a

I

•-,: .',v •,/•<:.'.•:•; ... ,

V' .'<:'••;''.•(.''. I. !J -•'',•:

"

! V t ',»',

» l« .<• I 1*1

llilli

!', :,«>' VtVv/

F5

^.
1 <T

^T
«"<r

^pr^

< c.

*

*

<^«C

CfCT

a r-

<

e «

c

«^E: - co

'•C

<<

rr <

CC

C

<c<

'

c7 trc' <r

:<LvC c

.

<

CO

« «<C5^

C^goc
<r<r

^ >

•

<c

<r

^

lea

1

c<r c

c

<

-<<cc

<

•

cr

ora

cor

cc

<z

((

_ crc:

^<^

S2=.^lc

M

g

;

*$^r>^ <C

__

^
^,

'4 — 7-

vC

Presented to the Faculty oj Forestry

LIBRARY

Arthur J. Herridge

1988

.A.D..

PAPEKS AND REPORTS

UPON

FORESTRY, FOREST SCHOOLS,

FOREST ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

IN

EUROPE, AMERICA, AND THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS,

AND OPON

FORESTS AS PUBLIC PARKS AND SANITARY RESORTS

COLLECTED BY

MR. A. KIRKWOOD,

(Chief Officer of the Lands Branch of the Department of Crown Lands) 'under the direction

of the Commissioner of Crown Lands,

TO ACCOMPANY THE REPORT OF THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON FOREST RESERVA

VATION AND NATIONAL PARK.

PRINTED B7 ORDER OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

fcftCULTY OF FORESTRY
UIWVEHS3TY OF

APR 51989

TORONTO :

PRINTED BY WARWICK & SONS, 68 & 70 FRONT STREET WEST

1893.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE. .

Introduction 5

The Utility of Forests 7

Capital Employed

Precipitations or Rainfall 9

Evaporation 9

Mechanical Effect of Forests 11

Hygienic Effects of Forests , 12

Deforestation in Russia . . -• = 14

A Plea for Planting : 16

Trees for Shelter 17

Forestry Bye-products 18

Geographical Distribution of Forest trees of Canada 26

Levels of the Ottawa, Mattawa, Lake Nipissing, etc 29

Forest Protection and Tree Culture on Water Frontages 34

Systematic Management of Forests 39

Forestry in the Colonies and India 47

Notes on Forest Management in Germany 62

Forest Destruction, its Causes and Results 79

United States Consular Reports on European Forestry 91

Forestry in France 113

Timber Resources and Timber Trade of Canada 154

Recent and Existing Timber Regulations in Canada .- 191

Ontario Fire Act and Fire-ranging System 206

Rocky Mountains Park of Canada 212

The Adirondacks and Adirondack Park, etc 220

The Yellowstone National Park 249

California Public Park 253

Ancient Forest Laws 254

Forest Lands of the United States . . . 262

INTRODUCTION.

" A great State was a desert, and the land
Lay bare and lifeless under sun and storm,
Treeless and shelterless. Spring came and went,
And came, but brought no joy ; but, in its stead,
The desolation of the ravening floods,
That leaped like wolves or wild cats from the hills,
And spread destruction over fruitful farms ;
Devouring as they went the works of man,
And sweeping seaward Nature's kindly soils,
To choke the water-courses worse than waste.

" The forest trees, that in the olden time—
The people's glory, and the poet's pride-
Tempered the air and guarded well the earth,
And, under spreading boughs, for ages kept
Great reservoirs to hold the snow and rain,
From which the moisture thro' the teeming year,
Flowed equably but freely— all were gone.
Their precious bales exchanged for petty cash,
The cash that melted and had left no sign ;
The logger and the lumberman were dead ;
The axe had rusted out for lack of use ;
But all the endless evil they had done
Was manifested in the desert waste.

' ' Dead springs no longer sparkled in the sun ;
Lost and forgotten brooks no longer laughed,
Deserted mills mourned all their moveless wheel*
The snow no longer covered, as with wool,
Mountain and plain, but buried starving flocks
In Arctic drifts ; in rivers and canals
The vessels rotted idly in the mud,
Until the spring flood buried all their bones ;
Great cities that had thriven marv'lously,
Before their source of thrift was swept away,
Faded and perished, as a plant will die
With water banished from its roots and leaves ;
And men sat starving in their treeless waste,
Beside their treeless farms and empty marts,
And wondered at the ways of Providence ! "

THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.*

The effects of forests may be looked at from the point of view of the owner
or from that of the State. The owner considers, in the first place, the benefits
which he personally derives from his forests ; the State appreciates the effects
which they have upon the country and the nation as a whole.

The important direct effects of forests are due to the produce which they
yield, the capital which they represent and the work which they provide.

Wood is used as timber in construction, ship-building, machinery, agricul-
ture, for tools, furniture, etc., and as fuel for domestic and industrial firing. The
quantity of wood required in a country depends on various considerations. In
modern times iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replaced
timber, while coal, lignite and peat compete with firewood ; nevertheless, wood
is still indispensable and likely to remain so. The more general introduction of
substitutes for firewood has, however, drawn increased attention to the produc-
tion of timber in preference to firewood. For instance, of the total produce of
the Saxon State Forests, only 35 per cent, were classified for timber in 1850, but
the proportion has risen to 75 percent, in 1880. At the same time, new demands
for the consumption of wood have sprung up, such as the preparation of wood-
pulp for the manufacture of paper. It is estimated that the annual consumption
of wood in this industry in Germany alone amounts to upwards of 40,000,000
cubic feet.

FORESTS AS OBJECTS OF INDUSTRY.

The capital employed in forestry consists principally of the soil and the
growing stock of wood. When the working is of an intermittent nature, the
amount of capital fluctuates from time to time ; when the working is so arranged
that an equal annual return is secured, the capital remains of the same amount,
and consists of the soil plus the permanently present growing stock.

The soil is called the fixed, the growing stock the movable or shifting capi-
tal of forestry. The proportion of the one to the other depends chiefly on the
method of treatment. In forests treated as coppice woods the fixed may be
greater than the movable capital ; but in high forests where the object is to pro-
duce timber of some size, the shifting capital is generally of considerably greater
value than the soil. An example will illustrate this : — Assuming that an area of
one hundred acres is treated as a Scotch pine timber forest, under a rotation of
one hundred years, with the object of obtaining an annually equal return ; in that
case one acre must be stocked with one year old seedlings, another with two year's
old seedlings, another with three years' old trees, and so on to the last acre which
would be stocked with trees one hundred years old. Every year the oldest wood
one hundred years old is cut over and the area at once restocked. Immediately
after the cutting ninety -nine acres remain stocked with trees ranging in age from

* A Manual of Forestry : By William Schlich, Ph.D., Principal Professor of Forestry at the Royal
Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, England. Dr. Schlich spent upwards of twenty years in the
Forest Department of the Government of India, and succeeded Sir Dietrich Brandis as Inspector-General.
On his return from India he was appointed Professor of Forestry at Cooper's Hjll College.

,,,,,. N,.,,| i,, iiinrt v-nine years old, and this is called the normal growing stock.
Without the presence in the forest of this series of age gradations it would be
e fco ..l-i.-iin ;i regular annual yield of trees one hundred years old.

Tin- siil, in'med table gives the capital invested in a forest worked upon the
- ..I' a Mi-taim d annual yield. The data for the growing stock are taken
from tin- Yield TaMe- fnr the Scotch Pine, by M. Weise, converted into English
measures In Calculating the value of the growing stock it has been assumed
(I,:,- ts would not yield any money return, and that timber, including all

pieces of three indies diameter and upwards at the thin end, would yield two
p.Miee p.'i- cul.ic loot under a rotation of thirty years, gradually rising to five
p, IK', per ciiliic foot under a rotation of one hundred and twenty years. Soil
adapted for the growth of Scotch pines is generally light, and the value of such
land of the I. or best quality cannot, on an average, be estimated at more than
£-~> pel acre, while land of the III. or middling quality may be estimated at £12
per acre, and land of the V, or lowest quality at £4, though land of the latter
quality is not worth more than a few shillings per acre.

CAPITAL INVESTED IN FORESTRY — POUNDS STERLING PER ACRE.

Length of rotation
in years.

I. Quality best.

III. Quality middling.

V. Quality lowest.

•d
p

cS
A

be .

B.W

*§

gt?

o

la
«
EH

T3

cS
hJ

Growing
stock.

•a

-*a

1

-d
a

e9

t-3

SP .

S-*

•r o

P 0

o -^

h <n

O

3
S

30

£
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25

£
8
17
26
35
45
56
68
80
93
106

£
23
42
51
60
70
81
93
105
118
131

£
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12

£
2
7
12
17
22
28
35
42
50
58

£
14
19
24
29
34
40
47
54
62
70

£
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

£
1
3
5
8
11
15
20

£
5
7
9
12
16
19
24

40

50

60

70..

80

90

100. .

no....

120

(1). This table shows that the capital increases with the length of the rota-
tion.

(2). That the value of the growing stock is at first smaller than the value of
the land, equal to it under a rotation of from forty to fifty years, and greater
after that period.

(3). That the capital invested in timber forests is considerably greater than
that of the laud only.

9

PRECIPITATIONS OR RAINFALL.

The question whether, and in how far, forests affect the rainfall is one which
has been actively discussed for many years past, but so far no final decision has
been possible. That forests can affect precipitations follows from the facts that
forest air is relatively moister than air in the open and that the trees mechanical^
affect the movement of the air ; but, on the other hand, the rainfall depends
chiefly on other much more powerful agencies, in comparison with which the
effect of forests is small. Numerous comparative observations have been made,
but only a certain portion has so far been published and unfortunately those
which seem to indicate a decided effect of forests on the rainfall are not always
very reliable. The great difficulty in comparing the results of observations at
forest stations (that is to say stations situated inside a forest) with those of the
ordinary meteorological stations consists in the fact that elevation above the sea
affects the rainfall most powerfully because air cools on rising and precipitations
become more frequent with elevation.

Although further observations are necessary before a final conclusion can be
arrived at, the following data may prove interesting :—

In the Prussian system the forest stations have shown the subjoined increase
of rainfall over the average rainfall of the open country as taken from the
ordinary meteorological stations :

Excess of rainfall in forest station over that of open
country, in per cent, of the latter rainfall-

Between sea level and 328 feet elevation. . . . 1.25 per cent.

328 and 556 " 14.2

1,969 " 2,297 19.

2,297 " 2,625 43.

Although these figures may not represent the absolute facts of the case, they
seem to indicate that in the plains forests have very little effect upon the rain-
fall, if any at all, but that their influence becomes considerable with increasing
elevation in mountainous countries.

The results of seven years' observations made at two stations near Nancy
show a decided increase of rainfall in the forest. The stations are situated 1,247
feet above the sea, one in the middle of an extensive forest five miles to the west
of Nancy, the other in an almost woodless country six miles to the north-east of
Nancy.

The results were as follows :

Increase of rainfall in forest over that in the open in per
cent, of the latter-
February to April 7 per cent.

May to July 13

August to. October 23

November to January 21

Mean of year 16

EVAPORATION.

Owing to the lower temperature, the greater humidity of the air, and the
quieter state of the atmosphere, evaporation must be considerably smaller in

10

sH than in th.- open. This has been conclusively proved by direct observa-
• nfl Tho>,. uia.lr in I'avariii and Prussia show the following results :—

Stations.

nii.-mtity »f water evaporated from a free surface of
water, height in inches.

Less in forest ex-
pressed in per
cent, of the
total quantity
evaporated in the
open.

In the open.

In forest.

Lesa in forest.

23.53
13.16

8.61
5.98

-14.92

-7.18

-63

-55

1 iti

Mij;in

18.34

7.29

-11.05

-60

These data show that evaporation in the forest was only two-fifths of that
in the open country.

The effect of this action is that of the water which falls on the ground in a
forest a considerably larger proportion is secured to the soil than in the open.
That wntci is available to be taken up by the roots, while any balance goes to
th.' -round water and helps to feed springs. Of considerable importance in this-
ivspect is the covering of forest soil. Dr. Ebenmayer's observations on thia
point, extending over five years, show the following results : —

Water evaporated from soil in the open 100 parts.

Evaporation from forest soil, without leaf mould . . 47 "

with full layer of leaf
mould 22 "

In other words, forest soil without leaf mould evaporated less than half the
water in the open, while forest soil covered, with a good layer of humus evapo-
rated even less than one-fourth of that evaporated in the open.

The result of these peculiarities is that, at any rate up to a certain elevation,,
the foiv-t soil retains, after allowing for evaporation, more water than open soil,
although some 23 per cent, of the rainfall are intercepted by the crowns of the
trees In order to illustrate this the following table, taken from Dr. Weber's
calculations, is inserted, as it shows the balance of rainfall over evaporation
according to elevation ; it is based upon Prussian observations :

Altitude of stations
in feet.

Excess of rainfall over evaporation
in inches.

Percentage of rainfall which
evaporated.

4

In the open.

In forest.

In the open.

In forest.

0- 328

12.02
12.69
12.20
36.96
47.10
56.77

12.32
13.84
17.65
30.79
43.08
46.34

55
53
58
22
15
19

37
30
25
13
9
11

32S— 056

1)84—1,312

1,969—2,297

2,540

8,050 . .

11

This table shows that the balance of water retained by the soil increase ^
rapidly with altitude, and that the evaporation in mountain forests may be
reduced to about 10 per cent of the rainfall. If it be remembered that the
moisture is most effectually preserved in forests, it will easily be understood why
the mountain forests have from time immemorial been looked upon as the
preservers of moisture and feeders of springs. No doubt, a certain portion of the
water is again taken out of the ground by the roots of the trees and evaporated
through the leaves. The quantity thus consumed is not known at present, but it
cannot be more than 12 inches, the total quantity available in plain forests,
and probably it becomes less with elevation, so that a considerable balance
remains available in hill forests for the feeding of springs.

MECHANICAL EFFECT OF FORESTS.

The mechanical effect of forests makes itself chiefly felt in regard to the
distribution of the rain-water, the preservation of the soil on sloping ground, the
binding of moving sand, the prevention of avalanches, and the moderation of air
currents.

(a) Feeding of springs and rivers.

Most of the rain-water falling on a bare slope rushes down into the nearest
water course in a comparatively short time, thus causing a rapid rise in the level
of the stream. Only a comparatively small portion sinks into the ground, so as
to become available for the feeding of springs. Of the rain falling over a forest,
close on one-fourth is intercepted by the crowns of the trees, and the other three-
fourths fall upon a layer of humus, which possesses a great capacity to absorb
water and to retain it for a time. It has been shown, for instance, that mosses
of the species Hypnum, which grow under the shade of conifers, can absorb up to
five times their own weight of water, and peat mosses of the genus Sphagnum up
to seven times, while the leaf -mould to be found in a middle-aged well-preserved
beech wood can absorb and retain for a time a rainfall of five inches. Part of the
water thus absorbed penetrates into the ground and becomes available for the
feeding of springs, while the rest gradually finds its way into the nearest stream.
In this manner well-preserved forests must have a decided effect upon the
sustained feeding of springs, and the moderation of sudden floods in rivers.
When, however, the humus has been saturated with water and rain continues, the
effect of forests as regards inundations must cease, because the additional water
follows the laws of gravity, and finds its way into the valleys.

(6) Protection of the soil.

Water rushing down a bare slope possesses a great mechanical power, by
means of which it loosens the soil, and carries it down hill. In this way land-
slips are often caused, ravines are formed, and fertile land situated at the foot of
the ravine may be covered with silt and rendered valueless. Frequently the
debris collects in rivers and forms obstructions, which are followed by a diversion
of the bed and erosion of fertile lands. The rate at which this process proceeds
depends on the geological origin and the formation of the surface; the less binding
the soil and the looser the formation the greater will be the damage. If, on the
other hand, such a slope is covered with a well-preserved forest the roots of the

12

trees ainl tin- layers <>!' Immus keep together, and protect the soil against the
action of water, l>e>ides the crown intercepts and retains, at any rate for a time
a cotiMderaMe portion , ,f the water. On the whole a series of obstacles are,

posed to tin- movement of the water, which reduce its velocity and force, or at

anv rate divide it into numerous small channels. The beneficial effect of tree

tioti in this reaped ean be observed in most mountain ranges, and especially

in the Alps iYom France to Austria. Wherever, in these parts, extensive defor-

ations have taken place, the consequence has been the gradual formation of a
series ,,f torrents, in all places where the surface did not consist of hard rock ; the
</' bria brought down has covered more and more fertile land at the base of the
torrents, and this evil lias grown to such an extent, that not only in France but
also in the other Alpine countries great efforts are now made to re-afforest the
denuded areas at a great outlay. When once the evil has been created immediate
ali'ore.vtation is not possible; it must be preceded by the construction of dams,
i likes, walls, etc., to steady the soil until the young forest growth has had time
to establish itself, and once more to lay hold of the surface soil. Forests protect
the soil not only in the hills, but also in low lands, wherever it consists of so-
called moving or shifting sand along the sea coast, as well as in the interior of
countries. The action in this case is due partly to their moderating the force of
the air currents and partly by keeping the soil together through their roots, by
the formation of huinus and the retention of moisture. In this way the Landes of
France have from a dreary waste been converted into extensive forests inter-
sected by cultivated fields.

• ) Protection against air currents.

Forests break or moderate the force of air currents, and in this way afford
protection to lands lying beyond them against cold or dry winds. Woodlands
afford also shelter to game and useful birds. Their importance in this respect
should not be overlooked ; the presence of birds, which are the great enemies of
injurious insects, depends often on that of woodlands.

HYGIENIC EFFECTS OF FORESTS.

Forests, in forming a substantial part of the vegetation of the earth, are an
important agency for the production of oxygen obtained by the decomposition of
carbon dioxide.^ Direct observations have also shown that forest air (like sea air)
is much richer in ozone than the air of open countries, and especially of towns.

forests, then, produce oxygen and ozone and protect human habitations

injurious air currents, they may exercise a beneficial effect upon the

s of adjoining lands. Instances are not wanting where forests are said

have given protection against the germs of malaria, but there are others where

ire said to have had the opposite effect. As far as India is concerned, in

the medical authorities of military cantonments ordered forests to be

au.l in others to be cut down. Whether certain species, such as

alyptus, really possesses the quality of frying up soil, and thus remove

swampiness, has yet to be proved.

No general rule can be laid clown showing whether forests are required in a
mtry or what percentage of the area should be so used. The forest question

13

must be determined on the special circumstances of each country. By way of
illustration the areas at present under forest in a number of countries are shown
in the following table:

Countries.

Area under
forest, in
acres.

Percentage
of total
area of
country
under
forest.

Forest area
per head
of popula-
tion, in
acres.

Distribution of forest area,
according to ownership, in
percentage of total
forest area.

State and
crown
forests.

Forests of
corpora-
tions, en-
dowments,
etc.

Private

forests.

Servia

5,166,000
527,427,000
42,366,000
24,161,000
22,603,000
34,350,000
18,920,000

20,512,000
4,883,000
14,235,000
1,930,000
21,345,000
20,750,000
2,026,000
1,073,000
554,000
477,000
1,166,000
2,790,000

48
42
42
33
29
26
25

22
22
22
119
17
16
16
15
7
6
5
4

3.3
6.1
9.1
1.1

1.4
.8
9.9

3.5
.9
.5
.7
1.3
.6
1.2
.2
.1
.2
.2
.1

60
20
6
16
33
12

4

4
82
11
80

40
80
94
52
19
3

43
67

23

• *

32

48
85

53
29
IS
66:

20>

R,ussia-in-Europe

Sweden

Austria proper

Hungary

Germany

Norway

Turkey, including Bulgaria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina. . . .

Routnanift

Italv

Switzerland

Spain

France

Greece

Belgium . .

Holland

Denmark .

Portugal

Great Britain and Ireland .

Total for Europe

766,824,000

31

2.5

United States of N. America. .
East India British

380,000,000

17

7.6

140,000,000

25

.6

50

50

••

The percentage of forest area varies from 48 to 4, and the area per head of
population from 9.9 to .1 acres. This shows that the general conditions in the
various countries must make different demands in respect of afforestation. Servia
Russia, Sweden and Norway may as yet have more forests than they require for
their own population. On the other hand Great Britain and Ireland, Portugal
Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and even France and Italy have a smaller forest

14

area tli.-m is necessary t<> supply them with a sufficient quantity of forest produce

,1,.. sallll. time, they are aJl sea-bound countries, and consequently subject to

nditions, which diller altogether from those found in continental countries;

ImM of them are under the intluence of moist sea winds, and all are favorably

Htuat.-d in respect .if importation by sea,

Intimately connected with the area under forest in a country is the state of
ownership-. Forest owners in Europe may be grouped into the following three
<\ classes:

Tin- State or the Crown.
(!>) ('..!•{ .orations, endowments, etc.
(o) Private persons.

\Vhnv forests are not required on account of their indirect effects, and where
importation, from other countries is easy and assured, the government of a country

,, 1 not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or acquire forests, but where the

opposite conditions exist, that is to say, where forests are necessary to produce
climatic and mechanical effects, and where the cost of transport over long dis-
tances becomes prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure
the maintenance of a certain proportion of the country under forest. This can
he done either by maintaining or constituting a certain area of State forests, or
by exercising a certain amount of control over private forests. In most of those
countries where corporation forests exist they are subject to the control of the
te, though the degree to which such control is exercised may differ. Private
forests are free from control in some European States, and subject to it in others.
In all such cases the State is only justified in interfering when the welfare of the
general community requires it. The extent to which interference may be carried
depends on the special conditions of each country, and on the proportions of the
forest area belonging to the State. Thus, of the Swiss forests only 4 per cent,
belong to the State, while 67 per cent, belong to corporations, and 29 per cent, to
private owners ; at the same time a large proportion of them are so-called pro-
tection forests, and in consequence the Government exercises an extensive control
over both corporation and private forests. Of the German forests, 33 per cent
belong to the State, 19 per cent, to corporations, and 48 per cent, to private per-
sons ; the corporation forests are under State control, making with the State
forests 52 per cent. This beiag more than one-half of the area, the control over
private forests has of late years been considerably reduced, and in some parts
abolished altogether. It is worthy of notice that only 20 per cent, of the Swedish
and 12 per cent, of the Norwegian forests belong to the State, while the bulk are
private forests, over which little or no control is exercised by the State. Large
quantities of timber are exported annually from these countries to Great Britain
and other countries, and it may safely be expected that these supplies will con-
siderably decrease in the course of time.

DEFORESTATION IN RUSSIA.

The following article appeared in a recent number of the Literary Digest.
It was translated from Preussiche Jahrbucher for July.

When treating of the Russian famine of 1891-92 in the April number of
this magazine, we remarked that this was not to be regarded as a passing incident,
but rather as the inauguration of a chronic condition of affairs traceable to

15

unsystematic farming, to the general withdrawal of capital from the land for invest-
ment in manufacturing enterprise, under the aegis of a protective tariff, and to
the general deforestation of the country, in great part to provide fuel for railroads
and protected enterprises. The fatal consequences of this general deforestation
are now generally appreciated, the shrunken state of the once noble rivers of
the country, and growing aridity of the climate, affording evidence that can
neither be overlooked or gainsaid.

The regions of the mighty rivers, the Don, Volga, and the Dneiper, the great
arteries of Russia, were formerly fringed with wide-spreading forests, along their
whole upper and middle courses, which sheltered their sources and tributaries
from evaporation throughout the year. These forests have now for the most part
disappeared. Mile after mile the traveler sees nothing but low scrubs and
melancholy stumps in unbroken succession ; the " Mother Volga " grows yearly
shallower ; the steamers find scarcely seven or eight feet of water in mid-stream,
and the ferries pursue their snake-liks course from bank to bank in search of the
ever-shifting channel. The Don, with its tributaries is choked ; the sources of
the Dneiper creep downward and its chief tributary, the once noble Worskla,
with a flow of some 220 English miles, is now dry from source to mouth.

The city of Poltawa lies on its banks, and it was at its mouth that the
Swedish Army surrendered to Peter the Great. This stream, which fertilized a
broad region, supporting a numerous population, exists no more — not temporarily
run dry, but with all its springs exhausted, so that in future it may be stricken
from the map. Of the Bitjug, another river in the Don region, the upper course
has wholly disappeared — valley and bed are filled to the bank with sand and earth.
As if by magic, wide, fertile lands are buried under the sands, and whole villages
desolated. " There has been," says Wiestnik Jewropy, " an unparalleled revolu-
tion of natural conditions, which threatens a great part of the country with
the heat and aridity of the Central Asian steppes. The present condition of
our black earth region is so serious, and its future so dangerous, that it cannot
possibly escape the serious attention of the Government, the scientist and the
husbandman, to whom the further development of the situation is perhaps a
question of life and death."

There is perfect unanimity in attributing the threatening catastrophe to the
denudation of the forests. Innumerable factories sprang into existence, and, in
the absence of any systematic provision for coal-supply, they were erected in the
heart of the forest, and, after having consumed all the available fuel within easy
distance, their plant was actually sometimes transferred to fresh fields. Thus
originated the system of wholesale destruction, which was liberally furthered by
the network of railways built to maintain their communication with the great
marts of commerce and provide generally for the transport of produce. For the
past forty years thousands of locomotives and factories have been run almost
wholly with wood without a thought being given to any provision for reproduc-
tion. The extension of the railways afforded an opportunity for extracting colossal
fortunes from the " worthless " forests. These were the manufacturers' views
also ; so the fate of the Russian forests was sealed. " The machines have
devoured the woods."

The recently passed law for the protection of the forests has come fifteen,
twenty, or twenty-five years too late to avert the destruction of the agricultural

region.

And the Government and people of Russia had already been warned. Forty-
two years ago — that is, shortly after the famine of 1847-49 — we find the following
in a letter from the Charkowski Government to the Imperial Society of Econo-

16

mi, -'Hi. -iv an- now living people who remember when the present limitless
expansi of - m<l -\vaste alonu' the banks of the Donez was covered with almost
impenetrable forest, interspersed with lakes, which have since dried up, or are
• drvini; up. Our region is flat, deforested, and exposed to all winds. The
f.i-al east wiii.l linds no i niprdiment, and brings ruin in its train. This wind will
perhaps al no distant date prove fatal. The Grecian colonies went under pro-
bal.lv t'r.ini lli.' same cause. Protect the forest ; so plant forests; protect them
with rigorous laws. Tin- Volga and Don and all the rivers of southern Russia
\\ill he silt.-d up and disappear unless the forests be protected."

Moiv ratal even than the drying up of the streams is the cessation of the
spring and summer rains. This is the immediate cause of last year's harvest
failutv, and »n it even depends the current year's harvest. There have been local
rains. I mt not nearly enough.

Tln> reversal of old conditions has been coming on gradually with the
denudation of the forests ; and emphatic warnings, as we have seen, have been
uttered. The only result has been the appointment of commissions which have
done nothing. Remedial measures on a large scale are now contemplated. Are
they too late ?

A PLEA FOR PLANTING.

The sixth Earl of Haddington, in a work in the form of letters to his grand-
son, published in 1773, says : " When I came to live here (1770) there were not
above fourteen acres set with trees. I believe that it was a received motion that
no trees would grow here on account of the sea air, and the north-east wind ; so
that the first of our family, who had lived here, either believed the common
opinion, or did not delight in planting." He continues : " I had no pleasure in
planting, but delighted in horses, and dogs, and the sports of the field ; but my
wife did what she could to engage me to it, but in vain. At last she asked leave
to go about it herself, which she did, and I was much pleased with some little
tilings, which were well laid out and executed. These attracted my notice, and
the Earl of Mar, the Marquis of Tweedale, and others admired the beauty of the
work, and the enterprise of the lady." After his lady had planted several orna-
mental clumps in the shape of wildernesses, she proposed to plant a field of about
three hundred Scotch acres, called the Muir of Tynningham, a waste common of
very little value. From this all her ladyship's friends, as well as her lord, tried
to dissuade her, but in vain ; she planted this likewise. In 1707 she began Ben-
ningwood ; the prejudice of the country being still against her, they continued to
deride her, telling her it could be of no use. Success, however, always gave her
encouragement. The next was a large tract of ground, mostly dead sand with very
little grass, and very near the sea. Here her ladyship participated in the com-
mon prejudices, and thought it would be of no use, but as a gentleman from
Hamburgh, being there on a visit, told her he had seen timber growing on such
land, she immediately formed a resolution of putting it to a test ; planted sixty-
seven acres of it ; and the trees grew to the astonishment of all who saw them.
Thus ln>r ladyship, to the honor of her sex and benefit of her lord and her country,
overcame the prejudices of the sea and the barren moor being pernicious, and of
horses and dogs being the best amusement for a nobleman; converting a dashing
son of Nimrod into an industrious planter, a thoughtless spendthrift into a frugal
patriot. His lordship goes on to say the next was a field, which he had often let
to tenants, who could do nothing with it ; and further, that he had a great deal

17

more waste land, and intended to plant it all. These woods were of all the usual
sorts of timber, fir, beech, chestnut, larch, etc. But oaks were the favorite and
succeeded extremely well in every sort of soil.

" Thus can good w>ves, when wise, in every station,

" On man work miracles of reformation,

" And were such wives more common, their husbands would endure it,

" However great the malady, a loving wife can cure it.

" And much their aid is wanted, we hope they'll use it fairish,

" While barren ground, where wood should be, appears in every parish."

TREES FOR SHELTER.

Fuller in his "Practical Forestry' very truthfully says that pioneers in
heavily wooded regions are usually anxious to make a clearing, and as every tree
felled not only increases the area which he is to cultivate, but extends his view,
the axe is often kept in use long after there is any necessity for the purpose of
obtaining land for cultivation. In a few years the settler who was at first so
anxious to open up the country, finds he has gone a little too far in this direction,
for his own comfort and that of his animals, for on taking clown the screen, he
has not only admitted the cold winds of winter, but those of summer sweep over
his fields, driving away needed moisture — whip the fruit from his trees before
it is ripe, and otherwise cause loss that might have been prevented.

It is then that he begins to feel the need of protection, and to wish that his
house and outbuildings were located by the side of some friendly forest or grove.

The hygroscopicity of humus or vegetable earth is much greater than that of
any mineral soil, and consequently forest ground, where humus abounds, absorbs
the moisture of the atmosphere more rapidly and in larger proportion than com-
mon enrth. The condensation of vapour by absorption develops heat, and con-
sequently elevates the temperature of the soil which absorbs it, together with that
of air in contact with the surface. Von Babo found the temperature of sandy
ground thus raised from 68° to 80° F., that of soil rich in humus from 68° to 88° F.

