erated mal jaok\ laine egos AND AYE . ‘ty 8 ; wy awe Aw ¢ y : wy " v ‘ aS F “ x c iM gos oe of! a we as f f : a. me 4 4 RA NAS ‘95,44 AAD | ‘ ok “¢ Pilea. 4 5 Lene | ee wl we es ww Agi haere, Ger Pan A v POA eR LAA re ‘oso yo. a hn SG A : (oe 3 { peta te! : a ‘ Rea. | evita by Le QR Rs pPRA Det OP AAB oe gter” iy inl { \ ww Ve HAY \| | ~ q aA : Oe sete d A Mr ygqe doegeer¥ ba , epi W wwe “Way M4. 2 oes Ny Pet Stine Sy siete) tet! weetereey Se bd ob. Lust ake WATTLE TEL ee Sta, cen toa ‘ee gi 44 é a 0g an es as} ao ae . Bee a. TTT vat aves ANF 1] Nie A, greta = “Se ae odd nyse Li ce MDAC uT NNO nants dates gerade otra i ay shed! 4 Ags ae, Ue 24 ws 2 a Pelt bob Bares ier la) se dreo geal eae. ue ; My Meets” 4 sf VeCwtit aes A. Aso ete . teeaet .: Noh AS > a 5a ipedh an ith seman & @ a rae oa avi atl ™ iBee , ae er re ¢ " ’ 6° vF snoge ( ® pL o”@ a4" patel! fii | = ie iti ATs yea POLE ee! Lalas i LL ay Beiece TD. wanes RA iy) a Sal q . : ; 4 Pa a 52 \ a hl bat Pe yr 7 Oe, Pha a0 } @ Fag be * \a ‘aa bab val > weet ~ 8 i ae At: Pri ane s\ e a e e : | bee | it" pewwmhe : ate Sah he N 7 J q { Pa 4 i v~@ | ee rar Le ANd Stas ay sly uy! 4 hepth ve shes xt Why Al vy! “eey es fy ew, r : is tee bs 3 p- ie Wiese Ulu eceerec pie edepeee on sige riipevrweslill yen d Oe AL or Se wOy ‘, Fae VI Be ei he of ec ae | aie: age Yale 7 | ed { We un WW” Mitte rAd teal gu sind is: linsunveuse b Joon MM Ve a oon.v © AND S edo THAT thy eiwee AW | wiigls jaghitaay” yp. Wily if itd jews eT iy". “ POTTS oem oy! N EDM Nya. wy vw "4 diy? oC AG ey E ere ad 4 > & we * i , : a sae tre ad é Ties, beh | y Vat Oates te {tts di haat] Wal fA ii wry tt UY ia sy 4 dd a] Ver @ Se yes av Rau = 3 th... & ~i : ae eee OR ht Tas bl ob TO Seed ae We potteetl " ¢ > a. The preceding form a complete series of a unique set of rocks so far as Tasmania is concerned. To the geologist they are important as being the youngest matrix of gold in the colony. The trachytes appear to have shed the gold which has been won on the alluvial field at Lyming- ton and found in the gullies on Mt. Mary. They are in places veined with quartz, but it is not at all clear that the quartz itself is auriferous, and the veins have not the characteristics of true fissures. We have seen some sand collected from a creek about’ a mile back from Little Oyster Cove towards Port Cygnet, which contains flaky gold, more or less waterworn, with numerous melanite garnets, zircons, and small crystals of sphene. It is a sand which is evidently the detritus of the garnetiferous trachytes, and the occurrence in it of gold associated with the minerals just named supports the idea that the trachytes are the source of the gold throughout the whole province. There is nothing intrinsically inconsistent in the occurrence of gold in the quartz veins of trachytes. Tt is found in various parts of the world in much younger trachytes and andesites than these, though the gold- bearing reefs in the rest of Tasmania are of older date and traverse Silurian slates and sandstones. But, so far as we can see at present, there is no trustworthy -evidence to show that the Port Cygnet quartz veins are auriferous, while, on the other hand, there is some reason for believing the trachytes themselves to contain sparingly disseminated gold, especially where they are silicified and brecciated. The miners are pursuing the right course in selecting these tuffaceous and siliceous zones for exploration. Unfortunately the mining work which is being carried on has not so far proved the existence of the precious metal in the matrix in anything like payable quantities. Whether the gold has been concentrated anywhere to a greater extent than in the parts hitherto exploited, remains for future search to decide. The pyrite in these rocks has so far proved non-auriferous. 24 ON HAUYNE-TRACHYTE AND ALLIED ROCKS. CONCLUSION. We have abstained from referring to several additional minor varieties of trachytic rock which we have collected, and which differ slightly from the foregoing, but their minute description in this connection would serve no practical purpose, and we doubt not the discovery of further types will reward the diligent collector. The results of our enquiry may be conveniently summarised as follows :— 1. All round the arm of the Huon, known as Port Cygnet, there is an extensive development of porphyritic rocks, which are phonolitic or soda-trachytes containing haiiyne, aegirine, analcime, and cataphoritic hornblende. Some of these furnish the finest examples of orthoclase felspar crystals to be found in the island. 2. The trachytic area extends to Little Oyster Cove on the N.E., to the N. of Lovett as far as Sugar Loaf Hill, to the S. of Lovett as far as Lymington and the Huon, but requires further exploration beyond these limits. 3. The trachytes are lava sheets contemporaneous with Permo-Carboniferous sandstones and mudstones. 4, Associated with these trachytic lavas and their tuffs are allied plutonic and dyke rocks, also of a sodic nature ; viz., alkali-syenite (containing elaeolite) and haiiyne- aplite. 5. There is an interesting development of melanite- garnet in the trachytes and syenite. This garnet seems to run through the whole series, and is a constituent of the auriferous sands of the district. 6. The dark green rock of the locality described in the older literature as “‘ metamorphic,” and looking such to the naked eye, is shown by the microscope to be egirine- trachyte, full of minute acicular crystals of the green soda pyroxene egirine. 7. Gold has been found at Lovett, Lymington, and Little Oyster Cove, mostly alluvial, a minute quantity 7n situ. It is highly probable that the alluvial gold has been derived from the trachyte, disseminated therein in small quantities. The few quartz veins in the trachyte do not seem to have collected this gold to any special extent, though what gold has been found in the matrix has occurred in their neighbourhood. The quartz is so closely associated with, and banded with, trachyte that the assay results are inconclusive. Appearances are against these quartz veins being true lodes. $. This highly intéresting, though small, peculiar petro- graphical province is a purely local one, confined, so far as BY W. H. TWELVETREES AND W. F..PETTERD. 25 ‘we know, to this part of Tasmania. Its unexpected dis- covery may be placed to the credit of the young and -expanding science of microscopical petrology.” * Since writing the above we have seen Prof. Rosenbusch’s new work -on the Elements of Petrology (Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 1898), in which he groups the trachytes and quartzless porphyries (orthophyres) in one family. He says, (pp. 265-6), ‘* Orthophyres differ from trachytes only in their greater age and consequent inferior preservation, viz., in the more frequent red and brown color, diminished porosity of the ground-mass, dull aspect of the felspars and extreme decomposition of the colored constituents. Fresh orthophyres cannot be distinguished from trachytes.” Referring to the sanidine in orthophyres, he adds, ‘(p. 266) :—‘ In the quartzless porphyries sanidine has mostly, though by no means always, surrendered its glassy habit, and possesses the habit and often the red color of orthoclase.” ON HAUYNE-TRACHYTE AND ALLIED ROCKS. RG lor) EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fre. 1.—Section of trachyte showing zoned crystal of orthoclase. Mount Mary, S.W. Lovett. x nicols. x 16. Fic. 2.—Section of melanite-trachyte with zoned crystal of melanite-garnet. Cleary’s Hill, N.W. of Lovett. Plain hight xt. Fig. 3.—Section of hatiyne-aplite or hatiyne-trachyte dyke rock, with large Carlsbad twins of sanidine carrying included crystals of haiiyne. Groundmass = crystals of green augite and hatiyne with allotriomorphic orthoclase fel- spar. From Port Cygnet. x nicols. x 16. Fig. 4.—Section of trachyte from back road, two miles N.W. of Lymington. Porphyritic crystals. = sanidine in Carls- bad twins and zoned, plagioclase, green hornblende and augite. x nicols. x 16. Fig. 5.—Section of haiiyne-trachyte from Livingstone Hill, N.E. of Lovett, showing large porphyritic sanidines. ‘The dark hexagon on the left represents melanite-garnet ; the smaller’ crystal below it is green augite. Surround- f ing these two crystals are small forms of haitiyne. x nicols. x 16. Fia. 6.—Section of green aegirine-trachyte from beach 8. of Lovett. Porphyritic sanidine and augite. Groundmass = rods of pale green aegirine and prisms of sanidine. with fluxion structure. Plain hie htoyie KH, axis of maximum elasticity | ¢. The tourmaline often enwraps grains of quartz. The quartz contains vacuum bubbles in fluid inclusions in considerable: quantity. Last year a note on datholite as occurring in the Cole- brook limurite was submitted by one of us to the society, (T) and we have since taken occasion to examine this mineral microscopically, In thin section it is colourless, but in polarised light the interference colours are high, comprising the tints of the second and third orders of Newton’s seale.. The double refraction is slightly under that of augite. In * Massige Gesteine. H-. Rosenbusch, 1896, p. 103. + Notes on some recently discovered and other minerals occurring in. Tasmania. W. F. Petterd, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1897, p. 63. @ BY W. H. TWELVETREES AND W. F. PETTERD. 59 the only direction in which the 001 imperfect cleavage lines appeared the extinction was straight. No pleochroism is perceptible. The mineral contains microscopical fluid in- clusions with moving bubbles, some of which are easily visible with a _ haif-inch objective, other bubbles are stationary. Another new mineral, which may be added to the list of components of this singular rock, is the boro-calcium sili- cate danburite, famous for its crystallographic resemblance to topaz. It is disseminated through the stone and abundant on fissure planes in glistening irregular crystal aggregates, looking like quartz; but with a hackly kind of fracture. It is colourless to pale yellow. Under the microscope the relief in Canada balsam is weak, a little less than that of quartz. It gives allotriomorphic interlocking: granular sections like grains of a quartzite, and is of startling limpidity. Its interference colour is low, not above the yellow of the first order. Its only inclusions appear to be needles of actinolite. On one of our slides we notice in the clear substance of the axinite some pale green sub-spheroidal and polygonal translucent crystals generally made up of rods or fibres somewhat curved, proceeding from the periphery to the interior. These remind one of the decomposition pro-- ducts of borocite called “parasite” by Volger (*), a hydrous magnesian borate. The wavy fibres are suggestive of some of the forms met with in precipitations from a saturated solution, and the phenomena seem to point to the existence of an excess of boric acid in the rock magma.. As the serpentinous and gabbroid rocks at and to the west of the Colebrook must be more ancient than the Colebrook dyke, and if our interpretation be correct, also older than the phrase of activity in the granite basin, it follows that we have here some light thrown upon the question of the age of the granite of the West Coast. We do not now formulate a theory of its age, but simply observe that the limurite rock will probably be found to. constitute one of the factors to be reckoned with in settling that question. * Zirkel, Mik Besch, min und Gesteine 1873, p. 226. NEPHELINE AND MELILITE ROCKS FROM SHANNON TIER. By W. H. TWELVETREES, F.G.S., AND W. F. PETTERD, C.M.Z.S. oe WE received recently from the Mines Department some specimens of rocks from the Shannon district, where they had been looked upon as indicating the possible occurrence of tinand gold. Mr. George Allison, of Hunterston, kindly supplemented these, and outlined for us their geological occurrence on that estate, and from his descriptions we are able to indicate broadly the features of the locality. The Shannon Tier forms there a high plateau of mesozoic dolerite which rises a thousand feet above the Permo-Car- boniferous country at its base. On the slope below the Tier are small rounded or conical hills of a dark grey, slightly bluish, basaltic rock; and at the base of or beneath the flanks of these is a strange-looking coarse zeolitic rock called locally “ tourmaline-rock.” This is as much as can be stated at present respecting the geology of this rather remote place. The presence of gold is said to have been established in the tourmaline-rock, but an assay by the Government Analyst did not confirm this. ‘The locality gives us three varieties of eruptive rock, viz., the Mesozoic dolerite, the so-called tourmaline-rock, and the bluish basalt. We may here anticipate by diag- nosing the pseudo-tourmaline rock as nephelinite, and the basalt as melilite-basalt. The geological age of these rocks, so far as can be hazarded without examination on the spot, is probably Permo-Carboniferous for the nepheline and mrelilite rocks. The dolerite is considered to belong to the lose of the Mesozoic era. Dolerite-—This varies in degrees of coarseness, but is the typical ophitic dolerite which occupies the summits of the Central Tiers, and of numerous mountains in every part of the island. It is a holocrystalline plagioclase- augite rock, structurally diabasic, and sometimes, where the augite is chloritised, merging into diabase. The well- formed prisms of labradorite felspar, sometimes long and slender, sometimes stout and short, are cemented together BY W. H. TWELNETREES AND W. F.. PETTERD. 61 by the augite mineral ; and these two elements have com- bined to form a non-vitreous massive rock of essentially the same mineralogical constitution as gabbro. and_ basalt, but as regards grain and structure, intermediate between the two. If we could follow this rock to its deep-seated roots in the earth’s crust, where the pressure was greater and the process of crystallisation correspondingly slower, we should probably find it existing there as coarsely erystalline gabbro. On the other hand, we must not regard its present surface as in any way its original one. Much of it, as well as all the overlying rock, has been removed by denudation. Admitting its intrusive nature, there are two theories of its occurrence which press their claims for acceptance. Seeing that its internal structure agrees closely with that of diabasic sills, has it spread laterally from fissures covering up underlying rocks, and leaving an exposed surface now owing to the removal of the overlying strata ? On this hypothesis, the dolerite on the tiers and the mountain tops is only a capping, and shafts sunk through it would pierce the stratified sediments below. The level contours of the sidimentary beds abutting on the sides or faces of the Tiers, and simulating infraposition, have suggested this explanation, but we have had no demonstration by any actual trial. The enormous thickness of the dolerite is greater than that of any sills known to us. The second hypothesis is that what we see represents the massive intra-telluric part of an immense body of eruptive rock, which, as a whole, never reached the surface, but which everywhere thrust out lateral dykes, parts of which we can still trace in the coal measures. Either explanation is surrounded with difficulties, which extended observation alone can solve. This doleritic rock is a product of the gabbroid magma; but we now proceed to notice an entirely different class of rocks, those which have issued from what Rosenbusch calls a theralitic eruptive magma. Deep-seated rocks give the key to the relationships of the volcanic ones. Hence in modern petrology the latter are referred to or compared with their plutonic representatives. Theralite is a plutonic nepheline + lime soda felspar (occasionally potash felspar) rock, the deep-seated parent of nepheline and melilite basalts. Nephelinite.—This is a nepheline-augite rock. A brief examination serves to show that the long black prisms which form such a striking feature are not tourmaline but augite. The interstices between the jprisms are occupied 62 NEPHELINE AND MELILITE ROCKS. by light brown and yellowish nepheline, which has often -decomposed and originated snow-white radiated aggregates -of the Zeolite natrolite. The proportions of augite and nepheline vary greatly. Sometimes the augite is extremely abundant, otherwise more sparingly distributed. The mineral constitution of the rock may be stated as follows :— Essential minerals = Nepheline, augite. Accessory minerals = Olivine, sanidine, apatite, melanite- garnet, magnetite. Secondary minerals = Natrolite, serpentine. Microscopical characters.—The structure is holocrys- talline, hypidiomorphic. No groundmass is_ present. Nepheline, generally, forms about one-half of the entire rock, sometimes more. It gives large sections bounded by rectangular contours, margined with iron oxide, and sometimes penetrated by augite. Its substance is mostly converted into radiating natrolite : some patches, however, remain water-clear. The clear nepheline encloses slender rods of apatite, as well as other needles, which, from their oblique extinction, we surmise to be augite. The natrolite gives beautiful fan-shaped aggregates, polarising in grey, low yellow, and orange colours. The nepheline crystals -are often cut up by rectangular cracks. The augite is in large prisms of green to violet tints, sometimes showing both colours in the same crystal. Its Maximum extinction angle measured from the fissure lines is 45°. It encloses prisms of apatite. A prominent element of the rock is apatite in long transversely-jointed rods and prisms, some of which are large enough to be visible to the unaided eye. Olivine is an infrequent accessory. It has crystalline contours, the usual rough-— looking surface with irregular cracks, and is associated with some serpentinous material. Some orthoclase felspar is also present in small quantity. Its transparency indi- -cates the sanidine variety. No one who has seen the familiar slides of the nephelinite ‘(or nepheline-dolerite as it has been called), of Katzen- buckel in the Odenwald, can fail to recognise the same type in slices of this Hunterston rock. The latter is the same rock reproduced in the Southern Hemisphere. The “specific gravity of an average specimen was ascertained to be 2°66. Melilite-Basalt.—Associated with the nephelinite is the basaltic rock of the small conical hills referred to above. ‘This is dark grey compact basalt, with porphyritic olivine BY W. Hs. TWELVETREES AND W. F. PETTERD. 63 -and sometimes porphyritic augite. It has a sp. er. of 3-15, and dissolves toa large extent in HCl. Microscopie: ally, it is seen to consist of. crystals and grains of olivine in a groundmass. of crystals of melilite, accompanied by perofskite or picotite. It contains no felspar, neither do we detect nepheline. Nepheline, however, occurs in rocks ‘in such a form as often to be only recognisable by chemical methods, and hence it would perhaps be unsafe to assert its total absence here. The melitite is the most inter- esting element, as we believe it has not been recorded previously in Australasia. It seems to occur only in -one generation, and in thin section yields two forms— the prismatic vertical and the iransyerse section of the prism. The boundaries of the prism are imperfect, show- ing crenulated contours, and the elongated sections show a peculiar mid-rib or median line, often beaded, sometimes repeated as several vertical lines when the crystal is broad enough. According to Dana,* the peg structure of meli- lite, which consists of parallel peg-like inclusions passing from the base inwards, is not always easily seen. We have not seen it in the Hunterston rock, nor in our slices -of melilite basalt from the Capo di Bove, near. Rome, and from the Hochbohl, Wiirttemberg. The transverse sec- tions of the mineral in our rock have the grey interference colour of felspar, from which, however, they can easily be distinguished by their cr enulate contours and isotropism in basal sections. They are mostly, but not always, water- -clear, while the longitudinal sections show a prevalent granulation of the substance of the ‘mineral. There is none of the blue interference colour, which is sometimes seen, for instance in the Hochbohl rock. Dana regards melilite as crystallising in heu of plagioclase, but Rosen- buscht mentions the fact that while augite and melilite -exist in the rock in varying proportions, their sum remains constant, and that consequently melilite takes the place of the augite, and not of felspar. He correlates melilite-basalt with the trachydolerite-limburgite series. Short prismatic and granular micrélites are abundant ; these are probably augite; nevertheless, the structure is ~holoerystalline. There are numerous minute octrahedra -and grains of a highly refractive dark or imperfectly-trans- lucent mineral, which may be spinel or perofskite. In -one section we have observed a yellow garnet. * A Text-book of Mineralogy, E. S. Dana, 1898, p. 427. + Elemente der Gesteinslehre, H. Rosenbusch, 1898, p. 359. 64 NEPHELINE AND MELILITE ROCKS. We have noticed an extremely fine grained variety in» which augite is dominant in the porphyritic form as well as granular. This would appear to be an intermediate or~ aberrant form tending towards the nepheline melilite basalts. The families of nephelinite, nepheline-basalt, and meli-. lite-basalt are separated by Rosenbusch decisively from ordinary basalts, with which, he says, they have no sort of relation. He groups the three first-named families genetically together, bound to each other by ties of geological valency and association, and forming an integral voleanic or effusive formation, which (with the trachy-- dolerites, tephrites, leucite rocks, imiburgies) and augi- tites ) belongs to theralitic magmas.’ We may here add that we have not yet detected nephe-- line in any of the other Tasmanian basalts. The crystals formerly attributed to nepheline in the Tertiary olivine-- basalts of Northern Tasmania have always seemed to. us to be so invariably associated with longitudinal sections of © apatite as to make it probable that they were the hexagonal transverse sections of the same mineral. A similar con-- fusion seems to have occurred with respect to the Tertiary basalt of Phillip Island, Bass Straits. In a letter recently received from Prof. G. H. R. Ulrich, of Dunedin, he informs us that the late Mr. Cosmo Newberry, not long before his death, analysed the so-called nepheline of that rock and found it to be apatite. One would, however, . expect nepheline-basalts to be associated with nephelinite, and it is highly probable that the Shannon district will still be found to yield those lavas. Viewed from a mining point, these peculiar basaltic rocks do not offer anything particularly encouraging. As they are unique in Tasmania, there is little use in com- paring them with mineral-bearing rocks in other parts of the island. The few localities in the world where such rocks are known to occur are not noteworthy as mining ones. The rocks are altogether incongruous with the notion of tin ore occurring in them; and though. gold is not intrinsically an impossible metal, distributed in excessively small quantities as in some other eruptive - rocks, such as the Port Cygnet phonolitic trachytes for- instance, yet payable gold is, so far as we are aware, eure y unrecorded from this family of stone. *Toid. p. 352. THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES. By James BackHousE WALKER, F.R.G.S. To anthropologists the aborigines of Tasmania pre- sented an exceedingly interesting object of study. Pro- fessor Tylor had remarked that in the tribes of Tasmania, only just extinct, we had men whose condition had changed but little since the early Stone Age, and whose life gave us some idea of the earliest prehistoric tribes of the old world, the Drift and Cave men of Europe. It is therefore much to be regretted that so little informa- tion remains respecting the Tasmanians in their wild state. The early voyagers, especially the French, did their best with the opportunities they had in casual meeting with the aborigines, and have left us exceedingly interesting and valuable accounts of their observations. But their visits were too short and their acquaintance with the natives too superficial to allow them to gain any intimate knowledge of native customs, or ways of life and thought. They could at most note down a few noticeable external characteristics. During the early years of the Colony, when the blacks were, on the whole, friendly, no one thought it worth while to take the trouble of studying their ways, or of making any attempt to investigate their tribal customs. Ifthey had been as picturesque as the Red Indian or the Maori, we should probably have known a great deal more about them. But the scientific study of anthropo- logy had not then begun, and the blacks were so low in the scale of civilization that they were deemed unworthy of attention. For no one then recognised that it was the very fact of their being at the bottom of the scale that would have made a thorough knowledge of their ideas of such interest and importance. 66 THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES. Even after the aborigines were imprisoned on Flinders, when such opportunities lay close to the hand of Dr. Milligan and others, it is sad to reflect how little was done. ____ THE rock on which these notes have been written occurs as a basaltic flow in a small promontory, on the far side from Hobart, of Sandy Bay. The geological age of basaltic flows and tuffs is given by Mr. R. M. Johnston (Systematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania, p. 249 et seq.) as being younger than the tertiary leaf-beds, and from the occurrence of this rock and its associates, sections of which. can clearly be seen on the Brown’s River Road, there seems to be no reason for doubting that the age ascribed is approximately correct. The average thickness of the flow is on the exposed section about nine feet, and the extent of the sheet, as far as it can be traced, is not great. (Jbid., p. 281.) This paper has been written rather to give an account of the peculiar Petrographical character of this rock than to attempt a description of its geological occurrence, and further, such an attempt would only be a trespass on ground already well worked. In the title the name “ Fayalite Basalt” has been used as descriptive of this rock. This term may be open to some criticism when we consider the definitions given by the leading authorities of the term “ Basalt.” | For example, Rosenbusch defines basalt as a rock consisting essentially of olivine, augite, and plagioclase, and regards such rocks as the tertiary and recent equivalents of olivine, diabase, and melaphyre. This rock will answer the requirements as to geological age, but not those relating to mineralogical constituents, for in some seven sections examined not a trace of augite was discovered. Olivine exists as the red variety Fayalite (FeO, SiO,), and plagio- clase felspar, probably as labradorite. This peculiar mineralogical composition involves almost a total absence of magnesia, and this absence is confirmed by chemical analysis, the result of which is given below. From a structural point of view the term “ Fayalite Basalt,” seems 78 “PAYALITE BASALT.” to be justifiable. The terms “ Dolerite,” “ Anamesite,” and “ Basalt” are here applied respectively to the coarsely textured, finely textured, but still visible to the naked eye, and the very finely textured or microscopic varieties. This rock, then, would preferably be classed as a basalt as regards texture, though the fayalites are just visible to the naked eye. Briefly, therefore, this rock is a basalt in which fayalite has replaced augite and olivine. Macros- copically, the rock is of a dark, compact appearance ; fracture, conchoidal. The fayalite crystals are just visible as small dark red spots, which stand out clearly under an ordinary hand lens. The specific gravity obtained by weighing in air and water, of two specimens is 2°81. According to Von Lasaulx the specific gravity of basalt varies from 2°80 to 3:00. The following is a chemical analysis of an average specimen of fragments taken from the upper, middle, and lower zones of the flow, care being taken to avoid weathered fragments :— SiO, ate aM a bee we 47°21 ALSO sore tae. a £33 ust .. 16°06 ‘ HekO eh sss Ba ~~ ae te Si ‘ FeO ain aa ne ans pe iy: eae} CaO Wes ba See wee OL MgO Lure sate ies a0 pa 12 K,0O asus Bes esi ae joo ee >. Na,O me ee seu Rasy ee fois Ignition Loss 2°55 Total... ae .. 99°49 From the’ nature of the case, that is on account of the: eradual merging of different varieties of rocks, it is difficult to state definitely a typical average analysis of Basalt, but most analyses show’ MgO in considerable quantity, say, -from two or three to seven or eight per cent., and in several analyses’ of this rock only traces of MgO were obtained. This would ‘point to the olivine mineral being true Fayalite, that is, FeO, SiO,. Not having material for Specific Gravity solutions, we were unable to separate any of the fayalite crystals and confirm this point, but trust, at some future time, to investigate this matter, and bring the results of our investigations before the Society. The following is a brief account of the microscopic characters displayed in thin section by this rock :—The most striking mineral under the microscope is Fayalite, which appears in crystals and grains of a beautiful orange- yellow colour in ordinary transmitted light. In thicker BY O. E. WHITE AND W. A. MACLEOD. 79 sections the tint deepens to a fine red. In the majority of cases the Fayalites exhibit crystalline outlines, the pris- matic form predominating, and giving excellent longitu- dinal and cross sections. Here and there occur patches of Fayalite exhibiting no discernable crystalline outline. In length the crystals vary from 0°5 m.m. downwards. The inclusions visible under a high power (one-sixth inch) appear to be apatite and needles of felspar, and perhaps glass, though, on account of.their minute dimensions, it is difficult to obtain good extinctions under crossed. nicols. Under crossed nicols the Fayalites exhibit the ordinary interference colours and the normal extinction of rhombic crystals. Pleochroism is not noticeable. We have noticed neither augite nor olivine in any of the sections examined, and most probably these are entirely absent in this rock. Apatite was mentioned above as occurring in the Fayalites. It is also found here and there in the base as long needles of a faint violet-brown tint, and exhibiting pleochroism from a very faint brown tint to a deeper violet-brown (EH > O). On treating a section with hydrochloric acid the apatites slowly dissolved out, leaving the glass slip visible underneath. The Fayalites were also attacked, though less rapidly. The base consists of a ground-work of glass, penetrated with needles and fine laths of felspar running in all directions, the whole being thickly dusted with grains of magnetite. The felspars exhibit extinction angles, varying from 40° to 48°, which, according to Michel Levy’s table for microlites, indicates a basic felspar, pro- bably labradorite or anorthite. The percentage of lime (7:34°/, CaO) in the analysis, and also that of the alkalies, some 9°/., point to the felspar being labradorite (in which the proportion of alkalies to lime is approximately one to three) mixed with a little andesine or some more acid felspar. This supposition is based on the assumption that the base isof the same composition as the microlites of felspar,—-a somewhat doubtful hypothesis. This rock appears to have followed the normal order of consolidation,—the apatite and magnetite consolidating first, then the Fayalite and felspars. It is difficult to determine exactly the relation of the Fayalite to the felspar microlite, for, included in the Fayalite crystals, appear thin rods, which in some cases are glass, but in others are doubtful, on account of the difficulty of obtain- ing good extinctions under crossed nicols. All the microscopic characteristics point to the conclusion that it 80 “ PAYALITE BASALT.” consolidated quickly, and under little pressure. Sections were taken from both the top and bottom of the flow to determine if there was any difference in these two regions, but the results were disappointing, and it would clearly require a flow of much greater thickness to give any distinct points of difference in crystallisation due to pressure. This rock appears to stand the influence of the weather and sea, and little sign of decomposition was noticed in any of the sections, though here and there, in some of the more weathered sections, traces of some chloritic mineral were seen. If occurring in larger flows it would no doubt make a good stone for such purposes as the foundations of buildings, road-metal, &c. Appended are two water-colour drawings of Sections— No. 1. Low power (x 50) showing (a) fayalite crystals ; (b) apatite crystal. The relative proportions of Fayalite and base are here shown. No. 2. Shows a fayalite crystal under a higher power (x 300). The small rod-like inclusions are here shown ; also the character of the felspar microlite and magnetite grains in the base. Both drawings are taken under ordinary light. 81 A TASMANIAN SPECIES OF HALYSITES. (By R. Erueriper, Jun., Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney.) Mr. Thomas Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., has been kind enough to afford me the opp rtunity of examining a Tasmanian species of Halysites from the River Mersey, between Liena and Mole Creeks. Unfortunately, it has undergone so much alteration by secondary replacement that specific identification is rendered very difficult and uncertain. In 1862 the late Mr. Charles Gould published a report on “ Macquarie Heads,” giving a list of fossils from the Gordon River Limestone, and mentioned, amongst others, a species of the genus in question. Mr. Stephens has favoured me with the following extract from the report in question—‘ The following are the observations* which I made at the last meeting of the Royal Society with regard to the fossils contained in this limestone : — ‘In these rocks fossils are abundant; they are only con- spicuous, however, in that portion of tue beds exposed to the action of running water. It is exceedingly difficult to ascer- tain their presence on a fractured surface, although they may be abundantly concealed in the specimens, and the ordinary atmospheric agencies appear to simply disintegrate the rock without causing the specimen to be exposed in relief, as is the case with many of those upon the table. Hence it follows that the ground for collecting fossils is limited to the surface of the rocks, between the level of the water and about 30ft. above it, the greatest heights io which floods attain—as might be anticipated. The different beds or zones in the formation are not equally fossiliferous, nor do they coutain identical species, one part being conspicuous for the abundance of corals, another of univalve shells, while a third is characterised by containing abundant fragments of large chambered orthocerata, ete. I shall briefly enumerate a few of the most striking, characteristic, aud best preserved forms :— Orthoceratites a aes Mis 2 Lituites has or ae 1 Halvsites ... nie ee sae prey yl Favosites ... he a sue ae ue Raphistoma ... as 1 Orthis was 5 er Ey: a ea a Rhynchonella ve ep ie sara ya) | Euomphalus... ne ies Shi Pen Murchbisonia... ies Sele 3 * Macquarie Harbour—Report of the Government Geologist to Parliament, 29th July, 1862. Tasmanian Parliamentary Papers, 1862. 82 A TASMANIAN SPECIES OF HALYSITES. ‘The collective evidence of these fossils is unmistakable. They are all Silurian, and some of them, especially the Raphistoma and one species of Murchisonia,are Lower Silurian types. pigtalive lithological character and associations of ae strata east and west (that is. across the strike) of this formation is the only evidence of their age, no fossils having yet been discovered in any other of the group of formations ‘comprised in the western country, except the Silurian mudstones, ete., of the Eldon River. There can, however, be little doubt that they are none of them later than Silicon, while some are evidently referable to the very earliest epochs.’ ” To this extract Mr. Stephens adds the following note :— ““This is an extract from a Parliamentary Paper containing Mr. Gould’s Report on the geology of the country east of Macquarie Harbour, including the limestones of the Gordon River. The passage marked by single inverted commas appears to have been read at a meeting “ate the Royal Society, but is not printed among its papers.” In Mr. Stephens’ specimen, the fasciculo-reticulate corallum measures two and a half wide by three inches long. The intersecting reticulations, or fenestrules, as in the recently described H. australis, mihi,+ are variable in size and shape, but again, as in the latter, are round, oval, transversely elongated, irregular, or polygonal (hexagonal and pentagonal), varying in size from six millimetres by four, up to eleven by eight millimetres, and even twenty-five by three, with inter- mediate gradations, and a like variability in the angles of junction of the various plates comprising the corallum. As a rule, the reticulations are longer in one direction than the other, but this does not always hold good. The coral is exposed on the weathered surface of a piece of limestone, and only in a few places can the inner surfaces of the plates be seen, where they project above the surface of the matrix, and are covered by Beekite rosettes. This altera- tion and weathering have so far destroyed the finer points of structure that it is not possible to ascertain the number of corallites with accuracy in any one interstice, but sufficient remains to indicate..that they were numerous. In a few instances the inter-corallite walls are still visible; these are trenchant and narrow, leaving no.-room for the presence of interstitial corallites, similar to those of the well-known H. catenulatus, Linn. The whole of the corallites seem, therefore, to be “normal,” aad indicate that we are dealing with a species of the H. escharoides group, as distinguished from those forms in which there are both normal and inter- stitial corallites, typified by the species first mentioned. +t Rec. Austr. Mus. 1898, iii, No. 4, p. 78. BY R. ETHERIDGE, JUN. 83 These normal corallites, in the present specimen, average one millimetre in length, in the direction of the chain. The alteration that the tissues have undergone is even of a more rigorous nature than that described by me in Halysites australis. The walls are thickened, in places inordinately so, the original tissues where visible being composed of grey or brown sclerenchyma, but for long distances, several milli- metres in fact, the entire wall is replaced by blebs of chalcédonic quartz that have quite destroyed the original matter. At times, although much less frequently, the inter- corallite walls are similarly effaced, but the tabule never. In one particular corallite this thickening has progressed so far as to practically reduce the visceral channel to a mere narrow tube, and another has been similarly reduced by chalcedonic blebs. In a horizontal section prepared for the microscope, where least alteration has taken place, the corallites are seen to be -oval in outline, the inter-corallite walls apparently stout and -Solid, and without any definite proof of the presence of interstitial corallites in them, a very important feature in the structure of Halysites. Here and there are traces of the cut -edges of tabule, and scattered around the edges of the visceral chambers small round bodies are not infrequently seen, of the same colour and texture as the sclereuchyma of the walls. These have a very suspicious resemblance to the distal extremities of septa protruding through the infilling calcite from a lower level, as is so frequently seen in corals of a Favositoid nature. In more than one instance, I believe Ican detect a process protruding more or less horizontally from the wall just as a spiniform septum should. There is .some reason to believe, therefore, that we are here dealing with a septate form, and consequently, in the additional absence of interstitial corallites, with one allied rather to _Halysites escharoides than H. catenulatus, for in these two points lie the great distinction between the species in question. In a vertical section, similarly prepared, I have also quite ‘failed to detect any interstitial corallites. The tabule are -well developed and complete, concave, and from three to four ‘in the space of one millimetre. The conclusions I am led to by an examination of this -coral, and making all allowance for its state of preservation, are—(1) ) That it is distinct from Halysites australis, mibi (2) that it appertains to the group of H. escharoides, rather ‘than to that of H. catenulatus ; (3) whether it is identical with the European H. escharoides is a more difficult question to answer, but I am inclined to think not. This last opinion is based on the much greater size of the .reticulations formed by the lamine, and a laxer form of 84 A TASMANIAN SPECIES OF HALYSITES. growth, in this respect corresponding to H. australis. This: alone, however, cannot be relied on for specific separation, for in the Npmstenna form ascribed to H. escharoides by the late Prof. James Hall,t these particular features differ very greatly from those figured and described in typical European examples by Messrs. Milne-Edwards and Haime.