FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

Papers and Proceedings

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1908.

iiubart

Printed at "The Examiner" and "Weekly Courier" Offices,
73-75 Patterson Street, Iyaunceston.

-,f Jf6+-*lfr+*

Royal Society of Tasmania.

1908.

Jlatron :
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, GOVERNOR
OF TASMANIA.

T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S.

A. G. WEBSTER.

R. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S., I.S.O.

W. V. LEGGE, Col. R.A., F.R.G.S.

Glmtnril :

T. STEPHENS. M.A., F.G.S.

RUSSELL YOUNG.

R. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S., I.S.O.

BERNARD SHAW, I.S.O.

G. H. BUTLER, M.R.C.S., M.L.C.

G. E. BRETTINGHAM MOORE, M.H.A.

SIR ELLIOTT LEWIS, M.A., B.C.L., K.C.M.G.

GREGORY SPROTT. M.D.

J. S. C. ELKINGTON, M.D.

FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D.

E. L. PIESSE, B.Sc, LL.B.

A. D. WATCHORN.

^nnorarg ©rrasitrrr :
BERNARD SHAW, I.S.O.

irrrttaru to tltr (Homtril :

ROBERT HALL.

Auditor :

H. W. W. ECHLIN.

Order of retirement from the Council: — Dr. Noetling. Russell Young,
Sir E. Lewis, and R. M. Johnston, in 1910,

The responsibility of the statements and opinions given
in the following Papers and Discussions rests with the
individual authors or speakers : the Society merely
places them on record.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
A.

Aborigines of Tasmania (Sec Native Implements and Lan-
guage)

Accounts (1907), Discussion of 1.

Actinolite, Specimen found near Port Cygnet v.

Annual Report for 1908 85

Annual General Meeting 90

B.

Baker, Henry D., Account of a visit to Furneaux Group .... vii.

Beattie, J. W., Account of a visit to River Gordon viii., 31

E.
Eclipse of Sun of 9th May, 1910 xi.

G.
Gordon River. Account of a visit to. by J. W. Beattie viii., 31

H.
Hall, Robert. Account of trip through Siberia ii.

J-
Johnston, R. M.. State Borrowing and Sinking Funds v.. 10

K.
Kingsmill. H. C, Notes on Solar Eclipses xi.

L.
List of Fellows and Associates 9-2

M.

May, W. L., Additions to Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna . . . . xi.. 53

Molluscan Fauna of Tasmania, Additions to xi., §3

Mutton Birds of Furneaux Group vii,

CONTENTS.— Continued.

N.

PA*

Native Implements iii., x.. xiii.. i. 36, 44. 60

Nativ anguage of xiii.. xvii., 68, yn

Noetling, F., Motes on a Chipped Boulder found near

Kempti in iii., 1

On the Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross .. x.. 44
On a Native Burial Ground at Charlton, near

Ross x., 36

The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Imple-
ments xiii., 60

R.

Report, Annual, for 1908 85

Ritz, II. l'».. on Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements xiii.. 68

on Aboriginal Speech of Tasmania xvii., 79

S.

Subscription to the Society, Report of Committee on reduc-
tion of XV.

Resolutions of Special General

Meeting xviii.

PAPERS.

i. Notes on a Chipped Boulder found near Kempton I

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

2. State Borrowing and Sinking Funds 10

By R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., I.S.O.

3. Notes on the River Gordon and on the need for reservation

of Land along its Banks 31

By J. W. Beattie.

4. A Native Burial Ground on Charlton Estate, near Ross . . 36

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

5. The Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross 44

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

6. Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna 53

By W. L. May.

7. The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements 60

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

8. On Dr. Noetling's conclusions respecting the Aboriginal

Designations for Stone Implements 68

By H. B. Ritz, M.A.

9. An Introduction to the study of the Aboriginal Speech of

Tasmania 73

By H. B. Ritz, M.A.

Ilogal j^orirtg of ©asmatua.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
APRIL 7, 1908.

A Meeting of the Society for the transaction of ordinary
business, and the reconsideration of the Balance-sheet sub-
mitted with the Annual Report for 1907, was held at the
Museum on Wednesday evening, April 7, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Mrs. C. S. Agnew, Messrs. Hugh Armstrong, F.R.C.S., W.
A. Harvey, M.B., Lyndhurst F. Giblin, B.A., A. W. Courtney
Pratt, W. Minchin Nicholls, and A. R. Reid were elected
Fellows of the Society.

In reference to the question of the reconsideration oS the
Balance-sheet for 1907, the Chairman announced that Mr.
Bernard Shaw, their recently-appointed Honorary Treasurer,
had taken a great deal of trouble in going through the accounts
of the Society for the last four years, and would now furnish
any information that was required on the subject.

Mr. Shaw laid on the table printed accounts showing the
receipts and expenditure for the years 1904 to 1907. The
Balance-sheet for 1907 had been amended by the transposition
of figures. The error in the accounts of the Morton Allport
Memorial Fund was connected with the purchase of a valuable
work for th~ Memorial Library when the funds in hand were
insufficient for the purpose, and the deficiency was made good
by a loan from the General Funds of the Society. There should
have been some explanatory note to show that the amount of
this loan was a debit balance against the Memorial Fund,
which would be repaid to the Society as soon as the next in-
stalment of interest was received. The Balance-sheets for 1904-
5-6 had now been compiled, and, with the revised Balance-
sheet for 1907, had been examined by the Auditor and certified
as correct.

Mr. A. J. Taylor thought the Society might now congratu-
late itself on the fact that it had a business-like statement put
forward, and he claimed that the course he took at the previous
meeting, in moving that further consideration of the Balance-
sheet be postponed, was fully justified by the clear statement
of accounts which was now before them. Mr. Bernard Shaw
had taken a vast amount of trouble in going through the
accounts for the years which had been mentioned. He (Mr.
Taylor) did not at the previous meeting for a moment dream
of casting any reflection on the Council or the late Secretary.

Mr. Shaw, in reply to Dr. Crouch, said a grant to the
medical section for [905 did not appear in the accounts, as it
was not paid.

Dr. Noetling raised the question <»f insurance. He noticed
there was an item in the 1004 accounts for insurance, but not
uently. The valuable books in the library could not be
replaced for £ 5.000.

Mr. Shaw said the books were now reinsured as the pro-
perty of the Society for £1.000.

The motion for the ad-option of the accounts was then put
and carried.

Mr. J. \Y. Gould moved, Dr. Crouch seconding the motion,
" That a hearty vote of thanks be given to Mr. Bernard Shaw
for the large amount of trouble he had taken in examining the
accounts of the Society for the past four years." The motion
was put and carried with applause.

APRIL 13, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, April 13, 1908.

Mr. Russell Young in the chair.

The Chairman referred in feeling terms to the cause of the
absence of Sir John Dodds (Lieutenant-Governor and Acting-
President of the Society), and felt sure that the meeting was
in deep sympathy with him and his family.

The Secretary to the Council (Mr. Robert Hall) notified
the receipt of valuable literature from kindred societies in all
parts of the world, from Russia. Argentina, Canada, the Medi-
terranean countries, and Great Britain. The Smithsonian
Institute, U.S.A., had sent books of very great value.

Mr. Hall then gave an account of the travels of himself
and friend through Siberia to Moscow and St. Petersburg, and
then on to London. He described the fauna and flora met with
in a journey of 6,000 miles on the little-known Lena River, in
Siberia. The people, their modes of living, etc., were well
illustrated and described. He said we have on our beaches all
round fhe coast millions of little wading birds, very little larger
than sparrows, called sand-pipers, which stay with us over
Christmas till about April, and then fly 8,000 miles northwards
to Siberia, where they breed their young, arriving just after
the ice melts on the largest swamp in the world, called the
Tundra, extending over 2,000 miles east and west. In the
following October they started again, with their young birds,
back to Tasmania. Then there was a fish popularly known as
the herring in Bass Strait, which migrated past the Philippines
and Corea right up to Kamschatka, making a return trip the
same year, and this went on year after year. Most of the

food fishes deposited their eggs out in the open ocean, but the
herring was quite an exception. It was not known in which
rivers this herring deposits its eggs; possibly in the southern
streams. It was wonderful how those birds made such long
flights annually, and especially how the young birds, which
travelled for the first time, got back to the land of their birth.
They seemed to have some special sense of direction. These
birds had been migrating in this way, possibly, for millions of
years, and from a time when Siberia had a very different
climate from what it has to-day, as was evidenced by geological
impressions cf tropical plants that once grew there. Now it
had a terribh severe winter, during which quicksilver remained
frozen in barometers and such instruments for months. He
presented views, and described Irkutsk, the capital of Eastern
Siberia, Yakutsk, centre of the Siberian fur trade, and Verko-
yansk, one of the coldest places in the northern hemisphere;
yet, in the spring, birds migrating between Tasmania and
Siberia nested there, finding an abundance of food in the shape
of berries and grubs. Parts of Siberia, like Canada, had very
genial spring and summer seasons, when everything grew
quickly. He and his friend experienced weeks of perpetual
light, and clouds of mosquitoes. Siberia, in addition to having
the largest swamp in the world, had the largest plain and the
largest pine lorest, the latter extending for thousands of miles,
and running through it were grand rivers teeming with salmon.
The coasts and rivers were rich in fishing grounds. The country
contained many plants and flowers never seen in the Southern
Hemisphere, pictures of several of which were thrown on the
screen. There was a good prospect for the country for settle-
ment by political exiles from Russia; these were mostly supe-
rior people. Siberia teemed with birds, flowers, and mosquitoes.

MAY ii, 1908.

The monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Monday evening, May 11, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Messrs. W. N. Atkins, L. A. Evans, O. P. Law, and L.
Rodway were elected Fellows, and Mr. A. Conlon Associate of

the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ '. —

Notes on a Chipped Boulder from near Kempton. By
Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author described the boulder as one that had been
chipped by the aborigines in getting their cutting implements
from it. He found around it the principal flakes belonging to
the stone. The place where the stone was found was the site
of an old aboriginal camping ground on the slope of a hill on
the northern side cf Kempton. He described how the flakes
were used as implements, and how they were struck off the
core. The specimen was unique for Tasmania. It was a piece

of water-worn pebble stone, and must have been carried for a
considerable distance to the camping ground for the manufac-
ture of the cutting instruments of stone.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said the specimen Dr. Noetling had
exhibited to them that evening was one of the most interesting
that had been found in Tasmania. Eleven of the chips fitted
beautifully on the core. Often pieces of rock chipped off from
great changes of temperature, such as during bush fires, but
lie believed that these pieces were chipped off the core before
them by aboriginals.

Mr. A. J. Taylor said he did not think the fragments were
flaked off by fire, for fire would only cause fractures from the
ouside, and this core had some fractures from the inside.

The Chairman said that fire would have broken off the flakes
more from the outside. A rich field for Dr. Noetling's investi-
gations would be found near the head of the Macquarie River,
where the aborigines had a favourite camping ground near the
outcrop of a cherty rock, which formed the material of most
of their implements. He called attention to some flint and
obsidian arrow heads which he had collected in Texas, U.S.A..
some years ago, as illustrating a different phase of civilisation.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS-

Mr. R. M. Johnston exhibited a small specimen of a moun-
tain trout (Galaxias truttaceus), captured by Mr. Tute at
the Great Lake, which had an abnormal development in the
shape of two mouths, being a sport or freak of nature; from
the mouth, below the chin of the creature, the tongue pro-
truded. A similar curiosity had been noticed by him some
years ago in a sea perch.

Air. A. J. Taylor made some remarks on the so-called bul-
rush caterpillar (Sphaeria robertsia). He said the cater-
pillar is interesting because of the peculiar way in which it
becomes the host of a vegetable form of life, which uses up
the animal structure of the caterpillar for its own nourishment,
while at the same time it replaces every portion so robbed
with vegetable tissue to an equal extent. In this way the
caterpillar is by degrees converted entirely into a vegetable
root, exactly resembling, in every respect, the original form of
the insect from which it had derived sustenance during its
period of growth. The process of vegetation is this: Whilst
burrowing in the light vegetable soil, previous to undergoing
the process of its natural metamorphosis, the caterpillar gets
some of the seeds of the fungus under the scales about its neck;
and from this part of its body a seed vegetates, and grows into
a single stalk, from six to ten inches high, the top portion of
the stalk m the female plant, when fruiting, representing, only
m a much smaller degree, the club-headed bulrush with which
we are all so lamiliar. The body of the caterpillar is, as already
described, gradually metamorphosed into the vegetable root of
the plant. The seed vessel is the only portion of this curious
plant found above ground, therefore it may be easily overlooked.
When freshly dug up the root is soft, and. in spite of its woody

structure, may be found to contain satisfactory evidence — such
as the intestinal canal — of its animal origin. The bulrush
caterpillar is to be found in New Zealand and Tasmania. Other
insects that suffer the same fate are known of; but none of
these afford a more interesting illustration of the process by
which Nature sometimes makes an apparently retrograde step
— by descending from a higher, or insect, form of life to that
of a lower or vegetable condition — than we find in the case
of the bulrush caterpillar. He referred to samples of the bul-
rush caterpillar in fruit and sections indicating the woody
structure of the insect after passing through the changes de-
scribed.

The Chairman and Mr. Johnston corroborated the descrip-
tion of the development of this interesting parasitic fungus, the
former remarking that its modern generic name was Cordy-
ceps, and exhibiting a very perfect specimen of C. Gunnii,
found at Franklin Village, near Launceston.

Dr. Noetlmsr exhibited two minerals found by him at Gad's
Hill and at Barn Bluff — viz., analcime and actinolite — the for-
mer being a species of zeolite heretofore found only near Port
Cygnet.

JUNE 16, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Tuesday evening, June 16, 1908.

Sir John Dodds, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor, in the
chair.

Messrs. L. F. S. Hore, B.A., Leonard Seal, and Joseph
Love, M.B., were elected Fellows of the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ : —

On State Borrowing and Sinking Funds for the Redemption
of State Debts regarded from an Economical Point of View.
By R. M. Johnston, I.S.O., F.L.S.

In the first part of his paper, relating to state borrowing,
the author points out — (1) the unprecedented progress of all
civilised countries, especially within the last forty years; (2)
that this progress entirely altered the methods and instruments
formerly employed in the industrial world; (3) that the intro-
duction of the improved machinery and instruments of trans-
port and production involved immediate, enormous, and
original outlay of capital; (4) that the consequent reduction
in cost of production and transport, and of prices, so affected
all parts of the world that new and old countries alike were,
perforce, obliged to largely invest fresh capital for such pur-
poses; (5) that great undertakings (strch as the building of the
great Canadian and Pacific Railway system), could not, practi-
cally, be constructed in a piecemeal fashion, over a period of
from forty to sixty years, to accommodate the burden of the

payment of the principal required immediately, and. conse-
quently, this impracticability, and also the necessity of securing
a just an.l equitable share of burden to all who in the future
derive benefit from the original outlay, the method of only
charging inteiest on capital to each year's current revenue has
invariably been adopted in all civilised countries. He illus-
trated, by reference to the United Kingdom, how capital in-
vestments were developed. That Australia, latterly, has not
been investing capital in this direction, either absolutely or
relatively to population, at as great a rate as the United King-
dom was indicated by the fact that during the last five years
inv< sted capital of the kind referred to in the United Kingdom
represented a sum of 62s. 6d. per head per year; while in
Australian States, in a country nearly as large as Europe, and
as yet scarcely begun to be developed, the corresponding
capital investments only represented a sum of 28s. iod. per
head per year. Would the present population, with its rela-
tively high "standard of living" and its vastly increased
wealth, have existed had the " retrenchment-and-ruin " cry of
the year 1870 succeeded in forcing upon the states, at the time,
the retrograde advice, " no borrowing " and " retrenchment."
This, though eminently prudent, from the standpoint of a pri-
vate individual, lmght still be open to question or qualification,
when applied to the economics of a corporate body. He was
of opinion that the state taxpayers of the day stand, in relation
to the ever-changing individuality of the state taxpayers of the
past and future, in exactly the same ethical and economical re-
lation to each other, as do the existing shareholders of a
private railway corporation to past and future shareholders of
the same concern; and, consequently, there is neither moral
nor economical grounds why either taxpayers of the state or
railway shareholders of the day should, in addition to their
own equitable share of burden, mulct themselves in additional
heavy taxation or expense (as by sinking fund contributions)
for the purpose of lessening the fair and equitable share of
burden of their future personally disconnected representatives.
The author of the paper, in conclusion, affirms as his strong
opinion that sinking funds for the absolute redemption of
loans invested in railways, harbours, and other great public
works, should be restricted to the portion of such loans whose
assets are short-lived, and, like the short terminable life of
marine vessels, cannot be permanently preserved in their pris-
tine value and utility by the ordinary yearly contributions from
current revenue funds to maintenance, renewals, and repairs,
by which means the Whole permanent way, machinery, and
other equipments of railways are ever kept up to their pristine
value and utility as bona-fide state assets.

Mr. T. Stephens said that the Fellows of the Society must
congratulate themselves that, although Mr. Johnston had been
away on a visit to the old country, he had returned to them
with no loss of that force with which he had many times pre-
viously interested them. The subject upon which he had ad-
dressed them that night was such a big one that it would be
well to postpone the discsusion upon it in order that the
Fellows might have an opportunity of seeing it in print.

Mr. James Macfarlane also wished to have an opportunity
of studying the paper in print before discussing it.

After further discussion, it was decided that the paper should
be taken into consideration on a date to be fixed by the Council
cf the Society.

NOTKS AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. Henry Baker gave an account of his recent visit to
the Furneaux Group to study the habits of the mutton-bird.
He found when he reached the islands that the birds had left
about ten days previously. There appeared to be a tendency
on the part of the birds to leave a little sooner every year.
This was probably due to the encroachment of sheep and cattle
on the rookeries, and the vast amount of egging which went
on. The Government had imposed regulations, but they did
not appear to be stringent enougih. He had been told that
the number of young birds that escaped was much less than it
used to be. Next to mutton-birding, kangarooing was the most
habitual occupation of the islanders. These animals had prac-
tically disappeared from all the smaller islands, and were be-
coming scarce on the larger ones. Three thousand a year
would be a low estimate of the number that were killed. The
kangaroo were hunted by dogs, which were kept half-starved
to render them savage. It seemed a pity that so many kan-
garoo should be killed, considering the small price the skins
brought. They were an important source of meat supply to
the islanders, and if the close season were strictly enforced
they would be subjected to considerable suffering. _ It was
necessary, however, that the indiscriminate destruction that
went on at ^resent should be checked. He thought it was a
great pity that the islanders could not be induced to take up
some other forms of earning a livelihood than those they fol-
lowed at present. If the people of Tasmania would interest
themselves a little bit more in the islands their future would
be brighter.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said he 'had visited the islands in 1874,
and related some of his experiences. He agreed in the neces-
sity for the preservation of native birds and animals, and hoped
that Mr. Baker's reference to the matter would result in good.

Mr. T. Stephens thought the matter ought not to be allowed
to rest. He suggested that the Council of the Society should
address a letter to the Government, asking them to cause in-
quiry to be made as to the extent to which the existing regula-
tions were carried out, and as to the wholesale destruction of
kangaroo and wallaby. He moved a resolution to that effect,
which was carried.

JULY 13, 1008.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, July 13, 1008.

Sir John Dodds, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor, in the
chair.

THE FOLLOWING PAPKR WAS READ ! —

On a recent visit to the River Gordon, illustrated by lantern
slides, with remarks on the need of reservation of land along
the banks of the River. By J. W. Beattie.

The visit was made in the middle of April last, eight days
being spent in exploring the River Gordon. Unfortunately,
♦or six days the weather was very wet. less than two days
being available for the photographic work of the trip. Photo-
graphs of Macquarie Harbour Heads were displayed, showing
the dispositions of the various harbour works. The outer and
inner islands, and their lights, the breakwater, and the wreck
of the s.s. Kawatiri, were shown, and gave a clear idea of the
character of this wild western port of Tasmania, the " open
door" of the West Coast mineral fields. The late Mr. Napier
Bell's scheme for the removal of the bar was referred to, and
another scheme, with a similar objective, but antedating Mr.
Bell's by some seventy years, was mentioned. This early
scheme, however, appears to have never gone beyond the
presentation of a report by the originator — Captain James
Hobbs — to the then Governor, Colonel George Arthur, in 1824.
The d:scovery of Macquarie Harbour by Captain James Kelly
was dealt with. Illustrations of the Port of Strahan were
given, and also a fine series portraying the beautiful natural
reserve of 70 acres called "The People's Park." These serve
to emphasise the value of the forethought of the Strahan resi-
dents in obtaining one of a series of what have been aptly
termed Natural Monuments, which will remain an abiding
type of the indigenous flora. The historic places en route
to the River Gordon were next dealt with — Phillip Island,
Sarah Island, etc., being historically treated, and the beautiful
and impressive mountain backgrounds overlooking the en-
trance to the river fully described, with some of the historical
associations attached to them. The grandeur of the different
reaches and bends of the Gordon was well illustrated, and
served to emphasise the unique beauty of the river, and the
urgent claims for its protection from the ruthless hand of
present-day utilitarianism. The scenery at Gould's Landing,
the various rapids in the upper reaches of the river, the River
Franklin, and the scenery at the Great Bend, 65 miles from
Macquarie Harbour, were well represented, the characteristics
of the river being minutely described where illustration was
not available. A brief sketch of the pine industry in the
vicinity of the Gordon was accompanied by several illustrations
of pine forests and logging.

In conclusion, the author urged most strongly that imme-
diate and vigorous action be taken to thoroughly protect the
banks of the River Gordon from Macquarie Harbour to a mile
beyond the Franklin, a total distance of 26 miles, the area of
reservation to extend to the line of hills running on either
side of the river from the water's edge to at least one chain
beyond their summits. On level river flats, where no hills

obtain, five chains from the river to be reserved. These reser-
vations, in the opinion of the writer, .should effectually prevent
the destruction of the beautiful foliage, and retain not only
an aesthetic asset of unique character, but an asset of great
value from the tourist standpoint, which, if protected from
the axe and fire, will undoubtedly become of great monetary
value to the state.

Dr Noetling said that there was the finest scenery on the
Gordon that he 'had ever seen in his life, and it would be a
great pity if the insatiable timber merchant was allowed to
destroy it. It was the duty of the Government to try and
preserve that scenery and he favoured the land on each side
being reserved up to the tops of the hills.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that no one had done so much
to make the scenery of Tasmania known as Mr. Beattie. It
was due to his hard work and careful selection of subjects
that the world knew so much of the beauties of Tasmania.
They were ail very much indebted to Mr. Beattie for the work
he had done, not only in making the beauties of our state
known, but in the patient and careful researches he had made
into its old history.