The question of the influence of the woods on temperature does not, in the
present state of our knowledge, admit of precise solution, and, unhappily,- the
primitive forests are disappearing so rapidly before the axe of the woodman that
we shall never be able to estimate with accuracy the climatological action of the
natural wood, though all the physicial functions of artificial plantations will,
doubtless, one day be approximately known.

But the value of trees as a mechanical screen to the soil they cover, and often
to ground far to the leeward of them, is most abundantly established, and this
agency alone is important enough to justify extensive plantation in all countries
which do not enjoy this indispensable protection.

2 (F.)

IS

K< HtKSTRY BYE-PRODUCTS.*

h l,a> been said that tin-re is in the British Isles an immense area of land
tl,.lt either aever has yielded, or at the present time does riot yield, any agricul-
tural rent, but whi-'li 'might become of value were capital invested in planting it
with timl'i-r bre

Thoiiidi, in common \vith other trades, the British production of timber has
l.t-rii ivndrivd far less ivmiinerative than formerly by keen foreign competition,
,n 1, • ^hou-n that timl"-r will yet, ill many cases, yield a very fair return for
capital.

Tin- 1'iuvsi produce of Great Britain is mainly applied in the following
ys : —

1. Ship and boat-building, piers, bridges, etc., requiring much large and
-jinnd timber.

•2. Building, scaffolding, etc,
:'.. Railway sleepers.

4. Pit props.

5. Fencing.

r». Furniture ; mainly chairs of beech, yew, etc.
7. Hop poles and agricultural implements.
s. Bobbin wood.
9. Fagots aud firewood.

10. Charcoal for gunpowder, pitch, etc.

1 1 . Bark for tanning.

In the first four of these branches, the produce of the forests of Scandinavia,
for the present apparently inexhaustible, shipped at the very smallest modicum
of profit to the producers, has almost driven British timbe^r out of the market.
The rent charges on land, the costliness of labor and of overland transit in Great
Britain, may be contributing causes to this result ; but it is also apparently the
fact that the sending of crooked or heavily-shaped timber into the market by
British foresters is another reason for the success of Scandinavian trade. The
best means of meeting foreign competition is by looking to increased economy
of production, coupled with excellence of quality ; and as in other trades, it
is probable that the utilization of waste substances and bye-products may prove
the chief key to economical production. Hop poles, agricultural implements, and
bobbin-wood are locally among the most remunerative outlets for coppice produce,
the main question with reference to them being economy of production and
utilization of waste.

Though hops form a very uncertain and costly crop, the profits on hop-
'\vino- are so considerable that the extension of its culture should be considered

o

by our farmers. Chemical substitutes for hops cannot be successfully used to
the exclusion of the natural bitter ; whilst the " bine " could be sold in the
manufacture of textile products, or of paper. The Spanish chestnut, ash, and
larch are largely grown for hop-poles in the south of England.

Ash is also in constant demand for the handles of ploughs, spades, axes,
and other implements, and is. like sycamore, the wood of which is considerably
used by wheelwrights, a rapidly growing tree.

i. Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S., London, in Forestry and Forest Products (Edinburgh), 1834.

19

The cultivation of hornbeam for such purposes might also be extended
more especially on poor gravelly land.

There are undoubtedly many trades not thought of by the timber merchants
in which considerable quantities of small woods are consumed ; thus it is alleged
by United States statisticians that besides 300,000 new telegraph poles, and
.3,000,000 cords of wood used in brick-burning, the making of shoe-pegs alone
uses 100,000 cords of soft maple annually, that of lucifer matches 390,000 cubic
feet of pine, and that of boot-lasts and tool-handles 1,000,000 cords of birch.

Such facts suggest the possibility of a remunerative production of larger
quantities of coppice woods.

It being man's highest intellectual function to utilize to the full all the latent
powers of nature, we may well direct our attention to such bye-products as bark,
charcoal, wood-spirit, turpentine, tar, sawdust, leaf-manure, and wood-ashes.

BARK.
Bark is used for tanning, i.e., for the conversion of hides or skins into a

o

strong, supple, impenetrable, and durable material known as leather, by the union
of albumen, gelatine, or collagen of their connective tissue, with a substance in
the bark known as tannin, so as to form insoluble tannates. Tannin is widely
distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom, especially in barks, fruits, and
galls. It is characterised by a slightly acid reaction, and astringent taste, a
blueish or greenish black coloration (ink), with ferric salts, the precipitation of
gelatine and albumen from their solution, and its union with them as above men-
tioned. Sumach leaves form a valuable material for white morocco leathers ;
clivi-divi, the seed-pods of coesalpinia ; " hemlock extract," a decoction of the
bark of the hemlock-spruce (Abies canadensis) ; and " mimosa bark " from the
Australian "wattles" (Acacia) are largely used, but the chief British tanning
material is oak bark. In France the young bark of the cork oak (Quercus
suber) is largely used, and for fine leather that of the evergreen oak (Q. ilex) ;
in the eastern United States the white oak (Q. alba), the quercitron (Q.tinctoria),
and the red oak bark are employed, while California and the western territories
depend 011 the chestnut oak for tanning purpjses.

When coppice was largely grown for bark a rotation of twenty-four years
-was common, the stools being eight feet apart, the trees are more productive in
proportion at twelve than at double that number years' growth. Branches down
to an inch in diameter should be carefully peeled, since their bark contains a
higher proportion of tannin than that of the trunk.

Since the low prices for bark have made many foresters doubt the expediency
of felling their oak in May when the timber is almost at its worst, it may be well
to bear in mind that French and Prussian experiments have shown that bark of
good quality may be obtained at any season by steaming the wood for from one-
and-a-ha'f to two-and-a half hours according to the season, after which the bark
peels easily.

Willow bark is largely and successfully used in Russia for the best leather,
and the bark of young alder shoots, not a third of an inch in diameter, yields
sixteen per cent- of tannin. The bark of pine and larch is only used for roughly
tanning sheepskins.

There is a possibility of chrome-tanning superseding the use of bark of any
kind.

CHARCOAL.

'['In- value i>r charred wood-fibre, deprived of its liquid and volatile portion
l,v destm distillation, for smelting and heating purposes, has long been

,,".,.,, Tihui^li now in England, Belgium and other coal producing countries,

cheapness of |>i-«>duci.i<m outweighs considerations of quality, the value of Swedish
iron is, |>rol.;iMv with justice, attributed to its being smelted with charcoal; and
nianv of (he furnaces of the United States are as dependent upon the wood
sui'i'lv. as were those of Sussex in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For
charcoal making, tin- hard woods are mainly used; beech charcoal being preferred
in the miiKTa logical laboratory.

In (livat llritain the chief use of charcoal is in the manufacture of gun-
|io\viler, for which purpose a highly inflammable quality, which is obtained from
light spongy woods of various broad-leaved species is generally required: it
requires to be as free from earthy or mineral matter as possible, though no char-
i is absolutely pure carbon, generally retaining as it does, some hydrogen and
oxvgen, as well as mineral ash. For this reason, though still largely pre-
pare. 1 by the primitive method of pits or heaps covered with turf, charcoal
i> preferably manufactured in iron cylinders or retorts — a method which is-
far more economical and yields a more uniform result. The inflammable gases
distilled from the wood are conveyed by pipes into the furnaces below the
retorK so that an immense saving in fuel is effected, while the tar, pyro-
1 igneous acid, etc., are condensed and collected. The temperature at which
the wood is charred exercises a great effect upon the properties of the charcoal.
The higher the temperature the more completely are the hydrogen and oxygen
of the wood driven off, and the denser and blacker is the resulting charcoal,
while its temperature of ignition is also higher in proportion. Slack-burnt
charcoal retains more volatile matter, is softer, reddish, more readily inflamm-
able and more hygroscopic.

It has been found by experiment that, with sixty grains of saltpetre,
twelve grains of each of the following kinds of charcoal give the number of
cubic inches of gas (CO2) in the table : —

Dogwood (Rkamnus frangula') 82 cubic inches.

Willow (Salix alba) '. 77

Alder 74 "

Filbert 72

Fir, chestnut, hazel 66 "

The three first named species are accordingly preferred for the purpose,
though Gornus sanguinea, Euonymus europceus, Rhamnus catharticus, and
perhaps other species are not uncommonly substituted for the alder-buckhorn,
berry-bearing alder, or true " dogwood " of gunpowder manufacturers. Rkamnus
frangula ; this is a slow-growing shrub, being cut, when about an inch
in diameter and under ten years of age, in lengths of not more than six
i grown in Prussia, Belgium, and Sussex. It forms a very explosive
powder, used for military small arms, and for sporting purposes. Willow and
alder are of quicker growth, especially, the former, and are cut when about four

\Vith reference to the use of the two last named species an
that they can be cut in the spring, when their bark is in the
t condition for tanning purposes. Charcoal is also of great value as a filtering
and deodorising agent.

VOLATILE PRODUCTS.

Besides a certain amount of tar, and the inflammable gases which, as has
"been stated, are utilized as fuel in the charcoal manufacture, even the smoke has
proved of considerable value. It contains methylic alcohol, which also distils
over from the retort in a liquid form, accompanied by acetic acid. This crude
distillate is known as " wood vinegar," and is redistilled and rectified over quick-
lime, yielding " wood-spirit" (crude methylic alcohol). The acid portion is then
saturated with slaked lime, so as to form a solution of calcium acetate, which is
evaporated, the salt being used in the manufacture of acetic acid and metallic
acetates, especially that of lead, as as a step towards the formation of white lead.

Dr. Hough describes a charcoal iron-smelting factory in Michigan, where a
cord of wood yields forty-two bushels of charcoal, worth 7 cents per bushel, or
$2.99 cents per cord, besides 2,800 cubic feet of " smoke," valued at over 30 cents,
and the inflammable gas which supplies three-fourths of the fuel consumed. The
"smoke" yields two gallons of wood-spirit, worth 85 cents (3s. 4|d.) per gallon
in the Chicago market, and 200 Ib. of acetate of lime, worth 2| cents (l^d.) per
Ib. in Philadelphia. Thus the " smoke " for which 30 cents (Is. 3d.) are paid,
yields $6.70 (£1 6s. 9d.) the total yield of a cord of wood being $9.69 (£1 18s. 8d.)
These products are best obtained from dry hard woods, especially beech.

TAR AND PITCH.

The mixture of heavy non-volatile hydrocarbons known as tar, though
obtained in small proportions in the destructive distillation of all kinds of wood,
is yielded mainly by the roots, boles, branches, and waste timber of pines,
especially Pinus palustvis, P. sylvesh is, and P. pinaster. It is mainly imported
from the southern United States, from Archangel, and from Blo^ and other
Baltic ports.

The pitch pine (P. palustris) covers extensive tracts, and springs up spon-
taneously in the disused cotton fields of the Southern States, while the Scots
pine (P. sylvestris) forms enormous forests in the North of Europe and in
Siberia. The preparation of tar is still virtually the same as that described
by Theophrastus. A hole is dug in the side of the bank in which billets of
wood are heaped up and covered closely with turf or earth, a fire is then
kindled from below, and the slow combustion causes the tar to exude from
the wood and flow out from the heap into barrels placed below to receive it.
On distillation, tar yields wood vinegar, creosote, and oil of tar, leaving a residue
of pitch. The black, brittle, glossy solid which we know as pitch, and which is
mainly home manufactured, is usually obtained by simply boiling the tar, so as
•drive off the volatile oils.

TURPENTINE, RESIN, ETC.

In addition to being our chief sources of tar and pitch, the firs are the
exclusive commercial source of the oleo-resin known as turpentine. This is a
solution of a resin in a volatile oil which exudes from incisions made in the stems
of these trees. On distillation it yields from 14 to 16 per cent, of colourless
essential oil, known as oil or spirits of turpentine (Ci0 H16), the residue being
resin or colophony (the formula of which is probably Cw H62 O04). The greatest
quantity of turpentine imported is the produce of the pitch pines (Pinus

22

palutftria, or P. ausfrrafris), the swamp fine, and 1'inn,* tceda, the frankincense
pin. of Virginia, < 'arolina ami other Southern States, but a considerable quantity
imported t'n.m Russia and Swollen, is the produce of the Scots pine (P.
, and from Mi.- south of France, under the name of "Bordeaux turpen-
t'm, ' \\-lifiv it is ol.i.-iinrd from the cluster pine (P. pinaster), and other species.
Strasburg turpentine is obtained from the silver fir (Abies pectinate*,), and
"Venice turpentine" from the larch (Lt.ri.c europcea). Canada balsam is a
simihr produet from Ali'u'slxtJxn/ineti. and A. canadensis. The cultivation of the
cluster | iin' I /'. i>in«Hte)') on the sand dunes of the Landes of Bordeaux is a good
mple of the conversion of an originally merely protective measure into a
soun-r of profit from soil formerly worse than useless. Whether the felling of
Mir forests of Southern France, by producing floods and droughts, was or was
not originally the cause of the arid barren sands, certain it is that by damming*
up tlu> natural drainage and shifting inland, these dunes produced swamps and
wastes, Mie advance of which was only stopped by the binding roots of these
pines. Originally planted with this protective object, their yield of timbar, bark,
turpentine and tar, has rendered them a source of profit, which should remind us
that we have in our own country considerable stretches of sand wastes. A use-
ful illuminating oil containing from 80 to 92 per cent, of carbon has been obtained
by M. Guillemara from the resin from the Bordeaux area.

MINOR PRODUCTS.

Besides such substances as bark, charcoal, wood-spirit, acetic acid, tar, pitch7
turpentine, and resin, which are important articles of commerce, chemical
discovery has demonstrated in the past, and may be expected to show still more
frequently in the future, the presence of substances in trees which might well
form sources of profit. For example : from the sap of the Scots pine and of the
larch felled in summer, barked and scraped, a substance known as " coniferin " is
obtained, which yields " vanillin " the essential constituent of " vanilla." Though
an expensive substance to prepare, this is considerably cheaper than common
vanilla, the sole source of which is the inner pulp of the pods of one or two-
species of orchid.

Another similar product, not as yet much developed, is the " rubber " obtained
\)y distillation from the bark of the common birch, a black, gummy " latex,'r
which resists the action of air and acids, and which will considerably increase
the durability of india-rubber or gutta-percha, even if mixed with them in only
a small proportion. As in the salt mines of Stassfurt it has been found that the
formerly wasted bye-products, the salts of potash, are as valuable as the rock salt, if
not more so, and as in Michigan the " smoke " has proved more valuable than the
charcoal, so the development of new chemical industries may render such pro-
ducts as this vanillin and gutta-percha more remunerative than the timber itself.

LEAVES, SAWDUST, ETC.

In Styria young pine and fir needles, from loppings or thinnings made in
spring, are dried in ovens or kilns, ground, mixed with one-twenty-fifth of salt,
and used with advantage as a food for cattle. Similarly, in the north of Italy the
dried leaves of the poplar have long been used as cattle food, and chemical analysis
bears out their value for this purpose. When not used for fodder, however, dried
leaves make an excellent litter, and analysis proves their value as manure.

23

The following table, prepared in Bavaria, exhibits the composition of the
leaves produced annually by an acre of forest under beech, pine, or spruce, as-
compared with that of a ton of wheat straw :—

^3

a
g

JS

_oS

*aa
D

'S
o

fvd

O
"fci

%3

K*

Q

00

-*j

o

J

I

|1

a, 5
"3 *

OJ

Beech, per acre of land

Ib.
2,972

Ib.
165.5

Ib.
1.80

Ib.
17.18

Ib.
10.90

Ib.
9.32

Ib.
3.28

Pine, per acre of land

2,842

41.5

4.32

16.84

4.28

3.28

1.51

Spruce, per acre of land.;

2,683

121.3

4.30

57.37

6.20

5.72

1.87

\Vheat straw per ton

2,240

85.2

9.80

5.20

2.20

4.60

2.41

Saw dust also forms a good litter for cows and horses ; and though destitute
itself of manurial value, being very absorbent of liquid manure, can, when thus
soaked, be used as a valuable top dressing.

Finally, if the forester has any waste that he cannot utilize in the tan pit
or the charcoal retort, as paper pulp, or as firewood, it is probably best to burn
it so as to avoid harboring insects and fungus life. By so doing he will lose
little of the manurial value of the refuse, and leached ashes, being rich in pot-
ash, is a valuable dressing for old grass land, orchards, market gardens, onions,
rye, and other crops. The potash might even be recovered by lixiviation of the
ashes and used for many purposes.

THE PRODUCTION OF WOOD PULP.*

•

The wood-pulp industry may be said to have commenced in the year 1846,
But its development during the first thirty years was decidedly slow. Since
1876, however, the production of this material has increased rapidly. Its pre-
industrial period was known only to the chemist. Cellulose was made in the
laboratory in 1840, but it was not manufactured commercially till 1852. Ground
wood was first used for paper-making about the year 1846, when it was manu-
factured by Keller under a patent taken out in Saxony in the previous year.
Since that date many improvements have been made in the machinery and
methods used in grinding, the main object being to produce a longer and finer
fibre. The fibres of the wood are torn away by mechanical pressure against a
revolving grindstone in contact with water. No chemical treatment of the wood
is necessary, the only requirements of this industry being cheap wood, abundant
water-power and suitable machinery.

Processes, such as Sinclair's, have long been in use for pulping very finely cut
coniferous wood, and in the Paris Exhibition of 1880 one of the most prominent
objects exhibited in the Norwegian Section was a pate de bois or papier mache,
made in this way from pine wood, and worked into cardboard and various moulded
pannellings, etc. It has been found, moreover, that in this way the whole of a
pine tree trunk — branches, needles, and all — can be converted into paper without
waste. Saplings, which it would not pay to cut for firewood, are now profitably
worked up in this way into pasteboard.

* By G. F. Green, C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan, in Forestry and Forest Products (Edinburgh), 1884.

2-t

I'.v the chemical processes for manufacturing wood-pulp, a good class of pulp
;„ ma.l'e from the.|iiick-.un>\ving poplar and from spruce. The wood of the slower
• -rowing linden or li;iss\vood makes an equally valuable white paper pulp.

<»ak ,.,.m also he used, though yielding an inferior product that requires
Meaelmi";. One '^reat advantage in the method is that the tannin in the oak is

-rodiict, and the chemicals with it in the lye being rather an

aid than a hindrance to the tannin!.'- process, it is found that hides can be perfectly

nird in it in teii davs. This seems to ofter to the cultivator of oak coppice, or

1 1 1. 1 nter of poplars, a most important source of income ; whilst in

nii'eioiis plantations there need be absolutely no waste.

The chemical preparation of fibre has given rise to two distinct processes —
the soda process and the acid process.

.•mieal pulp (cellulose) is used as an adjunct, with esparto, rags, or me-
ntal jmlp, in the manufacture of news, printings, colors, and some kinds of

wrapping-paper. It forms (according to Mr. Routledge) an excellent succedane,
til lei' up, and bleaches to a high color. Fine prints are also manufactured

exclusively from acid pulp.

Mechanical pulp is chiefly used as an adjunct in the manufacture of news,
cheap printings, and wall-papers ; but there are several distinct classes of paper
made from it without any other ingredient, viz., wood-pulp middles from white
pine pulp, and various self-colored wrappings and tinted wall-papers from brown,
sometimes styled patent pulp.

Another important use is for wood-pulp boards and so-called " patent " or
brown boards, the latter being produced from brown pine-pulp and the former from
white pine-pulp.

The consumption of wood-pulp boards is increasing rapidly, chiefly for mak-
ing paper boxes, for which they possess certain advantages over straw boards.

Although almost any wood can be converted into pulp, experience has
hitherto decided in favor of conifers of a certain age.

For chemical pulp, trees on an average of twenty years' growth, and a thick-
ness of six to eight inches at the base of the stem are said to be the best.
Younger wood is more tractable by chemical means, but produces a fibre of inferior
quality. Older wood requires stronger chemicals to remove the incrusting
matter, and possesses no compensating advantages.

In Canada many species of wood have been utilized, amongst which may be
mentioned pine, poplar, spruce, willow, basswood, cedar, hemlock, maple, and
birch.

Poplar pulp remains white, birch becomes pink, maple turns of a purple
tint, and basswood reddish after grinding,

The practical operations concerned in the manufacture of pulp from wood
by the caustic soda process may be divided into the following : — Barking, saw-
ing, chopping, crushing, boiling or digesting, washing and bleaching, treatment for
sale as half-stutf, and soda recovery.

HEMLOCK EXTRACT.

In the final Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons(Canada)
in 1868 on the best means of protecting Hemlock Timber from destruction, the con-
clusion was come to, after a most careful consideration of the question, that
unless some steps were speedily taken to check the wasteful and extravagant rate
.of consumption then going on, really for the benefit of other countries at the

25

expense of Canada, many years would not elapse before our own tanneries would
bo seriously crippled, and we no longer able to compete successfully with other
countries in the manufacture of leather.

Answers from Gait, Guelph, etc.: — Hemlock getting scarce ; not more than
ten years' supply ; timber, sawn into lumber, used for rough work, such as roof-
ing, etc.

Large quantities in Drummoiid and Arthabaska ; five bark factories in the
counties ; timber used for scantling and rough boarding ; in settled districts
timber worth four to eight dollars per M; in remote districts not of sufficient
value to bear transportation ; about one cord of bark is procured from 1,000 feet
of lumber ; bark in some districts used for domestic purposes only, in others, as
Eastern Townships, manufactured into extract ; five factories produced twenty
thousand barrels of 400 pounds each, worth 2-| cents per Ib. at the factory and 5
cents per Jb. in Boston; 1-i to 3 cords of bark will produce 1 bbl. of extract,
worth in Boston $20 a barrel.

On non-resident lands the timber is allowed to rot on the ground, and squat-
ters, as a rule, either burn or allow it to rot if not close to a mark et.

In some districts the best is sawn into lumber or cut into lathwood for
exportation to England, the balance for railroad ties or cordwood.

Wherere a farmer makes bark on his own land, he cuts the peeled trees into
sawlogs aud clears the land. Where trespassers peel bark they leave the trees to
rot.

After the destruction of a hemlock forest it is generally succeeded by a
mixed growth of maple, poplar, cherry, and balsam, when not cleared for farming
purposes ; even if replanted, it would take one hundred years' growth to render
it available for tanning or extract purposes.

About 500 Ibs. or more of green raw hide can be converted into leather by
•one cord of bark. Hemlock extract is said to convert raw hide and leather in
one-sixth of the time, and at one-half of the cost.

The effect of the manufacture and export of hemlock extract will exhaust
the hemlock forests at all accessible points and compel manufacturers to remove
their tanneries into the rural districts to obtain a supply of bark, raise the price
of bark, and consequently of leather, and diminish the quantity of leather pro-
duced.

For the protection of our hemlock forests it was suggested that the extract
should be manufactured under a license upon Government land, an export duty
charged on bark, and a considerable excise duty on extract manufactured for
exportation.

An acre of good hemlock land would produce from ten to twelve cords of
hark, worth from $30 to $36 delivered at the factory, at a cost, say, of $1 per
cord for felling and $1 per cord for carting.

The cord of hemlock lathwood (128 cubic feet) is worth $8 at Montreal or
Quebec.

The conclusion arrived at from this evidence was that our hemlock forests are
being and have been rapidly depleted and destroyed, and that without proper
•care and forethought the language put into the mouth of the Indian many years
.ago (referring to stripping the soil of its trees) may in a degree become true-

' The realms our tribes are crushed to get,
May be a barren desert yet. "

And the remedy seems to be that active measures be resorted to for select
^cutting, natural reforestation and planting, and systematic forestry management .

26

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE FOREST TREES OF

CANADA.

In tin- reporl of tin- Geological Survey of Canada for 1880, there is a paper
l,\ Dr. 1!,-!1, tne Assistanl Diivetor, accompanied by a map on which the general
ni'i-thern limits of tlir principal forest trees of Canada east of the Rocky moun-
tains are represented. Dr. Hell says :—

Tin- »'ont incut of North America posesses a great variety of forest trees,
Al'out :;4'» different species occur within the United States. All the kinds which
we have in Canada, amounting to about ninety, including those of the Pacific
; ie, an also met \vitli in that country. Some species are not only very widely dif-
fuse d, Inn an' ;ilso persistent over great areas, being found almost everywhere
within the limits of their distribution, while others, although having an exten-
uive range, are nowhere very common, and are sometimes absent for a considera-
ble interval. Others again are confined to comparatively small tracts. As a
gem-nil rule, the more northern species occupy the greatest extent of country,
while the southern ones are progressively more and more restricted, even in a
more rapid ratio than would be implied by the narrowing of the continent from
north to south ; this is owing to the great differences experienced in climatic con-
ditions in going from east to west in the more southern latitudes. Along the
northern borders of the forests of the continent, the elevation of the land above
the sea is comparatively slight, and regular, and the other physical conditions
are tolerably uniform. As a consequence, we find the most northern group of
trees extending from Newfoundland into Alaska, a distance of about 4,000 miles »

An inspection of the map accompanying Dr. Bell's report show some interest-
ing features as to the general distribution of our forest trees, as well as regarding
almost every individual species of timber. For example, it will be observed
that there is no material change in the woods throughout the great triangular
area, embracing about 600,000 square miles, of which the national boundary
line between the Rocky Mountains and Lake Superior forms the base, and the
Rocky Mountains and Laurentian Hills respectively the west and east sides,
the apex being at the mouth of the Mackenzie River. In the southern part of
of this area, a number of species are added to the kinds which everywhere
throughout it make up the bulk of the forest ; and again, few trees of any kind
are found to the south of the North Saskatchewan; still, making allowance for
local peculiarities of condition, there is a remarkable uniformity in the timber of
this enormous area. It includes, however, only a few species, of which the aspen,,
balsam poplar, and willows are more abundant towards the western and the
spruces, larch, balsam, fir and Banksian pine toward the eastern side of the area

It will be observed that the lines marking the northern limits of about a-
dozen species turn southward and become their western limits on reaching the
eastern side of the valley of Lake Winnipeg and the Red River; while the
boundaries of the species occurring next to the south of these also manifest a
tendency to turn southward in approaching the prairies of the west. The species
above referred to are the white cedar, black ash, white pine, red pine, sugar
maple, yellow birch, red oak, white ash, hemlock, beech, iron wood, red cedar (ar-
borescent variety) and white oak. They are to a great extent replaced by other
species In-fore the region of open plains is reached. Had the great forests origi-
nally extended further west, and been destroyed by fire or other causes, in com-
paratively recent times, we should have found the northern limits of these species
continuing their general course through the prarie regions, and ending abruptly

27

there, instead of which, they all curve gradually round, in a more or less concen-
tric fashion, and other trees occupy the intervening ground. These well-marked
features of forest distribution show that the present divisions of prairie and
woodland are of very ancient date. The evidence of the smaller plants, and also
of certain superficial geological conditions, all point to the same conclusion.

The State of Minnesota is situated in a very interesting region in regard to
forest distribution. Here we find the northern limit of the group to which the
most southern trees of Ontario belong, such as the black walnut, shell-bark hick-
ory, hackberry, and Kentucky coffee tree ; the north-western limit of the com-
moner trees of the northern states and of Quebec and Ontario, such as white oak,
red cedar (arborescent variety), iron wood, beech, hemlock, white ash, rock elm,
red oak, yellow and black birch, sugar maple, red maple, wild plum, etc. The
western boundaries of some of the trees whose northern limits pass through
Northern Ontario, such as the white cedar, black ash, white pine and red pine ;
the southern limits of the most northern group, including the white spruce, the
large Banksian pine, balsam fir, balsam poplar and canoe birch ; and the general
eastern limits of some of the western species, such as the ash-leaved maple,
green ash, burr oak, and cottonwood.

It will be observed that in Labrador peninsula the tree-lines tend northward
midway between the eastern and western shores. This is due partly to the
unfavorable influence of the sea on either side, and partly to the beneficial effect
of the central depressions in which the rivers run northward into Ungava Bay.

From Mingan to Lake Superior, the height of land, north of the St. Law-
rence, is rudely parallel to the general course of the lines marking the northern
boundary of the trees. And it may have had some effect in limiting the north-
ward range of a number of species. A southward curve in the watershed about
the longitude ot Ottawa is marked by a corresponding curve in the tree lines.
Again, where a great depression occurs in this dividing plateau, some of the trees
which in such cases may be approaching their northern boundaries, are found to
extend, in the lower levels, beyond their general outline on either side. As
examples of this the Lake Temiscaming and Abittibi District, and the valley of
the Kenogami, or principal south branch of the Albany, may be mentioned.

On the Missinaibi, or west branch of the Moose Eiver, the white elm reap-
years, 130 miles north of its general boundary on descending to a sufficiently low
elevation above the sea. The Saguenay, for about 100 miles from the St. Law-
rence is really a narrow arm of the sea, and the country in the vicinity of Lake
St. John at the head of the river, is only slightly elevated above its level and has
a fertile soil, although surrounded by a mountainous region. Here we find an
isolated colony of basswood, sugar maple and other trees, considerably removed
from the rest of their species. On the north side of Lake Huron, and to the
north of the City of Quebec, the land rises somewhat rapidly, and . in both
instances the tree lines near these latitudes are more closely crowded together
than elsewhere.

Some kinds of trees, in approaching their northern limits, show a tendency
to diminish gradually in size, and to become more and more scattered, rendering
it difficult to draw any definite boundary of the species, while others vanish
abruptly. The latter habit is more characteristic of southern than northern
species so far as the Dominion is concerned. The various species appear to die out
more gradually as they range northward in the western than in the eastern
regions.

28

I-' ... bti t ..f'th.- Rocky Mountain- may b<- divided into four groups, as

.u-.U th.-ir ijiliical distribution within the Dominion.

\ nortl jroup, inrluding tlio white and black spruces, larch, Bank-

spen, lialsam poplar, canoe birch, willows and alder. These
r tli.- rritory down to about the line of the white pine.

A central i;n>np of atiout forty species occupying a belt of country from
;>inr line to that of the buttonwood.

rroup, mil tracing the buttonwood, black walnut, the hickor^
tulip tivr, prickly ash, sour-gum, sassalVus, and flowering dogwood,
whii- nl only in a small area in the southern part of Ontario.

4. A \vr>trni -roup, consisting of the ash-leaved maple., burr oak, cotton-
> I. .ni'l ^i-ci-ii ash. which are scattered sparingly over the prairie and wooded
Jons \ve< of Red River, and Lake Winnipeg.