§ Under these circumstances I refrain from passing any positive opinion as to the coral’s specific identity until I have- had an opportunity of examining better preserved examples.. } Pal. New York, 1852, ii. t. 35. § Brit. Foss. Corals, Pt. 5, 1854, p. 272, t. 64, f. 2 and 2a. q 85 NOTES ON A FOSSIL WOOD FROM COX’S BIGHT. By W. A. McLzop, B.A., B.Sc. There being, so far as I can ascertain, no description or notes in the Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania on replacement fossils of wood by iron pyrites, it seems to me not out of place to record some observations on an interesting specimen of this nature from the locality of ‘Cox’s Bight, and kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. Alex. Morton. This specimen was discovered in the tin deposits at Cox’s Bight. _ In appearance it is rather deceptive, and at. first sight its upper half seems like graphite, being of a dull greyish-black colour. The streak also would be apt to deceive, being some- what like that of graphite. The extension of the upper half is smooth, showing a slight longitudinal graining, whilst on the ends traces of the original fibres of the wood may be seen. The upper half is united to the lower in a very distinct manner, just as if the two pieces had been cemented together. The lower and larger half is of an entirely different nature in certain respects to the upper. Its surface, though in a certain degree rounded, is rough, and has the appearance of a fragment of a holocrystalline rock of medium texture which has been subjected to friction in the bed of a river. Embedded in it can be seen by the naked eye small grains of quartz of asubangular and rounded nature. On fracture the two halves exhibit striking differences, In the upper half it may, perhaps, be best described as like that of a piece of charcoal wood, and being at right angles to the grain of the specimen, though of ashghtly rough and uneven character, and the fresh face is of a metallic-grey colour. The lower half, on the other hand, presents a coarse hackly fracture like thai of cast iron, and shows small embedded grains of quartz of a subangular nature. The colour of the fresh face is like that of the upper half, being a metallic-grey. The total length of the specimen is about three inches, the width about three-quarters of an inch, the depth about one inch, the lower portion being larger than the upper. The hardness of the upper half was rather difficult to obtain; the outer surface can be pared away with a knife like a piece of graphite, on account of the finely-divided state of the iron pyrites, but on fracture both the upper and lower portions Lave a hardness approximating that of iron pyrites (6 to 6°5) The specific gravity of the upper portion when taken by weighing in air and in water is low, being 35 instead of 4°5, 86 NOTES ON A FOSSIL WOOD FROM COx’s BIGHT. but on grinding to fine powder, and using the specific gravity bottle method, it is considerably higher. This difference seems to be due to the physical structure, and not to the chemical composition, which shows the upper half to be almost pure iron pyrites (Fe. S.), and can no doubt be: accounted for by the slightly porous nature of the mass, resulting from the original wood tissue being entirely replaced by sulphide of iron. The specific gravity of the lower portion is also slightly low, due to the inclusion of quartz particles. The results of two analyses show the upper half to be almost pure Fe. 8,., with traces of Si. O.,, metals of the copper group, and, perhaps, some carbon, which latter were not determined, owing to insufficient material to operate on. The lower half gave 26 per cent. Si. O.. and 73 per cent. Fe. 8.., with traces of the copper group. No assay of gold and silver was made on account of the smallness of the specimen, though it is probable that traces of these metals would be found. The microscopic examination of this specimen is most interesting and instructive, and shows very clearly the exact nature and derivation, and throws light on the striking physical differences between the upper and lower portions. Using reflected light and a two-inch objective. the fibrous nature of the upper portion is clearly seen, and on the longi- tudinal] surface these fibres, replaced by iron pyrites, appear closely packed together, and retaining remarkably well their original structure. The iron pyrites on the outer portion shows little signs of crystallisation, but towards the centre of the upper portion becomes ‘more dense and semi-crystalline. On a treshly fractured cross section the structure of the upper haif is seen in an even more striking manner than in longitudinal section. The ends of the fibres give circular cross sections and appear as a mass of very minute little rings closely packed together. These longitudinal and cross sections show conclusively the origin of the specimen, though Iam unable to give the exact genus and species of the original wood, but perhaps some of the botanically-inclined members of the Society may be able to clear up this point. The lower portion exhibits none of these peculiarities either in longitudinal or cross section, and merely presents the ordinary appearance of massive iron pyrites with embedded grains of quartz of a subangular form, and is apparently purely a mineral deposit, though the adjacent organic matter probably had some part to play in its deposition from solution. Appended are three water-colour drawings, No. 1 being that of the specimen as seen by the naked eye, a portion having been broken off for analysis; No. 2 a longitudinal view under reflected light with a two-inch objective ; and No. 3 a cross. section under the same power and light, both of the upper portion. BY W. A. MCLEOD, B.A., B.Sc. 87 The history and chemical changes involved present a most interesting study. Neglecting all the complicate processes resulting in the formation of wood from the ingredients of the soil and air, the most important question that presents itself is: “‘ How has a piece of wood become almost totally changed into iron pyrites, that is, a compound consisting of iron and sulphur, in the proportion of one atom of iron to two atom of sulphur ?” It is a well-known fact that iron pyrites can be precipitated from a solution of sulphate of iron by organic matter, and also from the higher sulphate of iron by carbonates, and it is most probably by the former reaction that this specimen was replaced. . The wood, being organic matter, would be the precipitating agent, but there remains the presence of the lower sulphate of iron to be accounted for. This sub- stance is often formed by the reverse process of that above described, that is, when iron pyrites is exposed to the action of air it becomes oxidised into ferrous sulphate, the conditions here being purely oxidising, and in the former case reducing. In many mining districts the waters are largely charged with this sulphate, and frequently large stalactitic crystals are obtained from the roofs of workinzs and drives. Some such occurrence probably caused the water percolating through the drift in which the piece of wood had become embedded to become charged with sulphate of iron which, on coming in contact with the wood, was reduced and iron pyrites was formed, which gradually took the place of the organic matter consumed in the reduction process. From the strong con- trast between the upper and lower portions and from the sharp divisional line, it would appear that the wood had been lying loosely on a deposit of drift containing fine quartz, grains of subangular character, and that the iower half had been precipitated owing to the presence beneath the wood of perhaps decaying organic matter, and so had enclosed particles of the drift on which it was formed. After these changes were completed, the specimen was altered in shape by physical agencies, as is evinced by the rounded water-worn character of the lower and upper portions. The original drift was probably cut into, and to a greater or less extent removed by the agency of water, and the accompanying attrition rounded off any sharp corners, giving a smooth, round aspect to the specimen, and finally the specimen was deposited in the locality where it was dis- covered. It must be remembered that this short historical sketch only presents what seems the most plausible theory which has been presented by chemists and geologists to explain such occurrences. 88 ON THE GENUS KRAUSSINA IN TASMANIA. By W. H. Tweivetrees anp W. FEF. Perterp. In 1852 the late Dr. Davidson established the genus Kraussia (which he afterwards altered to Kraussina) for a small terebratuloid brachiopod with diminutive arms and a very insignificant brachial support, consisting of two diver- gent lamellae or lateral processes branching off right and left from the median septum of the dorsal valve. The genus now accommodates seven species, all recent, viz.:— Kraussina rubra, Pallas. Found off Natal and Port Bliza- beth, South Africa. “4 Cognata, Sowerby. Found off Cape of Good Hope. As Deshayesi, Davidson. Found off Cape of Good Hope, 120 tathoms. oh pisum, Valenciennes. Found off Cape of Good Hope, 150 fathoms. ." Davidsoni, Vélain. Found at the Island of St. Paul, low water mark. si Lamarckiana, Davidson. Found at Port Jackson, N.S.W.; 8.E. Australia ; New Zealand ; Mouth of River Tamar and in Long Bay, Tasmania. Atkinsoni, Tenison Woods. Found Long Bay, South Tasmania, 10 fathoms. Professor Deslongchamps has carried K. Lamarekiana and K. Davidsoni over to a sub-genus Megerlina, possessing two rudimentary septum processes underneath the calcareous forks supporting the brachial (or more strictly speaking, labial) appendages. The two Tasmanian species have engaged our attention. The discovery of comparatively smooth individuals of what appear to be K. Lamarckiana at George Town, near the mouth of the Tamar, has suggested an inquiry as to whether these really belong to that species, and if so, what are the real differences between them and K. Atkinsoni. At the time of Davidson’s last monograph, the latter was regarded as the sole smooth species of its genus. Kraussina lamarckiana is frequent at George Town and between there and the Tamar Heads, at and below low water mark, attached to rocks and large stones. Though the shells BY W. H. TWELVETREES AND W. F. PETTERD. 89 are apt to escape notice, when once they have been recog- nised they are afterwards easy of detection. The peduncle is very short, and consequently the shell adheres to the rock rather closelv. The species has not been recorded elsewhere along the northern coast of Tasmania, and this is quite in accordance with what often bappens in the distribution of brachiopoda. Owing probably to their sedentary habit, numerous individuals of a species are found confined to a small area, while they are absent over the wide distances which separate different colonies of the animals. The Rev. H. D. Atkinson, B.A., informs us that, he has dredged speci- meus in the south of the island in D’Entrecasteanx Chaunel, but that he has never met with any on the North-West Coast. The shell is sub-circular in form and generally strongly ribbed. In the smooth variety, however, the pedunculated valve is somewhat sub-trigonal. This difference, though slight, is sufficient to enable us to separate a_ collec- tion of both kinds at a glancé into two series without even paying attention to the presence or absence of ribs. We have subjected the shell of both varieties to microscopical examination in thin sections, but cannot declare any difference in the pattern or size of the per- forations.. ‘The average diameter of the shell canals is 51,” to sooo > and they are mostly =2,” to -4," apart, measured from centre to centre. Their diameter, where they open on the external surface, is about 51,”. We append illustrations of the perforations found in the Tasmanian shells of this genus. The figures being photographic and not diagrammatic, may be looked upon as trustworthy representations of these singular structures, considered at various times as connected with sensory organs, with respiratory organs, and with pro- cesses of nutrition. After all that has heen written on the subject, their function is still unsettled. Stracturally the perforations are cross sections of vertical or oblique canals in the shell, which receive caecal prolongations of the mantle of the avimal. In this species the brachial apparatus does not materially change with age, and we profess ourselves unable to detect any decided variation in the form of the calcareous lamellae of the smooth and ribbed shells. These supports are minute, and the brachial (or oral) appendages are correspondingly small, being comprised altogether in the central area of the sbell. In shape the oral arms are incurved cirrhated tubes, the cirri of which are about 1/30” long, and from 73, to zon” in diameter. The cirri themselves are hollow tubes, with acuminate terminations and a wavy habit. Professor E. Deslongchamps in separating Kraussina, Megerlia, Terebratulina, Listhyris, and Platydia from the 90 ON THE GENUS KRAUSSINA IN TASMANTA. other brachiopoda, calls attention to the presence of calcareous: spicula in their mantle and its appendages. It is not alto- gether certain that this is a reliable character for forming large groups, and it has yet to be proved that it is of value even tor generic distinctions. From sections which have been made for us by Mr. F. E. ‘urbury, of Launceston, we observe that the fleshy substance of the oral arm in K. Lamarckiana is strengthened in a remarkable manner by an interlocking mass of branching and denticulate spicula, often of a staghorn form. These do not form a continuous net- work, but with care can be disarticulated. Evidently this internal skeleton, as it may be called, supports and fortifies the arms, and is mostly found in the animals which have only short brachial supports, the place of which they thus take to some extent. From what we have gathered from our observations. detailed above, we are inclined to regard the smooth shell as nothing more than a varietal form of Kraussina Lamarckiana. Kraussina Atkinsoni.—This small shell, catalogued by Tenison-Woods, was dredged by the Rev. H. D. Atkinson in Long Bay, D’EHnutrecasteaux Channel. Dr. Davidson says it is the only smooth Kraussina known to him, but as we have just shown, K. Lamarckiana embraces a smooth variety. Davidson has described the shell completely in his monograph of Recent Brachiopoda (p. 127), and we need not repeat what he has done so well. Several specimens have been kindly placed at our disposal by the Rev. H. D. Atkinson, and we have consequently been able to examine thoroughly this little-known shell. The differences between its brachial support, and that of K. Lamarckiana, may be summed up by saying that its lateral lamellae are on a horizontal plane, instead of being directed slightly downwards, and the shape of these is strap- -like instead of being swollen as in K. Lamarckiana. The shell canals, too, are “unusually large, as. may be seen in our illustration. Unfortunately the animal was alsent from the valves entrusted to us, and consequently we have to regret not being able to demonstrate the characters. of the spicula of this little-known species. That it isa good Species, and not a mere variety of K. Lamarckiana, the material at our command is, as we think, sufficient to establish. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Fig. 1.—Transverse section of shell canals of Kraussina lenmarcliane: smooth variety, taken near surface of shell. Salk Ordinary light. Fig. 2,—Oral arm of Kraussina Lamarckiana x17. The photograph has been taken in polarised light, which illumi- BY W. H. TWELVETREES AND W. F. PETTERD. 91 nates the branching network of white spicula, while the fleshy cirri are left dark, and only dimly visible. This method of illumination very effectively demonstrates the way in which the internal spicular skeleton strengthens the arms. Fig. 3.—Transverse section of shell canals of Kraussina Lamarckiana (the typical ribbed kind). This represents nearly the whole thickness of the shell, and shows the oblique direction of the tubular canals x 17. Ordinary light, Fig. 4.—Transverse section of shell canals of Kraussina Atkinsoni. Although the shell is somewhat smaller than K. Lamarckiana, the canals are considerably wider. The dark line in the centre is the mesial septum. x17. Polarised light. 92 NOTES ON CORAL REEFS, WITH SPECIAL REHFER- ENCE TO THE FUNAFUTI BORINGS., By T. Srepuens, M.A., F.G.S. It may be premised that the object of this paper is, not to announce any new discovery, but merely to give a_ brief summary of what is known of the history of coral reefs, with notices of the chief theories that have been advanced in con- nection with the subject. The coral polyps belonging to the family of the Astreide, the chief reef-builders, flourish only in the warmer waters of the ocean within the tropics. Their range extends from about 20deg. south to 20deg. north of the Hyuator; but, under the influence of the Gulf Stream, they are found as far north as the Bermudas. The action of the carbonic acid derived from these minute organisms upon the lime always present in sea water enables them to secrete the carbonate of lime which forms the stony framework popularly known a ‘coral,’ and this is all that remains after the death of successive generations of reef-builders working upwards within their appointed range. Coral reefs are classed under three heads, fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. The fringivg reef hes close to the land in flat beds traversed in all directions by shallow channels and pools, and with larger breaks opposite the mouths of rivers. Building upwards from the sea bottom, where the depth is not too great, the coral polyps die on reaching the surface, and the growth of the reef is then con- fined to its seaward face. Barrier reefs he at a distance from land in lines more or less parallel with the nearest coast, and generally rising from great depths on the seaward side. The atoll is a partialiy-closed ring of coral formation with no land in the centre, the typical coral island, though, as at Funafuti, the ring often consists of numerous detached islands. Darwin’s theory may be briefly stated. A careful and widely extended study of the life and work of the reef-build- ing coral polyps had proved that their operations cannot be carried on at a greatar depth than about 25 fathoms, and that when the formation gradually built up by successive genera- tions on the stony remains of their predecessors reached the surface, all upward growth of live coral ceased. Darwin knew of numerous instances where the remains of old corayt BY T STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S. 93: reefs existed on land slopes at various heights above the sea level, which proved that there had been no subsidence at those particular points. But there was also in evidence the fact that countless numbers of coral reefs and islands rising from great depths, and with no land near them, were scattered over vast areas in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The obvious conclusion was, that these must either have been built up on a corresponding number of submarine peaks and ridges conveniently situated at just the right depth below the sea level, or that the coral poly ps had begun their work, ages ago, around and among the peaks and ridges of a slowly subsiding continent, building ever upwards as the land went down, until it was entirely submerged, and he unhesi- tatingly adopted the latter hypothesis. (Reference to diagram.) The Darwinian theory was first published in 1842. It was received with acclamation by scientific authorities in all parts. of the world, and quite twenty years passed before any serious objections to its general acceptance began to be formu- lated. With the indomitable energy, quick perception, and freedom from prejudice, which were his chief characteristics, Darwin studied all the results of fresh explorations made by contemporary workers that could throw light upon the subject, but could find no ground for any material modifica- tion of his original theory. With the improvements that were made, especially in England and America, in the mechanical appliances of surveying ships, the exploration of the great depths of the ocean was greatly facilitated, and, after the famous voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, Dr. John Murray, one of the naturalists of the expedition, propounded a new theory which was supported by several leading scientists. Before giving an account of this theory, it is necessary to briefly mention some of the additions to our knowledge of marine natural history since the date of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. The results of the Challenger Expedition, and of other previous explorations of the depths of the oeean, have shown that the floor of every sea, outside the range within which it is affected by deposits of river sediment, or by the wearing away of the coast line, is covered down to considerable depths with the shells and skeletons of myriads of marine organisms, which have lived either on the sea bottom or floating near the surface. The latter, especially in the warmer seas, are present in such vast numbers, that, though the individuils themselves are mosily very minute, their remains, accumulated during the course of long ages, form a very large proportion of the materials which have been gradually built up on the original foundation. 