Dr. Noetling said that if it was a fact that the Gordon ran
for two miles under the Wilmot Range, as had been reported
to Mr. Beattie, it would be the most extraordinary geological
wonder in the world.

The Chairman said that he fully endorsed all that Mr.
Beattie had said in regard to the necessity for the preservation
of the scenery on the beautiful Gordon River, and he sincerely
recommended everyone who had not had the privilege of
visiting that part of the country to do so as soon as possible.
The time would come when the West Coast would prove most
attractive from a tourist point of view; and it therefore be-
hoved the Government to preserve, as far as they could, these
beautiful scenes from destruction.

Mr. Beattie said that he had had that day received a tele-
gram from Mr. Robert Sticht, manager of the Mount Lyell
mine, supporting all that he had said in regard to the necessity
of preserving the scenery along the Gordon, and stating that
the present reservation made by the Government was inade-
quate. Nothing less than the whole range visible to the eye
should be reserved. The interests of the pine-getters were
paltry compared with the preservation of natural scenery.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS

Mr R. M. Johnston exhibited some specimens of timber
which had been treated with Captain M'Fie's white-ant specific,
and pointed out that it not only preserved the wood from the
attacks of insects and fungi, but enabled it to take a beautiful
polish.

AUGUST io. 1 90S.

The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at
the .Museum 011 Monday evening, August 10. 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A.. F.G.S., in the chair.

THE FOLLOWING PAPEKS WERE READ [—

( i ) On the Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross. By Fritz
Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author first mentioned a reported aboriginal quarry at
Stacker's Bottom, near Ross. Some thought it was a myth,
and so he found it; but on further exploration he found such
a quarry at Syndal. Hundreds of thousands of fragments that
had passed through the hands of aboriginals were found lying
about. He exhibited specimens. From this quarry stone for
the implements used by the aboriginals was obtained. A vast
amount of time and labour must have been spent in vain by
the aboriginals whilst shaping their implements, and in con-
nection with these operations they used fire. The other quar-
ries of this character in Tasmania, the lecturer said, were at
Cole Hill, near Melton-Mowbray; a small one near the railway
station, Pontville; one at Shene Estate; at Charlie's Hope,
Plenty: the Great Lake; on the road from Campbell Town to
Swansea; on the South Esk, near Perth; at Pipeclay Lagoon;
on the Tamar River; and on Mount Communication, near Salt-
water River. Most of these might, at any rate, be considered
as native quarries. He referred to the flints discovered in the
tertiary formation at Thenay, in France, as to the origin of
which there had been much controversy.

Mr. R. M. Johnston spoke of the kinds of rock from which
the aboriginals formed their stone implements and weapons.
Among the natives of West Australia to-day there were to be
found the same primitive stone implements as were found after
the Tasmanian aborigines had disappeared; the West Austra-
lian natives preserved their ancient chip flints for sacred rites
purposes.

(2) On a Native Burial Ground at Charlton, near Ross. By
Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author remarked that Ling Roth's book on the abo-
rigines of Tasmania had fully dealt with the character of these
burial places. The one under notice had been very carefully
examined. It seemed certain that the natives on this island
burnt their dead, but differences of opinion arose as to their
disposal of the ashes. It was pretty certain that they used to
smear their faces with the ashes. Some were said to have put
dead bodies in hollow trees, fencing them round with bushes.
They knew that the names of deceased persons were never
mentioned again, as the race were very superstitious about the
departed. He believed there were regular aboriginal burial
grounds, and his discovery on the Charlton Estate seemed to
settle the question. There were heaped up a number of little
mounds, in which large stones were embedded. There were no

bones to be found. The Charlton burial ground must be of
great age. It was a question whether the corpses were carried
to the burial ground and burned there, or whether the ashes
of the departed were subsequently carried to the burial ground.
He favoured the latter idea, a pyre having been erected and a
body cremated at the spot where death took place. It would
be interesting to know whether other similar burial grounds
existed in Tasmania. He was told that there was one at Pont-
ville, and another at Darlington Park.

Mr. A. J. Taylor described a burial place of probably a
Tasmanian aboriginal warrior. He quoted Backhouse's and
Robinson's descriptions of the incinerating process which was
resorted to. The natives were very jealous of Europeans wit-
nessing their burial ceremonies.

Mr. Bernard Shaw said the late Mr. Jno. Lyne used to
mention a case under his own observation of the burial of a
native in a hollow tree, but the body was afterwards removed.

Mr. Henry Foster remarked on the very few skulls of
natives having been found, which was, no doubt, due to their
generally burning their dead.

SEPTEMBER 14, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Wednesday evening, September 14, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

THE FOI.I.OWING PAPERS WERE READ : —

(1) Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna. By W.
L. May.

This paper, a portion of which was read by the Secretary
to the Council, is of a technical character, and describes the
results of dredging near the ico-fathom line off the south coast
of Tasmania.

Mr. R. M. Johnston referred to the two species mentioned
by Mr. May as belonging to a family of fissure-grooved shells
of very ancient origin.

(2) On Solar Eclipses, illustrated by lantern slides. By
H. C. Kingsmill, M.A.

The author referred to the total eclipse of the sun, to take
place on May 9, 1910, and the proposed visit of an English
expedition to observe it in Tasmania. Owing to the rarity
of solar eclipses, expeditions have generally to be made to dis-
tant countries by those who require to investigate the phe-
nomena of eclipses. It happens that Tasmania is the only land
in the world from which the total phase of that eclipse will be
observable, if we except the icy regions near the South Pole.
The central line of the eclipse would pass a little to the south

of Tasmania, whilst the northern edge of the totality would
hardly extend to Launceston. Tasmania would have, therefore,
OB the occasion a unique importance in the eyes of astrono-
mers, who would be attracted from distant parts of the world.
There had been one astronomical expedition to Tasmania
which led to important results, namely, the American expedi-
tion for observing the transit of Venus in 1874. The object of
that expedition was to obtain data for a more accurate deter-
mination of the distance of the sun from the earth, which is
the largest base line we have for astronomical measurements.
Incidental to that expedition was the accurate determination
of the latitude and longitude of a station in the Hobart Bar-
racks, which was done by means of simultaneous observations
taken at the Melbourne Observatory and by the American
astronomers at Hobart. The Agent-General' had forwarded
letters from General Tennant asking for information as to
eligible sites for the observation of the eclipse. Mr. Kingsmill
explained and illustrated by lantern slides total eclipses of the
sun with the corona in each case extending far beyond the sun
as obscured by the moon. But for this a total eclipse would
mean for the time being absolute and total darkness. It was
found that when a profuse crop of sun spots showed the sun
to be in exuberant activity, the action of this exceptional ex-
citement produced a corresponding influence on the magnetic
state of the earth. There was a large and valuable body of
evidence available to demonstrate that there did exist some
sympathy between periods of solar agitation and periods of
excited terrestrial magnetism.

The Chairman thought there were three places which stood
out as eligible for the purposes Mr. Kingsmill had mentioned:
I. Near lighthouse on Bruni Head (South Bruni), 335ft. above
high-water mark. Access from Great Taylor's Bay. 2. South-
port Bluff, nearly opposite lighthouse. Access from a jetty on
the south side of Southport, with deep water near at hand, and
good anchorage; thence two or three miles' cartage to the
Bluff. Depth of water at the entrance to Southport, 10 to 17
fathoms. 3. Between Point Arthur and second look-out on
south side of Recherche Bay, and about six miles south of
Southport Bluff. Entrance to Recherche Bay has depth of
from 8 to 16 fathoms, with good anchorage inside.

Mr. R. M. Johnston referred to the importance of the ex-
pedition to Tasmania, and hoped institutions on the mainland
would join in the reception of such an important body of
visitors.

Dr. Noetling enlarged on the grandeur of the total eclipse
of the sun. which he had witnessed in India, and said that
scientists were very keen on observations at such a time to
try to discover another planet believed to exist nearer to the
sun than the planet Mercury. At the forthcoming observations
in Tasmania he feared the sun would be rather low down in
the heavens at the hour at which the total eclipse would take
place, namely, 4 p.m. Would not the top of Mount Wellington
be the most suitable situation for the observations?

Air. Piesse thought that the South Bruni site was the best
of those mentioned by Air. Stephens. Maatsuyker Island or
Port Davey might be suitable if helpers could be got, as the
larther west the better. He also mentioned positions near
Daniel's Bay and Mill's Reef. He was doubtful whether any
real advantage would be gained in going south of Hobart.
Mount Rumney would be an excellent situation, he thought.
Mount Wellington was apt to be cloudy in the afternoon, whilst
Mount Rumney was not so.

Air. Bernard Shaw moved the following resolution: — "That
in connection with the proposed expedition to observe the
total eclipse of the sun on Alay 9, 1910, a letter be addressed
to the Premier urging the necessity for a careful examination
by an observer acquainted with astronomical requirements of
sites which appear most likely to be suitable for the purposes
of the expedition and the collection of information on the fol-
lowing points: — Climate; protection required for the instru-
ments and observers at the chosen station; amount of cloud
and rainfall; liability to fogs; accessibility for members of the
expedition, and for any other purpose; natural harbour accom-
modation; facilities for obtaining material and labour for erec-
tion of temporary buildings, and facilities for commissariat."

Mr. R. M. Johnston seconded the motion, which was car-
ried.

OCTOBER 12, 1908.

The Monthly General Aleeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, October 12, 1908.

Air. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Messrs. E. J. Roberts, ALB., B.S., and Leonard E. Hubbard
were elected Fellows of the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ : —

(1) The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. By
Fritz Noetling. M.A., Ph.D.

The author points out in great detail that the vocabulary
of the aborigines was very limited in extent. Calder, whose
compilation was probably the most comprehensive, enumerated
only 1 135 words, some of which were unquestionably adapted
from European sources. The results of his investigation tended
to show that the aborigines did not have different names for
the different kinds of stone implements they used. He thought
he had proved that the Tasmanian natives only had one word
for their stone implements.

(2) On the conclusions of Dr. Noetling respecting the
Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. By Hermann
B. Ritz, ALA.

Further particulars of the subject are given in the paper.
The author remarks that the records were very meagre, and
that these were made by men who had no special knowledge
of philology. The number of words in the aboriginal language
was small, much smaller than the lists which had been drawn
up would \c;\d one to expect. Many of the words, apparently
different, he believed to be really identical, and the apparent
difference was due to the habit the Tasmanians possessed, in
common with the South Sea Islanders, of interchanging mem-
bers of various sound groups.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said their attention hitherto had been
confined to the things themselves, instead of to the language
applied to them. Both the Tasmanian and Australian races
would afford a great field in the future to the philological stu-
dent, and Dr. Noetling had opened up a question that would
be pursued with great interest. It was the beginning of a very
important study in connection with the aborigines. He pointed
out that already an important work had been performed in
getting phonographic records of some of the old aboriginal
songs and speeches by the late Mrs. Fanny Smith. He hoped
that permanent casts of these records would be made, so that
they could be preserved indefinitely.

Dr. Noetling thought that Mr. R. M. Johnston's suggestion
that the records of Mrs. Fanny Smith's songs and speeches
should be preserved, was a most excellent one.

Mr. Bernard Shaw said that he would bring the question
of getting permanent copies of the Fanny Smith records before
the Council.

The Chairman said it was a matter of regret that so little
was really known of the early history of the Tasmanian natives.
No attempt had been made to record their language until it
had become to some extent corrupted by contact with Euro-
peans and others.

NOVEMBER 16, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, November 16, 1908.

His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerald Strickland,
K.C.M.G., President, in the chair.

Mr. Bernard Shaw offered the President the hearty con-
gratulations of the Royal Society on his safe return to Tas-
mania. He had received numerous congratulations from
various public bodies since his return, but none more heartily
joined in them than the Fellows and Associates of the Royal
Society.

The President, in reply, thanked the Fellows present very
heartily for their kind welcome, which reminded him of the
welcome extended to -him by Mr. Morton upon his arrival at

Colombo, when first on his way to Tasmania. He had then
telegraphed to assure them of the interest he would always
take in the proceedings of this Society, and he could further
assure them that this interest would continue as long as he
had the honour to serve His Majesty as his representative in
Tasmania.

The Rev. E. H. Thompson, the Rev. A. H. Mitchell, and
Lieut. -Colonel E. T. Watchorn were elected Fellows of the
Society.

REPORT.

The report of a Committee appointed to consider the ques-
tion of a possible reduction in the rate of subscription of
Fellows was read by the Secretary to the Council. In this
report the Committee trace the history of the Royal Society
for the past sixty years as gathered from the records in the
Library. In 1848 the number of members was 123, and the
subscription £1 per annum. In 1853 the number of members
was 236, with a corresponding increase in the amount of sub-
scriptions paid. In 1854 the subscription was raised to £1 10s.
per annum, and this at first considerably increased the income
of the Society, but in the suceeding years the records show a
gradual falling off, until in 1861 the number of members, now
called Fellows, is reduced to 106, the amount realised being
£159 10s. In this year, at the Annual Meeting, a motion is
submitted for a return to the original rate of subscription, but
this is negatived by the casting vote of the Chairman. The
report traces in detail the gradual declension in the next twenty
years, the minimum being reached in 1880, when the number
of Fellows was 68, and the income from subscriptions £102.
The subsequent records of number of Fellows and amount of
subscriptions were too incomplete to enable the Committee to
trace the financial history of the Society in detail, but the
tables recently compiled by the Honorary Treasurer give the
receipts and expenditure for the four years from 1904 to 1907-
They came to the conclusion that the main cause of diminished
membership and income was the increase of the subscription
in 1854. The Committee report the receipt of remarks and
suggestions from Fellows resident in Launceston and its
vicinity, who point out that all they get in return for their
subscriptions is the publication of volumes of the Proceedings
of the Society at uncertain intervals, and that the long delay
in the publication of original papers places all authors at a
serious disadvantage. They would favour a general reduction
in the amount of the annual subscription as soon as it could
be safely done, and an immediate reduction in the case of
country members. They also suggest that balance-sheets of
receipts and expenditure should be published in an improved
form, and that the get-up of the annual volumes should be
greatly improved; but these suggestions had been anticipated
by the Council, and are already taking effect.

The report concludes with the following recommen-
dations:—

XVI

i. That the rate of subscription for all Fellows resident
beyond a radius of 15 miles from Hobart be reduced from £1
los. to £1 per annum.

2. That the utmost econoiny be observed in regulating the
expenditure already authorised, and that no additional expenses
be incurred without the sanction of the Society.

3. That any balance available out of the income of the
current year be expended on the binding of the Library set
of annual volumes for the last nine years, on the binding of
other important publications now useless for purposes of re-
ference, and on the purchase of recent works in various
branches of science, so far as may be found practicable.

4. That Fellows be requested to use every effort to so far
increase the membership of the Society as to make it possible
to effect a general reduction in the rate of the annual subscrip-
tion at the end of 1909.

Mr. T. Stephens, as Chairman of the Committee, moved the
adoption of the Report, to give Fellows present an opportunity
of expressing their opinions on the recommendations.

Mr. R. M. Johnston thought that original papers read
should see the light of day as early as possible. He would like
to have an opportunity of looking into the report at his leisure,
and for that reason moved that it be laid on the table. The
motion was seconded by Mr. Brettingham Moore, but was
subsequently withdrawn.

Mr. Stephens said that the Council had now made ample
provision for the publication of original papers, and no such
trouble as had occurred in the past was likely to happen
again.

The President said that the immediate question before the
meeting was whether the Fellows and others interested in the
Society should be given an opportunity of carefully consider-
ing-the report and arriving at a decision thereon after delibera-
tion. So far as he was concerned it would give him pleasure
to be present at a special meeting at which this report might
be fully considered. It was, no doubt, a very important decision
that the Society was asked to give, and should, if possible, be
Unanimous. This Society had survived for two, and very nearly
three generations. That was a great record for things Aus-
tralian. It fulfilled a real need in the community, by offering
a non-political, non-sectarian, and genuinely scientific centre
where original thought could find a sympathetic atmosphere.
They could not expect that original thought would be forth-
coming with the regularity of blackberries in autumn, and there
must be ups and downs in the volume of interest, both as re-
gards the readers of scientific papers and those who wished to
listen to them. It should be their object not only to keep the
Society alive, but to keep it alive in accordance with the spirit
and needs and claims of the times. The amount of subscription
was certainly a factor in that co-ordination, and he observed

with great pleasure that the financial tone of the report now
before them was on a plain and satisfactory basis as to the
difficulties that were referred to when they last met to discuss
financial questions. The position was very clear, and, he would
venture to say, more hopeful. Although the annual income
was very small, the difference between it and the annual ex-
penditure was a negligible quantity. Although there was no
reserve fund, they had not to deplore any funded or floating
debt, and they might refer with satisfaction to their assets,
which consisted not merely of the library,* and the position
they held in having the right to use these premises, but also
in the good will and position which the Society enjoyed. It
was merely a question of using these valuable assets to the
best advantage.

The first recommendation was put to the vote: — "That the
rate of subscription for all Fellows residing beyond a radius
of 15 miles from Hobart be reduced to £1 per annum."

Mr. Bernard Shaw said that the Council of the Society was
exercising the strictest economy. As Treasurer, he was able
to express a hope that at the end of the year they would not
find their accounts overdrawn.

Dr. Noetling said there were so few members outside the
15 miles radius that the total loss by the reduction proposed
would not be more than £8. It was felt that if the subscrip-
tion was reduced to £1 the probability was that the number
of non-resident members would be largely increased.

Mr. Lyndhurst Giblin said that no previous notice had been
given of a recommendation which proposed an alteration in
one of the Rules of the Society. Was it competent for the
meeting to agree to such a proposal without the previous
notice prescribed by these Rules?

The President ruled that the objection was fatal, and, after
discussion, the consideration of the report was deferred to a
special meeting to be held on Wednesday, November 25.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ : —

An Introduction to the study of the Aboriginal Speech of
Tasmania. By Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

The author says that the life of a population invariably
assumed a form which largely depended on the climate and
geographical features and the facility of intercourse with the
denizens of other lands. To the observing ear of the scientist
the remnants of the feasts of the aborigines, their implements,
and the scanty records of their words and doings spoke in a
language of their own of those whose places we had taken for
good or ill. It was to the words, the records of the actual songs
of the voice that was still, that he would confine their attention,
and their present purpose was to clear the ground and mark
out the foundation for constructing a scientific reproduction
of the language of the aborigines of Tasmania. As far as he
was aware, the work done in^that direction had not hitherto

been extensive. After statin-- his attempt to simplify the spell-
ing, Mr. Kit/, compared three versions of an aboriginal song,
accounting for every word, and explaining the meaning of the

sentences. lie said there was no sign of any accidence. The
word- seemed invariable in form and widely applicable in mean-
ing. The words were probably supplemented by gestures to
define their exact meaning. In that respect a parallel was
found in the sentences of the Chinese language. The fact that
the son- existed in different dialects made it most valuable.
Quite probably the song was connected with some important
tribal ceremonies.

The President asked if the half-castes on the Straits Islands
retained any traces of the native language.

Mr. Ritz said that it was scarcely possible. Constant inter-
course with the whites would cause them to neglect their own
tongr.e, except as far as they wished to keep it for secret con-
versations.

Dr. Noetling and Mr. R. M. Johnston spoke in high terms
of the value of the researches of Mr. Ritz, and hoped he would
■continue his studies.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. W. L. May presented to the Society a number of new
species of shells, dredged by himself and Mr. Hedley from a
depth of ioo fathoms off Cape Pillar. There were 80 species
in all, many of which had been found at a depth of 100 fathoms
off Sydney, and at a similar depth off the coast of South Aus-
tralia. Amongst them were specimens of Pteropods. free
swimming organisms, which lived on the surface, but wdiose
shells fell to the bottom when they died.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that Messrs. May and Hedley had
performed a very notable feat in presenting to the Society one-
eighth of its molluscan fauna at one time.

NOVEMBER 25, 1908.

A Special General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Wednesday evening, November 25, 1908, for the
purpose of considering a proposed modification of Rule 16,
and for other business.

His Excellency Sir Gerald Strickland, K.C.M.G., President,
in the chair.

Mr. T. Stephens said that a Committee had been appointed
to consider the question of reducing the annual subscription,
and other matters, and had brought up the following recom-
mendations:—

1. That the rate of subscription for all Fellows resident be-
yond a radius of 15 miles from Hobart be reduced from £1
10s. to £1 per annum.

2. That the utmost economy be. observed in regulating the
expenditure already authorised, and that no additional expenses
be incurred without the sanction of the Society.

3. That any balance available out of the income of the cur-
rent year be expended on the binding of library set of annual
volumes for the last nine years, on the binding of other im-
portant publications now useless for the purposes of reference,
and on the purchase of recent works in various branches of
science, so far as may be found practicable.

4. That Fellows be requested to use every effort to so far
increase the membership of the Society as to make it possible
to effect a general reduction in the rate of annual subscription
at the end of 1909.

He moved that the recommendations of the Committee be
adopted.

Mr. Bernard Shaw seconded the motion, which was agreed
to.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that the Fellows of the Society
were indebted to His Excellency the Governor for giving up
his time, which was so much taxed in every way, to attend
the meeting. He wished His Excellency and the Lady Edeline
Strickland and family a Merry Christmas and a Happy New
Year.

His Excellency, in reply, said that it was always a great
pleasure to him to attend the meetings of the Society, and he
wished it continued prosperity and renewed vigour.

NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER FOUND
NEAR KEMPTON. (PL. I. AND PL. II.)

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc.

(Read May nth, 1908.)

It has rather been a problem whence the Tasmanian
Aborigines obtained the material for their implements.
The discovery of certain localities where the rock suit-
able for implements occurred in situ, and which were
unquestionably worked by the Aborigines, has partly
solved the problem. It is unquestionable that the
Aborigines obtained a certain amount of the raw
material from these so-called quarries, but it is equally
certain that a large portion was obtained from different
sources.

One of the best-known " native quarries " is that
situated on Coal Hill, near Melton-Mowbray. A careful
statistic of the specimens collected by me around
Melton-Mowbray gave the following results : —

Cherts of all kinds 807 per cent.

