified Neocene was derived from the underlying Cre- taceous beds by asifting process like that just appealed to, and not 246 The American Geologist. April, 1892" by the erosion and deposition of fresh detritus from the granites gneisses, sandstones and other clastic rocks of the mainland, is shown by the factthat no decomposable rocks of feldspathic com- position exist in the stratum. This view of the origin of some of the Tertiary and perhaps earlier Pleistocene gravels of New Jersey and Long Island has been advanced by Mr. N. L. Britton * It is possible to trace the quartz pebbles and associated cherts to a previous cycle of deposition, in which, before the making of the Cretaceous beds, the quartz pebbles with the cherts composed the finer, quartzose conglomerates of the middle and lower por- tions of the Narragansett coal basin. In the coal bearing section of these recks, there occur numerous beds which, but for their consolidation and black color, closely resemble the Martha's Vineyard gravels, the thickness of which is explained by the extensive erosion of these antecedent Carboniferous beds. Original source of the Cherts: The vein quartz in the Carbon- iferous appears originally to have come from the disintegration of a terrane thickly set with quartz veins, as Britton has suggested in the case of similar quartz pebbles in the coast plain of New Jer- sey; but the fossiliferous chert pebbles with identifiable fossils clearly. point to a more definite association of rocks, Cherts naturally associate themselves with limestones, though rarely with sandstones, as in the Oriskany, and with shales; but the occur- rence of chert pebbles in the lower Cambrian, siliceous limestones of Nahant, makes it seem probable that the Martha’s Vineyard cherts were also derived froma calcareous section of the Olenellus Cambrian. As yet the nodules of the Nahant horizon have not been shown to carry Kthmophyllum and its congeners, yet Louis Agassiz, T in 1850, reported finding in them the structure of an Astrewa. The locality of lower Cambrian nearest to Gay Head is that of the red shales of North Attleboro.{ a distance of fifty miles, but no nodules have been observed in the Attleboro section. That there is in the southern coast of Massachusetts or Rhode Island the seat of an extensive Cambrian section now concealed or removed by erosion, is shown by the abundant fragments of Cam- brian quartzites found in the coarser conglomerates of the Car- *American Naturalist, 1875, XXIII, p. 1035. tL. Agassiz: Proc. Am. Acad, II, p. 270; also’ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., ILI, p. 341, 1850. {N.S. Shaler: On the geology of the Cambrian district of Bristol Co., Mass. Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., xv1, 1888, p. 13. Tsobases of Postglacial Hlevation.—De Geer. 247 boniferous, particularly on the southern border. These pebbles earry Lingule worm burrows, and more rarely pteropod casts. They have been found at Dighton,* Mass., in the Newport con- glomerate by Dale;t I have found Lingule in a quartzite pebble in the red Carboniferous rocks of Attleboro, and they occur in the glacial drift on Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket in great abundance. These quartzite pebbles, however, do not occur in the Neocene gravels, their absence being apparently due to the relative ease with which their friable material has been reduced to sand in the repeated migrations of detritus which have deter- mined the nature of the Neocene gravels. The finding of these chert pebbles adds nothing to the evidence concerning the probable extent of Cambrian deposits in this part of the state at some time in the past, unless it be to indicate that we have to look for an extension of the Calcareous series which outcrops near Cape Ann,{ at Nahant, and on Mill River, in Wey- mouth.@ The general trend of this formation in the direction in which we should expect to find the source of the chert pebbles is an incentive to more careful search, which it is the object of this paper to foster by calling attention to these less easily seen traces of the Cambrian sediments and fauna. I am indebted to professor Shaler for kind permission to publish the notes concerning this collection of fossiliferous pebbles. ISOBASES OF POST-GLACIAL ELEVATION. By Baron GERARD DE GEER, Stockholm, Sweden. After the session of the International Congress of Geologists, last summer, in Washington, I made a journey of two months along the coasts of New England and Canada and inland along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys, with the principal purpose of determining the limit of the Champlain submergence and the amount of the subsequent post-glacial elevation. The following is a brief outline of the results obtained: Traces of sea action and marine deposits of Pleistocene age *W.B. Rogers: Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1860, Vol. VII, pp. 389-91; W. W. Dodge, ibid, Vol XVII, p. 406. +T. N. Dale: Proc. Newport Nat. Hist. Soc , 1884-5, Doc. 3, p. 9. {John H. Sears: Bulletin, Essex Institute, XXIII, pp. 12-16, 1891. SAug. F. Foerste: Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XXTV, pp. 261-263; 1889. 248 The American Geologist. April, 1892 above the present sea level were found only north and northwest of a line drawn from some point probably a little north of New York city to another between cape Cod and Boston and through Nova Seotia. In the northwestern part of Nova Scotia the limit of the uplifted marine deposits was found at a height of only about forty feet. Starting from this line the marine limit grad- ually rises toward the northwest, so that another line, called an isobase, drawn through points which have been upheaved 300 feet, passes probably from near Niagara falls by Albany, N. Y., and Augusta, Maine, to Moncton, N. B., whence it turns back- ward, running northwesterly and northerly, crossing the St. Law- rence estuary about half way hetween cape Gaspé and the Saguenay, The 600-ft. isobase is probably to be drawn from Georgian bay . past the outlet of lake Ontario, through the southern part of the Adirondacks, and thence east-northeast nearly to Moosehead lake. Here it makes an abrupt bend to the north and west, similar with the loop of the 300-feet isobase at Moncton, and runs first west- ward to some point not far from Three Rivers, and thence, turn- ing again northeastward, it passes along the north shore of the St. Lawrence estuary. The highest directly determined point of the former shore line of the submerged area was near Ot- tawa, somewhat more than 700 feet above the sea level. On the northern slope of the Adirondacks a gravel and sand deposit was found, which was evidently formed by a glacial river that probably owed its origin to the outlet of lake Iroquois, when that glacial lake had sunk from its highest stage and was drained between the Adirondacks and the shrinking land-ice. The level of the marine limit in the neighborhood shows that the post-glacial elevation there has been no more than three-fourths of the hight of the Lroquois beach. When the ice-barrier of lake Lroquois was removed, it seems that the sea must have extended from the prolonged gulf of St. Lawrence by one branch into the Ontario basin; by another through the Ottawa valley and Lake Nipissing into lake Huron, unless that pass was still occupied by the land-ice; and by a third branch through lake Champlain down to New York, thus probably forming a strait in the Hudson valley. The scarcity or absence of marine fossils in these branches or inlets of the sea is closely analogous with the conditions of the Vertebrate Palwontology.— kyerman. 249 much larger, brackish Baltic sea at the time of departure of the Scandinavian ice-sheet and also at the present day. As to the extent and geological nature of the uplift, there is a very close resemblance between the conditions in North America and Seandinayvia. In each country the maximum upheaval has taken place in the center of the old Archzean area of denudation which forms the nucleus of the continent, and at the same time is the tract where the load of the land-ice was heaviest. The amount of the upheaval and the ice-load decreased in the same directions. Thus the upheaval of the gulf of St. Lawrence was. less than of the adjoining tracts on the south and north; and this accords with the observations of Mr. Chalmers, who has shown that the land-ice moved from all sides toward this depres- sion, gradually thinning out there. It is also to be remarked that the boundary of the uplifted area is pretty nearly coincident with the limit of the last glaciation. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN VERTE- BRATE PALASONTOLOGY FOR THE YEAR 1891. By Joun EyERMAN, Easton, Pa. Vertebrate Palszeontology has lost one of its most eminent work- ers and authorities in the death of Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL. D. For the past forty years Dr. Leidy’s papers on this subject aver- aged about six a year, many of these papers being memoirs of more than a hundred pages. Many tributes to his memory have been written, but the writer calls particular attention to the arti- cles by Dr. Henry C. Chapman (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1891, pt. Il, pp. 342-388), Dr. Harrison Allen (‘‘Professor Joseph Leidy: His Labors in the field of Vertebrate Anatomy,’ Science 18, Nov. 13, p. 274) and No. 26 of this Bibliography. a. Ami, H. M. See Cope No. e. b. Ami, H. M.—See Cope No. f. 1. Barbour, E. H.—Remains of the Primitive EKlephant found in Grinnell, Ia., Science, 16, Nov. 7, 1890, p. 263. 2. Baur, G.—Notes on some little known American fossil Tortoises. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1891, pp. 411-430. 3. Baur, G.—On the Characters and Systematic Position of the Large Sea-Lizards, Mosasauride. Science, 16, Nov. 7, 1890, pp. 262. 250 The American Geologist. April, 1892 4. Baur, G.—On Intercalation of Vertebre. Jour. Morph. 4,, Jan., pp. 331-336. 2 ». Baur, G.—On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. Am. Nat., 25, July, pp. 631-639, partly pal. 6. Baur, G.—Remarks on Reptiles generally called Dinosau- ria. Am. Nat., 25, May, pp. 434-454. c. Baur, G.—Remarks on Reptiles generally called Dinos- auria. Review in Am. Geol., 8, July, p. 55. 7. Baur, G@.—The Horned Saurians of the Laramie Forma- tion. Science 17, April 17, pp. 216-217. 8. Baur, G.—The Pelvis of the Testudinata; with Notes on the Evolution of the Pelvis in General. Jour. Morph., 4, Jan., pp. 345-360; ill. d. Cannon, Jr., G. L.—Identification of a Dinosaur from the Denver Group. Proc. Colo. Sci. Soc., Vol: Il, 1890, p. 253. The doctrine of the recurrence of ice epochs, alternating with each other in opposite hemispheres, is a necessary result of the position taken by the author, The geological evidences of the truth or falsity of the hypothesis advocated, are not discussed. opposite.’ Geological Survey of Kentucky; Report on the occurrence of petroleum, ; *Herschel. Review of Recent Geological Literature. 263 natural gas and asphalt rock in western Kentucky, EDWARD ORTON, pp. 233, Frankfort. Geological sections and maps. Report submitted April 2, 1891. This report contains a review of the prominent theories of the origin of petroleum and natural gas, its geological relations, and the phe- nomena of the different oil fields, methods of utilization, its physical and chemical properties. It is based on the observations made by professor Orton in Kentucky, in the seasons of 1888 and 1889. The geological structure of western Kentucky is discussed, and illustrated by a section from Owensboro to Frankfort. This is followed by a brief history of the development of petroleum and its products in the state, included in the district reported on, each county or district being treated separately. It is a valuable report for the state, and will have numerous readers. On the Lower Devonian Fish-Fauna of Campbeliton, New Brunswick, by A.S. Woopwarp F. G. §., (Geol. Mag., 11, 9, Jan. 1892, pp. 1-6) The author describes a number of fishes which were collected during 1891. There are described one new genus, Protodus, which is named from detached teeth only, and is an elasmobranch, and three new species, Protodus jext, Diplodus problematicus, and Acanthodes semistriatus. On the Characters of Some Palwozoic Fishes, by E.D. Cope. (Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, Vol. xrv, pp. 447-463, No. 866.) This valuable paper is divided into seven sections, each complete in itself. In Part 1, Prof. Cope announces and describes a new elasmo- branch genus from the Permian of Nebraska. The genus is named from a single tooth, which resembles in some respects Oxyrhina and Dendro- dus. He thinks it belongs to a cladodont shark and has named it Styp- tobasis knightiana, after Mr. W. C. Knight, who found the tooth and de- ‘termined the formation. Styptobasis knightiana ‘was a large shark of car- nivorous habits and its presence indicates the existence of a marine fauna whose remains have not yet been discovered.” Part Il. On New Ichthyodorulites,in which are described Hybodus reg- wars from the Triassic of Baylor Co.,Texas, and Ctenacanthus amblyxiphias from the Permian of Texas. Part III. On the Cranial Structure of Macropetalichthys. In this article Macropetalichthys rapheidolabis Owen is compared with Coccosteus, Di_ nichthys, etc. It is allied to Dinichthys and referred to the Placoder- mata (Arthrodira). ‘The general resemblance of Macropetalichthys to the Arthrodira renders it almost certain that it possesses a lower jaw and that it is a member of that order.” In his synopsis of the families of vertebrata (Am. Nat. 23, p. 856), Prof. Cope included this order (Placo- dermi) in the Crossopterygia on the supposition that they possessed a maxillary arch and suspensorium. In a foot note to page 856 of his synopsis he adds: “The position of this order is not yet certain.” In this present paper he announces that A. 8. Woodward in his catalogue, has placed Placodermata in the Dipnoi, thus indicating the absence of maxillary arch and suspensorium. The structure of the skull of Ma- cropetalichthys tends to confirm this. Newberry and others have allied Macropetalichthys to the sturgeons; the author concludes that the Arth- 264 The American Geologist. April, 1892° rodira cannot be placed near the sturgeons on account of the structure of the pectoral fins, and the cranial structure which has no resemblance to that of those fishes. F Part IV. In this part is described the first known specimen cf the pectoral spine, almost complete, of Holonema rugosa Clay pole, from Mans- field, Tioga Co., Pennsylvania. The spine is without complete segmen- tation, differing in this respect from Bothriolepis and Pterichthys. The spine is continuous to the apex, thereby constituting a generic distinc- tion between Holonema and Bothriolepis. Length 54 mm, base width 11 mm, middle 7 mm. Part V. Onthe Paired Fins of Megalichthys niiidus Cope. In this paper, the author, after announcing the provisional withdrawal of his genus Ectosteorhachis (Megalichthys) (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.,1880,p 56) gives a study of the paired limbs and concludes that it is probably intermediate between Ceratodus and Pterichthys and possibly Arthrodira. The limb structure does not resemble either Polypterus or Ceratodus. Part VI. On the Non-Actinopterygiun Teleostomi. This is practically the same paper which appeared in the Am. Nat., 25 May, 1891, pp. 479- 481. In Part VII the author describes two new species of Platysomid, P. palmaris from the Permian of 8. Indian Territory and P. lacoviéanus from the Coal Measures of Mazon Creek, IIl. Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. By IsraEL C. WHITE. pp. 212; with a folded map, 10 other plates, and 152 figures of sections in the text. (Bulletin No. 65, U.S. Geological Survey, 1891. Price, 20 cents.) The classification adopted in this report partly preserves the subdivis- ions and nomenclature of the Brothers W. B. and H. D. Rogers, adding thereto such new features as now seem necessary from the present wider and more detailed knowledge of the coal-bearing strata. The en- tire Carboniferous system of the Appalachian region comprises three grand divisions, founded on the conditions of their deposition. The lower division is exclusively marine; the middle division consists of shore deposits, interrupted by incursions of the sea, and includes the lower Coal Measures; and the upper division embraces only fresh and brackish water deposits, including the upper Coal Measures and the Permo-Carboniferous series of Dunkard creek. Professor White here describes the outcrops and stratigraphy of the five series into which the Upper and Middle Ca’boniferous are subdivided. Many interesting questions in connection with this work are reserved for discussion when the remaining southern half of the Appalachian coal field shall have been more fully studied. On a group of volcante rocks from the Tewan Mountains, New Mexico, and on the occurrence of primary quartz in certain basalts. By Josern P. Ip- DINGS. pp. 34 (Bulletin No. 66, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1890. Price 5 cents.) The volcanic series of the Tewan mountains shows a gradual transition trom rhyolites through andesitic rocks to basalts, ranging thus from one Review of Recent Geological Literature. 265 extreme to another in mineral composition. ‘The whole series,” accord- ing to Mr. Iddings, in kis summary of this investigation, “is character- ized by a variable amount of porphyritical quartz in rounded grains, which is very noticeable in some of the basalts. These quartzes are primary secretions or crystallizations from the molten magma, and ex- hibit no definite relation to its chemical composition, being present in or absent from rocks of similar chemical composition. Their production is to be referred to certain physical conditions attending some earlier period of the magma’s existence. From analogy with the occurrence of iron olivine in rhyolitic obsidian, it seems probable that the formation of primary quartz in basalt took place through the influence of water- vapor while the magma was under considerable pressure ” On a late volcanic eruption in Northern California, and its peculiar lava. By J.S. Dinuer. pp. 33; with seventeen plates, and four figures in the texf. (Bulletin No. 79, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891. Price, 10 cents.) Basalt enclosing abundant quartz grains, closely like that described by Mr. Iddings in the Tewan mountains, is found by Mr Diller to have been very recently erupted at the Cinder Cone, ten miles northeast of Lassen peak in northern California. An explosive eruption, ejecting bombs, lapilli, and volcanic sand, formed this cone about two hundred years ago, as shown by trees whose dead trunks still project through the lava that flowed out from the base of the cone before the explosive ac- tion ceased. Afterward a period of inactivity probably lasted a century or more, as shown by like deposits which overlie the volcanic sand and are covered by a second lava flow. The eruption of this latest lava oc- curred probably somewhat more than fifty years ago and was not accom- panied by any explosive ejection of fragmental material, the cone being undisturbed except at the point on its side whence the molten lava is- sued. The Cinder Cone rises very steeply to a hight of 640 feet and has an average diameter of 2,000 feet at its base and 750 feet across its top, be- neath which the pit of its crater sinks 240 feet. The later lava, occupy- ing an area three miles long and having an average thickness of nearly a hundred feet, was extremely viscous at the time of its eruption, and its cooling crust was repeatedly broken up by the moving mass beneath. Its surface therefore is composed of sharp, angular blocks, loosely piled together, which were shoved along as a huge stone pile. The explosively ejected fragmental lava of the earlier eruption and both ‘the earlier and later lava flows contain quartz grains, which frequently are so large and abundant as to give a porphyritic structure, though more generally they are small and inconspicuous. Their aver- age diameter is about one-thirtieth of an inch, but very rarely they are found over an inch in diameter. All of them have been greatly modi- fied, apparently by the corrosive action of the magma, and each grain is encircled by a shell of granular, acicular augite, which is separated from the quartz by a film of glass. The author concludes that the quartz became crystallized in the magma before its eruption. 266 The American Geologist. April, 1892 This valuable paper is illustrated by numerous views of the scenery of Cinder Cone and its adjacent tracts of lava. The relations of the Traps of the Newark system in the New Jersey region. By Netson Horatio Darron. pp 82; with a folded map, 5 other plates, and 49 figures in the text. (Bulletin No. 67, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1890. Price, 10 cents.) The traps of the Triassic area in New Jersey are found to belong to two classes. The most important class comprises extrusive sheets or overflows, three of which constitute the Watchung cr Orange mountains, curved in their outcrops on account of flexure of the enclosing strata. In the second class, comprising intrusive sheets and dikes, the Palisades, forming the west shore of the Hudson, are the most conspicuous example. Mr. Darton concludes that the eruptions producing the Watchung trap sheets were doubtless similar to those of some of the great lava-flows west of the Rocky mountains, which during the later Tertiary and Pleistocene periods appear to have welled forth from long fissures, without the formation of craters or the ejection of fragmental materials. Earthquakes in California in 1889. By J. E, KEELER. pp.25. (Bulle- tin No. 68, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1890. Price, 5 cents.) This paper is a continuation of the notes of earthquakes in California to the end of the year 1888, previously published by Prof. E.S. Holden. It describes all the shocks felt at the Lick Observatory on Mt. Hamilton, with others oc- curing elsewhere, so far as known, in the state. Forty-one days during the year 1889 had shocks which are here recorded. A classed and annotated Bibliography of Fossil Insects, pp. 101 —Index to the known Fossil Insects of the World, including Myriapods and Avrach- nids. pp. 744. By SamuEL HusBarD ScuppER. (Bulletins 69 and 71, U. S. Geol. Survey. Prices, 15 and 50 cents.) The writings of more than five hundred authors are cited in the first of these papers, with concise descriptive notes. In the second, the bibliography of each known fossil species is cited in chronologic order. The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras are taken up successively, and in each of these time divi- sions the principal classes are separately presented; but under each class the generic names, and under them the specific names, are ar- ranged alphabetically. On the Bear River Formation, a Series of Strata hitherto known as the Bear River Laramie. By Cuartes A. Wairr,—and The Stratigraphic Position of the Bear River Formation. By T. W. Sranron. (Am. Jour. Sez., Vol. xuut, Feb., 1892, pp. 91-115.) These two interesting papers add another link to the chain of our knowledge of the age of the non-marine formations which were form- erly grouped under the one name ‘Laramie.” Dr. White, in his paper of seven pages, gives a short historical sketch of the work that has been done on the Bear River formation, from its discovery in southwestern Wyoming, by H. Engelman in 1859, who, with. Review of Recent Geological Literature. 267 F. B. Meek, referred it on fossil evidence, to the Eocene Tertiary. From the above date to 1876, these beds were continuously designated by Messrs. Meek, Hayden and other western geologists as Tertiary, and then, on Mr. Clarence King’s general map of the 40th parallel, they were included in the Laramie, where they have remained without question, except for a few lines in Dr. White’s Review of the Cretaceous of North America, in which he comments on the peculiarity of the fauna, and states that pending investigations may show that the beds may occupy an altogether lower position than had heretofore been generally sup- posed. The result of these investigations is saic to be “that the strata which have hitherto been known as Bear River Laramie, are not only not referable to the Laramie formation, but that they occupy a lower posi- tion, being overlain by marine Cretaceous strata, the equivalents of which are known to underlie the true Laramie.” In this connection it may be stated that the Canadian geologists have for some years been recognizing a series of fresh—or brackish—water sandstone terranes of a character precisely similar to the Laramie inter- bedded between typical marine Cretaceous shales of Montana or Colo- rado age. Of themthe Belly River series has been traced northward from the international boundary line to the vicinity of the North Saskatche- wan river; and the Dunvegan series has been found for a considerable distance on Peace river underlying marine shales holding characteristic Pierre (Montana) fossils. This latter sandstone series is also stated by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in the report of the Canadian Geological Survey for 1879-80, pp. 115 B, and 119 B to coutain a Cyrena (Corbicula?) “with out- line very like that of C. durkeei of Meek” and Corbula pyriformis? from the Bear River series of Wyoming. Assuming these identifica- tions to be correct we have in the far north an undisturbed sandy non- marine terrane intercalated in the marine Cretaceous shales, holding two of the same species of fossils as the Bear River formation, and occupying a position approximately the same or but a little above that assigned to it by Dr. White and Mr. Stanton. Mr. T. W. Stanton, in his paper of eighteen pages, vives the strati- graphical evidence of the position of the formation as obtained from four typical sections in southwestern Wyoming, in all of which the beds are highly inclined, folded or faulted, and in places overlain by nearly horizontal Wahsatch Tertiary. Mr. F. B. Meek’s original section on Sulphur creek is first given, and there it is shown not to be continu- ous from the Colorado subdivisions of the Cretaceous to the Bear River formation, as was originally supposed, but to include atleast two sections of the latter terrane, between which lie beds as low down as the Juras- sic, from all of which characteristic fossils were obtained. Finally in a table of formations the Bear River is designated as a series of “very fossiliferous argillaceous and calcareous shale, alternating with thin beds of sandstone,” and is placed between the “shales and coal-bearing sandstones” of the Colorado, and the “conglomerates and coarse sandstones” of the Dakota? 268 The American Geologist. April, 1892 Notes to accompany a Tabulation of the Igneous Rocks based on the Sys- tem of Prof. H. Rosenbusch. By Frank D. Apams. (Can. Ree. Sci., Vol. tv, No. 9, Dec., 1891, pp. 465-469, with table.) In the present transition stage of petrographical classification, it is a difficult matter to lay before the student a scheme for the determina- tion and classification of rocks in which their relations to each other as brought out by their mineral and chemical composition are shown clearly and concisely. Such schemes or tabulations are usually too much bur- dened with unimportant details and doubtful sub-divisions which only serve to confuse and bewilder those using them. In the table accom- panying these notes, Mr. Adams has succeeded admirably in presenting a classification of the igneous rocks based on that of Prof. H. Rosen- busch of Heidelberg, which is very simple, and may be readily compre- hended by beginners in petrographical work, whilst at the same time nearly all rock names of real importance are included in it. The author points out that although there has recently been a strong tendency among petrographers to consider rocks from a chemical stand- point, yet a purely chemical classification presents many grave difticul- ties, and therefore that mineralogical composition, and structure must still play an important part in any scheme which is to be generally adopted. ‘ In his table the igneous rocks are first classified in three horizontal columns, headed “Abyssal (Plutonic) Rocks,” “Dyke Rocks,” and “Effu- sive (Volcanic) Rocks,” the characteristic structures of each of these groups being given. The table is also divided into eight vertical columns according to the mineralogical and chemical composition of the rocks, headed, “Alkali Feldspar Rocks,” “Alkali Feldspar—Nepheline (or Leucite) Rocks,” “Leucite Rocks,” ‘“Nepheline Rocks,” ‘“Melilite Rocks,” ‘“Lime-Soda Feldspar-Nepheline (or Leucite) Rocks,’ “Lime-Soda Feldspar Rocks,” and “Rocks containing no Feldspathic constituent.” The rocks are then subdivided according to their bisilicates and micas, further subdivisions being made in the more acid ones by the presence or absence of quartz, and in the basic ones, the presence or absence of olivine. Briefly summarized the more important points to be noted in connec- tion with the table are: 1. Ina general way the classification is a chemical one, the rocks decreasing in acidity from left to right of the table. The prin- cipal exception is the Nepheline, Leucite and Melilite rocks. 2. Several of the rock groups are given positions which differ from those which they occupy in Prof. Rosenbusch’s book, the object being to more clearly bring out their chemical relation- ships. As examples may be mentioned the Nepheline, Leucite and Melilita rocks, placed immediately after the Orthoclase Nepheline (or Leucite) rocks; the Diabases, here classed with the volcanic rocks; the Finguaites, Alnoites, and some of tlie Acmite Trachytes which will be found among the Dyke rocks. The Pyroxene rocks are separated from the Olivine rocks, and Y Review of Recent Geological Literature. 