In tin- western peninsula of Ontario the forests present a remarkable rich-
ness in the number of species to be found growing together. In some localities
as many as fifty different kinds may be counted on a single farm lot. A more
varied mixture is probably not to be met with in any other part of the continent,
or perhnp^ in the world.

29

LEVELS OF THE OTTAWA.

The following tables from the reports of the Geological Survey (Canada
show the levels at various points on the St. Lawrence, Ottawa and Mattawa
rivers, from Three Rivers to Lake Nipissing.

Levels of the Ottawa above the waters of the St Lawrence at Three Rivers,
which is about the highest point affected by the action of the tides : —

Distance.

Rise.

Total rise.

miles.

ft. & in.

ft. & in.

Rise from Three Rivers to Montreal harbour, as
stated in a report of the Hon. H. H. Killaly,
President of the Board of Works in 1845

90

12.9

12 9

]VJ[ontr6al

Rise from Montreal harbour to lake St. Louis at
Lachine, from the same report :
llock 13.3

2 •' 13 3

3 " 8.6

4 " 9.0

5 " 09

10

44 9

57 6

Rise in lake St. Louis from Lachine to Ste. Anne . .
Rise in the lock at Ste. Anne

13

0.6
3 0

58.0
61 0

Rise in the lake of Two Mountains from Ste. Anne
to Carill-m

23

0 8

61 8

Rise from Carillon to Blondeau :
1 lock, up 10,0

2 " 11.0

21
3 lock down 13

4i

8 0

69 8

Rise in Chute a Blondeau

4.0

73 8

Rise in the Grenville canal from the head of Blon-
deau to the head of Grenville canal

1 lock . ... 30

2 3

3 ,... 8

4 8

5 7

6 6

6^

35 0

108 0

Rise in the navigable part of the Ottawa, between
Grenville and the entrance to the Rideau canal. . .
Rise from the entrance of the Riaeau canal to the
Chaudiere lake, viz : — Rise in the Rideau canal to
Dow's Swamp :
1 lock 11 0

58£

9.4

118.0

Ottawa.

2 . 10

3 .10

4 10

5 10

6 10

7 10

8 . 10

81
Fall from Dow's Swamp to Chaudiere lake 18

6

63.0

181.0

Chaudiere.

Rise in ChaudieVe lake from the foot to Fitzroy har-
bour at the head, supposed to be one inch per mile.
Rise from Fitzroy harbour to Chats lake, as ascer-
tained by levels taken up the Mississippi channel
by the Board of Works in 1845, 49.96, say

25
3

2.1
50.0

183.1
233.1

Chats.

Rise in Chats lake from the head of the Rapides des
Chats to the foot of the Chenaux, supposed to be
one inch per mile

15

1.3

234.4

Levels "f ili" <Mia\v;i above the waters of the St. Lawrence at Three

Rivers. — Continued

1 (istance.

Rise.

Total rise.

miles.

ft. & in.

ft. & in.

Ki-.,. fn in the f.M.t of the Chenaux to Portage du
,-uiTeiit prevailing all the way, sup-

5

5.0

239.4

Portage du Fort

17.0

356.4

tin- he:.d of 1'ortage du Fort rapid and
the I,,, -.'•;. a strong current prevailing
•ill the wtv s-iy one foot per mile

5

5.0

261.4

in the Sable rapid and two small ripples above.
i he Sable and the Mountain Chute. . .
n the boniii at the foot to dead water at the
If the Mountain Chute, according to Mr.

0.',

1*

6.2
1.0

15.0

267.6
268.6

283.6

Sable.
Mountain.

from the head of the Mountain Chute to the
if I)'-\rgis r'ipid ^ay 8 inches per mile

1

0 8

284 2

5.0

289.2

D'Argis

Rise from the head of D'Argis to the foot of the
lumet Falls <av S inches per mile.

H

0.10

290 0

'alom.-t Falls, according to Mr. Gerrard
V ; — from dead water at the foot of the falls
to the foot of the middle slide 26.3

From the foot of the middle slide to dead water at
the head 39.7

1

65 10

355.10

Calumet.

Kist- from the head of the Calumet Falls to the head
of the Calumet island, a considerable current pre-
vailing the whole distance, fay 6 inches per mile. .
Risp from the head of the Calumet island to Fort
ulonges, including about 1 foot at La Passe

13

5

6.6

2.8

362.4
365.0

Fort Ooulonges.

Rise in Fort Coulonges lake from Fort Coulonges to
the mouth of the Black river, quiet water all the
wav say 2 inches per mile

8

1.4

366 4

Black river

Rise from the mouth of the Black river to the Chap-
eau rapid, swift water, say 6 inches to the mile . . .
Ri«e in the Chapeau rapid

6

3.0
2.0

369.4
371 4

Chapeau

Ki~e from the Chapeau to the Culbute, swift water
•til the wav say 6 inches per mile

5

2 6

373 10

l;i-e in the Chute Culbute from the foot of the cur-
rent to dead water at the head, according to the
Board of Works

19.7

393 5

f Culbute and lake

Rise from the head of Culbute rapid by Upper
Allumettes lake and the Deep river to the foot of
the Joachim Falls. The current in the deep river
is so moderate that with a very gentle wind rafts
are sometimes carried up stream without sails.
The rise is supposed to be 2 inches per mile

32

5.4

398 9

(. Allumettes.
Joachim

l:i-e in the Joachim Falls from the Deep river to
dead water at the head, according to Mr. Gerrard
i- ...

1

23 3

422 0

from the head of the Joachim Falls to the
mouth of Bennett's brook, say 3 inches per mile. .
from 1'ennett's brook to the mouth of the Riv-
iere du Moine, a strong current prevailing most of
the wav. say 0 inches per mile

4

3i

1.0
1 9

423.0
424 9

Bennett's brook.

Kir-e from the Uiviere du Moine to the foot of Islet
rapid, a strong current prevailing at Riley's clear-
ing and at McSwirley's clearing, say 5 inches per
mile

c

Q A

49S 1

from the foot of Islet rapid to the Roche Capi-
rapids, or that part of them called the
Maribou, allowing one foot for the Islet

1

1 5

429 6

Tslpf-

T<>m the head of Roche Capitaine

9

42 10

472 4

:"r .in the head of Roche Capitaine to the foot
of the Deux Rivieres quiet water nearly the whole
wav, sav 3 inches per mile

11

2.9

47R.1

31

Levels of the Ottawa above the waters of the St. Lawrence at Three

Rivers. — Continued.

Distance.

Rise.

Total rise.

miles.

ft. & in.

ft. & in.

Rise from the foot of the Deux Rivieres rapid to the
head of the Levier rapid, viz : — Difference of level
between smooth water at the foot and smooth water
at the head of the Deux Riviere Portage. .. .13.38
Difference of level between the heads of the
Deux Rivieres Portage and the mouth of the
Maganisipi .... . . 8 . 55

Difference of level between the mouth of the
Maganisipi and the head of the Levier rapid , 8 . 09
Rise from the head of the Levier to the foot of the
Mattawa rapids, being swift water nearly the whole
distance supposed to be 6 inches per mile

3

18

30.4
9.0

505.5
514.5

Levier.

Rise from the foot of the Mattawa rapids to the mouth
of the Mattawa river

14

5.0

519.5

Mattawa.

Rise from the mouth of the Mattawa to the foot of
the Cave rapid, a considerable current about mid-
way up, say 4 inches per mile

2i

0.10

520.3

Cave.

Rise from the foot of the Cave to the head of the
Chaudron rapid viz : —

Rise in the Chaudron. . 6.00

'A

11.9

532.0

Chaudron.

Rise from the head of the Chaudron to the foot of
the Erables rapid say 3i inches per mile.

3i

1.0

533.0

Rise from the foot to the head of the Erables rapid.
Rise from the head of the Erables to the foot of the
Mountain rapid say 3^ inches per mile

4

3|

13.0
1.0

546.0
547.0

Erables.

Rise from the foot to the head of the Mountain
rapid • ,

1

5.5

552.5

Mountain

Rise in the Seven League lake from the head of the
Mountain rapid to the foot of the Long Sault
rapids say 2§ inches per mile

17

3.6

555 . 11

Rise from the loot to the head of the Long Sault
rapids : —
1st or lower leap , 6 . 92

Intermediate 1§ mile 2.50

2nd leap 6.16

Intermediate 1 2-18 mile 2.20

3rd Crooked rapid 6.38

Intermediate 1 2-12 mile 0.23

4th leap 15.82

5th Upper rapid . . . . 8.34

6

48.5

G04.4

Long Sault.

Rise from the head of Long Sault rapids to the mouth
of the Opimika river above the Galere current ;
there is a perceptible current only in two places,
say 3 inches per mile

12

3.0

607.4

Galere.

Rise from the mouth of the Opimika river to the
head of lake Temiscatning, say 1 inch per mile. . . .

55

4.8

612.0

Temiscaming.

Miles

492i

32

I ve\s ,,f tlir M.itt.iw.i from its junction with the Ottawa, 519 feet 5 inchesabove-
th.- surface ..I' tli.- St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, to Trout or Turtle Lake.

Feet and

Tntnl

inches.

1 1 , ! 1 > 1 1 1 R ' \ t 'ix

519.5

n tli.- mouth ..f th.- IVfattawa to the foot of
ri:iin-< 'liant iapi. Is, im-luding a rise of 1 foot 8
Mil rapids, allowing 4 inches per

24

2.6

521.11

|; t tn head of Plain-Chant rapids :
1 , 15.98

1.60

i

17.7

539.6

Plain Chant.

in Long lake from the head of Plain Chant
lapi.ls t.i the foot of Portage a la Rose, say 3
inches ]M r mile

5i

1.4

540 10

from th.- In >t nf Portage a la Rose to the head
of ! in 1 Locher above Amabledu Fond river :
1 Port a "i1 a la Rose rise 5.90

Int6nn6cliatG 20

2 Portage de la Compagnie 5.80

3 Portage du Rocher . . .5.05

2

17.9

558.7

Du Rocher.

Rise from the head ot Portage du Rocher to the foot
of Portage des Parresseux, say 3 inches per mile
in addition to a small fall of 4 inches

3i

1.2

559.9

Rise from the foot of Portage des Parresseux to the
foot of the Talon or Hang falls :
1 Portage des Parresseux rise 33.9

Intermediate 0.25

2 Portage de la Prairie rise , 8.55

Intermediate 0.95

3 Portage rise 6 . 30

Intermediate 0.10

4X0 Portage rise 3.31

Intermediate .. 0.33

2|

53.9

613.6

Foot of Talon.

Rise from the foot of Talon or Hang falls to the foot
of Talon lake :
1 Portao-e de Talon rise ,,. 42.23

2 No Portage rise ... 0 . 85

a

43.4

656.10

Rise from the foot to the head of lake Talon by the
old canoe route, say 1 inch per Tiile

7

0.7

657.5

Lake Talon.

Rise from the head of lake Talon to the foot of
Lower Trout lake, the difference of level ascer-
tained by the new canoe route, the distance by the
old route, viz :
Rise from lake Talon to Lac des Pins 42.19

Fall from Lac des Pins to Lower Trout lake. 10 . 89
Rise from Lower to Upper Trout lake, say 1 inch
per mile in addition to a rise of 1.1 at the outlet
of the Upper lake

4i
3i

31.3
1.4

688.8
690.0

Lower Trout lake.

Rise from foot to head of Upper Trout lake

8

0.0

690.0

Upper Trout lake.

Levels from the surface of Upper Trout lake, 690
feet above the waters of the St. Lawrence at Three
Rivers, to the surface of lake Nipissing

39g

Height of Upper Trout lake

690.0

Rise fiom Trout lake to the height of land between
it and the Vase river on the canoe Portage

i

24.5

714.5

Height of land.

Fall from the height of land to the Riviere a la Vase,
at the end of the Portage

i

22 11

691 6

Vase.

Fall from Trout lake Portage, on the Vase, to lake
Nipissing:
Fall at 1st Portage 3 14

Intermediate 1 00

Fall at 2nd Portage 20 88

Intermediate 1 50

41

26 6

665 0

^4

33

Levels from the surface of Lake Nipissing, 655 feet above the waters of the St..
Lawrence at Three Rivers, to that of Lake Huron, at the mouth of the
French River.

Miles.

Feet.

Total rise.

Heierht of lake Nipissing agreeably to the estimate
of Mr. Win. Hawkins in his report to the Com-
missioners of the lake Huron and Ottawa Survey
in 1838, the falls on the French river are : —
1 Chaudiere falls (upper) 10.0

55

56.6
27.6

665.0
84.0

2 Chaudiere " (lower)

..15.0

3 Rapids

. 3.0

4 "

OR

... O.D

5 "

... 3.0

6

. ... 8.0

7 ... .

2.0

8

3.0

9

6.0

10

. 3.0

Allowanoe for the supposed general slope of inter-
mediate parts of the river, say 6 inches per mile. .

To the level of lake Huron

581.0

578.0
3.0

The ascertained height of the surface of lake Huron
above the sea, according to the Michigan Survey-
ors is -

Making a difference of ....

3(F.)

FOBEST PROTECTION AND TREE CULTURE ON WATER FRONT-
AGES WITH Till': VIEW OF PROVIDING A CONSTANT AND
STKADV SUPPLY OK WATER, FOOD, SHADE, AND SHELTER FOR
FRESH-WATEK FISH.

At the ( onferent e of the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, on Wed-
nesday, -'nlv isth - a paper on the above subject was read by D. Howitz,
|\,| | > onset \;.tor, and Commissioner for Denmark. It is in substance as

follow

Professional foresters take a great interest in this question, as it is of much
importance to the success of pisciculture, and to all fresh-water fishing. Its
value mav not at first appear so great as it really is, but it is sincerely hoped it
may become a question of interest to all, and a special subject for future legisla-
tion. It is the question of the protection, proper management, and cultivation of
forest and forest trees in localities where are found the sources of creeks, rivers,
and a supply of water to lakes and other fresh waters. The greatest part of the
forest land in Canada with which this question has to deal is in the possession of
the State, but there are no laws in existence giving a guarantee for the preserva-
tion and proper management of these forests.

That the forests regulate the flow of the water in water-courses, and insure a
•;dv supply during dry seasons, while they prevent sudden and disastrous
floods, is a fact so often discussed and proved, that it need only be referred to
here. There is still a great deal of uncertainty as to the extent of the effect of a
forest on the rainfall, and it is only by very minute observations of forests, con-
sisting of the same species of trees in various altitudes, that series of trustworthy
-ults can be obtained. Still, there is no longer any doubt as to the effect of the
forest in conserving the water that falls, or that the humidity of the air above a
forest is considerably larger than that of the air of the open country. Experi-
ments in the south of France showed that the rainfall in a forest, as compared
with that in the open country, was in the proportion of 100 to 92.5, while the
evaporation in the forest was only one-third of the evaporation in the open. The
result of this is that the actual water received and retained from the atmosphere
is nearly 50 per cent, greater in a forest than that received and retained by the
plains. Numerous observations have also established the fact that the forests, as
ready conductors of electricity, influence the current of vapours, and that their
action is felt far above the actual height of the trees. Also that they condense
the clouds into rain by lowering the temperature, and act as bulwarks against the
severity of storms; all this we know by daily experience aud observation. That
want of forest protection may have most fearful results has been so often and
sadly proved, and I need only remind you of the disasters caused by great floods
and long droughts in Spain, South of France, Sicily, Chili, Peru, Mauritius, and
many other places, and you will grant the importance of the question. In the
Murcia \ alley the river was reduced to a succession of stagnant pools, which dur-
the summer heat developed malaria, fever, and miasmatic exhalations, detrimental
to life and health, and furnishing but scant and bad accommodation for the few
remaining fish.

But as soon as the winter rains came, the river, in fact nearly all the valley,
became a raging torrent, destroying life and property, and all because the forests
on the ranges and mountains had been devastated, no legal restrictions protecting
them. As a question of national economy ; as a question of protection to life and
property ; and as a question of prosperity, forest protection has the greatest

35

claim to the attention of the Legislature. The forest, with its number-
less roots and decaying vegetation, retains the rain water, and prevents it from
rushing to the rivers and the eea, while it gives it off to these slowly and steadily.
It acts like a great sieve and retains the fine particles of the soil, which the influ-
ence of the air and sun, the frost and rain, and the action of the numberless roots
have decomposed, thereby fertilizing the land and forming a layer of mould or
humus, in which insects, worms, larvae, and other animalcules live and breed.

In his most interesting paper on fish diseases, Prof. Huxley said that drought
or flood did not seem to afiect the saprolegnea* but that a steady flow was bene-
ficial to the fish.

Mr. Wilmot, Superintendent of Fish Culture, Canada, in the discussion
which followed, pointed out that the disease nearly always appeared where the
regularity of the«supply of water had been disturbed by the destruction of the
forests.

I presume, therefore, that both these learned and practical gentlemen will
agree with me in the importance of forest protection as a means of preserving
the health of the fishes.

The branchlets, leaves, decaying and decayed vegetation, produce a vast
amount of nourishment for the fish, and one most agreeable to them. Each
breeze drops into the water numberless grubs, caterpillars, beetles, flies, and other
insects, the food most relished by the fishes, while from the banks and roots
worms and grubs are constantly supplying them with delicacies.

The shade of the overhanging trees is also agreeable to the fish, and one needs
only to place a board in a stream and see the fish gather underneath it to be con-
vinced of this.

We all know that a shady deep pool is a good place in which to seek for fish,
and have often observed the predilection fish have for the shady side of a stream.
But not only as regards fresh-water fishing can this be said. In Denmark it is a
well-kno\vn fact, that the best fishing is where a forest is close to the shore, and
in particular where the trees, as is often the case in that country, overhang the
very sea. The shadowing trees have another, and, perhaps, the far more import-
ant effect of preventing a large evaporation, and at the same time, keeping the
water clear and cool in summer, while on the same account the winter frosts do
not deal so severely with them. In all forest country the changes of temperature
are not so severely felt as in a treeless country or on the open plains, and the
effect upon the water is even greater. It is a popular saying in Denmark of the
forest streams, that they are cool in the summer and warm in the winter, this, of
course, meaning that they present that feeling in comparison to the atmosphere.
The forests not only regulate the flow of the water, but they purify the water. This
is an experience often demonstrated in Australia in cases where streams have
been polluted by wool-washing establishments. After having passed a few miles
through a shady and dense forest, the water will appear as clear and pure as it
was above the woolwash.

I need not here enter upon more reasons for the conservation of existing forests
to insure a steady supply, or to draw your attention to the danger in not protect-
ing them by legislation. But I will draw your attention to the advisability of
cultivating forests on places suitable for the supply of water, and especially
along water courses and lakes, as means of purifying these, preventing too great

*A fungus or mould.

Monition, supplviiiLT food for fish, and providing these with shade against the
nivs ,,f the -uinnier sun, and shelter from the pelting rains, the hail and the

temp'

Salmon fishing and all fn-h water fishing depend upon proper attention to
this matter, and I feel certain that if the true causes were properly investigated
where fish were said to disappear from a stream, in half the cases it would be
found that the shade and shelter of the forests or protecting border trees had
hem taken away. It was said at the reading of Sir James Gibson Maitland's
lellenl papi-r on the " Salmonidse " that it was not enough to place spawn and
frv in a water ; they must be provided with proper food, and the best means to
do this is to preserve the border trees and insure a steady supply of water and
food hv preserving the forests from whence the supply of water is derived. But,
as before remarked, it is not enough to preserve the present forest. New forest
must be cultivated on the barren ranges, and many a stream" now nearly empty
during dry seasons, will be refilled and soon teem with fish and food for the many.
So far for the principle of the conservation of the forest.

I will now briefly mention the most suitable trees and their culture. But,,
before entering upon this, I must draw jour attention to the important condition
to be observed in the management of such forest areas as are preserved for the
sake of conservation of water. This condition is density. In the dense shade of
a well closed forest are developed all these atmospheric conditions on which
depend the greatest effects of the forest in regard to climate and water conserva-
tion. The so-called periodical thinning out in these areas should be carried on
with the greatest care, and might with advantage be nearly dispensed with, if
the economy of the management would permit it. The result would be, besides
the effect on the water conservation, that tall straight trees would be reared,
yielding timber most valuable for all practical purposes. Nature itself would do
the thinning out, and do it in a better way than we could hope to do, while the
ground would be kept moist and in a state favorable to the decomposition of
vegetable matter. It is desirable, therefore, to frame regulations regarding such
forests, deciding the minimum to be preserved of the number of trees per acre,
due regard being, of course, paid to age, species, altitude and locality. For these
reasons it is highly important that all such forests, whether private property,
commons, or belonging to the State, should be placed under the control of the
State.

The different trees have naturally a different effect as regards conservation
of water and production of food and shelter for fish, as I will here briefly point
out. To simplify matters, we may divide all forest trees into two large groups,
the deciduous and the evergreen trees. The deciduous trees, of which, so far as
Great Britain is concerned, the oak, elm, beech, plane, larch, willow, and poplar,
are the most prominent, have a decided advantage over the evergreens. I need
not here enlarge upon the fact that the full- shady foliage during summer is far
more effective in preventing a large evaporation, and that the branches of the
trees of this group are more spreading than those of the other. The energy of
life seems to be far greater in these trees towards effecting our objects, and, for
direct border trees to a water, they are undoubtedly the best suited. The great
amount of foliage and branchlets yearly thrown by these trees forms a prominent
factor in the economy of nature, and their decaying vegetation is full of teeming
life and food for fish.

That this group is eminently suited for water conservation, was illustrated
in a forest in Denmark, where an area of firs and pines was cultivated with beech
and oak. After a lapse of about fifteen years, a mill stream, which, during the

37

time of the evergreen trees, had dwindled down considerably, assumed such pro-
portions that the irrigation of a considerable area was affected by it, besides
supplying the mill with an abundance of water. As regards the evergreen trees,
the first cultivation of barren ranges on high plateaus might advantageously be
undertaken with these, on account of their ability to resist the severity of the
climate in those exposed localities, and to grow on stony and poor soil. But, even
on rocky ground and in high altitudes, the larches, birches, and other deciduous
trees, will often do well and serve better for the end which we have in view, the
water storage and the pisciculture.

In such localities, where only the most hardy trees can be reared, it would
be practicable to cultivate along the watercourses, in the valleys and ravines, or any
lower ground, a few rows of deciduous trees as soon as the other trees had attained
sufficient height to protect them from the storms and the frosts. Several objects
may be gained by doing so. First, the shade, shelter, and other beneficial effects
for the fishes ; secondly, that more valuable timber could be reared, as these trees
have, as a rule, a greater preference for damp and moist localities than the ever-
greens ; and thirdly, because the deciduous trees permit more freely a luxuriant
undergrowth of shrubs and annuals.

All fresh-water fishermen will agree with me in the advantage of having a
good growth of annuals, as watercress, nettles, etc., near the bank, and have
observed that during feeding time the fish always seek such places. There is a
vast variety of shrubs and annuals that might easily and with great advantage
be introduced and grown on the river banks, but it would be outside the bounds
of this paper to enter fully on the theme. However, I may only mention that
many fodder plants and grasses from other countries might be a source of wealth
to the population, and greatly benefit the fish as well as the owners of the land,
if cultivated on the banks.

The Prickly Comfrey, e. g. (Symphytum asperrimum) which yields such a
•splendid forage by its abundant foliage, and many others, are easily reared, both
from seed and cuttings, and should do well in the low lands, while on the sandy
beaches, near the outlet of rivers and creeks, the cabbage radish (Pringlce anti-
scorbutica) would cover these barren and desolate places with vegetation, and
furnish an object of merchandise by packing them for the use of fishermen and
sailors in the Arctic regions. The plant, when cooked, is a good substitute for
cabbage, and has a most wholesome effect on persons suffering from scorbutica.

By a judicious forest management, the land can be kept covered constantly
and always in a state favorable to the purpose of storing the water, but it is
important that both sides of the stream should be planted instead of cultivat-
ing twice the distance on one side. A great many American trees might well be
introduced, as, for example, the Swamp Cypress (Taxodium distichum), a great
tree yielding a fine-grained timber, hard and durable, and the Leverwood tree,
Hop-hornbeam, Ironwood (Ostrya viryinica), which, besides excellent timber,
furnishes a relished forage from its rich foliage: these, and a great many more
might have a good effect on the river fishing, besides other advantages But it
is particularly the willows to which our attention should be drawn. The pre-
ference which these trees have for water, and particularly for running
water, is well known, and points directly to the practicability of placing
them in those localities so well suited for them. The fish like willows, and
I have oftentimes in Australia seen the best fishing places close to where some
weeping willows (Salix babylonica) had taken the place of the indigenous and
•even more shady wattles (Acacias).

38

Tin- yearly eonsumption of osiers in England is far greater than the
national -upi>lv. an. I as the luisket industry is constantly on the increase, it
would also on this account be advisable to further the cultivation of the osier
willows. !•,,!• li^lit. sandy banks, the best willow should be Salix purpurea, and
as it is so easily propagated, it will well repay the cost of cultivation, besides
binding tin- 1 tanks, making them firm and adding to the health of the locality
as well as that of the water. For more clayey soil, 8. viminalis and the more
celfl -rated S.capracB, so much sought for powder factories, should be the best.
The cuttings must be taken from the one to two-year-old shoots, and be put 1
to H foot a pan, in double or treble rows 2 to 3 feet apart, care being taken to
leave only half an inch or less above ground.

There are many localities where comparatively vr lueless land, close to the
mouths of rivers and canals, might be made highly profitable, at the same time
as the cultivation of it with the before mentioned trees and plants would improve
the state of the fishing, and, before placing spawn and fish in any water, I con-
sider it important to pay great attention to this question. Where few or no>
trees exist it will be necessary to cultivate them, and I feel certain that such,
proceeding will enhance the chances of the success of pisciculture. I will not
here enter further upon the practical details of the qeustion. These are bound
to vary with the locality, and the local foresters will know how to deal with
them.

In drawing the attention of the conference to this question, it is with the
sincere hope that it may enlist your sympathy, and that the public opinion may
be won for it. That it is important for all fresh-water fishing is evident. That
is one more reason added to the many why we should regard the forest as a pre-
cious heirloom to be deeply revered, properly used, and, through careful main-
tenance, descend improved and enriched to posterity.

39

SYSTEMATIC MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS.*

THE MODEL FOREST.

Imagine a uniformly productive tract, divided into any number (n) of
divisions, or compartments of equal area; the first stocked with trees one
year old, the second with trees two years old, and so on in an ascending
series up to the nth compartment stocked with trees n years old. And let
the revolution or age at which the trees of any compartment are to be cut,
be n years. The land will then be parcelled out into a number of compartments
equal to the number of years in the revolution and each one will
be stocked with trees one year older than those of a compartment im-
mediately proceeding it in age, so that there will be a complete series of groups
of all ages from one to n years old If, now, all trees n years old, that is those
in the nth compartment, be cut, and the land immediately restocked with young
growth, it is evident that, at the end of twelve months, the group of trees next
in order of age, or n minus one year at the time of the first cutting, will have
advanced to maturity, while the plants on the first coupe will have taken the
place of the youngest group in the series, and the plants of all intermediate com-
partments have advanced one year in age. At the expiration of twelve months
from the time of the first cutting, we may therefore again cut a group n years
old, and so on forever, cutting a group n years old once a year without demolish-
ing the standing stock.

The yearly produce thus obtained is. in fact, the annual growth, or interest,
of the material standing on n compartments, and is called the sustained yield,
and a forest so organized is called a model, or ideal forest, because it represents
a state of things which is theoretically perfect, if never quite attainable in
practice.

If, in the case just considered, we were to cut more than the sustained yield
in any year, we would be trenching on the capital stock and unable to maintain
an unvarying yield. If on the other hand, we were to cut less, we would not be
working up to the full capability of the forest and would have a certain amount of
capital, in the form of trees, lying idle, and for the time being unremunerative.

A forest may, therefore, be regarded in the light of a capital producing by
its yearly growth a certain interest in wood, just as a sum of money which is
lent out produces interest ; and, in estimating the growth of a forest viewed as a
productive money capital the rate is calculated in precisely the same way as in
ordinary money transactions.

Trees of about the same age and height, growing together in a mass, or trees
growing in a sub-compartment are called a group. A compartment may con-
tain one or more groups ; if more than one, the area occupied by each group is.
called a sub-compartment. The group is the smallest unit of mass, and the sub-
compartment is the smallest of area, in regular forests.

THE REVOLUTION.

The term revolution is used to donate the period of years which is being
fixed to elapse from the time of the production of a tree, or group, to the time of
its being cut down. It does not necessarily correspond to the age at which a
tress is harvested, because trees sometimes have to be cut, or fall from natural
causes, before the revolution fixed upon is completed.

* Macgregor ; Organization and Valuation of Forests.

41)

Tin- I. 'Mirth of thr n volution may depend on many tilings; such as the kind
,t- tree, :m«l tin- method of IV-.-M. 'ration to ho followed— subjects which are fully
.iiiiiin'<l in books ..n s\ 1\ irulture — and the special objects of the proprietor.
Tin- principal ohjrcts of the latter may be classed as follows: —
T.» obtain from the l:md the largest possible average annual return, (1) of
material, 2) of money, (3) »f interest on his capital invested; or, to adopt the
involution besl suited to (4) natural regeneration, or some (5) special, technical
purpo-r. U, •volutions tixed with a view to make such special requirements are
calli-d, respectively: — The revolution of the largest mean yearly yield, (1) in
•o.l and (-2) money, <:•!) the financial revolution, (4) the physical, and (5) the
t. •chnical.

CHOICE OF A REVOLUTION.

For private owners there can be no doubt as to the most favorable revolu-
tion— the financial. "But when it is a question of forests belonging to the State,
it is i'ivt|Uently urged that cost what it may, it is the duty of a government to
providr for all possible requirements of the community, and to prevent a diminu-
tion of the supply of any kind of material. No doubt a good deal may be said
in favor of this view. In the first place, it is undeniable that forests that can be
cut «lo\vn any day may take years or even centuries to replace, and that it would
never do to rely on private enterprise for the supply for the largest timber, more
particularly as it seldom pays to grow it. Again, experience teaches that
private individuals cannot be relied upon to provide even small timber, or fire
wood, which does pay; the temptation to exceed the capability of the forest, or to
convert all the standing stock into gold, whenever money is required by the
proprietor, is irresistible, and not to be restrained by other people's ideas of moral
obligations to themselves and posterity.