94 NOTES ON CORAL REEFS, ETC. Among the silica-secreting denizens of the surface waters are simple animal forms such as the Radiolaria, and vegetable organisms belonging to the Diatomaceew. Among those that secrete carbonate of lime are the Pteropoda, and familiar representatives of this class are Hyalea and Cleodora, specimens of which, with their beautiful translucent shells, are often collected by means of tow nets let down from passenger steamers or sailing sbips. Of other forms, the Foraminifera comprise most of the minute animals with dense shells, such as those of the Globigerine and Orbuline. The thin shells of the Pteropods, after the death of their tenants, sink so slowly that they are dissolved away before reaching great depths, and their remains are rarely found’ where the depth exceeds 1000 fathoms. The dense shells of the Globigerine sink to much greater depths before being dissolved, and are found all over the sea bottom down to about 2,500 fathoms. The remains of the surface organisms reaching greater depths are chiefly the silicious skeletons of Radiolarians and Diatoms. These are blended with the other materials slowly accumulating in the deepest parts of every ocean, forming a reddish brown sediment which has received the distinctive name of Red Clay. The main point which has to be grasped, and it is not easy to realise it, is that, during past ages and up to the present day, there has been a never-ceasing downfall of the remains of these short-lived organisms, which has gradually raised the sea bottom over wide areas to a censiderable altitude. The deposit thus formed is now known under the general name of ooze. That portion of it which is found at a depth not exceeding 1,000 fathoms has been called Pteropod ooze, from the large percentage of the remains of Pteropods con- tained in it. The same kind of formation extending from 1,000 to 2,500 fathoms is called Globigerina ooze for a similar reason, and this is succeeded by Diatom and Radiolarian ooze until these last are blended with the ultimate residuum— Red Clay—on the floor of the deepest seas. In connection with this part of the subject it may be noted that the great chalk formation, which occupies a large extent of country in the south of England, and on the continent of Europe, and which beneath London is about 700ft. thick, is practically identical with the deposits that have just been mentioned. It has been proved by microscopic examination that chalk is nothing more than what may be described in general terms as Globigerina ooze in a consolidated form, which had accu- mulated by slow oceanic sedimentation, long ages ago, on an ancient sea floor. The conclusion arrived at by Dr. Murray of the Challenger Expedition was, that coral reefs and islands were gradually BY. T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S. 95 built up on tops of submarine peaks or ridges already existing at.adepth not exceeding 25 fathoms, or on banks which, in the course of ages, had been raised to the necessary height by the process of sedimentation that has been described. (Reference to diagram.) In a letter quoted by Professor Judd, which was written by Darwin to Professor Agassiz in 1881, the year before his death, he remarks that he ‘ has expressly stated that a bank at the proper depth would give rise to an atoll, which could not be distinguished from one formed during subsidence ;” and he goes on to say that he “can hardly believe in the existence of as many banks (there having been no subsidence) as there are atollsin the great oceans, within a reasonable depth, on which minute oceanic organisms could have accumulated to the depth of many hundred feet.” The letter concludes with the following words:—‘ If I am wrong, the sooner I am knocked on the head and annihilated so much the better. It still seems to me a marvellous thing that there should not have been much and long-coutinued subsidence in the beds of the great oceans. I wish some doubly-rich millionaire would take it into his head to have borings made in some of the Pacific and Indian atolls, and bring home cores for slicing from a depth of 500 or 600 feet.” The “millionaire” did not turn up, but Darwin’s last wishes for the settlement of the question one way or another were not consigned to oblivion, and at last, in 1896, the Roval Society of London organised an expedition under the leadership of Professor Sollas, which was materially aided by the Admiralty, the Government of New South Wales, and leading scientific men in Sydney. A site was selected for boring operations in the Ellice Group, due north of Fiji, and about 8deg. south of the Equator. A lagoon encircled by a fringe of reefs and coral islands, the largest being Funafuti, forms the atoll, which is about 12 miles long and eight miles broad. From soundings taken by Captain Field, of H.M.S. Penguin, it appears that this atoll resembles a vast wall-like structure built on a cone-shaped elevation or mountain rising from a depth of about 2,000 fathoms, with a gradually increasivg slope up toa contour line about 140 fathoms deep, the rise from this level up to near the surface being almost precipitous. The intention was to bore to a depth of at least 600 feet, so as to ascertain how far down the coral reef extended, and to determine, if possible, the nature of tbe foundation on which it rested. The boring was commenced in May, 1896, but was carried on under great difficulties, the tubes constantly getting choked by sand lying in irregular layers among masses of solid coral. A depth of 105 feet was reached, but eventually the work had to be abandoned. 96 NOTES ON CORAL REEFS, ETC. In June, 1897, a second expedition was despatched from Sydney, under the charge of Professor David. Many im- provewents had been effected in the machinery and boring tools, and good progress was made in spite of the difficulties that were again encountered, such as the sudden and frequent changes from solid rock to bands of loose sand. caria (Lamarck), Turritelia tasmanica (Reeve), Phasianella australis (Gmelin), P. ventricosa (Q. and G.), Turbo undu- lata (Martyn), Cantharidus badius (Wood), Cantharidus fasciatus (Menke), Calliostoma meyer: (Menke), Clanculus undatus (Lamarck), C. limbatus (Q. and G.), Patella lim- bata (Philippi), Aemaa crucis (Tenison-Woods), A. alba (Ibid), Subemarginula rugosa (Q. and G.), Macroschisma weldii (Tenison-Woods), Megatebennus trapezinus (Sower- by), Mitra glabra (Swainson), and many other species of these, and other genera of Gasteropoda, are to be found more or less in profusion. Of Polyplacophora, Chitons, we have several species, the prettily-marked Zschnochiton crispus (Reeve) and Chiton pellisserpentis (Q. and G.) being abundant. The hand- somest representative of the order is the scarce Callochiton lobatus (Carpenter), with its smooth shell and broad mantle of dark reddish-brown contrasting well with the rich orange colour of the animal. 104. THE RECENT MOLLUSCA OF TASMANIA. Of the naked, or shell-less, mollusca, there are a few that have been described, and many yet to be identified. All- portia expansa (Tenison-Woods) is a curious and interesting . form that is rather plentiful among the rocky pools at low water. Of the Doris family, there are surely many, and of Onchidium at least one, species to be found in similar situations. Of the class Scaphoda, two species of Dentalwum and one of Cadulus are recorded, whilst no Pteropoda are as yet listed for Tasmania, I believe. Of Cephalopoda, we have some ten known species, the internal shells, or, more familiarly known, ‘“‘ Cuttle-bones,” of the Sepie, being plenti- ful on the beaches; while the shell of the curious little Spirula peronu (lamarck) is not uncommon at times on the East Coast. The beautiful “ Paper Nautilus,” Argonauta nodosa (Solander), is occasionally found on the mainland of Tasmania, but is more plentiful on the islands in Bass Straits, where it is said to come in shoals about every five or seven years, though it is difficult to obtain the larger specimens, as the gulls break them so often in their eager- ness to devour the animal. The largest of the Pelecypoda is Pinna tasmamca (Teni- son-Woods), which is found a foot long, and sometimes covered with barnacles (Serpule) and fair-sized oysters. The young specimens are very pretty, of a pale greenish or horny tint, semi-transparent, with curiously raised fluted scales at the broader end. Venus lamellata is a beautiful shell when its pink frills are perfect. Cochlodesma angasi (Crosse and Fischer) is sometimes plentiful, and of a large size, on the sandy beaches, but the gulls are fond of these too. Anatina ereccina (Valenciennes) is also to be found in the North; Mactra rufescens (Lamarck) is often so abundant at Port Sorell that it becomes a weariness to the collector ; Venus gallinula (Lamarck), V. roborata (Hanley), Tapes fabagella (Deshayes), Gari zonalis (Lamarck), Tellina albin- ella (Ibid), Dosinia coerulea (Reeve), D. grata (Deshayes), Cytherea rutda (Sowerby), C. diemensis (Hanley), Crassa- tella kingicola (liamarck), Cardiwm tenuwicostatum (Ibid), Barbatia carpenter: (Dunker), Azmea striatularts (La- marck), Mytilus ater (Frauenfeld), Modiola australis (Gray), Vulsella ovata (Liamarck), with five species of Pecten, are among the most attractive of the bivalves usually to be found on the Tasmanian beaches. Trigonia margaritacea (Lamarck) is somewhat local, Bruni Island being a good place for it. The rare Choristodon rubiginosum (Adams and Angas) occurs in the Hast and South. Several species of Myodora are also found, and Panopea australis (Sowerby) THE RECENT MOLLUSCA OF TASMANIA. 105 is at times found alive on the Hast Coast, while Spondylis> tenellus (Reeve) occurs on the North Coast, but seldom as 4 perfect shell. Of Brachiopoda, the best known is the so-called “ Roman Lamp,” Waldheimia flavescens (Lamarck), which is washed up amongst seaweed on the Northern beaches, and is also found alive in rock-pools in favourable situations, where the tiny Megerlina lamarckiana (Davidson) is also found cling- ing in numbers to the under-sides of the stones. T'erebra- tella rubicunda (Solander) has been introduced into the Derwent amongst oysters from New Zealand Among the terrestrial, or pulmonate, Gasteropoda, Buli- mus dufresni (Leach) is one of the most widely-distributed, varying greatly in size and texture, according to the locality. B. tasmanicus (Pfeiffer) is our sole arboreal species, being found on wattles and boobyallas on the, East Coast only. Helix launcestonensis (Reeve), from the Scottsdale district, is the finest representative of the genus in Tasmania; H. stephensi (Cox) being another good one. The European Hi. aspersa (Muller) and Zonites cellarius (Muller) are plentiful in some of the gardens in Hobart and Launceston. There are two Vitrinas, of which V. verreauxi (Pfeiffer) is the most widely distributed throughout the Island. One tiny species of Pupa, P. lincolnensis (Angas), found also in Aus- tralia, has been discovered, near Swansea, by Mr. R. M. Johnston. The small grey slug, Limax legrandi (Tate), is abundant in the North, and there are some very large spotted slugs, notably, Cystopelta petterd: (Tate), with various smaller kinds in different parts of the Island. Of fresh-water mollusca, there are several minute forms that are of interest, especially the curious little Gundlachia, of which two species are recorded for Tasmania; the genus is only found in Trinidad and Cuba besides. There are some forms of Ammnicola and Hydrobia, one of which, Potamopyr- gus, 1s common with New Zealand only. Ancylus irvine (Petterd), from the Great Lake, is an unusually large form, while Physa eburnea (Sowerby), from lagoons near Ross, is a fine shell. Umio legrandi (Petterd) and U. depreéssus (Lamarck) inhabit only the rivers that empty themselves eventually into the Tamar. Most of the land shells are peculiar to Tasmania, whilst many of the marine species are common to Australia, especi- ally the Southern and Eastern shores of the continent; and some have a world-wide distribution, whilst a few appear to be found now in a semi-fossil state only, such as Potamides ebeninum (Bruguiere), Ranella epitrema (Tenison-Woods), 106 THE RECENT MOLLUSCA OF TASMANIA. and Arca trapezia (Deshayes). The rare Astele subcari- nata (Swainson) was first described from Tasmanian speci- mens, and on one occasion, at least, in recent years it has been washed up in abundance at Marion Bay. The beauti- ful Modiola arborescens (Chemnitz) was thrown up plenti- fully on the Port Sorell beaches, North Coast, a few winters ago, not having been seen there before, though occasionally it had been dredged in D’Entrecasteaux Channel. The type specimens came from the West Indies; the species ex- tends to China also. Janthina communis (Lamarck) and I, eaigua (Ibid), the violet floating sea-snails, are sometimes washed on to Tasmanian shores. 107 ADDITIONS TO TASMANIAN FLORA. By. L. Ropway. Before the year closes I am anxious to place on record a brief description of three interesting plants. Of these two are new species, the other doubtless introduced. Ranunculus setaceus. ns—A _ small glabrous, tufted perennial with numerous, fairly stout, long, fibrous roots. Leaves numerous setaceous, but slightly flattened, simple or with one pair of filiform simple lobes towards the apex, 1—3 in. long, apices sometimes tipped with glands, base rather broad sheathing. Flower solitary on a_ slender peduncle, always shorter than the leaves, sometimes very short. Flower rather small, yellow, sepals broadly ovate, erect, pointed, 1g lines long. Petals scarcely exceeding the sepals, usually 5—6, very narrow, oblong, blunt, gland about the middle. Stamens very variable in number in proportion to robustness of habit. Achenes not numerous, somewhat flattened, smooth, style slightly curved ; ripe achenes more swollen with a sharply recurved style; receptacle short, conical, beset with bristles. Not at all or sparsely stoloniferous. In mud and under water in and about pools on the Tronstone Range, alt. 3,000ft. The plant flowers freely under water, and does not when permanently submerged depart in any manner from the sub-aerial form. IT have described this plant as a new species only after mature consideration. Its relationship to R. rivularis, Banks. et Sol., is undoubted, but if it is taken as an extreme variety of that species where are we to draw the line? This plant is very close to R. millani, F. V. M. and R. robertsoni, B., and if these are included with R. rivularis we shall also have to take in many New Zealand and 8. American plants. Even with this extensive clubbing the species would be still ill- defined, and the mass of varieties would be unworkable. Pseudanthus tasmanicus. ns—A_ prostrate, wiry, much- branched spreading undershrub, 1—2 ft. long. Dicecious. Young parts tuberculato-hispid. Leaves alternate, broadly ovate to orbicular, sometimes with a small blunt point, other times slightly emarginate, 1—2 lines long on a slender petiole of similar length. Stipules scarious, sheathing blunt, often abruptly truncate 4—1 line long. Male flowers solitary in the upper axils, pale green. Perianth lobes equal or nearly 108 ADDITIONS TO TASMANIAN FLORA. so, ovate, blunt, 1 line long; pedical slender, 1 line long. Stamens 8, filaments slender, ? line long, anthers pink, broadly ovate small. Pistil rudimentary, but well developed. Female flower similar to the males, but the perianth lobes slightly longer and red at the base. Staminodes small, 8. Pistil flask- shaped, longer than broad obscurely, 3- lobed, tapering into a short ‘style ; stigma capitate, tuberculate irregularly 3-lobed. Ovule solitary and occupying the entire ovarian cavity at time of flowering. Fruit not seen. Among and about basalt rocks on the shores of Lake ‘Lucy Long on the Ironstone Range and on the banks of the South Esk, near Avoca. Rumex dumosus, A. Cunn.—Basal leaves few, soon withered, oblong narrow pointed, constricted as in R. pulcher, petiole as long as leaf. Stem leaves sessile, small slender subtend- ing branches and flower clusters. Stem erect, very branched and spreading. Flowers very few together in distani clusters, often solitary, pedicels slender 1—2 lines long. Inner perianth segments becoming rigid, acute, and reticulated bordered with few, usually 2, prominent spines, not developing a tubercle. Occasionally found on the roadsides in many. parts of Tasmania, and probably introduced from the mainland, where it occurs in south-eastern districts. It is confined to Aus- tralia, unless it is, as Von Mueller considered, a form of R. flexuous, Sol., of New Zealand. This dock may easily be taken for R. pulcher or R. brownii, from both of which it differs, however, in the much more branched habit, few flowers in the clusters, and few spines to the margins of the mature inuer perianth lobes. 109 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE WORK AND WORKERS OF THE TASMANIAN SOCIETY AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA, FROM THE YEAR 1840 TO THE CLOSE OF 1900. By Auex. Morton, Secretary Royal Society of Tasmania. When the Scientific History of Australasia shall come to be written, it will be seen how large a share Tasmania has taken in the world of Science, and how valuable have been her contributions to its knowledge. Very early in the history of the British Settlement in Tasmania, a systematic attempt was made to classify its Flora, with the special object of discovering what edible roots or fruits were to be obtained ; and this, though perhaps undertaken with a view rather to the utilitarian than the purely scientific results, was of use to the investigators who followed in the same line. The scattered work of individual observers was first focussed in a Society, founded by Sir John Franklin in 1841, which was called at first the Philosophical, and soon after- wards the Tasmanian Society. The meetings were held at Government House, then the most central place in the city, and the roll of names on its list of members contained such names as Sturt, Leichhardt, Sir Thomas Mitchell, Captains Ross and Crozier, and many others well known to fame. In the first volume of proceedings I find the name of Dr. (now Sir) James Agnew, with Port Phillip as his address. Ever since then his name has been identified with the work of scientific societies in Hobart, and his liberality in connection with them is too well known for me to do more than allude to it here in passing. The four departments of Zoology, Botany, Geology, and Meteorology, were the first to receive the attention of the Society, while Geography, in the face of the new discoveries being made daily, soon claimed a large share of attention. The first Journal, published in 1843, has compressed in its pages so much that has gone to the making of history, as to make one wonder if the times seemed as remarkable to those who lived in them, as they do to us now. John Gould, then in Sydney preparing for his great work on the “Birds of Australia,” contributed a paper on the habits of the brush turkey, which had been studied, appa- rently to little effect, before he turned his attention tu its classification. 110 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 TO 1900. An article by Dr. Hooker on the fossil wood found at Macquarie Plains reminds us that the eminent surgeon was even then. preparing to give the world the results of his examination of the Flora of Tasmania. The catalogue of edible fruits and rovts, compiled by Mr. James Backhouse, finds its place here, considerably added. to by Mr. Ronald Gunn, whose work has left scarcely any- thing to be done in this direction. There are descriptions of the birds and some of the fish of Tasmania, an article or two on the advantages of irrigation in the colony, and a list of native words compiled from documents in the Colonial Secretary’s office by that remarkable adventurer, Jorgen Jorgenson, the Convict King. A battle between the observers of the Ornithorhyncus as to whether that extraordinary specimen were to be classed as oviparous or viviparous was then at its height, and a careful paper in this journal gives all the reasons for pre- ferring to believe it viviparous, but no dawn of belief that it might yet be found to have some of the characteristics of both seemed to have visited the mind of anyone. A legendary tale of the Australian Blacks, one of those collected by Mrs. Parker, shows that the Aborigines, untroubled ky scientific considerations, had decided that it was a cross between the kangaroo rat and the duck, laying its eggs like the duck, and then caring for them like a kangaroo rat. Perhaps of even greater interest to us at the present time is the fact that the return of the ships Erebus and Terror from their expedition to the Antarctic regions is recorded in this volume, with a report of the work done by Captains Ross and Crozier and those associated witi them. Lieut. Kay, of the Terror, remained here in charge of the meteorological station, and did a great deal of work in connection with the magnetic survey of Tasmania. Both subjects—that of Antarctic exploration and the magnetic survey of Tasmania—have been very much shelved subjects from that time until the last year or two. The late Mr. James Barnard was one of the earliest members of the Society, and though, perhaps not a specialist in any particular subject, was devoted to furthering the aims of all the workers, and contimued his interest in this Society until its dissolution, and was a member of the Royal Society until his death. The Rev. T. J. Ewing early made a list of the birds of Tasmania, and was one of the most useful members. Dr. Richardson began the classification of the fishes in Tasmanian waters, which has since been carried on by other workers, and completed by Mr. R. M. Johnston. BY ALEX. MORTON. lll That brilliant scholar and eminent divine, the Rev. Dr. Lillie, contributed an introductory paper to the first volume of the proceedings, and took a keen interest in the work of the various branches, into which the energies of members were directed. He was for a time Hon. Secretary of the Royal Society, and did much while in that position to further its highest aims. The famous geologist, Count Strzelecki, who walked a distance of 7,000 miles in investigating the geological con- ditions of Australia and Tasmania, gave some account of his journeyings to this Society, and described many little known parts of the island. The Count examined a natural mineral water found near Circular Head, and observes, among otber things, that it is sufficiently nauseous to be of medicinal value! Count Strzelecki, in 1845, published the first systematic sketch of the geology and general physical character of Australia and Tasmania. A series of very interesting articles, by Captain Cotton, on irrigation, and one on a newly discovered steam digging machine, remind us that then, as now, there were not wanting those who saw the advantages that would accrue to Tasmania if a more enterprising spirit were manifested by the residents. It is difficult, in looking over volumes in which every word is of historic interest, to leave out any item, but that would need so much more time than I have at my disposal that I must be content to make a selection, not perhaps the best that could be made, but one that is possible to compress into the limit of time available. For a like reason, while there are many names of useful workers left out of this short chronicle, it is not to be supposed that they were not worthy to be all on the roll of honour, but the inexorable demands of time forbid. The second volume contains a fuller account of the Antarctic Expedition, and of the landing in two places, and taking possession in the name of Her Majesty the Queen, of the whole Antarctic Continent. It has not yet become a summer resort ! We are reminded that in the time of Sir John Franklin the “ Beagle,” with Darwin on Board, called at Hobart, and the great man had opportunities of observing the many interesting things in so new a country. One of the things that filled him with surprise was, that the steamer in which he went to Kangaroo Point had been entirely built in the colony. A paper contributed by Dr. Agnew, on the poison of snakes, marks not his first membership, but his first 112 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 TO 1900. active work for the society. His name appears in the first list of members, with residence:—Port Philip. His first paper was written from Saltwater River, Tasman Peninsula, where as medical officer to the government he had leisure to observe the poisonous apparatus of the venomous reptiles of that country retreat. Some very useful remarks on the nomenclature and classification of rocks in new couutries, by the English geologist, Mr. J. B. Jukes, set forth clearly the grouping on which geologists should found their method of classification. The Rev. T. J. Ewing, whose list of birds is contained in the first volume, is represented in the second by a paper on the statistics of Tasmania, from which it may be of interest to make a few extracts. The three years under review are from 1838 to 1841. The revenue from the customs increased during the three years from £70,000 to £85,000, an increase of 21 per cent. The post office revenue rose from £4,300 to £6,500, or 25 per cent. The total revenue, including sales of Crown lands, rose from £144,562 to £237,381. The average value for the three years of the imports was £665,535, for a population which, including convicts, only numbered 50,000 souls. The sheep in 1841 amounted to 1,167,737; the horses numbered 12,000; horned cattle, 90,000. There were 1287 marriages during the perioa. Tho kev W. Colenso, an enthusiastic naturalist, contributed valuable notes of a trip in New Zealand, during which he collected more than 1000 specimens of natural history. The picturesque museum at Ancanthe, built by Lady Franklin, contained not only specimens of natural history, but a good library containing books classified as follows:— (a) Works illustrative of Tasmania and the neighbouring colonies; (b) Works written by persons who had been, or were then, residents of Tasmania; (c) Works written and published in Tasmania, provided they were of sucha character as would not be objected to by the Trustees. The collection contained besides many other interesting books, some of the volumes of the splendid work Gould’s Birds of Australia, Mr. Westgarth in a paper on Port Phillip, then little known, describes its geological formation, but gives no hint of the alluvial richness that, in a few years, so transformed that country. In the summer of 1838 the Rev. W. Colenso, whose papers on New Zealand form a most interesting part of this second volume, was fascinated by the description given by the Maories of the gigantic bird they called the Moa. They insisted that it lived in a cavern on the side of a mountain, that it subsisted on air, that it was guarded by two immense reptiles, and that if anyone ventured near it he would be BY ALEX. MORTON. 