269 erected into a new group—the Pyroxenites, a name given by the late Dr. Sterry Hunt to certain non-feldspathic rocks differing in origin but having a pyroxene as the principal constituent. 5. Several gaps in former tables have been filledin with recent discoveries, such as Malchite, a dioritic rock corresponding to Aplite; lolite, corresponding to Nepheline Basalt, but contain- ing garnet; Fourchite and Monchiquite Lamprophyric dyke rocks of the Theralite series. Little stress is laid on the division of the Volcanic rocks into older and newer, but it is still retained. In the subordinate classification many names, based merely on structural differences in the rocks, have been omitted, ¢. g., Nevadite, granophyric, etc. The typographical features of the table are excellent, the relative importance of the various divisions being clearly brought out by the use of several kinds of type. Important rocks are indicated by heavy-faced type, and when a rock is a mere variety of the preceding one, the type is shifted to call attention to the fact. The author draws attention to the fact that although Rosenbusch’s group of the Dyke Rocks has called forth much adverse criticism, yet this group has certain claims for recognition, and itis therefore retained, the three series of “granitic,” “granitic-Porphyritic,”’ and “Lampro- phyritic” Dyke rocks, into which it is divided, being separated in the table by spacing, not by lines. In conclusion, the author acknowledges valuable help and suggestions received from Profs. Rosenbusch, Geo. H. Williams, and the late Dr. J. Francis Williams. Report on the Sudbury Mining District, Canada. By Dr. Roprert BELL, Assistant Director, Geological Survey. This report is the result of three years work by Dr. Bell, assisted by Mr. A. E. Barlow and others. It is accompanied by a fine map, geologically colored, covering an area of 72 by 48 miles, equal in extent to about four counties. In doing this geological work Dr. Bell and his assistants had not the advantage of a settled or surveyed region, but were obliged to do a large proportion of _ the topographical work as well, and to contend against the disadvantages of a difficult forest country. The map was compiled under the super- vision of Mr. Scott Barlow, chief topographer, and is very finely exe- cuted. The narrowest part of the great Huronian belt comes within this sheet, and is flanked on the southeast by true Laurentian gneiss, but on the northwest side this belt is bounded by a mixture of similar gneiss with great areas of granites and syenites. The Huronian rocks which are fully described, consist largely of graywackes, with and without included fragments and pebbles, and are generally heavily bedded, but frequently coarsely slaty. These merge into quartzites, which are also largely developed and associated with elongated masses of greenstones and thick belts of clay-slate. The series is shown to be largely of vol- canic or pyroclastic origin. In addition to the undoubted Huronian, there is within this district a 270 The American Geologist. April, 1892 basin of rocks which may be of Cambrian age. They consist of dark argillaceous sandstones with some shaly beds, underlaid by several thousand feet of a remarkable volcanic glass breccia, replaced in some parts of its course by black slates. The breccia contains light-colored angular fragments which, under the microscope are seen to consist of silicified pumice, showing, in the most beautiful manner, rows of small vesicles as perfect as those in recent volcanic glass. This great band of breccia affords conclusive proof of volcanic action on a grand scale in these early geological times. At the base of the series is a band of quartzite-conglomerate with white quartz pebbles. The celebrated nickel and copper deposits of the Sudbury district come within this area and are described by Dr. Bell. He gives the re- sults of his investigations on the relations and mode of occurrence of these ores. They would appear to be always associated with the green- stones, and to be most abundant at the contact of these rocks with some other, especially where the contact is intersected by a line of dislocation or by one of the gabbro dykes, which are numerous in the district. The occurrence of gold, silver, lead and other metals is described, and assays for nickel and gold are given by the chemists of the survey. There are four appendices: I contains a careful description of the microscopic and other characters of about fifty kinds of rocks from the district by Prof. Geo. H. Williams, of Johns Hopkins University. II gives the levels along the Canadian Pacific Railway and of the prin- cipal lakes. II] isa list by the best authorities of 73 species of Lepid- optera, collected by Dr. Bell north of lake Huron, and IV explains the meanings of the Indian geographical names in the surrounding country. The report is illustrated by some fine photo-engravings. LIST .OF RECENT PUBLICATION: IT. Proceedings of Sctentifie Societies. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Nov.-Dec., contains: On the Geological Age und Relations of the Potomac Group of Virginia and Maryland, J. 58. Newberry; On the Microbe of Phosphorescent Wood, A. A. Julien; Note on Hydrazoic Acid, a new mineral acid, H. C. Bolton. Jan-Feb. Vo. contains: —Monticellite, anew mineral, J. F. Williams; Recent Work in North American Mammalogy, J. A. Allen. March No. contains:— Man of the Stone Age, F. Starr. Trans. Canadian Inst., Oct., 1891, contains: Notes on Nickel, by George Mickle; Bone-Caves, by Arthur Harvey; Gold and Silver in Galena and Iron Pyrites, by R. Dewar. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Scient. Soc. for 1891, Part I., contains: The Alex- ander Co. Meteoric Iron, 8. C. H. Bailey. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Vol, III, Part 1, contains: Notes on the Geology and Petrography of Baja California, Mexico, Waldemar Lindgren; Recent Publications. 271 Eruptive Rocks from Montana, Waldemar Lindgren; Notes on the Sub- alpine Mollusca of the Sierra Nevada near Lat. 38°, W. J. Raymond, Minnesota Academy of Naturai Sciences. Bulletin No. 2, Vol. III, contains: The field of geology and its promise for the future, W. J. McGee; A check-list of the paleozoic fossils of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Dakota, and Nebraska, Bruno Bierbauer; The deep well at Minne- opa, Minn., C. W. Hall: Notes of a geological excursion into central Wisconsin, C. W. Hall; The Stillwater deep well, A. D. Meeds; The iron- bearing rocks of Minnesota, H. V. Winchell; Cryptozoon minnesotense in the Shakopee limestone at Northfield, Minn., L. W. Chancy, Jr.; A recent visit to lake Itasca, Warren Upham. III, Papers in Scientific Journals. Am. Jour, Sci. Oct. No. contains: Structural Geology of Steep Rock lake, Ontario, H. lL. Smyth; Geological Horizons as determined by Ver- tebrate Fossils, O. C. Marsh. Nov. No. contains: Report of the Examination by means of the Micro- scope of Specimens of Infusorial Earths of the Pacific Coast of the U.§., A. M. Edwards; The Tonganoxie Meteorite, E. H. 8. Bailey; New Analyses of Uraninite, W. F. Hillebrand; The Tertiary Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas, It. Ellsworth Call; Occurrence of Sulphur, Or- piment, and Realgar in the Yellowstone National Park, W. H. Weed and L. Y. Pirsson; Mineralogical Notes, L. V. Pirsson: Peridotite Dikes in the Portage Sandstones near Ithaca, N. Y., J. F. Kemp; New Locality for Meteoric Iron with a Preliminary Notice of the Discovery of Dia- monds in the Iron, A. E. Foote: The South Trap Range of the Kewee- nawan Series, M. E. Wadsworth; Geological Facts noted on Grand River, Labrador, A. Cary. Dee. No. contains: Percival’s map of the Jura-Trias trap-belts of central Connecticut, with observations on the upturning, or mountain-making disturbance, of the Formation, J. D. Dana: Notes on a Missouri Barite, C. Luedeking and H. A. Wheeler; The Contraction of Molten Rock, C. Barus; Notes on Michigan Minerals, A. C. Lane, H. F. Kellar, and F. F. Sharpless. Jan. No. contains: Theory of an Interglacial Submergence in England, G. Frederick Wright; Permian of Texas, Ralph S$. Tarr; Chemical Com- position of Lolite,O. C. Farrington; Relation of Melting Point to Pres- sure in case of Igneous Rock Fusion, C. Barus; Discovery of Clymenia inthe Fauna of the Intumes censzone (Naples beds) of westera New York, aud its Geological Significance, John M. Clarke; New Meteoric Iron from Garrett Co., Md., A. E. Foote; Farmington, Washington Co., Kansas Aerolite, G. F. Kunz and E. Weinschenk; Skull of Torosaurus, O. C. Marsh. xeol, Mag. Nov. No. contains: On Plewronautilus nodosocurinatus, A. H. Foord; Contributions to Precambrian Geology, J. F. Blake; On Nor- mal Faulting, T. Mellard Reade; Work done by Lobworms, C. Davison; On Ammonites jurensis, E.T. Newton; On Athyris leviuscula, Norman Glass. 272 The American Geologist. April, 1892 Dec. No. contains: On Olenellus callaved and its Geological Relation- ships, C. Lapworth: Petrological Notes, W. M. Hutchings; Pholidoph- orus germanicus in the Upper Lias, Whitby, A. 8. Woodward; Pseudo- trionyx from the Bracklesham Beds, A. 8. Woodward; Notes on Stereodon- melitensis, J. H. Cooke. American Naturalist, Sept. Vo. contains: A Reply to Prof. Marsh’s “Note on Mesozoic Mammalia,” H. F. Osborn. Oct. No. contains: A Sketch of the Geology of South America, G. Steinmann; Notes on the Hearts of Certain Mammals, Ida H. Hyde. Nov. No. contains: The Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic Formations in the East Indian Archipelago (Timor and Rotti), August Rothpletz; The Hat Creek Bad Lands, J. S. Kingsley. Canadian Record of Science, July, 1891, contains: On a new Horizon in the St. John Group, by G. F. Matthew; On some Granites from British Columbia and the Adjacent Parts of Alaska and the Yukon District, by F. D. Adams. Ottawa Naturalist, NVov., 1891, contains: Canadian Gems and Precious Stones, by C. W. Willmott. IV. Excerpts and Individual Publications. On some of the Melaphyres and Felsites of Caradoc, by Frank Rutley. From Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Nov., 1891, Vol. xivi. On a Spherulitic and Perlitic Obsidian from Pilas, Mexico, by Frank Rutley. From Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Nov.,1891, Vol. xnvit. A New Locality for Meteoric Iron with a Preliminary Notice of Dis- covery of Diamonds in the Iron, by A. E. Foote. From Proc. A. A.A. 8. Volj sn. The Trias of the Vale of Cleoyd. Notes on a section of the Trias and Boulder Clay in Chapel Street, Liverpool. A Further Note on the De- composed Boulder and Underlying Red Sandstone in the Chapel Street Section, Liverpool. By T. Mellard Reade. The Cause of the Glacial Period and an Explanation of Geological Climates, by Marsden Manson. From Trans. Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, Vol. vit. V. Foreign Publications. Fold. Kéz. (Budapest) Vol. xx1, Nos. 6 and 7, June and July, 1891, (Supplement) contains: Die Bewegungen auf den Schemnitzer Erzgiin- gen in geologischer Beziehung, Szabo; Mineralogische Mittheilungen, Zimanyt; Uber die gwei geologischen Karnten Rumiiniens. Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New South Wales, for the year 1890.. Sydney, 1891. : Jahresb. des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Metz fiir 1890-91. Trans. Leeds Geologicai Association. Part v1. 1890-91. Gestreifte Magnetitkrystalle aus Mineville, Lake Champlain Gebiet, Staat New York, von J. F. Kemp. Sep.-Abd. aus “Zeitsch. fiir Krystal- lographie, etc.,” x1x. Uber das transkaspische Naphtaterrain. Uebersicht der Geologie Daghestans und des Terek-Gebietes. Ueber das diluviale, arabokaspische Writings of Alexander Winchell. 273 Meer und die nordeuropaische Vereisung. Beitrage zur Geologie des Berges Savelan im nordlichen Persien. Ueber die Thatigkeit der Schlammvulkane in der Kaspischen Region wahrend der jahre 1885-87. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Erzlagerstiilten von Moravica und Dognac- ska im Banat, von Hj. Sjogren. Sep.-Abdiicken. Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt 1886-87. Den arktiska floran forna utbredning i liinderna 6ster och séder om OstersjOu, af A. G. Nathorst. Wissensch. Verdff. Vereins fiir Erdk.zu Leipzig. I. Band contains: Beitriige zur Geographie des festen Wassers. Annales de Géographie, publiées sous la direction de P. Vidal de la Blache et Marcel Dubois. Anales del Instituto Fisico-Geografico Nacional de Costa Rica, 1889, par Prof. E. Pittier. Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New South Wales, for 1890. Bulletin de la Société Géologiqus de France, t. xrx, Oct., 1891, contains: Note sur ’Eocene tunisien, par M. Aubert; Note sur le 7%ssotéa tissoti, par M. Douvill¢; Un filon d’argile plastique, par M. Tardy; Note sur le Sénonien et en particulier sur l’age des couches 4 Hippurites, par M. A. Toucas; Sur la Géologie des environs de Moustiers, par M. Collot; Sur la situation des couches 4 Terebratula diphya dans ’Oxfordien superieur, a ’Ouarsenis (Algérie), par M. E. Ficheur: Notes sur histoire et la structure g¢éologique des chaines alpines de la Maurienne du Brian- connais et des régions adjacentes, par M. W. Kilian. VI. Setentific Laboratories and Museums. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 94; The Geological Excur- sion by University Students across the Appalachians in May, 1891, by Geo. H. Williams. Bulletin of the Awerican Museum of Natural History, Dec., 91, con- tains: Observations on some Cretaceous Fossils from the Beyriit District of Syria, with Descriptions of some New Species, by R. P. Whitfield. Catalogue of the Michigan Mining School for 1890-91. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE WRITINGS OF ALEXANDER WINCHELL. (Continued from page 139.) 1852. Yeijlow Rain, proving it to be pollen of coniferous trees. (Ala- bama Whig, April, 1852.) 1852. Analysis of Artesian water. (Alabama Whig, Dec. 22, 1852.) 1852. Chemical examination of “Sandy Land” soil. (Alabama Whig, two articles.) 1859. On the Geological Position of the Brine Springs of Grand Rapids | Michigan]. (Grand Rapids papers, Oct , 1859.) This was the first correct announcement ever made on this subject. 1860. On the Salt Springs of Saginaw. A communication to the su- perintendent of the Saginaw Salt works (Saginaw /Anterprise, Feb., 1860.) 1865. 1865. 1865. 1866. 1866. 1865. 1867. 1S68. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1871. The American Geologist. . April, 18$2 Is the brine at Bay City obtained from the same source as the brine at East Saginaw? (Saginaw Courier, July, 1862.) The first announcement that the Bay City wells are supplied from the conglomerate of the Coal Measures. How shall we perfect the Agricultural College? (Detroit Adver- tiser and Tribune, Feb., 1863.) Three articles advocating a more professional or special organization. Important railroad connections with Ann Arbor. (Mich. State News, July, 1863.) This advocated a line from Toledo to Ann Arbor, Holly and East Saginaw, fifteen years before it was finally completed. Draft of an act to provide for the completion of the Geological Survey. Passed the House, Feb. 10,1865. Lost in the Senate. Report on the Bruce Oil Lands at Oil Springs, Canada West. With maps, and two articles contrivuted by him to the Chicago Republican, Jan. 17 and 20, 1866. Pamphlet. Petroleum in Middle Tennessee. (Pittsburg Wining and Manu- facturing Journal,7 Nov., 1866.) Christian Theology illustrated from Nature, (Vorthwestern Chris- tian Advocate, Chicago.) A series of 22 articles, the first ap- pearing, Jan. 2, 1867. Stromatoporidie. (Proc. Amer. Assoc. 1866, Buffalo meeting.) [See notice of his geological publications in Jahrbuch, for 1867, pp. 99, 100, 101. ] The Geological foundations of our state, (Detroit Weekly Adver- tiser and Tribune, 27 Nov. 1868. Daily do. 30 Nov.) Impending crises in Nature. (College Courant, July 12 and 1%, 1869.) Brazil in the Reign of Ice. With Illustrations (College Courant, June 4 and 11, 1870.) Opposes the view of L. Agassiz that the valley of the Amazon was covered by a continental glacier. The mineral fertilizers of Michigan. Report Dept. of Agricul- ture, Washington, 1569. ‘ Geological history of Mammoth Cave. (Indianapolis Daily Jour- nal, Aug., 1871; American Naturalist. Nov., 1871.) Kakistocracy, or Too much Popular Goveroment. Lecture de- livered at Mattoon, Ill. 4 Dec., 1871. (Mattoon Journal, 6 Jan., 1872.) : Reason for the Faith. Baccalaureate address at Syracuse Uni- versity. (Syracuse Journal, Northern Christian Advocate.) The German Gymnasium (Undvensity Herald, Oct., 31, 1873.) The Genealogy of Ships. (New York Daily Tribune, 16 July, 1874, New York Christian Advocate; Golden Age; New York Inde- pendent, etc.) Elicited a number of replies in the 77zbune. An ironical jew desprit directed against the assumption that suc- cession and structural relation in aseries of specific forms, is proof of genetic relation. 1881. 1882. 1882. 1885. 1885. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. Writings of Alexander Winchell. a75 The Battle Fields of Faith. A baccalaureate address delivered at Syracuse University, June 21, 1874. (Syracuse Courier and Journal, June 21; Northern Christian Advocate, 2 July, 1874.) The Beautiful. An address delivered before the State Female College, Memphis, Tenn., 14 June, 1876. (Western Methodist, 8 July, 1876; Northern Christian Advocate, July, 1876.) State and School. (New York Daily Tribune, 12 July, 1876.) A criticism of the address of Charles Fitch before the New York State Teachers’ Association. Huxley in New York. A review of his three lectures, (Chiistiun Union, 11 Oct., 1876.) On the Origin of Species. )Syracuse Journal, 20 March, 1877.) Eighth lecture of a series. The old age of continents. A University Lecture, (Syracuse Journal, 31 Jan., 1878.) Science gagged in Nashville, (Nashville Amertcan, 16 June, 1878.) Reply to the Nashville Christian Advocate (Nashville American, 19 July, 1878.) A plea for Modernized Education. Address before the National Convention of DKE, delivered in the Academy of Music, New York, 24 Oct., 1878. (New York Daily Tribune, 25 Oct.; Syracuse Journal, 28 Oct.; Hducational Weekly, etc.) Culture and Knowledge. Address before the .Esthetic circle, Syracuse, and repeated by request in the hall of Y.M.C. A., Syracuse, 14 Nov.1878. (Syracuse Jowrnal, 17 Nov., (1878, and many times reproduced in various parts of the country.) Primitive stages of cosmical evolution (Sczence, ii. 179, Apr. 16, 1881). The Interpretation of Nature. Address at the dedication of Agassiz hall, Martha’s Vineyard, 20 July, 1882. (Jnstitute Her- ald, July 21, 1882.) Misconceptions about evolution. (Northern Christian Advocate, Sept. 14, i882.) Contents of a work on Religion and Intelligence. Pamph. 8vo. 8 pp. Feb., 1883. Communism in the United States. (North American Review, May, 1883.) Editorials for The Index, 17 June, 1884. 2,000 words. Horror Mongering. (/ndev, 12 July, 1884.) 874 words. Open Letter to Teachers on the teaching of geology. (Cireular issued by 8. C. Griggs & Co.) 775 words. The Mania for Facts. (/uder, 15 Sept., 1884). 1,050 words. Minor editorials. (Jndzv, 15 Sept., 1884.) 1,986 words. The race factor in civil institutions. (/nder, 29Sept,1884.) 1,000 words. Minor editorials, (7nder, 27 Sept., 1886.) 242 words. Decay of the American conscience. (Zinder, 11 Oct. 1884.) 1,000 words. 276 The American Geologist. April, 1892 1884, Trades-Union unreasonableness. (/nder, 25 Oct., 1884). 1,138 words. 1884. Minor editorials. (Zndex, 25 Oct., 1884). 601 words. 1884, Are the churches decaying? (/ndev,8 Nov., 1884.) 1,364 words.. 1884. Minor editorials. (Index, 8 Nov., 1884). 1,274 words. 1884. Minor editorials, (Index, 22 Nov., 1884). 310 words. 1884. Non-classical collegiate courses, (Indev, 6 Dec., 1884.) 1,200 words. 1884, Minor editorials. (/ndev, 6 Dec., 1884.) 1,814 words. 1884. Notice of Lowrey’s Philosophy of Ralph Cudworth. (Zndex, 6 Dec., 1884). 281 words. 1884. The rights of Religion in School. (Index, 20 Dec., 1884.) 1,147 words. 1884. Evolution as a hobgoblin. (Index, 20 Dec., 1884.) 1,300 words. 1884. Minor editorials. (Index, 20 Dec., 1884.) 1,753 words. 1885. Have we any Scientific Literature? (Index, 3 Jan. °85.) 1,320: words. 1885. Minor editorials. (Jndew, 3 Jan., 1885.) 900 words. 1885. The constitution of University authority. (Jnder, 17 Jan., 1885.)- 1,417 words. 1885. Minor editorials. (Zndexr, 17 Jan., 1885.) 1,064 words. 1885. The decay of the land. (/ndev, 31 Jan., 1885.) 1,389 words. 1885. My views on the elective franchise. (Chronicle, Ann Arbor, 25- April, 1885.) 885 words. 1885. Table for determination of minerals. (Young Mincralogist and Antiquarian, April, 1885.) 550 words. 1885. Continent building. (The University, 13 June, 1885.) 1,717 words. 1885. Table for the determination of rocks. (Young Mineralogist and Antiquarian, May, 1885.) 1885. Congra'ulatory address to Prof. Asa Gray. Adopted by the Sen- ate of the University of Michigan. Published in the Reg?ster,. Ann Arbor, with Dr. Gray’s reply, 25 Nov., 1885. CORRESPONDENCE. Arrow Pornts FROM THE LoEss AT Muscavring, lowa.—The hills on which the city of Muscatine stands are covered with a very fine deposit of loess, which in some places must be nearly any feet thick. It is easy to find the border of this loess lake. In this deposit have been found great quantities of land shells, several pieces of bones, the remains of at least two American reindeer, a consid- erable part of the antler of the elk or common deer, pieces of wood, etc., etc. For several years I have thought there ought to be found in this. loess unmistakable evidence that men were here when the surface of this lake was nearly 150 feet above the present high water of the great river at our feet. Much of the loess is excellent for making brick. At several points hills are for this purpose cut away, leaving banks sometimes more than C orrespondence. Oe twenty feet high, of the finest loess. Recently I have been able to gather some information concerning relics of man from this deposit. Mr. Chas. Freeman, a brick-maker, says he took from the loess, on the north side of Eighth street, near St. Mathias church, at a depth of about twelve feet, an arrow point. In answer to my questions he said it eould not have fallen from the top, for he took it out himself and noted especially the print in the loess. There seemed to be no possible chance that it could have gotten there through a hole or crevice. The loess at this place is very fine-grained, of a yellowish brown color, exhibiting slight indications of strata. At another yard, about two blocks from the above, on Iowa avenue and Ninth street, this same gentleman was moulding brick in the old fash- ioned way. In thrusting the clay into the mold he felt something sharp, and an examination brought to light an arrow-point. At first sight it would seem as if this find would have been worth little or nothing, but on cleaning the arrow point it was found to be largely covered with blue clay, quite different from the rest of the loess at this place. A bed of this same blue clay was strikingly shown here about ten feet below the surface, showing that this arrow-point was well covered by this same clay. I examined this bank, and unless the arrow-point could have been so covered in the process of mixing, it must have been originally buried in the blue clay, which is ten feet or more belew the present surface. In the suburb of this city, about one mile from where it enters the Mississippi, Mad creek has cut away a hill forming a bank forty to fifty feet high. At about twelve feet from the top isa bed of gravel and sand. In this gravel Mr. Joe Freeman, a young man in the third year class in our high school, found a considerable fragment of the tooth of an elephant. In this same bed I observed numerous flint chips. The upper portion of this hill is loess. At the foot of the bank the creek runs over an argillaceous or arenaceous limestone of Devonian age. On both sides of the Mississippi in this locality on the most command- ing bluffs are numerous mounds of earth, the work of men. These are believed to be very ancient. So far I have not observed mounds on the loess. May not these arrow or spear points mentioned above, have been made and used by the builders of these mounds? F. M. WITTER. THE SERPENTINES OF THE Coast RANGES IN CALIFORNIA.—In a paper on “ The Pre-Cretaceous Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of the Califor- nia Coast Ranges,” published in the March number of the AMERICAN GnoLocist, Mr. Harold W. Fairbanks states that his view that the ser- pentine in the Coast ranges is an altered eruptive, is in opposition ‘to the views of others who have studied those rocks, except those given in a few brief statements published in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, in 1891. He also states that professor Whitney and his assistants held that the serpentine is an altered silico-argillaceous rock, referring to Whitney’s “Auriferous Gravels” in support of his statement. On turning to page forty-two of the last mentioned work, it 978 The American Geologist. April, 1892 will be seen that I was considered responsible for most of the nomencla- ture of rocks mentioned in that volume, and that the results were not then fully published. At that time I was an assistant to professor Whit- ney, and therefore, with his other assistants, am held responsible by Mr. Fairbanks for the view which he has quoted. The results of my work were published in 1884, for the peridotities, in my “Lithological Studies.” In this work there were described more or less altered peridotites or ser- pentines from Colusa county, in the Coast range, and from Inyo, Sierra, and Plumas counties in the Sierra Nevada. All these described speci- mens were considered to be more or less altered forms of peridotite, in proof of which eight colored lithographic figures were given. (See my * Lithological Studies,” pp. 129-182, 142, 158, 189-192, plate 5, figures 1, 2, 3; plate 6, figures 3, 4,5, 6; plate 7, figure 1.) It was also then stated that the microscopic and lithological characters of the Coast range peri- dotite and serpentines studied, as well as those from the Sierra Nevada, indicated that they are eruptive. I may also say that, so far as the specimens described by myself were concerned, the results obtained by me were accepted by professor Whitney in 1882 as satisfactory and con- clusive. As I have never studied any serpentine that I considered other- wise than derived from the alteration of peridotite or some allied erup- tive rock, Mr. Fairbanks’ confirmatory observations are of very great interest to myself. M. E. Wapswortn. Michigan Mining School, Houghton, Mich., March 2, 1892. ENGLACIAL DRIFT OF LONG IsLAND. In the December number of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Warran Upham calls the attention of glacialists to certain criterea of englacial and subglacial drift. In my study of the drift formations of Long Island, I had noticed a difference between the bottom and surface portions of unmodified till, but was never able to draw a line between them. Of course, when the two were separated by a layer of stratified material, the surface part could easily be recognized from the hardpan, but where this line of separation does not take place it is difficult to determine exactly where the one leaves off and the other begins. It is true,as Mr. Upham re- marks, that the upper drift is yellowish in color, and is looser in texture than the hardpan, but the two blend into each other in such a way as to render a distinct separation impossible, and yet I am inclined to think that they are two distinct formations. One was laid down probably when the glacier advanced; the other was deposited when the ice-sheet retreated. The surface drift is variable in depth, and there are sections where it is absent altogether or is only represented by a few large boulders: as at Rockhill, near Eastport, Long Island, where a huge erratic is seen resting on the stratified gravel, the finer material having been washed away. In general, however, this yellowish sandy boulder drift covers the surface of Long Island. It covers the hills as well as the depressions at Brooklyn, and large niggerheads are everywhere seen, where the lots are vacant, protruding out of the drift which is only a few feet in thickness. Along the line of the terminal moraine it is very much Correspondence. 