Xow, without denying that circumstances (as in the case of protective forests)
are conceivable which would render it advisable for a State to keep a forest
standing after it had reached financial maturity, advocates of ths financial revo-
lution may reply as follows: — As a general rule, it is the business of a govern-
ment to make the most of the property entrusted to its charge, rather than to
anticipate and provide for highly improbable contingencies which, if they ever
did threaten to arise, would certainly not in these days take everybody by
surprise.

The government timber forests of all civilized countries are of vast extent,
Spain perhaps alone excepted. They are are all systematically managed, or in a
fair way to be so, and could npt therefore, be swept away as if by magic, nor the
uding stock suddenly reduced to a great extent, because that would involve
the sale of largely increased quantities of wood, which could not be quickly dis-
posed of without greatly depreciating its value. In a well-regulated forest,
therefore, the financial revolution would act as a self-adjusting measure of the
requirements of the people, and act as a regulator of the supply in sympathy
with their most pressing wants.

NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS.*

In forests naturally regenerated by seed, the mother trees are only gradually
removed, and several cuttings go on at once. In every rational method of working
a forest, reproduction ought to be the result of the cuttings themselves.

*Bagneris: Elements of Sylviculture.

41

This is one of the essential objects of the science and art of sylviculture.
Thus in the different kinds of high forest, reproduction is obtained from seed shed
by the trees under conditions favorable to germination, while in coppices it is
obtained just as naturally, by means of the shoots principally and secondarily by
means of the seeds furnished by the standards.

But whatever the precautions taken, in both descriptions of forest there are
often spots where seedlings do not come up, or where stools die and leave blanks.
At other times it may happen that the reserve does not contain a sufficient
proportion of a given species, a mixture of which is necessary, or that this species
has disappeared owing to indiscreet operations or the total absence of
all operations. In each of these different cases recourse must be had
to artificial means in order to restore the good condition of the forest
or a satisfactory composition of the crops. But such means ought to
be the exception not the rule. It cannot become general and take the place of
natural methods. To abandon natural reproduction is only to retrograde, to
return to the infancy of the art ; it is tantamount to claiming to supersede the
forces of nature ; above all it is simply wasting money under the false idea of
economy, only to arrive in the end at results which are at the best doubtful.

Nevertheless, artificial restocking cannot be totally proscribed. It forms
the necessary complement of natural regeneration, but it must remain only its
complement. Hence it is necessary for the forester to know how to do it well.
Besides tins, it is the only method of stocking extensive treeless wastes.

REGENERATION BY SEED.*

Regeneration by seed is applicable to all species ; that by shoots and suckers
applies only to broad-leaved species ; since the power of reproduction of conifers
by shoots is either absent altogether, or so feeble that it is useless for sylvicultural
purposes.

Under natural regeneration b}' seed is understood the formation of a new
wood by the natural fall of seed, which germinates and develops into a crop of
seedlings. The trees which yield the seed are called the mother trees; they may
either stand on the area which is to be restocked, or on adjoining ground. A
distinction is made between —

(1) Natural regeneration under shelter-woods ;

(2) Natural regeneration from adjoining woods.

In natural regeneration under shelter-woods the area is stocked with seed-
bearing trees, and the new generation springs up under their shelter ; for some
time at any rate, the area bears the new crop and part of the old one.

The system is that which occurs in primeval forests. When a tree falls
from old age, or other cause and an opening is thus formed in the cover overhead,
the seed falling from the adjoining trees germinates and develops into seedlings;
these grow up under the shelter ol the older trees, until they in their turn become
mother and shelter trees. In this manner primeval forest, if undisturbed, goes on
on regenerating itself for generations. The process is a slow one, as the young
crop will only develop when sufficient light is admitted by the fall or death of
the old trees. In sylviculture it is accelerated by the artificial removal of a

* Schlich : A Manual of Forestry.

42

of bheold tiv.-s, \\hcn they have become fit for economic purposes. By
^ m.Mli lira tii ms have been introduced which lead to a number of distinct
methods :

( 1 ' Tin xi'li'i'f'ioit si/strni.

(2) 7'ln- ,'//•«"/' system.

(:>) 77/. compartment system.

(4) Y7/< *//•//> xi/ntem.

In eacli of these there are certain general conditions of success which hold
good for all.

Tinier the selection system, regeneration goes on in all parts of the forest by
the removal of the oldest, largest, diseased or defective trees, wherever they are
found. No part of the forest is ever at rest ; advantage is taken of all seed years
for the restocking of small holes cut into the cover here and there by the removal
of one or a fe\\r trees. Of the large quantities of seed which fall annually or
periodically to the ground, only a small portion finds conditions favorable for
the development of young trees ; the latter are found chiefly in those parts
where old trees are standing, or where the cover has been interrupted. Here
little groups of seedlings spring up, which must be assisted by cuttings either
final or intermediate, to afford them the necessary light.

CHOICE BETWEEN DIRECT SOWING AND PLANTING.

Formerly the artificial formation of woods was chiefly effected by direct
sowing, planting being restricted to special cases where the other method was
not likely to succeed. The reasons for this were that sowing was considered to
be more certain, cheaper, and that it was generally the custom to use too large
transplants. In the course of time the raising of plants was elaborated, smaller
plants were used, and the expense considerably reduced, so that now far more
planting than direct sowing is done.

Yet it is not always a foregone conclusion that planting is better or more
suitable than direct sowing, since many different conditions and factors affect the
ultimate results. The effect of some of these factors is as yet somewhat obscure,
but in many respects experience has taught the forester which of the two-
methods is preferable under a given set of conditions.

Sowing and planting are costly. The outlay on the latter can, however, be
considerably reduced by planting small plants according to a simple and cheap
method.

Where artificial regeneration follows clear cutting, the young plants are
exposed to damage by frosts, drought, insects and weeds in a far higher degree than
if the regeneration is conducted under a shelter- wood. In fact, tender species
must be raised in the latter way, so that for them clear-cutting is excluded.
Insects frequently become formidable to coniferous woods raised in clear-cuttings,
while experience has shown them to be less dangerous to natural seedlings, es-
pecially when these are raised under a shelter-wood.

In the case of clear-cuttings, the laying bare of the ground for a series of
years may seriously affect the fertility of the soil, so much so that the method is
hardly admissible on inferior soils.

Natural regeneration involves less expenditure than sowing or planting.
In some cases the outlay may be absolutely nil, but in most cases some artificial
help has to be given either by working (wounding) the soil, or by sowing and

43

planting. Still the outlay is considerably smaller. It must, however, not be
overlooked that in the majority ot cases natural regeneration requires much time ;
as long as the shelter trees increase sufficiently in size and quality so as to make
up for any loss on this account no harm is done, but where this is not the case
artificial regeneration may be actually more profitable.

Damage by frost, drought, and weed growth is avoided, or at any rate con-
siderably reduced. The same may be said as regards damage by insects, though
perhaps not to an equal extent.

SUMMING UP.

Neither the artificial nor the natural method of regeneration is the best at
all times and under any circumstances ; only a consideration of the local con-
ditions can lead to a sound decision as to which is preferable in a given case.
In forming such a decision the forester must chiefly take the following points -
into consideration :—

(a.) General objects of management.

(6.) Species to be grown.

(c.) Condition of locality.

(d.) Available funds.

(e.) Skill and capacity of the staff.

LABOR KEQUIRED VN FORESTRY.

Forests require labor in a great variety of ways, which may be brought
under the following three headings :—

(1) General administration, creation, tending, harvesting, etc., or work done
in the forest.

(2) Transport of produce.

(3) Industries which depend on forests for their prime material.

(1) General Administration. The quantity of labor required in the forests
differs considerably according to circumstances, the value of the produce, and the
consequent degree of the minuteness of the system of management. Great diffi-
culty is experienced in obtaining accurate statistics on this point, but five days'
work annually for every acre of land under forest may be accepted as an approxi-
mate estimate all round. From the available data it has been calculated that in
the forests of Germany about £39,000,000 are paid annually for administration,
creation, preservation, road making, cutting of wood, and collection of minor
forest produce, on which about 200,000 families exist, or about 1,000,000 people.
This estimate refers to forests which are already in existence, and in which fencing
is done only in very rare instances. When new forests are created, additional labor
is required at the outset. Nevertheless it is beyond doubt that forests require
considerably less labour than land under field crops.

(2) Transport of produce. Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce its
transport forms a business of considerable magnitude. Timber and firewood are
carried by water wherever practicable, but also extensively overland. Under
this head the sum of at least $19,480,000 is paid annually in Germany.

(3) Forest industries. The labour which is required to work up the raw
material yielded by forests is of a much greater extent than that employed in
managing the forests and in transport. There are the workmen employed in

44

.v-milk liuiMm-, ship-building, carpentry, coach-building, engineering, turning,
rving, paper pulp manufacture, match-making, the manufacture of cases, and

boxes, round and square, from the largest packing case to the smallest toy _box,

frames of sieves, drums and cask hoops, wooden-ware for table covers, blinds,
icils, wooden nads, instruments, tools, plates, shovels, spoons, shoes, lasts,
Idle trees, l-rusln-s, harrows, and gunstocks, toys of thousands of patterns, and

.•ndl« as other I. ranches of industry, some of which can only exist in and around

forests.

The \va-v- earned under this head amount in Germany to something like

>] t-iijiioiioi) a year, maintaining 600,000 families or 3,000,000 people.

Taking now the three heads of labour together, it has been estimated that
SMin,. tiling like li' per cent, of the population of Germany is employed in forest
\vork, transport <>!' forest produce, and the working up of the raw material yielded
hy the forests. An important feature of the work connected with the forests
and their produce is, that a greater part of it can be made to fit in with the
requirements of agriculture ; that is to say, that it can be done when field crops do
not require attention. Hence forest work offers an excellent opportunity to the
rural labourer or small farmer of earning some money when he has nothing else
to do, and when he would probably sit idle, if no forest work were obtainable.

ORGANIZATION OF THE PERSONNEL.*

This will depend in a great measure on the extent of the forest concerned.
It is evident that the degree of division of labour which is possible in the man-
agement of forests comprising a million acres could not be applied with advantage
to an estate of a thousand acres, and that private individuals will seldom be in a
position to adopt the elaborate systems followed in the State Forests of European
countries.

The following plan is that usually adopted for the management of forests of
large extent, such as those of most European countries.

The establishment consists of an inferior and a superior branch. The former
consists of (1) guards and (2) rangers.

(1) Guards or Under- Foresters. — The duty of these is, as the name implies
in the first place, protective. But, besides this, they are employed in the execu-
tive work of their beats, as, for instance, in supervising work of regeneration and
felling.

(2) Rangers, 'or, range-foresters, who have immediate charge of the executive
work of a range, and are responsible for its proper conduct to the assistant con-
servator.

The superior branch consists of (1) Assistant-Conservators, (2; Deputy-Con-
servators, (3) Conservators, and, in certain cases, of (4) an Inspector-General.

(1) Assistant-Conservators. — An assistant-conservator has charge of several
ranges, called collectively, a sub-division. Besides the general management of the
work of the sub-division, the accounts of each range are audited, and have to be
passed by him before payment is made.

(2) Deputy-Conservators. — A Deputy-Conservator has charge of several sub-
divisions, called collectively, a division. His duty is purely to control, and he
does not, as a rule, interfere with the executive work of the Assistant -Conserva-

* Macgregor ; Organization and Valuation of Forests.

45

tors ; but it is his business to see that the general provisions of the sanctioned
working schemes and yearly budget of his division are properly carried out, and
to audit and pass the accounts of the sub-divisional officers.

(3) Conservators. — A Conservator has general control of several divisions,
collectively called a c.ircle, comprising all the forests of the State, or, if they are
very extensive, of a Province only. He is the immediate adviser of government
in all forest matters concerning his circle ; holds in fact, in this respect, much the
same position as an under-secretary of State, and usually has his headquarters
at the seat of Government.

(4) Inspectors-General. — An Inspector-General stands in the same relation
to a supreme government as a conservator to its local government, and exercises
a general supervision over the whole system of a country.

It will be observed that by this system the administration is divided into an
executive and a controlling branch, the former consisting of Assistant-Conserva-
tors and their subordinates, and the latter of Deputy-Conservators and officers of
superior rank.

Members of the inferior establishment do not, as a rule, rise higher in the
service. A much lower standard of technical and general education is demanded
from them than from the members of the superior branch, and they are, therefore,
generally unfitted for the higher appointments.

The size of ranges, sub-divisions, divisions, or circles, depends on local circum-
stances, such as the degree of intensiveness of the working, compactness of the
forest area, mode of treatment and means of communication. It is, for instance,
evident that, other things being equal, a Deputy-Conservator could manage a
larger division where there was railway communication than where there
was none. It is equally obvious that a ranger could manage a much larger forest
worked by the method of equal areas, and solely with the view to producing
firewood coppice, than a seedling forest worked by the combined method with a
view to the production of large timber and naturally regenerated.

CHOICE OF AN OKGANIZER.

Should the sub-divisional officer who has been in immediate charge of the
forest, perhaps for many years, be intrusted with a preparation of a plan, or
should a special branch of the executive be employed, whose sole business is (o
prepare plans of management ?

In regard to this question, opinions are divided. Of course it is one which
can only arise in regard to large tracts of forest belonging to one proprietor —
the State for example. A small proprietor would not be able to keep a special
staff fully employed.

It has been urged in favor of the local officials conducting the organization
and revision of a forest, that he must know the special conditions far better than
other people, and that he would take much more interest in the carrying out of
his own programme than that of another. ^

On the other hand, it has been maintained that the special practical knowl-
edge and skill necessary to organize a forest successfully cannot be acquired in
the ordinary routine of an executive officer, who would probably not be called
upon to carry out a work of this kind more than a few times during his whole
career ; that by constant practice a special branch would attain the necessary
proficiency ; that if the work is done by a small body of men, it is more likely to

I..- uniformly > ;uii. ,1 out (linn by a number of different persons; that the officer
in c-li.-iri:'' i^ >">t the proper person to revise his own work; that he will be
always tlirir tn assist and advise the organizer.

.

A large majority of countries, including India, have adopted the system of
having works of organization carried out by a separate branch of the service;
and soim- hnvr gone ^till further and constituted a distinct survey branch as well
as an assr>-mi-nt l>ranrh. As a rule the separation of these two departments is
not dfsirulilc. IV-rliaps it conduces towards efficiency, if a part of the staff is
ocrliisivrlv employed in surveying and the other in assessment, but the work of
tin.- two is so intimately connected that it is expedient they should both be under
one head.

The composition of the organization staff depends on special circumstances.
Sometimes a good plan is to have a board of senior officers, presided over by the
principal officer. All organization schemes are submitted for the approval of,
:md have to be passed by, this board, the members of which carry on the work in
addition to their ordinary controlling duties. Under the board is the working
staff, which carries out the works of organization, and which is recruited by
• 1 rafting men into it from the ordinary branch of the service after they have
-i.-rvi.'d a few years and become thoroughly acquainted with the working of a
sub-division.

This system is onl}^ suitable for districts in which the headquarters of the
controlling officers on the board are all in one place. Each member looks speci-
ally after the working of the plans in his own division, and generally conducts
the revisions in person.

An important duty of the organization branch is to collect and work up
statistics. The business of collecting statistics and drawinggeneral inferences is best
done by a central institution of this kind, and much useful work would often be lost
without a trained staff', whose special duty is to work up details collected in dif-
ferent parts of the country : the " Bavarian tables," which have proved so useful,
not only in Bavaria, but throughout Germany, are a case in point; they would
probably never have been constructed it' there had not been a central organiza-
tion department at Munich.

Speaking generally, the bent of the argument appears to be in favor of
having this kind of work done by a special branch ; but not always, as circum-
stances ma}* without doubt arise which render the alternative course advisable,
as, for instance, when the aggregate area of forests requiring to be organized is
so great that their organization could not be accomplished within a reasonable
period by a necessarily limited staff, or when the methods to be employed are so
simple that their execution does not require any special skill.

47

FORESTRY IN THE COLONIES AND IN INDIA.*

A circular containing questions relating to colonial timber was addressed by
the Secretary of State for the Colonies to the administrative heads of the various
British possessions in 1874, from the replies to which it appears that in none of
the six Provinces of the Dominion had measures been taken to secure the replant-
ing of cleared areas, or the afforestation by natural reproduction, notwithstanding
an enormous and growing consumption.

In the Province of Ontario more than 87| per cent, of the timber annually
cut was exported, and, looking to the magnitude of the timber exports, it was
remarkable that so little had been done to prevent the threatened exhaustion of
the chief article of trade in the Province.

In Nova Scotia the amount of timber annually cut was estimated to exceed
by 25 per cent, the amount which could be cut each year without permanent
in] ury to the forests, while in Prince Edward Island the amount annually cut exceeded
nearly seventeen times the quantity which would represent a prudent rate of
consumption.

The timber resources of British Columbia were declared by local authorities
to be practically inexhaustible, but it is probable that, should the whole strain of
the demand be thrown upon British Columbia, a few years would make a very
perceptible inroad upon the stock of native timber situated in accessible districts
of the Province.

The importance of this trade to the commercial prosperity of the Dominion
will be exemplified by the following table, compiled from materials contained in
returns issued by the Board of Trade.

Comparative cables of money values of timber and corn (grain) exported to
the United Kingdom during five years ending 1876.

Articles.

Value.

1872

1873

1874

1875

1876

Total.

Timber and wood

$
4,218,661
3,003,104

$
5,220,296
3,898,204

$
5,706,567
3,697,616

$
4,205,045
3,124,056

$
5,282,657
2,814,003

$
24,633,226
16,536,983

Corn and grain

Timber and corn (grain) are the chief exports of the Provinces of the Domi-
nion, but the value of the timber exports exceeded the value of the corn exports by
more than one-third, and constituted nearly one-hall of the total value of all the
exports from the Dominion to the United Kingdom.

The returns exhibit, in a striking manner, the urgent need for some prompt
and comprehensive action to st ly the influences at work to destroy the indigenous
forests, which constitute, in many instances, the principal natural riches of the
colonies. There is a tendency in newly-settled countries to regard the timber as

* Scblich : In Proceedings of Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xxi., 1889-90.

48

;i mere encuml. ranee to the land, and the finest timber is that first selected for
truction l>v dre, bj ring barking, and other rude and wasteful methods in

faV"lir \\ itll srttlers.

It is probably not po-^iMe in newly-settled colonies to put restraints upon
tin- ele;irim; ill' the most fertile soils, although it would seem to be advisable to
leave 1 "'Its for protection against the winds, and to enact that all the hills should
be preserved in perpetual forest to protect the sources of the springs.

In maiiv cases the reports of surveyors-general and other officials demon-
strated the possibility of preserving, and even of restoring the forests, by the
constitution of a small but energetic forestry department, but nothing worthy of
notice had, up to the date of these returns, been done in the nature of forest
conservation.

NEW ZEALAND.

The subject of forest conservation appears first to have engaged the attention
of the Colonial Legislature in October, 1«G8, when a motion was made and agreed
to that " steps be taken to ascertain the present condition of the forests of the
colony."

In the course of a parliamentary debate in 1873, it was remarked, with
reference to the Kauri wood, that extensive districts which were once covered
with that wood were then totally destitute of it, and that its extermination pro-
gressed from year to year at .»uch a rate that its final extinction was as certain
as that of the natives of New Zealand. Another speaker maintained tha.t " unless
great care was taken, there would not be a Kauri tree in the colony in the next
generation.*

As the result of the agitition of this question, an act was passed by the
colonial Legislature in August, 1874, entitled " An Act to provide for the estab-
lishment of State forests, and tor the application of the revenues derivable there-
from." The Dreamble recites that "it is expedient to make provision for preserving
the soil and c'imateby tree planting, for providing timber for future industrial
purposes, for subjecting some portion of the native forest to skilled management
and proper control, and for these purposes constitute State forests."

The Act provides that an annual sum of £10,000 for thirty years is to be
paid quarterly out of the Consolidated Fund into a special fund, to be called the
" State Forests Account," and all receipts from State forests are to be paid into
this account. The money is to be expended in managing and planting State
forests and nurseries, and the establishment of schools for instruction in forestry.
The department is placed under the supreme control of a minister of the Crown,,
who is to be assi&ted by a " conservator " and subordinate officers. Lands may,
from time to time, be set apart as State forests on the recommendation of the super-
intendent or of the Provincial Council of any Province. Power is taken to set
aside pastoral leases or licenses over lands so selected.

The Governor-in-Council may make, alter, and repeal by-laws and regula-
tions—

Prescribing the duties of officers.

To regulate the form and issue of licenses.

* Kauri Dammara Auxtmlis. A Conifer, the largest and most valuable tree in New Zealand. Attain*

a height of ) feet and diameter of 10 feet to 15 feet Grows in Province of Aukland only Exudes

large quantities of resin known as Kauri gum. Weight, 38 llx to 4L Ib per cubic foot ; grows on clay

The above remarks as to the " Kauri " will apply to. our most valuable hard-wood tree (the Black

W iilnut i.

49

To control the management of the forests.

To determine the seasons for the cutting and removal of timber ai;d bark.

To prevent waste and unnecessary destruction.

To prevent the danger and spread of fire.

To prohibit trespass and regulate access.

For constructing roads and tramways in the forests and charging of tolls.

The Act also provides for the punishment of offenders and for the application
of money recoverable as penalties.

As a practical and comprehensive experiment in the direction of forest
conservancy, the results were looked forward to with interest.

AUSTRALIA.

Australia proper consists of the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria,
Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia. The causes which deter-
mine the climate of Australia are remarkable in many ways. In the first place
the northern parts of the country are situated in a tropical, and the southern
parts in a temperate latitude. Secondly, between the two stretches the enormous
central plain is daily heated in summer to a very high degree, the air expands, is
lifted, and flows away on all sides, causing an indraught of moist sea air. This is
forced to rise on reaching the high coast lands, which it moistens in various
degrees. Owing, however, to the great distance from the shore to the centre of the
country, the latter profits only at regular intervals by this, because the indraught
is regularly stopped by the nightly radiation of the heat absorbed during the day,
or the clouds are once more converted into vapour owing to the high temperature
of the air.

Such is the heat of the interior during the summer that the air, if it moves
at all, feels like a furnace blast. Sometimes, however, sufficient masses of clouds
succeed in passing over the coast ranges, and, in such cases, floods of rain fall
upon the inland country. The distribution of the rain differs considerably. The
north coast has the advantage that the air drawn in from that side comes from
the equatorial regions, the great reservoir of moisture.

Then the hills on the east coast are comparatively high, those on the west
coast are lower, and along a portion of the south there are no mountain ranges at
all. Thus it happens that the rainfall at the head of Spencer's Gu'f is only 6 to
8 inches ; at Adelaide, 20 ; Melbourne, 26; Portland, 32; Sydney, 48 ; Newcastle,
44 ; Brisbane, 49 ; and at Rockingham Bay, something like 90.

In every part, however, the rainfall decreases rapidly in passing inland, so
that comparatively little falls on the inner slopes of the coast ranges.

The temperature depends on the situation and the rainfall. The northern
part of the continent is tropical. Brisbane has a mean annual temperature of 6
degrees, Fahr.; Sydney, 63 degrees ; Melbourne, 57 degrees ; and Adelaide, 65
degrees.

The mean temperature in the interior is much higher than along the shore ;.
it is said to rise as high as 130 degrees in the shade during summer.

South Australia was perhaps first in the field to introduce a separate forest
law.

4 (F.)

50

h, Victoria ;i new l/md Act was passed in 1S.S4, which provides, amongst
Others, !»r the folio win-' matters :

! i Tin- I,. rmal ion of State forests.
cJ) The formation of timber reserves.

Tli- management of l>oth.

I Th. management and disposal of timber and other forest produce on the
mi;i ,1 ( Y(i\vn lands not included in the State forests and timber reserves.

1'nder this Act the State forests can only be alienated with the consent of
the t }overnor-in-< 'onneil. The timber reserves shall not be alienated in the first
instance, but as the several parts become denuded of timber, they may be added
i.i the pastoral <>r agricultural lands — in other words, thrown open to selection.
The timber reserves are, therefore, only temporary reserves.

'I he forests generally are worked under the license system, regulated by
rules made under the Act. There are licenses for felling, splitting, clearing under-
growth, the erection of saw-mills, grazing, removal of wattle bark, etc. For each
til' these, licenses certain fees are paid. Penalties are provided for breaches of the
law, or any regulations issued under it.

The question is whether, and in how far, effect has been given to the policy
which is indicated in the Act. Mr. Vincent, an expert and a trained forest officer
of known ability, who served in the Indian Forest Departments since 1873, gives
the following description of forest management in a report to the Governor of
the colony, as existing in 1887.

The area of State forests and timber reserves then stood as follows :—

State forests 664,710 acres,

Timber reserves 690,732 "

Total 1 ,35 5,442 acres.

Ktjual to 2,118 square miles, or about 2 per cent, of' the area of the colony.

Mr. Vincent visited a number of the State forests, timber reserves, and other
forest lands, and he draws a rather gloomy picture of their condition.

This is what he says, for instance, about the Wombat and Bullarook forest
;area, 105,000 acres): — "This is said to have been originally a magnificent forest,
chiefly of messmate or stringy bark, the timber being of the very best class-
enormous quantities have been sent away to Melbourne, Sandhurst, and Ballarat
—there were thirty-six saw-mills at work in 1884 — the splitters have cut more
timber than even the saw-millers — the good timber is now almost all worked out,
except in certain localities in the southern half of the forest. In the portion
which I visited there are only seeond-class trees, with a certain number of bigger
ones, which have been left for some fault. There has been little or no repro-
duction, the whole of the young trees have been burnt, and there are no middle-
aged ones coming on to yield timber some twenty or forty years hence.

' The useless waste and destruction that have been going on in this forest
for the past thirty years defy all description. The saw-mill fellers and the
-plitters have been allowed to go in and cut when and what they chose. Gener-
ally the fellers took one log out of each tree, leaving the rest, which, although not
quite so good as the butt-end log, still consisted of first-class timber. The splitters,
•as often as not, left trees to rot where they had fallen, without even taking out
•one log, on finding that the wood did not split well. Even if they did split, at

51

least three-fifths of the timber in the trees was wasted. Subsequently, when the
wood thus left on the ground was fired, a fierce blaze occurred, which killed or
rendered useless almost as man}^ trees as had been felled. The selection of the
State forests has not been well made here, for some of the best forests have been
left outside, and inferior growth taken up for the reserve.

" As a large increase in the consumption may be safely anticipated, taking
into account the natural increase in the population, the present rapid extension
of quartz mining, and the decrease of timber on private lands, there is likely to
be a great scarcity of timber in the next ten or fifteen years. Already the mining
community complain of the great increase in the price of firewood and timber,
and the neglect which the large area of Crown lands in the vicinity of the mines
receive. On some mines firewood costs now 30 to 40 per cent, more than it did
five years ago, and there is a universal complaint that the timber now supplied
for props, laths, etc., is very inferior and immature."

Mr. Vincent then sums up as follows : — " The immediate causes of this are
the bad license system, the ill-arranged classification of State forests, timber
reserves and Crown lands, the absence of professional foresters to direct opera-
tions, and the neglect to reserve the best natural forests. The officials in charge
•of the forests have often protested against the present license system, explaining
that the forests were being rapidly ruined. They explain that they cannot
protect the forests from theft, and yet no change is made. Why ? Because Par-
liamentary influence is brought to bear by the saw-mill owners and by the splitters,
who are determined that no change shall be made in the present arrangements.
Both these classes are powerful, the splitters especially. When an attempt is
made by the foresters or the Secretary of Agriculture to do justice to the forests
and to protect them, the persons affected organize deputations, questions are asked
in Parliament, and concession after concession is made. There is little hope of
the forests ever receiving proper treatment until the forest question is made a
national one, and removed from the arena of party politics. The question is, are
the electors prepared to allow the saw-millers and splitters to devastate the
remaining forests, robbing them and their children of their supply of timber and
firewood, and risking some of the climatic changes which are traceable to the
•destruction of forests ? Are they prepared to sacrifice a source of large and
increasing revenue to the demands of a limited class ?"

o

It was suggested that the Victorian Government should secure the services
•of a fully competent forest expert, a man like those who introduced systematic
forestry into India, who should be directed to go round the colony, see for him-
self, and then propose what, in his opinion, ought to be done. After all the pass-
ing of fine laws is not such a difficult thing. What is of much greater import-
ance is the determination to carry the law into effect when once passed.

Under any circumstances fehe Government of Victoria should not fall a vic-
tim to the delusion that the formation of some limited plantations will make up
for the loss of the natural forests. The all-important step to be taken is to
gazette and demarcate on the ground a sufficient area of reserved State forests,
and to provide for their systematic management, according to the approved rules
•of scientific forestry, and, in addition, to take what measures are desirable and
practicable for the protection of the forest growth on the Crown lands, which
are not included in the reserve State forests.

The following short abstract indicates what seemed to be required: —

(1) Engagement of a thoroughly competent forest expert to be the head of
the Victorian Forest Department.

52

iL') Selection, demarcation, and legal formation of a sufficient area of
reserved State to rests, suitably distributed over the country, systematically man-

i and ellicieiitly protected.

(3) IV.'tection and disposal of forest produce on Crown lands not included
in the reserved State forests.

If the Government makes up its mind to do this, all the details will settle

themselves easily enOUgh.

INDIA.

India lias to provide an enormous population of 255,000,000 people with
timber and tire.wood, and, apart from a certain amount of teak and fancy woods,
thai country can probably do little towards an increased export of timber.

There are certain reasons why State interference is more called for in the
ea-e of forestry than in most other branches of industry. Most of our valuable
timluT trees require long periods of time to ripen. Large-sized oak trees are from
one hundred to two hundred, and even more, years old. The teak, which comes
to England from India, is derived from trees which are on an average at least 150
years old. If forests are to yield a regular annual return of timber they
require to have trees of all ages, and consequently a considerable accumulation of
material . which has been produced in the course of a long period of time. To
maintain the forests in that condition only a quantity equal to that which grows
annually should be removed, and no more. If more is removed a reduction of
the producing capital must ensue. As long as the estates are in the hands of pri-
vate parties, they are at all times liable to be overworked, that is to say, more
than the annual increment is taken out ; and it is easy to see that in a compara-
tively short time the forests must cease to yield timber. Experience has proved
over and over again that this is generally the result. If we are to make over to
our children the forests in an unimpaired condition they must be treated in a sys-
tematic manner, and this can, as a rule, only be achieved for any length of time
by State interference. But the mere theory of such is by no means sufficient.
Nominal interference on the part of the State is the most disastrous of all.
In that case the forests are looked at as common property, and everybody tries to
get the most out of them and into his own pocket, the result being that they dis-
appear faster than ever,

If the State, as such, has arrived at the conclusion that the maintenance
under forest of a certain proportion of the area is essential or desirable, it must
also, once for all, decide to do what is necessary to secure that area, and to see
that it is managed in a systematic and orderly manner. There are various ways
of doing this. Either the State establishes State forests by setting aside certain
areas at its disposal for forest purposes, or it passes laws which empower it to
supervise the management of communal and even private forests. The former
alternative is much the best wherever it can be adopted, and this is the case in
India and in most of the Colonies.