113 trampled on and killed by the monster. Mr. Colenso pro- cured some bones, and after careful examination he con- cluded that it was an extinct species. His paper is a piece of clear and almost convincing piece of reasoning, but was dis- agreed with by Professor Owen, who thought the bones, after eSeRTATER SION to be so recent that he expressed the hope that the animal might yet be seen striding about in the ‘* Zoo.” The Wellington Valley in New South Wales was just then attracting considerable attention on account of the fossil bones of a giant extinct animal, a Mastonodontoid pachyderm, which Professor Owen describes in this volume. This dis- covery was especially of interest as suggesting a more humid climate than that now common to Australia, for these crea- tures were frequenters of marshes, swamps, and lakes. The Aborigines of Tasmania were studied by several mem- bers, and Archdeacon Davies wrote of their ways in a careful paper or two. This was, par excellence, the time for exploration. The vast new couutry, with untold wealth and unknowa natural resources, attracted the attention of all those adventurous spirits who love to have the pleasure of treading where no foot of civilised man has before trodden. At this time Leichhardt was in the north exploring the country between Moreton Bay and Port Essington before that last journey of his, the plan of which was sketched with such sanguine anticipation of success, but from which no whisper has yet come to tell us whether it is well with him. Sir Thomas Mitchell was continuing his investigations in the region of the Darling and the Bogan, while Captain Sturt was battling with heat, drought, and scurvy, in heroic efforts to penetrate the secrets of the central part of the dark continent. The account of his work, given in this volume, is pathetic reading. One member whese name appears very often in the pro- ceedings, is Mr. Ronald C. Gunn, of Launceston, whose work for the Society was of a very extensive character. He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, London, an honour never since bestowed on a ‘Tasmanian. He was an indefatigable worker, and did much for the scientific development of his adopted country. He and Dr. Grant were the first to send to London live specimens of the Tasmanian Tiger, a notice of which appeared in the London Times of May, 1850. In the third volume of the Tasmanian Journal the name of the Rev. W. B. Clarke appears for the first time. This eminent geologist, the first in Australia to predict the finding of gold, wrote to this Journal on the subject of the fossils of the silurian age in New South Wales. Incidentally he 114 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 TO 1900. mentions that his collection of N.S.W. fossils exceed 1,000. When we remember the difficulty of collection we can appreciate the labour involved in gathermg so many specimens. ‘Two quotations from the minutes of the Society will give a good idea of the thrilling interest of some of the meetings. March 24, 1847.— Read (inter alia) Sir T. Mitchell’s account of his journey into the N.W. interior of New South Wales. April 7, 1847.—Read Captain St=zrt’s journal of his ex- ploration in the interior of New Holland from South Australia. The difference between these two narratives is widely marked, one, that of Sir Thomas Mitchell, being a cheerful story of pleasant wanderings over fine country, while that of Cap.ain Sturt is a brave man’s description of tragic batthng with heat, want of water, and sickness. In one place the thermometer, graduated to 127, burst in the shade, while at the breath of the hot wind the leaves fell off the trees. The Society also published an acccunt of Leichhardt’s overland journey to Port Essington, and a sketch of the plan of the unfortunate traveller’s last journey. For that expedition a sum exceeding £1,500 was raised by public subscription, and supplemented by a grant of £1,000 from the Government of N.S.W. Dr. Leichhardt started on this expedition with the warmest wishes of the Australian community. It makes one sorrowful, even now, to think that the heroic band stepped out of sight in the silence of the great lone land, and no seeking has ever been rewarded with even a fragment of knowledge of how they all met their deaths. That good friend of the Society, Sir Joseph Hooker, con- tributes some papers on the conifere of the island, and credits Mr. R. C. Gunn with the discovery of more than half of the conifere of the whole colony. A most exhaustive paper on the Microscopic life found at the ocean washing the South Pole, was given by Professor Ehrenberg, in Berlin, and then sent by him to the Tasmanian Society, a little incident show- ing that the Society was weil and favourably known in the scientific centres of the world. A name which was long and honourably associated with the Society was that of Dr. Milligan. The third volume contains a paper by him on the fossils of the country between Hobart and Launceston. All his contributions were marked by much care to obtain scientific accuracy. In 1849 the Tasmanian Society lost its separate existence and became BY ALEX. MORTON. 115 merged in that which is represeated bere to-night. Exit, therefore, the Tasmanian Society, having honourably fulfilled its mission. On the 14th Oct., 1843, the Royal Society of Van Diemen’s Lard for Horticulture, Botany, and the Study of Science, was formed with the help of Sir Eardley-Willmot, Bart. Its first work was the nolding of two Horticultural Shows, which were very successful, but a Horticultural Society being after that formed by the professional gardeners of Hobart, the shows were discontinued, and exhibits were instead sent to the shows of the new society. HerMajesty the Queen became the patron of the Society; the Government placed a large part of the garden in the Domain at the disposal of the members, and made a grant of £400 a year, for the purpose of paying its officers and promoting its objects generally. At the end of 1845 the Secretary resigned, and Sir Eardley Wilmot, then Lieut.-Governor, fought strenuously to raise the Society from a horticultural to a more scientific one, as being more in accord with the idea of a Royal Society, to which Her Majesty had given her patronage. He opposed the appointment of any secretary who should be a mere clerk, and said the Secretary of a Royal Society should not only be able to meet the members on terms of equality, but should be a man who could be on a par with men of -science anywhere. As a suit- able man was not at the moment to be found, one of the vice-presidents, the Rev. Dr. Lillie, undertook the duties gratuitously for a time, and eventually Dr. Milligan was appointed, whose devotion and attainments made the Society what it has since remained—an honour to Tasmania and Australasia. For a time the principal interest centred round the Gardens, but in 1846 it was decided to begin a collection of natural history specimens for a museum. A room in the Legislative Council Chambers held the beginnings of this museum, and in 1849 the Government granted a sum of £100 towards its support, from which time the Museum was formally recognised, and its usefulness has grown apace, until the very popular institution of which I have the honour to be Curator holds a firm place in the affections of the people of Tasmania. The first Journul of the Proceedings of the Royal Society was published in 1851, and the statistics of the colony, dealt with by Mr. James Barnard, afford interest- ing data for comparison with those of to-day, especially those of education. The Church of England had 35 schools on the penny-a-day system, the Roman Catholics 4, and in these denominational schools 1812 children were educated. In the Government Board Schools 1,080 children were taught, and 194 in infant schools; while 460 children attended the 116 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 To 1900. Queen’s Orphan Schools, of whom 396 were the offspring of convicts, and were taught at the expense of the British Government; 64 were the children of free parents, and were paid for by the Tasmanian Government. It was estimated that, including those taught in private schools, the number of children under instruction amounted to 6.214, a number which may be considered as fairly satisfactory. There was then no daily newspaper published in Tasmania, but four were published in Hobart twice weekly, and two once a week. Three were published in Launceston. The total imports exceeded the exports by 17% per cent. The introduction of salmon into Tasmanian waters afforded some discussion, and was introduced in a paper by Captain Stanley, in which the opinion of Mr. Young, the manager of the Duke of Sutherland Salmon Fisheries, is quoted, and his advice given. Mr. Young says :—“I hope that you will eet a suitable vessel, so that you can with safety carry the young salmon, but in case you should not succeed in getting it in every respect fitted for their safety, I would not advise you to proceed with it at all. Were you to make an ill- prepared job of it and not succeed, it would deter yourself and others from the attempt for a long time (for, assuredly, it willat some time be done successfully).” Mr. P. S. Seager has, with much trouble, written a history of the salmon experiments in Tasmania, which has been read before this Society, and will, perhaps, be familiar to most of you; but it ought to be mentioned, in passing, that the last and very successful shipment in the year 1888 was brought out at the sole expense of Sir James Agnew, by Sir Thomas Brady, then Inspector of Fisheries in Ireland. hat perennial subject, the weather, of course came up for Siqnasicin, and some valuable statistics were forthcoming’ on this interesting topic. There were 14 days in 1847 on which a hot wind blew, and on two days especially the air was like a heated furnace. The thermometer registered 103dee. in the shade, and later 100deg. The next year was remarkable for intense cold in the months of November and December. At this time coal was being discovered in every direction— at Schouten Island, Port Arthur, Mersey and Don Rivers, and many other places; and Dr. Milligan was requested by the Government to report on them. ‘This first volume has some of these reports, and specimeus were sent to the Museum of Practical Geology, London, for analysis by Sir H. De La Beche. Though he did not think so highly of them as Dr. Milligan did, yet the discovery of coal in so many parts of Tasmania was a matter of the ‘highest import- ance to the future of the colony. Even then, with four BY ALEX. MORTON. 7 steam vessels on the Rivers Derwent and Tamar, it was a great consideration to obtain coal at a cheaper rate than it could be imported from Newcastle, England. The Bridgewater Causeway and Bridge were the subject of an article by the Director of Public Works, Mr. W. P. Kay. The work of making the Causeway occupied nine years, at an average expenditure of £4,500 per annum, and the cost of the bridge was £7,580. The solid contents of the causeway filled into the river was computed at 560,000 eubic yards, and must have cost about Is. 53d. per cubic yard. The cost of convict labour does not seem to have been less than that of free, if the money speut on the Causeway may be taken as a criterion. We, in these more prosaic times, when the more important discoveries in botany and natural history have all been made, can hardly realise the great interest of those early meetings, when so much was new and sometimes with no parallel in the old. Various kinds of manna were fourd on many of the trees in the new world, and one was discovered by Mr. Robert Kay which differed from all known kinds, and was considered to be an exudation from the mallee (Eucalyptus Dumosa). The aborigines in the North-west of Australia, where this manna was found, believed that Bhami, their hero-god, who had been taken by the spirits to the land of fadeless flowers, had sent this manna as a substitute for the houey that, owing to the drought and the absence of flowers, had for some seasons failed them. Sir William Denison, whose practical engineering skill was of the greatest use to the colonists during his governorship, contributed among many others, an interesting paper on the construction of dams, with a view to irrigation. It is a little remarkable, when we remember how often the necessity of irrigation was pressed on the attention of the people in those early days, that no more impression was apparantly made on the minds of those to whom such a system would have meant riches. We have abundant proof that Tasmania was not, on the whole, unprogressive at this time, but the people were slow to realise that science in agriculture is of the first im- portance. The remarks of Dr. Agnew on the snakes of Tasmania, mentioned in connection with the Tasmanian Society, had stirred the observing power of several others, and a number of experiments were made on the relative virulence of various species of snakes, the results of which were communicated to the Royal Society by Major Cotton. On 18th September, 1848, Dr. Nixon, Bishop of ‘Tasmania, was elected a Fellow, and the first contribution I notice from 118 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 To 1900. him is one on the productiveness of Mummy wheat. From one ear received from Lady Franklin more than 7,000 ears had been taken the next season. Obsidian buttons have lately been the cause of some speculation at the meetings of the Society; and it will interest some to know that as early as December, 1851, a specmen of this curious substance was exhibited by Dr. Officer. The report says :—‘ Dr. Officer showed an obsidian looking substance, having much the form of a common bung of a cask, or cork of a wide-mouthed bottle, flattened and rounded on the top and bottom (where it betrays the action of weather), and having a number of well-defined impressions round the sides, as if so compressed or pinched in while semi-fluid. This remarkable substance is said to be found on the natural surface of the pasture lands of Victoria; inquiries have been set on foot by Dr. Officer to trace, if possible, its origin.” An announcement is made at the annual meeting in January, 1858, of the removal of the Museum and Library, as well as the meetings of the members, from the rooms forming part of the Legislative Council Chambers to a hal! in Harrington-street (now the Atheneum Club). This was an expensive undertaking, as formerly the rooms had been obtained rent free, while the rent of the new building was £60 per annum, with rates and taxes. The inconvenience, however, only had the effect of stimulating the members to renewed exertions in the direction of obtaining a permanent home for the increasing collection. The report of the Council says:—‘ The Council consider that the first step should be to apply to the Crown for a grant of a suitable piece of ground as a site, upon which, as a basis, then to proceed to raise by public subscription or otherwise a sum of money adequate to the speedy execution of so much of the plan of an extended edifice as the immediate and not very remote exigencies of the case may demand.” A site was granted by the Government for the erection of a Museum, about £2,000 were raised by subscription, and the first part of a fine building erected, which contained three rooms, of which only two were then used, one for a library, another for the Museum collection. There was no lack of public spirit in those days: The facilities of communication were increasing in both Hobart and Launceston. Many ships were put on the berth to load produce for California. There were several steamers employed on the Derwent and Tamar, one of them the redoubtable Kangaroo, and a steam service between Hobart and Launceston was beirg seriously discussed. There were 14 stage coaches running on the main and branch roads of the colony, eight of which started from Hobart, five from BY ALEX. MORTON. 119 Launceston. Sir William Denison, whose interest in the society was very great, was responsible for many papers on agricultural subjects, and had some experimental plots prepared in the paddock in front of the present Goveroment House to determine the best way to sow potatoes for large crops. Heals» had some observations on the best way to grow turnips, which seemed to be full of practical common sense. When one remembers that’ from 1849 to 1854 the period of unrest and excitement in consequence of the discovery of gold were at their height, one can the better appreciate the devotion shown by those who remained at their ordinary avocations, and gave so much in time and money to further the cause of science and education in the land of their adoption. It was, however, impossible that the Royal Society should not feel some reflex of the tide of excitement which was turning the heads of so many in the community. Yet their work seems neither to have peen left undone, or done badly, in the stress of the times. Every subject that was at all likely to educate the people, either in agriculture or engineer- ing, in social science, or in manufactures, was taken up in a spirit of readiness and helpfulness, that must have been of the greatest use in a new community, and that marked it as an educative force in all directions. Natural History was, of course, not neglected. The discoveries of giant extinct marsupials, whether in New South Wales or elsewhere, were reported to the Journals of the Society, and aroused much intelligent interest. Reverting for a moment to the gold discovery, I am reminded that gold was discovered in California in 1847, but in 1846 Sir R. Murchison, who two years before that stated that no gold had been discovered in Australia, though he expected it would eventually be found there, received from New South Wales a small parcel con- taining gold in quartz, as a proof that his expectation had been realised. Some Cornish miners were advised by him to go and seek for gold in the alluvial of New South Wales, and in 1848 he interviewed Earl Grey, then Minister for the Colonies, informing him of the strong ground he had for believing in the existence of large bodies of gold ore, in quartz, at that remote spot; but Earl Grey took no steps in the matter, as he thought that the discovery of gold would be very embarassing to the interests of a wool country. He had yet to learn how adaptable a wool country may be to other forms of industry. A medical paper was contributed by Dr. Bedford on the treatment of Scarlet Fever, which attained the dimensions of an epidemic during the years 1852-3. His recommendation 120 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 To 1900. of Belladonna, as a preventive and cure, is interesting, but I do not know whether subsequent experiments in its use modified the opinion of its efficacy. The important subject of drainage, which can never be properly dissociated from water supply, was discussed in a paper by Sir William Denison. One of the conclusions at present of interest, was that for a really efficient system of drainage the supply of water must be very much increased, preferably by tapping the grand supply of the upper Derwent. The losses and gains to Tasmania in consequence of the gold rush were noted by Mr. James Barnard in a paper on the statistics, published in the proceedings for 1852. The population loss is set down at over 8000. During the period 1851-3 inclusive, the average value of the imports, per head of the population was £18 19s. 9d., and of the exports, £19. 