279 the same, although not so determinable in places. It is very light on the Shinecock hills, for here the stratified gravel comes very near the surface. The bottom drift is also variable, and subject to many modifications. The Rockaway Beach railroad, that cuts through the ridge north of Woodhaven, exposes an interesting section of drift. The moraine is broken up by old subglacial streams, and adjacent to these depressions, the material near the edges of the bank, show signs of stratification, but these stratified layers never extend clear across the cut except near the surface. In the center of the bottom part of the drift is a mass of boulders in a sandy matrix, and over this is the hardpan, which is also fullof erratics. Then comes the modified drift, and over all the so-called -englacial drift which probably was laid down after the floods had sub- sided. The modification of the drift at this point tends to prove, I think, that kettle-holes were in some way connected with subglacial rivers. North of the terminal moraine the whole bottom part of the drift seems to be modified, although a small section was exposed at Ridge- wood, where underneath some fifteen or twenty feet of stratified sand and gravel was a stratum of unmodified boulder clay of unknown depth, and there may be other sections like it that have not been ex- posed. Ridgewood, near Brooklyn, is situated near an old water chan- nel that comes up through the Newtown creek depression. The under boulder drift was probably deposited when the ice-sheet lay over the island. The stratified sand and gravel tell the story of the floods dur- ing the melting of the glacier, and the upper deposit or englacial drift was laid down when the ice-sheet retreated. This upper drift thins out towards the depression showing that the floods must have prevailed while the deposition was going on. The waters must have receded, how- ever, before the ice-sheet had disappeared, for the depression as well as the ridges are covered with unmodified boulder drift. Professor Agassiz said: “All American drift is bottom drift.” And in a sensethis is true. I am inclined to think that the so-called subglacial drift is as much englacial as the surface portion of unmodified till, that is, both were held 77 the ice-sheet until deposited. On Long Island as the glacier advanced from the main land the sub- glacial streams advanced with it, modifying the drift and carrying much of the detritus beyond the southern limit of the ice-sheet. The south side of the island is chiefly composed of this stratified material. These ancient streams can be traced by the depressions from the sound to the sea, and the upper deposit of unmodified drift that covers in general, the stratified deposits, shows, I think, that the streams were subglacial and not superficial. There is little direct evidence on Long Island of superglacial drift. The subglacial beds of stratified gravel are not so s‘anty as Mr. Upham supposes, for, as far as my observations go, they far exceed all other glacial deposits. The greater part of the terminal moraine,. moraines of recession, or kame moraines, and the bottom part of the valleys and plains owe their modified condition to subglacial currents. I am aware that the terminal moraine is generally spoken of as being composed of unmodified drift. This is true. of the surface part only, 280 The American Geologist. April, 1892 for when broken into there are few places that do not show signs of stratification especially along old lines of drainage. On the extreme west end of the island where the flood of waters was great, nearly the whole of the moraini¢ material is affected by it. The old subglacial channels are innumerable along the whole extent of the terminal moraine and the marginal kames and kame deltas were formed by the icy cur- rents that issued from the front of the ice-sheet. Where the currents were strong the moraine is correspondingly broken, and the kames in front become more prominent as may be seen in the vicinity of Fort Hamilton and Greenwood cemetery. These marginal kames extend out for some distance from the ridge proper, and it is rather difficult to de- termine their exact southern limit, except by the slight covering of un- modified drift. I am inclined to think that the ice-sheet did not end with the so-called terminal moraine, for even the kame deltas that extend southward to the ocean are covered with a yellowish sandy clay, very much like the englacial drift referred to by Mr. Upham. It is true, that the boulder line seems to end with the marginal kames, yet there is such a blending of the two, that no distinct line can be drawn between the marginal kames and kame deltas. The unmodified boulder drift covering the former would show, however, that the so- called englacial till extended farther southward than the subglacial till, in its unmodified form. It has seemed to the writer that these southern kames could not have been formed without the aid of an ice-sheet, and it may be that a study of this so-called englacial drift will lead to the solution of the problem, for this superficial deposit covering the plains on the south side of Long Island has never been satisfactorily explained. I made mention of it in my pamphlet on the formation of Long Island, published in 1885 and was unableto account for its origin. It still re- mains a puzzle, but I think we are getting nearer an explanation. Eastport, L. I., Jan., 27, 1892. JOHN Bryson. PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Proressor G. FREDERICK Wricut delivered a series of ten lectures in Boston during February and March, on ‘The Antiquity and Origin of the Human Race,” as one of the free Lowell In- stitute courses. The bearing of geology on this subject centers in the question, How long ago was the Glacial period? Professor Wright in reply accepts the conclusions of Prestwich, Gilbert, N. H. Winchell, and others, based on the amount of postglacial erosion of waterfalls, and on other evidence, which from many in- dependent observations, computations, and estimates, give 7,000 to 10,000 years, more or less, as the time since the great ice- sheets of North America and Europe were melted away. Man was contemporaneous with the latest and maximum extension of the ice on both continents, as is known by his stone implements Personal and Setentific News. 281 in the gravel deposits formed by streams which brought this mod- ified drift from the ice in which it had been enclosed as englacial drift. Under the lavas of Table mountain, California, and of Nampa, Idaho, the implements and other relics of men, and even their bones, including the famous Calaveras skull, have been found and assigned to a vast antiquity, but they may probably be no older than the latest general glaciation. The last great local accumulation of glaciers and ice-sheets on the Sierra Nevada and more northern parts of the Cordilleran mountain belt to Alaska is referred by Wright, as by Russell and Becker, to a subsequent time, during the Recent epoch. No proof of man’s existence during even the later part of the Tertiary era has been obtained, and Prof. Wright believes that the evolution of the human race has been comprised wholly within the Quaternary era, probably occupying no more than 50,000 or 100,000 years. The substance of these lectures will be mainly included in a book entitled ‘Man and the Glacial Period,” soon to be issued in the International Scientific Series, supplementing the author’s previous work on “The [ce Age in North America.” Pror. Epwin J. Ponp, oF tHE U. 8. Coast AND GEODETIC Survey, died in Washington in February, of scarlet fever. He was a young man of sturdy habits and a most earnest student of natural science, known to but a small circle of scientific people, owing to his modest demeanor, and his long residence in mission- ary labors in the education of colored youth in the remote south, An ardent student of geology and botany, he was a constant col- lector and contributor of data to others who published them. Although having resided in Washington but a short time, he had made many interesting discoveries in local geology. The writer first knew him in Texas, where, with his class of students, Prof. Pond discovered and collected the remarkable and as yet unpub- lished fauna of the Shoal Creek limestone, which he deposited in the National Museum. He published several short papers in Sci ence on Texas geology. eee ad 2 Tue Swiss ComMITTEE OF ORGANIZATION for the sixth session of the International Congress of Geologists has been constituted definitely as follows: K. Renevier, president; Alb. Heim, vice president; H. Golliez, secretary, and ©. Kscher-Hess, cashier; Dr. A. Baltzer, Dr. Ed. Brueckner, L. Dupare, Dr. K. Du Pas- quier, Dr. Kdm. v.-Fellenberg, Dr. F. A. Forel, Dr. H. Frey, Dr. J. Frueh, Dr. U. Grubenmann, Dr. A. Gutzwiller, Dr. A. Jaccard, Dr. E. Kissling, Dr. Fr. Koby, Dr. F. R. Lang, P. deLoriol, G. Mariani, Dr. F. Muehlberg, IL. Rollier, Dr. H. Schardt, Dr. C. Schmidt. At a meeting held 28 Dec., 1891, this committee decided that the next session of the Congress will be held at Zurich, near the end of August or the commencement of September. The length of the session can be reduced to four days. One of these days, 282 The American Geologist. April, 1892 at least, will be devoted to the meetings of the sections, in which questions of more special interest will be treated. There will be three sections, viz: 1. Mineralogy and petrography; 2. Strati- graphy and paleontology. 3. General geology. ~ The committee intend to have two sorts of excursions, viz: Foot-excursions, and railroad and steamboat excursions. ‘The former will be for the purpose of studying the geological features in trips across the Jura and the Alps, and would be suitable only for those accustomed to long walks. The second will be planned to enable the participants to see the principal classic regions in Swiss geology. By the time of the session it is expected that there will be a number of mountain railroads, which will enable the visitors to see some of the most elevated portions of the region. Excursions will also start, preceding the session, from different points, west or north from Switzerland, and will converge at Zurich. Also after the session other excursions will depart from Zurich, radiating through the Alps, and then will reunite at Lugano, where the Congress will finally close. Suitable later announcements will be made, giving more details. It is evident that the Swiss Committee have entered upon their duties vigorously and in good season. PRINCETON ScrENTIFIC EXpEpDITION OF 1891. This expedition under Prof. Scott, explored the so-called Ticholeptus beds of the Deep River region, Montana, during the months of August and September and secured a large amount of valuable material. These so-called Ticholeptus beds which are lacustine, are comparatively limited in extent and lie between the Belt ranges. The beds lie uncomformably upon inclined Carboniferous (?) limestone and slates. Fossils were found in abundance at only two places. According to Prof. Scott, the Deep River beds are composed of at least two and perhaps three distinct horizons and in this respect he differs from Prof. Cope, whose list of species from this locality is misleading in the fact that the species are all grouped under one horizon. — Prof. Cope, however, did not personally visit the locality. In the first horizon ten genera were identified; in the second twelve; in the third or top bed four. — In all these beds there are still some genera to be identified. Prof. Scott comes to the conclusion that the Deep River (7¢choleptus) beds form a com- plete transition between the John Day and the Loup Fork. Mr. W. J. McGEE, or THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUR- VEY, gave the lectures on Geology in series 8, in the course of public lectures of Columbian University, Washington. They were twelve in number, extending through January and February, 1892. Dr. EK. W. CLAypoLE, AKRON, O., gave a course of twelve geo- logical lectures in March, before the Rose Polytechnic Institute at Terre Haute, Indiana. Pm * we ' a rote Ww "AOI NI SIHSEAHC HLIAA LNAWIYRd Xa S.SIYHLMND ie ee ee ee ee = TENT ——Sa | Cor _ a aS x AWA rss a_ =. --- J, Ef : UO ot 3 ss 3 AC Ln calings vi “Fag 1 fe 5, & et “, > IIA Stvi1g ‘x “1OA “LSIDOTOUY NVOINIWY AHL AMERICAN GEOLOGIST AN EXPERIMENT DESIGNED TO SHOW THE UP- WARD MOVEMENT OF SUBGLACIAL DEBRIS. By Ossian GutuHrie, Chicago, ILI. The following experiment was devised sometime since by Mr. Guthrie to show that subglacial material rises through the ice during its forward movement. Since the experi- ment has been referred to in this journal* as showing that subglacial material does have such motion, it has been deemed advisable to give an account of the experiment an equally wide distribution. The experiment of Mr. Guthrie was described in a paper entitled “The Lake Michigan Glacier and Glacial Channels across the Chicago Divide’’ presented to the Geological Society of Chicago, October 30, 1890. Ed, A box was constructed 8 ft. long, 3 ft. high, and 10 inches wide, to represent a valley. The inclination of the box was slight, about six inches in the eight feet. The bottom of this box (large A in the cut) extended about three feet beyond the box at the upper end, fora fulcrum for the lever K. The box had no cover and but one end, (small A) which was designed to represent the upper end of the valley and also aid in applying the pressure required to move the ice. Through this head a slot or mortise was cut, 3x10 inches, through which the piston D moved; this head also formed one side of the hopper or chute G which extended from one foot above the top of the valley to the bottom. This hopper or chute opened into the upper end of the valley directly in front of the piston D to which, through the agency of the lever K, a total foree of 1,500 pounds could be applied if necessary. The sides of the box were supported against the great pressure by several strongly bolted clamps. This box was then filled to the top with broken ice FF, and the *AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vol. IX, March 1892, p, 187. 284 The American Geologist. May, 1892 hopper was filled with a mixture of broken ice and red sandstone, about half and half in bulk. The sandstone gave the mixture ¢ dark color, and also gave it a specific gravity much greater than that of the pure ice in the valley. The lever was then operated, and the hopper kept supplied with the mixture until it was forced up through the clear ice in the valley, as shown by the dark mass between FF in the cut. A freezing mixture was then applied to the sides of the box, and the whole covered with canvass and allowed to remain until frozen, when one side was removed and a photograph taken from which the cut was made. Three similar experiments had been made previously, with gravel and cement, all resulting the same. The colored material introduced at the bottom of the upper end of the valley appeared at the surface of the ice with rounded front, ‘‘in true glacial style.” PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW BRACHIO- PODA FROM THE FRENTON AND HUDSON RIVER GROUPS OF MINNESOTA.* N. HW. Wincnetn and Cuarites Scuucwert, Minneapolis. Lingula riciniformis var. galenensis. The conspicuous difference between LZ. réciniformis Hall, and this variety, is that the former is constantly two thirds the size of the latter, and that the greatest width is across the center of the length of the valves, while the variety is widest in the anterior third, In the Galena horizon at Oshkosh, Wis., this variety is not rare, and there attains twice the size of LZ. réctuiformis Hall. Plate xxix, figs. 10, 11. Formation and locality. Galena shales, north branch of the Zambro ELVieCE, Lingula (Glossina) deflecta. Shell medium size, subtriangular; lateral margins diverging more or less rapidly from an acute apex, to the broadly rounded and deflected anterior third. Shell substance thick, and marked by strong, irregular concentric lines of growth, between which are *The designations of figures and plates refer to Vol. 1II of the Final teport on the Geology and Natural History of Minnesota. Advance prints distributed Apr. 1, 1892. New Brachiopoda.— Winchell and Schuchert. 28d numerous finer ones. Ina profile view the line of conjunction of the valves is more or less convex dorsally. Pedicle (ventral) valve flat or slightly concave along the center lengthwise, and strongly convex transversely. Brachial (dorsal) valve strongly convex, both transversely and longitudinally. In the interior of this valve the cardinal margin is broadly flattened, striated, divided centrally by a well defined narrow depression which terminates at a point one-fourth the length of the shell from the posterior edge. Near the posterior end of the depression are faint traces of the umbonal scar. The vascular trunks are discernible on each side and anterior to the rostral depression; thence having the same curve as the outer mar- gin of the valve, proceed to a point somewhat beyond the poster- ior half of the shell, where they gradually converge and meet near the anterior margin. Vascular branches originate only from the outer side of the vascular trunks. There is no other species of Lingula from the Lower Silurian, with the peculiar detlected anter- ior portion of the shell so characteristic of this species. Plate xxIx, figs, 15-18. Formation and locality. Near the base of the Galena, near Fountain, and in the Hudson River, near Spring Valley, Minn. Lingulasma galenensis. Shell large, oblong; subpentagonal. Anterior margin slightly convex, somewhat produced in the center. This species differs from L. schucherti Ulrich, in that the brachial (dorsal) valve is deeper; platfornt and median septum shorter, and the crescent smaller. In the pedicle (ventral) valve the platform is also shorter and is of an entirely different shape. The muscular scars of this species are also more distinct, while the interior pedicle area is absent. Plate xxx, figs. 1-4. Formation and locality. Near the top of the Galena limestone, Bear creek, south from Hamilton, Minn. Also in the Galena limestone at Decorah, Iowa. Strophomena septata. This species seems to be a local development of SN. frentonens/s and so far as external characters are concerned no distinguishing features can be pointed out Compared with S. rugosa we find a still closer general resemblance, both externally and internally. 2S The American Geologist. May, 182 It can, however, be separated readily from both when the interior is shown, by the strong mesial septum of the pedicle (ventral) valve. This originates between the diductor sears and continues to increase in strength to near the anterior margin where it often coalesces with one or two of the vascular ridges. In S. trenton- cnsis the thickening of the interior near the anterior margin of the pedicle valve is obsolete, or entirely undeveloped—whieh is another distinguishing feature. The cardinal processes in beth these species ure also more elevated, while the rostral thickening upon which it rests is less strongly developed than in S. rugosa. The septum of the pedicle (ventral) ‘valve in S. septate, will also distinguish it from S. ¢neurvata, in addition to its smaller size, and comparatively greater width than length. Plate xxx1, figs. 1-3. Formation and locality. Common in the upper third of the Trenton shales at St. Paul and Minneapolis, and at Pleasant Grove, Olmsted Co., Minn. Strophomena planodorsata. Large, semi-circular or sub-quadrate in outline, comeayo-con- vex, wider than long, greatest width along the hinge-line or immediately in front of it. Surface with fine radiating strizw every other or every third one somewhat stronger than those intermedi- ate, crossed by exceedingly delicate and closely crowded concen- tric lines, and towards the anterior margin by a few larger sub- imbricating lines of growth. The size, large flattened area of the dorsal valve, and the sub- quadrate muscular area distinguish this species from all others of the S. rugosa type. Plate xxx1, figs. 8-10. Formation and locality. Hudson River group, Spring Valley; Tron tidge, Wis.: Wilmington, Il. Strophomena scofieldi. Shell small, semi-circular in outline, biconvex, with a more or less prominent fold and sinus toward the anterior margin; hinge- line a little shorter than the greatest width; area of pedicle (ven- tral) valve forming an angle of about 140° with the plane of the lateral margin, centrally occupied by a convex perforated delti- dium; that of the brachial (dorsal) valve fitting closely against the other valve. Surface marked by numerous crowded, New Brachiopoda.— Winchell and Schuchert. 287 rounded, radiating striz, increasing in number by implantation, and from 110 to 120 along the outer margin in adult shells, crossed by delicate, crowded, concentric lines and a few coarser growth marks. Brachial valve not deep, evenly convex or with a fold near the anterior margin. Cardinal area very narrow, and slightly re- flexed. Crural plates prominent, very oblique, coalescing medi- ally; upon this thickening at the base two low ridges originate which continue upward and outward into the small low cardinal processes, about one half of which is covered by the deltidium. Immediately underneath the crural plates are two pairs of small adductor muscular scars, separated by a low rounded and short septum which bifurcates anteriorly. Pedicle valve somewhat deeper than the other, evenly convex or with a broad shallow sinus near the anterior margin. Hinge teeth prominent and joining with the outer elevated margin of the short, sub-oval muscular area. This area is centrally divided by a low ridge separating the two pairs of adductor and diductor scars. This species is of the type of S. sénwata (James) Meek (Pal. Ohio, vol. 1, p. 87, pl. v, figs. 5a to 5/f), but can be distin- guished readily from that species by the smaller size and greate1 number of striaz, which is about 60, The profound fold and sinus, greater size and less numerous strive of S. su/eata de Verneuil, will distinguish it from S. scofield/. Plate xxx1, figs. 17-20. Formation and locality. Ware near the top of the Trenton shales at Minneapolis and St. Paul: common near the base of the Galena in asso- ciation with Clitambonites diversa at several localities to the south of Cannon Falls. Strophomena emaciata. Shell small, depressed, biconvex, semi-circular in outline; hinge-line somewhat less than the greatest width of the valve. Surface marked by numerous angulated radiating striz, increas- ing in number by interpolation, from 65 to 75 of the large and small ones along the anterior margin. Pedicle valve depressed convex, sub-angulated medially, great- est point of elevation about mid-length. Cardinal area narrow, less than 1 mm. in width, strongly elevated with a very convex, 288 The American Geologist. May, 1892 apically perforated deltidium, which is somewhat wider than long, and excavated posteriorly for the reception of that of the other valve. Brachial (dorsal) valve nearly flat or slightly convex, with a shallow mesial sinus, having its origin near the beak and rapidly widening to the anterior margin, which is more or less sinuous according to the depth of the medial depression. Cardinal area linear with a short, broad deltidium partially covering the cardinal process. This little species of Strophomena is separated readily from all other biconvex forms of this genus, in having a rapidly widening mesial sinus in the brachial (dorsal) valve, and the pedicle valve sub-angular along the median line, while in all other related spe- cies these characters are the reverse. Plate xxx1, figs. 21-24. Formation and locality. Near the base of the Galena, associated. with Clitambonites diversa, south of Cannon Falls. Leptzna charlotte. Shell small, transversely semi-oval, plano-convex, geniculate, with the sides slightly convex, and converging to the broadly rounded front, or drawn out tongue-shaped; hinge-line as long or somewhat shorter than the greatest width of the shell. Sur- face marked by tine, closely crowded, alternating strive as in Rafinesquing alternata, crossed by exceedingly delicate concentric lines, and over the visceral disc of each valve by more or less continuous zigzag undulations or wrinkles, L. charlotte ditters from any other American species of Lep- fend in its zigzag concentric surface corrugations, and other minor features which can be seen more readily in the illustrations than by any written comparison, Plate xxxu1, figs. 1-5. Plate xxx11, figs. 1-5. Formation and locality. Upper portion of the Trenton limestone and base of the Trenton shales in the Bryozoa layers at Minneapolis and St. Paul. Plectambonites gibbosa. Shell small, semi-circular in outline, strongly concayvo-conyex, wider than long, greatest width along the hinge-line. Surface very finely striate, with six or seven stronger striations on each valve, muchas in 2. transversalis. Pedicle (ventral valve) very gibbous and sub-carinate medially ; New Brachiopoda.— Winchell and Sehuehert. 289 lateral slopes rapid and slightly concave; greatest elevation about mid-length. Cardinal area strongly elevated, slightly concave, somewhat wider than that of the other valve; delthyrium about as wide as long, with a small deltidium in the posterior portion, and more or less occupied by the cardinal process and deltidium of the other valve. Teeth small, supported by strong dental lamellee. Diductor muscle pits deep, short, strongly diverging and separated posteriorly by a small septum. Brachial (dorsal) valve concave and closely following the curva- ture of the other valve. Cardinal area wide, flat, retrorse; del- thyrium with a large, simple cardinal process more or less covered by a deltidium which is usually imperfect medially. Crural processes short and widely divergent. Adductor muscle sears broadly triangular in outline, lobate, with the outer margin strongly elevated. The convexity of its valves, and the interior characters of the brachial valve will distinguish at once this species from P. sericea Sowerby and P, decipiens Billings. Plate xxxut, figs. 13-17, Plate xxx1, figs. 15-17. Formation und locality. Galena limestone four miles south of Cannon Falls, and at Mantorville, Minnesota. Orthis meedsi. Shell of medium size, suborbicular, in outline; biconvex; an- terior margin broadly deflected dorsally; hinge-line about one- fourth shorter than the greatest width; surface marked by strongly elevated, sharply rounded strizw, from forty-five to seventy on each valve along the anterior margin, crossed by numerous thread- like lines of growth; striz arranged in bundles of two or three, those of the pedicle valve bifureating, while on the brachial valve an increase takes place by interpolation. |Kxfoliated specimens show two or three rows of small black spots terminating on the striew, which may represent perforations in the shell substance. Pedicle (ventral) valve slightly convex, with a broad shallow inus; cardinal area of moderate width; slightly concave, elevated beyond, or depressed below that of the brachial valve; delthyrium small, triangular; beak slightly incurved. Interior characters of the valve are like O. pectine//a but less sharply defined. Brachial valve strongly convex centrally, with the lateral post- erior areas somewhat concave; cardinal area very narrow, slightly 290 The American Geologist. May, 1892 concave, with a broad delthyrium, which is occupied in part by a striated cardinal process. Plate xxxu, figs. 39-42. Formation and locality. Top of the Trenton shales at St. Paul, in association with 0. pectinella and variety sweeneyi. Cannon Falls, Ken- yon, Fountain, and elsewhere in Minnesota; Neenah and Oshkosh, Wis.; McGregor, Iowa. Orthis meedsi var. germana. This variety is ditferentiated from the above species by the fol- lowing characters: Smaller in size and squarer in outline; valves more strongly and evenly convex: hinge-areas nearly equally wide but narrower, with the beak of the pedicle valve slightly elevated beyond that of the brachial; pedicle valve with a slight, some- what angulated fold, while the brachial; has a shallow but dis- tinct sinus which originates immediately below the apex of the valve. These produce a slight sinuosity in the anterior margin, the direction of which is the reverse of that in O. meedsz. Plate xxxui, figs. 48-45. Formation and locality. Not rare in the Galena formation at a horizon which is about 30 feet above strata holding Clitambonites diversa at several localities south of Cannon Falls, near Kenyon and Fountain. Orthis proavita. Shell of medium size; subquadrate; hinge line equal to, or a little less than the greatest width of the shell; cardinal angles rounded or rectangular; sides gently convex and converging to a more or less flattened or slightly concave anterior margin. Sur- face marked by simple, sub-angular strie having their origin at the apex of the valves or immediately below it, addition taking place by interpolation on the brachial and bifurcation on the ped- ? icle valve; one to three striz terminating on the cardinal margin on each side of the umbo; 36 to 42 in number on mature exam- ples, crossed by a variable number of imbricating growth lines near the anterior margin. In some of the specimens the anterior margin is sharply reflexed as by old age. Pedicle valve has an insignificant mesial elevation. Area com- paratively narrow; delthyrium broad, triangular, two-thirds oc- cupied by the cardinal process of the other valve; beak somewhat incurved. Interior characters as in O, subquadrata. Brachial valve more or less strongly convex, greatest elevation A New Brach copoda.— Winchell and Schuchert. 