Practically, only India has really and honestly dealt with the forest ques-
tion. Some of the Colonies are fairly in earnest, but too many have restricted
their action to nominal measures.

India is situated between the 8th and 35th degrees of northern latitude,
hence the southern half of it lies within the tropic. Its length, as well as its

53

greatest breadth, is about 1,900 miles, leaving out of consideration the newly-
acquired territory of tipper Burma. The area and population stand as fol-
lows : —

Area in

Population.
Total.

Per
square mile.

British Territory without Upper Burma

912,000

202,000,000

221

531.000

53,000,000

96

Total ...

1,463,000

255,000,000

170

The physical configuration is very peculiar. The country consists of three
great sections : —

(1) The Himalayas.

(2) The Indo-Gangetic Plain.

(3) The Peninsula.

The Himalayan ranges stand out like a high wall on the north, separating
India from the Thibetan high plateau. The great Indo-Gangetic plain runs
along the southern edge of the Himalayas from Sind in the west to the Bay of
Bengal in the east. To the south of this plain, and partly surrounded by it, lies
the Indian peninsula, forming another plateau of moderate elevation. The con-
trasts of elevation which occur in these territories are greater than those in any
other part of the globe. While the Himalayas reach a height of 29,000 feet, the
plain of Hindustan, at the foot of the hills, rises only a few hundred feet above
sea level ; further south elevation increases again, since the peninsula shows a
height ranging between two thousand and eight thousand feet.

Another peculiar fact is that India receives the drainage of both slopes of
the Himalayas, which ultimately collects into the three great rivers, the Indus,
Bramaputra, and Ganges. The first two rise in close proximity to each other at
the back of the Himalayas ; one runs towards the west and the other towards
the east, until both break through the Himalayas — the former running through
the Punjab and Sind to the Arabian Sea, and the latter through Assam and
Lower Bengal to the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges drains the greater part of the
south face of the Himalayas, finding its way, after uniting with the Bramaputra,
into the Bay of Bengal. The highest part of the peninsula is situated along its
western edge, in consequence of which the greater part of the drainage from this
part of the country goes in an eastern direction into the Bay of Bengal.

It will be easily understood that in a country like India many different
climates are found. As a matter of fact, they range from the driest in Sind to
the wettest along the west coast of the peninsula, in Assam, Eastern Bengal, and
Burma ; and again from the hottest to an arctic climate in the highest regions
of the Himalayas. Of these various climates the following four types may here
be mentioned as most characteristic :—

(1) The climate of tropical India : Showing the highest average temperature ;
the early arrival of the monsoon raius mitigates the summer temperature ; there
is little or no cool season.

(2) The climate of North-western India: Showing the highest summer
temperature, though the average temperature of the year is lower than in the

former region : there are f"iir or live cool and even cold months during winter,
\vli>'ii the elimate ivsemHes that, of South Italy.

ilimate of North-eastern India: Hen- humidity reigns supreme ; the
temperature in sp miner and winter are moderated by the effects of
tin- relatively large <|uantities of moisture in the air.

(4) The climate of tin- Himalayas : It i.- according to elevation, more or 1>
temperate, and e \vith frost. sno\v, and bitter winds in winter, and a

moderate heat in summer.

The rai::fall depends in the first place on a very simple set of phenomena.
'I'll.- extensive plains and table lands of India are in spring and summer heated to
a much higher degree than the surrounding sea, while during winter the air
nverlving the sea is warmer than that over the dry land — in other words, sea

zes prevail during summer and land breezes during winter.

In spring which shall here comprise the months of March, April, and May,

!ii;_die-,t temperature is found over the centre of the peninsula (Nagpur-Hy-

derabad), the difference being from five to ten degrees compared with the tem-

.iture at i- coast on the east or west, or at the foot of the Himalayas.

The air in the centre expands, lifts the higher layers, causes them to flow away
mi all sides, and produces a centre of comparatively low pressure. Into this
centre presses the heavier atmosphere from the surrounding country, principally
from the sea on the south, east, and west, and from the dry table land of Belu-
chistan and Afghanistan on the west and north-west. As a general rule, the moist
si -a breezes gain the upper hand and bring a rainfall, ranging from three to six
inches during this period. The north-western breezes, on the other hand, are
dry, and known as the hot winds of the Bombay Presidency, the north-western
provinces, and Centre India. With the advance of the season the sea- winds become
stronger and stronger, and the air is then drawn from the most distant equatorial
region, the great reservoir of moist air; they now cause a copious rainfall, known

the south-west monsoon. The amount of rain differs, however, very consider-
ably according to the configuration of the country ; in other words, according to
the degree to which the clouds in their forward passage are forced to rise or .sink
a^ain, owing to a rise or fall of the surface.

As long as the sea-winds are sufficiently strong to keep in check and even
force back the north-western winds, all is well for India; but occasionally the
i -verse occurs, that is to say, the north-west winds force back the sea- winds and
proceed far into the Indian plain and the peninsula. If this ascendancy con-
tinues for some time, the rains fail, and scarcity, or even famine, is the result.

In September the monsoon commences to decline, and by degrees north-east-
erly winds replace the south-western and southern breezes. They are dry, except
in part of Madras, where they bring heavy rains until December, and are known
north-east monsoon winds. Local rains of moderate extent are caused during
winter, more especially in the Punjab and North-western Himalayas.

The total annual rainfall ranges from 4 inches in some parts of Sind to moie
than 500 inches in the Khasia Hills, and all intermediate grades are duly re-
presented.

A country which shows such extremes of climate must necessarily show a
most varied vegetation. The actual distribution of the forests is principally
governed by the rainfall. Where that is favorable, production is great, and the
forests are dense ; where it is unfavorable, production proceeds at a slow rate.
Again, the nature of the rainfall governs the character of the forests. Where
the rains are heavy, the country is generally covered with evergreen forests;

where it is less copious, the forests are deciduous ; under a still smaller rainfall
they become sparse, and more dry, untill they gradually end in desert. Conse-
quently, the evergreen forests are found along the moist west coast of the penin-
sula, in the coast districts of Burma, Chittagong, and along the foot and low<-r
slopes of the eastern Himalayas. The deciduous forests occupy the greater part
of the peninsula and Burma away from the coast. Dry forests are found in
Rajputana, and the Punjab, while deserts are the principal feature of Sind.* With
rising elevation in the hills, the forests become gradually temperate, and then
Alpine, until they disappear altogether on approaching the lower limit of the
eternal snow.

These details on the great variety of climates prevailing in India are given,
because some idea on the subject is necessary so as to understand the forest policy,
which is indicated in the case of that country. The main issues of that policy
depend on the following three points :— zuou

(1) Forests in relation to climate and rainfall. /

(2) The regulation of moisture, and

(3) Forest pi^oduce required by the country.

The south-west monsoon must for ever be the main source of moisture in
India, and the climate and rainfall of the Indian plain, and of the peninsula, are
generally subject to other influences, in comparison with which the effects of
forests must alwajs remain small. On this account then, afforestation cannot be
pushed in the case of India. It must, however, be mentioned that the shade and
shelter of forests will be most gratefully accepted by man and beast in a hot
country like India.

In a tropical climate like that of India, the evaporation from an area expDSed
to the full effects of bhe sun, is probably not less than four times that from an
area which is covered by a dense growth of forest vegetation ; hence afforestation
is of great importance wherever the rainfall is limited, or unfavorably distributed
over the several seasons of the year.

Then, there is irrigation to be considered, No less than 30,000,000 acres of
land are artificially watered in India by means of canals, wells, lakes, and tanks.
Only three million acres depend directly on the melted snow of the Himalayas,
and it will easily be understood of what importance it is to keep the areas which
provide the remainder of the water properly sheltered. The larger the proportion
of the catchment areas, whence the irrigation water comes, is shaded by forest
vegetation, the more favorable and sustained will be the supply of water. On
this account, then, forestry in India has an important mission to fulfil.

The mechanical action of forests in regulating the flow of water from hill-
sides also is not without importance in India, and cases are by no means rare,
which show the mischievous effect of reckless deforestation. In this respect, none
is more instructive than the case of the hills behind Hushiarpur in the Punjab.
These, consisting of a friable rock, were safe until, some forty years ago cattle
graziers .settled in them and destroyed the forest and other vegetation. Since
then a process of erosion has set it, which is carrying by degrees the hills into the
plains, where they appear as huge sand-drifts which have already covered enor-
mous areas of fertile cultivated land, and even destroyed part of the town of
Hushiarpur. Such an evil can be avoided by preserving the natural vegetation
on the land, but, if once started, special measures are required to meet it. In the

*Sind has some very valuable forests, which are situ i,tu 1 on the binks of ihe Indus on land more or
less regularly inundated.

56

lirst plaee. -ra/.iiiL; must In- stopped, at any rate that of goats and sheep, so as to
allow a natural growth of plants, shrubs, and trees to come up; artificial sowing
and planting must be done, preceded in bad cases by the construction of darns
and dvkes to steady the soil, until vegetation has once more laid hold of it. Mis-
diief of this kind can be stopped and cured at a comparatively small sacrifice,
provided it is taken in hand at an early stage ; but if it has been allowed to grow
tor a series of years, the expenses of checking the evil may be beyond the means
of i In- state.

Although forests are of considerable importance in India in respect of their
,n-i ion as regards the regulation of moisture, they are absolutely indispensable on
account "f t lie produce which they yield, since by far the greater part of India
must rely on the timber and fuel produced in the country, apart from other pro-
duce. All the teeming millions of India use wood for their domestic tiring, or, if
sueli is not available, <' 'cow-dung, the latter being much to be deprecated from
an agricultural point (Shall k. At the same time, enormous quantities of timber
are required for constr,;;iston, boat-building, tools, agricultural implements, rail-
ways and other public works. If we add thereto a demand for many important
items of minor produce, more especially cattle fodder in the drier parts of the
country, it will easily be understood that at least 20 per cent, of the total area
requires to lie kept under forest. Even such an area would give only about half
an acre per head of population, an allowance below that of most European con-
tinental countries.

The history of forestry in India is very instructive. According to the avail-
able evidence .the country was in former times covered with dense forests. Then
settlers opened out the country along the fertile valleys, but the destruction of
the forest on a larger scale was carried out by nomadic tribes, who fired alike hills
and plains as they moved from one pasture to another. This process is believed
to have gone on for more than 700 years Subsequently came British rule, and
with it a more fierce destruction of the forests than before. Extension of culti-
vation became the order of the day, and before its march many of the remaining
woods fell under the axe, no inquiry being made as to the ultimate result. Simul-
taneously with the extension of cultivation and the increase of population, the
annual requirements of timber and fuel increased, while quickly multiplying
herds of cattle roam far and wide over the remaining forests. Finally, railways
came, and with their extension the forest disappeared with greater rapidity than
ever, partly on account of the increased demand for timber used in construction
and firewood, and partly on account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation on
both sides of the line. 1 have watched this last process, and 1 can testify from
personal experience how fatal railway extension is to forests which aro not subject
to proper control and protection.

For some time matters went smoothly enough in India, but then the shoe
commenced to pinch. Difficulty was experienced in meeting the demands of
timber for public works, sleepers had to be imported from foreign countries, and
it was then recognized that a great mistake had been made in allowing the forests
to be recklessly destroyed. Experience had definitely proved that th.> preserva-
tion and suitable management of a sufficient area as forests could not be left to
private enterprise, and that the interference of the State had become a necessity
in the general interest of the country.

The forest question commenced to attract attention in the early part of this
century, in consequence of which aj timber agency was established on the west
oast of the Peninsula.

57

Next we find, in the year 1843, Mr. Gonolly, collector of Malabar, planting
teak on a large scale at Milambur, Dr. Gibson was appointed conservator of
forests in Bombay in 1847.

In 1848, Captain Frederick Conyers Cotton caused the appointment of Lieu-
tenant James Michael (now Major-General J. Michael, C.S.I.) as Forest Officer in
the Anamalais, which post he retained for seven years. Dr. H. Cleghorn became
connected with forest conservancy in Mysore in 1847, and he was appointed Con-
servator of Forests in Madras in 1856. He was on special duty with the Govern-
ment of India about the years 1860-62 when he inquired into the forest matters in
the north-western Himalayas and elsewhere. In the Central Provinces Colonel
Pearson was the first Conservator who took up forestry in a business-like manner.

These gentlemen and others were the pioneers of foiest conservancy in
India. Their action, though localized, caused the matter to be discussed and kept
before the public, and it led ultimately to the organiztion of a general depart-
ment by Dr. D. Brandis (now Sir Dietrich Brandis, K.C.I.E.) The latter was
appointed superintendent of Forests in Pegu in 1856 by that great administrator,
Lord Dalhousie. Dr. Brandis was principally instrumental in saving the Burma
teak forests from destruction by enterprising timber merchants — that is to say —
estates which yield now a gross revenue of some £250,000 a year. In 1862, he
was attached to the Government of India, and in 1864 appointed the first Inspec-
tor-General of Forests to that Government. He then set to work to establish the
Indian Forest Department, and to introduce a systematic management of the
forests. At first he devoted himself to the Provinces directly under the govern-
ment of India ; subsequently he was twice deputed to Bombay, and he totally
re-organized the forest department in Madras in 1881-83, immediately before his
finil retirement from India.

The first duty of the new department was to ascertain the extent and
character of the remaining forests and especially of that portion which still be-
longed to the Government. This inquiry was not of special difficulty, except in
so far as a sufficiently trained staff was not available at the outset.

The next step was to take the State forests under protection and manage-
ment, and now difficulties arose. There were no doubt some administrative
officers who soon preceived that it was to the true interest of the people to pre-
serve a suitable forest area, and who cordially assisted the new department, but
the majority of the officers of the State failed for a long time to accept that view,
principally because the idea of forest preservation was r«ew to them, and they
feared complications from the facts that the rights of government in the forests
were in many cases ill-defined, and that the people claimed extensive rights by
prescription, and on other grounds, in the areas which were the property of the
State.

The first Indian forest law was passed in 1865 ; it provided that the Govern-
ment might declare any land belonging to it a Government State forest, and that
such declaration should not abridge any right held by private persons over such
areas ; but the Act did not provide power to inquire into and legally settle the
rights of third persons in the State forests. Under this Act considerable progress
was made in the preservation of the forests, wherever the population was limited
and the forest areas extensive.

But where the reverse conditions prevailed, and where the rights claimed by
the people, rightly or wrongly, were extensive, the benefits of the Act soon
threatened to become abortive. Consequently fresh legislation was soon contem-
plated, and after years of discussion, a new Act was passed known as the Indian

58

F..P i Art <>f I,s7>\ followed liy special Acts for Burma, Madras, and one or two
other 1'ioviiices. ( )i' these, the Burma Act is the best. Generally speaking, the
ennctments give power to I. In- < iovrrnment :—

(1 To declare any area belonging to the State, or over which the State has
righK to be a State forest.

(~2) 'I'n demarcate such area, and to enquire into and settle, once for all, the
right- claimed l>y third persons in or over such area ; to commute such rights
it' thej .-eriously inte.rfere with the maintenance of such forests; and to prevent
the springing up of new rights except by a ( io\ ."rnment grant.

(Mi To piovide for the proper protection and management of the State
fore

(4) To provide for the protection and management of Government forests
not included in the reserved State forests.

(•">) To provide for the preservation of private forests, which are of special
importance to the community as a whole.

law.

(6) To provide for the protection of forest produce in transit.

(7) To provide for the adequate punishment of persons breaking the forest

Passing over many other provisions. I shall only add that the Act is through-
out permissive, that is to say, the Government may bring its provisions into
operation or not, as may be required from time to time.

Under these laws an area of about 55,000,000 acres, which is just under 10
per cent, of the British territory, has been brought under the control of the Indian
Forest Department ; thirty-three million acres are so-called reserved State
forests, that is to say, areas which have been set aside and are managed as per-
manent forest estates ; while the remaining twenty-two million acres are as yet
so-called protected or unclassed State forests, enjoying a limited extent of pro-
tection until it has been finally decided whether they are to be incorporated with
the permanent State forests or not. Some fifteen million acres of additional
forest lands are at the disposal of Government, which have not as yet been
brought under the control of the Department.

It will be noticed that the area of State forests falls considerably short of 20
per cent, of the total area, the proportion which is believed to be that required to
meet the demands of the country. There are however, as yet extensive forest
lands in the hands of private persons, and although their extent and yield
capacity is decreasing every year, a considerable portion is so situated, or of such
a description, that it is not fit for permanent cultivation, and may be expected to
yield always a certain amount of produce. Interference with these private forests
will only be possible in cases of absolute necessity.

The bulk of the required produce must come from the State forests, and if
they are to \ ield that, they must be managed in a careful and systematic manner.

Hence Sir Dietrich Brandis recognized at an early stage the paramount impor-
tance of providing a competent staff of officers. He obtained, as early as 1866,
the sanction of Government to a scheme, under which every year a number
of young Englishmen are selected, and trained in forest science and practice
before they proceed to India to take their places as officers of the Forest Depart-

59

ment. For many years these young- men studied forestry in Germany and in
France. Gradually the difficulties of studying in a foreign country and in a
foreign language made themselves more and more felt, until it was decided to
start, in 1885, an English forest school in connection with the Royal Indian
Engineering College at Cooper's Hill. Under these arrangements, some 110 officers
have been trained and drafted into the Indian Forest Department. At tbe
present moment we have twenty-two forest students under insti'uction at Cooper's
Hill.

These young men are destined to recruit the superior or controlling staff of
the department. In addition, it was found necessary to let the future executive
officers pass through a suitable course of training, Accordingly, an Indian forest
school was started, in 1878, at Debra Doon, in the North Western Provinces,
which has been gradually developed, so that it now turns out annually some
thirty trained forest rangers. These are almost entirely natives of India ; they
enter the executive branch of the service, but those of special merit are eligible
for promotion to the controlling staff.

The organization of the department may be shortly described as follows :—
The Inspector-General of forests is the head of the department, and responsible
to the Government of India. The department in each Province is presided over
by a Conservator of Forests (or two, and even three in the large Provinces) who
is responsible to the Local Government. He is assisted by deputy and assistant
conservators, each of whom controls the management of the forests in a district
or other part of a Province. Subordinate to this controlling staff' are the execu-
tive officers, divided into various grades, and they in their turn are assisted by
the protecting staff, consisting of foresters and guards, numbering- many
thousands.

In this manner a well-organized department has been built up during the
last quarter of a century, which has under its charge an immense government
property consisting at present of some 55,000,000 acres of forest lands. Some of
the forests were taken in hand before they had been destroyed, but by far the
greater part of the area was taken over in a reduced and even ruined condition.
Although a quarter of a century is only a short period in the life of a timber tree,
the effects of protection and systematic management are eveiywhere apparent
Economic systems of utilization have been introduced, a large proportion of tii
forests is successfully protected against the formerly annually recurring fores
fires; young growth is allowed to spring up under the protection now afford e! :
sowings and planting are carried out when required ; the forests are managed
• under carefully considered working plans; and all this without interfering with
the acknowledged rights of the people, who receive every year enormous quan-
tities of forest produce, either free of charge or at comparatively low rates. In
many parts of the country the people have come to recognize the importance to
themselves of the proper preservation of a suitable forest area, and this feeling is
steadily extending.

What I have said above refers to British territory. Space does not permit
my dealing with forestry in native States, beyond mentioning that of late years
many native rulers have commenced forest conservancy in their States, with the
assistance and advice of officers of the Indian Forest Department on lines similar
to those followed in the British territory.

And now the question may well be asked, how about the cost of all this
elaborate organization and the works of protection and improvement ?

GO

Well, on tl.;it hand. t«.o, lean present you with what I consider satisfactory
S. Tli.- iit-t. surplus of the Indian Forest Department, after meeting all

luis In-rii us follows since 1804:—

NI-:T REVENUE OF INDIAN STATE FORESTS.

1M>4 (>7, ;i\ i't;t"r annual net revenue £106,615

1867-7^ 133,929

ls7i> 77, " 219,919

is77-,si>. •< " 243,792

1882 N 384,752

The annual net revenue during the period 1882-87 was nearly four times
that of the period 1864-67, and although I am not in possession of the detailed
figures for the years 1887-ScS and 1888-89, I may state that the gross revenue
i« alized in the latter year surpasses that for the period 1882-87 by about
£300,000, Calculated for the whole area of the forests the revenue is as yet
small, but there is little doubt, if any, that twenty-five years hence the net
surplus will be four times the present amount, provided the Government of India
perseveres in the forest policy as developed in the past. The growth of tress is
of slow progress, and of all branches of the administration of a country the forest
departments require to be more thoroughly guided than any other by the watch -
wnnl, •• i-onrinuity of action."

BURMA.

EXTRACTS FROM RULES RELATING TO RESERVED FORESTS.

1. Within a forest reserve no person shall poison water or set traps or
snares, and no person shall hunt, shoot or fish without a license. Any person
who in a reserved forest, in contravention of this rule, hunts, shoots, fishes, poisons
waters, or sets traps or snares is punishable under section 25 of the Act with fine,
which may extend to Rs. 50, or when the damage resulting from his offence
amounts to more than Rs. 25, to double the amount of such damage.

2. Such license may be granted by the deputy commissioner or forest officer
in whose local jurisdiction such reserve is situated. Provided that no such license
may allow hunting or shooting during the season when forest fires most com-
monly occur, namely : from the 1st March to the 1st June, nor the hunting or
shooting of pheasants, jungle-fowl, partridges, quails or hares, during the breeding
season, namely : from the 1st March to the 1st September.

3. Such license to be in form provided, and a fee of Rs. 10 may be charged
for the issue thereof,

4. Between the 5th day of January and the 15th day of June no person
shall, within two miles of the boundary of a reserve, leave any fire burning
unless he shall have taken the following precautions, namely: —

(a) He shall, at least one week before kindling such fire, have given notice
of his intention to do so to the nearest forest officer.

(6) He shall have cleared of inflammable matter a belt of ground of not
less than twenty feet in breadth around the place whereon he proposes to kindle
such fire.

61

(c) He shall have kindled such fire at a time when no high wind is blowing
in the direction of the reserve.

Any person who, in contravention to this rule, leaves any fire burning in
such manner as to endanger a reserved forest, is punishable under section 26 of
the Act with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months, or with
a fine which may extend to Rs. 500, or with both, in addition to such compensa-
tion for damage done to the forest as the convicting court may direct to be paid.

62

NOTES ON FoRKST MANA<JK.MKNT IN GERMANY.*

The following extracts are made t'nmi a work published by Sir Dietrich
I'.randis to facilitate the instruction o!' senior Forest students at the Cooper's Hill
Royal Indian Engineering College, England, and deal with the subject of Forest
Management in Western (Jrrmany. Though intended primarily for Indian Forest
< Mlicers, they arc not without a hearing on the subject of Forestry in Ontario ;—

The character of modern forestry may be said to consist in this, that each
portion of tin.- forest is treated with special regard to the peculiar conditions of
• locality and the requirements of the growing stock, while due attention is
constantly paid to the systematic arrangements of the entire forest range. The
working plans prepared at che present time are elastic, and they are carefully
framed to adapt themselves to the circumstances of the case.

BADEN FOIJEST ADMINISTRATION ; BLOCKS OF THE WOLFSBODEN RANGE.

Block 1 (compartments 1-72.) Aha, 2,053 hectares, comprises the valley of
the Aha stream, as well as the northern slopes of the range which separates the
Alb valley from the Schluchsee, and the head waters of the Aha stream, 884 to
1,300 m. Spruce is the prevailing tree, with silver fir at lower elevations and
beech near the top of the ridge. Pinus montana and Scotch pine in and near
peat bogs at the head of the lake, and on the head waters of its feeders.

Block 2 (compartments 1-61.) Alb, 1,679 hectares, occupies the south-western
slopes of the range mentioned under Block 1 above and opposite to St. Blassien,
and a small area situated between the two branches of the Alb above their junc-
ture, elevation 770 to 1,270 m. Spruce is the dominating tree, with silver fir
here and there, occasionally up to one-fourth of the growing stock. Beech more
abundant near the top of the ridge. Scotch pine in a few places on steep and dry
slope, with a south-westerly aspect (compartments 7 and 8.) Very good natural
reproduction on the piece situated between the two branches of the Alb, over-
looking the northern branch, in compartments 40 and 44. Young poles of
excellent growth, mainly spruce, with a little beech and silver fir, 430 cub. m.
per hect., at 950 m. mean elevation in compartment, 28. Fine old forest though
not completely stocked, spruce with 25 per cent, silver fir 100 to 150 years old,
with 100 cub. m. per hect. in compartments 32 and 33, on opposite sides of the
small valley leading to Muchleland. Also near the southeast end of the block,
at a similar elevation part of compartments 7 and 8 stocked with spruce mixed
with silver fir and beech, 70 to 150 years old, with 650 to 800 cub. m. per hect.
A large extent, the greater part of compartments 14, 15, 23, 24 with portions of
the adjoining compartment, nearly 100 hect. of mostly pure spruce 60 to 1UO
years old on the top of the hill called Botzberg, which overhangs St. Blassien,
between 1,100 m. and 1,270 m. The forest is completely stocked, the soil is good,
with a dense covering of moss, the climate very moist, but the trees are short.
The growth is slow, and hence there is not so much timber upon the ground as
there might otherwise be, 300-350 cub. m. per hect. The reason is the high
elevation and severe climate. At a lower elevation the growing stock of the
same age in such a locality would be much larger. According to old traditions
the trees were habitually felled while the snow was on the ground, and this
agrees with the remains of the stumps 2 m. high overgrown with* moss, standing
in these and other compartments. On the tops of such stumps the seed of the

*By Sir Dietrich Brandis K.C.I.E., Ph.D., F.R.S., late Inspector-General of Forests to the Govern
ment of India.

63

spruce has often germinated, and the young plant has sent its roots over the
decaying stump into the ground. The stump has perished, and the tree stands
now, as it were, upon stilts in the air supported by its roots.

Block 3 (compartments 1-4.) Kutberauer Halde, 90 hect., a small detached
block, occupying the lower slopes of the Alb Valley, 2| km. below St. Blasien, at
AH elevation' of 700 to 840 m. under the village of Hochenschwand. Spruce,
silver fir. and beech, with a little oak.

Block 4 (compartments 1-3.) Schwarzathal, 616 hect., occupying the
slopes on the right side of the Schwarza Valley, below the village of Hochen-
schwand. Spruce, silver fir and beech, with a little oak in the lowest part. More
than half of this area has been acquired within the last fifteen years, chiefly by
the purchase of private forests and pastures which now are planted up with piiie;
spruce and larch.

Blocks 5 and 6 (compartments 1-6), 179 hect., are two small detached blocks,
Blasiwald and Dresselbach, lately purchased.

The total area as here stated, 4,617 hect. for Wolfsboden, and 3,14 1 hect. for
St. Blasieu refers, it must be understood, to 1887, and comprises soina pieces
included within forest limits since 1885.

UTILIZATION OF FOREST PRODUCE.

With so large a forest area, the question naturally arises whether there is a
sufficient demand for all the timber and wood annually produced. For charcoal
there was formerly a very large local demand for the numerous iron and glass
works which existed upon these hills. The names of places such as Althutte,
Altglashutte, recall the former existence of this industry, which is now nearly
«xtinct. The last considerable iron works belonged to the State, and these were
closed in 1863; some glass works existed until 1877. The completion of works
elsewhere using mineral coal, and favorably situated near railways and rivers,
"was too powerful, and the struggle of these small establishments, situated far
from rivers and railways in out of the way and difficult mountainous districts,
against such powerful opposition was hopeless, though the abundant water
power available and the cheap and plentiful supply of charcoal gave them important
advantages. Quite lately, I am informed, a prospect has arisen of selling large
quantities of small wood for making charcoal which is wanted by large iron
works in Switzerland. On the other hand, the construction of roads has greatly
facilitated the export of forest produce. The road up the Wehra Valley to Todt-
mooswas built in 1848-49, and that from St. Blasien down the Alb Valley was
completed in 1861, and it is now proposed to construct a road from the Schluchsee
along the valley of the Schwarza to the Rhine, which will greatly facilitate the
export of timber from the forests in the basin of the Schluchsee and in the
Aha Valley. St. Blasien and the the country around has long been connected
with the Rhine Valley by an old carriage road, but it ascended the plateau with
-a rise of nearly 300 metres and then continued with numerous descents and
ascents to Walshut. For the export of timber, roads along the valleys with an
•even and gentle gradient are indispensable. The construction of convenient
main roads has been supplemented by a system of well designed cart roads
throughout the forest, and thus it has become possible as already mentioned, to
sell the thinnings from some of the forest as hop-poles. The construction of
these forest roads commenced in 1860 and every year new lines are added in
order to complete the system laid down in the programme.

It i> a i, inai k;iMc fact that in this part of the Schwarzwald water carriage
has MI-VIM- bri'ii us. .I for timber to any large extent. The elaborate and most skil-
ful anuniivMit'Mts which were formerly used, and are still in use to some extent,
to 1'arilitat.r tin- floating of timber on the Enz, Nagold, Murg, Wolfach and Kinzig-
rivcrs in tin- northern SohwarzwalH, were unknown here. At first sight this
seems dillicult to understand. But the rivers of the southern Schwarzwaid,
particularly those here in question, the Alb and Wehra, have a much greater
fall, and their bed in places is more narrow, and more obstructed by rocks and
stones than that of the northern streams, in which floating has been chiefly
practised.

The following is a sketch of existing arrangements for the utilization of the
produce of these forests. For felling the trees, fashioning the timber, and bring-
ing the logs to the roadside where they are sold, contractors (accordanten) here,
as in the other State forests of Baden, are employed by the district forest officers.
In each range four or five of these contractors generally find employment
throughout the year. They are men of long experience in the business, picked,
and to a great extent trained, by the Oberforster himself. Each works, accord-
ing to circumstances, with from 8 to 15 timber cutters, the contractor being the
foreman and working himself with the men, with whom he shares the profits
aiising from their operations.