15s. 4d. The balance of trade, upon the calculation of the same period of three years, was £156,505 in favour of the colony ; clearly denoting under the feverish and exciting conditions of the times, the healthy state of the commerce of the little island. The quantity of gold exported in the same period amounted to the large total of 212,0000z., but most of this was first brought over from Tasmania by the lucky diggers. It was valued at £714,870. Wages rose to an enormous amount, in consequence of the scarcity of labour, painters and plumbers getting up to 16s. per day. Mr. Barnard says: ‘ ‘The houses uninhabited two months before the gold discoveries were 599, or five per cent of those built; the first effect of these discoveries was to ereate the belief that there would be a general desertion of houses by people of every grade rushing off to the diggings. | House property at the onset was greatly depreciated, and sold—and that with difficulty—at a nominal price. In a short time, however, there came an unlooked for reaction. The streets of Hobart and Launceston by the end of the year began to swarm with lucky diggers and numerous visitors, the former bent upon enjoying the fruits of their success with their friends, the latter to take up their abode more or less_per- maneontly, attracted by our superior climate, and our more quiet, better protected towns. The demand for dwellings at once exceeded the supply, and soon there was not a house to be had without a scramble, rents rising 300 or 400 per cent.” At a meeting held on the 9th April, 1854, the first report of the Victorian Government Botanist, Dr. Mueller, was laid on the table. In this quiet way a name was introduced into BY ALEX. MORTON. 121 the annals of Tasmanian science which for many years was honoured in all the colonies as that of a man with a rare devotion to duty, a great amount of krowledge, which was always at the service of even the humblest votary of his beloved science, and a modesty and simplicity of life suffi- ciently uncommon as to be remarkable. All the scientific societies in Australasia ow? mueh to his faithful work. The volume for 1853 contains the first of a large number of papers by Dr. Milligan on the Aborigines of Tasmania, their number, their traditions, and their language. Dr. Erichsen contributes a paper on the insect fauna of Tasmania, which has particular reference to the geographical distribution of insects. Mr. Morton Allport was one of the untiring workers whom the Society had the good fortune to number among its members. In all, he wrote 24 papers on various subjects, and was one of the most enthusiastic among those who believed that the introduction of the Salmonide into Tas- manian waters could be accomplished, and that it would be a great advantage to the colony when that had been done. His death, at the comparatively early age of 46, deprived Tasmania of a good citizen, and the Royal Society of one of its most faithful and persevering friends. Various contributions to our knowledge of Tasmanian Botany appear under the name of Dr. Mueller. The coal seams were at this time beginning to be worked with great zeal, but unfortunately with little knowledge, and the result was in many cases disappointing. The history of a new country always contains the record of many mistakes, and they are not only in the region of science and manufacture. Among papers of interest further afield may be mentioned one on the census in the United States, which is full of facts collated in a charming manner, and one by Dr. Carpenter, read at the Royal Society of Great Britain, on the influence of suggestion in modifying and directing movements inde- pendently of the will. The vast subject of uypnotic suggestion, was even then, receiving the attention of medical students, and as a science does not seem to have advanced much since that time. The new and fascinating method of taking sun pictures was the cause of a thoughtful paper on the subject, in which the process was explained with a clearness that must have started many an experimenter in the island on the path of the amateur photographer. The vexed question whether the Desmidiacie were really belonging to the animal or vegetable kingdom, is dise issed 122 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 To 1900. with much clearness by Mr. Harrap, at a later date, and the arguments on which he differed from Professor Ebrenberg and others logically stated. These questions of the exact position of the wonderful links between the kingdoms is at all times one of absorbing interest, and then, as now, opinion was divided about some of them. The number of these beautiful alge found in Tasmania then amounted to 38. Dr. Downing gave some account of Norfolk Island, which was written in a chatty style, and contained a good deal of information about the climate, natural productions, and geological characteristics. Three recent discoveries, each important, mark off the year 1865 as noticeable, and they are all referred to by Dr. Hall in an address to the physical section of the Society. One was the separation of the illuminating from the heat-giving rays of the sun, discovered by Professor Tyndall, and which was the beginning of many discoveries in refraction that cannot be mentioned for want of time. The second was full of pro- mise that has not, so far, been realised, except to a limited extent. It was the discovery of magnesium wire and its high illuminating power. It is useful, doubtless, but it has not superseded gas or electricity, as was at one time fondly hoped. The third was Baron Liebig’s discovery of a substi- tute for mother’s milk, and did much to reduce the mortality of infants during the first year of life, but if mothers more fully understood the importance of the subject it would be more used than it is at present. Even now the infant mortality is far too high for the enlightenment of the age. I mention these to show how alert the members were then, as now, to notice what was going on in the world outside Tas- mania, and to utilise that knowledge for the benefit of their fellow-citizens. In May, 1865, the attention of the Society was directed to the necessity of some method of establishing a time signal which should give the time regularly so as to ve available for the whole of Tasmania. The first duty of fixing a time signal was soon after undertaken by Colonel Chesney, who arranged for three guns to be fired at 4 p.m. on the first Thursday in every month, or, if that day proved wet, they were fired on the first fine day following. In 1867 the Museum, three rooms of which had been built, contained a sufficient collection to justify bringing into use the upper room, and various kind friends gave much time to the arrangement of the specimens in the best way then considered possible. One cannot speak of their labour with other than gratitude, even though the classification had been of the primitive order. The practical aspect of every new discovery commended it or the reverse, to the notice of many of the Fellows, and the BY ALEX. MORTON. 123 possibility of a manufacture of paper from the Esparto grass, which, it was believed, would grow well in Tasmania, drew a discussion on the subject, and Mr. James Barnard took great pains to set before the Society all the available information on the subject, including plans and cost of machinery. Political economy came under discussion for the first time in 1872, when Mr. EH. C. Nowell read a paper on the subject with special reference to the unemployed. For the first time the colony was experiencing the fact that there is such a thing asa labour problem, and it has not left us since. Occasionally papers were read on the beetroot industry, and all the scientific and practical information necessary to start a beet factory are to be found in the records of the society; but the production of sugar from beetroot is not yet one of our established industries. The name of the Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods appears for the first time in thereports as acontributor in1874,but the reverend geologist had then been a corresponding member for many years. His great services to the people of Australia generally and his devotion to science made him a contributor whose papers were valued, and whose personality was honoured in all the scientific societies on this side of the equator, while his name and that of the Rev. W. B. Clarke were familiar as household words in all parts’ of the world. In 1872 the Council acquired a large wooden building, which was I think used as a store, and all the specimens, for which there was no room in the Museum, were placed there From this time onward the proceedings of the Society are familiar to many of the present members of the Society that a recapitulation of them would be unnecessary. The obligations under which the Society hes to Mr. T. Stephens, Mr. R. M. Jobnston, and the many members now here who were good friends of svience since 1875 are known to all present, and their recapitulation would only seem fulsome, but an exception to this rule may be permitted in the case of the Hon. Sir James Agnew, whose connection with the Society dates from 1840, and who was the able and liberal hon. sec. of the Society from about 1861, almost to the pre- sent time, with the exception of a visit to England, when Mr. James Barnard well filled the gap until his return. From Sir Eardley Wilmot, who was a most interested President of the Society, to the present, tue Royal Society has been fortunate in having as Governors of ‘Jasmania, so many who were keenly alive to the advantages of a scientific society as an instrument for the elevation of the people. It has heen well said that many tastes and one hobby make the condition of greatest happiness. To all who will, the Royal Society olfers that choice of tastes and hobbies which will be of the 124 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 TO 1900. most use to the possessor, and the most beneficial to his fellow creatures. A list of the subjects dealt with during the period of the Society’s existence, shows how varied was the field of its activities, and how eminently practical was much of its work. In June, 1874, the first contribution from Lieutenant Legge was recorded in the form of a paper on the birds of Tasmania, and accompanied by 20 prepared type specimens as the beginning of a type collection of birds. Col. Legge’s interest in the Society has been constant since that time, and though, during his residence in Ceylon, he gave up his spare time to the description of the birds of that tropical country, he began on his return here to take the same place in the Society as before he left, and is now one of its best friends. The contributions of Mr. R. M. Johnston began in 1873, and have been continued ever since. Geology, paleontology, ichthyology, and economic science have all beeu treated in his thorough and masterly manner, and he is a worker to whom we are all very much indebted. In 1880 Mr. Johuston came to take up his residence in Hobart, and from that time the period of most active exertions in behalf of the Society comme.ced. The Government published Mr. R. M. Jobn- ston’s book on the Geology of Tasmania, a work which was the fruit of years of patient observation and careful study, and is an invaluable text book. His hand book of Tasmanian Botany has also been of the greatest use to students. To convey some idea of the work done to the Society by Mr. R. M. Johnston, I give a list of the subjects contributed by that gentleman :—Pisces, 14; Conchology, 9; Botany, 4; Geology, Paleontology and Mineralogy, 45; Hconomic Science, 12. A total of 84 papers. Of earlier date still, are the contributions of Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., whose papers en geological subjects have been continued from time to time for more than forty years, and whose interest in the work of the Society is unabated. Dr. Swarbreck Hall and Mr. Francis Abbott are also two contributors, whose statistical and other papers were very numerous and instructive. For some years Dr. Hall con- tributed papers on the relation of the climatic condition to the health statistics of the colony, and Mr. F. Abbott’s Meteorological papers were looked forward to with great interest month by month. Mr. F. Abbott, jun., the present superintendent of the gardens, followed in his father’s foot- steps, and though of late the pressure of other duties have prevented much work of a special nature for the Society, his membership has continued unbroken. For many years after its establishment, the Royal Society did nothing towards advancing the historic knowledge of BY ALEX. MORTON. 125 Tasmania, but Mr. J. R. McClymont, M.A., and Mr. J. B. Walker, F.R.G.S., took up the subject in the eighties, and while Mr. McClymont wrote on the geographical part of the subject, Mr. Walker took up the history of settlement and of discovery with much patience and ability. His delightful English, his proved accuracy, his untiring care in collecting facts in connection with the early history of his native country, and his enthusiasm for the good of the Society, made his death last year a calamity to the Society, almost every member of which was his personal friend. The historical section owes its existence principally to His Lordship the Bishop of Tasmania and to Mr. Walker, both of whom worked with great zeal in its establishment. .The various papers contributed by Mr. J. B. Walker are of so much value that the Government have granted a sum of £100 to have them gathered and printed in one volume, There are many new workers, who, duriog the last few years, have devoted themselves to special branches of science, and kept up interest in the meetings by timely contributions, among whom, without disparagement to other workers, may be mentioned Mr. L. Rodway, whose botanical notes and contributions to the Flora of Tasmania have been invaluable. Mr. Rodway’s forthcoming work on the Botany of Tasmania is to be published by the Government, and is arranged on a most comprehensive and useful plan, whose completeness leaves nothing to be desired. The splendid work of Mr. Petterd, who was joined after- wards by Mr. Twelvetrees in descriptions, merits more notice than can be given to it here, for their study of mineralogy has resulted in the discovery of new and rare minerals, and they have much increased the general knowledge of the subject. Mr. Petterd has also published a monograph of the Land shells of Tasmania, a most complete work, and has also written and described many new shells, in addition to his great service in the discovery and description of minerals. The mosses were carefully worked by Mr. A. R. Bastow when he lived in Hobart, and that interesting study has since been taken up by Mr. W. A. Weymouth. In conchology, Miss Lodder has done good service to the Society, and has classified the specimens of Tasmanian shells in the Museum, replacmg from her own coilection those which were in bad order. The work of Mr. Sprent, whose explorations in the island were carried out with utter disregard for personal comfort, should be cheerfully recognised. His interest in the collec- tion of minerals, when the mines were just beginning to be opened up, was only an earnest of what might have been done had his life not been so prematurely ended. 126 ROYAL SOCIETY FROM THE YEAR 1840 To 1900. Mr. C. E. Beddome was alsoa good friend +o the science of conchology, and his own specimens and studies were always available for the use of any students. The meteorological work of Mr. A. B. Biggs, of Laun- ceston, has been of the greatest value, and his patient record of much observation increases very much the value of the reports of the Society. Mr. A. Montgomery, formerly Government Geologist, con- tributed several papers on geological subjects, and was one of the members whose careful observation was at the service of the Society on any subject lying within the scope of his studies. Among scores of contributors and hundreds of subjects one might go on for an hour enumerating those to whom the Society is indebted in various ways. but this necessarily imper- fect sketch must conclude with a list of the main subjects treated during the time under review. Remembering the many difficulties inseparable from life in a new country, and the special conditions of the population, with the upset caused by the discovery of gold, the list of papers asa partial record of work done by scientific men in Tasmania is creditable, and we may well be proud of belonging to a Society which has so splendid a record. Takmg the subjects in order the number of papers is as follows :— Mammalia ... ate ne =m heya Aves ... a Be re fan a fh 207 Conchology ... avs La wc. | AA Reptilia and Amphibia us se Hee LO Pisces yi abe bee SBE) Insecta and Crustacea Aas ee ee Bel Vermes ; ae ae a oe 3 General Zoology see Liat al Ape) tks) Botany ae 85 Geology, Paleontology, and Mineralogy 132 Geography ... ‘ be, |) 2x5) Ethnology ... ia BG, eee) As tronomy and Meteorology aa Bo G8 Economic Science and Bducation - Fao. 40) General Subjects... ei 560 nog. sis) Total papers, not including small papers on various subjects, 606. It is to be hoped that this record, compiled at the end of this century, may stimulate those who carry on this work in the century to come not only to do likewise, but much more abundant ly. 127 PRACTICABLE FORESTRY IN TASMANIA AND ELSEWHERE. By A. Mauvurt. The immense extent of forest land in Tasmania has struck every visitor to the island from the time of Abel Tasman to our own day. On the visitors who came to stay as settlers, this fact made an unfavourable impression, as its signification to them was the cost of clearing land for cultivation. And this impression has coloured and affected all that has been done in the way of dealing with forest land in the State. Trees have been regarded almost exclusively as impediments to agriculture, and not as possessing any intrinsic value worth consideration. Consequently every suggestion made for forest conservation has been regarded with suspicion as pos- sibly entailing something to be done for forestry at the ex- pense of agriculture and settlement. It is time that this suspicion should be banished. There can be no doubt but that agriculture is the mainstay of the country, and that nothing should be allowed to hamper or obstruct it. But a proper system of forestry, insteid of doing this, would really benefit agriculture by improving climatic conditions. In fact forestry need not enter into any competition for land with agriculture. Land altogether unsuitable for agriculture is very well suited for tree growing. I know great tracts of country in France that could not be let for half-a-crown an acre per annum for farming, but which yield more than thirty shillings an acre under forest cultivation. There is an im- mense Wertent of similar country in Tasmania, and some of this could be better used for forestry than for anything else. The rule to be followed in the appropriation of land for any purpose, is to appropriate it for the purpose that will yield the largest return. By all means reserve for settlement, and for agricultural and horticultural purposes, all the best of the Jand ; when that has been done there will be plenty left for pastoral purposes and forest conservation. With regard to forest conservation itself, there is a great deal of misapprehension. ‘T’o judge by the manner in which it has been discussed in these rooms and elsewhere, one would think that the advocates of forest conservation proposed to subject the whole of the Crown woodlands in the State to a regime of conservation. Such a proposal is not only impracticable, but useless, as it would be sure to break down unuer its own weight of responsibility aud costliness, ‘This mistaken idea of what is proposed has arisen from a misun- derstanding of what has taken place in other countries. It is true that in France, Germany, India, and other countries ° 128 PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN TASMANIA AND ELSEWHERE. where a system of forest conservation exists, the system applies to all the State domains; but these countries are all old settled ones, in which the State domains form but a com- paratively small proportion of the area of the whole territory. The woodlands of these domains are therefore only of such an extent as can be practically dealt with. It would be folly in Tasmania to do more than deal with a reasonable portion of its woodlands. The first thing to be done is to determine what this pro- portion shall be, and to select the sites of the reserves. In making this selection, after taking care that land is not taken that is better suited for other purposes, the most important condition is position and accessibility ; then the question of adaptability of the climate and soil of the locality to the kind of timber proposed to be grown and conserved must be considered. As the position of the reserves is thus so important, no time should be lost in determining this point, at least with regard to those in the more settled parts of the country. I understand that of the 12,000,000 acres of still unalienated Crown land in the State, about 175,000 acres have been proclaimed as forest re- serves. This area I think quite insufficient in extent for future requirements, but it is still more inadequate when the location of the reserves is considered. Not only should there be large national reserves for industrial and commercial purposes in accessible places, but there should be smaller ones in the neighbourhood of all townships for local requirements of all sorts, The advantage —- not to say the necessity—ot doing this, seems to have been alto- gether overlooked in Tasmania hitherto, with the result that in such a simple matter as the supply of firewood the cost in many places has doubled within the last dozen years—and the fire- wood industry is an important one from the point of view of the general population. In many places also—especiaily places without railways — wood for constructional purposes has greatly appreciated in value. In some other countries greater prevision has been shown, particularly in France, where many of the communes have woodlands that are managed for them by the National Forest Department, with the result that in some of them the revenue derived is sufficient to pay for the whole cost of local government without any recourse to rating for either municipal or educational purposes. The provision of all these necessary national and local reserves can now be made with far less difficulty than in the future, and I would strongly urge that it be at once made. There is no necessity for any further legislation to carry out my recommendation thus far. As the Crown Lands Guide says, “‘ The Governor-in-Council may, by proclamation in the BY A. MAULT. 