Chert from the quarry .... 6.1 ,,

Porcellanites 7-3 „

Breccia 0.7 „

Others not included under

the above headings 5.1 „

The above figures conclusively prove that, though
the quarry on Coal Hill was conveniently situated and
easily reached from the camping grounds near the
river, only 6.1 per cent, of the implements found were
derived from it. Far the larger portion, that is to say
93.9 per cent, of the implements, were made from rocks
which came from other places besides the quarry on
Coal Hill. A priori one would assume that, with such
a convenient place as the quarry on Coal Hill close at
hand, the overwhelming majority of the implements
would be manufactured from material obtained from

2 NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER.

this place, but the above figures prove that it is not the
case. I had already noticed this fact when collecting,
but only alter carefully sorting the specimens could I
fully prove it.

Considering that the quarry on Coal Hill was so
to the camping grounds, and that, notwith-
standing its situation 93.9 per cent, of the implements
were made from a different kind of rock, we are
forced to assume that the quality of the rock was the
most essential feature when it was intended to produce
an implement. Though unlimited quantities were avail-
able in the quarry on Coal Hill, the quality of this par-
ticular kind of chert was not such that it was highly
treasured by the Aborigines as a suitable material for
implements. They unquestionably preferred other kinds
of cherts to that occurring on Coal Hill ; but the ques-
tion arises, whence did they procure the raw material,
of which they consumed such large quantities in the
manufacture of their implements ?

From the study of the specimens I collected I
had already come to the conclusion that the gravel de-
posits of the various creeks, but above all the gravel and
conglomerate deposits of diluvial age, were the source
from which suitable material was obtained. I noticed
that numerous implements, usually of the less finished
type, represent fragments of water-worn pebbles or
boulders, the smooth, water-worn crust being still pre-
served. It is, however, not till a find I recently made
on a camping ground north of Kempton that this view
was fully confirmed.

This camping ground is situated on the eastern slope
of a low hill which stands out prominently from the sur-
rounding flat country. It is a considerable distance away
from any present watercourse, and about 200 feet, I
should say, above the level of the River Jordan. Here
I found the water-worn pebble, which forms the subject
of this paper. I first discovered the core, and, as my
attention was drawn to some fragments lying close about
it, which seemed to be of the same kind of rock, I col-
lected a few, and tried to fit them to the core. They
were failures, but after repeated attempts I succeeded in
fitting one to its original position, and, encouraged by
this, I hunted for more, and eventually succeeded in

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 3

finding sixteen fragments which could be refitted and
placed in their original position before they were flaked
off.

I thus succeeded in restoring the greater portion of
the original boulder, and, though a good part is still
missing, and will probably never be found, that which
has been preserved is of trie utmost interest.

As it presents itself now we can distinguish three
different parts, two of which are preserved, while the
third is missing, but its shape can easily be recon-
structed. These parts are —

1. The core (Nucleus).

2. The spalls or fragments falling off when

the pebble was worked.

3. The fragment used as an implement.

1. THE CORE. — This part measures about 7 x 5 x
4 inches, and weighs 5lbs. iooz. at cap. It is some-
what irregularly oblong in shape, and the lower side in
particular shows the surface of a well-worn water pebble.
The upper side has been subjected to a good deal of
work, and, if merely judged by the planes of fracture,
at least seven flakes, one of which has not measured less
than /\.y2 inches in length, have been struck off.

If nothing more were preserved than this specimen
we could at once recognise it as a core — that is to say,
the remains of a larger-sized pebble from which suitable
pieces have been struck off, and which was rejected as
being without further use. The size, the weight, and
the absolutely unsuitable shape are entirely against the
assumption that this specimen might perhaps have been
actively used as an implement — a hammerstone, for in-
stance. Even without the flakes being found, the even
planes of fracture would prove conclusively that this
specimen has been submitted to a passive and not too
active treatment, in other words, that it is a Nucleus,
which, after the desired object had been attained, was
rejected.

The whole surface, including the planes of fracture,
are covered with a thick patina of yellow-brown colour,

4 NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER.

which is, however, somewhat lighter on the planes of
fracture than on the original crust.

2. THE SPALLS.— I collected altogether 39 frag-
ments, weighing 2lbs. i4^oz. in the aggregate, which
apparently were struck off this core; and 34 could be
replaced in their original position. It is very probable
that the remaining 5 flakes belong to the same specimen,
but too much is missing to permit them to be fitted
together with the others. However that may be, the
fact that 34 flakes, weighing 2lb. i2j^oz., could again
be replaced in their original position, is of the greatest
interest.

The flakes vary, of course, in size and shape ; but on
the whole they are of a lamelliform character — that is to
say, of comparatively small thickness. Most of them
show a fine bulb of percussion, and it may be said that
almost every one of them could have been used as an
implement. I select only two — the largest and the
smallest — for description. The largest measures 5 inches
in length, and exhibits a fine, smooth pollical face ; its
general outline is somewhat triangular, the base broad,
and pointed at the opposite end. The two lateral edges
are sharp ; the indical face shows a good deal of flaking ;
the smallest flake measures about 2]/^ inches, and is of
irregular circular s'hape ; the edges are very sharp ; the
pollical face shows a fair bulb of percussion ; the indical
face is flat, but shows no traces of chipping. Weight,
8oz.

3. THE FRAGMENT WHICH WAS USED AS
AN IMPLEMENT.— Unfortunately this is missing—
in fact, it can 'hardly be expected that this were pre-
served, as it was evidently the desired object and in
whose manufacture the pebble was broken. By refitting
the fragments to their original place, the general out-
line of this missing fragment could, however, be ob-
tained by filling up the empty space with plaster of
Paris or any other suitable material. This showed that
the flake, which was apparently desired for an imple-
ment, was of triangular shape, and rather thin. It
measured about 4 inches by 2^, was broad at the base,
and sharply pointed at the opposite end. The lateral

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 5

edges were sharp and cutting, the pollical face smooth,
the indical face showing a median ridge (i).

One of the fragments is broken, and the fracture
shows that the material is a dark black chert of very
fine texture. The outward appearance of neither the
core nor the flakes, which are covered with the same
patina of light, yellowish-grey colour; would indicate
that the actual colour of the rock is dark black. The
comparative thickness of the crust of weathering proves,
however, that the core and flakes must be of consider-
able age, because such a thick patina as exhibited by
this specimen is not formed in a few years.

The specimen here described is unique for Tas-
mania, and we can only wonder at the chain of lucky
circumstances that made its discovery possible. The
find of the core, with a large number of spalls falling
off during the manufacture of the desired object, all
lying close around it, proves conclusively that the work-
ing took place exactly at the spot where it ;had been
found. Nothing disturbed the core or the flakes since
the day when they were struck off from a waterworn
pebble, weighing probably not less than iolb. Yet, as
proved by the thickness of the patina, a considerable
time must have elapsed since this pebble was broken.
It would rather be rash to assume that the very last
Aboriginal who visited this camping ground left core
and spalls behind, perhaps in a hurried flight. On the

(1) Since the above was written I re-visited the place where
the above specimen was found. Not only did I succeed in
finding 19 more flakes, 17 of which could be fitted to the core,
but I actually succeeded in finding the missing flake, the object
of breaking the pebble. This had been carried away about 50
paces to the north from the place where I found the nucleus
and its fragments, and there it had been dropped. It is the
exact counterpart of the cast, and I must confess that, had I
not recognised the likeness with the cast I had made, I would
have probably left the specimen behind. It appears, as it was
surmised, that this piece was taken away to be used, but, as it
was apparently not suitable, it was simply rejected, and the
whole work of breaking this large pebble was in vain. The
edges of this flake are broken, and it may perhaps have been
used, but there is no marginal chipping, and the specimen was
apparently rejected exactly as it was when it had been obtained
after so much labour. This is perhaps the most interesting
discovery of all, inasmuch as the missing specimen was traced
and actually recognised from the cast, representing its likeness.

6 NOTES ON A I HIPPED BOULDER.

other hand, if we assume that core and flakes had been
lying for any length of time at the place where they
were found it would be surprising that fhey were not
disturbed by later generations visiting this place. The

only way to account for it is that soon after core and
flakes had been produced the drifting sand covered it
entirely, thus preserving it almost completely as it
had been left. < Inly n{ late, when the sand had shifted,
it was exposed again. Lucky it was that the plough
had not gone over this spot, otherwise it would have
been impossible to collect such a large number of frag-
ment- belonging to one and the same core.

A number of interesting facts and questions arise
from the study of this specimen. Though not com-
pletely restored to its entire shape, we can state with
absolute certainty that the original was a pebble or
boulder, well worn and smooth all over its surface, of
deep black colour, weighing not less than iolb. As
there are no gravel deposits or conglomerate anywhere
near the place wdiere it was found, it must have been
picked up at a considerable distance, and been carried
to the camping ground to be used for the manufacture
of implements.

The Tasmanian Aborigines have been described as
a lazy lot, and it is therefore hardly probable that the
Aborigine who found this pretty heavy boulder carried
is for a long distance to his camping ground unless he
valued the material. If he valued the material it is sur-
prising that he used so very little of it ; the size of the
core proves that it contains the greater portion of the
bulk of the original pebble. The fragments prove that
one, perhaps two, flakes have been turned into imple-
ments. That fragment whidh probably has been turned
into an implement seems to differ very little from those
that have been rejected. In fact, considering the very
crude flakes that have often been used as implements,
it is astonishing to find that the two specimens which
have been here described, and which are distinguished
by a fine smooth pollical face were not used as tools.

It is very difficult to find a suitable explanation. If
the rock was of the valued kind, why is it that so much
waste was left behind? If not, Why should the lazy
Aboriginal trouble to carry the heavy pebble for a long

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ET< .

distance from the place where he found it to his camp?
Can it be possible that it was desired to produce
nothing but an implement of a certain size and weight,
and that all other flakes, however useful they may other-
wise have been, were rejected till the desired object was
obtained? If this be the case, and I can see no other
satisfactory explanation derived from the evidence of
the core and the rejected flakes, we have to consider all
the archaeolithic implements used by the Aborigines as
a produce of the moment, manufactured then and there
for the purpose for which they were required, and,
having served their end, to be rejected without being
applied to further use. This would to a certain extent
explain the rather astonishing number of archaeolithes
we find on the camping grounds, some of which seem to
be verv serviceable still.

NOTES ON A c -HIPPED BOULDER.

Roy. Soc. Ta m. 1908.

Pl. 1

Dr. Noetling, Photo.

CORE AND FLAKES, Kempton.

BY FRITZ NOETUNG. M.A., PH.D., ETC

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

PL. II.

Dr JVoetling, Phott

CORK AN'D FLAKKS, Kempton.

lO I E BORROWING.

STATE BORROWING, AND SINKING FUNDS
FOR THE REDEMPTION <> F STATE DEBTS,
REGARDED FR( ).M AN ECON( >M ICAL
POINT OF VIEW.

By R. M. Johnston1, I.S.O., F.S.S
(Rea 1 June 16th, 1908.)

PART I.— STATE BORROWING.
The success of young colonies, such as those of Aus-
tralia, has, in a large measure been due to the sacrifices
which the earlier pioneers made, from time to time, in
making timely prevision for the opening up of Aus-
tralia's vast virgin lands, by means of roads, railways,
bridges, jetties, harbours, etc., in advance of actual
occupation or settlement.

To any thoughtful person it is obvious, at the initial
stage of a colony's history, it would be impossible to
construct such costly undertakings without the aid of
foreign capital.

Since the year 1S42 the six states of Australia have
practically entered into partnership with foreign capi-
talists in this important work of providing railways,
roads, bridges, harbours, in advance of further settle-
ment, and in no other way would it be possible to have
succeeded in making the outlay of £240,149,727, in a
period of 64 years, or at the rate of £5,024,000 per
annum.

The following is a brief statement showing how this
large amount of borrowed capital was invested : —

HOW BORROWED CAPITAL WAS INVESTED BY THE
STATES.

Invested in

Railways and Tramways

Telegraphs

Roads, Bridges, Lights, Harbours, etc.

Water Supply and Sewerage

Defences

Other Public Works and Services

Unexpended balance

Pfr

Amount £.

Cent.

141.271,521

5883

3,752.942

i-56

25 387.083

10 57

30,093.318

12-53

2.409 893

I'OI

28 093.589

1174

9.041.38c

3 76

/240. 149.727

100

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S.

I J

Has Australia benefited by this Borrowing of
£240,149,727, 'or, what may be more properly termed—
Taking into Partnership a Foreign Capitalist in a pro-
fitable undertaking?

The best answer to this query is to contrast the year
1870 with the year 1906-7, within which time the bulk
of the Debt was contracted, as shown in the following
table : —

Particulars.

1870

1906-7

Incrkask.

255

Population

1,652,000

4.197,038

2,543.038

Ex-Australian Ex-

ports

^"26 253 000

69,794 000

43,541.000

2'75

Sheep

41.639 000

83.798 893

42,159.893

1-96

Cattle

4,278.000

8,636,360

4358, 360

1 97

Railways-

Miles Open

994

14 067

13 073

7-63

Invested Capital

,£"9,829,000

^140 707 404

130 87S404

7-63

Profit on Work-

ing per head

5s. 7-1

30s. id

24s 6d.

Interest on Debt

per head

17s 2d.

41s iod.

24s 8d.

Taxation per head

47s. Sd.

66s. 7d.

18s. lid.

Taxation, less profit

on Working of

Railways

42s. id.

36s 6d.

53. 7d.

Public Debt

^28,328,000

^•240,148,727

^211,820,727

611

Income of the

People —

Estimated Annual

Value Mil. j£'s.

72-32

193-90

121.58

2-77

Capital Value

Mil. /'s.

2,o66-2S

5,54o-o8

3 473'So

2 77

Ditto after deduct-

ing the whole of

Public Debt

Mils. /'s.

2,037 95

5.299-93

3,267 91

2-70

Ex-Australian

Trade—

Total Imports and

Exports Mils £'#.

36 09

114 52

78-43

3-26

A careful study of the contrast in the conditions of
the Six States of the Commonwealth between the years
1870 and 1906-7, covering a period of 36 years in all,
should convince all pessimistic observers that the past
policy of entering into partnership with foreign capi-
talists to the extent of 240 million pounds, instead of
being a mistake or a hindrance to Australia's financial
and industrial development and progress, has been the
principal means whereby our present conditions, con-

12 STATE BORROWING.

trasted with the former period, has in every way so
markedly improved.

It may be of advantage to summarise some of the
features which have led to this most satisfactory

result : —

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.

POPULATION. — The population has increased from
1.65 millions to 4.19 millions, or 2.59 fold.

TOTAL EXTERNAL TRADE.— The total Imports
and Exports (Ex-Australian) has increased from
36.09 million pounds to 114.52 million pounds, or
3.17 fold.

RAILWAYS:—

MILEAGE WORKING.— The miles open of Rail-
ways in the six States has increased from 994 miles
to 14,067 miles, or 14.15 fold.

CAPITAL INVESTED.— The capital invested in
construction and equipment of State Government
lines has increased from 9.82 million pounds to
140.70 million pounds, or 7.63 fold.

PROFIT ON WORKING.— The profit on working
all State Railways has increased from 5s. 7d. per
•head to 30s. id., or 5.39 fold.

INTEREST BURDEN ON STATE DEBTS.— The
interest burden on all State debts increased from
17s. 3d. per head to 41s. iod., or 2.43 fold.

INTEREST BURDEN ON ALL STATE DEBTS,
LESS amount from profit on the working of State
railways alone, increased from ns. 7d. per head to
us. gd., or increase of 2d. per head.

Notwithstanding that Total Interest Burden on all
State debts has increased by 24s. 8d. per head, such has
been the increase in the profitable working of the State
railways alone — viz., 24s. 6d. per head — that the total in-
terest burden connected with the Total Debt of 240.14
million pounds has only been raised by 2d. per head.
That is, the profits to the State Treasuries from work-
ing railways (apart from the immeasurable material
benefit of opening up the lands by the cheap and rapid
mode of transit and communication have already almost
wholly wiped off the taxpayers' interest burden on the

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 13

whole of the accumulated unredeemed Debt of 240.14
million pounds.

The fundamental error in the views of certain critics,
who lack expert knowledge of matters pertaining to the
economics of State finance as applied to the Australian
States, is the evident common failure to appreciate the
scope of the functions of the general governments of
the various States of Australia as compared with those
of the United Kingdom, and fail to discern the impor-
tant distinction between debts incurred for purposes of
protection or aggressive warfare and capital invest-
ments (also bearing the name Public Debt) incurred
and expended in improving and permanently enhancing
the value of the Public estate by means of railways,
roads, and harbours. In the self-governing States of
Australia, the scope of general government — owing to
the peculiar conditions of lands thinly populated with
vast undeveloped areas — embraces many functions
which, in the earlier stages of development, would be
impossible to resign either to local bodies or to private
enterprise as in the older more densely-populated
countries.

Unless this fundamental distinction of the scope of
the general government in old and new countries be
thoroughly considered and allowed for, all comparisons
relating to the proportion and Cost of Public Services
and public debt between countries so differently con-
ditioned would be worse than useless. In the United
Kingdom the greater part of these services (70.89 per
cent.) is left to private enterprise (railways) and to local
government.

Only 29.11 per cent, of the Total Debt for all such
purposes in the United Kingdom comes directly within
the scope of the revenue and expenditure of the Im-
perial Government. In Australia as much as 93.74 per
cent, of such functions come directly within the scope
of the responsibility of the general government of the
various States.

This is best appreciated by contrasting the propor-
tion of Loans or Capital expenditure incurred under the
general functions of government in respect of special
public works and services in Australia and the United
Kingdom, as in the accompanying corporation table : —

H

STATE BORROWING.

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BY R. M.

JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S,

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BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 17

It does not require much knowledge of industrial
economy to realise the fact that the wealth of any
country is greatly multiplied by the introduction of
machinery, which facilitates the fresh creation of pro-
ducts or diminishes the cost of production or transport.
All the hopes of economists for the amelioration and
improvement of the material condition of a people de-
pend upon such agencies increasing at the initial stage
at a greater ratio than population, and even at a later
stage, as in the United Kingdom, the investments in
extending its railways and other public works of local
bodies during the last four years increased from
£1,623 to 1,885.2 million pounds, or at the rate of £65.5
million pounds per year, equivalent to 30s. 8d. per
head per year. Australia, which is still in the initial
stage of development, has, in similar investments, only
increased during the same period from 222.87 million
pounds to 240.14 million pounds, or at the rate of 4.31
million pounds per year, equivalent to 24s. 8d. per head
per year. Taking all these matters into consideration,
it is clearly demonstrated that Australia's Capital in-
vestments in Railway construction and other Permanent
Public Works are, in relation to her initial stage of de-
velopment of an area nearly as large as Europe, and
also in relation to her population, progressing at a
much slower rate than the United Kingdom, which long
ago had advanced to a high stage in all equipment of
this nature.

THE IMMEASURABLE INDIRECT BENEFITS
OF RAILWAYS.

It is also a very common fallacy to assume, as some
do, that the only object which the several State Govern-
ments of Australia had in view in opening up the
country By means of railways was confined to the direct
profit which they might possibly receive into the State
revenues from the net receipts of the railways, them-
selves regarded as private undertakings ; that is the only
view they can take of the vast wealt'h-producing in-
fluence of railways to a country is restricted to the
petty consideration as to how far the extension if Rail-
ways benefit the Railway carrier, as such. If the mere
receipts from freight cover working expenses and the

l8 STATE BORROWING.

interest on borrowed or invested Capital, the Railways,
according to this restrictive view, arc productive; if the
working receipts fail immediately to wholly cover both
charges, they are deemed to be unproductive, a loss to
the country, and a menace to its financial stability. This
reasoning is obviously faulty.

To the Country as a State, or to its Producing In-
dustries or Consumers, the whole of the freight charges
of a Railway, regarded as an item of State revenue —
even though covering working -expenses and interest on
Capital — form the merest fleabite as compared with the
actual immeasurable indirect value, added to the
country's wealth-producing industries.

The principal additions to the wealth of the country
due to Railways are derived as follows : —

(i). By the saving of time and of cost of transit.

(2). By giving commercial value to vast natural
products hitherto lacking value, owing to lack
of cheap modes of transit.

(3). By the impetus given to the creation of fresh
wealth in areas formerly barren or unproduc-
tive.

To estimate the " Wealth of Exchange " added to
any country — especially a State with vast areas of virgin
soils — would be a difficult matter. We may know this
wealth to be great in itself, and vastly of greater im-
portance than the possible revenues of the Railway in
itself as an undertaking, but we have no direct means
of ascertaining its value quantitatively. Items (2) and
(3) can only be vaguely guessed at. But the wealth and
other advantages gained by saving time and labour (1)
through the improvement in means of transport can be
very closely approximated.

The gain from this hidden cause, although of neces-
sity not seen in the receipts of the Railway regarded
as an undertaking, becomes at once apparent when we
try to realise the difference in cost of transport as be-
tween the Railways now in operation and the more im-
perfect means in common use on bad roads prior to
their introduction.

BV.R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 19

Prior to the opening up of the States' lands and the
Loans expenditure on Roads, Bridges, and Harbours,
the expenditure of time and labour in effecting the
necessary transport between points of production and
centres of population and ports of trade was very great.
Even in the limited areas when macadamised roads
existed, the cost of transit formed a heavy tax upon
either reproducer or consumer, or both, accordingly as
the product was intended for foreign or local consump-
tion.

This aspect of the case was carefully investigated in
Tasmania by the writer soon after its first Railway (the
Launceston and Deloraine Railway) was opened for
traffic in February, 1871. It was found that prior to
regular daily timed service, and the consequent reduced
carriers' freights forced upon the latter by the Railway
competition, the average for carriers and coaches
throughout the State averaged as follows : —

Carriers & Current

Coacnes prior Charges Decrease. .

to 1870. (Govt. Rys.)

d. d. d. percent.
Average Fare per Passenger

per Mile 2-92 106 i"S6 6370
Average Freight per Ton per
Mile of goods of all

Descriptions io-oo 182 8*i8 81*80

The true interpretation of this remarkable reduction
in cost of transit within a very brief period is simply
this: t'hat for every £1 now obtained as gross receipts,
there is a hidden value saved to either producers or
consumers of the Country of at least £2, apart from the
actual profits of the Railway as an undertaking.

Let us now make an estimate of what this hidden
value of railway speedy and cheaper transits means to
the States of Australia from the working of State rail-
ways in the year 1906-7.

In this year there were open for traffic 14.232^
miles of railway, whose Capital Construction and Equip-
ment amounted to £140.707474.