As previously explained, by far the most important produce of these forests
consists in the timber of spruce and silver fir. The following remarks will be
mainly limited to them. The mode of utilizing beech wood offers no peculiar
feature.

The thinnings in young forests are generally made between June and
August. The poles to be taken out are marked by the forest guard, under the
district forest officer's general direction. The forest guard is authorized to
permit more experienced timber cutters to mark, under his supervision the poles
to be thinned out. It has not having been possible to carry out thinnings
in young forests as extensively as would be desirable, for the poles cut are
in many cases, unsaleable. The spruce and silver fir forests of those por-
tions of the Black Forest which adjoin the Rhine Valley and of the Vosges on
the other side of that river, supply poles for the hop gardens of Alsace and
Baden at lower rates. The forests of St. Blasien therefore can, in exceptional
cases only, enter into competition with them. The present depressed state of
the hop market makes it unlikely that hop-poles will be largely exported fr m
these forests.

Mature timber is generally cut between April and the middle of June, and
during the remaining months of summer and autumn the logs are prepared and
brought to the roadside. As already mentioned, winter felling was customary, to-
a certain extent at least, in old times, but in those days charcoal was the main
article produced, and the timber was at once cut up for the charcoal kilns into'
billets which were easily moved on sledges over the snow. At present, when
large timber is the chief article produced, winter transport is not feasible, and
during the last 40 years summer felling has become the general rule in these
districts.

The first operation is to bark the trees. Of the spruce bark a considerable
portion is sold for tanning, that of the silver fir is used as fuel. Timber
of prime quality, whether spruce or silver fir is left in logs as long as possible
and for such timber the contractor is paid for at the rate of 2 mark per cub.
metre. It is classified under five classes, the first and second comprising those
logs which at 18 m. (59 ft.) from the butt end have a diameter of 30 c.m. (12 in.)»

65

and 22 c.m. (9 in) respectively, while logs of the third class are required to have a
diameter of 17 c.m. at 16 m. from the butt. The rest, known as Sageklotze and
Lattenklotze, is cut into convenient lengths, generally 5 to 6 m. and brought to
the local saw mills, where it is converted into planks and battens For this
class of timber the contractor is paid 1.60 mk. per cub. metre on delivery at the
roadside.

A certain portion of the timber, chiefly of spruce, is in these forests used
for splitting. At Bernau, a large village north-west of St. Blasien, and other
places in the vicinity there is a thriving industry in sieves, tubs and other
articles made of split wood. The workmen brought up to this special
branch of the trade make a careful distinction between logs which split readily
and those not so suitable for their work, and the former fetch a much higher rate
at the sales. Thus, in the Alb Valley forests of St. Blasien, from which the
coopers of Bernau draw their chief supplies, the three first classes of logs when
fit for splitting, sold in 1885 for 21.2, 18.2, and 15.2 marks per cub. metre respec-
tively, while ordinary logs fetched only 16.8, 14.4 and 12 marks. In 1886 the
figures were 19.9, 16.5 and 14.1, for logs fit for splitting and 15.9, 13.8, 10.9 for
ordinary timber.

The Oberforster of St. Blasien regularly employs one of the men from
Bernau in order to mark the logs fit for splitting, and the logs thus marked are
sold separately. I spent a day in the forest with this man in order to learn the
characters upon which he relied. The first condition is that the log must be
regularly shaped and clean, without knots and branches. Secondly, the fibres must
not be much twisted and if twisted at all, the twist must go from right to left. On
barked logs the twist is readily seen by the direction of the fine fissures on the
surface of the wood. It can also be recognized, but less distinctly, on the bark
of standing trees.

In order to drag the timber to the temporary depots at the roadside, where
the sales take place, horses or bullocks are employed when the ground is level or
nearly so. Down a slope, however,' the timber is lowered by means of ropes. The
tools used for this purpose are of the simplest description, a stout rope 140 feet
long, a strong ir>m hook, with a ring to which the rope is attached (Seilhaken),
and a kind of pick (krempe), the wooden handle 4 to 4i feet and the iron 18
inches long.

On slopes large trees are always felled with top and branches down hill, and
the logs are sent down top end forward, two men holding the rope, which is
generally slung round a tree, while four or five men, all armed with picks, work
alongside the log, lifting it over uneven places in the ground or other impedi-
ments, stopping it while the rope is slung over another tree lower down and
generally directing its course. It is a fine sight to witness the speed and pre-
cision with which this difficult work is accomplished. Accidents very rarely
happen.

In the latter portion of summer and in autumn, the timber intended for ex-
port is all carted down to the railway station. It chiefly goes westward, to
Switzerland, Alsace, and France. This manifests itself in the higher rates
realized at sales in the Wehra than in the Alb Valley division of the St. Blasien
State forests range, which have to be carted nearly the same distance before they
reach a railway station. In the Wehra forests first class logs in 1885 fetched
17.9 and in the Albthal forests 16.8 mk per cub. metre. In 1886 the figures were
were 19.4 and 15.9.

5(F.)

66

Small lirandit'.s, as well as the underground wood, are unsaleable. The
collection of small branch wood is permitted, and, where pi-acticable, the condition
is attached to the permission granted that what remains on the ground must be
burnt.

< >f the larger branches and of the poles obtained by thinnings, small quanti-
liave as already mentioned, latterly been sold as hop-poles. A new demand
for small wood has fortunately arisen through the erection of paper-stuff
factories from wood, the first of which was built in 1874. There are four such
factories now in the vicinity, and to these it is due that much of the srnall-
si/eil >pnice timber, for this is the only kind used by them at present, can be dis-
posed of.

The yield of minor forest produce in these districts in insignificant. Here,

as elsewhere in the Black Forest, the spruce was formerly extensively tapped for

resin and in Wolfsboden the collection of resin in a few places, where the old

trees formerly tapped are still standing, is still let out, but this will soon cease,

the old trees are being cleared away rapidly.

REGENERATION OF THE FOREST.

In some cases, for instance where a large proportion of old trees formerly
tapped for resin are on the ground, it is necessary to clear and plant, but, as a
rule, the system followed is to rely upon natural reproduction as much as possible,
and this necessitates the gradual cutting of the mature stock. It has already
been stated that the mean age at which the timber in these forests is cut is 120
years. When the time arrives for commencing cuttings in a compartment which
has attained that age, the first operation is to clear away all soft woods and use-
less brushwood, and to cut out any advance growth that may be on the ground
and that may not be suitable to form part of the young forest intended to be
produced. After this follow in succession a series of cuttings more or less
heavy, the beginning being made with the removal of all oppressed, damaged
and diseased trees. These successive cuttings are generally continued in these
ranges during a period of from 30 to 40 years. Thus in 1858, when a prelimi-
nary cutting had already been made, compartment 31 of Block 2 in Wolfsboden
was stocked with a forest of two-thirds spruce, and one-third silver fir, contain-
ing 800 cub. metres per hectare, 11,432 cub. feet per acre. In 1864 the first
heavy cutting removed 200 cub. metres per hectare (2,860 cub. feet per acre).
Afterwards five successive cuttings were made, which only left 80 cub. metres
(1,143 cub. feet per acre), in 1887. Meanwhile the ground has got well stocked
with young growth, and the remaining old trees will probably be cleared away
by 1896. This long period of regeneration is necessary, because seeding years
in the cold climate of these districts are scarce, in the case of spruce and silver
fir every fourth or fifth year, and in the case of beech once in 8 to 10 years. But
there is another object besides, viz. the great increase in timber of the trees left
standing in a more isolated position after each successive cutting, hence the
practice is to keep the most vigorous trees to the last. In the case of the silver
fir, groups of younger trees or single trees are left standing after the series of
cuttings has been completed ; they form part of a new forest growing up, and
will be cut, when the next rotation comes round, having then attained an age of
200 years or more.

67

FOREST RANGES FORBACH (I AND II) AND HERRENWIES.

The three forest districts to which the present remarks specially relate are
the following-. Area and actual yield are for 1886 :-

Productive
forest area,
in hectares.

Annual yield in cubic metres.

Sanctioned.

Actual, 1886.

Total.

Per hectare.

3,609
4,977
3,459

16,720
32,000
21,000

18,906
29,257
18,894

5.24
5.88
5.46

Forbach II

Herrenwies

Of these, Herrenwies, which is entirely State forest, is situated on the head
waters of the Raumumzach, and occupies a portion of the range west of the
Murg. Forbach I comprises the communal forests of Forbach, Langenbach,
Gausbach, and a few other villages, as well as the Heiligenwald (Saints' Forest)
of 860 hectares (2,124 acres), which is the property of the Forbach parish church.
In these forests the Oberforster has the management in his hands in the same
manner as in State forests. In regard, however, to the disposal of the wood cut
by him, the communal authorities, and the trustees of the church are at liberty
to make their own arrangements. As a matter of fact, they gladly avail them-
selves of the Oberforster's services in this part of the business also. From the
proceeds of these communal forests roads, school-houses, and other public buildings
are built, and the income from these forests is sufficient to defray all other
expenses of the municipalities, so that the members of these communities not
only enjoy immunity from all local rates and taxes, but also pay no school fees
for their children. Part of the firewood which forms the yield of these forests
is distributed among the villagers, so that they have most of their fuel free.
For timber and other wood they pay like other people, but the money yield of
most of the communal forests in the range Forbach I is so considerable that a
certain surplus is divided annually among the villagers. Thus the people of
Gausbach and other villages have this year received a share of the surplus,
amounting to 70 mk. (£3 10s.) each householder.

The study of this and other communal forests in the Grand Duchy of
Baden, and in many other parts of Germany, will be found most instructive for
those who have to deal with forest matters in India, for there is no doubt that
the success of the endeavors which of late years have properly been made to
stimulate the development of local self-government in the different Provinces of
India will, to a great extent, depend upon the success which may attend the
efforts to place the self-government of towns and villages upon a stable footing,
by organizing a good management of such landed property as these communities
possess, or may hereafter be able to acquire.

The income derived from the Heiligenwald has of late years been allowed
to accumulate, until the amount had become sufficient for the erection of a new
church, which has been completed at a cost of 350,000 mk. (£17,500).

Forbach II consists of the forests belonging to an ancient corporation (Murg
Schifferschaft). The State has of late years purchased a large portion, about

08

one-half, of tin- shar.-,, and since that time (1886) the management of these
st > has been intrusted to a State forest officer.

As aliva'lv mentioned, the prevailing trees are spruce and silver fir, the
latter being more abundant at lower elevations, while the spruce predominates in
the iippei • poi ti"ii. With them the beech is associated at all elevations, but in
varying proportions, for while in some places it forms a large portion of the
growing stock.it is almost absent in others. The Scotch pine is found in the
granite region, chielly upon dry, steep, rocky slopes with a southerly aspect,
while in (In- sandstone region it occurs almost everywhere, sometimes scattered,
and in other places forming an essential element of the growing stock. A remark-
able feature here is the occurrence of mixed forest of Scotch pine and silver fir.
the latter forming a kind of high underwood under the former.

Although these forests present great variety of soil and other conditions, yet
uuoii the whole it maybe said that in places the growth of the species mentioned
is magnificent.

The three conifers attain a height of from 40 to 45 metres, the stems carry
their girth well up to a great height, and are, as a rule, regularly shaped. Seed
37ears occur frequently, and the reproduction is generally very good. A marked
difference is, however, noticeable, especially at lower elevations, between slopes
with a southerly and northerly aspect, the latter showing much better growth
and more abundant reproduction The disease most frequently observed consists
of the irregular swellings on the stem of the silver fir, commonly known under the
name of cancer. Considering the enormous area of unbroken forest, on both
sides of the Murg Valley, chiefly composed of conifers, it is remarkable how
little damage by insects takes place. Storms and snows do some damage, but
upon the whole it is insignificant. At times the pressure of the masses ot snow
is so heavy that large trees are bent down gradually and uprooted. There are not
many species of subordinate importance, and those which occur are scarce upon
the whole. Along the valley from Gernsbach to Forbach, and even higher upr
the oak forms a fringe at the lower edge of the forest, and a few oak trees are
seen scattered over the whole granite region. The hornbeam is found here and
there, associated with the beech, and single specimens of the sycamore are now
and then met with. On peat soil at high elevations, and on the top of the two
chief hill ranges, a considerable area is stocked with the mountain pine, and in
such places the birch is also common.

Of shrubs there is no great variety. It may be justly said that the forest is
everywhere too dense and too well stocked for much subordinate vegetation. In
old and dense forests, where there is not sufficient light for the young growth to
come up, the ground is frequently covered with vaccinium, brambles are almost
absent, and the wild raspberry is scarce.

From time immemorial these forests have been treated on the system of
selection fellings (jardinage), and this system is still followed in the two Forbach
ranges. Here, therefore, the character of the forest is extremely varied, trees
of all ages standing on the ground together. Formerly, the practice was to select
the finest and most accessible trees for felling. In this respect a great change
for the better has now taken place, for the aim at present is to cut out all
unsound and badly-shaped trees first, so as to leave more room for the young
growth and the more vigorous trees A rational treatment of forest on the
selection system cannot easily be brought under precise rules ; the manager must
consider the requirements of each plot separately, and this is being done at
present in these forests.

69

I

In order to determine the annual yield of forests managed under the
selection system it is necessary to measure the old timber over the entire area,
and the work cannot be shortened by the examination of sample plots. Thus, at
the renewal of the working plan for the Schifferschaft forests in 1886, all large
trees (in diarn. 15 c. m. -- -- 6 inches and upwards) were measured on 85 per cent,
of the total area. This was accomplished in two working seasons by two valua-
tion officers, an immense and most difficult piece of work, considering the dense
underwood of young growth which in most places covers the ground under the
old trees. The volume of the smaller trees was estimated, and the total growing
stock was thus determined at 1,912,244 cubic metres, exceeding the normal growing
stock by 232,688 cubic metres. The rotation for this forest range was fixed at
120 years, and upon these data the annual yield was fixed at 32,000 cubic metres,
or 6.43 cubic metres per hectare. The average growing stock was 382 cubic
metres, but in many compartments the volume of timber exceeds 700 cubic
metres per hectare.*

In 1886 the sanctioned yield of the Schifferschaff forests was not fully
worked up to, whereas, in Forbach I, there was an excess of 2,200 cubic metres
over the sanctioned yield, caused partly by the timber cut for road-making,
partly by some extraordinary requirements of the village of Forbach.

In the Herrenwies range the plan is, not to continue the system of selection
fellings, but gradually to introduce the system of felling by compartments
(schlagwirthschaft), and in some portions of this range considerable progress has
been made in this respect. Large areas are now stocked with uniform thickets
up to twenty years old, while others are stocked with pole forests, so that in
places a regular gradation of ages has been brought about. This has been
accomplished by the gradual removal of the old trees, under the shelter of which
the young growth had come up.

The rotation here, as in the two other forest ranges, has been fixed at 120
years, and it is intended that the period assigned to the cutting out of the old
timber and the regeneration of the forest is eventually to occupy thirty to forty
years.

Considering the enormous area of the forests, it is remarkable that all the
timber in them can be sold. Underground wood, however, finds no purchaser
anywhere in these forests, and only in the vicinity of the villages will people
undertake to root up the stumps on taking away the wood without payment.
The removal of tops and branches is free throughout these forests. The bark,
at present at least, is not sold, but is removed free with the branch wood. The
produce of thinnings formerly found a ready sale in the hop gardens of the
Hhine Valley, but the cultivation of hops has of late years greatly diminished,
and much of the small wood would remain unsaleable if numerous factories of
paper pulp had not. about fifteen years ago, been established in the Murg Valley.
This has opened a new demand not only for poles but also for small trees. At
present the paper pulp factories have a decided preference for spruce, and pay
more for clean stems without branch knots.

At Schonmunzach, already mentioned as the first village of Wurtemberg
territory, is a large glass factory, which works with gas made from wood, and
this factory consumes annually a very large quantity of small wojd. It is not
improbable that hereafter the inferior kinds of wood produced in the fire-pro-
tected forests of India, which at present are unsaleable, may be used for the pro-

* It would lead too far in these note? to discuss this question why the Murg Valley ranges here des-
cribed, possessing as they do unusually favorable conditions for the growth of spruce and silver fir, have a
smaller annual yield in material than the St. Blasien and Bonndorf Ranges in the southern Scharzwald.

70

dm-iion of gas for iron sm-hing, and that thus it may be possible to revive the
ol.l inm industry in some parts of India. Indian forest officers will do well to
visit- tin- Schonmunzacb glass works.

The disposal of lar^c timber is greatly iacilitated by the numerous saw mills-
in the vadey of the Murg and other rivers, and most of the timber from the
Mur_; fore -;t is now exported in the shape of beams and boards. Of the principal
kinds of timber * 'Id spruce and silver fir command the same rates, while Scotch
pine -vi K -i-ally fetches a somewhat higher figure.

Timber is cut during spring and summer. In forests like these with much
young growth under the trees, great care is necessary and is used, so as not to
injure tin- mass of seedlings and saplings on the ground. In dragging the timber
much attention is paid to this, and as a further safeguard the branches of the
standing trees are lopped before felling. This is dona by men who climb the
trees, with the aid of foot-irons, and who are paid at the rate of from 20 to 30-
pfennige a tree. A skilful man can lop ten to fifteen trees, thus earning from 2s.
to 4s. 6d. a day. Formerly the custom prevailed to lop the branches of trees
standing over young growth intended to remain on the ground so as to diminish
the shade. This practice, however, has of late years here been abandoned
because it was found that the lopping of branches made the trees unsound.
Through the whole forest are narrow dragging paths, some in their natural con-
dition, others levelled and built up. The timber is brought to the edge of these
dragging paths, and there the sale takes place! The logs are dragged generally
by horses, with or without the help of a pair of wheels, according to the gradient
of the path.

A system of carting roads, however, is being steadily extended over the
whole forest, and the timber carts carry very heavy loads measuring up to ten or
twelve cubic metres. Under the present practice the stems are brought out as-
long as possible, provided they are sound, for it is found that the proprietors of
the saw mills pay higher rates when they can cut up the logs according to their
particular requirements. For timber work on the dragging paths, as already men-
tioned, as well as for carting, horses are generally employed, and from spring to-
autumn the roads are full of large timber carts, on which huge logs, up to 30 m,
in length, are carried down the valley.

COPPICE UNDER STANDARDS NEAR KIPPENHEIM, IN THE KHINE VALLEY.

The contrast between the unbroken forest of the Schwarzwald, interrupted
only here and there by stretches of field, not very productive, and the rich plains
of the Rhine valley bearing splendid crops, with luxuriant meadows on low
ground and extensive vineyards on t le hills, is exceedingly striking. In the
Rhine valley, between Freiburg and Oftenburg, one of the most fertile portions of
Baden, there is not much forest, but what there is produces large quantities of
most valuable material. Here are situated the forest districts of Kippenheim and
Ettenheim, which comprise the State and communal forests situated in the civil
district of Ettenheim. Kippenheim. where the Oberforster resides, is a large
village, situated at the foot of the hills, which rise into the Schwarzwald. Like
some of the other villages in this district, it has forests both in the outer hills
and in the Rhine valley. The produce of these communal forests is sufficient in the
case of this and other villages in the vicinity to cover all municipal expenses, so-
that the inhabitants have to pay no local taxes and no school fees. The forests
in the plains are of special interest,. and particularly those which belong to the
Kippenheim forest district. They form a compact block six kilometers long and

71

one to two kilometers wide, and are situated between the Rhine and the foot of
the hills at an elevation of 170 metres. One hundred and forty-nine hectares of
this area belongs to Government, and is known under the name of Kaiserwald;
the rest belongs to six villages in the vicinity. Of these the best stocked and
most instructive is that belonging to the village of Grafenhausen, 148 hectares,
adjoining the Kaiserwald on the west side. Over the whole area of these forests
the soil is not uniformly good. It always consists of a surface layer ot loam
with much vegetable mould, resting upon a stratum of more binding clayey soil
under which there is a thick stratum of gravel. The thickness of the soil over
lying the gravel varies. At the same time there are slight differences in level,
and these circumstances are believed to have a considerable influence on the dis-
tribution of the trees of which the forest is composed.

The whole of this forest is treated as coppice under standards. In low situ-
ations and on moister soils, where soft woods prevail, the rotation of the coppice
is 25 years, but most of the area is worked under a rotation of 30 years. The
species of which these forests consist are ash, oak (Quercus pedunculate^, alder,
hornbeam, sycamore, and elm. Of subordinate importance are birch, aspen, maple,
wild cherry, and willow. Over the greater part of the forest the ash prevails,
and its proportion is being steadily increased by planting. In suitable localities-
this is also the case with the oak. In regard to the influence of the soil upon
the distribution of the different kinds, it may be said that where the gravel is
dry and near the surface the hornbeam prevails in the underwood and the oak
succeeds particularly well, while in such localities the ash is apt to become stag-
headed after the age of sixty years. Such places also generally have a somewhat
higher level. Where the gravel is moist the ash, the hazel, and the elm prevail ;
where the gravel is wet the oak is wanting, while the alder, elm, and hazel
abound. In such places, and on low ground generally, the rotation is only twenty-
five years, because this is sufficient for the prevailing kinds, which, as already
stated, are the alder, the elm, and the hazel. In such places, however, the pro-
portion of the ash is being steadily increased by planting, and eventually the-
normal length of a thirty years' rotation will probably be established.

COPPICE AND FIELD CROPS ix THE SIEGEN DISTRICT.

The Sieg, which flows into the Rhine below Bonn, drains a large area of
mountainous country, rising to near 700 m. (2,300 feet), the rocks of which, clay
slate and grauwacke of the Devonian formation, are remarkable on account of
the numerous veins of excellent iron ore which they contain. The oak is the
principal tree, forming excellent high forest, more or less mixed with hornbeam
and beech, up to the top of the highest hills, such as are rarely found in similar
localities, while over an area of 57,000 hectares (140,800 acres), on both sides of the
Sieg as well as on the headwaters of the Dill, a tributary of the Lahn River, a
peculiar class of oak coppice prevails, known under the local designation of
" hauberge." This area is situated in the circles (Kreise) of Siegen and Olpe,
which form part of the civil district (Regierungsbezirk) of Arnsberg, belonging
to the Province of Westphalia, and in some tracts belonging to the adjoining dis-
trict of Coblenz and Wiesbaden. The following remarks relate chiefly to the
circle of Siegen.

^j

In the narrow valleys of this mountainous country are numerous factories,
mines, and iron works, some of them of old standing, formerly worked with
water-power, now mostly with water-power and steam, surrounded by well-
watered meadows, with very limited areas of fields and gardens. The hills are
well wooded, and, as already stated, almost exclusively stocked with oak. In the

72

midst of i In- oak coppice, mi tin- slopes and ridges, are numerous extensive fields
with rye, the pale given of which in early summer contrasts strangely with the
dark green c..loi- of the oak forest. These fields change their position from year
to year, so that ihe traveller who visits those hills in two successive years finds
the aspect of the landscape changed, though its general character remains the
same. Th • high forest which covers the tops and ridges belongs to the State or
to large private proprietor-,, l>ut the vast areas of coppice which occupy the main
poi'tion of i his tract of country do not belong to the State or to private proprie-
tors, nor to (.own or village communities but to public corporations, commonly
regarded as the remains of the old '' Mark genossenschaften," which in the words of
tin- lair Sir Henry Maine, were " an organized, self-acting group of Teutonic
families, exercising a common proprietorship over a definite tract of land, its
mark, cultivating its domain on a common system and sustaining itself by the
produce." The coppice is managed on rotation of from 17 to 20 years (19 years
on an average), and the area assigned to each year's cutting is treated in this
in inner. Karly in spring (March, April) all soft woods, birch, hazel, aspen, and
others, as well as the most slender shoots of the oak coppice, are cut out, the
operation proceeding from the bottom ef the valley upwards. At the same time
the poles intended to be peeled are cleaned by cutting oft the lower branches. As
soon as the season is sufficiently advanced for the bark to come otf readily, gen-
erally in May or June, the poles are peeled standing, the operation being per-
formed as follows: — From a cut made breast high the the lower portion of the
bark is taken off downwards, while the upper portion is peeled upwards, the
upper end remaining attached to the pole. In the case of high poles ladders are
used, and weak poles are bent down in order to peel them. The naked poles
remain standing until the bark is dry. Long strips remain hanging ; smaller pieces
are tied up in bundles and are huug upon the poles. In the case of poles which
have sprung from seed, either natural or planted, the rule is strictly observed to
ring them close to the ground by a circular cut going through the bark only.
The bark then conies off down to the girdle only, and this promotes the growth
of coppice shoots from the stool.

The wood is cut as near the ground as possible, the cut being smooth and
slanting without splitting and without injuring the roots. The poles over 5 cm.
(two inches) diam. are cut one to two inches above the ground by means of two
opposite cuts slanting upwards. Seedlings, whether natural or planted, not yet fit
for peeling, remain standing so they may not be damaged by hoeing and when
the corn is cut.

The wood is placed on the ground between the stools with the butt end
down hill, and is removed as soon as possible without injuring the young
shoots from the stools.

Immediately after the bark has been peeled and while the naked poles are
still standing, the ground between the stools is worked up with a hoe of peculiar
shape, the sharp edge indented, and is turned up in sods, which are gathered in
heaps and when dry are burnt, with the aid of the small branch wood.

The burning takes place between July and September. The ashes are then
evenly spread over the ground with a shovel, and the rye is sown broadcast.

The seed is worked into the ground with the aid of a peculiar kind of

light plough without wheels, locally called" hainharch," drawn by cows or oxen,

which are muzzled so as to prevent their browsing upon the young shoots of the

oak coppice. The crop is always clean, without weeds. In August the harvest

akes place, and the corn is cut with the sickle, so as not injure the young coppice

hoots of the oak.

73

SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT : ITS ORIGIN.

The management of the forest estates here described is entrusted to commit-
tees, elected by the shareholders for a period of six years. Each committee
consists of a chairman and one or two members. The current duties are conducted
by the chairman alone, but certain matters, such as the appointment of the guard
who is intrusted with the protection of the estate, are by law and custon
assigned to the full committee.

In order to maintain the coppice well stocked, cultural operations are regu-
larly carried on in most of these estates. The old established practice is to dibble
in acorns in lines about 2 m. apart, either with the seed corn in autumn, or in
spring with the young crop, or in the second autumn into the stubble. Where
sowings have been made the broom is cleared away when it threatens to choke
the young plants. Cattle are excluded until the plants are sufficiently advanced
to be beyond damage. Where it is not possible to keep the area closed so long,
strong saplings 1| to 2 m. high are are planted about 3 m. apart, and in order to
provide a sufficiency of such plants suitable nurseries are established for each
estate. The chief civil officer of the circle (Landrath), together with six share-
holders who are elected for a period of six years by the whole body of hauberg
associates, form a board of control for the management of these estates throughout
the circle (Schotfenrath). This board appoints one or several forest officers, who
have the supervision of the management of these estates as far as regards profess-
ional matters. The board also assigns the area to be subject to their inspection,
and is empowered by law to decide all matters relating to these estates that may
be referred to them. At present there is one forest officer (Hauberg Sachver-
standiger) for the entire circle. His chief duty is to watch over the due observ-
ance of the treatment laid down by law, and generally by his advice and personal
influence to promote the good management of these estates. All these matters
are governed by a special law ba?ed upon old ordinances and customs existing in
regard to these estates. The law which is in force at the present time was
passed by both houses of the Prussian Parliament in 1879.

The system under which these forests are managed is very old. The oldest
document preserved regarding it is of 1447, and a detailed account exists of
1553, from which it appears that in its main features the system then was the
same as at present. The peculiar development of the system must be attributed
to two circumstances, the requirements of the mining and iron-making industry,
and the insufficiency of arable land in the district.

Formerly, all the iron works in this district were worked with charcoal,

which the forests furnished, and for this purpose coppice was the simplest and

most convenient mode of treatment. The poles, whether oak, birch, or other

kinds, could readily be utilized for charcoal. The mines and the iron- works in

this part of the country in former times were always owned by associations

(genossenschaften) and in some cases these associations may have also owned the

forest lands adjoining the works. In any case, the organization of the " Hauberg

genossenschaften" has developed in a manner similar to that of the mining

-associations. At the same time, the population, though never dense, as compared

with the plain country, nevertheless did not produce corn enough for their

maintenance, nor was there sufficient litter for their cattle. In this manner the

neieesity arose to utilize the forest for the temporary cultivation of corn after

the coppice had been cut over. These temporary fields furnished a large portion

of the corn and straw which they required. In 1862 the total area of the circle,

64,653 hectares (159,800 acres) with a population of 48,479, consisted of 74£ per

74

t. foiv<t (live-sixth hauherge) 10 per cent, meadows, and 13 per cent fields. Of
thr lidds an average area of 6,940 acres was devoted to the production of corn, so
that tlu- addition of about 4,400 acres, which at that time was the aggregate area,
of coppice annually nil over ami cultivated with rye, was an important addition
to tin- corn-producing land. Kven. then, however, grain was imported largely,
and now, with a vastly increased population, (77,674 in 1885) the importation
of grain has largely increased. It is estimated that at present three-fourths of
the corn consumed in the district has to be imported, hence the great importance
f the system here described for increasing the corn producing area.

The eiiNtmn of raising one or several crops of corn on forest land, and of
letting the forest grow up again after the harvest, is an ancient custom in moun-
tainous countries of all parts of Europe, nor is it limited to Europe, but is found
in most other parts of the world. In India it is known as kumri in the south,,
as jhum in the east, as dhya in Central India, as khil in the north-west Himalaya,
and as toungya in Burma. In Europe, however, the system has in so far
developed, that the wood which grows up after the harvest is not all destroyed
to furnish ashes for the field crops, but is other-wise utilized.

As the Siegen country was gradually opened up by railways, coal was:
imported, and the use of charcoal ceased. This diminished the value of the forest
crop as far as the wood was concerned, but simultaneously the tanning industry,,
which was important as long ago as the fifteenth century, developed on a much
larger scale, and at present bark is the most valuable produce of these lands. At
Freudenberg, Siegen, and elsewhere in the circle, large tanneries exist which
receive hides from all parts of the world and send away the leather prepared by~
them in all directions. The oak bark produced by these woods amounts to
85,000 cwt. a year.

COPPICE AND FIELD CROPS IN SOUTH GERMANY, AUSTRIA AND FRANCE.