291 about mid-length. A shallow, or sometimes well pronounced broad sinus is present, having its origin in the upper third of the valve. Area narrow, perpendicular or slightly inclined forward. Differs from O. iphigenia Billings, in having the fold and sinus reversed, and less number of strive. Plate xxxul, figs. 51-58. Formation and locality. Not rare in the upper portion of the Hudson River group at Spring Valley. Zygospira uphami. This species occurs in the Galena limestone about 50 feet above the layers holding Z. recurrirostris in abundance. Its general expression shows it to be a descendant from Z. recurvirostr’s but differing from it in its much larger size, stronger convexity of _the valves and somewhat finer striz. The last feature is more apparent than real, due to the greater size of Z. uwphami. Some specimens from which the shell has partially been exfoliated, show the interior of the pedicle (ventral) valve to have a_ strong muscular cavity extending from the beak to about one third of the length of the shell. From the antero-lateral margins of the area originate two prominent, diverging ridges, probably the markings of the main trunks of the vascular system, which become obsolete near the front margin. The crural plates of the brachial valve are very strong, and at their bases coalesce with a stout but rather short median septum, upon each side of which posteriorly are situated two depressions of the adductor scars; the second pair undefined. Z. uphami is the linking species between Z. recurvirostris and Z. erratica Hall, and Z. headi Billings. Its nearest relations are with Z. erratica. Plate xxx1V, figs. 45-48. Formation and locality. Middle of the Galena horizon at Weisbach’s dam, near Spring Valley, and near Wykoff and Fountain. Hallina, n. gen. Shells small, articulate, rostrate, biconvex, semi-plicate. Ped- icle opening bounded laterally by incomplete deltidial plates. Calcified brachial supports comparatively long, somewhat longer than one-half the length of the brachial valve, and in form much as in Waldheimia. The detailed structure of the articulating and 292 The American Geologist. May, 1892 cardinal processes is unknown. In thin sections it is shown that the crural plates of the brachial valve do not converge medially and join with the posterior end of the median septum as in Wald- heimia, but that they probably coalesce with each other; a med- ian septum is not present. Muscular scars undetermined, Shell structure impunctate, distinctly fibrous, Type. Hallina saffordi, n. sp. Named in honor of the veteran palivontologist, of Albany, N. Y. Halling saffordi and H. nicolleti do not show a punctate shell structure, either in thin section or on the exterior surface of the shell. The rudimentary deltidial plates, absence of a median septum in the brachial (dorsal) valve, and the impunctate shell structure will distinguish //a//ina from Waldhermia and related genera, This is the earliest known terebratuloid genus, and it is repre- sented by two abundant and widely distributed species Hallina saffordi. Shell very small, rostrate, regularly elongate, oval, striate and evenly bi-convex. — Pedicle (ventral) valve somewhat more conyex than the other; point of greatest elevation about mid-length, slightly carinated, but otherwise evenly convex in all directions. Beak strongly incurved, but not in contact with the umbo of the brachial valve, with a small pedicle opening which is partially surrounded anteriorly by incomplete deltidial plates. Teeth well developed and supported by delicate, strongly oblique dental plates; other interior characters undefined, Brachial valve evenly convex with a very shallow sinus in the anterior half. Brachial supports straight from the crural plates for a short distance forward, then bending backwards and later- ally, turn and proceed forwards a short distance beyond mid- length, and nearly parallel to each other, where they bend rather abruptly upwards, and medially join ata point which isat about one-half the length of the calcified brachia. Thin sections do not show strongly thickened crural plates, nor a median septum amalgamated with the former atthe posterior end. There is prob- ably a small cardinal process present. Surface marked with from 15 to 20 subangular strie, which terminate on the posterior third of the valve; no concentric lines New Brachiopoda.— Winchell and Schuchert. 293 of growth observable. Shell structure fibrous and apparently im- punctate. Plate xxxIv, figs. 55-58. Formation and loculity. Common in the “Glade” limestone at Lebanon, Tenn.; also near the top of the Birdseye limestone at High Bridge, Ky. Hallina nicolleti. Shell small, rostrate, biconvex, oval or sub-cireular in outline. Pedicle (ventral) valve convex; point of greatest elevation about mid-length, with a shallow, very narrow sulcus down the centre, bordered on each side with a low rounded ridge, which towards the anterior margin becomes more prominent. ©The antero-lateral limits of the shell may be smooth, or with as many as five low rounded plications or marginal undulations. Beak strongly in- curved, and with a small, oval pedicle opening, bordered by rudi- mentary deltidial plates on each side. Brachial (dorsal) valve evenly conyex, and trilobed toward the anterior Margin; in some specimens the lateral lobes may have as Many as six low rounded plications along the front margin. Calcified brachial supports much as in LHallina saffordi, except that the outer bands are curved laterally, while the anterior, recurved portion is shorter. Articulating processes and muscular sears unknown. Halling nicolleti is an easily recognized species, in its small size and camarelloid exterior. It differs from /allinu saffordi in the fold and sinus, and the usually obsolete marginal plica- tions. Its associated species are the same. Plate xxx1v, figs. 59-62. Formation and locality. Abundant in the upper third of the Trenton limestone at Minneapolis, Mantorville, St. Charles, Rochester and Foun- tain. Also at Decorah, in Towa, and Beloit, Wis. Rhynchotrema inequivalvis var. laticostata. In the shales of the lower portion of the Galena south of Can- non Falls R. tnaquivaleis (= R. inerebescens) often attains a far greater width than is usual for the species. The four plications of the fold are closely arranged, while the five or six on each side of it are spread out, and are therefore larger than in that species. The junction of the two valves along the anterior margin is also more largely flattened. These specimens if found alone would be 294 The American Geologist. May, 1892” regarded at once as a distinct species. Their development begins in the upper portion of the Trenton shales, where specimens are occasionally picked up at St. Paul. It is, however, not until this: species is found in association with Clitambonites diversa Shaler, that the variety becomes common and attracts one’s attention. In the Trenton of New York and Kentucky occasional specimens: are met with approaching var. /aticostata, but none of them are: so strongly transverse as the Minnesota individuals. Plate xxxtv, figs. 26-29. THE DRIFT OF THE NORTH GERMAN LOWLAND. Rouuw D. Sarispury, Madison, Wis. Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe, of the German geological survey, has- recently issued a small volume entitled ‘‘The Causes of the Sur- face Form of the North German Lowland.’’* As the title indi- cates, the volume is primarily geographical, but it discusses the geography of the area under consideration from the geological standpoint. The book is particularly welcome to American glacialists, since for the first time it presents in compact form the general conclusions which have thus far been reached in Germany in the field of glacial geology, and affords a convenient and ade- quate basis for a comparison between the corresponding phenom- ena of Germany and the United States. Most of the publications on the glacial geology of Germany, which have heretofore ap- peared, have been special reports on circumscribed areas. These publications have not been widely distributed, and are not so well known to American geologists, as could be desired. Dr. Wahn- schatfe’s publication will therefore be of great interest and service, since it will aid in correlating the phenomena on opposite sides of the Atlantic. It is the purpose of this article to review the salient features of Dr. Wahnschatfe’s volume, and at the same time to make some suggestions concerning the correlation of German and American glacial formations. The yolume has many excellencies. The author’s sense of pro- portion is good, and special points are not magnified at the ex- pense of other equally important ones. The book does not at- tempt more than it accomplishes. In Germany, no less than in *Die Ursachen der Obertliichengestaltung des Norddeutschen Flach- landes. pp. 166, Stuttgart: Verlag von J. Engelhorn. 1891. Drift of the North German Lowland.—NSalishury. 295 America, there are many questions connected with the formations of the ice age, concerning which there is not unity of opinion, and individual opinions are held, with certainly not less tenacity in Germany than in America. It is a conspicuous merit of the volume before us, that the author has stated with much fairness and discrimination the conclusions of other geologists where they do not agree with his own. In his copious bibliographical notes, the author shows his intimate familiarity with the literature of his subject. This is true not only of German literature, but of that of other countries as well. Although we are compelled to dis- sent from some of the conclusions reached by Dr. Wahnschatfe, and although we could have wished a fuller discussion of some of the questions involved, the volume is nevertheless a very satis- factory discussion of the glacial formations of the area under con- sideration. The order of treatment is generally historical, so that the volume gives us a sort of history of the evolution of opinion concerning the glacial formations of the territory described. The questions of glacial geology have been studied for the most part independently in Germany and in the United States. It is gratifying to observe how closely the conclusions arrived at by the geologists of the one country agree with those of the other. Yet there are some points of difference. In some cases these differences are hardly more than verbal, and yet these verbal ditferences have more than once given rise to misunderstandings and to controversy. In other cases the differences are radical. The differences in the Prepleistocene geology and topography of the ice-invaded territory of Germany and America may be largely responsible for the difference in the history of opinion in the two countries. The differences in the methods of work have likewise helped to develop diverse interpretations. It is interesting to note that the differences between the present conclusions of Ger- man and American glacialists are much less considerable than those of an earlier date, Topography and Relief of North Germany due mainly to Drift. Dr. Wahnschatte devotes a chapter to the discussion of the re- lations of the Prepleistocene formations of north Germany to the present surface. His conclusion, which seems to be well founded, is that the relief and topography of north Germany are mainly due to the disposition of the drift formations. A table of deep borings extending through the drift into the Prepleistocene forma- 296 The American Geologist. May, 1802 tions below, reveals the interesting fact that in many places the upper surface of the Prepleistocene formations is below the level of the sea. Were it not for the drift, a very considerable portion of porth Germany would be covered by salt water. In several places where the depth of the drift is known, its lower surface is more than 100 meters below the level of the sea. In one place its lower surface reaches the astonishing depth of 169 meters be- low sea-level. The disturbances of the Prepleistocene formations by ice-pres- sure during the glacial period are discussed. ‘The conclusion is reached that such disturbances, resulting in the folding and dis- torting of strata, were widespread, but that they did not attain such proportions as to exert an important influence upon the geog- raphy of the region atfected. Thickness of drift. The chief interest in the book centers in the discussion of the glacial formations themselves. The thiek- ness of the drift) presents variations not less than those which characterize the corresponding formation in our own country. [In many localities the depth of the drift is more than 100 meters. The greatest depth given is 171 meters, but even at this depth the bottom of the drift had not been reached at this locality. One hundred and seventy-one meters is somewhat more than the great- est thickness of the drift known to the writer in the United States. The average depth of drift on the north German ‘‘flatland”’ is probably greater than that over most areas of equal extent in our own country. This is no doubt in part. the result of the softer character of the formations over which the ice there spread. They were more easily eroded, and to a greater depth were con- verted into drift. At the beginning of the chapter which discusses the effect of the ice upon the geography of north Germany, the author reviews the history of opinion concerning the drift of Germany. This involves a review of the history of opinion concerning the glacial hypothesis, from the time when it was shown to be impossible, to the time when, in spite of its impossibility, it was demonstrated. This is not the first time that that which was believed to be matli- ematically impossible has proved to be true, particularly in geol- ogy. Concerning the application of mathematics to geology Dr. Wahnschatfe quotes approvingly the statement of F. von Rich- thofen: ‘‘Mathematical caleulation is inclined to take too little Drift of the North German Lowland.—Salishury. 297 cognizance of the facts which are established by observation, and in their stead to start from premises which have nothing to do with the problem in hand. The result is that mathematics, by very painstaking methods, sometimes reaches results which are altogether without value for the explanation of the real relations of ‘things:” (p. 62.) Stria. One of the striking differences between the glacial phenomena of Germany and America is the paucity of striz in the former country. The ice there invaded territory whose formations belong largely to the Cretaceous, Eocene and Neocene periods. They are unindurated and therefore not adapted to the reception and retention of striz. These formations contributed generously to the drift, and were finally deeply buried by it, so that rock exposures are relatively rare. The strong contrast be- tween the two countries in the matter of strizcan hardly be more forcibly illustrated than by indicating that within the space of ten pages the striae of each known locality in Germany are not only mentioned, but discussed, as well as such other phenomena of glaciation,— planation, polishing, roches moutonnées, ete.,— as are intimately connected with striz. Since striz on bed rock, and their accompaniments were at the outset regarded as the most convincing proof of an ice sheet, and since the surface inferior to the drift in Germany is rarely exposed, and since these ex- posures are rarely of such material as to exhibit strive, planation, ete., it is not strange that the glacier hypothesis did not find so ready acceptance in Germany as in our own country. Til mainly subglacial. The till of Germany Dr. Wahnschatfe regards as almost wholly subglacial. While admitting the possi- bility of superglacial till, he does not regard it as having any considerable development in Germany. In this respect Dr. Walhn- schatfe’s opinion is sharply in contrast with that of some Ameri- ‘an geologists, who hold to the idea of very considerable thick- nesses of superglacial till overlying the subglacial, and in con- sonance with the view of other American geologists who believe that superglacial material has but relatively slight development in our country, The reasons assigned (pp. 82-3) by Dr. Wahn- schatfe for classifying essentially all the till as subglacial, would not be of force as applied to material transferred from a sub- glacial to a superglacial position, if such transference takes place, And such transference is assumed to be possible (p. 86). The 298 The American Geologist. - May, 1892 references cited in support of the position that subglacial material may become superglacial, are based on observations on existing Alpine glaciers. Here the supposed transfer of stony material from the bottom of the glacier to its upper surface is accompanied by conditions which would not exist, or which would not exist to the same extent in plane regions. I believe it is true that the transference of subglacial material to a superglacial position is facilitated by these conditions, if not entirely dependent on them. The ice-sheet which invaded Germany had descended from a mountainous region. The ice-sheet which invaded the United States, while it descended from high lands, did not start from, or pass over, a region nearly so mountainous as that of Scandinavia, from which the German ice-sheet took its source. It would be expected there- fore that Germany would be more favorable territory than the United States for the development of superglacial till, whatever the process by which it became superglacial. Under these cireum- stances it would seem that if any difference exist between the quan- tity of superglacial till in the two countries,Germany should have the more. Dr. Wahnschaffe’s opinion as to the paucity of super- glacial till in Germany is therefore significant, and is in harmony with the writer's opinion concerning the same sort of till in the United States. The Ground Moraine. Dr. Wabnschatte discusses the method of transportation and deposition of the ground moraine. The views of the various German Geologists who have expressed opin- ions upon the subject are cited and discussed. Heim is cited as holding the opinion that material can be carried forward beneath the ice only where and when it is frozen to the ice itself. Haas introduces variety, if not value, into the series of opinions con- cerning the method of deposition of the ground moraine, by sup- posing that wherever the thickness of the ice was considerable, its weight must have converted its lower portion into water, so that between the ice and the land surface beneath it there was a layer of water in which the deposition of the till took place,and that the ice really rested upon the land surface only near its margin where its thickness was not great. From this view Dr. Wahnschatfe dissents. He adyocates the view—so far as the writer is aware the only one ever held by glacialists in America—that the ground moraine was accumulated gradually beneath the ice. The lower portions of any considerable body of till in any given loéality, are therefore Salisbury. 299 Drift of the North German Lowland. older than the upper, by some short period of time, at least. In support of this position, bowlder pavements and isolated bowlders in beds of till are cited, whose upper surfaces were striated by the passage of the ice-current over them, after they had ceased to move. The only reference which Dr. Wahnschatfe makes to the amount of material which can be carried beneath the ice at any given time is the citation of Penck’s opinion that till to the thick- ness of several meters may be carried beneath the ice at one time. We should have been glad of Dr. Wahnschaffe’s opinion concern- ing the positions in which ground moraine material is deposited, with reference to the margin of the ice. But to this point we find no reference. Two Glacial Epochs. The history of opinion concerning the unity or Otherwise of the glacial period is discussed, though less fully than geologists could have wished. The meagerness of the discussion at this point is probably the result of the fact that the object of the book is primarily geographic, rather than geologic. Dr. Wahn- schaffe believes that there were two glacial epochs, and most of the German glacialists hold the same view. The evidences cited for a bi-fold division of the drift, and therefore for two glacial epochs, are mainly (1) the existence of vertebrate remains in the beds of sand and gravel which separate beds of till in the vicinity of Berlin; (2) beds containing marine shells in like stratigraphic position at various localities in the northern part of Germany ; and (3) diatomaceous earths, likewise between beds of till. Most weight is attached to the first line of evidente (p. 87). Dr. Wahn- schaffe recognizes the possibility that the diatomaceous earths might have accumulated near the edge of the ice in situations tem- porarily abandoned by it, during the retreating phase of an oscil- latory movement. Under these circumstances, the next advancing phase of the ice’s oscillatory movement might bury the diatoma- ceous earths beneath a new bed of till. In view of this possibility Dr. Wahnschatfe points out the fact that these diatomaceous earths interbedded with till do not necessarily indicate an inter- glacial epoch. Neither does our author regard the deposits of marine shells as conclusive. Many of them are not known to be in the position in which they were deposited by the sea, and the various shell beds have not been correlated with each other with any degree of certainty. They appear to belong to more than one horizon. Those marine shell beds which retain the position 300 The American Geologist. May, 1892 in which they were deposited by the sea, must mean a recession of the ice sufficient to allow the sea to occupy the area where they occur. But the question might be legitimately raised whether a re cessionof the ice no greater than these shell beds would necessitate, must necessarily be interpreted as proof of two glacial~ epochs, Such recession, particularly if of short duration, might be looked upon as no more than a great oscillation of the edge of the ice. The vertebrate remains in the sand and gravel layers between beds of till in the vicinity of Berlin, would seem to us to have thesame significance as the shell beds. So far as these fossils indicate a temperate climate, their significance as indicating a genial inter- glacial interval, is increased. Dr. Wahnschatfe does not give the species represented in these fossil beds, nor does he indicate the climatic conditions to which they testify. But if we are rightly informed, they are fossils of species which do not indicate a climate of great severity. The abundance of terrestrial mammalian re- mains in the gravel and sand separating beds of till in certain re- gions, is perhaps more significant than the abundance of marine shells in corresponding situations, since the mammalian remains accumulate more slowly. The evidences of more than one ice epoch which are most strongly relied upon by glacialists in America, are not brought out in the treatise before us. It would seem either that the evidences do not'exist inGrermany, or that they have not been made use of. The author does not indicate that there are in Germany (1) soils rest- ing upon till or any form of older drift, buried by later glacial formations. He does not indicate that there are (2) beds of drift whose surfaces are much weathered and deeply oxidized, now buried by later drift deposits, whose surfaces are much less weathered and oxidized; nor does he, in this connection, emphasize (3) the difference between the amount of sub-aerial erosion suffered by the surface overspread with the drift which is regarded as first elacial, as compared with that suffered by the surface overspread with drift which is regarded as second glacial. In another con- nection, the fact is referred to that the lakes of (rermany lie for the most part in and north of the Baltic ridge which crosses (rer- many in a course roughly concentric with the north German coast. This lake area lies wholly within the limits of the second glacia- tion, according to Dr. Wahnschatfe’s interpretation, but the abundance of lakes in the Baltic ridge and north of it, is not * Drift of the North German Lowland.—NSalishury. 301. cited as evidence of the greater youth of the surface of this re- gion. Nor does Dr. Wahnschatfe refer (4) to the more extensive disintegration of the bowlders of the drift in the southern part of Germany,as compared with that of the bowlders in the northern. Ditferences in the direction of the movement of the ice at differ- ent times, as indicated by differences in the direction of striae, and especially as indicated by the different regions from which material was successively transported to a given region, also constitute 2 valuable criterion when taken in connection with the points above stated. In his chapter on striz Dr. Wahnschatfe refers to the phenomena which indicate different directions of ice movement. But in discussing the question of two glacial epochs, these diver- gent movements are not made to support the theory of two ice epochs. The foregoing are among the criteria which are especially relied upon in America as proving a recurrence of glaciation at widely separated intervals. We believe they are much safer and more widely applicable criteria than those given in the volume before us. My own study of the drift formations of (rermany in 1887 and 1888 convinced me that the third and. fourth points stated above are as well illustrated in Germany as in America. In my judgment they are of more significance as indicating a long in- terval between the deposition of the earliest and latest glacial formations in Germany, than all the fossil remains of whatever sort, which have yet been described. EBetent of Second Glaciation. As in America, the extension of the ice in Germany, in the second epoch, according to our author, was much less than in the first. The limits of the last ice advance however are still in doubt. It extended at least so far as to cover the eastern part of Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklen- burg, a large part of Brandenburg, Pommern and Kast and West Preussen. While some of the German geologists would limit the second ice invasion in the western part of Germany to the lower course of the Elbe, Dr. Wahnschatfe believes that there is sufli- cient evidence that it extended further south. Tle finds traces of the work of the ice sheet of the second epoch in the vicinity of Magdeburg. He also believes that the bowlder-bearing sand which covers the ‘“Luneburger Heide” southwest of the Elbe, is last glacial. The basis for this conclusion concerning the sand of the “Luneburger Heide” is not fully given. A single crossing of the 302 The American Geologist. May, 1892 Heide in 1887 led me to the belief that the surface formation was not last glacial. But Dr. Wahnschaffe’s conclusion doubtless rests on much fuller data than my own. Nomenclature. The classification and nomenclature employed in mapping the drift of north Germany is so different from that to which the American geologists are accustomed, that both the maps and the accompanying descriptions are liable to misinterpre- tation unless one is familiar, in advance, with the exact meaning which is attached to each particular term. Many of the terms in use are the same as those employed in America, but the signifi- cance attached to some of them is altogether different. | In Amer- a most unfortunate name ica, for example, the term upper till —is generally understood to mean englacial or superglacial till. In Germany, the same term (oberer Geschiebemergel) has a very different signification, and to one not posted concerning the tech- nical meaning of the term, a most deceptive one. The term itself might suggest the till of the last glacial epoch as distinet from the till of greater age, but this is not its meaning, though no till is “upper” till (oberer Geschichbemergel) which is not of last glacial age. But not all of the till of the second glacial epoch is classed as “upper” till, A mantle of bowlder-bearing sand frequently covers the till of the last glacial epoch. The same sand sometimes rests upon the older drift. Whether this super-till mantle covers second glacial till, or whether it rests upon the earlier drift where the later failed to be deposited or preserved, it is known as ‘‘upper bowlder-bear- ing sand” (oberer Geschichbesand), or, briefly, as ‘‘upper sand” (oberer Sand). If IT understand correctly the meaning of the terms, the bed of till immediately beneath the ‘‘upper sand” is classed as ‘‘upper till” (oberer Geschiebemergel), if it be, or if it be believed to be, last glacial. The same bed or till, if not coy- ered by the mantle of ‘‘upper sand,” is likewise ‘‘upper till.” The ‘‘upper till” of any given locality is therefore the uppermost layer of second glacial till, which there exists. If there be sey- eral layers of second glacial till separated by beds of sand or gravel, as is often the case, only the uppermost. of these several beds is “upper till,” while all the other layers of second glacial till are grouped with all the layers there may be of first glacial till, as ‘‘lower till” (anterer Geschicbemergel. ) Just as the uppermost layer of second glacial till in any place Drift of the North German Lowland.—Salishury. 303 constitutes ‘upper till’ (oberer Geschiebemergel), so the wpper- most layer of sand, if it overlie the uppermost layer of second glacial till, or if it be the stratigraphic equivalent of that which overlies the uppermost layer of second glacial till, is ‘‘upper sand” (oberer Sand), All second glacial sands which lie between beds of second glacial till,or below the lowest of them,are classed with first glacial and inter-glacial sand, as ‘‘lower sand” (witerer Sand). The infelicity of this classification and nomenclature is alluded to by Dr. Wahnschaffe, although it has been found to be a classification which is serviceable in mapping. Interpretations have changed since the existing nomenclature was adopted, but the nomenclature has not changed to correspond with the newer interpretations. The ‘‘upper bowlder-bearing sand” often immediately overlies a layer of bowlderless, stratified sand, whose proper stratigraphic position is said to be beneath the «‘upper till.”” This stratified sand is not understood to be ‘‘upper sand.” Because of this strati- graphic relationship, the bowlder-bearing sand at the surface is looked upon as the remnant of a layer of ‘‘upper till” which has escaped removal at the hands of glacio-natant and post-glacial waters, while the finer clayey parts of the till were carried away. In this case therefore the ‘‘upper sand” is a remnant of the ‘upper till” and is really its equivalent. We do not understand that the uppermost bed of till, lying below ‘:upper sand,” but separated from it by a bed of stratified sand, whose stratigraphi- cal position is below the ‘‘upper till,” would be classed as ‘‘upper till,” even though it be the uppermost existing bed of second glacial till. The idea that the ‘‘upper sand’’-is aresidue of ‘‘up- per till,’ formed as indicated, seems to be a prevalent one. — It is in this category that Dr. Wahnschaffe places the bowlder-bearing sand which covers the ‘‘Luneburger Heide.” As already indicated the reasons given for such reference (p. 96) do not appear to me to be conclusive. Indeed none of the reasons assigned for be- lieving that the ice, in its second invasion, crossed the Elbe in western Germany, seem to me to carry conviction. Dr. Wahnschaffe, as well as other German glacialists, recog- nizes the fact that within the formations of second glacial age there may be, and in many cases are, several beds of till separated from each other by layers of sand and gravel. While American glacialists are fully agreed with Dr. Wahnschatfe that several 304 The American Geologist. May, 1892 beds of till separated by layers of sand may arise within the period of one glaciation, we shall be likely to dissent from his implied (though not explicitly stated) conclusion, that every bed of sand interstratified with till, records a retreat of the ice, bar- ing the surface on which the sand accumulated, and that each bed of till overlying such bed of sand, records a re-advance of the ice. IT am not authorized to speak for American glacialists in general, but IT hold it altogether possible that the deposition of till may be succeeded by the deposition of stratified sand, and this again by till, beneath the marginal portion of the ice, inde- pendent of any change in the position of the ice’sedge. If each of the several layers of till which may locally alternate with sand were continuous over wide areas, and if the intervening layers of sand were also continuous over wide areas, oscillations of the ice margin would seem to best explain the phenomena. Dr. Wahn- schaffe does not indicate whether or not this is the condition of things in Germany. It would be a condition of things most diffi- cult of demonstration if true. From my acquaintance with the German drift, | do not think it generally true, and I see no reason for assuming an oscillation of the ice’s edge for each change from ice to water deposition, within the body of the last glacial drift. It is not to be understood that the writer is arguing against osceil- lations of the ice’s edge. Such oscillations, both seasonal and periodic, are believed to have occurred, and these oscillations may have given rise to many alternations of till and sand. But it is not deemed necessary to assume oscillations of the ice’s edge to explain all alternations of fill and sand. Topography of the ground moraine. Two distinct types of topography are represented by the ground moraine, according to the volume before us. In the one case the surface is plain or but shghtly undulatory, and more or less dissected by valleys, some of which are dry. Within those areas of ground moraine where the topography is of the plainer type, there are occasional sharp sinks of limited size, sometimes occuring singly, and some- times in series. Many of these depressions have become the seat of ponds or bogs. Their existence is attributed to the action of water plunging down through crevasses from the surface of the ice, and wearing hollows in the land surface below. The second type of topography which characterizes the ground moraine, as classified by the German geologists, is designated Drift of the North German Lowland. —Salishury. 