129 Gazette, except from sale, and reserve to His Majesty such | land as he sees fit for the preservation and growth of timber.” Under this power 175,000 acres have, as I have before said, been reserved, but so far as I can learn no special action has yet been taken to preserve or grow timber on these reserves. So that what is required is not only that the reserves should be increased in extent, but that they should be actively and practically administered so as to fulfil the object which is the pretext of their reservation. It will be noted that in all this, when once the reserves are proclaimed, there is no interference whatever with the present administration of Crown lands, even that part of it which deals with exploitation of timber in forest lands that are not reserved. All the present system of sawmill leases and timber licenses may be carried out as set forth from page 31 to page 52 of the Crown Lands Guide. I express no opinion on that system if forest reserves are more expressly withdrawn from its operation ; but only wish to make it clearly under- stood thau the forest conservation I advocate will notin any way interfere with the revenue derived by the Lands Depart- ment from its leasing and licensing regulations. With regard te the larger forest reserves of the State, some will have to be for general purposes, and some for special ; and the locality selected for each of them will, of course, depend on its purpose. As before mentioned, good arable land is not necessary—in most cases it may be said—is not desirable. Some part of every large reserve will be found to possess such better quality ot soil as may be desired for the nursery that should be attached to every reserve. Usually the lar ger reserves, at the time of their selection, will con- tain trees of several kinds, and of course these kinds will be conserved to their maturity ; but in the long run it will probably be found best to select for the permanent affores- tation of each reserve the cultivation of the special tree that has proved the most successful in its region. Thus, in time we shall have large regional reserves of all our most market- able kinds of eucalyptus, such as blue gum, peppermint, stringy-bark, and iron-bark ; of pines, such as Huon, King William, and celery-top ; and of blackwood, myrtle, and other woods. At the same time persistent efforts should be made to introduce suitable foreign timber trees for the local pro- duction of industrial woods possessing qualities that are Wanting in the Tasmanian ones. With regard to the smaller local forest reserves there will probably he in many cases but a very restricted scope for selection. Still the selection should be made, even if it in- volved the reafforestation of land that has been partially cleared for pastoral purposes, or has never been covered with 130 PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN TASMANIA AND ELSEWHERE. bush. In such cases probably the best initiatory process would be wattle planting, with or without some tree planting for permanent timber. Till the timber has grown to maturity, the wattle might be subject to a 13 or 15 year rotation for bark and firewood, and from the first rotation coming in the expenses of the reserve should be more than met. In the cases in which the reserve is already wooded, the regim» would be similar to that of the large reserves carried out on a smaller scale. Each reserve should have an adequate staff to properly take care of it--not necessarily an expensive staff, but one suitable to the condition and extent of the reserve. But the central administration should be virtually a school of forestry. It should consist of a properly qualified conser- vator, and two or three more or less qualified assistants. When the system of conservation best adapted to our condi- tions here is duly decided upon, it should be systematically bat gradually carried out in all the reserves. ‘The system will be based upon a thorough practical knowledge of forestry in general, and of the timber trees of Tasmania in particular. Of course in the large reserves the trees will at first be there, and the conservancy will have to decide what is the best to be done with them in their present condition— that is, to make the best of them as they are, and with the view of enabling the introduction of a proper system of rota- tion, which is the basis of all economical forestry. Some of the timber will require a long period of rotation, probably 100 years, and the reserve will have to be divided into a cor- responding number of sections or ‘‘ cantons,” as they are usually called. It is evident that this cannot be done at ouce, for probably in all the cantons as at first defined there would be mature trees that would be spoilt if made to wait for their turn in the rotation of felling. It will be in arranging for and meeting this condition of things that the skill and discretion of the conservancy will be proved. It is not an insurmountable difficulty, and with patient perseverance it will be astonishing in what a short time a reserve will be reduced to comparative order, showing one canton in process of being cleared by the current year’s felling, last year’s canton being prepared for planting and in process of being planted, and those of previous years being watched, tended as required, and periodically thinned. This latter operation is timed to secure, if possible, a market according to the age of the thinning for hop poles, telegraph poles, fencing, mining timber, railway sleepers, piles, and wood for such like services,-and if the waste cannot be sold as firewood or charcoal, it is burnt to disencumber the ground. Under this system by the time the last canton of a forest is felled, the BY A. MAULT. 131 trees in the first will have arrived at maturity, and the market will be kept regularly supplied with timber and wood of all sorts and kinds. The conservancy will have to settle the questions of the proper time of felling the various kinds of timber trees, the proper manner of planting, the best method of seasoning wood, including seasoning hard woods while the trees are standing as practised in the teak forests in India, the time and manner of selling the wood, the means to be taken for protecting the forests from fire, and all such details of forest conservation. The carrying out of all its duties by the con- servancy will naturally train its staff to the fulfilment of theirs, so that in time they can be entrusted with the charge of the various reserves under due direction and supervision from headquarters. The varying importance of the Stateand local reserves will afford means of duly recognising zeal and ability by promotion. But the importance of getting a well- trained staff emphasises the necessity of securing a tho- roughly capable conservator, for there cannot be good train- ing without a good trainer. It would be the falsest economy to get an incapable or badly trained man who could only introduce or perpetuate a bad and slovenly system. It will naturally take some time to get the conservancy into full working order, so that it cau show paying results. The length of this time will very much depend upon the conservator, and the means given him to make a proper start. This can be done by at once establishing an important local reserve at headquarters. I would suggest that the area of Mount Wellington proclaimed by the Governor-in-Council of the 25th September, 1871, as a water reserve for the supply of the City of Hobart, should be also proclaimed as a forest reserve, together with all the adjacent unalienated Crown lands. That such lands are not well adapted for ordinary settlement is, I think, shown by the fact that they are not already taken up. What the area of this reserve would be i cannot say precisely, but probably such parts of it as could be conveniently keld and administered, together with the water reserve, would form a forest of five or six thousand acres, quite a sufficient urea for the proper instruction and development of a School of Forestry. Such a_ procla- mation would not interfere with the water supply of Hobart, but on the contrary further protect and increase it by the re-afforestation of much of the mountain that by fires and neglect has been left bare, and led to the continuous diminution of the rainfall there. Neither should it interfere with the enjoyment of the mountain by the people of Hobart and their visitors, but greatly increase it by adding the addi- tional charms of judicious planting, and, by careful guarding, 132 PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN TASMANIA AND ELSEWHERE. restrain the mischief and dirty doings of the larrikin element in our midst. On the other hand the great diversity of soil and climate to be found on the mountain with its slopes and valleys exposed to every aspect of the heavens, and shown by the wealth of its flora, point it outas eminently fitted as being the training ground of our School of Forestry. All but three of the eight woods I mentioned as the chief marketable woods of the State already grow there naturally ; and the other three, with perhaps the exception of iron- bark, would probably grow if proper conditions were observed. In fact the experimental observation of what would grow, and what would not, and what conditions had to be observed, would form most useful object lessons in the course of study and fractizal work both with re- gard to native trees and to attempts to introduce Huropean, American, and other pines and hardwoods. The scientific and technical education of the higher grades of the con- servancy officers could be easily arranged for, and the re- sults of the manualand technical training of the lower grades of forest guards should more than pay for such training when carried on so near to such a market as Hobart. But apart from this, the occupation of the mountain for this purpose would greatiy add to its value in all respects, and the training could be easily and continuously supervised so as to insure an early supply of the officers required for the whole State. I am convinced that this is the best, the easiest, and the most economical method of properly inaugurating a system of forest conservancy on the State. I need not expatiate on the necessity of taking early means of establishing this system. Forestry, like agriculture, deserves every encouragement, for lke agriculture it adds, when properly carried on, to the wealth of the soil on which it~ is exercised by continually renewing its fertility, whereas mining, though productive of immediate large returns, permanently impoverishes the ground by takiug out its wealth once for all. In a young community of course mining is encouraged, so that money may be earned, and become available in a short time. The _ timber treasure of the State has for the same reason been worked on the same lines as the mineral wealth—it has been allowed to be worked out without making any provision for its renewal, though such renewal is as practicable in regard to timber as it is impossible in regard to minerals. It is true that the land from which trees have been removed is sometimes improved by the removal, and fitted for other pur- poses ; but it israrely so in the case of land leased for saw- milling purposes, and on which felling and splitting licences are valid ; for such landis usually left so encumbered with BY A. MAULT. 133 rubbish and tree stumps and so quickly overgrown with scrub as to be more difficult and costly to clear than when in primeval forest. It is time that a new policy in regard to this matter should be adopted, or at least that a new system should be introduced to supplement the present one. The rate at which our available forests have disappeared and are disappearing is great, and continually becoming greater. As nearly as I can esti- mate from the replies received to my enquiries, from 70,006,000 to 100,000,000 square feet of sawn timber are pro- duced yearly in the State, of which about one-tenth is exported. What the quantity is of unsawn and hand-sawn timber, timber used for mining, fencing, splitting, and such like purposes, wasted by splitters and burnt by bush fires, it is almost impossible to guess, quite impossible to estimate ; five or six times the quantity sawn is probably far below the real quantity. So it is quite time to arrange how we are going to supply such a consumption from our available sources—that is, from accessible sources; for there are millions of acres no more accessible at present than if they were in the moon. On the other hand, there are evident signs that if we wish to secure any important share in the markets of continental Australia, and South Africa and England, we must be ready not only with an assuredsupply of marketable timber, but with one of properly seasoned timber. It behoves us, therefore, to prepare for action. The best preparation we can make consists in organising measures, one of the chief of which will be forest conserva- tion. In adopting this we may dismiss all misgiving by the knowledge of the “fact that no country which has adopted it has ever regretted its adoption. 134 NOTE ON ITACOLUMITE OR FLEXIBLE SAND- STONE. By E. G. Hoae, M.A. A. The existence of flexible sandstone appears to have been known of since 1780, when specimens were brought to Kurope from Brazil by the Marquis of Lavradio, Viceroy of Rio de Janeiro. The bed-rock in which the flexible sand- stone occurs was found by Von Eschwege to be largely developed near Mt. Itacolumi in the State of Villa Rica, Province of Mina Garaes, Brazil, and is described by him as a fissile sandstone containing plates of talc, chlorite, and mica. This rock contains a little gold, and has been shown by Heusser and Claraz to be the parent source of the Brazi- lian diamond. The beds generally rest on the crystalline schists and frequently pass into conglomerates. According to Fr. Hartt (Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil, 1870) the bed-rock is probably an altered Lower Silurian formation, while Prof. O. A. Derby classes it as of Huronian age. In this bed-rock the flexible sandstone occurs in some abundance; it is distributed in such a manner as to point strongly to the conclusion that the sandstone is only flexible when it bas been considerably metamorphosed. Professor Derby* states tnat on one side of a fissure the rock may be often found without any trace of flexibility, while on the other it is laminated and flexitle. He concludes that flexi- bility is not an original characteristic of the rock, but is a “phase of weathering ” or decay brought about: by percolating waters. f Mr. R. D. Oldham, F.G.S., Director of the Indian Geolo- gical Survey, + has discussed at some length the occurrence of flexible sandstone at Kaliana, near Dadri in Jhind. [It is probable that the specimen exhibited hy the Lord Bishop of Tasmania came from this locality.| Mr. Oldham states: “at Kalidna the flexible stone occurs on a hill composed of vertically bedded glassy quartzites: it is confined so far as my investigations and enquiries went, to one single spot where, for about 20 feet across the strike, and for about 30 yards along it, the rock has become flexible; near the margin of this area the flexible stone passes downwards into the ordinary quartzites, but in the centre the decomposition had extended downwards to the floor of the quarry, a depth of fully 15 feet; here, too, the rock was much softer, more decomposed and flexible than near the margin.” * Amer Journal of Science, Vol. XXIII. (1884), pp. 203, etc. t Records of the Geological Survery of India, Vol. XXII, Part I, pp. 51, etc- BY E. G. HOGG, M.A. 135 This view of the connection between the decomposition and flexibility of the sandstone is, to a certain extent, borne out by Mr. Tuomey in his Report on the Geology of S. Carolina. He observes that the itacolumite of that state “‘ passes even in the same mass into compact quartz, to be distinguished from common quartz only by its stratified structure,’ and that “the passage from the arenaceous to the compact variety is gradual, and it is in this passage that it assumes the form of itacolumite” (flexible sandstone). It must be noticed that the term itacolumite has two different significations; it is with some writers “ flexible sandstone,’ with others the bed-rock in which “ fiexible sandstone” occurs It would appear that. so far as’ the field relations are coucerned—though more evidence on this point is much to be desired —itacolumite only becomes flexible when it has undergone a certain amount of decomposition, probably due either to weathering, or to the percolation of water or other solvent. Such weathering or solvent action may remove, either in toto or in part, certain of the original constituents ef the rock. Of course, as a result of chemical combination, these constituents may be replaced, to a more or less extent, by other bodies. It is worth noticing that so far as our knowledge on the subject goes, flexible sandstone ovly oceurs in metamorphosed deposits, which are undoubtedly of very ancient origin. B. In this section of the note [ mast acknowledge how much I am indebted to the paper of Mr. Oldham, previously referred to. I now propose to give a digest, mainly drawn from Mr. Oldham ’s paper, of two theories brought forward to explain the peculiar properties possessed by flexible sandstone. It seems best to refer to the generally accepted theory, 7.e., the theory found in recent times in many extensively pur- chased treatises and manuals on geology. Thistheory would ascribe the flexibility of itacolumitic sandstone to the tale, chlorite, and mica stated to occur in it. It is only fair to notice that the partisans of this older view were unacquainted with the modern methods of ‘petrological analysis. This older view of the cause of flexibility can be traced to Von Eschwege, to whom is due the fanciful name of itacolumite. But apart from the difficulties depending on the physical properties—in the matter of elasticity—of mica, it appears quite clear from Mr. Oldham’s paper that flexibility is exhibited by the itacolumite, even when mica is absent, or is quite subsidiary. If the cause of the flexibility lie in the pre- sence in the slab of flakes of mica, chlorite or tale, whose planes are parallel to those of the laminations of the slab, it is diffi- 136 NOTE ON ITACOLUMITE OR FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE. cult indeed to see how to account for the stretching of the slab when tension, and its compression when pressure, is applied, T have recently been able to examine a specimen of flexible sandstone in the possession of Mr. T. S. Hall, M.A., Acting- Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne, and in this specimen both of the phenomena of extension and com- pression are present. After all, if the rock shows flexibility when mica, chlorite and tale are either entirely absent, or are quite subsidiary, it seems quite clear that the older theory must be abandoned. The theory with which we have now to deal is, I believe, the one usually accepted amongst modern geologists. Though not without its own difficulties it is in many ways more con- vincing than the one due to Von Eschwege. Mr. Oldham’s view, as stated in his own words, is that: ‘the flexibility of the rock is due, not to the fiexibility of any of its constituents, but to some peculiarity in the mode of ageregation of the individual grains of quartz and other material of which it is composed.” A similar idea was put forward by Klaproth § as far back as 1785, and at a later date by the Rev. Dr. Haughton, F.R.S. Mr. Oldham appears to have carefully examined the rock in thin microscopical slides. As a result of his labours, he states : “ If a slice of flexible sandstone is examined under the microscope, by reflected light, it exhibits a structure most conspicuous in all the specimens of flexible, and equally con- spicuous by its absence from all specimens of non-flexible, stone I have examined. The rock consists of irregular aggre- vates of grains of quartz separated from each other by fissures and crevices which extend deep into the stone and give one the impression of ramifying through its mass further than” they can be actually traced. Should one of