Coppice, combined with corn crops, likewise occupies extensive areas on the
sandstone (Bunter sandstein) of the Odenwald, the mountain range situated
between the rivers Main and Neckar, in the Grand Duchies of Hesse Darmstadt
and Baden. Here this kind of coppice is known under the name " hackwald."
Further south, in the valleys of the Kinzig and Rench, on the gneiss and granite of
the Schwarzwald, it is known as " reutfeld," and under the same name it ia
practised in Wurtemberg and some parts of Switzerland. Circumstances in som&
respects are similar to those existing in the Siegen district and on the Moselle.
The arable land is limited and the forest area large. Hence the desire to utilize part
of the forest land for the production of corn and straw, whenever the ground ha&
been cleared by cutting the coppice.

In upper Styria there existed formerly and probably now to some extent
exists a similar management of forests, chiefly consisting of alder, birch, aspen
and sallow. At the age of twenty-five to forty the coppice was cut, the larger
wood used or sold, while the branches were burnt, one crop of rye and a second
crop of oats being taken, after which the forest was allowed to grow up again.
Wessely, in giving an account of this system in 1853, states that it is disappear-
ing, and that many of the areas formerly thus treated are gradually being
converted into spruce forests.

The practice called schiffeln which prevails in the mountainous tracts of the-
Eifel is only a variety of this system, differing in this, that small brushwood only
and no regular forest grows up on the land after it has yielded a cereal crop.
Near Cochem. for instance, the land on the plateau of the Eifel which is not under

75

the plough or kept as meadow land is either high forest, or coppice, or schiffel
land, which is allowed to remain fallow for twelve years, between two crops of
corn, and during that period gets covered with a dense matting of grass and
bushes of broom and juniper. It is here the place to mention the system of
sartage, which prevails in some mountainous districts of Belgium and France,
particularly in the Ardeunes, the continuation to the south of the " Hohe Venn."
Sartage resembles the system here described, except that the coppice is worked
under a longer rotation (twenty-four }*ears), and that what is called open-air firing
is more generally employed, that is, the sods of turf are not burnt in heaps, but
small wood and branches are spread uniformly over the ground, and are f red
during calm weather, with the needful precautions against spreading of the fire.
The system is well described in that excellent work of Lorentz, " Cours elemen-
taire de culture des bois," 4th edition, 1860. p. 424.

It is also treated in Bagneris' Elements of Sylviculture, English translation,
1882, p 125. Bagneris remarks, that the system is dying out in France. Zealous
foresters, in Germany, as well as in France, have often condemned the system of
combining coppice with field crops, as barbarous and indefensible. This, however,
is not a correct view of the case. The system has certain positive advantages as
far as the growth of the coppice is concerned ; moreover, in many districts it
admirably adapts itself to the requirements of the population. With due care
and with the aid of diligent sowing and planting, the coppice can under this
system be maintained in excellent condition. On the other hand, where it is not
carefully supervised, the system is wasteful and unprofitable. As a matter of
fact, in some districts the altered circumstances of the people may perhaps even-
tually lead to a gradual extinction of the system, whereas in other districts it
will be maintained and will continue to contribute materially to the well being
of the population.

HIGH FORESTS AND FIELD CROPS.

The raising of cereal crops between two crops of high forest, or as an
operation preparatory to the formation of new forests on waste lands, has been
practised centuries ago in different parts of Europe. On the south-western portion
of the mountain range which separates Bavaria from Bohemia, known as the
" Bayrische Wald," a peculiar system of forest culture has existed since the
fifteenth century. The forest which here chiefly consists of birch, is cut, a number
of trees being left standing for seed. During one or two years rye, millet, potatoes
and oats are raised on the ground, which had been fertilized bv the ashes of the

v -

top> and branches. The birch seeds plentifully an.i regularly, and the ground soon
gets covered with dense young growth, partly seedlings, partly coppice shoots.
Where cattle have been kept out, the young forest is large enough to be cut and
burnt after the lapse of twenty to forty years. Often, however, these areas,
which are mostly private property and are known under the name of " Birken
berge. Birken renter," are indiscriminately opened to cattle.

In the large spruce forests on the mountains of upper Styria, during the first
part of this century, the old wasteful system still existed of making wholesale
clearances into which cattle were admitted immediately after cutting, no steps
being taken to facilitate reproduction. When gradually the rapid development
of the iron industry in those parts of Austria made wood (for charcoal) more
valuable, one of the first measures to accelerate the regeneration of these forests,
and thus to increase their productiveness, was to let out the clearances for culti-
vation, and to so\v the spruce seed with rye. The stems were used for timber or
charcoal, but tops, branches and trees without value were burnt. This system I

76

found in existence in I *<;,"> "ii tin- mountains west of Bruck. A large extent of
well sioeked forest liav l>eeii raised in this manner.

On the mountains oF the Odenwahl, which have already been mentioned in

uertion with fields and coppice, a system of raising high forest with the aid of

il cmps, eallrd lloderliau, has existed from time immemorial. The results of

thi- system may lie seen in the shape of excellently stocked forests (aggregating

over _.' on lieet.. equals 4MIO acres) of .Scotch pine, spruce, silver fir and beech up

t<> ]'2() vears uld, with a mean maturity increment per hectare of 6 cubic metres,

or N.~>.7 cul>. ft. MT acre.

GENERAL If KM AUKS ON THE SYSTEM OF HEAVY THINNINGS.

The system of heavy thinnings in high forests, combined with the raising of

underwood, so as to produce as it were a forest consisting of two stories, the upper

storey of trees which, like the oak and the Scotch pine, require much light, and

the lower of shade supporting trees, such as beech and silver fir, has, as explained,

tirst been applied in a methodical manner and upon a large scale to the oak and

and beech in the Spessart about forty to fifty years ago. It is not impossible

that the natural mixed forests of Scotch pine and beech in the Steigerwald, a

beautiful forest-clad mountain range, situated east of the Spessart, may have

given the idea of improving the growth of Scotch pine by means of an underwood

of beech. To pure beech forest the principle was applied about 1830 in the

Soiling, a hilly country consisting of red sandstone, situated east of the Weser

River. In these forests, which were burdened with heavy prescriptive rights of

old standing, it was at that time found difficult to satisfy the requirements of

right-holders in the matter of wood ; and with the view of meeting immediate

needs without at the same time impairing the productiveness of the forests, a new

system of treatment was devised by Christian von Seebach, who at that time had

the control of those forests under the Government of the former kingdom of Han-

over. The period of rotation was UK) to 120 years, but all compartments which

had attained that ago had been gradually cut and renewed, and it became neces-

sary to commence cuttings in forests 70 to SO years old, of which, fortunately,

there was a large area. In the areas taken in hand, about three-fifths of the

trees were cut, the ground got covered with a dense growth of self-sown seedlings,

with a few coppice shoots, and thirty to forty years later the crowns of the trees

left standing had again closed and had formed a complete canopy. In this

manner a portion of the crop was cut by way of anticipation, and what remained

had more vigorous growth through the greater space given to the trees, the

ground remaining all clothed with what may be termed the ground floor or the

lower story of the forest. Subsequently, as the canopy of the older trees became

complete, the undergrowth gradually went back, and most of it died. The

forest, after it had attained the full age prescribed by the term of rotation, was

then cut by means of successsive fellings, and renewed by self-sown seed in the

usual manner.

Of late years this system of heavy thinnings has been somewhat overdone
in various localities, and a great deal has been written upon the subject. It
would lead too far on the present occasion to enter further into this matter.

TREATMENT.

The rotation in this forest is 120 years, divided into six periods of twenty
years each, but it is part of the general system of treatment followed here to
allow selected vigorous oak and Scotch pine trees to remain on the ground when a

77

piece of forest is cleared which had attained maturity, and thus to produce larger
timber than the ordinary rotation would yield. This method is of old standing.
In a portion of compartment Laubchesbusch (4) of the " Oberwald," there is a
beech' forest dating from about 1808, with a number of Scotch trees at that time
60 years okl, which were allowed to remain standing when the original forest was
cleared. The result, vigorous and well grown Scotch pine, 60 years older than
the beech forest which surrounds them, proves the excellency of the arrangement.
The old Scotch pine tre^s standing over the young growth of oak in Kaisertanne
(2a) have already been mentioned. In this case the expediency of the measure is
somewhat doubtful, the Scotch pine being rather aged (140 years), and, as a
matter of fact, a portion of these old trees have already become dry, and had to be
removed. In compartment Scheerwald (7) (Oberwald), which is under renewal at
present, and where the last clearance is expected to be made in 1 890, after a period of
regeneration of about fifteen years, it is intended to hold over fifty to one hundred
stems (oak and Scotch pine) per hect., the young growth consisting of oak and
beech, with groups of silver fir and maple, planted chiefly where stumps have
been rooted up.

In the regeneration of these forests, night frosts are one of the chief difficulties
and it may here be mentioned that this is felt throughout the tract with compara-
tively dry climate, which extends from the foot of the Taunus range to the Rhine.
In the Rhine valley, near Darmstadt, I am told that there is hardly a month in
spring and summer when night frosts do not occur, and it is not impossible that
there is a connection between the frequency of night frosts and a comparatively
dry climate. This circumstance has, to some extent, influenced the treatment of
these forests. Species which are readily damaged by frost, such as the beech and
silver fir, can here only be raised under cover, and even the oak greatly profits
while young by a certain amount of shelter. The combination of field crops with
sylviculture, the system of partial clearances with underwood, and the method of
allowing older trees to stand among the young forest, all these measures have a
special value in this district, where a young forest growth is so much exposed to
damage by night frosts.

Great stress is justly laid in this forest district upon the early cutting out of
brushwood, of soft and inferior woods, and of woods which have served their
object in acting as nurses to the more valuable kinds. A considerable amount of
pruning also is done, always with the saw. Thinnings are commenced early, and
under ordinary circumstances, are repeated once in ten years. The peculiar
treatment of these forests, which results in mixed forests, consisting of different
species, necessitates much attention to these operations, whereby the development
of the more valuable kinds is generally promoted. Fortunately, the vicinity of
the town makes it possible, as a rule, to sell nearly all the small wool which is
the result of these operations. At times, however, the market gets overstocked, and
these operations have then to be delayed.

PROVISIONS OF THE BADEN FOREST LAW ON THE SUBJECT OF PASTURE.

32. In high forests, pasture is only admissable where the young growth has
attained the age of thirty-five years in deciduous, and of thirty years in coniferous
forests.

In coppice woods, pasture is not permitted unless the young growth in hard
wood is twenty-five, and in soft wood, twelve years old. Where the forest is
mixed, the age of the dominating kind, and in cases of doubt, tne age of the hard
wood, decides the point.

78

33. Forest pasture can only take place between the months of May and
October.

."4. Before sunrise and after sunset, cattle are not allowed in the forests ;
except ions iiuiy hi' made in those cases where, on account of the distance, the
cattle must remain in the forest. In such cases, however, they must be kept
during the night in sheds, or within a ring- fence.

•'35. Unless proprietors of cattle have a right to use certain paths, the line of
road to be used in going to the pasture grounds and watering places, is indicated
by the forest officers.

36. Sheep and goats are not admitted into the forests. In special cases,
• •\ceptions may be made by the forest authorities, with the consent of the forest
proprietor.

37. Each head of horned cattle must be provided with a bell.

38. Each village community is obliged to employ one or several herdsmen
for their cattle, as may be necessary.

The members of a village community may not drive their cattle themselves
into the forests, nor may they send them with a herdsman of their own, separate
from the herd of the village. Where a right of pasture does not belong to a village,
but to an association of proprietors, they must entertain a common herdsman for
their cattle. Single proprietors having rights of pasture entertain their own
herdsmen.

79

FOREST DESTRUCTION : ITS CAUSES AND RESULTS.*
FORESTS OF UNITED STATES.

In his book, " The Earth as Modified by Human Action," Mr. George P.
Marsh devotes considerable space to the effects upon the earth's surface and the
•conditions of human life which have followed the removal of forests both in
Europe and America. Some of the more pertinent paragraphs are herewith
.appended :—

It is, perhaps, a misfortune to the American Union that the State Govern-
ments have so generally disposed of their original domain to private citizens.

Within the memory of almost every man of mature age timber was of so
little value in the northernmost States that the owners of private woodlands sub-
mitted, almost without complaint, to what would be regarded elsewhere as very
aggravated trespasses upon them. Persons in want of timber helped themselves to
it wherever they could find it, and a claim for damages for so insignificant a
wroncr as cutting down and carrying off a few pine or oak trees was regarded as
a mean-spirited act in a proprietor. The habits formed at this period are not
altogether obsolete, and even now the notion of a common right of property in
the woods still lingers, if not as an opinion at least as a sentiment. Under such
circumstances it has been difficult to protect the forest, whether it belonged to
the State or to individuals. Property of this kind is subject to plunder as well as
to frequent damage by fire.

It is evidently a matter of the utmost importance that the public and
especially land-owners be aroused to a sense of the dangers to which the
indiscriminate clearing of the woods may expose, not only future generations,
but the very soil itself.

Some of the American States, as well as the Governments of many European
colonies, still retain the ownership of great tracts of primitive woodland. The
State of New York, for example, has in its north-eastern counties a vast extent of
territory in which the lumberman has only here and there established his camp,
and where the forest, though interspersed with permanent settlements, robbed
of some of its finest pine groves, and often ravaged by devastating fires, still
covers far the largest proportion of the surface. Through this territory the soil is
generally poor, and even the new clearings have little of the luxuriance of harvest
which distinguishes them elsewhere. The value of the land for agricultural uses
is therefore very small, and few purchases are made for any other purpose than
to strip the soil of its timber. It is desirable that some large and easily accessible
region of American soil should remain, as far as possible, in its primitive condition,
at once a museum for the instruction of the student, a garden for the recreation of
the lover of nature, and an asylum where indigenous tree and humble plant that
loves the shade, and fish and fowl and four-footed beast may dwell and perpetuate
their kind, in the enjoyment of such imperfect protection as the laws of a people
jealous of restraint can afford them. The immediate loss to the public treasury
from the adoption of this policy would be inconsiderable, for these lands are sold at
low rates. The forest alone, economically managed, would without injury, and
even with benefit to its permanence and growth, yield a regular income larger
than the present value of the fee.

*Marsh ; The Earth as Modified by Human Action.

so

collateral advantage, of the preservation of these forests would be far
greater. Nature threw up those mountains and clothed them with leafy woods,,
tint tlii-v mi^lit serve as a reservoir to supply with perennial waters the thousand
rivers and rills that an- fed by the rains and snows of the Adirondacks, and as a
screen for the fertile plains of the central counties against the chilling blasts
of the n»rtli wind which meet with no other barrier in their sweep from the
north pole. The elimato of northein New York even now presents greater
extremes of temperature than that of southern France. The long-continued
cold of winter is more intense, the short heats of summer even fiercer than
in Provence, and hence the preservation of every influence that tends to main-
tain an equilibrium of temperature and humidity is of cardinal importance. The
felling of the Adirondacks woods would ultimately involve, for northern and
central Xew York, consequences similar to those which have resulted from
the laving bare of the southern and western declivities of the French Alps, and
the spurs, ridges and detached peaks in front of them.

It is true that the evils to be apprehended from the clearing of the moun-
tains of New York may be less in degree than those which a similar cause has
produced in southern France, where the intensity of its action has been increased
by the inclination of the mountain declivities, and by the peculiar geological
constitution of the earth. The degradation of the soil is perhaps not equally
promoted by a combination of the same circumstances in any of the Atlantic
States, but still they have rapid slopes and loose and friable soils enough to-
render widespread desolation certain if the further destruction of the woods is
not soon arrested. The effects of clearing are already perceptible in the compara-
tively unviolated region of which I am speaking. The rivers which rise in it
flow with diminished currents in dry seasons, and with augmented volumes of
water after heavy rains. They bring clown larger quantities of sediment, and the
increasing obstructions to the navigation of the Hudson, which are extending
themselves down the channel in proportion as the fields are encroaching upon the
forest, give good grounds for the fear of irreparable injury to the commerce of
the important towns on the upper waters of that river, unless measures are
taken to prevent the expansion of "improvements" which have already been !
carried beyond the demands of a wise economy.

In the Eastern United States, wherever a rapid mountain slope has been
stripped of wood, incipient ravines already plough the surface, and collect the
precipitation in channels which threaten serious mischief in the future.

There is a peculiar action of this sort on the sandy surface of pine forest,
and in other soils that unite readily with water, which has excited the attention
of geographers and geologists. Soils ot the first kind are found in all the Eastern
States ; those of the second are more frequent in the exhausted counties of Mary-
land, where tobacco is cultivated, and in the more southern territories of Georgia
and Alabama. In these localities the ravines which appear after the cutting of j
the forest, through some accidental disturbance of the surface, or, in some forma-
tions through the cracking of the soil in consequence of great drought or heat,
enlarge and extend themselves with fearful rapidity.

In Georgia and in Alabama, Lyell saw " the beginning of the formation of
hundreds of valleys in places where the primitive forest had been recently cut
down." One of these, in Georgia, a soil composed of clay and sand produced
by the decomposition in situ of hornblendic gneiss with layers and veins of
quartz, " and which did not exist before the felling of the forest twenty years
previous," he describes as more than fifty-five feet in depth, three hundred yards
in length, and from twenty to one hundred and eighty feet in breadth. He refers

81

to other cases in the same States " where the cutting down of the trees, which
had prevented the rain from collecting into torrents and running off in sudden
land floods, has given rise to ravines from seventy to eighty feet deep."

Similar results often follow in the north-eastern States from cutting the
timber on the " pine plains " where the soil is usually of a sandy composition and
loose texture.

WOODLANDS IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.

In 1862, Rentzsch calculated the porportions of woodland in different Euro,-
pean countries as follows : —

Norway 66.00 percent.

Sweden , 60.00

Russia 30.90

Germany 26.58

Belgium 18.52

France 16.79

Switzerland 15.00

Sardinia 12.29

Neapolitan States 9.43

Holland 7.10

Spain 5.52

Denmark 5.50

Great Britian 5.00

Portugal 4.40

In many places peat is generally employed as a domestic fuel, hence, though
Norway has long exported a considerable quantity of lumber, and the iron and;
copper works of Sweden consume charcoal very largely, the forests have not
diminished rapidly, enough to produce very sensible climatic or even economical
evils.*

FORESTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The proportion of forest is very small in Great Britain, where, on the one
hand, a prodigious industrial activity requires a vast supply of ligneous material,
but where, on the other, the abundance of coal, which furnishes a sufficiency of
fuel, the facility of importation of timber from abroad, and the conditions of
climate and surface combine to reduce the necessary quantity of woodland to its
lowest expression.

With the exception of Russia, Denmark and parts of Germany, no European
countries can so well dispense with the forests, in their capacity of conservative
influences, as England and Ireland. Their insular position and latitude secure an
abundance of atmospheric moisture ; the general inclination of surface is not such
as to expose it to special injury from torrents, and it is probable that the most
important climatic action exercised by the forest in these portions of the British
Empire, is in its character of a mechanical screen against the effects of wind. The

*Railway ties, or sleepers, are largely exported from Norway to India, and sold at Calcutta at a
lower price than timber of equal quality can be obtained from the native woods.

From 1861 to 1870, Norway exported annually, on the average, more than 60,000,000 cubic feet of
lumber.

Since 1872 the quantity of the annual exportation of timber from Norway and Sweden has steadily
increased, and in 1881 it was so large that it might well excite the grave anxiety of all friends of the
primeval forest.

6 (F.)

dm- proportion of woodland in England and Ireland is, therefore, a question
imt i)l' geographical hut almost purely of economical expediency, to be decided by
tin- comparative direct pecuniary return from forest growth, pasturage and plough
land.

In Kngland, aboriculture, the planting and nursing of single trees has, until
i;]iarativrly recent times, been better understood than sylviculture, the sowing
and training of the forest. But this latter branch of rural improvement now
receives great attention from private individuals, though not, so far as I know,
from the National ( iovernment, except in the East Indian provinces, where the
forestal department has ..assumed great importance. Many laws for the protec-
tion of the forest, as a cover for game and for the preservation of ship timber,
wore enacted in England before the 17th Century. The Statutes I Eliz. c. XV.,
\ui Eliz. c. v., and XXVII Eliz. c. xix., which have sometimes been understood
•i- designed to discourage the manufacture of iron, were obviously intended to
I MX- vent the destruction of large and valuable timber, useful in ordinary and
naval architecture, by burning it for charcoal. The injury to the forges was
accidental, not the purpose of the laws.

In Scotland, where the country is for the most part broken and mountainous,
the general destruction of the forests has been attended with very serious evils,

O «/ *

and it is in Scotland that many of the most extensive British forest plantations
have now been formed.

FORESTS OF FRANCE.

The preservation of the woods was one of the wise measures recommended
to France by Sully, in the time of Henry IV., but tho advice was little heeded,
and th> destruction of the forest went on with such alarming rapidity, that, two
generations later, Colbert uttered the prediction : " France will perish for want of
wood." Still, the extent of wooded soil was very great, and the evils attending
its diminution were not so sensibly felt, that either the Government or public
opinion saw the necessity of authoritative interference, and in 1750 Mirabeau
estimated the remaining forests of the kingdom at seventeen millions of hectares
(42,000,000 acres).

In I860 they were reduced to eight millions (19,769,000 acres) or at the rate
•of 82,000 hectares (202,000 acres) per year.

In a country and a climate where the conservative influences of the forest are
so necessary as in France, trees must cover a large surface and be grouped in
large masses, in order to discharge to the best advantage the various functions
assigned to them by nature. A large part of its territory is mountainous, sterile,
and otherwise such in character or situation, that it can be more profitably
devoted to the growth of wood than to any agricultural use.

The conservative action of the woods in regard to torrents and inundations
has been generally recognized by the public of France as a matter of prime
importance, and the Government has made this principle the basis of a special
system of legislation in the protection of existing forests, and for the formation
of new. The clearing of woodland, and the organization and functions of a police
for its protection are regulated by a law bearing date June 18th, 1859, and pro-
vision was made for promoting the restoration of private woods by a statute
adopted on the 28th July, 1860. This latter law appropriated 10,000,000, francs
to be expended, at the rats of 1,01)0,000 francs per year, in executing or aiding
the replanting of woods.

83

In 1865 the Legislative Assembly passed a bill amendatory of the law of
1860, providing, among other things for securing the soil in exposed localities by
grading, and by promoting the growth of grass and the formation of greensward
over the surface.

In l!S63, France imported lumber t<> the value of twenty-five-and-a-half
millions of dollars, and exported to the amount of six and a half millions of
dollars. The annual consumption of France was estimated in 1886 at 212,-
000,000 cubic feet for building and manufacturing, and 1,588,500,000 for fire-
wood and charcoal. The annual product of the forest soil of France does not
exceed 70,000,000 cubic feet of wood tit for industrial use, and 1,300,000,000 cubic
feet consumed as fuel. This estimate does not include the product of scattered
trees on private grounds, but the consumption is estimated to exceed the produc-
tion of the forests by the amount of about twenty millions of dollars.

The timber for building and manufacturing produced in France comes almost
wholly from the forests of the State or of the communes.

FORESTS OF ITALY.

According to statistics, Italy had 17.64 per cent, of woodland in 1872, a
proportion which, considering the character of climate and surface, the great
amount of soil which is tit for no other purpose than the growth of trees, and
the fact that much of the land classed as forest was then either very imperfectly
wooded, or covered with gioves badly administered, and not in a state of pro-
gressive improvement, might advantageously be doubled.

Taking Italy as a whole, we may say she is eminently fitted by climate, soil
and superficial formation for the growth of a varied and luxuriant arborial
vegetation. In such a country the promotion of forestal industry was among
the first duties of her people.

The denudation of the central and southern Appenines and of the Italian
declivity of the western Alps began at a period of unknown antiquity, but it
does not seem to have been carried to a very dangerous length until the foreign
conquests and extended commerce of Rome created a greatly increased demand
for wood for the construction of ships and for military material.

The eastern Alps, the western Appenines, and the maritime Alps retain
their forests much later ; but even here the want of wood, and the injury
to the plains and the navigation of the rivers by sediment brought down
by the torrents, led to legislation for the protection of the forests by the Republic
of Venice at various periods between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries,* by
that of Genoa, as early at least as the seventeenth, and both these Governments,
as well as several others, passed laws requiring the proprietors of mountain land
to replant the woods.

Although 110 country has produced more able writers on the value of the
forest and the general consequences of its destruction than Italy, yet the specific
geographical importance of the woods, except as a protection against inundations
has not been so clearly recognized in that country as in the States bordering it
on the north and west. It must be remembered that the sciences of observation
did not become knowledges of practical application till after the mischief was

*According to Hummel, the desolation of the Karats, the high plateau lying north of Trieste, one of
the most parched and barren districts in Europe, was owing to the felling of its woods centuries ago to
build the navies of Venice. ' Where the miserable peasant of the Karat sees nothing but bare rock swept
and scoured by the raging Bora, the fury of this wind was once subdued by mighty firs which Venice reck-
lessly cut down to build her fleets.1'— Physiche Geogra$>he, p. 32.

84

already mainly done and even forgotten in Alpine Italy, while its evils were just
I 'ginning to be sensibly felt in France when the claims of natural philosophy as
a liberal study were first acknowledged in modern Europe. The former political
condition of the Italian peninsula would have effectually prevented the adoption
ut! ;i -moral system of forest economy, however clearly the importance of a wise
administration of this great public interest might have been understood. The
woods which controlled and regulated the flow of the river-sources were very
often in one jurisdiction ; the plains to be irrigated or to be inundated by floods
and desolated by torrents in another.

Action under a single government can alone render practicable the establish-
ment of such arrangements for the conservation and restoration of the forests, and
for the regulation of the flow of the waters as are necessary for the full develop-
ment of the yet unexhausted resources of that fairest of lands, and even for the
maintenance of the present condition of its physical geography.

FORESTS OF GERMANY.

Germany, including a considerable part of the Austrian Empire, from
character of surface and climate, and from the attention which has long been
paid in all the German States to sylviculture and forestry, is in a far better
condition in this respect than its more southern neighbors ; and though in the
Alpine Provinces of Bavaria and Austria the same improvidence which marks
the rural economy of the corresponding districts of Switzerland, Italy, and
France has produced effects hardly less disastrous, yet, as a whole, the German
States must be considered as in this respect the model countries of Europe.
Not only is the forest area in general maintained without diminution, but
new woods are planted where they are specially needed, and though the slow
growth of forest trees in those climates reduces the direct pecuniary returns
of woodlands to a minimum, the governments wisely persevere in encouraging
this industry. The exportation of sawn lumber from Trieste is large, and in
fact the Turkish and Egyptian markets are in great part supplied from this
source.

As an instance of the scarcity of fuel in some parts of Bavaria, where, not long
since, wood abounded, the fact may be mentioned that the water of salt springs is,
in some instances, conveyed to the distance of sixty miles, in iron pipes, to
reach a supply of fuel for boiling it down.

The Austrian Government has made energetic efforts for the propagation
of forests in Tyrol and on the desolate wastes of the Karst. In 1866 upwards
of 400,000 trees had been planted on the Karst, and great quantities of seed
sown. The results of this important experiment are said to be encouraging,
(Chronique Forestiere in the Revue des Eaux et Forets, Feb. 1870.} Later
accounts .state that the Government nurseries of the Karst supplied between
1869 and 1872, 20,000,000 young forest trees for planting, and that of 70,000 ash
trees planted in the Karst scarcely one failed to grow.*

FORESTS OF RUSSIA.

Russia, which we habitually consider as substantially a forest country, which
has in fact a large proportion of woodland, is beginning to suffer seriously for
want of wood. Jourdier observes : — " Instead of a vast territory with immense
forests, which we expect to meet, one sees only scattered groves thinned by the

* For information respecting the forests of Germany, as well as other European countries, see the
very valuable Manuale d'Arte Forestale of Siemoni, 2d. edizione, Firenze, 1872.

85

wind or by the axe of the moujik, grounds cut over and more or less recently
•cleared for cultivation. There is probably not a single district in Russia which
has not to deplore the ravages of man or fire, those two great enemies of
Muscovite sylviculture. This is so true, that clear sighted men already foresee
a crisis which will become terrible, unless the discovery of great deposits of some
new combustible, as pit coal or anthracite, shall diminish its evils."

Hohenstein, who was long professionally employed as a forester in Russia,
describes the consequences of the general war upon the woods in that country as
most disastrous and as threatening still more ruinous evils. The river Volga,
the life artery of Russian internal commerce, is drying up from this cause, and
the great Muscovite plains are fast advancing to desolation like that of Persia.

ECONOMY OF WOODLANDS.

The action of the forest, considered merely as a mechanical shelter to grounds
lying to the leeward of it, might seem to be an influence of too restricted a char-
acter to deserve much notice, but many facts concur to show that it is a most
important element in local climate. Experience, in fact, has shown that mere
rows of trees, and even much lower obstructions, are of essential service in
defending vegetation against the action of the wind. Hardy proposes planting
in Algeria, belts of trees at the distance of 100 metres from each other, as a
shelter, which experience has proved to be useful in France.

In the report of a committee appointed in 1836 to examine an article of the
forest code of France, Araero observes : — " If a curtain of forest on the coast of

CT

Normandy and of Brittany were destroyed, these two Provinces would become
accessible to the winds from the west, to the mild breezes of the sea. Hence a
decrease of the cold of the winter. If a similar forest were to be cleared on the
eastern border of France, the glacial east wind would prevail with greater strength,
and the winters would become more severe. Thus the removal ot a belt of wood
would produce opposite effects in the two regions."

It is thought in Italy that the clearing of the Appenines has very materially
affected the climate of the valley of the Po. It is asserted inLe Alpi checingono
I' Italia that : — " In consequence of the felling of the woods on the Appenines,
the sirroco prevails greatly on the right bank of the Po, in the Parmesan territory,
and in a part of Lornbardy ; it injures the harvests and the vineyards, and some-
times ruins the crops of the season."

According to the same authority, the pinery of Porto, near Ravenna — which
is twenty miles long, and is one of the oldest pine woods in Italy — having been
replanted with resinous trees after it was unfortunately cut, has relieved the city
from the sirroco to which it had become exposed, and in a great degree restored its
ancient climate.*

The local retardation of spring so much complained of in Italy, France, and
•Switzerland, and the increased frequency of Jate frosts at that season, appear to
be ascribable to the admission of cold blasts to the surface, by the felling of the
forests, which formerly both screened it as by a wall and communicated the

*The following well attested instance of a local change of climate is' probably to be referred to the influ-
ence of the forest as a shelter against cold winds. To supply the extraordinary demand for Italian iron,
occasioned by the exclusion of English iron in the time of Napoleon I, the furnaces of the valleys of Ber-
gamo were stimulated to great activity. ' ' The ordinary production of charcoal not sufficing to feed the
cfurnaces and the forges, the woods were felled, the copses cut before their time, and the whole econ-
omy of the forest was deranged. At Piazzatorre there was such a devastation of the woods, and consequently
such an increased severity of climate, that maize no longer ripened. An association, formed for the purpose,
•effected the restoration of the forest and maize flourishes again in the fields of Piazzatorre." Report by G.
Kosa, in II Politecnico, Dicembre, 1861, p. 614.