{,"14,455,451
S , 5 1 9 . i « o

5.936.341
5,055,063

l'er cent to cost
of Construction.

10.27
605

4-22
3-59

,£881,279*

0-63*

20 STATE BORROWING.

(1) The Gross Receipts were

(2) The Working Expenses were

(3) The Net Profit on Working was
Less Interest on Loans Capital

Net gain to State Revenue for the year

If we now take into consideration the saving in time
and cost of transit as a hidden value to the States, which
was shown to be not less than £2 for every £1 gross re-
ceiptSj we arrive at the conclusion that, apart from all
other indirect advantages specified elsewhere, its value
represents in the year 1906-7 a sum of £28,910,902,
equivalent to a present capital value of as much as
£826,000,000.

The whole of the States' indebtedness of £240,149,000
seems a small affair alongside of this bona fide, though
hidden, State benefit.

A study of these significant figures should give
pause to all superficial or interested critics who may
venture to discuss the wisdom or otherwise of the policy
of the Australian States, which, notwithstanding errors
in the practical work of carrying out the functional
policy of the State, has resulted in giving room and a
productive field of work to a population of 2.55 fold
the number of 1870 ; and, after deducting the share of
our co-partners — our creditors if you like (that is, the
nominal debt of £240,148,727), we have a balance of the
people's income in our favour, whose present capital
value exceeds that of 1870 (when there was only a debt
of £28,328,000) by a sum of £3,473,000,000, besides a
valuable asset in our 14,067 miles of railway, whose
•effect in saving of cost of transit alone is estimated in
the year 1906-7 to be equivalent to a present capital
value of £826,000,000 sterling. ,

And further, let it be noted that, notwithstanding
the Interest Burden on Australian State Debts has in-
creased since 1870 by 24s. 8d. per head, such has been
the increase in the direct working profits of the State

*Note. — This item alone represents a present capital value
of £25.179,371, or as much as 17.89 per cent, of the total
value of Capital invested in construction.

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 21

railways alone — viz., 24s. 6d. per head in the year 1906-
7, that the total interest burden on all State Debts,
amounting to £240,149,727, has only been raised by the
insignificant sum of twopence per head of the popula-
tion.

This means (apart from the immeasurable material
benefit of opening up the hitherto waste lands by the
cheap and rapid mode of transit) the surplus profit to
the State Treasuries from railway profits alone now
practically has wiped off the taxpayers' interest burden
on the whole of the existing unredeemed Public Debt of
£240,000,000.

The question now to ask of all panic-struck pessi-
mists, or " foes of our own household," is, Would the
present population, with its relatively high standard of
living and its vastly increased wealth, have existed had
the " retrenchment and ruin " scare of the year 1870
succeeded in forcing upon the Colonies at that time the
retrograde cry of ' No borrowing " and " Retrench-
ment " ?

Those who answer this question in the affirmative
are, indeed, dangerous advisers on financial and eco-
nomic matters affecting the State.

22 STATE BORROWING.

PART II.— Till-: WRONGFULNESS OF CHARG-
ING PRINCIPAL OF COSTLY ORIGINAL

WORKS ( >!• C( INSTRUCTION TO THE CON-
SOLIDATED REVENUE, AND THROUGH
IT [JPON THE TAXPAYERS EXISTING IN
Till-. YEAR WHEN SUCH HEAVY EXPEN-
DITURE WAS CONTRACTED.

I he injustice to the taxpayer of the day, and the
utter impossibility of the Government of the day to
continuously adjust its schemes of taxation to suit the
revenue needs of each year, as a consequence of any
attempt to charge the Principal Original Costly Works
of Construction, Expenditure such as Railways, Jetties,
and Harbours, is best illustrated by comparing the effect
upon the taxpayers of each year in Tasmania, were the
burden of original cost wholly concentrated upon the
Consolidated Revenue of the vear, instead of, as was
done, THE INTEREST BURDEN OF THE
AGGREGATE CAPITAL INVESTED. This method
alone enables a Government to spread the burden of
the capital over present and future taxpayers equitably,
in proportion to the benefits they respectively derive
yearly, arising from the valuable assets created by the
original capital investments which are continuously pre-
served in their pristine condition by the yearly main-
tenance renewals and repairs, which, with other ordi-
nary working expenses are, and should alone be, a
legitimate Charge upon the Consolidated Revenue of
the year. .

THE PUBLIC DEBT OF TASMANIA.

The public debt of Tasmania -on 30th June, 1906-7,
amounted to £9,528,933. £7,528,000, or nearly four-
fifths, was created since 1881, in a period of 25 years.
Within this period the larger original outlays upon
Railways, Roads, Bridges, Jetties, and Harbour were
mainly incurred during five particular years — viz., 1884,
1886 and 1889, 1890 and 1891.

The following comparative table illustrates how
disastrous and how unjust it would be to the taxpayers
of those five years, if it were at all possible to defray the
contracted capital expenditure of such necessary public
works by a charge of the Principal, instead of interest
thereon, upon each year's Consolidated Revenue
Fund : —

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S.

23

* O >T3
OS «£

E-as*

OOO O -rj- ^ t^O rO ON CN t^O\Tf t^fOtV >-< O '-' ON"-1 CN 1-1

; CO O CN O tJ->0 rf <T> O »0 *- CO OO OOCO lOO »0 »0 ON M-> ON O
. ^ MO rO rrO IN CN CN IO "t (N vO CN rO CN CN lOO lO CN m tJ- ^>

3 X O

3:-W

I^NHtsHHOMNtOfOlO'tO^ftfOfOi-NtN 0\0 <T> CN CN O

. On CN CO "3" t-. r^O CTvO f^Nh.(N 10 O On '-' Tj-^Tf^- OCO >-> *f <J\
cfl lOO O iO lO 10 10 ICO O O iO lO lOO LOO O O t~>-0 iO lOO O O

n

*j CS

St

ill

. *iS.2

cd ci

u ci XI

« ri

t/) —

* y

di CO

2 c

-to too

ON

CO

a 1 »

.2 3 j= a

If 2*1

S-5 CI . U

v

>

ON >- On ^CO On CN C-» LOCO O OCO i-i ^-lOfOO ■«*

A >i

i_C «- aj ci ^<

O w o\ O <n

O lO ^ cO CO O O O U") CN CN fO ON ^t 't t IT,

3 £
o

mQ

<j — O

fOO iO(N r^O ONOONNOOMnONO"ONiO'-1 •^-co CO « rO ^p
'^,-> O LOCO O m CN 0 O-i co -1 O^fl^CO IOON" O— lo CN 1-1 t^J>X
^<00 <-0 CN rO O « ro O -t H rOO r— "H CN <0 Tf r<-j LOCO CN rO Tfrvo CO

CN CN CN rO CO ^t I" •* u^^O 1^ t^ r> t^X CO 00 X CO M 30 On^OnONOv

CN fOt too t^
i- CN ro "Tf u-j O t^CO OO •"< CN rO^iO^ t^CO On O H CN rO rf LOO

COCOCOCOCO^COCOCO OnOnOnOnOnOnonOnOnOnO o o o o o o

COCOCOCOCOCOCOXCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO JMJ\ ON (> Ji OM^

24 STATE BORROWING.

The illustration given in the foregoing tabular com-
parison is most eloquent in demonstrating three most
important ethical and economical truths, viz. : —

(i). The injustice and impossibility, if attempted, of
collecting from the people of the year a tax of,
say, i 14s. 6d. to 223s. 3d., as would be the case
in the years 1884, 1886, and 1890, if the
method were adopted of charging- the principal
of new costly works to the revenue of the year
in which the enterprise was contracted. The
tax in 1890 by this method would exceed the
highest yearly tax ever collected in Tasmania
by 148s. 8d. per head.

(2). The impossibility on the part of the Govern-
ment to construct new large costly works
necessary to the proper development of a new
country by such equitable yearly instalments
as would do justice to the taxpayers of each
year, if charged with principal instead of the
interest thereon.

(3). The utter impracticability, if not impossibility,
of any Government to devise fresh yearly
schemes of taxation, if the principal instead of
interest thereon were charged to the year in
which expenditure was to be contracted, owing
to the frequency of its extreme and eccentric
fluctuations.

We can more easily realise the force of these con-
clusions if we ask ourselves the questions — What would
happen if the directors of a large corporate body, such
as the London and Xorth-Western Railway Company
of England, in the projection of a new branch of exten-
sion, proposed to the shareholders of the moment
(whose individuality is ever changing hour by hour, like
the taxpayers of a State) to charge the principal of cost
of construction and equipment to the existing share-
holder (individuals !), either by an abstraction from their
rightful profits from the earnings of the original
system's working, or by mulcting them in a heavy out-
lay which, on purchasing stock of the company, was
never contemplated nor allowed for by them in the sell-
ing price? Why, the shareholder would regard it as a
barefaced robbery, and would at once depose the Board

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 23

of Directors who were mad enough to move such a pro-
posal. When, in the United Kingdom, persons are
found guilty of deceiving the shareholders and the in-
vesting public by secretly appropriating Capital, Loans,
Money for new works of original construction, to credit
of ordinary working revenue, and so doing a gross
wrong to the unsuspecting investors ; or, on the other
hand, secretly charging working expenditure with the
principal of new costly works of construction, and so
robbing the shareholder of the year, the acts of such
persons would be deemed by English law to be of the
nature of high misdemeanour, and there are instances
where guilty directors and guilty chief accountants of
Railways have received sentences of 16 years' imprison-
ment for such an ofTence against law and justice.

26 STATE BORROWING.

PART III.— SINKING FUNDS FOR THE ABSO-
LUTE REDEMPTION OF EXISTING AND
FUTURE STATE DEBTS.

Having already demonstrated that the Wealth of the
People of the Australian States since the introduction of
Loans has increased in a vastly greater ratio than either
Population or the present aggregate capital value of the
unredeemed State Debts ; and also, that, owing to the
consequent increase of population and the growing
working profit of State Railways to State Treasury re-
venues, the burden of interest for State Debts of
£240,149,727 in the year 1906-7 only exceeds by 2d. per
head the corresponding interest burden for State Debts
in 1870, when the latter only amounted to £28,328,000,
it becomes an important matter to examine the ques-
tion, now so frequently proposed, as to the absolute
redemption of present and future debts by means of
yearly appropriation from current States revenue ac-
counts towards an absolute Redemption Sinking Fund
within a given term of years from the present date as
regards debts incurred in past years, and similar provi-
sion for freshly incurred debts from the date of their
contraction.

There are many suggestions recently advocated li-
very able public men interested in the problems of
State Finance for such a purpose.

But the real question is : How far should the tax-
payer of the day burden himself, not only with his own
share of burdens of the State for which he in his own
time is responsible, but also with burdens incurred by a
former generation of taxpayers, with the view obviously
of giving a much lighter burden to future generations of
taxpayers, who (having the same or a fuller benefit of
the same Asset) by the natural increase of numbers,
would be financially more able to bear such absolute
weight of burden of interest on necessary State Debts
than the taxpayers of to-day.

The suggestions made by many of such advisers, in
promoting the idea of creating such Sinking Funds for
the Total Redemption of existing and future State

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 27

Debts, within the limits of periods of, say, 40 to 60
years, though eminently prudent and economic from
the standpoint of a private individual, may still be open
to question or qualification when applied to the
economics of a corporate body, such as a Railway, Joint
Stock Company or modern Industrial State.

The policy for determining the extent, form, and
duration of Public Loans, contracted for the purpose of
investment in any advantageous scheme of remunera-
tive or reproductive work or purpose, should differ
widely in some important respects, accordingly as it
affects the future outlook of the private individual, the
corporate body, or the Industrial State, for the follow-
ing reasons : —

The " Life-expectation " of an individual person is
limited, and rapidly diminishes at every stage — sav after
the age of 20 years. In like manner his natural powers,
physical and mental, gradually decline, especially so
towards the close of the average individual life.

The average Breadwinner of the State may be taken
as the Shareholder unit of the State, corresponding
somewhat to the individual as the Breadwinner of the
Family Circle. The average State Breadwinner's life,
however, is practically interminable — never grows older
with years — and, in the aggregate, whose individuality
is ever changing in young prosperous States, the Bread-
winners or Taxpayers at the end of a century are
likely to possess fully five times the power and revenue-
yielding ability possessed by the aggregate Bread-
winners or Taxpayers of the same State at the begin-
ning of the century, so far as any fixed amount of debt
is concerned. Even if the present debt increased in
the ratio of population, the latter, from the greater
wealth producing asset, kept up to present value by
current revenue for renewals and repairs, without any
redemption of debts, would still be less burdened per
head than the State Taxpayers of to-day.

The important distinction between the Individual
Family Breadwinner and the corresponding unit — the
Taxpayer of the State — is perhaps best illustrated by
comparing the present capital value of £1 respectively
of the annual incomes of the private individual and the
State Taxpayer, as in the following abstract : —

STATE BORROWING.

(i). An individual — say 20 years of age— possessing
a fixed income, assumed to be terminable at
death.

(ji. The average existing unit Taxpayer of the

State, who may be regarded not only as pos-
sessing a practically interminable income, but,
owing to the natural increase of the popula-
tion, his present capital value, instead of
diminishing, gradually increases from year to
year. In this way a given fixed burden, which
may at the beginning of a century in a State,
with a population of, say, 4,000,000, demand a
tax of 41s. 1 id. per head, would only demand
for the same burden a tax of 7s. 8d. per head,
when the population then increased, probably,
to over 22,000,000 — that is at the close of the
century.

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 29

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE PRE-
SENT CAPITAL VALUE OF EVERY £i OF
THE ANNUAL INCOME AT DIFFERENT
PERIODS OF A SINGLE LIFE AND OF THE
AVERAGE ANNUAL INCOME OF A STATE
BREADWINNER RESPECTIVELY.

Column (A) indicates the year.

Column (B) indicates at each period the " Expectation
of Life in Years of the Single Individual Life."

Column (C) indicates the relative increase of State
Breadwinners at each period owing to the natural
growth of population.

Column (D) indicates the Present Capital Value of
every £i of' the fixed annual Income of a Single
Individual terminable at death. The Individual is
assumed to be of the age of 20 years at the year
1906. The present Capital Value gradually shrinks
with the increasing age of the Individual.

Column (E) indicates the Present Capital Value of every
£ 1 of the annual Income of the average Taxpayer
of a progressive State. The life of the State Tax-
payer may be regarded as practically interminable,
and the Present Capital Value at each successive
period increases in accordance with the natural in-
crease of the population.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

No.

No.

£

£

1906

42 IO

I

21.83

2-J.6S

1916

34-73

I. 17

20.00

30-95

1926

27 39

i-39

17.28

36.74

1936

20.27

1.64

14.21

43.60

1946

13.81

i-95

10.92

51.76

1956

849

2.32

7.24

6i.45

1966

4.66

2-75

4-23

72.95

1976

2.31

3 17

2.20

84.03

1986

o75

3.88

o.75

102.80

1996

nil

4 60

nil

122.10

2006

nil

5 47

nil

145 40

30 STATE BORROWING.

From such considerations the writer is of opinion
that the State Taxpayers of the day stand, in relation
to ever-changing individuality of the State Taxpayers
of the past and the future, in exactly the same ethical
and economical relation as do the existing Shareholders
of a Private Railway Corporation to past and future
Shareholders of the same concern; and, consequently
(apart from the lack of any necessity to do so), there are
neither moral nor economical grounds why either State
Taxpayer or Shareholder of the day should, in addition
to their own equitable share of burden mulct them-
selves in additional expense as by Sinking Funds for
the purpose of relieving their future representatives of
a portion of their own fair and equitable share of bur-
dens. The latter, too, from increasing value of Loans,
Assets, increasing number and financial ability, should
be in a stronger position than their representatives of
to-day to fully discharge all reasonable obligation falling
naturally upon them.

In conclusion, I am strongly of opinion that Sinking
Funds for the absolute redemption of Loans invested
in Railways, Harbours, and other Public Works should
be restricted to the portions of such Loans whose
Assets are short-lived and, like the terminable life of
Marine Vessels, cannot be permanently preserved in
original pristine value and utility by the proper yearly
contributions to Maintenance, Renewals, and Repairs
from current revenue, by which means the whole Per-
manent Way, Machinery, and Equipment of Railways
are ever kept up to their pristine value as State Assets.

NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON. 31

NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON AND ON THE
NEED FOR RESERVATION OF LAND ALONG
ITS BANKS.

By J. W. Beattie.

(Read July 13, 1908.)

The River Gordon is about .four miles distant from
Sarah Island. Its entrance is narrow, with a bar, upon
which there is a depth of water of about two fathoms,
deepening almost immediately to 10 fathoms. The en-
trance to the river has now been well beaconed, and
renders navigation safe. Approaching the Gordon, the
surrounding mountain scenery is very grand. Away to
the south the D'Aguilar Range and Mount Direction
stand rugged and picturesque, the next in importance
being the Elliott Range, its southern trend gently slop-
ing until lost in the billowing ranges which separate it
from the D'Aguilars, while its eastern extremity ends in
'high, broken abruptness.

Following the Elliott Range eastward, we next
notice an elevated flat belt of open country, called the
High Plain. Across this plain came Sir John and Lady
Franklin and party, on their memorable overland
journey from Hobart in 1842, piloted by the late Mr.
lames Erskme CaMer, afterwards Surveyor-General of
Tasmania. They reached the Gordon about 10 miles
from its entrance, at a reach of the river called " Pre-
servation Inlet." where the relief vessel the " Breeze "
lay awaiting them. Following the High Plain are four
fine-sized mountain peaks, called by Lady Franklin
" The Cravcrofts/: after relatives. One or other of the
Craycroft peaks shows nicely in some of the Gordon
scenery. Directly eastward from the Craycroft Range
the tops of the Engineer Range are just visible.

32 NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON.

Entering the river, its extensive shallows on either
side are broken by rushes and driftwood, forming pleas-
ing foregrounds to the glorious panorama which
stretches from north-east to west. This is a scene to
be remembered, if caught under favourable conditions —
a clear earl) morning and a dead calm. The great West
Coast Range, terminating here, shows Mounts Jukes,
Darwin, Smell, and Strahan, grouped up in great gran-
deur, while farther westward the harbour is closed in
by Grummet and Sarah Islands, and the distant back-
ground of the wall-like ranges terminating at Table
Head.

The general scenery of the Gordon represents high
gorges, densely wooded to the water's edge, with long
reaches and beautiful bends. There are stretches of open
country in parts, but for 24 miles, until the River
Franklin is reached, it retains the character I have indi-
cated.

There is a fine outcrop of limestone at Limekiln
Reach, 12 miles from the river entrance, which in the
early days was quarried and burned by a party from the
Sarah Island establishment.

About two miles further along brings us to Butler's
Island, a peculiar rock close to the eastern side of the
river. It received its name from the officers of the Sarah
Island establishment, Captain Butler, of die 40th Regi-
ment, being one of its best and most energetic comman-
dants. The high rock to the west of the island I named
Cuthbertsor 's Head, after Captain Cuthbertson, who
was the first commandant of Sarah Island, and who was
drowned at the entrance to the River Gordon.

Pining, as carried on in the Gordon and vicinity to-
day, is mostly confined to the creeks and small rivers
which flow into the main stream. All the pine timber
which grew so abundantly at one time along its banks,
and in the adjacent fiats, has been worked out years ago,
and it will take a century at least for the young forest
trees to mature and be fit for use.

Among the surroundings of the higher waters of the
River Franklin, in the vicinity of the Frenchman Range,
where the country is excessively steep and rugged —
roads are quite out of the question, and the work of
pining is both difficult and dangerous, most of the pine

BV J. W. BEATTIE. 33

being found on the top and sides of the precipitous hills.
When felling is completed the tree is trimmed and
barked, head cut off. and end pointed, ready for " shoot-
ing." Jackb of the Trewhella pattern are used to start
the tree down hill, when it " shoots " into the river bed
below, and there awaits the winter floods to carry it
onward to the Gordon. The Franklin is navigable for
twenty miles from the Gordon for small boats, and in
that distance there are 150 rapids, some very high and
dangerous, and in surmounting them the boat has often
to be carried on shore round them before progress
further can be made. In view of the annually increasing
scarcity of still able timber for the world's requirements,
it would appear to be a matter deserving of great atten-
tion at tiie hands of the Government to endeavour by
every means within its power, not only .to conserve the
existing forests, but to take every step possible to in-
crease the supply of so valuable a timber, with possi-
bilities in the future of considerable magnitude.

Gould's Landing, a well-known Gordon landmark,
is 20 miles from the river entrance, and about one mile
above Butler's Island. The river is fairly open from
the island to the landing, which is situated on a river
flat, but to this point from its junction with t'he Franklin
the Gordon flows through fine gorges, and is very im-
pressive. Gould's Landing may be said to mark the
limits of safe navigation for large craft, although the
river can be navigated as far as the first rapids, one and
a-half miles above the landing. Here is the first obstruc-
tion to the safe navigation of the Gordon. Two groups
of heavy rocks lie across the river, separated some little
distance from each other. They are known as the first
and second rapids. These once negotiated, the river
continues unobstructed to the junction of the Franklin,
about two miles distant. The River Franklin junctions
with the Gordon at 24 miles from Macquarie Harbour.
At its entrance is Pyramid Island. The Franklin takes
its rise from Lake Dixon, near Lake St. Clair, and from
its source to its junction with the Gordon waters is very
confined, rough, and dangerous. Floods in this river are
exceptionally severe, the water rising during the heaviest
floods as high as 60 feet above normal level, ordinary
floods reaching 30 feet. The flood waters develop a tre-

^4 NOTES ON THE RUHR CORDON.

mendouc velocity, racing- to the Gordon at 20 miles an
hour.

Returning now to the Gordon, Above the Franklin
the Gordon is obstructed by numerous rapids. For 10
miles it.- course is through low country, about fifty
rapids being met with in that distance. Following up
the river, deep gorges are met with up to the Wilmot
Range. 25 miles from Gould's Landing, and expert boat-
men are ab'e to reach this point.

The source of the Gordon is in Lake Richmond.
under the shadow oi the King William Range, whence
it flows through picturesque surroundings in the
Rasselas Valley, making a long and graceful sweep
round Mount Wright, which is known as " The Great
Bend." From here its course is past the Thumbs Range
in deep and rugged gorges to the eastern side of the
Wilmot Range. 20 miles distant, the last few miles being
through low button-grass country. From Lake Rich-
mond to t'nc Great Bend is about thirty miles, and the
total length oi the river from its source to Macquarie
Harbour about 05 or 100 miles.