305 “oround moraine landscape’ (Grundmordnenlandschaft), the most characteristic feature of which is its ‘‘rapid changes of level’ within short distances. This topography is further described as follows: ‘‘Between the numberless ridge- and mound-like eleva- tions, which are altogether without order in their arrangement, _e@ an equal number of depressions, giving to the surface a broken aspect. The elevations enclose countless roundish ponds and marshes, largely filled with peat and swamp deposits, as well as larger and more or less irregular swamps and i This abun- = so great that upon the maps the till surfaces between them appear almost dance of lakes,and marshes is sometimes sieve-like.” (p. 96.) The region where the typical ‘‘ground moraine landscape” is best exhibited is stated to be along the Baltic ridge (p. 96), with which this type of topography appears in general to be intimately connected. It would appear from Dr. Wahnschaffe’s description (pp. 97-8) that the constitution of the drift where this type of topography is developed is more sandy than is common to the ground moraine in other regions. The elevations within this Bal- tic ridge are said to be composed largely of sand and gravel over which there is frequently a layer of till. In discussing the origin of the depressions which mark the ‘‘oround moraine landscape’ Dr. Wahnschatfe follows his usual plan of giving the opinions of other geologists as well as his own. K. Geinitz would attribute them chiefly to the eddying action of waters during the time of the melting of the ice. Against this view Dr. Wahnschaffe argues that the depressions were already in existence at the time of the deposition of the uppermost layer of till, since this lines them and mantles the adjacent elevations. He maintains that their origin is therefore earlier in time than the melting of the last ice sheet. Upon the topography of the ‘‘oround moraine landscape” of the Uckermark, Dr. Wahnschaffe insists that the waters arising from the melting of the last ice- sheet had no considerable influence. In this view he is supported by Drs. Keilhack and Schroeder, and their position seems to be irrefragable. The origin of the topography which has been designated ‘‘oround moraine landscape” (Grundmorduenlandschaft) has been much discussed by those who have had to deal with it. Various views concerning its production prevail. Among the factors 306 The American Geologist. May, 1882 commonly believed to have contributed to its development, most of the German geologists appear to give a prominent place to ice- pressure, which is conceived to have bulged up drift material at the edge of the ice, producing hummocks and short, discontinuous folds. Dr. Keilhack places the development of the ‘ground moraine landscape’ topography under consideration, beneath the oscillating margin of the ice, at the time when this margin stood along the line of the Baltic ridge, during the last glaciation. He ascribes it to the unequal accumulations of drift beneath the mar- gin of the ice, and to the irregular bulging of the drift, effected by the pressure of the ice. Similar topography north of the Bal- tic ridge, is believed to have been produced in the same manner, at a later time, when the edge of the ice had receded to the posi- tion where such topography occurs. Schroeder is quoted as ad- vocating the view that the peculiar topography here described was developed beneath the ice during the time of its slow retreat (p. 98) ; but whether beneath the margin of the ice, or remote from it, or whether the peculiar topography is the result of unequal accumu- lation or of ice-pressure, is not indicated. Dr. Wahnschaffe believes that the ‘‘ground moraine landscape’ was developed beneath the ice during its advance in the later ice epoch, and that the topography thus developed was not materially altered during the final retreat of the ice over the same region (p. 100), although the ice edge remained stationary on the ridge for some considerable period during its retreat. It is to be borne in mind that the topography here described is best developed along the ‘Baltic ridge,” which is in a general way concentric with the shore of the Baltic. | Dr. Wahnschaffe sees much sig- nificance in this position. He points out the fact that this sort of topography stands in a similar relation to great basins in vari- ous other parts of the world. In northern Italy, ridge-like belts of drift with a similar topography, border the Italian lakes on the south. In the Bavarian Alps similar ridges of drift rise higher than the basins enclosed within them. More conspicuous exam- ples of the same relationship in America are referred to, where thickened belts of drift (our terminal moraines) exist, in a general way concentric with the Great Lakes of the interior. Dr. Wahnschaffe’s conception of the relation of the Baltic ridge to the Baltic sea, is something as follows: The ice starting from the Scandinavian mountains descended into the Baltic basin Salisbury. 307 Drift of the North German Lowland. and filled it. As it advanced to the southward, it rose from the basin of the Baltic onto the higher land to the south, carrying with it much material which it had scooped out of the basin, and especially, much that it gathered from the southern slope of the same, during its ascent to the land beyond. As the ice pushed out upon the land with its great load of debris thus acquired, its velocity was diminished. Where the greatest retardation took place, there would be the most extensive accumulation of glacial debris (p. 102). The site of this retardation and consequent ex- tensive accumulation is marked, according to Dr. Wahnschatfe, by the Baltic ridge, which indeed owes its existence largely to the accumulation of drift brought about in this way. The ‘ground moraine landscape” is associated with the ridge, and is, according to Dr. Wahnschaffe, the result of this peculiar method of drift accumulation, for where the drift accumulation was greatest, there would it be piled up in rough topographic forms. The author sees no insuperable difficulty in believing that this sort of topography-, developed beneath the advancing ice sheet, could be subsequently overridden by the further advance of the ice, without being de- stroyed. From: Dr. Wahnschatfe’s view concerning the origin of the ‘knob and basin” topography of the Baltic ridge, we are com- pelled to dissent. According to his view the last ice sheet ad- vanced far beyond the Baltic ridge, at least as far as Magdeburg. If this opinion be correct, the Baltic ridge must have been buried under a very great depth of ice. The Baltic ridge is a very con- spicuous ridge. In many places its topography is very rough—of the pronounced knob and basin type. To suppose that glacier ice buried and overrode such a ridge with such a topography to such a depth as must have been if the ice advanced so far south as Magdeburg, is to attribute to the ice a degree of plasticity which we are not prepared to admit. It seems to the writer that Dr. Wahnschatfe’s position practically denies to glacier ice much power of erosion, even when overriding to great depth the rough surface of a conspicuous ridge, composed of loose sand, gravel, and till, while it attributes to the same ice extraordinary power of erosion in passing through the Baltic basin, a little further north. The depth of the ice in the basin was of course greater than that of the ice which passed over the ridge, and in its erosive action in the basin it possessed whatever advantage comes from increased, 308 The American Geologist. May, 1892 thickness. We are prepared to admit that the same thickness of glacierice may effect very different amounts of erosion in different regions; but we are not prepared to admit that a rough ridge of loose materials, standing squarely athwart the direction of ice movement, would constitute a belt where the erosion would be slight, if the ice passed over it in any considerable thickness. Dr. Wahnschatfe does not deny eroding power to the ice. Against such a view the great body of drift which covers north Germany stands as an unimpeachable witness. But his conclusion con cerning the origin of the topography of the Baltic ridge seems to us to necessarily imply that the ice sheet which buried the ridge, and advanced many miles beyond it, was here essentially impo- tent, so far as erosion is concerned. From what has preceded it will. be seen that the ‘‘ground mo- raine landscape,” arranged as it is in a great belt stretching across (yermany, corresponds with the terminal moraines of North Amer- ica. The constitution of the drift where this topography prevails, confirms this correlation. This relationship Dr. Wahnschatfe recognizes (p. 101), but it is to be distinctly borne in mind that the Baltic ridge, characterized by the topography which marks the terminal moraines of the United States, is not regarded asa terminal moraine by Dr. Wahnschatfe, or by most of the other north German geologists. The view of professor Penck that the ‘‘moraine landscape” is the result of the intimate association of multiple terminal moraines (Hudmordéne), is more nearly in accord with the American view. But the formation to which the Ger- mans have commonly applied the name of terminal moraine (Ludmordne),is regarded by most of them as something very dis- tinct from the Baltic ridge. If the topography and the constitution of the Baltic ridge were not altogether conclusive in demonstrating its terminal morainic character, according to American classification, additional evi- dence might be found in the fact that it is bordered on the south by extensive plains of gravel and sand, corresponding to our over- wash plains (p. 107). The constitution of these plains corresponds exactly with that of plains in similar positions in our own country, heing coarsest near the moraine and becoming finer and finer with increasing distance from it. The intimate relationship between the ‘‘ ground moraine land- scape (equal the terminal moraine of the United States) and great Drift of the North German Lowland.—NSalishury. 309 ‘basins is, so far as the United States is concerned, much less gen- ‘eral than Dr. Wahnschaffe seems to imply. While it is true that our terminal moraines surround lakes Erie, Michigan and Superior, it is also true that similar moraines frequently stand in no definite relation to well defined basins. The moraine loop which runs down into central Iowa, is not associated with any well-defined basin. ‘The moraine crossing New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania is al- together independent of any basin, and if such drift ridges are sometimes developed independently of basins, they cannot be said to be dependent upon them. The depressions were of course in- fluential in determining the course of ice movement, and so in de- termining the position and form of the ice’s edge, and it is the accumulation of drift made beneath the ice’s edge while it was ‘stationary or oscillating, which constitutes, according to American usage, the main part of the terminal moraine. The conception of American geologists concerning the origin of the terminal moraines (‘‘ ground moraine landscape” ), is not very different from the view of Dr. Keilhack concerning the origin of the Baltic ridge. It is believed that beneath various parts of the ice’s edge, varying amounts of glacial debris accumulated dur- ing any given period of time. ‘This in itself, would give rise to a ssubmarginal ridge of unequal hight and width, wherever the edge of the ice remained constant in position for any considerable period. Every minor retreat of the ice may have been accompanied by changes in the details of the form of its edge, and as the mar- gin of the ice changed both in position and in form, new accumu- lations of drift would be made beneath it, comparable to the first. When the ice re-advanced, never so little, its form might be again changed, and the submarginal accumulations would be made in a new position and in a new form. Thus it is conceived that by re- peated retreats and advances within narrow limits,and by repeated alterations in the form of the ice-margin with or without general oscillations, the terminal moraine material was accumulated. The first condition for the development of a terminal moraine there- fore, is a stationary ice margin, or a margin which oscillates backward and forward within narrow limits, while the details of its form are continually changing. The extent of these oscillations will be one of the considerations determining the width of the mo- rainic belt. The waters issuing from the edge of the ice, which was always melting, often worked considerable changes upon the ma- 310 The American Geologist. May, 1892: terial deposited by the ice directly, changing both its topography and its constitution. Our terminal moraines are therefore looked upon as accumulations of drift, made beneath the oscillating but nearly constant edge of an ice sheet, more or less modified by glacio- natant waters. The irregularities of topography are regarded as- largely the result of unequal accumulation. Horizontal and ver- tical ice-pressure, as well the vigorous action of ice-water, con- tributed to the development of the rough terminal morainic topography. This seems to be similar to the view of Dr. Keilhack, except that he would assign to ice pressure, a more important role. Endmoriine. The formation which has received the name of terminal moraine (Hndmordne) in Germany, is a narrow, wall- like ridge, or a series of steep mounds arranged in linear order. Its width for one region is stated to range from 100 to: 400 meters. Tor the same region its average hight is said to be from five to ten meters, though it is occasionally considerably more. The slopes of the ridge, or of the more or less separated hills, have an angle of 30° to 40°. In some regions there are two: of these terminal moraines, the one lying several miles within the other. These narrow ridges or series of mounds are made up largely of bowlders. Their constitution and form haye giver them the name of ‘‘bowlder walls” (Geschiebewdlle). In some cases, the finer material, sand, till, etc.,seems to hardly more than occupy the interstices between the bowlders. In other places, sand and till are more important constituents. They sometimes: occur within the body of the moraine (Hidmordne), interbedded with those portions which consist essentially of bowlders. In some cases, till mantles the ‘‘bowlder wall.’’ In other places the terminal moraine (Hidimordine) is composed essentially of strati- fied sand and gravel (p. 113), upon the surface of which only are abundant large bowlders. The course of this ‘‘bowlder wall” is somewhat irregular. (Generally speaking, it is made up of a series of curves concave toward the direction from which the ice came. Locally, the sharp ridge may grade into a bowlder belt by widening, though it is expressly stated that not all the bowlder belts of north Germany are to be regarded as the equivalents of this terminal moraine. In many regionsthis terminal moraine, or ‘‘bowlder wall,” has not so great altitude as the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” with which it is closely associated. It courses over the surface of the greater Baltic ridge without much regard to the Drift of the North German Lowland.— Salisbury. 311 topography of the latter, and while it is locally a very conspicu- ous feature because of its sharp definition and wall-like character, it is quantitatively rather insignificant compared with the great ridge characterized by the ‘‘ground moraine landscape.” The ‘‘oround moraine landscape” topography is generally best de- veloped immediately within this terminal moraine (Hudmordne). Outside the same, there are extensive areas of sand and gravel (overwash plains), whose surfaces show little relief. This diminutive ridge, to which, and to which only, the name terminal moraine is applied by the north German geologists, has no exact counterpart, so far as I know, in the United States. It is explained by supposing that the ice, in its retreat northward remained stationary for a somewhat protracted period in the posi- tion which the little ridge now occupies. It is believed to have been constructed out of ground moraine material, from which the finer parts were removed by the waters arising from the melting of the ice. The interlardings of till and stratified sand are ex- plained by supposing oscillations of the ice margin. When the ice overrode the incipient ridge. it is supposed to have left a record of its transgression in a bed of till. When the ice re- treated, discovering the growing bowlder wall, this retreat is sup- posed to be recorded in the beds of stratified sand and gravel which sometimes occur between the coarser materials of the moraine. ‘This terminal moraine (Ludmordne) has not been traced throughout its whole extent. It has been traced for considerable distances in the region north of Berlin, and is known at various points east and west of that region. By Dr. Wahnschatfe it is not regardedas marking the limit of ice advance in the last glacial epoch. So far as I am aware, it is not known except in connec- tion with the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” topography, though the universality of this relationship is not indicated by our author. Bowlder Belts. The bowlder belts into which the German term- inal moraine sometimes passes are identical in character with the bowlder belts of the United States. The American bowlder belts are believed to be accumulations of bowlders which were carried forward within the body of the ice (considerably above its base), and to have arrived at the surface of the ice before they reached its terminus, because of surface ablation. ‘Transferred thus from an englacial to a superglacial position, they were carried forward upon the surface of the ice to its edge, andthere ‘‘dumped” upon 312 The American Geologist. May, 1892: the surface of the land.* Had the edge of the ice been constant in position for a long period of time, it is believed that these bowlders would have accumulated in the form of a ridge, or ‘‘bowlder wall.” That they are so spread out as to constitute a bowlder belt, instead of a ‘‘bowlder wall,” is thought to be evi- dence that the margin of the ice was not constant in position. I was fortunate enough to visit the terminal moraine of the Germans, in the localities which are described as typical, with Drs. Behrendt and Wahnschaffe in the summer of 1888. From the disposition and the form of the ridge under consideration, L was led to believe, that, like our own bowlder belts, it was largely composed of materials which had become superglacial before reaching the margin of the ice, and that the bowlder wall consti- tutes a good example of a “dump” moraine, Dr. Wahnschatte urges that the ice sheet could have nu superglacial material (p. 107). But it is believed to be possible that material might have been received far up into the body of the ice in the course of its. passage over the mountainous lands to the north, and that by surface ablation this englacial material arrived at the upper sur- face of the ice sometime before it reached the limit of its south- ward journey. Under these circumstances, such superglacial ma- terial might possess many of the characteristics of the ground moraine material. It would have been subjected to much more wear than would the material carried from the outset upon the surface of the ice. : My conception of the correlation of the German terminal mo- raine (Hudimordue), and the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” (Grund- nordnentaudschast), with the drift formations of the United States. is this: The Baltic ridge, characterized by the :‘ground moraine landscape” or’ +-knob and basin” topography, constitutes a belt or “tangle” of terminal moraines, accumulated beneath the oscillat- ing margin of the ice, when and where it was for a long time nearly stationary. This variety of terminal moraine has been designated ‘‘submarginal.”” The German terminal moraine (Endimordne). vesting upon this great submarginal terminal mo- raine, is a -‘dump” moraine. accumulated during some minor in- terval of the time occupied in the accumulation of the greater moraine, when the ice edge was more constant than at other times. “Chamberlin, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. 1, p. 28, 1890. Drift of the North German Lowland.—NSalishury. 313 dumping its surface material along a tolerably definite line. Where the line of dump was inconstant, the line widened to a belt, and here the -‘dump” moraine became a bowlder belt, which is but.a variety of a ‘‘dump” moraine. That this -‘duinp” moraine is to be distinguished from the greater belt with which it is asso- ciated is evident. The Germans have chosen to apply the name terminal moraine to this wall-like ridge alone. | What corresponds to our main terminal (submarginal) moraine, they have designated ground moraine (Grundimordnentandschaft), because it was accuin- ulated beneath the ice. We have chosen to designate both the @ to their ‘‘ground moraine landscape,” and the bowlder belts associated, terminal moraines, because they formation correspondin were accumulated at the terminus of the ice. We have separated the two types, as distinct varieties of the general species, terminal moraine. So far as I am able to ascertain from Dr. Wahnschatte’s volume, he regards the German terminal moraine as accumulated beneath the ice and composed of ground moraine material. It is therefore not easy to see why the term Ladimordine is more applicable to it. than to the Baltic ridge, if this latter were fashioned as Dr, Keil- hack believes, beneath the margin of the ice. According to Dr. Wahnschatfe’s view of its development, the designation terminal moraine would be inappropriate. since he does not believe it to have been made beneath the margin of the ice. Neither the Bal- tic ridge nor the Ladmordne mark the limit of ice advance in Germany in the second Glacial epoch, according to our author. In this respect the phenomena of Germany correspond with those of our own country, where the larger terminal moraines do not gen- erally mark the limit of ice advance, subsequent to the first glacial epoch. My own conclusion concerning the relation between the limit of the later advance of the ice, and the main terminal moraine, was the same as that of Dr. Wahnschatte. * Kumes(’?) Associated with the terminal moraine, there are. in various places, hills and sharp ridges of stratified sand and gravel (Durchragungsziige), partially, or sometimes wholly covered with upper till. These elevations are sometimes arranged in linear order, but they do not always sustain this relationship to each other, They may be more or less isolated. or may be so disposed as to form a belt. The layers of the sand and gravel constituting *Am. Jour. Sci. Vol. xxxv, p. £07, 1888. 314 The American Geologist. May, 1892 the main part of these elevations very generally dip from the center outward. Where the elevations are elongate, the axis from which the layers dip is the same as the axis of the ridges. The surface of these hills and ridges is often marked by an abun- dance of large bowlders. The mantling till, where it exists, is continuous with the till which constitutes the surface of the ‘‘oround moraine landscape” belt, in the immediate neighborhood, The association of these ridges and hills with the terminal moraine (Eudmordne), has led Schroeder to the belief that they are closely associated with the latter in origin (p. 110), as well as in position. Their form is ascribed neither to erosion, nor to accumulation. They are regarded as swells or folds pressed up by the ice at its border, during a period when the edge of the ice was nearly con- stant in position. Because of the peculiar sort of disturbance which the stratification of these elevations has sometimes suffered, Dr. Wahnschatfe’s inference seems justified, that lateral thrust by the ice must also have played some part in their origin. Wahn- schaffe appears to agree with Schroeder that these hills and ridges were essentially contemporaneous in origin with the terminal mo- raine (Hidmordue). From the description before us, it is not clear that they do not constitute an element of the ‘ground mo raine landscape.” It will be seen that Wahnschatfe and Schroed- ers view concerning the time and method of origin of these sand and gravel hills, corresponds somewhat closely with Dr. Keil- hack’s view concerning the time and the method of origin of the elevations and depressions of the region designated ‘ground moraine landscape.” We have already seen that Dr. Wahn- schatfe’s view of the origin of the ‘‘ground moraine landscape, ” is different. But we believe that Dr. Keilhack’s explanation of the “eround moraine landscape” is more nearly correct, and that it is in perfect harmony with Wahnschatfe and Schroeder's view con- cerning the origin of the sand and gravel hills and ridges asso- ciated with the terminal moraine (Hndmordne), and with the “oround moraine landseape.”’ Dr. Wahnschatfe indicates the close association of the one class of drift hills with the other, but unfortunately he does not state whether the sand and gravel hills are more commonly associated with the outer or with the inner border of the ‘ground moraine landseape.’’. He would seem to imply that the association of the German terminal moraine (4nd- morcdne) with the hills here noted, is very close; but since he does Drift of the North German Lowland.—Salishury. 315 not indicate whether the Ludmordine is more commonly found on the outer or on the inner face of the ‘‘ground moraine land- scape’ belt, this relationship between the ‘‘2udimordine” and the “Durchragungszuge’ does not serve to indicate the relation be- tween the latter and the ‘*Grundmoranenlundscha/ft.”’ We believe that the three sets of phenomena, the ‘ground moraine landscape’ (= our terminal moraine), the German term- inal moraine (= a ‘‘dump” moraine), and the hills and ridges of gravelandsand( Durchragungszuge und Kime), are closely associated in time of origin. We believe that they all represent marginal accumulations, and that together they constitute what is known in America as a belt of terminal moraines. The gravel and sand hills and ridges, with occasional bowlders below the surface, and abundant ones upon it, we regard as kames, and believe that they correspond to the kames so commonly associated with the termi- nal moraines in America. Locally such kames make up a large part of our terminal moraine accumulations. This correlation is based in part upon Dr. Wahnschatfe’s description, and partly upon my own observations. If this interpretation be correct, the termi- nal moraine (HLudmordine) of the Germans, and the accumulations here regarded as kames, should be more commonly associated with the outer face of the belt affected by the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” topography than with the inner. But kames are not confined to such positions. Locally they are abundant and well developed on the inner face of the terminal moraine belt, and less commonly at points remote from it. Geinitz has regarded the sand and gravel hills as Asar and kames, (p. 113) but this view does not seem to approve itself to Dr. Wahnschaffe. There are a few ridges of stratified material not stated to be closely associated with the Baltic ridge, which would appear to be osars. One such is mentioned by Dr. Wahnschaffe at Lubasch in Posen. Others of similar form are excluded from the class osars, apparently on the ground that they are covered by till, while typical osars have not their crests covered by till, though their flanks may be. We do not get the impression from the refer- ences to kames and osars (asar) that discriminations between them have been carried to the same extent in Germany as in America. But the distinction between kames and osars has only recently come to be generally recognized here. The discussion concerning the position of the ‘‘old” valleys, and 316 The American Geologist. May, 1892 their relations to the courses of the present streams, is an interest- ing study in river drainage. The valleys of the ‘‘old” streams have been filled to considerable depths with sand, emanating from the glacier formations. In some places, and for considerable stretches, these ‘‘old” valleys are now dry. In other places they are occupied by inconsiderable streams. It would be a matter of ereat interest to know whether the ‘‘old” valleys are pre-glacial, or whether they are interglacial in origin. We infer that their sand filling is regarded as last glacial (p. 128). If it could be shown that the excavation of the ‘‘old” valleys was interglacial, or that any considerable part of their excavation was interglacial, such demonstration would be a convincing proof of a long inter- glacial epoch. Loess. On the southern border of the north German lowland there is a narrow belt of country covered with loess, although the loess is not confined to that portion of Germany which is properly designated “‘lowland.” It reaches to the southward so far as to cover the lower portions of the southern upland. The loess is well developed in the northern part of Saxony and in the vicinity of Halle and Magdeburg. The topography of the loess-covered country is gently undulatory. A large number of the German geologists who have studied the loess appear to have adopted the eeolian hypothesis. Dr. Wahnschaffe, on the other hand, believes the loess to have been deposited by water, and by water which arose chiefly fromthe melting of the ice in the /ast glacial epoch. He conceives the water which deposited the loess to have accum- ulated in a number of more or less connected basins, lying be- tween the ice on the north, and the highlands beyond the ice on the south. The waters thus confined between ice and upland had an outlet, so it is believed, toward the northwest; but it is held that the movement of the water was so gentle that it was able to carry away only the finest clayey material, while the materials of silt-grade of coarseness were deposited in the area covered by the water, and constitute the loess. The northward drainage from the highlands on the south, and the southward drainage from the ice on the north, both contributed to the formation. The altitude of the loess is stated to be about 282 feet in Saxony, while it rises to the hight of 600 feet in the Harz mountains. The chief reasons quoted from its advocates in support of the xoOlian hypothesis, are the presence of fossils of land animals. Drift of the North German Lowland.—Nalishury. 317 Dr. Wahnschaffe does not give specifically the reasons for his be- lief in the aqueous origin of the loess, though he devotes some space to a consideration to the arguments of those who believe that it was deposited by the wind. We think that Dr. Wahn- schaffe’s arguments against the eolian hypothesis have much force. After a brief examination of the loess in several points in the vicinity of Magdeburg, in company with Dr. Wahnschaffe, I was convinced that his view concerning the origin of the loess was the right one for that region. I have no data for an opinion ‘concerning the time of the origin of the German loess. If it be- long to the time of the last glaciation, it does not correspond in point of time of origin with the great body of the loess in the United States; but that is no reason for believing that Dr. Wahn- schaffe’s interpretation is not right. It is believed that the loess in the United States originated at different times. I am inclined to think that some of it may have originated in connection with the last glacial epoch, and I know no reason why that may not have been the time of the chief accumulation of the loess in Germany. The Lakes. The relationship between the distribution of lakes and the extension of the ice sheet is the same in Germany as in the United States. The lakes are chiefly confined to the area which suffered glaciation, and to the area which suffered glacia- tion the second time. But it is to be observed that they do not have a general distribution over the whole of the area which the last ice sheet invaded, as Dr. Wahnschatfe would define that area. Southwest of the Elbe, for instance, lakes are almost wholly wanting. This fact is in itself an evidence, though alone not a conclusive evidence, that this region was not glaciated in the last epoch. It is to be remembered that not all German glacialists are agreed that this region (the Luneburger Heide) was covered by ice in the last ice epoch. The absence of lakes supports the neg- ative. Lakes are most abundant along the Baltic ridge, where the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” is best developed, just as they are most abundant in our country, along the courses of the termi- nal moraine. They are not infrequent north of this ridge, and in some parts of Germany they cannot be said to be rare south of it. The question as to the origin of the lakes which lie within the drift-covered territory of Germany, is one concerning which there has been much discussion and much difference of opinion. Inter- 318 The American Geologist. May, 1992: esting as the history of opinion on this point is, we shall content ourselves at this time with mentioning only Dr. Wahnschatfe’s views. Be it remarked, however, that it has always seemed to- the writer that much of the discussion concerning the origin of the German lakes, masked a broader question, which embraced the narrower one discussed. Enclosed depressions are one of the conspicuous features of the ‘‘ground moraine landscape.” Many of these depressions do not become lakes because of pervious bot- toms. But the dry ‘‘kettles” are just as significant as those filled with water. The depressions are associated with hills and ridges which constitute the second conspicuous feature of our terminal morainic topography. ‘The association of these two features is such as to make it necessary to suppose that the explanation of the one must take account of the other ; that the processes which called forth the one, were responsible also for the other. The ques- tion at issue, therefore, is not the origin of the lake basins, but the origin of the ills and basins (whether occupied by water or not), that is, the origin of the ‘‘ground moraine landscape” (our terminal moraine ) topography. This is not so much a criticism of Dr. Wahnschatfe’s discussion as a comment upon some of the discussions which have preceded this volume, and which are cited in it. Dr. Wahnschatfe recognizes several classes of lakes. One class is designated the ‘‘ground moraine lakes ” (Grundmordnensecen). Itis to this class of lakes to which the foregoing comment is rele- vant, and Dr. Wahnschatfe does not regard their origin as a ques- tion distinct from the origin of the topography of the Baltic. He would therefore make the origin of these basins contemporaneous. with the origin of the topography with which they are associated. A second class of lakes are associated with the HLudmordne, and occupy depressions, of which this ridge constitutes one of the bounding walls. They are basins formed by morainic dams. A third class of lake basins are attributed to the eroding action of the waters arising from the melting of the ice, either as they plunged through crevasses, excavating small circular hollows. below, or as they flowed through their sub-glacial or extra-glacial courses. Many of the lakes which are connected with each other as beads on a string, are referred to such an origin. Still other lakes, few in number and small in size, may be the result of underground solution. Gas Wells Near Letts, lowa.— Witter. 319 Post Glacial Changes. Not the least valuable chapter of the book is the discussion of the surface changes which the German territory has undergone in postglacial time. Certain criteria, which have at one time and another been used as evidence of change of level, are discussed and their errors clearly pointed out. Evidence of great changes of level in post-glacial time is not found inthe coast region. ‘The topographic distribution of the loess in southern Germany, so far as its altitude in different regions is given, would raise the question whether there may not have been considerable surface warping in that region. Although I have dissented from some of Dr. Wahnschatfe’s con- clusions, some of these differences are more apparent than real, because of the diverse use of terms. Others are more funda- mental. To accomplish the purpose for which this paper is written, it has been necessary to emphasize the points wherein American and German views differ most widely, passing over in silence many of the more numerous points of agreement. But the book is throughout suggestive, and on the whole a most satis- factory compendium of present knowledge concerning the glacial formations of Germany. GAS WELLS NEAR LETTS, IOWA. By Pror. F. M. Wirrer, Muscatine, Lowa. In the early partof December, 1890, Mr. T. L. Estle, living in Section 3, Township 75 N. Range 4 W. 5th Principal Meridian, sunk « well on his farm for water. In drift at a depth of about 100 feet he struck gas which burned readily, but in two or three days the gas ceased to flow. Between 40 and 80 rods west of this place about the same time Mr. R. M. Lee bored for water, At about 100 feet he failed to get water and stopped boring. Inthe evening he commenced to pull out his casing, and sueceeded in raising it perhaps 8 or 10 feet. During the night a great roar- ing was heard, and on approaching the well with a lantern the gas took fire and a great flame shot several feet into the air with a frightful noise. In a few days the flame was extinguished, and the gas piped into Mr. Lee’s house, a few rods away, where for over a year it has furnished him light and fuel. 320 The American Geologist. May, 1892 This well now furnishes Messrs. R. M. Lee, T. J. Estle, J. E. Lee and Robert Lee with all their fuel and light. Mr. Robt. Lee is a little over one mile from the well. It is carried in common gas pipe laid on the top of the ground. The pipe is 2 in., 1} in., and the last half mile 1 in. in diameter. This well supplies 12 fires and 16 lights. No estimate has been made as to how many more it might sup- ply, but the number would certainly be quite large. Mr. J. E. Lee stated that the opening admitting the gas from the casing of the well to the main was considerably less than the size of an ordinary lead pencil, and that it flowed a half mile in the main in 14 seconds. How this rate was satisfactorily ascer- tained we did not learn. The same gentleman said the pressure at first was about 53 pounds, which has steadily risen till it is now 12 pounds. From a large stream issuing in our faces we could detect a faint odor resembling ether or chloroform. It gives a fine steady light and most intense heat in the stoves and artistic grates. It seems in all respects to be equal to or superior to the best artificial illum- inating gas. The gas is used just as it is when it issues from the well. Within a circle of about three miles in diameter in the town- ships named above, from at least seven wells sunk for water, gas issued. The depth to the gas ranges from about 90 ft. to 125 ft. At a depth from 6 to 25 feet below the gas a good, constant sup- ply of water is obtained. It seems to be very easy to shutoff the gas by the rapid sinking of the casing in a sort of blue clay with some sand, in which the gas is thought to be stored. The clay seems to form a tube as the drill and casing descend, and this prevents the gas from getting into the well, unless it is given a little time at the right place. The country for miles around is full of wells, which are all believed to be sunk to the water below the gas, without discovering the gas for reasons given above. I made the following tests on the water from below the gas. With potassium ferrocyanide I observed no reaction. On evapo- rating perhaps 50 ce, a considerable amount of solid matter was obtained. This was of a somewhat yellowish brown color, and effervesced readily with hydric chloride. This solution when tested with potassium ferrocyanide gives a deep blue. I was led Gas Wells Near Letts, Iowa,.— Witter. 321 to believe from these tests that the water contained a carbonate and some compound containing iron in solution. At a depth of 18 or 20 feet, water has generally been found in this locality, but the supply is variable. Mr. Robt. Lee has a well which he dug several years ago, the water of which was ex- cellent and in good quantity. This well is about 18 feet deep and carefully walled. Last summer he bored for water about 100 feet from this well. At a depth of a little more than 100 feet he found a little gas issuing at irregular intervals. Immediately after the appearance of the gas the water in the shallow well became muddy and unfit for use, and has remained so, though the water seems to be much worse at times, which are irreg- ular. It seems to me that the gas rises outside of the casing to the porous bed holding the water of the shallow well, and passes through this to the well and injures the water. The country in which these wells are located is comparatively level. Indications. are at hand everywhere of a boggy or peaty nature. There are but few low hills and no ravines of any note. The soil is a rich black loam, and the whole region is said to be destitute of the boulders so common in many parts of Lowa, and especially of Muscatine county. Mr. J. E. Lee stated that wells in this region had been sunk 280 feet, and no rock had been reached. The well in Muscatine county from which gas is used is on the farm of Mr. Jno. Idle, in Section 35, Township 76, Range 4 W. j The farmers in the neighborhood of these gas wells are about to complete an arrangement to put down a_ well 2,000 to 2,500 feet deep. This is to determine whether there is oil below the gas. It is my own impression that the gas comes from considerable beds of vegetable matter buried in this unusually heavy drift de- posit in this region. The area, it seems to me, which is thus un- derlaid, is 6 or 8 miles long, and perhaps 3 or 4 miles wide. I should expect to find the rocks here directly below the drift to be of the Devonian age. This locality is on the east side of the Cedar river. The near- est well to the Cedar is about two miles distant. No gas has yet been found on the west of the Cedar, 322 The American Geologist. May, 1892 CLIMATIC CHANGES INDICATED BY THE GLA- CIERS OF NORTH AMERICA. By Israen C. Russeti, Washington, D, C. Prof. Dufour has shown that the existing glaciers of Europe and Asia are retreating.* This is proof of a marked climatic change over a great area, within the last one or two decades, and renders it important to know if evidence of a similar change is furnished by the glaciers of other regions. Should it be found that glaciers on other continents are also retreating, it would not only be an interesting contribution to physical geography, but have an important bearing on the study of the causes of the Glacial Epoch. The data presented in this paper in reference to recent changes in the glaciers of North America, have been assembled in response to a letter addressed to the Director of the U. 8. Geological Sur- vey by Prof. Dufour, and is here published with the hope that it may lead to the accumulation of additional data in the same connection. Distribution of Existing Glaciers in North America. Glaciers may be arranged, provisionally at least, in three classes, viz:—alpine, piedmont and continental. It is also con- venient to designate those which enter the ocean and break off in bergs, as tide water glaciers. Examples of each of these types occur in North America. The glaciers of North America are confined to the Cordilleran system and to-the Greenland region. Small ice bodies are known to exist on the higher volcanic peaks in Mexico, but of these we have only indefinite information. Their southern limit in the United States is in the High Sierra of California, in about latitude 37° N. The ice bodies in that region are small but have the essential features of the largest alpine glaciers. They are con- fined to cirques near the mountain summits and do not descend below a horizon 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. In northern California, Oregon, and Washington, glaciers become more numerous, of greater extent, and extend to lower hori- zons than in the High Sierra. They occur about the summits of Mt. Shasta, Mt. Rainer, Mt. Baker, and several other peaks in the Cascade mountains, which have an altitude exceeding 10,000 or 11,000 feet. In the Rocky mountains they begin at the south, with snow bodies in Colorado, which by some «Bull. Soc. Vaud Se. Nat., Vol. xvi, 1881, pp. 422-425. Climatic Changes Indicated by Glaciers. —Russdl. 323 are considered as true glaciers, and increase in number and ‘extent towards the north. In the Cordillera system in Canada, glaciers are numerous, but have been explored to only a lim- ited extent. Those best known are in the Selkirk mountains and on the Stikine river. Farther north in the same great mount- ain belt, many glaciers are known to exist, and in Alaska they reach their greatest development. As one follows the glacial belt northward the lower limit of perpetual snow descends lower and lower, until finally at the base of Mt. St. Elias its elevation is only about 2,500 feet above the sea. The glaciers extend below the snow line and reach sea level near the mouth of the Stikine river in about latitude 57°. From there northwestward to Cook’s inlet there are hundreds, if not thousands, of magnificent ice streams which descend nearly to the ocean level, and scores which enter the ocean and breaking off form bergs. Local glaciers clustering about high peaks, occur on the Alaskan peninsula and the Aleutian islands. This great glacier belt is approximately 3,000 miles long. The most thoroughly snow and ice covered portion is in the region about’ Mt. St. Elias, where not less than 30.000 square miles of exceedingly mountainous country is com- pletely buried beneath a vast névé field which is drained by glaciers of the alpine type flowing both north and south. Those flowing south are the more important. On gaining the flat lands between the base of the mountains and the sea, they expand and form Piedmont glaciers. Of these, the Malaspina glacier, having an area of about 1,500 square miles, is the best known example. An interesting fact in connection with the distribution of glaciers on the west coast of North America is that their northern limit is less than one hundred miles north of Mt. St. Elias. Mountains in central and northern Alaska having an elevation of 4,000 or 5,000 feet are without snow during the summer and no glaciers exist upon them, As is now known this region was not glaciated during the Glacial Epoch. On the east side of North America existing glaciers are con- fined to Greenland and to neighboring islands. The ice sheet coy- ering Greenland is of the continental type and, as is well known, is the largest existing ice body in the northern hemisphere. The glaciers on the islands west of Greenland are of the alpine type, and many of them are known to be of great size, but their ex- ploration is far from complete. j24 The American Geologist. May, 1892 Are the Glaciers of North America Advancing or Retreating ? The glaciers of this continent have been known for so short a time that only small portions of their histories have been read. Their study is comprised almost entirely within the past decade and has been carried on in such a desultory way that for the most part only qualitative evidence as to their advance or retreat is available. Character of the Evidence: Kvidence of the advance or retreat of the ends of alpine glaciers, or of the borders of piedmont and continental glaciers, may be obtained in various ways. (Gla- ciers which are advancing sometimes plow into the debris in front of them and force it up in concentric ridges, usually with the formation of cracks in the soil. The surfaces of the ridges formed in this way are frequently covered with vegetation, which in addition to their forms and the character of the material of which they are composed, serves to distinguish them from termi- nal moraines. When a glacier advances into a forest, the trees. are broken off and piled in confused heaps about the margin of the ice. The upper surface of a glacier is known to flow faster than the ice below, and an advance is probably accomplished by the upper surface flowing over and burying the ice which rests on the ground. For this reason, advancing glaciers usually present bold scarps at their extremities, and, in general, are not covered with a broad sheet of debris. In retreating glaciers the layers of new snow deposited on the névé fields and changing to ice as they flow downward, are melted before reaching the margins of the ice streams, andthe slow moy- ing ice at the bottom is thus left exposed and melts away. The retreat is accomplished not by a contraction in the volume of the ice-body, but by the melting of its distal extremity. The ice which is not covered by fresh layers melts at the surface, and the englacial debris which it contains is concentrated in a general sheet forming fringing moraines. Whena sheet of debris of this character is extensive and covers the lower portion of a glacier. from side to side, it indicates that the ice beneath is practically stationary and consequently is melting and retreating. The ends of retreating glaciers’ frequently have a gentle surface slope, and in many instances are so ¢ompletely concealed by debris that the actual terminus of the ice cannot be distinguished. When the moraines are heavy, however, and especially when they are clothed Climatic Changes Indicated by Glaciers.—Russell, 325 with vegetation, the melting of the ice beneath is greatly retarded, and in some observed instances the glaciers thus protected termi- nate in bold scarps. - When a glacier retreats more rapidly than soil can form on the abandoned area, so as to admit of the growth of plants, a deso- late tract is left about its end, on which concentric lines of stones and boulders may indicate halts in the retreat. Barren areas of this nature, when the lack of vegetation is not due to the action of water from the ice, are good evidence of recent glacial reces- sion. When glaciers which flow through a valley having steep sides, become stagnant, a general lowering of the surface, de- creasing up stream, takes place, which leaves the bordering slopes bare of vegetation. The action of rain and rills on such surfaces may indicate to some extent the length of time they have been exposed. The presence of fine glacial debris on slopes from which it would be easily washed by rain, may also furnish evi- dence in the same connection. Retreating glaciers sometime leave detached masses of ice which are melted in the course of a few years and hence indicate rapid changes. |The amount of sub- aerial erosion on glaciated areas may also serve to indicate the length of time they have been exposed. These various classes of evidence usually enable one to deter- mine definitely whether a glacier has recently advanced or re- treated, and may sometimes afford a clue to the rate of these changes. In the study of the glaciers of America we have at present no definite quantitative measurements, and must rely on such phenomena as have been indicated. California: Some of the small glaciers in the High Sierra were visited by me in 1883 and 1884. I found that they were certainly not advancing, and from the occurrence of barren area about their extremities judged that they were slowly receding, but could not obtain evidence as to the rate of the recession, Observations by J. 8. Diller, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, on Mt. Shasta, indicate that the glaciers in northern California, like those farther south, are retreating. Evidence of this is furnished by barren areas about the ends of several of the glaciers and by a conspicuous lateral moraine on the side of the Whitney glacier, which in 1887 was about twenty-five feet above the level of the adjacent ice. Oregon and Washington: The glaciérs on the Cascade mount- 326 The American Geologist. May, 1892 ains have been visited by a number of persons, but I have been unable to obtain satisfactory evidence of advance or recession. An inspection of photographs of the glacier on Mt. Rainer indi- cates that they end in areas bare of vegetation, which presum- ably were recently occupied by ice. British Columbia: The glaciers of British Columbia, although numerous and important, are but imperfectly known, and only a few observations on recent changes have been made. Many of these glaciers, however, have been seen by Dr. G. M. Dawson, who informs me that in no instance are there evidences that they have recently advanced, and considers it is safe to assume that they are either stationary or slowly receding. R. G. MeConnel, of the Canadian Geological Survey, has kindly informed me that the glaciers, both on the Stikine river and in the Rocky mountains, have shrunken back from fresh look- ing moraines, and that the intervals between the ice and the mo- raines, in all instances examined by him, were destitute of trees and contained but little vegetation of any kind. In his opinion a marked retreat has occurred within the last century or two, but whether it has been in progress during the past one or two dec- ades cannot be decided from the evidence in hand. Observa- tions made by Macoun and Ingersoll confirm this conclusion. * I visited the IHlecellewaet glacier at Glacier station, on the Canadian Pacific Railroad, in the spring of 1891, and found a. barren area, intervening between the ice and the encircling forest, several hundred yards in breadth, which had evidently been but recently abandoned by the glacier. A small moraine on the western side of the glacier also suggested a recent shrinking of the ice. ‘The evidence of a recent retreat of this glacier has also been noted by W. 8. Green + An absence of vegetation about the extremity of one of the glaciers on Stikine river was noted by Blake,} and may probably be taken as an indication of a recent retreat of the ice. A legend current among the Stikine Indians indicates that two glaciers on opposite sides of the stream were formerly united and that the river then flowed through a tunnel beneath the ice. *Mountaineering in British Columbia, by Ernest Ingersoll, Bull. Am. Geog, Soc., Vol. xviit, 1886, p. 18. +tAmong the Selkirk glaciers, London, 1890, p. 69. tAmerican Jour, Sci, Vol. xirv, 1867, pp. 96-101. Climatic Changes Indicated by Glacters.— Russel, 327 Alaska: The evidence that a general retreat of the glaciers of Alaska is still in progress is abundant, and in a few instances is of quantitative value. Lynn Canal: About this magnificent inlet there are many ice streams of the alpine type, which descend nearly to sea level, but none of them are now actually tide water glaciers. About the ends of many of them there are dense forests of spruce trees which must have been growing for at least one hundred and fifty years, but between the forests and the present terminus of the ice there is in several instances a barren area covered with morainal deposits and bearing every indication of having but recently been abandoned by the glaciers.* These conditions are especially noticeable at the extremity of the Davidson glacier, situated on the western side of the inlet near its head, which expands into a broad ice foot on leaving the wild gorge through which it flows. Between the present terminus of the ice and the encircling forest there is a barren tract half a mile broad, which has been left by a retreat of the ice so recently that vegetation has not been able to take root upon it. A decided retreat of the ice has here recently occurred, and to all appearances is still in progress, but no ob- servations of its rate have been made. Conditions similar to those seen at Davidson glacier were ob- served in connection with several other ice streams in the same region. In Taku inlet, the Norris glacier comes down to sea level, but is separated from the water by broad mud flats. There is no indication that this glacier has recently advanced and an accumulation of debris over its surface indicates that it is melt- ing away. The Taku glacier near at hand, is of the tidewater type and evidence of recent changes are wanting. Glacier Bay: The evidence of recent changes in Muir Gla- cier have been presented by Wright,+ who has shown that it has quite recently been both more extensive and of less size that at present. Additional evidence of these changes have been supplied by Reid, { who concludes that Muir Glacier and other ice streams now discharging into Glacier bay, were form- *Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 1, 1890, p. 152. +The Ice Age in North America, by G. Frederick Wright, New York, 1889, pp. 51-57. {Studies of the Muir Glacier, by H. F. Reid, National Geographic Mag., Vol. rv, 1891, pp. 328 The American Geologist. May, 1892 erly much more extensive than at present, aud at the time of the Vancouver's expedition in 1794, probably occupied the whole of the bay to a point some distance below Willoughby island. The retreat during one hundred years is thought to be in the neighborhood of fourteen miles. This conclusion, however, rests on certain passages in the narrative of Van- couver’s voyage* which may possibly refer to floating ice, and not to actual glaciers, and therefore not have the quantitative yalue indicated above. But under any plausible rendering of Vancouver's account, it does not seem possible to escape the con- clusion that the ice in Glacier bay was far more abundant at the time of his visit than in recent years. Observations made by Wright and Reid in 1886 and 1890, respectively, show that Muir glacier has retreated during this in- terval more than 1,000 yards. This observed rate of recession would, if continuous for one hundred years, produce a retreat of approximately fifteen miles, and affords ground for believing that the great retreat supposed to have occurred since Vancouver's visit is approximately correct. John Muir has kindly contributed the following note concerning the retreat of the glaciers of southeastern Alaska, which con- firms the evidence already presented: “All the glaciers that have come under my observation in southeastern Alaska have retreated and shallowed since first I became acquainted with them in 1879 and 1880. Those in which the declivity of the chan- nels is least, have of course receded the most. During the ten years between 1880 and 1890, Muir glacier has receded about one mile, at its mouth in Muir inlet.” St. Elias Region: Much space could be occupied in recording observations which indicate a general recession of the glaciers about Yakutat and Disenchantment bays and along the adjacent ocean shore, but a brief summary of this evidence is all that seems necessary at this time. The lower portions of a large number of glaciers in this region are completely covered by continuous sheets of debris which has been concentrated at the surface through the melting of the ice. This debris is not being carried forward and deposited in terminal moraines, but is distributed over the surface of the ice in a thin *Voyage of Discovery around the World, by Vancouver, Vol. v, pp. 420-423. Quoted by Wright in Ice Age of North America, pp. 55-57. Climatic Changes Indicated by Glacters.