these aggregates of quartz grains be touched with a needle it will be found loose and easily moveable from side to side, but it cannot be displaced without fracture, either of itself or of the surround- ing particles. In fact the rock consists of a number of irregular aggregates of quartz which hold together by projections on one fitting into hollows in another, while the clear space between thew allows of a certain amount of play.” Mr. Oldham gives two plates supporting his view of the structure of the rock. Mr. Oldham then proceeds in develop- ment of his theory as follows :—‘‘In the Kalidna rock there is, besides the quartz and accessory minerals, a certain proportion of felspathic paste, more conspicuous in sections cut transverse, than in those cut parallel to the bedding. This paste does not surround the individual grains of quartz, but occupies spaces between aggregates of grains, and it is § Schrift Berl. Ges. Natfur. Freunde VI., 322 (1785). BY E. G. HOGG, M.A. 137 to the decomposition and removal of this paste that the flexibility of some specimens is due. In such a rock the development of a flexible structure depends on the pro- portion and mode of distribution of the felspathic mud.” I have, I think, stated the essentials of Mr. Oldham’s theory, viz., the peculiar mode of aggregation of the quartz grains, and the removal of a certain proportion of the “« felspathic mud” in which, to a more or less extent, the quartz grains are included. The partial removal of this enveloping mud creates free spaces which the quartz grains may occupy when stress is applied to the surface of the ‘slab. A theory, apparently identical with that of Mr. Oldham, was put forward in 1887 by Herr O. Migge. || Through the kindness of Mr. Morton, secretary of this Society, I recently secured a small piece of flexible sandstone, believed by Mr. Morton to have been brought from India. In external appearance it does not differ appreciably from the specimen exhibited by the Lord Bishop this evening. The microscopic slides prepared show that the rock consists mainly of quartz grains which had suffered little attrition before deposition. Biotite and muscovite are both present, but from their feeble development they can hardly be regarded as a main cause of the flexibility of the stone. In addition the slide shows the occurrence, in fair quantity, of a matrix of isotropic character containing much included matter. The inclusions are, for the most part, quartz grains of microscopic dimensions and a small amount of opaque matter, the nature of which I have failed to determine, ‘This opaque matter is, however, so subsidiary, as to suggest that it does not play any part in the explanation of the flexible nature of the rock. The slides appear to me to clearly show that part of the paste originally enclosing the un-and sub-rounded grains of quartz has been removed. The slides do not throw anv light on the interlocking structure of the quartz on which Mr. Oldham’s theory largely depeuds. his negative result is possibly due to the fact that my slides were not cut in the direction required to show up to advantage the inter- locking structure, and the small piece of sandstone in my possession did not admit of the preparation of many slides. On consideration it does not appear clear that the ‘ inter- locking ” of the quartz is the fundamental point in any theory brought forward to explain “ flexible sandstone ” It would seem rather that a vera causa is to Le found in the partial removal of the matrix, whereby the quartz grains have free play to move when the slab is stressed in any manner. As regards the origin of an interlocking structure in the quartz Mr. Oldham is silent, and indeed any theory to explain this || Neu. Jahrb. I Band., 1887, pp. 195-7. 138 NOTE ON ITACOLUMITE OR FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE. difficulty is very hard to formulate. Mr. Oldham, it is only fair to say, attributes much weight to the removal of the matrix in a suitable proportion. I cannot do better than again quote from his paper. “ ‘The development of a flexible structure depends on the proportion and mode of distri- bution of the felspathie mud ; if absent or only present in very small proportion, decomposition will not extend deep into the rock, the quartz grains will be detached and fall off, leaving the undecomposed rock with a mere film of weathered stuff on the surtace ; if it is too evenly distributed, the quartz grains will not hen in sufficiently intimate contact with each other, and as the rock weathers it will decompose into grains of sand easily detached and removed ; if finally it should be suitably distributed, bat too large in amount, the voids left by its removal will be so large that the quartz aggregates will not interlock with each other.” Mr. Oldham goes on to state, ‘‘ the number of conditions which must be fulfilled satisfactorily accounts for the rarity of flexible sandstone, and toa certain extent for the capriciousness of its distribution in rocks which are of the same age and have, to all appearance, the same composition and structure.” With this statement of Mr. Oldham I am quite in accord ; the removal of the matrix in just a suitable proportion seems necessary. With regard to the isotropic matrix, it would appear that we have to look toa double metamorphism. The rock was, we will assume, a normal sandstone initially ; intense heat may have Jed to a partial fusion whereby the ex- ternal surfaces of the quartz grains may nave been trans- formed into a glassy material; at a later date solvent action may have removed this matrix in such suitable pro- portion as to give flexibility without disintegration. This 1s, of course, mere hypothesis, but the importance of explaining the isotropic base of the rock is at least as serious as the inter- locking structure of the quartz. Mr. Oldham, in support of his view, attaches much im- portauce to the appearances presented by the flexible sandstone near Charli, south of the Pemganga River in Berar. He states “itis an ordinary soft sandstone of rounded grains of quartz with a little felspar, held together by a cement of carbonate of lime, which forms 35:9 per cent. of the whole mass. Here there is no comparatively soluble material whose removal leaves the rest of the rock as a mass of irregular aggregates interlocking with each other, for on removal of the cement by solution, the rock falls into sand. But if the fractured surface of the rock is examined, an abundance of sheeny patches point to a erystallisation of the cementing matrix, and these planes afford a number of planes along which solution proceeds with greater rapidity than elsewhere, and as a result BY E. G. HOGG, M.A. 139 the rock becomes divided into irregular aggregates of sand and calcite.” It seems to me that the sample of the Charli sandstone needs much consideration before it can be regarded as a real support to Mr. Oldham’s views as to the flexibility of the Kahana rock. The difference between the two cases is fairly obvious; in the Kalidna stone the quartz grains interlock, and the matrix is partially removed ; in the Charli rock the interlocking takes place.not between the quartz grains, but between the facets of the crystals of calcite forming the base. The two explanations have, however, an important feature in common, viz., the occurrence of free cavities which may ramify into the rock in all directions. In this context it may be well to mention the occur- rence of flexibility in a rock which is not sandstone. Mr. G. W. Card * in 1892, drew attention to a flexible limestone of Permian age developed at Marsden, in the County of Durham, and ata point south of Sunderland. The rock is very finely laminated, is very soft and friable, and in general appearance not unlike a fine-grained sandstone It appears (according to Sedgwick) to have resulted chemically from deposition in successive layers. From sections prepared for the microscope it would appear that a low power reveals a large number of irregularly shaped empty spaces, in the main ranged linearly in directions parallel to the bedding, but also occurring promiscuously through the section. The material of the slide is mainly an aggregate of grains of dolomite, with a very few grains of quartz aud specks of blue and brown material. Mica is very rarely present. The larger grains of dolomite appear to be intergrown in such a way Af the convexity of one fits into the concavity of another. As a cause of flexibilitv, Mr. Card suggests: In the first place room for internal movement is provided for by the abundance of empty spaces, and in the second the structure revealed by high magnifying power suggests the possibility that many of the grains are interlocked in such a manner as to permit of a certain amount of movement upon one another. Owing, however, to the small size of the grains, Mr. Card was unable to demonstrate whether the grains actually possessed such power of movement or not. Mr. Card’s paper is of the greatest interest ; the rock it describes differs much both in point of age, composition, and mode of origin, from Mr. Oldham’s flexible rocks ; again, the reality of the interlocking structure is far from certain, while the existence of cavities allowing free play of molecular movement seems well established. *Geol. Mag. (8) IX., 1892, pp. 117, etc. 140 NOTE ON ITACOLUMITE OR FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE. The instances I have cited may now be summed up. The Kaliana rock shows (?) interlocking structure of quartz with removal of matrix ; the Charli rock shows cavities with possible interlocked structure of matrix. The rocks described by Mr. Card show cavities with possible interlocking of main material of rock (dolomite). Jt would appear from these results that interlocking is often doubtful, and in the main subsidiary ; that flexibility depends on (1) the nature of the matrix ; (2) the removal of such matrix in suitable proportion, as set forth by Mr. Oldham, so as to allow of free movement of the other constituents of the rock. ‘ ROVE hh: ay / SIR JAMES AGNEW, K.C.M.G., M.D., M.E.C. | Obituary. | Sir JAMES WILSON AGNEW, K.C.M.G., M.D., M.E.C., Senior Vice-President of the Royal Society of Tas- mania. Died on 8th November, 1901, in the 87th year of his age.—Born at Ballyclare, Ireland, on the. 2nd October, 1815, he studied for the medical profession in London and Paris, and at Glasvow, where he graduated M.D., as his father and grandfather had done before him, and came to Australia in 1839. After a short stay in New South Wales and Victoria (then known as Port Phillip), he accepted from Sir John Franklin the offer of appointment as medical officer to an important station at Tasman’s Peninsula, where he devoted the greater part of his leisure time to the study of natural history. Prior te his removal to Hobart for the more extended practice of his profession, in which he sub- sequently attained a position of acknowledged eminence, he had assisted in founding the Tasmanian Society, and he became an active member of the Royal Society, into which the former Society merged in 1844. Shortly after the retirement of Dr. Milligan, its Secretary and Curator, in 1860, he undertook the duties of Secretary as a labour of love, in order that the whole of the limited amount available out of income might be appropriated as salary for the Curator of the Museum. From that time on- wards, except during occasional periods of absence from Tasmania, he continued to act as chief executive officer of the Royal Society in the capacity of Honorary Secretary for many years, and latterly in that of Chairman of the Council; and to the admirable manner in which those self-imposed duties were discharged, 142 the records of the Society will bear enduring testi- mony for those who were not personally cognisant of his work. As far back as 1843 he contributed to the original Society an exhaustive account of the structure, habits, and venomous properties of Tasmanian snakes. This was followed in 1864 by a paper “Qn the Poison of Venomous Snakes,” which, after describing in detail some of his experimental researches, gives full direc- tions for the necessary remedial treatment in cases of snake-bite, and is still a standard authority on the subject. It is not by the number of papers appearing in the journals that the value of the services of such a man is to be gauged. A glance through the records of the Royal Society will show that he was ever on the look out for opportunities of promoting its work in the cause of Science, and in the public interest. He took an active part in the various projects for acclimatising the Salmonide in Tasmania, and defrayed the whole cost of the last importation of salmon ova from the mother-country, which was carried out with complete success, a cordia! vote of thanks being accorded to him on the occasion by both Houses of Parliament. This, however, was only one of many instances of his liberal support of public enterprises which he deemed » deserving of encouragement, and as to those with which he was more directly connected, the Library of the Royal Society, as well as the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, will for all time bear witness to his generous benefactions to those institutions. He was not a politician in the ordinary sense of the term, but was a valued Member of the Legislative Council for many years, and held office without portfolio in vanous Ministries up to 1886, when, as Premier and Chief Secretary he took an active part in the re-organisation of the Department of Education and other business of great public importance. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1894. 143 © But it is not only for such qualities as were evidenced in his public life, or in the practice of his profession, that the memory of Sir James Agnew will be held in affectionate remembrance. Of his private benevolence, and of his readiness to help any institu- tion or enterprise that appealed to his sympathy, there can be no official record. Nor is it possible, even for those who knew him best, to give any adequate description of the versatility of his genius, which enabled him to take a keen and intelligent interest in everything that came in his way, from the translation of an Ode of MHorace, or some literary criticism, to the discussion of arcana con- nected with his own profession, or the latest discoveries in mechanical and electrical engineering. This active interest in everything that concerned humanity con- tinued throughout his life, and his faculties happily remained unclouded to the end. “He had reaped The harvest of his days, and fell asleep Amid their garnered sheaves.” RICHARD STONHEWER BriGcut, M.R.C.S., E., £.M., LS.A. Died 28th October. 1901.—Born at South Audley-street, London, in 1835, he was educated at Christ’s Hospital and King’s College, and, foliowing in the steps of his father, took up the study of the medical profession, and qualified for membership of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1857. Commencing his professional career on his arrival in Tasmania in 1858, he continued in active practice until his death, having been for 41 years Honorary Surgeon at the 144 General Hospital, Hobart. At the Intercolonial Medica} Congress, held at Brisbane in 1900, he was unani- mously elected President of the Congress to be held at Hobart in 1902, an honour which he did not live to enjoy. Dr. Bright was an old and valued member of the Royal Society of Tasmania, having been elected Fellow in 1865, and a member of the Council in 1897. He was also President of the Medical Section of the Royal Society. Hon. CHARLES Henry Grant, Assoc. M. Instr. C.E., M.E.C. Died 30th September, 1901, in the 70th year of his age.—Born at Great Marlow, Buckinghamshire, England, on the 9th November, 1831, he was educated at King’s College, London, where he achieved distine- tion in mathematical studies, and he subsequently gained large experience in Telegraphy and Railway Engineering, both in England and in Canada. He came to Tasmania in 1872 to superintend the con- struction of the Main Line of Railway between Hobart and Launceston, of which he acted as General Manager until the line became the property of the State in 1890. He was elected a member of the Legislative Council in 1892, was a leading member of many public institutions, and was one of the representatives of Tasmania at the Federal Convention held in Adelaide, Sydney, and Melbourne in 1897-8. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1872, and a member of the Council in 1880, and was one of the original Trustees of the Tasmanian Museum and Botanical Gardens, taking an active and con- spicuous share in all the duties which thus devolved upon him. PRINTED: BY DAVIES BROTHERS LIMITED, HOBARF, TASMANIA. COmN THN TS, PAPERS. Land Shells from Maria Island. By W. F. Petterd, C.M.Z.S.,L. Aerial Navigation (Abstract). By E. O. Litchfield The Birds of Australia; Birds, Nests, and Eggs (Title). By A. J. Campbell, F.1..S. The Falls of Niagara as a Geological Chronometer. By Professor E. G. Hogg, M.A. fojoy} Descriptions of some Crustaceans from Cape Adare. By G. M. Thomson, F.L.S.... Contributions towards a Systematic Catalogue of Tasmanian Diatomaceee. By F. E. Burbury Notes on a Visit to the Museums at Perth and Adelaide, with special reference to the Blacks of West Australia. By the Right Rev. H. H. Montgomery, D.D. ... coc A System of Light Railways for Tasmania (Abstract). By G. E. Moore, C.E. Observations legarding the discovery of a portion of a Fossil Reptile, found on the N.-West Coast. By R. M. Jobnston, ESS. Reservoirs—Irrigation in India, aud Deductions, with special reference to the Hobart Reservoirs (Abstract). By C. B. Target, C.K. Federal Finance (Title). By the Hon. N. J. Brown, M.E.C. Hobart Society in 1845 (Abstract). By A. Mault... Further Notes on the Permo-Carboniferous Fossil Cliffs at Darlington, Maria Island. (Plates). By R. M. Johnston, F.S.S. On some additions to the List of Minerals known to occur in Tasmania. B; W. F. Petterd, F.Z.S.,L. The Present and Future Prospects of Timber in Tasmania. By Wm. Heyn Tasmanian ‘limber. By A. O. Greene Notes on Coal Discovery at Wynyard, Tasmania. By R. M. Johnston, F.S.S. ... Astronomical Observations at Cape Town Observatory. By H. C. Kingsroill, M.A. Notes on a Trip to the Barn Bluff Country. By J. W. Beattie... Presentation to His Lordship the Right Rev. H. H. Montgomery, D.D. ili il Ww Vii to} Xi 21 XVlii XXil XXili XXV XXXIV A, fe» CONTENTS—-(Continuep). Account of a Visit to British Columbia for the purpose of intro- ducing the Sock-eye Salmon (Onchorhynchus nerka) in Tasmanian Waters (Abstract). By Alex. Morton ... adi XXXV1 Forty-eighth Annual Report... A ae Bee ao: soe SOO Supplementary Notes on some Antarctic Rocks and Minerals. By W. A. MacLeod, B.A., and QO. E, White ... ae 606 38 Extension of the Museum and Art Gallery... ae ie Hair DS Saks Further Observations on some Obsidian Buttons. By Thos. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S. ... ae ae i Be ie 42 The Glacial Beds of Peppermint Bay. By Professor E. G. Hogg, M.A. 5 ei oh ee oF ie as 50 45 Description of a ‘‘ Meteorite” from the Castray liver, Tas- mania. (Plate.) By W. F. Petterd, F.Z.S.,L. ae oe 48 Description and Analysis of a New Species of Mineral “‘ Petterdite,” a New Oxychloride of Lead (Plate). By W. H. T'welvetrees, E.G.S. a ee aa A ae Si shepiednee AC 51 Microscopic Structure of some Tasmanian Rocks. By W. F. Petterd, ©2MiZ.S:,l: ... tee Fes Bete eas ae 53 Outlines of the Geology of Tasmania. By W. H. Twelvetrees, EGES eyes: dh a0 at 500 s ae 2 58 The Minerals of Tasmania. By W. F. Petterd, C.M.Z.S. is 73 Magnetic Survey of Tasmania. By Professor E. G. Hogg, M.A.... 84 Botany. By L. Rodway a st a ae Des bas 85 The Birds of ‘Tasmania. By Col. W. V. Legge, C.M.Z.S., Ll. ... 90 The Recent Mollusca of Tasmania. By Miss M. Lodder ne 102 Additions to Tasmanian Flora. By L. Rodway xe 107 Some Account of the Work and Workers of the Tasmanian Society and the Royal Society of Tasmania, from the year 1840 to the close of 1900. By Alex. Morton... ibe bo 109 Practical Forestry in Tasmania. By A. Mault ... ie tise 127 Note on Itacolumite or Flexible Sandstone. By Professor E. G. Hogg, M.A. ee non sak bs ae x aya 134 Obituary Notices—Sir James Agnew, K.C.M.G.; R. 8S. Bright, M.R.C.S.,E.; and the Hon. C. H. Grant is thes Se 25 PRINTED BY DAVIES BROTHERS LIMITED, MACQUARIE STREET, HOBART. ES ee pipile WE Es ity Ms aL TAAL ALL SR Agape” aes 1} co BAR, y phlei nwa BRE apbareer HYPTT PRs am Oe on eg ee Cea : ae fae NE: 4 able on nec? one eT caaeett 4 a a5 Ae aH -ore Ay, Sia Bees Y nee eN'N4 cera Vey Heit itii lity Foe ee os Ry See, bat. ,~% ie mie ei , «see = ia te pack! ae =. ght Asa. ¢ Mra reaper fe, io ¢ f ne 4}, Be | Doe ee $d), rr i Fam fh WA ipa 2) » Ld POP ee a, N4aQy yal Ab Pe = shin” i a= it a Aw. ‘) ry *“e We ‘Lege Srp aPPre , pa, | Qe 8 fe) “" @ Af | a Aa Pave eae PS Les ‘ fass. ict mal Maal Bae, @.*Ap | Paar Tar Reep stn raeee: anal Gataca” ~~ ; tenae ema Risiaaal \ . Ofer here pas TPP OI INO ae aye i AN peer 6 Chesed ( ae ar A m 8 2; [ “oR : os he T phy pe RSS Hal Weal i pgm Huila . Raa A ‘A ae, ae Pam, 7% arr4 An te! TT] lal Ty Ma: p aes | An. 2 promeare Pees sv ees ai Aaa G aly Pes mally Ws BE. ca” Pregie” <4 0 ae TTT LLL TE 1 aii AbARM One yr nN | Ae ae ana TS ry tp Tey a. : A a ee aaaaade UAE ave rh Bsc bane ad = sl “| a Loe | bn) a, DL] POP EPO “Mies PE ome at aAAa dap - 1 OLAS NR 0 PREV ES Coe a Es Peal | iii Fae a ne of in VAL htt e resell topes eee’ wry’. bic ’ 5 a4, a ‘\ Wr AN ie & : Te Pity Lyn Ireahe. ee Patrik Ret : pyagl Ainltan. toms eceece oe rE f’ UOMO LOX or tO VQ ‘me iA “tt hvowmmaanabmarreneticne (04 Bee Sey eer ye su aes ‘" 4 a wl ~ a <4 TTT pA || bacY Ales lu! J ual j hy ih! ‘Ny Meng: ry ? Piel E | aS Ee re a). py APE As a 1a. Pauses es