Floods on the Gordon occur in April generally, and
are usually heavy. There is a break of frosty weather,
in June particularly, then, from July to November, floods
are always prevalent. In heavy floods the river rises to
30 ami 40 feet, and in ordinary floods to 20 feet. These
heights apply above Gould's Landing, where the river is
narrowest. From the Landing to the month of the
river, the floo 1 waters reach the height of from 16 to
8 feet. Below Gould's Landing- the current attains a
speed of approximately 8 to 10 miles an hour, although
in the narrower parts the velocity is very much greater.
At the second rapids, for instance, where the river is
narrow, and has an acute bend, as the waters career
down they dash into the bank at this bend, producing a
scene of the wildest confusion.

Apart from the aesthetic side of the Gordon's attrac-
tions, its scientific aspect, as contributing a unique dis-
play of our West Coast flora, must become apparent to
all. and should alone warrant beyond question its rigid
protection against axe and fire. It is necessary that
urgent measures be taken in bringing about this pro-
tection, for already whispers of the erection of a saw-
mill are in tlie air. and this, if once established without

BY J. W. BEATTIE. 35

restrictive precautions, would undoubtedly mean the
" beginning of the end " to the beauty of the Gordon.
Surely we must see to it that such a menace should not
for one moment be allowed.

Some attempt at protection has, I believe, already
been made, the Government having reserved a strip of
land five chains wide on each side of the river, for a dis-
tance of 16 miles from the entrance at Macquarie Har-
bour. This is totally inadequate to fully protect the
river from the depredations of the timber hunter. The
area must be greatly extended, and my proposition is
that all the hillsides immediately fronting the river
should be reserved, allowing five or ten chains on the
flat parts of the river, reservation to commence from the
Macquarie Harbour entrance, and end at one mile be-
yond the Franklin River junction, which would give a
total length of 25 miles, and would effectually protect
the whole of the beautiful scenery of the river. ' This re-
servation cannot interfere with the pine industry, no
pine being available now on the banks of the river, nor
would timDer-getters suffer inconvenience, as their
sphere of labour would lie outside the reserve.

The economic value of this reserve to the state, apart
from aesthetic or scientific considerations, may be re-
garded as practically " nil," the land being worthless for
set dement or agriculture, and no minerals have, I be-
lieve, been discovered within the proposed area of pro-
tection, so mat, under such circumstances, the Govern-
ment lose nothing by its reservation, but, on the con-
trary, would gain, now and in future years, the approba-
tion and esteem of all right-thinking people of this state.

The preservation of scenery in other parts of the
world is receiving the greatest attention, and even in
England a society has been formed for the preservation
of Swiss scenery. How much greater is the necessity
existent in a country like Tasmania, relying so much
upon her tourist traffic, to preserve by' everv means
within her power attractions without which such a traffic
would diminish rather than increase, to the serious loss
of the state. One hesitates to put this selfish aspect of
the case betoi e a learned society, but " necessity knows
no law." and, after all, a public awakening may be better
aroused by a proposition in this form rather than from
a more scientific standpoint.

36 A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND.

A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND ON CHARLTON
ESTATE, NEAR ROSS. (PLATE Y.i.

By Frit/ Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc.

(Read August loth, 1908.)

The customs observed by the Aborigines in dispos-
ing of their dead relatives and friends have been most
carefully described in Ling Roth's book on the
Aborigines of Tasmania (1). Rut in perusing this com-
pilation anyone must be struck by the rather conflicting
accounts given by different observers.

The earliest, and probably the most trustworthy de-
scription of a native grave is given by Peron (2). The
corpse was burnt, the ashes covered with a layer of
grass arranged in connective rings, forming a low cone,
and this was held in position by small wooden wands
crossing one another at the top of the cone, their ends
being pushed in the ground and held in position by a
large flat pebble. Above this was erected a curious
tetragonal pyramid of wooden poles, covered with bark
and tied together at the top. This structure covered a
quantity of ashes, and Peron is most explicit to explain
how he extracted the bones from this grave.

Peron's description is accompanied by a sketch,
copied in Ling Roth's book in which three graves are
seen — a complete one, another opened in front, and a
third one showing only the central cone without the
outer pyramid of bark.

As Peron states that " the monument," as he calls it,
was the only one found by him, it is obvious that the
sketch is not an exact representation of what he has
observed, but rather a reconstruction based on actually
observed facts.

Peron's description is rather emotional, attributing
to the Aborigines feelings that he, the sentimental
Frenchman of the 18th centurv, mav have had, but

(1) Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania, 2nd ed., Hali-
fax (England), 1899, pp. 1 16-122.

(2) Peron and Freycinet, Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres
Australis, Paris, 1807-1816.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 37

which it is safe to say were hardly those of the
Aborigines of Tasmania. This touch of sentiment rather
mars his otherwise clear description, and he has on ac-
count of this probably overlooked certain facts which
would be of the greatest importance to us were they
recorded.

The account given by A. Cottrell (i) refers rather to
the customs observed than to the grave itself. Accord-
ing to him the corpse was burnt, and the relatives,
having collected the ashes, besmeared their faces with
it, and tied the remainder up in a piece of kangaroo
skin, which they wore about their person. According
to West, the skull of an infant was taken up from the
ashes, wrapped up in a piece of kangaroo skin, and
worn by a female, probably the mother. There cannot
be the slightest doubt that fragments of human bones,
tied up in a bit of skin, were highly prized as amulets
or charms by the Aborigines. However interesting
that may be, it does not bear on the question at issue,
viz., the disposal of the dead bodies.

It is certain that the Aborigines burnt their dead,
but there is a considerable difference as to the disposal
of the ashes. If the practice referred to by Backhouse,
Cottrell, and West had been extensive, there would
have been hardly any ashes left. On the other hand,
Peron's statement is so explicit that it is safe to assume
that always a considerable quantity was left, which was
eventually covered in the way described by Peron. It
is therefore very probable that it was customary to burn
the dead, and some of the remains were worn as charms
•or amulets by the relatives, who probably besmeared
their faces also with the ashes (3).

(3) I quote from Ling Roth. It seems that a good deal of
G. W. Walker's statements are based on information given to
him by A. Cottrell.

(4) This fact throws a curious sidelight on a custom referred
to by the Bible — extreme grief was expressed by going in sack-
cloth and ashes. It is natural to ask, why ashes? If we assume
that this custom, used by later generations without knowing its
real meaning, was based on the custom of early mankind to
besmear their faces with the ashes of a deceased relative, we
have probably the true explanation of anotherwise strange
custom. To besmear the face with the ashes of the deceased
expressed the greatest grief for its loss, and after mankind be-
came more civilised they no longer used tthe deceased's ashes,
but simply put any kind of ashes on the head.

A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND

Some writers also refer to the custom of placing a
dead body in an upright position in a hollow tree. As
far as I can see this was only done in eases of emer-
gency, when there was no time to burn the body at
once; but they were certainly subsequently burnt.

And now a very eurious question arises: Did the
Aborigines dispose of their deceased on the spot where
death took place, or did they carry them to certain
places habitually used for the purpose of cremation? It
is pretty safe to assume that death mostly took place
on the camping ground; some may have died while
travelling, while others may have been killed at odd
places in their internecine wars.

It is very strange to find that not a single one of all
observers noticed whether the Aborigines had regular
burial grounds or not. The only reference I can find is
Braim (4). who states: "Whenever they approached
places where any of their countrymen had been de-
posited, they would on all future occasions avoid com-
ing near such spots, and would rather go miles round
than pass close to them." The same authority states
that " other tribes, again, when it was not convenient to
carry off the dead body to some place of interment
would put it into some hollow tree."

These two statements would imply (a) that there was
a regular burial ground, (b) that the dead body was
carried to it. Xow, we know that the names of the de-
ceased were never mentioned again by their relatives —
in fact, thy seem to have had a superstitious fear of the
spirits of their departed, and from this fact alone we
may conclude that the dead were not indiscriminately
buried. It is hardly probable that if anyone died at a
regular camping ground they disposed of the dead body
then and there in the way described by Peron and
others. It is more probable that there existed certain
areas, well known and to be avoided, where the remains
of the dead were deposited. The question, however, is,
Do such burial grounds exist? As already stated, no
author but Braim mentions a burial ground; but if they

(1) Braim. Thos. H.. History of New South Wales from its
settlement to the year 1844. II-, P- -267. London, 1846. (I quote
from Ling Roth, p. 62.)

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 39

exist, the traces left behind must be very fragmentary.
It is evident that the wooden superstructure described
by Peron cannot have stood for any length of time. It
is equally certain that the grass covering soon rotted
away ; in fact, the second grave mentioned by Peron
seems to have been in this dilapidated condition, and
the first one, so minutely described, must have been of
very recent origin. We can safely assume that after a
few years nothing remained of the rather elaborate
structure but a low earthy mound, in which a few stones
were embedded, and even these relics were very perish-
able. We can only regret that Peron, led away by his
emotions, did not make a closer examination of the two
localities, where he discovered the graves ; if he had, the
question whether the Aborigines used regular burial
grounds or not would have been settled. Had he seen
such little mounds of earth covered with a few stones,
there could have been no further doubt that this place
had been used as a regular burial ground.

A discovery which I lately made on Charlton estate,
near Ross, seems to settle this question in favour of the
existence of a regular burial ground. Mr. E. Cameron,
of Mona Yale, informed me that a so-called native burial
ground existed quite close to Charlton house. Following
the fence behind the house in an eastern direction for
about half-a-mile, we came on a most remarkable spot.
The liill is apparently covered with sand, and right on
the top the sand has been blown out for a length of
about three hundred feet to a depth of over four feet.
The remains of the covering layer of sand can still be
seen towards north, and they are well marked in the
p'hotograpih. The hill commands a fine view all round,
and the photograph gives only a poor impression of the
large area that can be overlooked.

On the loamy soil, about seventy to eighty little
mounds of earth, irregularly covered with more or less
rounded stones, can be seen. These mounds are about
three feet in diameter, and very low; in fact, most of
them are hardly raised above the ground. I opened
several of them, but, except an irregular layer of whitish
tenacious clay, covered by the ordinary reddish loam,
I found nothing. There were not the slightest traces of
bones. Fragments of stone implements were not un-

40 A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND.

common, lying scattered about among the bigger
stones.

Though no bones were found, I have not the
slightest doubt that this place has been used as a re-
gular burial ground by the Aborigines. There is no
agency to which we could attribute the heaping up of
a number of little mounds of earth in which large stones
are embedded but to human beings. It is not very
probable that these mounds represented fireplaces ; if so,
why should the whitish clay be invariably covered
under a layer of red loam, in which rather heavy stones
are embedded ? The only way to account for these little
mounds is to assume that they are graves of Aborigines,
and, if this be so, they must be of great age. There is
no doubt that these graves were some time ago covered
by a deposit of blown sand, measuring not less than
four feet in thickness, and in that way perfectly con-
cealed. They became only exposed w;hen the sand, in-
stead of being deposited, was again blown away. Both
the covering and the blowing out must have taken some
time, and we know nothing about the length of the in-
terval between, which may have amounted to a consider-
able number of years. It is therefore hardly surprising
that no bones were found. The larger fragments had
been taken away by the relatives ; the smaller frag-
ments, already much calcined by the fire, soon disinte-
grated into dust, and in coure of time the ashes turned
into a whitish clay.

The numbers of mounds exposed proves that this
place was regularly used for the disposal of dead bodies,
and this proves Braim's statement as to the existence
of regular burial grounds to be correct.

We may assume that not too far from the regular
camping grounds a spot commanding a good view was
selected for depositing the remains of the dead, but it
still remains an open question whether they carried the
corpses to such places in order to burn them there, or
whether they cremated on the place of death, and car-
ried the ashes to the regular burial ground, where they
were interred in the manner described by Peron.

Braim's statement, above referred to, seems to indi-
cate that the bodies were carried to the burial ground ;

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 41

but I feel inclined to think that this view is not correct..
We know that the Aborigines shirked all kind of
labour, and carrying a corpse, perhaps for some miles
to the nearest burial place, would mean a good deal of
hard work. Further, if this had been so, it would have
been surprising that no such procession had ever been
seen or witnessed by a European. We might perhaps
assume that this was done during the night, but all ac-
counts agree that the Aborigines had a great dislike
for travelling at night, and this, coupled with their dread
of the deceased, makes such an assumption very im-
probable.

If we consider all the evidence that has been handed
over to us, together with the evidence which the Charl-
ton burial ground affords, we can form the following
view as to the disposal of dead bodies.

When a death occurred, a pile was erected, and the
body cremated on the spot. Probably while the burning
was going on the relatives who attended to it used to
smear their faces with some of the ashes, and, after the
burning had been completed, the frag*ments of the
larger bones were used as amulets or charms, wrapped
up in a piece of kangaroo skin, and worn by the rela-
tives or friends. The remainder of the ashes were
scraped together, and carried, in a kangaroo skin (?) or
a basket (?) — to the nearest burial ground, where they
were deposited in a shallow hole scraped in the ground
by means of a sharp stone (?). After being covered
with a little earth, the grass cone and bark pyramid
described by Peron were erected, and the place here-
after avoided as much as possible.

It would be very interesting to know whether
similar burial places exist elsewhere in Tasmania. Mrs.
Burbury, of Charlton, informs me that a similar, though
much more extended place, exists near Fonthill, and
Air. Henry Foster, jun., has told me that another one
is found on Darlington Park. As I have not seen either
of these places, it is impossible for me to venture an
opinion about them, but, to judge from the description
given to me, they must exactly look like the Charlton
burial ground. If this be so, the fact that the Aborigines
had certain places set aside for the regular disposal of
their dead bodies is beyond further doubt. The only

42 A NATIVE BURIAL GROUNI'.

question which has not quite been settled yet would be
whether the dead would have been carried bodily to the
burial ground, or only their ashes. From all we know-
about the habits of the Aborigines, the latter view is
more probably the c< >rrect i >ne.

It may appear that I have gone at some length in
discussing a rather trifling question. The conclusions
we may, however, draw from this as to earlier history of
mankind are of the greatest importance. We may eon-
elude that early man disposed of the dead bodies by
cremation, and that the custom of burying the corpse is
of much later date. It is therefore not to be wondered
at that the remains of diluvial and pre-diluvial human
beings are so extremely rare. If archaeolithic man died,
his relatives disposed of his body by cremation, and only
under such fortunate circumstances, when it was impos-
sible to get hold of the corpse, which was also protected
against animals, was there a chance that the remains
would be preserved. The few7 remains of diluvial man,
the famous Spy-Cro-Magnon race, have been found
under circumstances which indicate that these former
owners must have come to a rather sudden end while
sitting in front of their cave, by being killed and covered
by a sudden fall of rocks from above. If diluvial and
tertiary man disposed of his dead bodies in a similar
way as the Aborigines, and there is no reason to assume
a different view, the old burial grounds must have long
become entirely obliterated, and the same fate is certain
to happen to the Tasmanian burial grounds before long.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC.

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

43

PL. V.

THE NATIVE QUARRY AT SYNDAL. 44

THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYXDAL, NEAR
ROSS. (PL. III. AND IV.).

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc.
(Read August ioth, 1908.)

In the monthly notices of this Society for June, July,
and August, 1875, page 41, the late Mr. J. R. Scott de-
scribes the locality of a " native quarry " as follows : —

" It has long been desirable to fix upon a spot where
the Aborigines obtained their flint or stone implements.
I am now able to fix upon two places, viz. : — First, about
10 chains immediately in front and to the north-east of
the stone hut in Stacker's Bottom, County of Somerset,
Parish of Pell. The second is about one mile more to
the south-west, on Lot 443, on a branch of Dismal Creek
running out of Stocker's Bottom. These two places
are about six miles distant from the Macquarie River."

I think the wording can only be interpreted in one
way, viz., that the Aborigines obtained the rock which
they used in the manufacture of tneir stone implements
from two localities, about six miles from the Macquarie
River, at a place called Stocker's Bottom. In other
words, that there exists what is commonly called a
" Native Quarry " at Stocker's Bottom. It is in this
meaning that Stocker's Bottom has been quoted in
Johnston's Geology of Tasmania and Ling Roth's
Aborigines of Tasmania.

When visiting Alt. Morriston, in June, 1908, I was
anxious to see this locality, but Mr. Bennett, of Mt.
Morriston, informed me that the story of the native
quarry at Stocker's Bottom was a myth. However, I
thought it better to convince myself whether there is
any truth in Scott's statement or not, and accordingly
I set out, in company with Mr. Vere Poullet-Harris, and

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 45

under the guidance of a man who knew Stocker's
Bottom well, who had kindly been placed at my disposal
by Mr. Eustace Cameron, of Mona Vale, to hunt up the
native quarry at Stacker's Bottom. It was a long and
tedious ride; but we found the stone hut right enough.
" Ten chains immediately in front and to the north-
east " we went, but there was not a sign of an outcrop
of chert or any suitable rock, not to say of a native
quarry. There was only black alluvial soil. We went
further — 20, 30 chains, half-a-mile — no sign of a quarry.
We went in a wide circle round the hut ; nowhere the
slightest indication of even a small fragment of chert or
a native implement. This careful examination of the
locality which Mr. Vere Poullet-Harris and myself
made, with the assistance of a man who knew almost
every inch of ground, has conclusively proved that the
native quarry near the stone hut in Stocker's Bottom
is a myth. We then set out to hunt for the second
locality, but, except a few pieces of dark chert on the
slope of a low hill, I found nothing, and it seems pretty
certain that there is no quarry at the place described by
Scott.

It then struck me that another interpretation might
be given to Scott's statement. Can it be that he dis-
covered some outcrops of chert, and that he only wanted
to say that he discovered two localities where rock suit-
able for the manufacture of Aboriginal implements oc-
curs, leaving it an open question whether rhe Aborigines
did exploit that locality or not? This view would in some
way account for this otherwise inexplicable statement.
However that may be, it is certain that there exists no
native quarry in Stocker's Bottom, and this locality
must therefore be struck off the list of places whence
the Aborigines obtained the material for the manufac-
ture of their implements.

Though disappointed in Stocker's Bottom, I had the
good luck to hear of another native quarry which had
been discovered by Mr. George Hutchison, of Beaufront,
on Syndal Estate. Mr. Hutchison kindly showed me
the place, and I feel greatly indebted to him, because
it is doubtful whether I would have found this rather
remote locality without his guidance. We proceeded
from the road that leads from Ross to Trefusis in
an eastern direction along the wire-netted boundary

46 TIM-'. NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

fence between Syndal and Charltoti Estate, till a hut
near an artificial lagoon, whidh is somewhat north of the
boundary Fence, was reached. Passing it, we eventually
reached a wire-netted Cross Fence running north and
south, and, passing through the hurdle gate, we turned
towards right (south), and, following the cross fence for
about a quarter of a mile, we came on the slope of a low
hill right on to the quarry. The run where it occurs is
known as the " Front Shelves Run."

At first it did not seem very extensive : but further

examination showed that it extended for at least half-
a-mile in an. eastern direction. The sight is really a re-
markable one, and the photographs give only a very
poor idea of it. Hundreds of thousands of fragment- of
rock are lying about, sometimes in large heaps, some-
times more scattered. Xo better comparison could be
made than with a road recently covered with fresh
broken metal, and every one of the fragments we see
has once passed through human hands.

Unfortunately, the bush is rather dense, and this
made a closer geological examination impossible. A
short distance towards south-east there are sandstone
cliffs, in which now and then a little cave has been hol-
lowed out. The relationship of the chert which was
used for implements and the sandstone is not quite
clear ; neither did I see any volcanic rock close to the
outcrop of the chert. As far as can be made out, the
chert forms a band of about 120 feet in width and half-
a-mile in length, striking almost due east-west. Perhaps
a closer examination will reveal more with regard to
the geological features. For the present it is impossible
to say anything more in particular with regard to the
origin of the chert, whether it is metamorphosed or an
original sedimentary rock. The extremely fine bedding
would almost suggest that it is a true siliceous shale.

'&&

At the western part the chert is of dark blue colour,
and of very fine grain ; it is very evenly striated, and
darker and lighter-coloured bands are irregularly
alternating. At the eastern end, however, a chert of
light greyish colour occurs. It would be interesting to
see the passage of the dark blue into the grey chert ;
but I am afraid this is impossible without a good deal of
digging and blasting. However, this occurrence proves

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 47

that there is no fundamental difference between the
dark blue and the grey chert. It seems that this chert
breaks up into irregular lumps of varying size, which
are covered with brownish crust. These lumps have
been broken by the Aborigines into irregular angular
fragments, most of which were rejected ; but suitable
pieces were worked then and there into implements,
while others were apparently taken to the camping
grounds. All the specimens that have been handled by
the Aborigines are covered with a Whitish patina, which
sometimes, particularly at the angles, wears off, disclos-
ing the dark black colour of the rock.

It is very remarkable that only a small number of
implements were found that show a considerable
amount of chipping. Though there is an enormous
number of angular fragments, I think that hardly one
in a thousand is extensively worked. And there is
another notable fact, all the specimens, which show
either a well-worked indical face or careful trimming of
the edges, invariably show a nice smooth pollical face.
I already dwelt on this peculiar fact in my description
of the Native Quarry on Coal Hill (Melton- Mowbray),
and I can only account for this in one way. The quar-
ries were not working places — they were quarries pure
and simple — that is to say, places from which the stone
used for implements was obtained. The Aborigines
visited these places simply to obtain a supply of suitable
flakes, most of which they took away in order to shape
them at their camping grounds. Had they made their
implements at the quarry, we might certainly expect a
large number of unfinished rejects or broken specimens.

Another fact struck me also as very remarkable,
and I may say that this equally applies to the Coal Hill
Quarry. In my search for well worked specimens, I
naturally turned over and examined a large number of
fragments, and numerous of these seemed by size,
shape, and sharp edges conveniently suitable for a cut-
ting implement ; yet they were apparently rejected. On
the other hand, specimens which are well worked and
trimmed appear to be much less suitable than the re-
jected fragments.

4> THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

I already noticed, at the June meeting of this Society,
a similar fact when describing the nucleus and the Hakes
struck therefrom; Hakes that were very suitable were
disregarded, and at last one, which does not appear to
have more advantages than the others, was obtained,
and further work was stopped. One can only wonder
at the enormous waste of labour, and, as all the
lower races are notoriously lazy, it is astonishing to
note- that they must have spent a vast amount of their
labour in vain. It is very difficult to give a satisfactory
explanation of this unquestionable fact ; I can only sup-
pose that every time when an Aborigine required an
implement he wished it to be of a certain size. He
commenced striking off flakes till one of the desired
size was obtained, disregarding all the others that fell
off, however suitable they might otherwise have been,
because they did not have the size, or perhaps better
said, the required weight. It cannot be t!he shape, be-
cause all Tasmanian implements are true amorpho-
lithes — that is to say, devoid of all intentional form. It
can therefore only be the size or the weight of the de-
sired flake that came into consideration. If this view-
be correct, it would certainly account in a satisfactory
way for the otherwise puzzling fact that numerous
flakes which are evidently suitable for implements have
been rejected, while others less suitable have been
worked into implements.

At present a fairly thick bush grows all over the
quarry, and the traces of a great bush fire are still
visible. These bush fires had a remarkable result on
some of the fragments ; a large number are superficially
cracked ; as a further result, irregular splinters break off,
and the originally smooth surface assumes a rough,
jagged appearance. I have a most striking example of
this action of the fire in a well-chipped specimen, from
which a number of splinters have already been detached,
while others are ready to break off at the slightest shock.
It is obvious that if this specimen had been exposed for
a longer time to the action of fire and rain, the originally
well-chipped archaeolithe would have changed into an
angular fragment, devoid of any signs of working, but
perhaps showing still the crack^ "^oduced by fire.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 49

In conclusion, it is advisable to give a revised list of
the native quarries known up to date (2). These are —

1. A quarry on Coal Hill (1), near Melton-Mowbray
(Johnstone's Quarry) — (Noetling, The Native Quarry
on Coal Hill, near Melton-Mowbray, The Tasmanian
Naturalist, 1907, Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 14-19). Chert-
quarry.

2. Small quarry near the railway station of Pontville.
Porcellanite-quarry. (Weston's Quarry.)

3. Quarry on Front-shelves run, Syndal Estate, near
Ross. Chert-quarry. (Hutchison's Quarry.)

4. Quarry on the boundary line between Glenleith
and Charles Hope Estates, River Plenty, about 2 miles
from Plenty railway station. Chert-quarry. Walker's
Quarry.) (H. Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania,
2nd edition, 1899, p. 149.)

5. Quarry in the neighbourhood of the Great Lake,
between Split Rock and the western shore of the Great
Lake, according to the late Mr. Scott. This place is
quoted in Johnson's Geology and in Ling Roth's
Aborigines of Tasmania. Mr. Harold Bisdee has also
mentioned to me that a quarry exists near the Great
Lake, but whether this is the same locality as that men-
tioned by Scott I am unable to say.

6. It is certain that- the Aborigines used the Breccia,
which occurs in large, loose boulders on the beach of
Droughty Point for their implements, though there is
no regular quarry. The numerous implements picked up

(i) Only a few days ago Mr. R. V. Nicholls, of Melton-
Mowbray, kindly informed me that he had found another
quarry, about four miles to the west of the railway station. I
have just seen this locality, and I can fully confirm Mr.
Nicholls' discovery. The quarry is the largest and most ex-
tended I have hitherto seen, and I will describe it in a subse-
quent paper. I may only mention here that it is a chert-
quarry, in which the treasured kind of grey chert was obtained.
As there are now two quarries near Melton-Mowbray. and as
the locality where this quarry is situated has no particular
name, I propose to call it Nicholls' quarry, in honour of its
discoverer, in order to distinguish it from the quarry on Coal
Hill, which I now distinguish under the name of Johnstone's
quarry.

(2) The number of quarries having increased. I think it ad-
visable to distinguish each by a special name. Geographical
names not being always suitable, I think it will be best to name
the quarry after its discoverer.

50 THE NATIVE QUARRA OF SYNDAL.

on Drought) Point are, however, of the same kind of

rock as occurs on the beach.

7. A quarry 1- -aid to exist on the road from Camp-
bell Town to Swansea, near Lake Leak. As I have not
visited this place, I am unable to say whether this is
c< urect or not.

S. Hunter's Hill, Native Point, on the South Esk,
near Perth. The name implies that it must have been
a favourite- resort of the natives. If I am right, Air.
Johnston lias first discovered this place, but it does not
appear to have been a regular quarry.

9. Pipe Clay Lagoon, South Arm (Johnston, Geology
of Tasmania). Though there is no doubt as to the oc-
currence of metamorphosed rock, I do not think there
exists a regular quarry.

10. On the Tamar River (Johnston, Geology of Tas-
mania). Nothing is known to me about this locality.

11. Mount Communication, Saltwater River, Tas-
man's Peninsula (2). (Clark's Quarry.)

Out of tliis number we may take it that Nos. 1-5 and
1 1 are regular quarries — that is to say, localities fre-
quented by the Aborigines, perhaps for a long space of
time, in order to obtain suitable fragments of rock to
be shaped into implements.

The locality near Droughty Point is not a regular
quarry in the meaning of those above mentioned; it is
very probable that Xos. 8, 9, 10 come under the same
heading, though, not having seen these localities myself,
I do not wish to express an opinion.

Xo. 7, the quarry near Lake Leak, will have to be
included in the list of regular quarries, provided that the
information is correct. I therefore leave it as doubtful
for the present, but I hope that later on I shall be able
to give more information about it. There are therefore
up to date (November, 1908) seven places known in Tas-
mania which have been habitually frequented by the
Aborigines in order to obtain the material for their
stone implements.

(2) Since the above was written I have been able to
examine this quarry, which is situated in a very remote place.
Mr. George Clark kindly showed me the place, and I am
greatly indebted to him for guiding me. I will describe this
quarry, together with Nicholls' quarry, but I may mention here
that it is of the chert type.

BY FRITZ NOKTI.IXG, M. A., -PH.D., ETC.

51

Roy. Soc Tasm. 1908.

PL. III.

52

II IK NATIVE OUARRY OF SYNDAL.

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908

Pl IV.

ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA. 53

ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN
FAUNA. (PL. VI.).

By W. L. May.

(Read 14th September, 1908.)

Since the publication of Tate and May's Revised
Census, in 1901, a considerable number of species new
to the Tasmanian molluscan fauna have become known
to me, and I think it is well to place the names on re-
cord. I also offer observations on several species, and
take the opportunity to describe and figure what appear
to be three species new to science. This paper does not
in any way refer to the large mass of new material lately
dredged off Cape Pillar by C. Hedley and myself.

List of new records, with habitat and remarks : —

FASCINUS TYPICUS (Hedley).— One juvenile ex-
ample taken on the beach at Pirate Bav, and identi-
fied by the author, Coll. W. L. M.

MARGINELLA ANGASI (Brazier).— This has long
been known to local collectors, but has been con-
fused with M. simsoni (Tate and May). If I have
rightly identified the species, then M. halli (Prit.
and Gat.) is a synonym.

TEREBRA INCONSPICUA (Prit. and Gatliff).— One
specimen. Storm Bay, 23 fathoms.

CLATHURELLA BICOLOR (Angas).— Not uncom-
mon in Frederick Henry Bay.

TARANIS EDWINI (Brazier), Clathurella.— One
specimen. Very similar to T. minuta (T. W.) in
general appearance, but distinguished by its punc-
tate pullus, which in minuta is spirally lirate.
Daphnella mimica (Sowb.) is a synonym of the
latter.

54 ADDITIONS 1*0 III l - TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

DAPHNELLA CASSANDRA (Hedley).— Derwent
Estuary. Many specimens.

MITROMORPHA PALLIDULA (Hedley), Storm
Bay.— Fred. I [enry Bay. Rare.

NATICA SHOREHAM] (Prit. and Gatliff), Storm
Bay, 24 fathoms. — One example.

SCALA VALIDA (Verco).— One living example, off
Pilot Station, Derwent. Several fragmentary, from
Fred. Henry Bay, in shell sand.

CINGULINA DIAPHANA (Verco).— Three ex-
amples. Various southern localities, in dredgings.

LITORINA PRAETERMISSA (May).— N. S.

RISELLOPSIS MUTABILIS (May).— N. S.

CYCL( )STREMA BASDOWI (Gatliff).— One ex-
ample, Fred. Henry Bay, which seems a slight
variety of this species.

SCISSURELLA ROSEA (Hedley).— Fred. Henry
Bay. Several examples.

SCISSURELLA ORNATA (May)— X. S.

GADINEA AXGASI (Dall).— East and North Coasts.
Rare.

GARI KENYONIANA (Prit. and Gatliff), Tellina.—
Two valves, on beach at Adventure Bay. Coll. \V.
L. M.

CIRCE AXGASI (Smith).— Several valves. Storm
Bay, 24 fathoms.

CUNA COXCEXTRICA (Hedley).— Storm Bay, 24
fathoms. One \a\e.

COXDYLOCARDIA PROJECTA (Hedley).— Fred.
Henry Bay. One valve.

COXDYLOCARDIA CRASSICOSTA (Bernard), Fig.
6. — This species was described from New Zealand,
and is an interesting addition to our list. Under
the belief that it was new, a figure was prepared by
Miss West, which is here inserted for the benefit of
Australian students. A few specimen? taken in
Frederick Henrv Bav.

BY W. L. MAY. 55

PHILIPPIELLA RUBRA (Hedley).— Many localities
hi the south.

MYTILUS CANALICULUS (Martyn), Universal Con-
chologist, 1784, PI. 78. Latus (Chem), non
Lamarck. Tasmanicus, Tenison-Woods. This
novel synonymy is the result of a careful exami-
nation of our larger Mytilus, showing that the
very large form named Tasmanicus, by Woods,
is not conspecific with M. planulatus (Lamarck),
but is identical with the New Zealand species
M. canaliculus, which is distinguished — besides
some difference in outline — by strong teeth in the
hinge at the apex of the shell, and which are
quite wanting in M. planulatus. The habitat is
peculiar, it being nearly always found in deep water,
and is occasionally obtained by scallop dredgers in
the Derwent. I once saw two specimens attached
to a tidal rock, Fred. Henry Bay, and also possess
a fine example taken on the beach at Marion Bay,
East Coast.

AURICULA DYERIANA (Tenison-Woods).— I now
possess one of the type lot of the above species.
In Tate and May it is made a synonym of Cassidula
zonata (H. and A. Adams), but from a study of C.
Hedlev's figure of that species, in P. L. Soc, New
South' Wales, 1905, p. 537, PL XXXIIL, Fig. 30,
and also from Port Jackson specimens I now have,
I find they are quite distinct. I also find that
A. dyeriana is an absolute synonym of Cassidula
nucleus (Mart). As this is a tropical species, it is
very unlikely to occur here, and Mr. Dyer told me
that after taking the type lot he could never find it
again, although he searched very carefully. I
therefore consider it to have been an accidental in-
troduction, and that the name should be expunged
from our list. — Sandford, July, 1908.

In the Records of Australian Museum, Vol. IV., No.
7, 25th August, 1902, H. L. Kesteven erected a new
genus, Risellopsis, for Hutton's Fossarina varia. I now
describe a second species, which is quite distinct from
Hutton's, whilst still fulfilling the conditions necessary
to place it in the genus.

ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

RISELLOPSIS MUTAfilLIS (May), Figs, i and 2.—

Shell depressed of three whorls, rapidly increasing,
umbilicate : aperture large, descending in front,
angular above; suture somewhat canaliculate. Two
prominent keels divide the shell into a superior, a
peripheral, and basal area. The lower keel is con-
siderably the stronger. There is a low ridge on
the base of the shell, and beyond it a small, sharp
keel, exactly defining the umbilical area, which
latter is whitish, whilst the rest of the shell is a dull
purplish black. Lip sharp and simple, somewhat
angled by the persistence of the peripheral keels,
which, however, have become nearly obsolete.
columella arched, and slightly expanded over the
umbilicus, which is ample and perspective. Shell
almost smooth (often corroded), but very finely
striated by lines of growth. Height, 2]/2 ; greatest
diameter, 3^2 mill. Habitat. — Most of my speci-
mens, including the type, are from Fred. Henry
Bay, Tasmania. It occurs in Victoria also (C.
Gabriel, F. H. Baker).

Individuals may vary, by the keels — especially the
upper one — becoming almost obsolete, giving the
whorls a more rounded appearance. One example is
highly turretted, giving it a trochiform appearance.
.Another has the last whorl partly detached. The colour
may also become reddish, mottled with white, or there
may be yellowish patches on a black ground. From the
New Zealand species (R. varia), it differs in being less
round and without the keels on the base and upper part
of the whorl, and in wanting the coarse striation. Type
to be placed in the Tasmanian Museum, Figs. 1 and 2.

The following note on the Genus Litorina was com-
municated by my friend, Charles Hedley, of the Austra-
lian Museum, Sydney, whom I also have to thank for
kind assistance in the preparation of this paper.

'" LITORIXA (Menke), 1828, non Littorina Ferussac
1822), nomen nudum. Ferussac (Tabl. Syst. des
Anim. Moll., 1822, p. xxxiv.), casually wrote Litto-

NOTE. — This species was wrongly figured in Tate and
May's Census, PI. xxiii., fig. 9, as Fossarina Funiculata Teni-
son-Woods.

BY W. L. MAY. 57

rina among a long- list of genera without giving a
type definition or other means of identification ; his
name must therefore be discarded as a nomen
nudum. Then Menke (Syn. Meth. Moll., 1828) in-
troduced Litorina with a classified list of species,
t'heir synonyms, and references to literature. It is
on Menke' s work that the genus is based. I have
not access to his first edition, but in the second
edition (1830) the genus is given on p. 44."

LITORINA PRAETERMISSA (May), N. S., Fig. 3.
— Shell globosely turbinate, umbilicate ; whorls, six
rounded, rapidly increasing, the last very large ;
mouth pyriform, columella arched, flattened, and
expanded over a narrow but deep umbilicus, which
is frequently covered, and so not a constant feature.
The interior varies from light to dark purplish-
brown ; umbilical area white. Operculum sub-spiral.
Within the anterior end of the columella is a pale
band, margined by narrow dark lines. The whole
shell is girt with fine spiral impressed lines — about
12 on the penultimate — and strongly and frequently
very coarsely ridged by lines of growth. Ground
colour greenish white ; the purplish-brown colour
pattern varies considerably in different examples,
but usually consists of undulating and zigzag bands
more or less broken up. The apical whorls are
brown — lighter towards the top. Very variable in
size. -Dimensions of the type: — Length, 15;
breadth, 1 1 mill. Figure 3. It differs from L.
Mauritiana (Lamarck) chiefly in the globose form
and colour markings, which seem very constant,
but is connected by the impressed spirals and light
band in the mouth. It was listed by Tenison-Woods
in his census as L. undulata (Gray), and perhaps
comes nearest to L. cincta (Quoy and Gaim.), from
New Zealand. Habitat. — Widely distributed, and
in the same positions as L. mauritiana, but not so
universally present as that species. Type to be
placed in the Tasmanian Museum.

SCISSURELLA ORNATA (May), N. S., Figs. 4 and 5.
— Shell minute, obliquely discoidal, strongly ribbed
and spiralled ; whorls rounded, but somewhat angled
by fhe canal; mouth large, roundish, oval, and a small

5<s ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

but deep umbilicus. The canal forms a deep furrow,
bordered by sharp, raised edges, the whole raised
on a distinct ridge, which surrounds the shell about
midway between the suture and the periphery; on

the lower side there is a smooth, depressed area.
The strong sharp ribs begin below this area, and
continue round the whorl to enter the umbilicus.
Above the furrow raised curved ribs roughly corre-
spond to those below; they continue uninterrupted
from the central ridge to the suture. 'Idle spaces
between these ribs are cancellated by six to eight
spiral keels, much smaller than the ribs, and not
passing over them. These spirals continue between
the lower ribs, passing over the upper part of them,
there giving them a crested appearance. All these
spirals are irregularly spaced. The apex of \]/2
turns is squared by a beaded ridge, and is sunken
below the level of the adult whorls. The mouth is
well defined by a continuous narrow margin ; the
slit is open, deep, and of moderate width. Whorls
two, exclusive of the apex. Colour, yellowish white.
Greatest diameter, \l/2 ; least, 1*4 ; height, i mill.
Habitat : — Frederick Henry Bay ; a few specimens
in kelp roots. It has a superficial resemblance to
Schismope beddomei (Petterd), but the ribs are
more numerous and continuous, and with strong
spirals, and it is a larger shell, and a true Scissu-
rella. Scissurella coronata (Watson), Challenger
report, page 114, seems a near ally. Figs. 4 and 5.
Type in Tasmanian Museum.

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

BY W. L. :V[AY.

59
Pl. VI.

. a9i .

1, 2. RISELLOPSIS MUTABILIS, May.
3. UTORINA PR^ETKRMISSA, May.

4, 5. SCISSURKLLA ORNATA, May.

6. CONDYLOCARDIA CRASSICOSTA , Bernard

6o ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

THE ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR
STONE IMPLEMENTS.

By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc,

(Read October 12th, 1908.)

Quite in the commencement of my studies of the
stone implements manufactured by the Tasmanian
Aborigines, I noticed that the Southern tribes had a
special word for that particular rock which is generally,,
though wrongly, called " Black Flint." Considering the
popular, though wrong, use of the word " Flint," by
Which the word originally applied to the rock from
which a stone implement is made is used to designate the
implement made therefrom, the question naturally arose
whether this particular native word meant the imple-
ment or the substance (rock) from which it was made.
At the first glance this seems immaterial and 'hair-split-
ting; but on closer examination it will be seen that the
question is a most important one. If this particular
word is only used to describe a special implement, it
would conclusively prove that the Aborigines inten-
tionally manufactured implements of a certain shape,
which they distinguished by a special name from all the
others. If, on the other hand, this word repre-
sented the designation of a particular kind of rock only,
the above inference cannot hold good, and the conclu-
sions derived from the morphological study of the
implements — namely, that they are devoid of all inten-
tional shape — is fully confirmed.

The vocabulary of Aboriginal words is, unfortu-
nately, very limited. Calder (1), whose compilation is

(i) Language and Dialects spoken by the Aborigines of Tas-
mania. Parliamentary Papers, 1901. No. 69.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC 6l

probably the most comprehensive, does not enumerate
more t'han 1 135 words, some of which are unquestionably
adopted (2). It is more than probable to assume that,
however limited the vocabulary of Aborigines may have
been, a fair number of words have not been handed over
to us. However that may be, a -combination of the
results of mineralogical and morphological studies, to-
gether with a careful examination of the vocabulary, has
led to some very interesting results.

In the first instance, however incomplete the vocabu-
lary may be, it is certain that the Tasmanian language
had no special word for some of the most important
implements in the economic life of the human race.
These implements are : —

1. Knife.

2. Axe or Hatdhet.

3. Saw.

To which we may add

4. Bow.

5. Arrow.

6. Spear or Lance Head.

It may be taken as granted that the Tasmanian language
had no distinguishing words for the above-mentioned
six implements. Consequently it is certain that the civi-
lisation of the Tasmanian Aborigines did not know these
implements, because, if it had, there would have cer-
tainly been words to designate them, and if sudh words
had existed we would find them in the vocabulary,
because it is improbable to assume that those who com-
piled the vocabulary of the Aborigines could have over-
looked the words for these all-important implements
had they existed and been used by fh'e Aborigines.

Scott, who was probably the first who made a study
of the Tasmanian Archaeolithes, designates them as fol-
lows (3):—

Flint or a knife = teroona, trawootta.

(2) For instance it is obvious that the Tasmanian word
" backalow " or " bacala " for bullock is derived from the
English, considering that no cattle existed in Tasmania previous
to the arrival of the Europeans.

(3) Letter on the Stone Implements of the Tasmanian
Aborigines. Papers and Proceedings, Royal Society of Tasmania,
for 1873-1874, page 24.

62 ABORIGINAL DESIGNAIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

Plain and simple as this appears, it is by no
means so. In what sense is the word "flint" used?
Does it mean to express the mineral flint, or does it
mean an object made from flint? I think that the latter
view is the correct one, because Scott adds, "or a
knife."

We may therefore conclude that any cutting imple-
ment manufactured by the Aborigines was called
teroona or trawootta.

At the first glance it might appear that these are two
absolutely different words, but I shall be able to prove
that they are practically the same.

If we look up Milligan's vocabulary of the Tas-
manian language, we find under the heading of flint the
following words: —

Tribes about Mt. Royal, Bruni Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of Tasmania — North-West and
Western Tribes.

Mungara (Flint).
Mora trona (Flint), black.
Tribes from Oyster Bay to Pittwater —
Trowutta (Flint).

It is obvious tihat the words trawootta (Scott) and
trowutta (Milligan) are identical. We have, therefore,
the following words to designate the Tasmanian stone
implements : —

i. Trowutta.

2. Teroona.

3. Mungara.

4. Mora trona (black flint).

It is evident that the word " trona " is exactly the
same as " teroona," and, if we write the word trowrutta
like this —

trowa-tta

we see that we have apparently the same root, because
it can be taken as certain that the words

Teroona,

Trona,

Trowa,

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 63

are fhe same. The different spelling may be due to
dialects or other reasons, but the main fact that they
are identical remains.

" Black " flint is designated as " mora trona," and, of
course, if " mora " would mean " black," the 'interpreta-
tion would be quite simple. But this does not seem
quite certain.

Milligan states that the eastern tribes used the word
" mawback " or " mawbanna," the southern tribes the
word " loaparte " for black, and, though there is perhaps
a certain likeness between " mora " and " mawbanna," I
would not consider this as an established fact. How-
ever that may be, we have therefore a —

1. Trona (teroona),

2. Mora trona,

3. Trona-tta (trowutta).

If my interpretation be correct, the rock or the
mineral from which the implements are manufactured
was called

Trona ( = teroona = trowa),
and a special kind of tihis rock, the fine-grained, dark
blue, or black variety, was called " mora trona."

The implements manufactured from this " trona "
were called

trona-tta =trowa-tta, and, if my interpretation is
correct, the suffix " tta " or " ta " means " made from "
or " manufactured from."

There still remains the word
Mungara,
as used by the Southern tribes. For the present I am
unable to offer an explanation for this word, which, for
all we know, may be only a corrupted mora trona.

So far everything seems plain enough, but Ling
Roth publishes a vocabulary compiled by the Rev.
Norman, in which neither the word " flint " nor " knife "
is mentioned. But under the heading " stone " the fol-
lowing words are enumerated : —

1. Teewartear.

2. Larnar.

3. Peurar.

4. Noeenar.

64 ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

It is a peculiarity of this vocabulary that almost all
the words end either "er" or " ar," and that, though
the spelling is very curious, the first word is no other
than the word " trowutta," of Scott and Milligan. We
have therefore the well-known word for stone imple-
ment : but, besides this, three new words, of wfhich it is
impossible to say whether they may mean different
types of implements or different varieties of rocks.