—Russell, 329 ‘sheet and marks the stagnant condition of the glacier on which it rests. In several instances, especially on the outer border of the Malaspina glacier, the moraines resting on the ice are clothed with vegetation, which over many square miles has the character of a forest, composed principally of spruce trees, some of which are three feet in diameter. Within the forest covered border and forming a belt concentric with it, there is a barren tract covered with stones and boulders. The forests growing on the glacier and also thousands of lakelets, both in the outer border of the barren moraine and in the adjacent forest-covered moraine, indi- cate conclusively that the ice-sheet is stagnant and consequently wasting away. On the coast bordering the Malaspina glacier on the south, there were formerly two projections called point Rio and cape Sitkagi which were noted by the explorers one hundred years ago. In traversing this coast in 1891, | found that no capes exist at the localities referred to. At the site of cape Sitkagi there is evidence that the sea has recently invaded the glacial boundary. On the sides of many of the alpine glaciers in the St. Elias region there are steep slopes bare of vegetation although well below the upper limit of tree-growth of adjacent areas, which indicate that the ice streams have recently shrunken within their beds. My conclusions after two visits to the glaciers in the St. Elias region is that without exception they are rapidly retreating. Near point Manby there is a locality where the Malaspina gla- cier has‘recently advanced about 1,500 feet into a dense spruce forest, cutting off the trees and sweeping them into confused heaps. After advancing, the ice retreated, leaving a typical mo- raine surface filled with lakelets. This is the only instance of a recent advance that has come under my notice. The head of Yakutat bay was visited by Malaspina in 1791, and again by captain Puget in 1794. Each of these explorers found the inlet blocked by a wall of ice from shore to shore. No other observations in this connection were made until my Visit in the summer of 1890.* From what may now be observed it is evident that the Dalton and Hubbard glaciers, which come down to the water at the head of the inlet and break off in bergs, must have extended some five or six miles beyond their present * Map indicating the position of the ice in 1791 is shown on plate 7 and its extent in 1890. on plate 8, of my report on an expedition to Mt. st. Elias, in Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. 1. This is only a sketch map, and cannot be relied upon for measurement of. distances. 330 The American Geologist. May, 1882 position at the time of Malaspina’s and Puget’s visits, and were then united so as to completely block the entrance to Disenchant- ment bay, which is a continuation of Yakutat bay. These obser. vations show conclusively that the glaciers mentioned have re- treated five or six miles within the past one hundred years. The small recession that has here taken place, in comparison with the changes reported in Glacier bay, during the same time, is prob- ably due to the fact that the névé from which Muir glacier flows, is much lower than the snow fields drained by the Hubbard and Dalton glaciers, and presumably more sensitive to climatic: changes. North Side of the St. Elias Mountains: — Dr. C. Willard Hayes, of the U. $8. Geological Survey, in crossing from Selkirk house on the Yukon river to Copper river, in 1891, passed for a portion of the way along the northern border of the great system of mountains which culminate in Mt. St. Elias, and discovered sey- eral large glaciers of the alpine type flowing northward from the névé field north of Mt. St. Elias, and also other glaciers draining névé fields about Mt. Wrangell and flowing southward. Respect- ing the evidence of recent changes in these glaciers, Dr. Hayes. has kindly supplied the following notes: Two large glaciers and many small ones were seen flowing from the- St. Elias mountains northward into the White river basin. Another flows from the southeast into the pass and drains into both the White- and Copper river basins, About the head of the Nizzenah are four large - and many small glaciers. Flowing into Copper river from the coast range are four or five glaciers, one of them—Miles glacier—being larger than any seen further in the interior. Observations were thus made on, twelve glaciers, and with one exception to be described later, all show a more or less rapid recession. The evidence of this recession in most cases is the accumulated moraine covering the terminal edge of the glacier; or where there is not sufficient englacial drift to accumulate and: form a protective mantle, the stagnant ice melting to a feather edge. The White river lobe of Russell glaciers is of the moraine covered: type, while the Nizzenah lobe has the feather edge. On the Klut- lan and Russell glaciers the outer portion of the moraine covered ice- supports a dense vegetation, which becomes gradually more scanty and disappears about half a mile from the edge of the ice. The recession of the smaller glaciers along the Nizzenah appears to have been. more rapid than the advance of the vegetation so that between it and. the ice is a belt of bare moraine. Miles glacier terminates in an ice cliff fronting upon Copper river- and the river has as yet cut only part way through the dam formed by~ Climatic Changes Indicated by Glaciers.— Russell, 331 the northern lateral moraine. This moraine must, until very recently, have been backed up by the glacier itself, though the front of the latter has now retreated two miles to the eastward. While the fact of recession is manifest, the rate is more difficult to de- termine. In one case, however, it is possible to connect the amount of recession with an important episode in the history of the region, namely, the eruption of a wide spread deposit of volcanic ash which extends from near the head of the Pelly westward to Scolai pass. With regard to the age of this deposit Dr. Dawson says:* “While the eruption must have happened at least several hundred years ago, it can scarcely be supposed to have taken place more than a thousand years before the present time.” For a distance of about three miles in front of the Klutlan glacier there is a deposit of moraine material perhaps 200 feet thick, composed of volcanic ash and angular rock fragments. This evidently fixes the position of the glacial front at the time of the volcanic eruption, and the amount of recession since that event. It is interesting to note that on the present glacier surface the volcanic ash is found only ashort distance from the end, showing that since the eruption, while the front of the glacier has receded about three miles, nearly the whole mass of the glacier has been renewed by fresh addition from its source. The single exceptional case already referred to, is the Frederika gla- cier, which seems to be advancing its front instead of retreating. It has its source in the high mountains forming the eastern members of the Wrangell group, and flows south in a lateral valley, joining the valley of the Nizzenah at right angles. The front of the glacier is parallel with the river and about three-fourths of a mile from it, the intervening space being a gravel plain. The glacier terminates in a nearly vertical ice cliff about 250 feet high. It is slightly convex, and stretches entirely across the valley abouta mile in length. The surface of the glacier is free from moraines but is extremely rough and broken, unlike the ordi- nary surface of stagnant ice at the end of a retreating glacier. At the foot of the cliff is a small accumulation of gravel and fragments of ice, probably pushed along by the advancing mass.t An explanation of this anomalous case is suggested. Ten miles to the westward of the Frederika another much larger glacier flows into the valley of the Nizzenah. This is formed by the union of three separate Streams, and of these the eastern appears to be retreating much more rapidly than either of the others. But this eastern branch probably has its source in the same basin as the Frederika glacier, and it seems not impossible that by some means the drainage has been diverted from the western to the eastern outlet, thus causing the rapid retreat in the former glacier and advance in the latter. *Report on Yukon District, p. 45 B. This is the only instance of an advancing glacier known on the west coast of North America. I. C. R. oar The American Geologist. May, 1892 Greenland: Regarding recent changes in the ice sheet of Greenland there is but scanty evidence, and such observations as have been made on the advance and retreat of the margin of the ice are conflicting. Holts found in 1880, between latitude 61 and 65° 30’, on the west coast, according to Lindahl,* that ‘‘the bor- der of the ice appeared to have retreated quite recently in many places; in others it had decidedly advanced.” Nansen remarks in this connection that we cannot even conjecture what the present conditions are, and thinks that the observations show that there is no strong tendency either towards advance or retreat. Warren Upham, who has recently reviewed the literature relating to the Greenland ice sheet, informs me that in his judgment the ice is now slightly increasing in thickness and generally in extent. This conclusion rests largely on the general absence of debris on the borders of the ice sheet. His studies have also led him to the conclusion that Greenland, in common with other portions of the northeast border of this continent, is now having an appre- ciable increase in cold. The observations of those who have traversed the inland ice seems to indicate that nearly its entire surface is in the condition of anévé, and suggest that growth and not retreat must be in progress. The absence of debris on the borders of the ice sheet referred to by Upham, is important in this connection, and seems to indicate that no great waste of ice occurs before it is discharged into the sea. So far as one may judge from the observations of others, it seems as if the evidence available points to an increase of the ice sheet, as supposed by Upham, but I do not give much weight to this conclusion. Dufour, however, in a paper cited in the beginning of this essay, is inclined to the opposite conclusion. He states that in 1880 he made a communication on the retreat of the glaciers of Europe and Asia before a scientific congress at teims, and that during the discussion which followed one of the persons present, who had been in Greenland several times, men- tioned that he ‘shad noticed that the glaciers of that land had also *Am. Nat., Vol. 22, 1888, p. 593. +First Crossing of Greenland, Vol. 1, p. 491. {The conclusions of Mr. Upham are also contained in the following papers:—*On the cause of the cold of the Glacial Epoch,” Am. Geol., Vol. v1, 1890, p. 336; and “The ice sheet of Greenland,” Am. Geol., Vol. virl, 1891, p. 150: OC riteria of englacial and subglacial drift,’ Am. Geol., Vol. vir, 1891, p. 385. Climatic Changes Indicated by Glaciers.—Russdl. 358 retreated considerably.” It is known that-the glaciers of Green- Jand were much more extensive during a former epoch than at present, and left records at an elevation of 3,000 feet above the present ice surface.* It may be suggested that the observations referred to by Dufour possibly relate to these ancient records. Weight of the Evidence: The observations summarized in this paper in reference to the Cordillera region, although unsatisfac- tory in many ways, indicate with a single exception which seems to have a special explanation, that the ice bodies in that region are retreating. This conclusion not only rests on direct observa- tions of several individuals, but is sustained by negative evidence as well. An advance of a glacier, especially in a forested country, is apt to be strongly marked, and would attract the attention of even a casual observer, but in no instance, with the exception reported by Dr. Hayes, and the slight extension on the border of the Malaspina glacier already mentioned, has a recent advance of the glaciers been reported. The fact that the glaciers at the head of Yakutat bay have re- treated several miles within the past one hundred years, as well as the still greater recession of the glaciers of Glacier bay during the same period, indicates the present general recession of the olaciers of the Pacific coast has probably been in progress for more than a century. During this time there must have been many minor oscillations which our imperfect observations do not de- tect but the fact that the general movement has been backward is well sustained. The shrinking of the glaciers of the west coast of North America, together with the conclusions reached by Prof. Dufour to the effect that the glaciers of both Kurope and Asia are reced- ing, indicate that the Greenland ice sheet is the only one in the Northern Hemisphere which is not now diminishing. Climatic changes: The advance and retreat of glaciers depends on climatic change. Glaciers, like enclosed lakes, record the result of the sum total of climatic changes which favor the re- tention of moisture on the land. In general it is safe to assume that increased precipitation will favor their growth and a rise of temperature lead. to their retreat. A general decrease in the glaciers of the Pacific coast suggests that other evidence of a secular climatic change should be found in the same region. ‘To *Am. Jour. Sci. 3rd ser., Vol. 24, pp. 100-101. 334 The American Geologist. May, 1892 discover if there is any connection between the retreat of glaciers and recorded observations on climatic changes, it would appear that an inspection of the records of mean annual temperature and mean annual rainfall, without discussing the causes of these changes, would be sufficient. Difficulty in the way of making this comparison arises, however, from the fact that in the glacial records we have only the general result of a long series of changes, all minor features of which are lost; while in the weather records sufficient time has not been covered by the observations to show secular changes a century or more in extent, which would be necessary to reach a satisfactory conclusion. The weather records on the Pacific coast did not begin until 1849, and were not made at a sufficient number of stations to furnish a basis for determin- ing general climatic changes until a number of years later. This lack of observations render it impossible to make the comparison desired. The same proves to be true also on attempting to cor- _relate the retreat of the glaciers with the weather records of the entire North American continent. The only conclusion to be reached in this connection seems to be that the data relating to both the fluctuations of glaciers and to climatic changes are inad- equate for satisfactory comparison. . Curves showing secular changes in temperature and rainfall of the world for more than one hundred years, derived from all available weather records, have been published by Dr. Bruckner, * of the University of Berne. The observations of temperature embrace the period between 1730 and 1885 and show a gradual rise during the latter part of this interval. The curve indicating rainfall includes the period between 1775 and 1885, and shows a gradual decrease towards the end of this period. These results seem in harmony with the decrease of the glaciers of Europe and Asia and of the west coast of North America, but how accurately the curves indicate actual changes in the elements of climate re- ferred to it is impossible to say. The general rise in the tempera- ture curve, the gradual fall in the curve representing precipitation, towards the end of the periods of observation are probably in- fluenced by the varying character of the observations during different portions of the period. The correspondence between the general retreat of the glaciers in the northern hemisphere and the changes in the records of temperature and rainfall referred to *Penk’s Geog. Ablandlunger, Vol. 1v, 1890, p. 329. Climatic Changes Indicated by Glacters.— Russell, 335 above may be valid, but it seems to me for various reasons, that but little weight should attach to it. The comparison of the retreat of glaciers on the west coast with the rise and fall of the lakes of that region, more especially of the enclosed lakes, would be instructive, but here again, as in the case of the weather records, no records covering a suffi- cient length of time are available. Observations on the rise and fall of Great Salt lake show many fluctuations, but no general decrease which is comparable with the retreat of the ‘Cordilleran glaciers. * The geological records of lakes Bonneville and Lahontan show two maxima separated by a minimum, which latter indicates a period of desiccation, and followed by a second minimum which extends to the present day. The retreat of the glaciers on the west coast seems in harmony with this record. The desiccation of the lakes referred to has accompanied the retreat of the glaciers on neighboring mountains, but -has been more rapid. It is be- lieved that the lakes of the Great Basin had their last maximum at the time the Sierra Nevada was covered with glaciers. A gen- eral decrease in the glaciers appears to have accompanied the de- siccation of the lakes and is still in progress. The retreat of the glaciers on the Pacific coast, as shown by rough quantitative determinations at Yakutat and Glacier bays, has been in progress for not less than one hundred years. The character of the forests about the extremities of the glaciers of Lynn canal, show that the ice streams have not advanced beyond the barren areas in which they now terminate, within at least one hundred and fifty or two hundred years. In the case of David- son glacier, the barren area intervening between the ice and the encircling forest is about half a mile wide. If this retreat was accomplished within one hundred years it would show that the ice foot receded at the rate of about two feet per year. + Similar conclusions have been reached in reference to other glaciers in the same region and, although definite measurements *The fluctuations of Great Salt lake have been discussed by G. K. Gilbert, who shows that they coincide but imperfectly with observed variations in temperature and precipitation in the same region. U.S. Geol. Surv., Monograph No. 1, pp. 280-248. TThis is an exceedingly rough estimate for the reason that the breadth of the barren area about the foot of Davidson glacier has not been ee The statement that it is half a mile wide is from eye estimate simply. 336 The American Geologist. May, 1892 are lacking, these considerations show that the retreat has been very gradual, and was undoubtedly accompanied by many minor changes of which we have no record. The indications are that the retreat of the glaciers has been so gradual that it is doubtful if ordinary weather observations would be able to detect the change, unless carried over a period of several decades, and therefore could not be expected to appear in the weather records now available. For example, a decrease in the mean annual rain- fall of the Pacific coast to the extent of one-tenth of an inch per year would, in the time covered by the retreat of the glaciers, produce marked results, but would scarcely be detected in a series of observations covering less than a decade, and even then the stations would have to be numerous to allow one to draw definite conclusions. Similar considerations hold true also in reference to an increase of temperature. These considerations indicate that the growth of glaciers and the initiation and decline of Glacial epochs, are caused: by very gradual climatic changes which would only become conspicuous, as climatic changes are now studied, after the lapse of centuries. Washington, D. C., February 29, 1892. EDITORIAL COMMENT. Sir ANDREW C. RAmsay, BART. With the death of the late director-general of the geological survey of Great Britain and Ireland, at his home at Beaumaris (1. of Anglesey) on the 9th of December, 1891, at the age of 77, a con- spicuous and long familiar figure disappeared from the geological world. A born geologist, he needed only the opportunity for showing his power and this came during a visit to the Isle of Arran (for the benefit of his health, never too strong), through accidental contact with Prof. Nichol, of Glasgow. Mapping and modelling the island, his work attracted the attention of Murehi- son at the meeting of the British Association, at Glasgow, in 1840. Through his assistance Ramsay was attached to the survey and assigned to South Wales. . In 1845 he was made local director for Great Britain, which office he held until on the death of Sir Review of Recent Geological Literature. 337 Roderick Murchison in 1871, he became director general, retain- ing the post till 1881. To Ramsay geology is indebted for bringing into prominence the doctrine of earth sculpture. In his first paper on the denuda- tion of South Wales he showed that ‘‘ the existing topography of the land has a long and interesting history much of which may still be deciphered,” This idea he afterwards enlarged in his «« Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,” a series of lectures delivered at first to working-men. Another of his favorite subjects was the erosion of their beds by glaciers, and the now familiar doctrine of the excavation of the basins in which lie many of the lakes so numerous in glaciated regions. This doctrine yet retains some value in special cases, but it was doubtless pushed by its able author beyond due bounds. He also was among the first to attempt to establish the recurrence of glacial episodes in the distant past, as for example, in the Permian and Devonian eras and to make prominent the idea of paleontological breaks in the record of life, which he did in his addresses before the Geological Society of London in 1863 and 1864, dates which form an epoch in the history of the science, In addition to these side issues the results of his direct labors may be found in the volumes of the geological survey during his directorship. REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secre- tary of the Interior, 1888-89. By J. W. Powett., Director, Washington, 1890. Part I. Geology, pp. xv, 774; with 98 plates, and about 70 figures in the text. Part II, Irriga‘ion. pp. viii, 1238. These volumes were distributed to working geologists and libraries a few months ago. During the fiscal year reported, an aggregate area of 43,222 square miles, including parts of twenty-three states and territo- ries, was surveyed and mapped The topographic surveys have been extended over the whole of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Jersey ; more than half of Virginia and West Virginia; approximately two-fifths of Missouri, Kansas, and Arizona; a quarter of Maryland and Tennessee; and a sixth of North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, and California.. About a tenth part of the national domain has been thus accurately surveyed. 358 The American Geologist. May, 1892 Summaries of the work of this survey, and of the present state of knowledge of North American geologic systems, with correlation of formations throughout the country, were in progress of preparation, as follows: on the Pleistocene, by T. C. Chamberlin ; Neocene, William H. Dall; Eocene, W. B. Clark ; Cretaceous (including the Laramie ), C. A. White ; Jura-Trias, I. C. Russell; Carboniferous and Devonian, H. 8. Williams; Silurian and Cambrian, C. D. Walcott; Algonkian and Archean, C. R. Van Hise ; correlation by vertebrate paleontology, O. C. Marsh ; correlation by pal:eobotany, Lester F. Ward ; resumé of North American stratigraphy, W. J. McGee; and discussion of principles of correlation, G. K. Gilbert. Three of these memoirs, by White, Williams, and Walcott, have been siuce issued as bulletins of the survey. Professor Pumpelly’s report of the progress of his investigation of the structure of the Green mountains shows that they consist of compressed ° folds overturned toward the west. The cores of the folds are pre- Cambrian crystalline rocks, which are generally hidden. Metamor- phosed detrital rocks form the surface, apparently comprising the entire Cambriam system and the Silurian upward to the Hudson River forma- tion. In the work of the Atlantic Coast division, under the direction of Prof. N.S. Shaler, the morasses and superficial deposits of Massachu- setts have been mapped, and are found to exhibit a gradual decrease of stratified gravel, sand and clay, and an increase of the areas of till, in proceeding from the seaboard inland to the western and higher part tof the state; moraines have been discovered in the interior, far back from the great terminal moraine which forms the crest of Long Island, and the drumlins are found to display diverse degrees of development, the least prominent grading insensibly into ordinary sheet till. The structure and origin of the Appalachian mountains have been studied by Mr. G. IK. Gilbert, and Mr, Bailey Willis, and the latter has undertaken a series of experiments to represent in miniature the folds of these mountains by subjecting layers of plastic material to lateral thrust. Exploration of the rock formations surrounding lake Superior, by Prof. C. R. Van Hise, has been extended over a large area, in north- eastern Minnesota and northern Wisconsin and Michigan. For the extensive series of rocks, supposed to be beneath the Cambrian and above the Archiean, well developed in this district, the name Algonkian is proposed, This is another addition to the synonymy of the already burdensome and complicated nomenclature of this uncertain horizon in the geological scale. In the Glacial division, under the direction of Pres. T. C. Cham- berlin, work has related tothe glacial Lake Agassiz ; to the terminal moraines, and the succession of deposits which make up the general drift sheet: the gravels and sands of glacial origin continuing beyond the limit of the ice incursions in the basin of the Mississipi; trains of boulders in Wisconsin ; and the osars, kames, and valley drift in Maine. Reports on most of these subjects are nearly ready for publication. Review of Recent Geological Literature. 