Now, if we refer to Ling Roth's second vocabulary,
Appendix B, we find under the heading " a stone " the
following words : —

1. Loine (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and Brain).

2. Lenn-parena (Gaimard).

3. Peoora (Scott).

4. Nannee (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and Brain).

5. Nami (M'Geary).

6. Loine (Peron).

7. Lennicarpeny (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and

Brain).

8. Longa (dO).

That is to say, quite a number of words, among
which we can only identify " peoora " with Norman's
ik peurar." As it is, however, certain that " loine " and
" loine," as well as " nami " and " nannee," and " lenn-
parena " and " lenni-carpeny " are identical, the above
list is reduced to four new words, and we would there-
fore have, including Normans three new words, seven
words for " a " stone.

A reference to Milligan's vocabulary proves, how-
ever, that this list is less formidable than it appears.
Under the heading " stone " he gives the following
words : —

Tribes about Mount Royal, Bruni Island, Recherc'he
Bay, and the South of Tasmania — North-West and
Western Tribes.

Loinah, Louna, or Loine, Noanyale.

Tribes from Oyster Bay to Pittwater.
Loantennina.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 65

This proves that the words

Loinah, loine, loine, louna, longa,

and probably also larnar, are identical, and simply meant
a stone of any kind in the dialect of the Southern tribes.

Further, it may be taken as pretty certain that the
words

Loan-tennina,
Lenn-parenna,
Leni-carpeny,

are identical, and that these words meant " a stone " in
the dialect of the Eastern tribes. xThe relationship be-
tween this word and the word " loina " is unquestion-
able, inasmuch as " loan," " lenn," " leni " represent
probably the same word. Could we prove that in the
dialect of the North-West and Western tribes the " 1 "
is turned into " n," the word " noanyale " would more
correctly spell " loanyale," and therefore contain the
same root, " loan " or " loina," as the other words.

We have therefore ten words, viz. : —

1. Loine.

2. Loine.

3. Loinah.

4. Louna.

5. Longa.

6. Larnar.

7. Loan-tennina.

8. Lenn-parenna.

9. Leni-carpeny.

10. Loan (noan)-yale.

There can be no doubt that tftre first six words are
identical, and simply mean a stone (of any kind). It is
difficult to say whether the last four words have the
same general meaning as " loinah." To me it seems
more probable that they represent certain kinds of rocks.
We know that the Aborigines called freestone " ponin-
galee." The iron glance from which they made the red
ochre was called " latta-winne," and the red ochre was
" lalla-winne." These composite words seem to prove
that the four words above-mentioned represent certain
kinds of rocks, and this view is generally strengthened

66 ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMI'I.KMHXTS.

by the fact that in the word for freestone the last word,
"galee," is tfhe same as that in l(n)oan-yale. The most
conspicuous rock of Tasmania, even more so than the
freestone, is the Diabas, and, if there existed a word for
freestone, it is more than probable that there was also
a word for Diabas, and that one of these four words
stands for Diabas. Next to the Diabas comes the mud-
stone, and for the Eastern tribes the granite. If free-
stone was " ponin-galee," is it too raslh to assume that
the closely-connected mudstone was " l(n)oan-galee
(yale) " ? The other words stand either for Diabas or
for Diabas and granite.

There remain, therefore, three words —

i. Peurar = peoora,

2. Nannee = nami,

3. Noeena(r).

If we consider the very different spelling of Nor-
man's words, I only need to refer to a comparison of
the words teewTartear (Xorman) and trawutta (Milligan
and others). It is not very improbable that the word
" noeena(r)" really means " loina," and, if we further
consider what has above been said about the change of
the letter " 1 " into an " n," the words " nannee " and
" nami " originally spelt " lannee " and " lami." These
last two words have therefore most probably to be in-
cluded under the above list, meaning nothing else but
" a stone."

We have therefore arrived at a probable very accu-
rate view as to the meaning of all these words except
the word

Peurar=peoora.

Mr. Ritz has kindly told me that in his opinion this
word should represent something spherical. In many
languages, as Mr. Ritz tells me, the " bll " or " pll "
means something round or spherical (1). There is no
doubt that the word " peura " can be pronounced in
such a way as to closely resemble the primitive root,
and I think that Mr. Ritz's suggestion is probably cor-
rect. We can practically divide the whole group of Tas-
manian implements into two classes — the chipped tron-
attas and the spherical pebbles — represented by the

(1) For instance the word " ball."

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D , ETC. 67

sacred stones. It is not only probable, but pretty cer-
tain, that the water-worn, rounded-off pebbles, which
were turned into sacred stones, were distinguished by a
different word from the ordinary tronatta, and Mr.
Ritz's hypothesis comes probably very near the truth.

The result of these somewhat lengthy considerations
may be condensed as follows : —

The words

1. Lome, loine, loinah, louna, longa, larnar,

noeenar mean a stone (of any kind).

2. Loan-tennina, lenn-parenna, leni-carpeny,

noan-yale probably represent special kinds
of rocks, such as granite or Diabas.

3. Peurar, peora probably means a pebble, per-

haps a sacred stone.

4. Trona, teroona is the word for the rock from

which an implement is made.

5. Mora trona means a peculiar variety of trona,

distinguished by a bluis'h black colour and a
fine conchoidal fracture.

6. Tronatta, trowutta, trawootta, teewartear is

the name for the implements which were
manufactured from trona or mora trona.

7. Mungara, meaning unknown ; perhaps cor-

rupted from mora trona.

The main and most important result of this investi-
gation is the establishment of the fact that the Tas-
manian language knew per'haps two, but most probably
only one, word for the implements which were produced
by working certain classes of siliceous rocks.

I particularly wish to point out that the fact is fully
corroborated by the results of the morphological exami-
nation of the tronattas. These examinations proved
that the tronatta is a kind of universal implement whidh
was indiscriminately used for chopping, cutting, scrap-
ing, boring, and hammering. The Aborigines did not
manufacture an implement which, for instance, solely
and exclusively served the purposes of a knife, or a
chopper, or a scraper. Any suitable fragment of rock
could be used for any of these actions above-mentioned,
and we must take it as granted that the Aborigines
never manufactured special implements to serve special
purposes only.

&

ON DR. NOETLING'S CONCLUSIONS.

OX DR. XOETLIXG'S COXCLUSIOXS RESPECT-
IXG THE ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIOXS
FOR STOXE IMPLEMENTS.

By Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

(Read October 12th, 1908.)

Dr. Xoetling's conclusions are that —

(a) There were two classes of stone utensils — one-
consisting of round, water-worn stones, called
pe-ura, and used for religious ceremonies ; the
other of c'hipped, sharpened stones, called by
various names, and used for cutting;

(b) The Aborigines had perhaps two words, but
probably only one, for siliceous implements ;

(c) The Aborigines did not manufacture special
implements for special purposes.

The arguments he adduces from the aboriginal
vocabulary are so cogent that his conclusions are almost
inevitable. It seems to me that only some of the details
are arguable, and I shall confine myself to these.

When we investigate the language of the Aborigines
we meet at the outset with serious difficulties. In the
first place, the records are very meagre, and then, even
these were made by men who had no special training in
philology. Still, a careful collation of the vocabularies
will enable us to arrive at a greater amount of positive
knowledge than would at first be suspected.

Subject to correction, I would conclude from my in-
vestigation that —

(a) The number of words in the aboriginal
vocabulary is very small — much smaller than
the lists drawn up by Calder, Milligan, Ling
Roth, and others would lead one to expect ;

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 69

(b) Many words, apparently different, are really
identical ;

(c) The apparent differences are due to a faculty
the Tasmanians seem to have had, in common
with the South Sea Islanders — namely, that of
interchanging tJhe members of certain sound
groups, for instance, the liquids " 1," " m," " n,"
" r ;" and, again, the dentals " t " and " n " and
" 1."

(d) The vowels seem to have been particularly sub-
ject to variation. Of course, this phenomenon
is, like the one just mentioned, also found in
the Indo-European languages.

These points are illustrated by the evidence adduced
by Dr. Noetling, and we may now proceed to the discus-
sion of his paper.

He states that the aboriginal vocabulary contains
no word for knife, axe, saw, bow, arrow, spear-head.
I could not find any of these myself, for the word for
spear-point — poyeena, poyeenta — bears a remarkable
likeness to the English " point " — perhaps, in the former
case especially, assimilated to " pe-na," an aboriginal
word, to which we shall refer again.

Still, there are words for " gun " or " musket " —
" le rina," " le langta," " pawleena " (pawl-lina) ; but
these, when dissected, mean simply " swift weapon,"
" long or far-reaching weapon," " round or powerful
weapon." Indeed, it is these very words that gave me
what I think is the clue that will enable us to find a
way out of the apparent confusion of the aboriginal
vocabulary.

Next, Dr. Noetling discusses the word " trowatta,"
which denotes a chipped implement. It consists of two
parts — "tro " and " atta." He offers the conjecture t'hat
" tta " is analogous to the " t " in ama-t-us (Lat.), ly-t-os
(Gr.), gelieb-t (Ger.), love-d (Eng.), and denotes some-
thing finished or made. The abruptly-ending sound of
" t " would seem to support this view.

On the other hand, when we examine the vocabu-
lary, we find the " t " or " n " (with the Oceanic epi-
tfhetic vowel, in practically all the nouns. For instance,

JO ON I i LING S CONCLUSIONS.

we have liem-e-na and lim-ete (abscess), lie-ta and ne-na
(sharp), like a knife: thus. " atta " may be a mere noun-
suffix, though even then it might indicate a state of com-
pletion.

This leaves *' tro " to account for. Dr. Noetling con-
jectures it to mean rock or stone.

i agree with this, but would go further back — viz..
to "hard." as we have "tera-na," " teri-na " for bone,
" tra-mu-ta " a pebble, rolled quartz, where " urn " is
perhaps round, as in " ma-bea," to turn round (with
verbal suffix " bea "). " Teru-na," a cutting flint, and
" tro-na," flint, seem to be forms of the same word.
Thus " trow-atta " would mean a hard thing finished (by
chipping).

In " mora trona " (black flint) we have " mora," not
black, but heavy ; thus, the heavy, hard thing.

" Mungara " presents some difficulties. It might be
a compound of " muna " and " ga-ra." Now, " muna "
means wood, fog, therefore, perhaps, dense, solid, and
is very near to " mura " (heavy). " Ga-ra " may have
affinity with the second part of " ponin gale " (freestone),
" noan vale" (mudstone), where "ponin" may be con-
nected with " pona," white (cloud), while we find
" noan " to be the western equivalent of " loina " (stone),
or, rather, sharp instrument. " Gale " or " yale " may be
connected with " ya-na " (teeth), the natural knives.

We mentioned the cognates " lie-ta " and " ne-na "
as meaning " sharp cutting." The significant part is " li "
or " ne." This we find again in the following words for
"stone," mentioned by Dr. Noetling: — " Loi-ne,"
" le-nni," " na-nni," " noan gale," and we may
strengthen the conjecture of the identity of " li " and
" ni " by some analogous cases. We find the following
words for " woman " — " Iowa," " loa-le," " noa-lia,"
"nowa-lia;" for "bird," " lae-re-ne," " nia-rana," " nie-
ri-na ;" for " swift," " lung-a-na," " mung-a-na " (to fly
like a bird) ; " lang-a-na," " lag-a-na," " dog-na (foot) ;
" nung-a-na " (boat), for "running thing;" " lug-a-na '*
(river water) ; " nug-e-tena (rain, with double suffix to
indicate multitude of drops) ; " nug-a-ra " (drink).

BY HERMANN B. R1TZ, M.A. 71

We find " li " or " ni " also in the form " ri. We have
" li-e-na," " le-na," " re-na " (kangaroo) ; " re-na " (water
rat) : " re-ne " (to run) ; " li-a " (water) ; " li " (weapon).

All these meanings are comprised in swift or speedy.
An edged stone will be speedier in its work as a tool
than a blunt one, and the characteristic of a living
animal, a running stream, a boat, a foot, a bird, is
motion.

I agree with Dr. Noetling that " loan-tennina,"
" lenni-parenna," and " leni-carpeny " are words of the
same meaning. Analysing them, we find the first parts,
" loan," " lenni," and " leni," meaning " stone suitable
for sharpening." Stones seem to have 'had no meaning
and no name except in so far as they were found useful.
" Tennina " may be akin to " tenine " (a finger or toe-
nail), " something that scratches." " Parenna " seems to
be a form of " pe-re-na," where " pe " would mean
" pointed, sharp," as in " pe-na " (a lance or spear), and
" re " would be " cutting." " Carpenny " may be com-
posed of " kaw " (teeth), " pe " (sharp), and the suffix
" ny " or " ne."

The round stone, presumed to have been used for
religious ceremonies, was called " pe-ura." The explana-
tion of till is word is specially difficult, as we do not know
the exact pronunciation of it. If the " r " is harshly
trilled — as it evidently was when the recorders wrote
the same word as " prena " and " perina," " trona " and
" teruna " — it is quite possible that " peura " was but
another form of " palla " (round), as we find it in " pala "
(sun, star), "pala" (man), " pula-tula " (eye), "pul-
bena " (frog), perhaps a bull-frog, " poira " (round
shell). This presents a suggestive analogv with " ball,"
"bull-et," "bowl," "bill-et," "pill," "barrel," "pear,"
" berry," " apple," " malum."

Another conjecture is tliat "peura" is a form of
" pe-una," where " pe " would have the meaning of to
hurt from " pena " (spear), and " una " means fire. In
support of this we have " mungara puna " (scar), such
as would be caused by wounds inflicted during religious
ceremonies, and cauterised to preserve the marks, and
at the same time prevent mortification. Of conjectures
there is no end, out there is at any rate a beginning;

72 ON DR. NOETLING S CONCLUSIONS.

and in the dissection of the aboriniginal words and the
collation of their parts, a scientific process is begun
which may lead to more satisfactory results than are
attainable to-day. Conjectures there must be, for we
cannot seek unless we know what we hope to find.

In conclusion, I desire to lay stress on the fact that
the available records are in a very unsystematic form.
As a curious illustration, I would mention the transla-
tion of the first dhapter of Genesis, attributed to Mr.
Thos. Wilkinson. Ling Roth's book gives a very dif-
ferent rendering from that contained in the J. B. Walker
Memorial volume, although G. W. Walker's MS. Journal
is quoted ; and, again, even that quotation is different
from its counterpart in the Memorial volume.

Further, not only does Ling Roth mention some
records which have apparently disappeared — viz., those
of Wilkinson and Sterling — but it is quite probable that
other manuscripts exist which are of no other than
sentimental value to the present possessors, and would
no doubt be obtainable for transcription. If the Royal
Society were to make a public appeal for the gift or loan
of such records, some valuable material might be saved
from oblivion.

I would finally mention that I have heard that
t'here exist some phonographic records of the actual
aboriginal speech ; if these could be found, they would
be of the greatest value. As far as I am able to advance
the study of that speech I shall do my utmost, and feel
confident that the Royal Society will encourage my
efforts.

THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA. 73

AX INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE
ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

By Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.
(Read November 16, 1908.)

As far as I am aware, the work done hitherto with
regard to philological studies of the Tasmanian lan-
guage has not been extensive. Ling Rot'h gives in an
Appendix to his book on " The Aborigines of Tas-
mania " an apparently full bibliography of the subject.
Among the works mentioned there as dealing with the
Speech of the Aboriginals, we find the following: —

CALDER. — Language of the Aborigines of Tas-
mania.

JORGENSEN. — The Aboriginal Languages of Tas-
mania.

LATHAM.— Elements of Comparative Philology.

MILLIGAN. — Vocabulary of the Dialects of some
of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

MILLIGAN. — On the Dialects and Languages of
the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania, and on their
Manners and Customs.

MULLER. — Grundriss der Sprac'hwissenschaft.

J. B. WALKER. — Notes on the Aborigines of Tas-
mania, extracted from the manuscript Journals
of G. W. Walker.

There are, besides, vocabularies by Norman, Dove,
Braim, Cook, Gaimard, La Billardiere, McGeary, Peron,
Roberts, Scott.

74 THE ABORIGINAL Sl'Kl CII OF TASMANIA.

Ling Roth has evidently made use of all these
sources of information, and embodied the result of his
researches in his book; but though very valuable for its
suggestiveness, his work is not that of a trained philolo-
gist, and it will be necessary to verify and re-examine
his references.

In Appendix F, he states: — "As all the vocabularies
handed down to us are English-Tasmanian, and none
are Tasmanian-English, it was suggested to make a
compilation of one Tasmanian-English vocabulary from
all the vocabularies. The initiative is due to Mrs. E, B.
Tylor. In preparing this vocabulary, I have attempted
to simplify the spelling as follows, where I have felt that
I could safely do so without impairing the integrity of
the word."

Then followT the phonetic letters proposed to be em-
ployed. They are, as far as the vowels are concerned,
analogous to the Italian " u," " i," " e," " ia." " C
guttural " is to be written as " k." Xo other letters are
mentioned. Duplicated consonants are simplified, and
" th," " ch " are to be left unchanged, being doubtful.

When we examine this Tasmanian-English vocabu-
lary we observe that —

1. There are words in it not contained in the Eng-
lish-Tasmanian vocabularies given in the same book.
For instance, " abri," arm ; " arpu," yes. It would seem
that Ling Roth used other vocabularies as well, or else
did not give the whole of the vocabularies he names ; or
permitted misprints to remain. He quotes " alree " for
" arm," from Dove's list. How is a reader to know
whether "alree" or "abri" is a misprint? At all
events, this work will have to be done over again.

2. There are many words taken from the French
vocabularies, in which the French phonetic spelling is
retained, instead of being transliterated according to
Italian phonetics.

In Appendix C we find Milligan's vocabulary of
various tribes. This, apart from some printer's errors,
is almost, but not quite, identical with that quoted by
Calder in the Parliamentary Paper w/hich Sir Elliott
Lewis caused to be compiled in 1901. Here, again, veri-
fication is necessarv.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 75

A curious discrepancy exists in connection with por-
tions of the Book of Genesis, translated by Thos. Wil-
kinson at Flinders Island in 1833. One specimen of it
is given by Ling Roth in Appendix D ; another is in
the J. B. Walker Memorial Volume, and is evidently
an extract from Geo. W. Walker's Journal.

Now, we should expect transcripts of the same text
to be practically identical ; but these two specimens
differ essentially from each other.

In the first place, the spelling is quite different. A
few examples will suffice to s'how this : Walker gives
" pomleh " for " made ;" Ling Roth, " pomable."
Walker gives for " darkness " " lywerreh ;" Ling Roth,
" lewara." For " said," Walker gives " kany," Ling
Roth " carne."

Walker states that Thos. Wilkinson translated three
chapters of Genesis, and also composed a considerable
vocabulary of words. If the rest of the translation and
that vocabulary could be found, they would be most
serviceable for the study of the language.

In Appendix E, Ling Roth transcribes fairly accu-
rately the " Popular Song." from Walker's Journal, and
refers, for the purpose of comparison, to a version of
the same " song " by Milligan, in Appendix C, but over-
looks the version quoted by himself in Appendix D,
from Davies.

These three versions of the same song are very in-
teresting, and may prove very important.

To compare small things with great, we might
notice the curious analogy with the Rosetta stone, and
its inscription in three languages, which enabled Cham-
pollion and Young to find the key to the hieroglyphics
of Egypt ; and also with the trilingual rock inscriptions
at Behistan, which led Rawlinson to discover t'he secret
of reading the ancient languages of Persia, Babylon,
and Assyria.

Of course, our own task is not so difficult, nor is its
importance so great ; still, the trilingual record of the
same meaning should lead us to some definite result in
our quiet backwater of human life.

76 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Let us then compare the three versions of our song,
and see what conclusions we can deduce from them.
Omitting mere repetitions, as not pertinent to our pre-
sent purpose, we quote from Ling Rot'h : —

Milligan's version: — Pappela rayna 'ngonyna; toka
tnengha leah ; lugha mengha leah : nena taypa rayna
poonyna, nena nawra pewillah, pallah nawra pewillah ;
pellawah !

Davies' version: — Xe popila raina pogana ; thu me
gunnea ; thoga me gunnea ; naina thaipa raina pogana ;
iiara paara, poivella paara ; ballahoo ! Hoo !

G. W. Walker's version: — Poppyla-renung, onnyna ;
temingannya, lemingannya; taukummingannya ; nyna
tepe rena ponnyna : nyna nara pewilly para ; nara
pewilly pallawoo !

This version is slightly different in the Memorial
Volume : — Instead of temingannya we have lemin-
gannya. It is probable that temingannya is a misprint
for lemingannya, or vice versa.

On analogy with the rest of the song, it is more
likely that lemingannya shotiM be repeated than that
another word, however similar, should be used. Still,
temingannya will also give an appropriate sense ; and
we shall refer to it again in that light.

For convenience of reference, we shall denote Milli-
gan's version bv M., Davies' version bv D., and
Walker's by W.

Looking at the whole text, we at once notice that
practically all the words end in " a." " ah," " na," or
" ne." We may safely assume that these endings have
no essential meaning, whatever meaning they may have
had originally. We find t'he same phenomena in many
other languages. For instance, the ending "a" indi-
cates the feminine gender in all the languages of the
Indo-European family ; " s " is most commonly the sign
of the masculine gender, as we find it, e.g., in Aeneas,
dominus, eques, visus ; in " res," etc., the ■" s " is really
borrowed from the masculine nouns, and the word is
akin to mensa.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 77

In Icelandic, we have a still more striking instance
in the addition of the sound " r " to nouns and adjec-
tives ; in verbs this is softened to " a." We have, com-
paring the Icelandic words with their English equiva-
lents, kongr for king, hundr for hound, vikingr for
viking, grar for gray, langr for long, blindr for blind.

To get at the chief meaning of the words, therefore,
we must cut off these excrescences ; but this must be
done judiciously, for we may not know at first whether
in rayna, for example, fhe " n " belongs to the root or
to the ending.

Our merit in trilingual interpretation is very much
diminished by the fact that we possess already fairly
complete lists of the words used by the Aborigines. We
are not to expect in their case a vocabulary as copious
as that of a race far more remote from the " simple
life," and the words we have are, comparatively speak-
ing, quite numerous enough to supply all the needs of
communication that may have been felt by the primitive
minds of our predecessors. The word " predecessor ""
is singularly appropriate in this connection. It means
" One who has stepped down before," " One who has
pre-deceased," " One who has done before our time
what ourselves shall have to do before long — that is,
stepped down from the eminence of being the lord of
all he surveys."

Now, Milligan tells us that our song was sung in
praise of a great chief, one who has been high in power
and glory, and has stepped down and is now forgotten.
The very fact that this song was, as Walker tells us,
used by all the Aboriginal tribes, must have had a
melancholy interest for the temporary recipient of the
honour, if ever he realised that, after all, he was not the
very first in power and glory.

From these hints, we may conclude that the song
probably indicated the reasons for conferring special
honour on a man. Now, in their simple lives, there was
not much scope for the display of excellence ; their
needs were few, consisting almost exclusively of food
and protection against enemies ; and the best man would
be who was best able to procure plenty of food, and
security in the peaceful enjoyment of it. Their hero

THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

would be a man strong of body and swift of foot and
arm; and the song in his honour would lay stress on
these qualities, and express admiration for t'heir pos-
-> >r.

Resuming our scrutiny, we find in 1). the first word
" nc," which does not occur in M. and W. We know
that "iH'-na" means "sharp;" it also means "yon,"
and "no." and "that" (the probable meaning of the
ending "na"), and " lo !" or "pay attention!"

We may take all these meanings together in the idea
of " separate from me." The significant sound "n" is
formed by closing the mouth and parting the lips ; with
the " sharp " teeth pressing on the tongue, the outer
world is shut off from the speaker. As the joining of
the lips inwards forms " m," and refers to the speaker
as " me," so the exclusion implies the " not-me," the
" you," " that," " no," the object of our attention.

We may therefore take " ne " in D. to mean Lo !
The real beginning of the song is pappela, popila,
poppvla. Ling Roth gives us pawpela and papla as
" big," " large."

Here we notice first the reduplication of the " p,"
which indicates emphasis, as implying greater energy
in pronouncing the initial sound of the word. Ling
Roth gives several examples of this — e.g., kana, to talk ;
kakana, to talk loudly ; mura, heavy ; mumura, tree.

This leaves " pel " as the chief part, and in it we find
the echo of pill, ball, and the Tasmanian palla, " man "
and " sun," and peura, " round." To the Aboriginal
mind, muscular development or roundness was an indi-
tion of strength ; a lean man would not have the same
strength as a stout one. In confirmation of this, we
need only refer to the Japanese and Turkish wrestlers,
who are usually very corpulent.

Thus we get for popela the meaning " very strong."
We have not taken any notice of the vowels, and that
for two principal reasons. In the first place, vowels in
all languages are very subject to variation, and secondly,
the uncertainty of the accuracy of the phonetic repre-
sentation of the vowels given in our records makes it
unsafe to rely on it for an argument.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 79

The next word is given as rayna, raina, renting. In
W., it is almost certain that the letters have been
wrongly apportioned, for M. gives the following word
as 'ngonyna, which is confirmed by gunnea in D. ; so
that the second word in W. should be rene, and the
third, 'ngonnyna.

Thus we get in each case rene, which means
" speedy," " to run."

The third word in common is 'ngonyna in M.,
ngonnyna in W., and three words farther on D. gives
us gunnea. These are evidently identical with ngune,
" fire." We note that the D. version gives words of
simpler and more guttural sound than those of M. and
W., so that it is quite in accord with the general cha-
racter of the D. version to have gunnea as equivalent
of ngonyna. D. alone gives here pogana, " man." We
shall find other words for " man " farther on, in the
three versions.

Next we have —

In M., toka mengha leah, lugha mengha leah.

In D., thu, me gunnea, thoga me gunnea.

In W., lemingannya or temingannya, taukummin-
gannya.

To begin with, we must split up the long words in
W. We get le mi 'ngannya or te mi 'ngannya, tauku
mi ngannya.

Xow, toka means " heel," and lugha, " foot."

We recognise toka again in thoga in D., in tauku in
W., and in the shortened form thu in D. ; while lugha
appears in the short form of le in W., and toka in the
same version as te, as alternative. Thus it is possible that
both lemingannya and temingannya are right ; at all
events, the analogy between lugha, le, and toka, te is
striking.

The word lia means " speedy " (like a spear).

There remain the words mengha, me, mi. In me,
mi, we see the short forms of mena, meaning " I,"
'"me," or "my;" but mengha requires further conside-
ration. It occurs in M., and, when we turn to Milligan's

80 Till ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Phrases in Ling Roth, we find the explanation. There
v,c get, in the first ten lines, the following words for
"give": — tyenna, teang, teeany. From this we may
deduce several conjectures.

It Milligan got those phrases from the same indi-
vidual, the- words were liable to variation at will, within
certain limits. It he got them from individuals of the
same tribe, there was the same liberty of variation given
to each speaker. As Milligan published his work in
1858, he got his information perhaps at second hand, or
else from the Aboriginals after their banishment from
the mainland. In the latter case, tien, tian, and tiang
might represent different dialects.

The variation of tian and tiang is of a type very
common in various languages. A man of Flanders is
in French called Flamand, and in the marshes of
England, Fleming. An English chamberlain becomes in
France a chambellan, and at the Vatican a camerlengo ;
while the Latin minus is in elegant Italian meno, and
in the popular speech, mingo.

The next verse of the song is : —
In M., nena taypa rayna poonyna ;
In D., naina t'haipa raina pogana ;
In W., nyna tepe rena ponnyna.

Ni-na is common to the three versions, though in
D. it appears as nena. Ni means thou or you, and the
different vowel in D. suggests that the dialect of D.
bears to t'hat of M. and W. — for these seem to be prac-
tically the same, except in the phonetic rendering — a
relation analogous to that between Doric and Ionic
Greek, or between North Britain and South Britain
English.

Taypa, thaipa and tepe are evidently the same word,
meaning " come," or, rather " here." Ta means " stop,"
and is an echo of the " thud " heard when one thing
strikes against another. In pa or pe we recognise the
word of denoting " activity ;" pe-na means " spear," the
symbol of effective activity, and the syllable be or pe
is characteristic of verbs — i.e., words of activitv.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 8l

Rayna, raina, rene we know already.

Pogana, in D., we know to mean " man."

Poonyna or ponnyna means " bird," literally active,
-.peedv, as ni, like li and ri, means " moving."

The next line is —

In M., nena nawra pewillah, pallah nawra pewillah,
pellawah.

In D., nara para poivella para ; ballahoo ! Hoo !

In W., nyna nara pewilly para; nara pewilly, palla-
woo.

Xena, nyna, we know. Nawra, nara means " he,"
" that one," " the man."

Pewillah, poivella, pewilly, are evidently forms of
the same word, and are connected in meaning, if not in
derivation, with pallah, para, pellawah, pallawoo, balla-
hoo ; all mean " man."

Ling Roth misprints poivella for powella.

Pe means " active ;" wila means " wood," therefore
"hard," "tough," "strong;" so that pewila would de-
note one who was active and capable of resistance, and
therefore " a man in his strength." Palla is either, as
we have noted before, " round," and therefore " strong,"
or it is an abbreviation of pewilla — unless, indeed, the
latter is an enlargement of palla, by the insertion of the
syllable we, which is akin to pe and be, and means
" active," and may therefore be used to indicate em-
phasis. We find such " infixes " frequently in other
languages, from " induperator " for " imperator " in
Lucretius, to the very modern " In the Sweet (in the
sweet) By-and-by."

Thus pallawoo would be just a variant of pawila,
with the additional emphasis of the final " hoot," which
is repeated in D. as Hoo !

The only remaining word is para, and this is in all
probability a variant of palla ; the interchange- of liquid
consonants, "1" and " r," " m " and "n" is a very
common phenomena everywhere. For instance, many
Chinese will pronounce ring as ling.

82 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Thus we have accounted for every word of the song
— truly. I hope, plausibly at all events.

We have yet to establish the meaning of the groups
— that is, we have to explain the sentences.

The key to this meaning is contained in the
" Phrases " quoted by Ling Roth from Milligan and
others.

In these phrases, we observe that there is no sign
of any accidence. The words seem invariable in form
and widely applicable in meaning, as we have already
seen. The order of the words, supplemented, probably,
by gestures, would define the exact meaning.

In this respect, we find an interesting parallel in the
syntax of the Chinese language. We cannot now enter
into this subject, except so far as to give a few speci-
mens.

Take the sentence, " I will not give you any water."

Milligan gives for this : — Noia meahteeang meena
neeto linah ; literally, " Not me give you stop water."
In the Chinese Mandarin speech, the sentence would
be: — Xgo moo ki, ki gni shoey ; literally, " Ale not give
give you water."

In Milligan, the group meahteeang meena is inte-
resting; it is, taking the roots only, mi tien mi, and
seems analogous with " he gives," where " he " and the
final " s " in " gives " have the same meaning. The
Indirect Object is expressed in different ways. In Tas-
rnanian we say " you stop," that is, " my giving stops
at you." In Chinese, we use the word " give " itself as
the index of the object to whom any action applies. " I
sing to you " would be rendered " me sing, give you "
(the benefit).

We may now proceed with our own English version
of the song in its three forms : —

M. is literally, — mighty, run, fire, heel, my, speedy,
foot, my, speedy, thou, come, run, bird, thou, very, great
man, man, very, great man, hero !

In plain English, " With might runs the bush fire ;
my heel, too, is speedy, and my foot is swift. Come
thou, and run with the speed of a bird ! Thou art a real
warrior, a man indeed, a warrior, a hero !"

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 83

D. would be, in plain language, " Lo ! with might
runs the man ; my heel is swift like fire, my heel indeed
is swift like fire. Come thou and run like a man ; a very
man, a great man, a man who is a hero ! Hurrah !"

W. is in meaning a combination of M. and D., thus:
— " With might runs the fire ; my heel is like fire, my
foot is like fire ; come thou, run like a bird ; thou art
indeed a great man ; a man indeed, a great man, a hero !
Hurrah I"

Milligan says that these verses were sung as an ac-
companiment to a native dance, in honour of a great
chief.

This explanation was very helpful in my search after
the meaning of the song. The rhythm is clearly
marked, and the repetitions are very suggestive.

Walker says that this song was popular among all
the Aboriginal tribes, but that he had not obtained its
meaning, as it was by them involved in some mystery.

The fact that the song exists in different dialects
makes it most valuable to us. It is quite probable that
this song was connected with some important triSal
ceremonies, and would not be willingly explained to

May it not rather have been the " Popela Song,"
" The Song of the Mighty One," than a " Popular
Song "?

Davies says, " I cannot translate it, nor, could I do
so, is the subject very select?"

This presents a charming specimen of sly humour.
See how neatly he escapes any inquiry as to the mean-
ing of the song, by suggesting t'hat it would not be quite
proper to speak of such things in polite society !

We, at all events, have avoided any impropriety in
our rendering, and seem to have reconstructed one
scene of the lite of Old Tasmania ; in imagination
chiefly, and with a due sense of the defectiveness of our
knowledge ; but still, in the hope that we 'have found
the way that will, in time and after arduous and sympa-
thetic efforts, enable us to hear once more " The sound
of a voice that is still."

REPORT

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1908.

Inbart.

Printed at " The Examiner" Office, Patterson Street, Launceston.

1909.

86

REPORT.

The Council of the Royal Society have the honour to present their
Report for 1908 to the Annual General Meeting of the Society.

Nine Monthly General* Meetings and one Special General Meeting
were held during the year. Eleven Ordinary Meetings and four Special
Meetings of the Council were held during the same period.

Twenty-seven Fellows and three Associates were elected, and
fifteen Fellows allowed their membership to lapse during the same
period, and the deaths of three Fellows were recorded.

Three vacancies in the Council occurred through the retirement of
Mr. A. G. Webster. Colonel Legge. and the Right Rev. Dr. Mercer
(Bishop of Tasmania), and were respectively filled by the election of
Dr. Noetling, Mr. E. L. Piesse, and Mr. A. D. Watchorn.

On the retirement of Mr. Webster, who had been a member of the
Council for thirty-nine years, and Chairman of the Council for some
years past, the Council expressed their appreciation of the services
rendered by him during his long connection with the Society.

At a Special General Meeting on November 25, 1908, an amendment
of Rule 16 was adopted, to the effect that the annual subscription should
be reduced to £1 in the case of Fellows resident more than fifteen
miles from Hobart.

The following papers were read during the Session of 1908: —

Notes on a Chipped Boulder from near Kempton, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

On State Borrowing and Sinking Funds for the Redemption of
State Debts regarded from an Economical Point of View, by R. M.
Johnston, F.L.S., I.S.O.

87

On a Recent Visit to the River Gordon, illustrated by lantern slides,
with remarks on the need of reservation of land along the banks of
the River, by J. W. Beattie.

On the Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross, by Fritz Noetling,
M.A., Ph.D.

On a Native Burial Ground at Charlton, near Ross, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna, by W. L. May.

The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

On the conclusions of Dr. Noetling respecting the Aboriginal
Designations of Stone Implements, by Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

An Introduction to the Study of the Aboriginal Speech of Tas-
mania, by Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

Considerable time and attention were given by the Council to the
questions of the printing of the Society's Papers and Proceedings, and
of the avoidance of the long delays that have occurred for some years
past in the publication of authors' papers. The negotiations were
finally concluded for the necessary printing, and authors' copies of all
papers read before the Society have now been published and distributed.

The Society is under obligations to a Committee of Fellows, who
investigated the contents of the Library, and set apart a number of
duplicates and miscellaneous publications unconnected with the objects
of the Royal Society, so that they should be available for exchange or
sale.

A Balance-sheet, duly audited, showing the receipts and expenditure
for 1908, is appended.

88

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go

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual General fleeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania
was held in the Society's rooms. Museum, on Friday. 5th March. 1909.
in the absence of the President (His Excellency the Governor, Sir
Gerald' Strickland), .Mr. Bernard Shaw, on the motion of Mr. T.
Stephens, seconded by Dr. Butler, was voted to the chair. A fair
number of Fellows were present.

RE-ELECTION OF RETIRING MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

There being no other nominations, the retiring members of the
Council for the year. Dr. Elkington and Dr. Butler, and Messrs. E. L.
Piesse and A. D. Watchorn, were re-elected.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

The following gentlemen were elected as Fellows of the Society: —
Messrs. T. M. Donovan, L.R.C.S., J. D. Miller, H. M. Sich, and W. E.
Shoobridge.

ANNUAL REPORT.

The Annual Report for 1908 was read by the Secretary to the
Council.

The Chairman, in moving the adoption of the Report and Balance-
sheet, said, in reference to the Committee of Fellows who had investi-
gated the Society's library, that their work had been carried out in a
most thorough manner, and the proceeds derived from the sale of books
would go towards the purchase of new works.

In seconding the motion. Mr. T. Stephens said that the members
of the Council who had drafted the Annual Report had been unable to
gain any information about the Honorary and Corresponding Members
of the Society at the present time. The latest particulars that they had
been able to discover were in the Annual Report for 1891. It ap-
peared from the records that at the Annual Meeting of 1902 it was
resolved that the list of Fellows and Members should be annually pub-
lished, in accordance with the original practice, but no trace of such
publication has yet been discovered. In reference to the balance-sheet,
which had been compiled with great care by their Honorary Treasurer,
Air. Shaw, he (Mr. Stephens) might say that, if there should be a mode-
rate increase in the number of Fellows, and nothing extravagant was
done in the way of printing, there was a fair prospect of the possibility
of making a general reduction in the amount of the annual subscription
at the end of the current year.

The motion was put to the vote and carried.

9i

REPORTS OF SECTIONS.

The Report of the Medical Section was received, and read. It dealt
with the progress of the medical branch during the year, and stated
that its establishment had gone a long way towards creating a feeling
of harmony in the medical ranks. Its popularity was evinced by the
ever-increasing membership. Several new works had been added to the
library, bringing it up to a most efficient stage. The ordinary meetings
had all been well attended, and the members one and all evinced great
interest in the Society.

On the motion of Mr. Stephens, it was resolved, " That the usual
grant of £12 to the Medical Section of the Society for the purchase of
medical works be continued for the current year."

APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR.

Mr. Echlin was re-appointed Auditor, and the meeting closed.

92

LIST OF FELLOWS AND ASSOCIATES

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

* Fellows who have contributed Papers read before the Society

t Life Members.

The Addresses of Members residing in Hobart are omitted.

FELLOWS:

AGNEW, L. E.. MRS.

ALLYYORK. F.. L.S.A.. New Norfolk.

ARCHER. WM. HEXRY DAVIES. Longford.

ANDERSON. G. M.. M.B., CM.. Franklin.

ARMSTRONG. HUGH. F.R.C.S.

ASH. PERCY.

ATKINS. W. A.

tBARING. REV. F. H.. Orford.
tBAKER. HENRY D.

BARCLAY. DAVID.
*BEATTIE. J. W.

BENNETT. WM. HENRY. Ross.

BIDENCOPE. JOSEPH.

BRAIN. REV. ALFRED. M.A.

BROWNELL. F. LESLIE. New Town.

BURGESS. HON. WM. HENRY.

BUTLER. ARTHUR. Lower Sandy Bay.

BUTLER. FRANCIS.

BUTLER. HON. GAMALIEL HENRY, M.R.C.S.. M.L.C.

BENNISON. THOMAS.

CAMPBELL. R. D.. M.B.
*CLARKE. ARTHUR H.. M.R.C.S.
CLARKE. REV. GEORGE. Moonah.
COUNSEL. EDWARD ALBERT.
CROSBY. HON. WILLIAM, M.L.C.
CROUCH. ERNEST J.. M.R.C.S.

CRUICKSHANK. JAMES H.. LT.-COL. R.E., Glenorchy.
CROWTHER. EDWARD L., M.D.

93

DA VIES, HON. JOHN GEORGE, M.H.A.. New Town.
DAVIES, HON. CHARLES ELLIS, M.L.C.
DECHAINEAUX, L.

De HOGHTON, CAPT. THOMAS. R.N., Pontville.
DELANY, HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP.
DOBBIE, EDWARD D.. Sandy Bay.
*DOBSON, HON. HENRY.

*ELKINGTON. JOHN S. C. M.D.
ERNST-CARROLL. F. J., M.Sc, Neuchatel, Switzerland
EVANS, L. A.

EVANS, THOMAS MAY, New Town.
KWING, HON. NORMAN K.

tFOSTER. HENRY D.
tFOSTER, JOHN D.
FINLAY, W. A.

tGRANT, C. W.

GIBLIN, LYNDHURST. M.A.

GIBLIN, W. W.

GOULD, ROBERT, Longford.
*GREEN, A. O., Bellerive.

GOULD, H. T.

HARRISON, E. J., Bellerive.

HARRISON, MALCOLM.

HARVEY. WALTER A., M.R.C.S.. M.B.

HEYER, REV. J.. M.A.

HOGG, G. H., M.D., Launceston.

HORNE, WILLIAM.

IRELAND, E. W. J.. M.B, CM.

*JOHNSON, J. A.. M.A.

*JOHNSTON, ROBERT M, F.L.S., I.S.O.

KERR. GEORGE.
*KINGSMILL. HENRY C, M.A.
KNIGHT, H. W.. Sandy Bay.

*LEGGE. VINCENT W., COL.. R.A.. Ctillenswood.
LEWIS, MAJOR R. C.
LEWIS, HON. NEIL ELLIOTT. D.C.L.. M.A.. K.C.M.G.

New Town.
LINES. D. H. E.. M.B.
LODDER. MISS M, St. Helen's.
LORD, F. W.

LOVIBOND, REV. H. J., M.A.
LOVE. JOSEPH, M.B.

MASON, M.

tMITCHELL. J. G.. Jericho.
*MAY. W. L, Sandford.

MILLER. LINDSAY S, M.B.. Ch.B.
*MOORE. GEORGE BRETTINGHAM. C.E.
tM-CLYMONT. J.. Queenborough.
*McAULAY. PROFESSOR ALEXANDER, M.A.

McELROY, J. L.

94

MACFARLANE, HON. IAMKS. New Town.
MACGOWAN, E. T., M.B., B.S.
*MACLE< >l). P. )., B.A.

NICH< >LAS, GEORGE C, Ouse.
•NOETLING, FRITZ, M.A.. Ph.D.. Sandy Bay.
NICHOLAS, W. MINCHIN.

OLDHAM, E.

PARKER, A. C, New Town.

PARSONS, MISS S. R.
*PIESSE. K. L.. U.Sc. LL.B., New Town.

PRATT, COURTNEY.

PROPSTIXG, HON. WM. BISPHAM, New Town.
*PETTERD. W. F., C.M.Z.S., Launceston.

RADCLIFF, HAMILTON.

REID, A. R.
*RITZ. H. B.. M.A.

ROBERTS, HENRY LLEWELLYN.
•RODWAY, LEONARD, Sandy Bay.

tSPROTT. GREGORY. M.D.
tSTICHT, ROBERT, Queenstown.

SCOTT, H. H., Launceston.

SCOTT, ROBERT G., M.B., CM.

SHAW. BERNARD, I.S.O., Sanely Bay.

SHOOBRIDGE. REV. CANON GEORGE.
*SIMSON, AUGUSTUS, Launceston.
*STEPHENS. THOMAS, M.A.. F.G.S.
^SPENCER. H. J.

SEAL, LEONARD P.

TARLETON, JOHN W., Sandy Bay.
*TAYLOR, A. J.

*T\YELVETREES, W. H., F.G.S.. Launceston.
♦THOMPSON, REV. EDWARD H.

WALCH. CHARLES.

WATCHORN, ARTHUR DENISON.

WEBSTER. ALEXANDER GEORGE.

WEBSTER. C. ERNEST, Sandy Bay.

WEBSTER, GEORGE A., M.B., M.R.C.S.
*WEYMOUTH, W.
*WrHITE, O. E.

WHYTE, JAMES WILKINSON, New Town.

WINTER, ALFRED.

WISE, H. J.

WOLFHAGEN, J. EDGAR. M.B.. CM.

WOLFHAGEN, WALDEMAR, New Town.

YOUNG, RUSSELL, New Town.

ASSOCIATES:
BLACK, R. A.
OSBORNE. JOHN, Junior.

Papers and Proceedings

op Tin-;

ROYAL SOCIETY

1 OF

TASMANIA

FOR THK YEAR

1908.

Printed at "The Examiner " and "Weekly Courier" Offices,
73-75 Patterson Street, Launceston.

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