339 Dr. A. C. Peale in central Montana, has examined a type section of the entire Paleozoic system from the Carboniferous to the Algonkian, inclusive, finding every principal division distinctively developed. The field work in the Yellowstone National Park, under the direction of Mr. Arnold Hague, comprised the continuation of observations of the geysers, and especially the careful study of the Excelsior geyser, which, after lying dormant for nearly six years has burst into renewed activity, concurrently with the disappearance of several hot springs and small streams. The topographic maps of the Park, and the delineation of the areal geology, are completed. Mr. 8. F. Emmons has nearly finished the preparation of monographs on the Ten Mile and Silver Creek mining districts in Colorado, and on the Denver coal basin. A most interesting formation, underlying the city of Denver from which it is named, was discovered during the year covered by this report and has been described by Mr. Whitman Cross. It is prob- ably of Eocene age, and consists of sediments-eroded from andesitic lavas , but the situation of the area thus denuded has not been determined. In California Mr. G. F. Becker, spent the greater part of the year in surveys of the Gold Belt, tentatively mapping the geologic formations of about half of the auriferous region. Well-preserved glacial strice have been found on portions of the walls of the Yosemite Valley, and on the head-waters of the Kaweah river, farther south than any locality previously known. ‘Here, as elsewhere in the Sierras, the ice marking is wonderfully fresh. Although the streams are roaring torrents of high declivity they have corraded but a few feet of rock since the glaciers disappeared.” Mr. J. $8. Diller, in charge of the Cascade division, was occupied during most of the season of field work in the collection of speci- mens of voleanic rocks from various points of the Cordilleran mountain belt, to form part of a series for distribution to the educational institu- tions of the country. The number of specimens collected to represent each variety of rock in the series, is 250. The chief work of Mr. W. J. McGee during the year was the com- pietion of his researches on the Pleistocene formations of northeastern Iowa. Dr. G. H. Williams was engaged in study of the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont region in Maryland; and Mr. L. C. Johnson in- vestigated the Tertiary beds of the coastal plain in the southern states. This report also reviews the palieontologic work done for this survey by Prof. Marsh, Dr. Newberry, Prof. L. 3°. Ward, Mr. F. H. Knowlton, Prof. W. M. Fontaine, Mr. C. D. Walcott, Prof. H. 8S. Williams, Dr. C. A. White, Dr. W. H. Dall, and Mr. 8. H. Scudder ;: the work in the chemical and physical laboratories by Prof. F. W. Clarke, Dr. Carl Barus, and their assistants; the work of the petrographic laboratory by Messrs Diller, Hague, Iddings, Bayley, and others; and the work in mining statistics, and technology by Dr. David T. Day. The total value of the metallic products of the United States, during 1888 was $256,245,000, of which iron was $107,000,000 ; silver $59,000,000 ; and gold and copper, each $33,000,000, Among the non-metallic mineral 340 The American Geologist. May, 1892 products, which had an aggregate spot value of $328,914,000, bituminous coal was $122,000,000, anthracite coal, $89,000,00C ; building stone, lime, and petroleum, each about $25,000,000; and natural gas $22,662,000. Next to these. but far below, are cement and salt, each about $4,000,000. The report of the director and the administrative reports of the heads of divisions, which together fill 252 pages, are accompanied by three im- portant papers, entitled, General account of the Fresh-water Morasses of the United States, with a description of the Dismal Swamp district of Virginia, and North Carolina, by N.S. Shaler ; the Penokee Iron-bear- ing series of Michigan and Wisconsin, by R. D. Irving and C. R. Van Hise ; and The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Oleuellus zone, by C. D. Walcott. Reviews of the tirst and second of these papers were pre- sented in the March Gro.ocisr and of the second in vol. viii, p. 82. Part II, relating to irrigation, describes the surveys which have been entered upon in the great arid region of the plains and of the Cordil- leran belt, with its enclosed basins. The topographic work was in charge of Prof. A. H. Thompson, and the engineering and hydraulic work under Capt. C. E. Dutton. Mt. St. Elias and its Glaciers. By I. C. RusseLt. The mist which has so long enshrouded this mountain has been in part dispelled during the past summer by the expedition of Mr. Russell of which he gives an ac- count in the American Journal of Science and the National Geographic Magazine. Though unable to reach the summit on account of bad _ weather, he camped with his party at an elevation of eight thousand feet for twelve days, and made one unsuccessful expedition toward the sum- mit, the only one allowed by the weather. Snow also prevented much examination of the rocks but he reports them as consisting for the most part of brown sandstone and dark shale, with intrusions of diorite and a few beds of limestone. The dip is almost invariably to the northeast but the thickness could not even be estimated in consequence of crush- ing and overthrusts on a grand scale. No clue is given to the geological date of the rocks, but as specimens of shells yet living in the adjoining sea were found in recent strata on the sides of the mountain the conclu- sion is reached that its elevation must be very recent. Indeed, Mr. Rus- sell says that in his opinion the glaciers took pos:ession of the ground at once, leaving no interval for the action of stream-erosion. The hight of the limit of perpetual snow is given at 2000 feet and some of the glaciers are fifty miles in length. Many of these unite to form the great Malaspina glacier with an approximate area of 1500 square miles and lying at an elevation of about 1500 feet. This glacier de- bouches on Yakutat bay and the Pacific ocean between which and the ice intervenes a wide drift-covered area partly overgrown with timber. Mr. Russell calls special attention in his concluding paragraphs to the marginal lakes which are formed at the hight of a thousand or fifteen hundred feet, wherever the drainage is blocked by the ice and to the deltas and terraces that are formed on the edges by these lakes which will be left,-he says, high on the mountain side when the glacier melts away. Review of Recent Geological Literature. 341 The hight of this mountain which has been so long in doubt has been measured by Mr. Russell as closely as was possible with the means at his command, and found to be 18,100 feet, with a possible error of 100 feet. This, with one exception, that of the U.S. Coast Survey, which gave 19,500 feet, is the greatest hight that has been assigned to this peak. Other estimates have varied from 12,672 feet upwards. Its posi- tion as determined by Mr. Russell is just within the U. 8. frontier and he calls it a corner monument of the national domain. Parka decipiens by Str J. W. Dawson and Pror. D. P. PENnHALLOW. In a memoir presented to the Royal Society of Canada this problematic organism is well discussed by both these writers. Parka so well named decipiens has been an object of controversy ever since its first description in 1831. Regarded by Dr. Fleming as a seed this view was confirmed by later observers, especially by Hugh Miller. ‘Then the opinion was ad- vanced apparently by Lyell, that these bodies were the eggs of some mol- luse such as Natica, or of some crustacean such as Pterygotus, the latter of which was frequently found in the same beds. Other writers fol- lowing these adopted apparently without original investigation, the same view. Having received from Scotland some fresh specimens of Parka, these were made the subject of a careful investigation by the two botan- ists named, and their deliberate conclusion reverses the latter and recurs to the earlier view of their nature. Judging from the statements that they make, and the figures given therewith, little room for doubt re- mains as to the accuracy of this determination. They make the species and two varieties media and minor. In another pamphlet reprinted from‘the Canadian Record of Science, Prof. Penhallow establishes also on material received from Scotland the genus Zosterophyllum with one species Wyretonianum, found associated with Purka decipiens in Devonian rocks, in Caithness. He also describes a Lycopodites (milleri) from the same beds. Prof. Penhallow also describes in the same transactions two specimens of semifossil wood from the Post-glacial beds of Dlinois. To one of these he applies the name Quercus marcyana from Prof. Marcy of Evans- ton, who sent him the material and to the other that of Pdcew evunstoni from the place where both were found. The pine occurred in a thin layer of peat immediately overlying the boulder-clay, and apparently in the place of its original growth. The oak lay at a higher level in sand, and had probably been floated to the place. Both trees were in the lowest of the three lake-ridges at Chicago, near the spot from which some years ago the bones of a mastodon were exhumed. Altitudes between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains. By WARREN UpnHam. pp. 229. (Bulletin No. 72, U.S. Geological Survey, 1891. Price 20 cents.) The altitudes of railway stations, summits, bridges, and low and high water of streams are here tabulated, with distances in miles and tenths, compiled from the profiles of about 18,500 miles of railway lines in Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Montana, and portions of b42 The American Geologist. May, 1892 adjoining states, with the entire system of the Canadian Pacific railway, and its connections from Port Arthur to the Pacific. Series of altitudes along the course of the principal rivers are also arranged separately in tabular form, including the lowest and highest stages of the Missis- sippiand Missouri rivers, during many years at stations along all their course, as determined by the Mississippi and Missouri River Commis- sions. The basis of reference throughout is the mean sea level. The Viscosity of Solids. By Cart Barus. pp. 139; with6 plates, and 28 figures in the text. (Bulletin No. 73, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891. Price 15 cents) This treatise is a contribution toward the solution of questions bearing on the viscosity of rock masses, following a general plan devised by Mr. Clarence King. The experimental investigation of the viscosity of steel leads the author to believe that he has discovered a reliable working hypothesis substantially corroborative of Maxwell’s theory on this subject. The Minerals of North Carolina. By FRreperick A. GENTH. pp. 119. (Bulletin No. 74, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891. Price, 15 cents.) Since the publication of the latest previous catalogue of the minerals of this state in 1881, there has been great activity in the development of its mining: and by the reopening of old localities and the discovery of new deposits, a considerable number of species have been added. The author states that “ minerals formerly supposed to be rare are now found abundantly, and through the recent developments of chemical industry even such unusual species as samarskite, mouazite and zircon have acquired commercial importance. For example, in response to an in- dustrial demand, North Carolina has supplied zircon and monazite by the ton, and samarskite by the hundred weight; and the output can be increased almost indefinitely.”” Many new analyses are presented in this memoir. Record of North American Geology for 1887 to 1889, inclusive By Nexson Horatio Darton. pp. 173. (Bulletin No. 75, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, 1891. Price 15 cents.) The scope of this record includes Geo- logic publications printed in North America, and publications relating to North American geology wherever printed. The entries, which are all arranged in a single alphabetic sequence, comprise authors’ names, with full titles of separate papers and concise descriptive notes of their contents ; titles of journals, state and national government reports, etc., under which authors and short titles of the contained papers are given ; and subject references, which are geographic, stratigraphic, and mis- cellaneous. A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States. ( second edition ). Com- piled by Henry Gannerr, Chief Topographer. pp. 393. (Bulletin No. 76, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1891. Price, 25 cents.) This work contains consider- ably more extensive data than its earlier edition, which was published in 1884; the additions being mainly altitudes determined by railroad sur- veys. Itis also more convenient for reference, as all the points noted Review of Recent Geological Literature. 343 are arranged in a single alphabetic list, instead of the former separate grouping for each state and territory. Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator. By Epwarp Wuyn- PER. pp. Xxiv, 456 ; with four maps, 20 full page illustrations, and 118 figures in the text. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892.) In this very interesting narrative of the author’s mountain climbing in Equador, the geographer, geologist, archeologist, meteorologist, botan- ist, and zoologist (especially the entomologist),encounter many valuable scientific notes. Mr. Whymper found that a stay during several days at high altitudes accustomed him to endure the rarified atmosphere with less discomfort. Mercurial barometers were used for the determi- nation of the great hights of Chimborazo (20,498 feet), Cotopaxi (19,613 feet ), Antisana ( 19,335 feet ), Cayambe (19,186 feet ), and the other some- what less lofty volcanic cones of this portion of the Andes. The best aneroid barometers were found to be very unreliable at the altitude of Quito (9,350 feet), and during all the high ascents, so that they required careful comparison with the mercurial column for learning the irregular variations in their index-errors. The genus Lituites, Breyn.—Dr. Gerhard Holm publishes in the Pro- ceedings of the Geological Society of Stockholm (Vol. 15, pp. 736 et al.) a valuable contribution to this genus, especially so far as relates to the lobes. He was fortunate enough to obtain some beautifully preserved specimens of ZL. litnus Mont., L. tenucaulis Rem, and some other forms, among which is one new one (L. dzscors). He finds that there are in com- plete specimens no less than five lobes, with the exception of LZ. discors Holm, in which there are three lobes, and ZL. precurrens, in which there are only two. There is, however, some doubt about this last species, and it may probably have to be referred to another genus. RECENT PUBLICATIONS. I, State and Government Reports. Indiana. Department of Geology and Natural History. Sixteenth Annual Report. Maurice Thompson, State Geologist. 1888. pp. 472, 10 plates and Natural Gas Map. Indianapolis, 1889. Sulletin of the U. 8. National Museum, No. 42. A Preliminary De- scriptive Catalogue of the Systematic Collections in Economic Geology and Metallurgy in the Museum, by F. P. Dewey. pp. 256 with plates. Washington, 1891. Report on the Coal Measures of the Plateau Region of Alabama, by H. McCalley; with a Report on the Coal Measures of Blount county, by A. M. Gibson, Geological Survey of Alabama. pp. 238, with map and sections. Montgomery, 1891. Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Nineteenth 844 The American Geologist. May, 1892 Annual Report, for 1890, by N. H. Winchell. pp. 255 with illustrations. Minneapolis, 1892. IT. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. xiv, Nos. 3 and 4 contain: Manual of the Paleontology of the Cincinnati Group, by Jos. F. James; Description of some Subcarboniferous and Carboniferous Cephalopoda, by 8. A. Miller and Chas. Faber. Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 1891, Part 111 contains: Notes on some little known American Fossil Tor- toises, by Dr. G. Baur; A new Meteoric iron from Garrett Co., Md., by A. E. Foote; Preliminary Notice of some Minerals from the Serpentine Belt, near Easton, Pa., by John Eyerman. CORRESPONDENCE. THe DELTAS OF THE Monawk.— Pending further investigation, per- mit me to make the following brief preliminary statement relating to observations bearing on the origin of the terraces of the Mohawk valley and the Iroquois beach. The terraces of the Mohawk valley are strongly developed, especially along its north or Adironack side. Each terrace is associated with some tributary of the Mohawk. More and longer streams enter from the north than the south, and they tlow down steeper slopes and have greater transporting power. Each terrace is built up about the mouth of a stream in the form of a delta,as though the stream had entered a lake or estuary of still water. In a few instances where there is a consider- able distance between the larger tributaries there is no terrace. In general, the magnitude of the terraces appears to be proportional to the size of the streams which made them. The long heavy terrace below Herkimer appears to be the delta of Canada creek, which is the largest tributary from the north. This great deposit choked the Mohawk valley from side to side for a considerable distance, and was probably the agent which turned the river out of its old bed and forced it over the rocky ledge at Little Falls a few miles below. If these terraces are in fact deltas, then the water in which they were made must have been either a lake or a marine estuary. Prof. Merrill has already described estuarine deltas along the Hudson from New York city to Fishkill, rising toward the north, and then again at Albany and Schenectady at an altitude of 340 feet. If the old Hudson marine estu- ary reached Albany it was. probably continuous with the post-glacial submergence of the Champlain basin. In this event it is hard to see how the Mohawk valley could have escaped being a marine estuary also. If it was, then the great deposits near Albany can hardly have been made by the Mohawk, but are probably the delta of the upper Hudson, This explanation comports best with the delta-form terraces of the Mo- Correspondence. B45 hawk which were plainly formed in the same water body. The upper Hudson is by far the largest stream descending from the Adirondacks and would naturally build a correspondingly large delta. At Rome the level of the Iroquois beach projected into the Mohawk valley appears to find a perfect continuation in the water-plane in which the terraces were formed. If the Mohawk was a marine estuary and had free connection with the Iroquois basin on the level of its great beach, it seems natural to conclude that the Iroquois beach is also of marine origin. No doubt a great glacier-dammed lake once filled the Ontario basin and had a river outlet past Rome down the Mohawk. But a ma- rine invasion of later date may have obliterated its marks and built up over them the present estuarine deltas of the Mohawk and the Iroquois beach. The fall of 100 feet in the old water level from Rome to Schen- ectady is not necessarily the fall of a river, but is probably a part of the general ncrthward rise, or a mere local variation. What I have seen thus far indicates that the terraces of the Mohawk are estuarine deltas and not true river terraces. F. BursLey TAyLor. Fort Wayne, Ind., April 9, 1892. A Correction. Note on the Paper on Devonian Rocks of Buchanan County, Towa, in the Americun Geologist for September, 1891—In the paper mentioned in the title of this note I made the statement that beds of brecciated limestone lie at the base of the Devonian series in Buchanan county, Iowa, and that this was succeeded by the Independence shales. The Independence shales were originally exposed by putting downa shaft in the bottom of what is known as the old Kilduff quarry, near In- dependence. In this shaft, beds containing Gyroceras and Gypidula were found immediately overlying the shales, but none of the beds showed any signs of being brecciated. Beds of brecciated limestone are ex- posed in the bed of the river below the bridge at Independence, and it was concluded that since no such beds were found above the shales at Kilduff’s, the breccia must lie below them. Subsequent observations, made more thoroughly and in detail, revealed this state of affairs: The Gyroceras beds to a thickness of twenty feet or more, have in general, over an area reaching at least from Fayette to Troy Mills, been broken up, and the angular fragments re-cemented to form the brecciated lime- stone so conspicuous at many widely separated points within the Devon- ian area of Iowa. The beds affected were not entirely converted into breccia, for it is occasionally found to be the case that over patches sev- eral rods in diameter the Gyroceras beds, with their associated layers, retain their original position undisturbed. It would seem that the shaft at the Kilduff quarry passed through one of these undisturbed patches, and so led to the conclusion that the breccia exposed at the bridge in Independence could not be above, but must lie beneath, the shales. Those who are interested will kindly note this correction in connection with the article in the Gronoarst, Vol. VIII, p. 142. A few points have been found where the shales, by a little digging, may be seen beneath the breccia. S. CALVIN. 346 The American Geologist. May, 1892 PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Torpocgrarnic Map or tHE Unirep Stratres.—Mr. Henry Gan- nett, Chief of the Topographic work of the United States Survey, is the author of an elegant suite of maps of the United States re- cently printed by the survey. Last year he issued a limited edi- tion of a large map of the series in nine sheets, which recently have been reprinted in a reduced scale of 50x20 inches upon a single sheet. The map is intended primarily to show the hypsometric and drainage features of our country, with a minimum of political features. only sufficient to enable the natural features to be located. The altitudes are shown by contour lines printed in brown, the streams in blue and _ political features in black. Va- rious editions are issued showing either one, two or all these features, and are artistically and beautifully printed. These maps are an invaluable addition to the cartography of our country, not only for their educational value, but as appro- priate bases for the platting of physiographic and geologic data of every kind, and Mr. Gannett has done a_ service to science by their preparation. Pror, H. 8. Witttams, professor of geology at Cornell Uni- versity has accepted the chair of geology at Yale University. Pror. JAMES EK. Topp, or Tapor, Lowa, has been elected pro- fessor of geology and mineralogy at the University of South Da- kota, Vermillion. Mr. Rosert ETHERIDGE, WELL KNOWN by his paleontological labors during many years of active work on the geological survey of Great Britain, has retired with well-earned honors, and his place as assistant keeper of the geological department of the British Museum has been filled by the appointment of Mr. A. Smith Woodward, author of the catalogue of fossil fishes in the British Museum. Mr. Woodward's name is already well known among paleontologists in America, as he visited this country about two years ago, and remained for several months. A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FoR LowA has been provided for by a bill recently passed by the State Legislature. For the support of the survey for the next biennal period the bill appropriates twenty thousand dollars. The Geological Board will consist of the Goy- ernor, the State Auditor, the President of the University, the President of the Agricultural College, and the President of the Towa Academy of Science. A coursE oF University Extension Lectures on World Making has been given at Davenport, Des Moines and Iowa City, by professors from the State University of Iowa. The success attending these lectures shows that the intelligent public may easily become deeply interested in geological problems. a’ frees oe ee eee “- - , : SORA Selena cna onde Whe OOF Math ese ty ee P i> > he , — 7 yy = a ‘ ‘ bao» . cary . Py 4 - ‘ 4 ., VIII. Vou. IX, PLATE ae Ko Runiceee ' HHH P23 Sa ee a Cane me | vei 23 | eA | oa © é Ore a2 > WE se Sy tee SEP: CAS pS : a SS EP ehs ek Se ee eR : Bart S B .7 aro is Sete S oye ] m & BARN Gaichl HT, pe Am oy Ye dr eee | ee fos b= 5 ape tae > ae = A oe a cs pity a = ie = : = uf ——— SaaS EEE! pea <=s ieee — OE a a . SSS ——— —- —<———- So ee ee ee ae ————— _————7 Se it i — ——— es ee ——- ——— eo ta ee en enn wae iis —caesane comme eemcersaiio’ com a oss SSS ee ESS SS _— ES ee et C—O a ay OF DOUBLE MOUNTAIN, STONEWALL COUNTY. SECTION THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST Vou, IX. JUNK, 1892. No. 6 THE DOUBLE MOUNTAIN SECTION. (Puare VIII) By E. T. DumBLE and W. F. Cummins, Austin, Tex. In pursuance of the work of the survey, in making a section across the Permian strata of Texas, we left Abilene early in Octo- ber, 1889, and traveled north and a little east to the contact of the Carboniferous and Permian, on the Clear fork of the Brazos in Throckmorton county. From here we turned directly west crossing the Permian beds to the Double mountains, where we expected to find the contact between the underlying Permian and any Triassic or Jurassic beds which might occur, and the overly- ing Cretaceous. While we found no Jurassic, the section of these mountains is nevertheless of interest, since it is the most northern point in this northwestern portion of the state at which the beds of the Lower Cretaceous are exposed, and the most easterly ex- posure of the Trias which we have been able to recognize. The Double mountains are situated in the southwestern corner of Stonewall county between the Double Mountain fork and the Salt fork of the Brazos, just south of the thirty-third parallel of latitude, and in longitude 100° 25’. They consist in reality of three peaks or buttes, one of which, however, is so situated with reference to the other two as to be invisible on the approach from the southwest in consequence of which they have received their name. ‘T'wo of the peaks present the usual butte structure so characteristic of the Cretaceous hills, when capped with the Ca- 348 The American Geologist. June, 1892 prina limestone. The third, however, is a true peak in form, the hard limestone having been eroded from its top. Lower down the different beds of massive gypsum form benches around the side of the mountains and the clays which form their bases have been washed into innumerable canons which are often entirely impassable. Salt creek, a branch of the Double Mountain fork, is located about four miles east of the mountains. From this creek, which is the beginning of the ascent, to the summit of the highest peak, is by barometric measurement eight hundred and forty-five feet, of which amount three hundred and twenty feet are passed before the ascent of the mountain proper begins, giving it an elevation of five hundred and twenty-five feet above its immediately sur- rounding country. Climbing’ the successive ledges of sand, gypsum, clay and limestone until the summit of the mountain was reached, we ob- tained a view embracing many miles of the country. It stretched out before us gently undulating, open, without timber save here and there a scattering thicket of mesquite. The Salt fork to the north and the Double Mountain fork to the south wound their ways eastward toward their junction as slender threads of yelicw- ish red. Very few evidences of settlement were to be seen. On the flats were many water-holes filled by the recent rains, and cat- tle could be seen scattered here and there in all directions. To the svuth, probably as much as twenty-five or thirty miles, a series of flat topped hills were seen stretching along the horizon, while to the west, at avery considerable distance, there were three or four buttes of similar form to that on which we were standing, and which we took to be Mt. McKinzie and its neigh- bors. These were backed by the blue scarp of the Staked Plains. Kiowa peak, some thirty miles to the north, was invisible. GENERAL SECTION. Section of the eastern peak of Double mountain, beginning atthe top: ae || 2S ERs « ; } a 1. Caprinay limestone... eee eee Sone teste Ulan a + 2 Comanche Peak’series, ..)...0...1 een oe eee ee 3 a +8. Drinity Gent eee ee ee tats ert a — B —~ -— J 8a. ‘Dockumey.cee eee ee Jca'ehthe seater ne Olin TRIASSIC Double Mountain Section. —Dumble and Cummins. 349 z | 4, Shaly clay, underlaid by red or terra-cotta _ aS BAU StOME ater |, c/n save Staye.e: sinera ve 105 feet. 2 HOM PEE GyPSUMIAWAS A etic i saeerne “onece ss OO * = HomNt dlr Gry MSW SUS eis ate teicieietave,si0=t2 «ences we. horas = lt WUNVeR GW OBUNEE DEUS. tattle aae ss eases sss 135 “* CRETACEOUS. 1. Caprina Limestone. The Caprina limestone which caps the mountains has a total thickness of forty feet. It is deeply fissured in places, and the rapid erosion of the softer underlying materials has scattered its debris down all sides of the mountain. In structure, it presents the usual characteristics of this limestone and on the surface often shows a ferruginous weathering of the Caprina so common in western Texas. The rock inthis locality contains many Hippurites of large size,and tbe Caprina forms found in it are varied and some of them heretofore unknown. ‘They have, however, since been found in rocks of the same horizon, in an exposure on Barton ereek near Austin, and also at other localities in Western Texas. 2. Comanche Peak Serivs. The rocks of the Comanche series are here separable apparently into three distinct divisions, the upper of which is a series of im- pure argillaceous limestones having an entire thickness of twenty feet, the top being much more shaly than the bottom. The fossils are very numerous and well preserved, but diligent search failed to show a single Grypha pitcheri in it. The second division is somewhat similar in composition but more indurated and is of a yellow color. Some of the fossils in this bed had been altered into calcite. In it we found very few specimens of Gryphuwa pitchert. The third division consists of a shaly limestone con- taining a great abundance of very small fossils overlying a marly limestone, which is in turn underlaid by the Gryphea conglom- erate, which here as elsewhere is almost a solid mass of individ- uals of this species. The fossils throughout are abundant and well preserved, and correspond in the main with those of typical sections farther east. 3. Trinity Beds. Immediately underlying the Gryphwa conglomerate is a bed of yellow sand about ten feet in thickness, which at the time of making the section was considered as the upper portion of the 350 The American Geologist. Tune, 1892 Trinity sands. It differed, however, from the beds previously referred to this horizon in Texas, in the fossils which were found in it. These consisted of anoyster which differed from O. frank- Jini Coquand, and is now recognized as a new species, Pleurocera strombiformis Schloth, Exogyra texana Roemer, Gryphwa pitch- eri Mort. The association of these fossils in this way had not been reported previously, and in order to be certain of their ex- istence together in the same stratum we dug into the bed far enough to prove it absolutely. Since later investigations have shown the ‘‘Alternating Beds” to be a part of the Trinity sands, and the fussiliferous part, and that at their thinning out on the northern border the fossils still continue for a limited distance in a caleareous sand, this bed would seem to indicate a similar con- dition at this locality, and that it should be referred to the ‘‘Al- ternating Beds” of the Trinity division: Otherwise it would ap- pear to be a transition bed between the Trinity sands and the Comanche group. Underlying the yellow sand are twelve feet of purple and mot- tled sand which are very gypsiferous, and below them we find a bed of cross bedded indurated sands.