SG

w:if!nth of their soil to the air and earth to the leeward. Caimi states that since
the cutting down of the woods of the Apennines, the cold winds destroy or stunt
the vegetation, ;uid that, in consequence of "the usurpation of' winter on the
domain of spring," the district of Mugello has lost its mulberries, except the few
\v!'ii'h find, in the lee of buildings, a protection like that once furnished by the
foresl -

INFLUENCE OF THE FOREST ON THE FLOW OF SPRINGS.

It is an almost universal and I believe well-foundel opinion that the protec
tion aft', "i-i led by the forest against the escape of moisture from its soil by super-
ficial flow and evaporation, insures the permanence and regularity of natural
springs, not only within the limits of the wood, but at some distance beyond
its borders, and thus contributes to the supply of an elememt essential to both
vegetable and animal life. As the forests are destroyed, the springs which flow
from the woods, and consequently the greater watercourses fed by them, diminish
both in number and in volume. This fact is so familiar throughout the American
States and the British Provinces that there are few old residents of the interior
of those districts who are not able to testify to its truth as a matter of personal
observation.

The hills in the Atlantic States formerly abounded in springs and brooks,,
but in many parts of these States, which were cleared a generation or two ago,
the hill pastures now suffer severely from drought, and in dry seasons furnish to
cattle neither grass nor water.

Almost every treatise on the economy of the forest adduces facts in support
of the doctrine that the clearing of the woods tends to diminish the flow of springs
and the humidity of the soil.

Marchand cites the following instances: —

" Before the felling of the woods within the la^t few years, in the valley of
the Soulce, the Combe-es-Mounin and the Little Valley, the Some furnished a
regular and sufficient supply of water for the iron works of Unterwyl, which was
almost unaffected by drought or by heavy rains. The Some has now become a
torrent, every shower occasions a flood, and after a few days of fine weather, the
current falls so low that it has been necessary to change the water wheels, because
those of the old construction are no longer able to drive the machinery, and at last
to introduce a steam engine to prevent the stoppage of the works for want of
water."

"The spring of Combefoulat, in the commune of Seleate, was well known as
one of the best in the country ; it was remarkably abundant, and sufficient, in
the severest droughts, to supply all the fountains of the town; but as soon as
considerable forests were felled in (Jombe-de-pre Martin and in the valley of
Combefoulat, the famous spring, which lies below these woods, has become a mere
thread of water, and disappears altogether in times of drought."

"The Wolf spring, in the commune of Soubey, furnishes a remarkable
example of the influence of the woods upon fountains. A few years ago this
spring did not exist. At the place where it now rises, a small thread of
water was observed after very long rains, but the stream disappeared with the
rain. The spot is in the middle of a very steep pasture inclining to the south.
Eighty years ago, the owner of the land, perceiving that young firs were shooting
up in the upper part of it, determined to let them grow, and they soon formed a
flourishing grove. As soon as they were well grown, a fine spring appeared in
place of the occasional rill, and furnished abundant water in the longest droughts.
For forty or fifty years this spring was considered the best in the Clos du Doubs.

87

A few years since, the grove was felled, and the ground turned again to a pasture.
The spring disappeared with the wood, and is now as dry as it was ninety vears.

ago."

IMPORTANCE OF SNOW.

The quantity of snow that falls in extensive forests far from the open
country, has seldom been ascertained by direct observation, because there are
few meteorological stations in or near the forest. According to Thompson, the
proportion of water which falls in snow in the northern States does not exceed one-
fifth of the total precipitation, but the moisture derived from it is doubtless con-
siderably increased by the atmospheric vapour absorbed by it, or condensed and
frozen on its surface. Though much snow is intercepted by the trees, and the quan-
tity on the ground in the woods is consequently less than in open land in the first
part of the winter, yet most of what reaches the ground at that season remains under
the protection of the wood until melted, and as it occasionally receives new
supplies, the depth of snow in the forest in the latter half of winter is considerably
greater than in the cleared fields. Measurements in a snowy region in New Eng-
land in the month of February, gave a mean of thirty-eight inches in the open,
ground and forty-four inches in the woods, but the actual difference between the
quantity of snow in the woods and that in the open ground in the latter part of
winter, is greater than the measurements would seem to indicate. In the woods
the snow, which remains constant, is consolidated by a pressure, while in the
open ground, being blown off, or thawed several times in the course of the winter,
it seldom becomes as densely packed as in the woods, except in the bottom of
valleys or other positions where it is sheltered both from wind and sun.

The water imbibed by the soil in winter sinks until it meets a more or less
impermeable or a saturated stratum, and then, by unseen conduits, slowly finds
its way to the channels of springs, or oozes out of the ground in drops, which
unite in rills, and so all is conveyed to the larger streams, and by them finally to
the sea.

IMPORTANCE OF SUMMER RAINS.

In countries like the United States (and Canada) where rain is comparatively
rare during the winter and abundant during the summer half of the year, common
observation shows that the quantity of water furnished by deep wells and by
natural springs depends almost as much upon the rains of summer as upon those
of the rest of the year, and, consequently, that a large portion of the rain of that
season must find its way into strata too deep for the water to be wasted by evapo-
ration.

According to observation at one hundred military stations in the United
States, the precipitation ranges from three and one-quarter inches at Fort Yuma
in California, to about seventy-two inches, at Fort Pike, Louisiana, the mean for
the entire territory, not including Alaska, being thirty-six inches. In the different
sections of the Union it is as follows : —

IS! ortheastern States 41 inches.

New York 36

Middle States 4(M "

Ohio , ...40

Southern States 51

S. VV. States and Indian Territories 39J "

Western States and Indian Territories 30

Texas and New Mexico 24i "

California 1 8| "

Oregon and Washington Territory 50

ss

The mountainous regions, it appears, do not receive the greatest amount of
precipitation.

Tin* average downfall of the Southern States, bordering on the Atlantic and
tlii' Gulf of Mexico, exceeds the mean of the whole United States, being no less
than fifty-one inches, while on the Pacific coast it ranges from fifty to fifty-six
inches.

INCREASED DEMAND FOR LUMBER.

With increasing population and the development of new industries come
new drains upon the forests from the many arts for which wood is the material.
The vast extension of railroads, of manufactures and the mechanical arts, of military
armaments, and especially of the commercial fleets and navies of Christendom,
within the present century have incredibly augmented the demand for wood, and
but for improvements in metallurgy and the working of iron, which have facili-
tated the substitution of that metal for wood, the last twenty-five years would have
almost stripped Europe of her last remaining tree fit for these uses.

Let us take the supply of timber for railroad ties. According to Clave',
France had in 1862, 9,000 kilometres of railway in operation, 7,000 in construc-
tion, half of which is built with a double track. Adding turn-outs and
extra tracks at stations, the number of ties required for a single track is stated
at 1,200 to the kilometre, or, as Clave computes, for the entire net- work of
France, 58,000,000. This number is too large for 16,000 + 8,000 for the double track
half way = 24,000, and 24,000x1,200-28,800,000. Gandy states in 1863, that
2,000,000 trees had been felled to furnish the ties for the French railroads, and
as the ties must be occassionally renewed, and new railways have been con-
structed since 1863, we may probably double this number.

The United States had in operation on the first of January, 1872, 61,000
miles, or about 97,000 kilometres of railroad. Allowing the same proportion as
in France, the United States railraods required 116,400,000 ties. The number of
ties annually required for these railways was estimated at 30,000,000. The
annual expenditure for lumber, buildings, repairs and cars was estimated at
^o8,000,000, and the locomotive fuel, at the rate of 19,000 cords of wood per day,
at $50,000,000.

The walnut trees cut in Italy and France to furnish gunstocks to the
American Army, during the late civil war, would alone have formed a consider-
able forest.

The consumption of wood for lucifer matches is enormous, and thousands of
acres in extents are purchased and felled, solely to supply timber for this pur-
pose. The United States Government tax, at one cent per hundred, produced
$2,000,000 per year, which shows a manufacture of 20,000,000,000 matches.
Allowing nothing for waste, there are about fifty matches to the cubic inch of
wood or 86,400 to the cubic foot, making in all upwards of 230,000 cubic feet,
and as only straight grained wood, free from knots, can be used for this purpose,
not less than three or four thousand well-grown pines are required.

Add to all this the supply of wood for telegraph poles, wooden pavements,
wooden wall tapestry paper, shoe-pegs, wooden nails, and wood-pulp and other
recent applications which ingenuity has devised, and we have an amount of con-
sumption for entirely new purposes, which is really appalling. Wooden field and
garden fences are very generally used in America, and some have estimated the
•consumption of wood for this purpose as not less than that for architectural
uses.

Fully one-half our vast population is lodged in wooden houses ; and barns
and country out-houses of all descriptions are almost universally of the same
material.

The consumption of wood in the United States as fuel for domestic purposes,
for charcoal, for brick and lime-kilns, for breweries and distilleries, for steam-boats,
and many other uses, defies computation, and is vastly greater than is employed in
Europe for the same ends. For instance, in rural Switzerland, cold as is the
winter climate, the whole supply of wood foi domestic fires, dairies, breweries,
distilleries, brick and lime-kilns, fences, furniture, tools, and even house-building
and small smitheries, exclusive of the small quantity derived from the trimmings
of fruit trees, grape vines, and hedges, and from decayed fences and buildings,
does not exceed two hundred and thirty cubic feet or less than two cords a year,
per household. The annual consumption of firewood by single families in France
has been estimated at from two and a half to ten Paris cords of 134 cubic
feet.

The report of the Commissioners on the Forests of Wisconsin, 1867, allows three
cords of wood to each person for household fires alone. Taking families at an aver-
age of five persons, we have eight times the amount consumed by an equal number
of persons in Switzerland for this and all other purposes to which this material is
ordinarily applicable. It has been estimated that in the cold climate of Sweden,
144 solid, or 200 loose cubic feet of pine or fir are required per head of the popu-
lation. The consumption in Norway is about the same.

Evergreen trees are thoughtlessly destroyed in immense numbers for the pur-
pose of decoration and on festive occasions. Thrifty young groves of ever-
green of considerable extent have been completely destroyed in this reckless
way.

France employs 1,500,000 cubic feet of oak per year for brandy and wine
casks, which is about half her annual consumption of that material ; and it is not a
wholly insignificant fact that, according to Rentzsch, the quantity of wood used
in parts of Germany for small carvings and for children's toys is so large that
the export of such objects from the town of Sonneberg alone amounted in 1858,
to 60.000 centner, or three thousand tons weio-ht.

* a

In an article in the Revue des Eaux et Forets for November, 1868, it is
stated that 200,000 dozens of drums for boys were manufactured per month
in Paris ; this is equivalent to 28,800,000 per year, for which 56,000,000 drum-
sticks are required. The consumption of matches in France is given at
7,200,000,000.

EFFECTS OF FOREST FIRES.

Only trees fit for industrial uses fall before the lumberman's axe, but
the fire destroys, almost indiscriminately, every age and every species of tree.
While, then, without fatal injury to the younger growths, the native forest will
bear several "cuttings over" in a generation — for the increasing value of lumber
brings into use, every four or five years, a quality of timber which had been before
rejected as unmarketable — a fire may render the declivity of a mountain
unproductive for a century.

Aside from the destruction of the trees and the laying bare of the soil>
and consequently the free admission of sun, rain, and air to the ground, the
fire of itself exerts an important influence on its texture and condition. It
cracks and sometimes even pulverizes the rocks and stones upon and near the
surface; it consumes a portion of the half decayed vegetable mould which

90

served to hold its mineral particles together, and to retain the water of preci-
pitation, and thus loosens, pulverizes and dries the earth ; it destroys reptiles,,
insects, and worms, with their eggs and the seeds of trees and of smaller
plants; it supplies, in the ashes which it deposits on the surface, important ele-
ments for the growth of a new forest clothing as well as of the usual objects
of agricultural industry ; and by the changes thus produced, it fits the ground
for the reception of a vegetation different in character from that which had
spontaneously covered it. These new conditions help to explain the natural
succession of forest crops, so generally observed in all woods cleared by fire and
then abandoned. There is no doubt, however, that other influences contribute
to the same result, because effects more or less analogous follow when the trees
are destroyed by other causes, as by high winds, by the woodman's axe, and
even by natural decay. *

When the forest is left to itself the order of succession is constant, and its occa-
sional inversion is always explicable by some human interference. It is curious
that the trees which require most light are content with the poorest soils, and
vice versa. The trees which first appear are also those which propagate them-
selves farthest to the north.

The birch, the larch, and the fir, bear a severer climate than the oak or the
beech.

The difficulty of protecting the woods against accidental or incendiary fires-
is one of the most discouraging circumstances attending the preservation of
natural and the plantation of artificial forests. In the spontaneous wood the
spread of fire is somewhat retarded by the general humidity of the soil, and of
the beds of leaves which cover it. But in long droughts the superficial layer of
leaves and the dry fallen branches become as inflammable as tinder, and the fire
spreads with fearful rapidity, until its further progress is arrested by want of
material, or more rarely, by heavy rains, sometimes caused, as many meteorolo-
gists suppose, by the conflagration itself.

* Trees differ in their power of resisting the action of forest fires. Different woods vary greatly in
their combustibility, and even when the bark is scarcely scorched, trees are, partly in consequence of phy-
siological character, and partly from the greater or less depth at which their roots habitually lie below the
surface, differently affected by running fires. The white pine, Pinus Strobus, as it is the most valuable, is
also perhaps the most delicate tree of the American forest, while its congener, the northern pitch-pine, Pinus-.
Rigida, is less injured by fire than any other tree of our country. Experienced lumbermen maintain that
the growth of this pine was Hven accelerated by a fire brisk enough to destroy all other trees.

91

UNITED STATES CONSULAR REPORTS ON EUROPEAN FORESTRY.

There is a great deal of useful information respecting European systems of
forestry contained in a volume entitled " Forestry in Europe," published at
Washington, Government Printing Office, 1887, from which the following extracts
have been made :—

COPY OF CIRCULAR.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE,

WASHINGTON, November 30, 1886.

To the Consular Officers of the United States :

GENTLEMEN : — You are instructed to prepare a report covering the following
questions on Forest Culture and Forest Preservation. I would as/c you to devote
especial attention to the practical phases of the question, that your replies may
serve as a basis for framing forestry legislation in this country, where the
subject is of great and increasing importance.

1. Areas under forests, distinguishing, where possible, between State and
private areas.

2. Common forests, if any, and privileges of the population in them. If
pasture is permitted, how are the trees, etc., protected ?

3. Organization and functions of government forest bureaus.

4. Revenues from government forests, cost of maintaining or managing
forests ; profits of forest cultivation.

5. Forest planting and culture; methods; bounties, if any; schools, their
organization and courses of study.

6. Destruction of forests, causes and results

7. Reclamation of sand dunes, or waste places by tree planting.

8. Sources of lumber supply ; trade in lumber, bounties on importation, if
any, and customs duties.

9. Give the names of three reliable sellers of seeds and shoots in your
district.

10. Transmit to the Department copies and translations of the forest laws
of the district in which you reside. (The general laws should be forwarded by
the Consul-General ; the local laws, by the Consul.)

I am, Gentlemen,

Your Obedient Servant,

JAMES D. PORTER,

Assistant Secretary.

92

WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND CURRENCY.

Cental Equals 220 pounds.

Centner meter 221.5 pounds.

Florin " 35.9 cents.

Franc 19.3 cents.

Hectare 2.471 acres.

Joch 1.42 acres.

Kilogram 2.2046 pounds.

Mark 23.8 cents.

AUSTRIA HUNGARY.— REPORT OF CONSUL-GENERAL JUSSEN.

GOVERNMENT CONTROL.

The forest laws of Austria prescribe and control not only the culture of the
forests belonging to the imperial domain, but also all woodlands which are the
property of municipalities, private corporations or private individuals, and are
based upon the theory of paternal government.

If the law as it stands is enforced not a tree can be cut nor a load of dry
leaves gathered in a forest which is situated in Austria except in accordance with
certain rules and restrictions, and although there may be much in these laws
which may serve for framing future forestry legislation in the United States, the
greater portion of the enactment is in direct conflict with the American idea of
home government and propert}^ rights.

The Austrian Empire is unusually rich in forest lands. There is no lack of
dense woods in any of its Provinces, except in Dalmatia and Istria and in the
territory near Trieste, and the culture of forest lands may be called exemplary,
especially in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria, Silesia and Salzburg.

The yield of these vast forests, although it is said to be on the decline, still
far exceeds the home demands, and large quantities are exported.

AREAS UNDER FORESTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.

The latest statistics place the total area of the productive land of the Empire
at 28,406,530 hectares ; of these total numbers of hectares 9,227,061.20 hectares
are forest lands, and these again are divided into imperial (State), municipal and
private forests, as follows : — Imperial forests, 952,689.96 hectares ; municipal
forests, 1,297,238.21 hectares. The private forests, therefore, cover about 32 per
cent, of the total area of the productive land of the Empire.

COMMON FORESTS AND PRIVILEGES OF THE POPULATION IN THEM.

As common forests of the Empire only the woodlands belonging to the
several cities and villages can properly be denominated. The residents of these
cities and villages undoubtedly enjoy certain privileges as to the use of these
forests, by virtue of the local laws and regulations. I am not in a position,
however, to have access to these local regulations, which undoubtedly differ in
the different communities, but are one and all subject to the general law on
forest culture and preservation hereinafter cited. This general law, if strictly
enforced, furnishes the means of ample protection against any injury that may
possibly threaten these common forests by the wasteful or careless exercise of
any privilege granted by local enactment.

ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT FOREST BUREAUS.

The cultivation and preservation of the forests of the Empire of Austria
and the administration of the laws with reference thereto are entrusted to the
Ministry of Agriculture. The right of appeal, however, in certain contested cases
to the Ministry of the Interior is reserved.

Under the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture the several Provincial
presidents (statthalters) are authorize 1 to execute the forest laws and regulations,
and as next in authority to these statthalters the several district captains are
empowered to enforce the laws in question, and to exercise a general authority,
supervision and control over all the subordinate officers charged with the execu-
tion of the forest laws, and forest police regulations. This subordinate class of
forestry officers is composed of two classes : —

1. The officers who have entered the service permanently, after passing the
requisite examination, and are in the line of promotion, like officers of the regular
army.

2. The volunteer officers who for the sake of pursuing their studies and
adding practical experience to theoretical knowledge, accept the position in the
forest service as an honorable distinction, but receive a salary in proportion to
the extent of their field of action and responsibility.

This latter class, however, like the first, must have passed certain examina-
tions, proving their qualifications before they can enter the service as such volun-
teers.

The professional and regular forest officers in the Empire are classified as
follows : —

A. Forest Inspectors.

2. Chief forest counsellors (called oberforestrathe).

5. Forest counsellors (or forestrathe).

7. Chief forest commissaries (called oberforestcommissare).

B. Forest Technicists.
Forest inspection commissaries (called forestthechniker).

G. Forest Wards Belonging to the Category of Servants.

Forest wards, class I, salary per annum, 500 florins.
Forest wards, class II, salary per annum, 400 florins.
Forest wards, class III, salary per annum, 300 florins.

The forest inspectors are charged with the duty of superintending the'execu-
tion of all forest laws, of examining the condition of the forest, fostering and
furthering instructions in forest culture and acting as adjuncts to the'Statthalter.

From early spring until late in the fall the forest inspector should visit fand
inspect the forests in his district and make a report of each inspecting tour'to the
Statthalter.

The Statthalter may also order the forest inspector to make special inspecting
tours in addition to the regular tour.

The forest inspector is required to inspect the offices of the district captains
with reference to forest affairs.

94

The instructions to forest inspectors contain sufficient points, elaborately
presented, to fill a moderate-sized pamphlet, and the gist of the whole matter is
that the forest inspector acts as a paternal adviser, and if need be as an imperative
commander to all owners of forests in the empire, as well as a superintendent of
imperial forests.

He controls and commands private owners as to the manner and order in
which they should cut their timber, as to the necessity of replanting, the preventing
of waste, the preservation of timber against floods, and as to the danger and injury
threatening from insects, as to the fitness and capacity of the subordinate forest
inspectors and hunters and forest wards to be employed by these owners ; in
short, there is not a single act of ownership which the holder of the titled deeds
of woodland could possibly exercise over his own domain which is not directly
under the control, and which does not require the approval of the forest
inspector.

In the light of these instructions it is not at all paradoxical to say that the
owner of forest land in Austria must exercise extraordinary care not to be guilty
of trespass upon his own lands. There can be no question, however, that this
paternal control has achieved most excellent practical results, though ic is said
that the discipline of forest officials has been lax, and that the laws and instruc-
tions have not been enforced with uniform strictness. The forest technicists and
forest wards are the subordinate officers of the forest, instruments by which the
duties above enumerated and imposed upon the forest inspectors are practically
performed.

FOREST REGISTER (WALDKATASTER).

In pursuance of a decree of the Ministry of Agriculture, under date of
July 3, 1873, the respective forest officers are required to keep a forest register of
each district, which specifies the number of acres covered by forest, its condition,
state of growth, etc.

In connection with this register maps are prepared and kept open for
inspection at the offices of the district captains upon which the condition and
extent of the several forests in the districts are shown.

At the close of each year a report about the progress of forest culture, etc.,
is to be made to the Ministry of Agriculture, which report is to be published in
the Landes Zeitung.

The total number of forest officers of all grades, public and private, employed
in Austria, reaches the respectable figure of 31,826.

REVENUES FROM GOVERNMENT FORESTS — COST OF MAINTAINING OR MANAGING
FORESTS — PROFITS OF FOREST CULTIVATION.

On the point of the profits of Government forests there are absolutely no
statistics published in the Empire, so far as I have been able to ascertain, except
those given in the budget under the head of forest revenues and expenditures.
The last budget published places :—

The forest revenues, p. a. florins . 3,951,050

The forest expenditures, p. a. florins 3,546,240

Profit of State forests, 405,410

These net proceeds of an area of government forest land, containing
952,689.96 hectares, certainly seem very inconsiderable, but in order to estimate

95

the true value of these forests to the Empii^e, their influence upon the climate, the
rainfalls, and the consequent benefit to agricultural land, as well as to the health
of the population, should be taken into consideration.

A direct benefit also results to the population from the employment of
numerous officers attending to the cultivation and preservation of these forests,
all of whom are paid and supported by the profits derived from the culture.

It cannot be contended, therefore, that the people are taxed in order to
support a small army of forest officers, who are actually producers, earning more
than they expend.

I find on an examination of the meagre statistics to which I have had access
that the profits of forest land culture have materially increased during the last
fifty years.

The Kataster (Real Estate Register) shows that in Lower and Upper Austria
the net profit per joch was estimated at 1.41 florins in the year 1830. while in the
year 1880 this estimate rose to 2.62 florins per joch, an increase of almost 100
per cent., an incontrovertible proof that the forest laws of Austria^which were
passed in 1852, have been of great practical benefit to forest culture.

This benefit is proven, not only by the increased net proceeds of a given area
of forest lands, but also by the growth and greater extent of the area itself.

FOKEST PLANTING AND CULTURE METHODS. — BOUNTIES IF ANY. — SCHOOLS, THEIR

ORGANIZATION AND COURSE OF STUDY.

The method of forest planting and culture prevailing in Austria are quite
particularly prescribed in the forest laws. There are no bounties paid in the
Empire for planting or replanting of forests.

SCHOOLS.

The schools for forest culture were transferred in 1878 from the Minister
of Agriculture to the Minister for Culture and Education, but all organic order
and appointments of professors are made by the Ministers of Culture and
Education with the concurrence of the Minister of Agriculture.

While there are undoubtedly numerous provisions of the forest culture law
which cannot be applied or enforced in the United States, the system inaugurated
in Austria to tit and educate young men for the duty of enforcing this law seems
beyond all question worthy of imitation to the fullest extent.

These Austrian schools for forest culture consist of :—

A. University (hochschule).

B. Middle or preparatory schools.

C. Elementary or lower schools.

The university (hochschule) is situate in Vienna; it was founded in
October, 1875.

Its aim and purpose is the highest possible scientific education in land and
forest culture, All expenditures are borne by the State. The semesters (terms)
are limited to six — that is, complete instruction is not perfected under six
semesters.

96

THE STUDENTS.

The students are either ordinary Tor extraordinary hearers. The ordinary
hearer must produce a testimonial as a 'graduate of a gymnasium (college) or high
school (oberealschule} — a testimonial which would also admit the students to
any university.

Whoever does not possess the qualification of an ordinary hearer may be
admitted as an extraordinary hearer if he is eighteen years old and has that
degree of preparatory education which will enable him to understand the
lectures.

Guests may be admitted to single lectures on notice of the the'dean (rector).
All hearers are subject to the dicipline regulations of the university.

IMMATRICULATION, TUITION FEE, AND LABORATORIUM TAX.

The immatriculation fee is five florins for all hearers. The ordinary hearers
pay a tuition fee of twenty-five florins at the beginning of the semester (term).

Extraordinary hearers pay 1.50 florins (per week)Jfor each lecture.

Ordinary hearers, if poor, may, as a reward for greatMiligence, be released
from the payment of tuition fees if the college of professors ^so decides.

The laboratorium tax is five florins for fifteen hours.

CERTIFICATES OF ATTENDANCE.

The attendance at lectures is certified to at the end of each semester. In
case of non attendance, the fact is stated on the certificate. The certificates are
to be delivered to the dean for examination.

EXAMINATIONS AND TESTIMONIALS.

The examinations are public and conducted under the supervision of the
dean (rector).

In deciding the degree of succes in examinations, not only the written school
examination, bit also the labor in the laboratory and the authenticated studies
in chambers are to be taken into consideration.

Every ordinary hearer has the right to be admitted to the state examination- j
if he so desires.

Regular and full diplomas are only issued to ordinary hearers.

Extraordinary hearers can claim only a testimonial certifying to> their
attendance at lectures, good conduct and general progress in their studies.

TERMS OF EXAMINATIONS FOR DIPLOMAS IN FOREST CULTURE.

First Group.

1. Physics with climatology.

2. Chemistry.

3. General and special botany.

4. Mineralogy and geology.

5. Mathematics.

97

6. Geodesy.

7. Mechanics.

8. Geometry.

9. National economy.

Second Group.

1. Forest culture.

2. Forest felling with forest technology.
3- Forest preservation with forest zoology.
4. Forest laws

•5. Forest yield, regulation and management.

6. Forest statistics.

7. Forest engineering.

The examinations are both oral and in writing, during which the use of, and
reference to, books and memoranda are not permitted.

Only ordinary hearers who have performed the three years' course in the
university are admitted to examinations for diplomas.

If the student desires to enter the service of the State as a forest officer, he
must subject himself to, and pass two State examinations, after he has obtained
his university diploma.

The subjects of the first State examination are the following; — Physics,
climatology, chemistry, botany, geology > higher mathematics, geodesy, and
national economy.

The second State examination! embraces the subjects of culture, use and yield
of forest lands, calculations on values of forests, forest machinery, and forest
laws.

These State examinations are conducted orally and in public. The State
issues diplomas to the successful candidates.

MIDDLE OR PREPARATORY SCHOOLS FOR FOREST CULTURE.

Three of these preparatory schools have been established in the Empire, one
at Eulenberg, another at Weisswasser, and the third at Lunberg.

The conditions of admission to the Eulenberg school are the following : —

1. The applicant must be a graduate of a lower gymnasium (under gymna-
sium, or unterrealschule, preparatory college.)

2. He must have served with good success for two, or at the very least, one
year, as the apprentice of a forest official.

3. He must not be less than seventeen and not more than twenty-four
years old.

4. Must be in perfect health and vaccinated.

5. Must furnish security as to means required for instruction, clothing and
support.

6. Must pass a preliminary examination by the teachers of the school.

The scholars, whose numbers shall not exceed twenty to twenty-five per
annum, reside at the institute.

7 (F.)

The branches taught embrace mathematics, field engineering, drawing,
natural history, forest culture, forest laws, business coorrespondence, office routine
business, and hunting.

The conditions of admission to the other two middle schools are of about
the same character, and nearly the same branches are taught there, all calculated
to fit the student for admission at the university at Vienna.

In all these schools excursions are made by the scholars under the guidance
of the teachers, for the purpose of combining practical illustration with theoretical
knowledge, in the branches of natural history, forest culture, preservation and
valuation.

Examinations take place at the end of each semester (term).

ELEMENTARY (NIEDERE) SCHOOLS FOR FOREST CULTURE.

The Ministry of Agriculture has established four of these lower schools, one
in Tyrol, one in Styr, one in Galicia, and one in Agglsbach.

Course of Study : — Mathematics, geometrical exercises, field engineering,
measuring of wood and timber cut and standing, measuring of arth and excava-
tions, writing, drawing, natural history, geology, mineralogy, zoology, game as
distinguished from other animals.

Practical Works : — Felling timber — numbering, measuring and piling same,
planting aud replanting forests, draining and irrigation, protection against insects
and fires, charcoal making, sawing lumber and hunting.

The scholars are also required to construe and explain the most important
provisions of the forest laws and to commit them to memory.

They are also taught the use, value, etc., of all building material, viz., wood,
lime, bricks, stone, sand, etc., and are instructed in the building and clearing of
forest roads, and the securing of the banks of forest streams, and repairing
fissures in same, etc.

As teachers in these elementary schools experienced forest officers are
detailed.

The discipline in these schools as regards the conduct and studies of the
scholars, as well in school as in chambers, is very strict.

No scholar is permitted to absent himself from the institution without leave
the side arms and guns intrusted to the scholars for practise, must be cleaned in
the presence of the teachers and delivered to their care ; all tools used by them
must be cared for in the same mann'er.

If an offence against the regulations is repeated three times, dismissal
follows.

Strict moral conduct is enforced, and the scholars are continually under the
direct control and supervision of one of the teachers, who is also charged with the
duty of visiting the scholars in their rooms.

All moneys belonging to the scholars must be deposited with the teachers,
who supply the depositors with the amount actually needed from the deposit
funds, and the parents are advised of this regulation.

The regulations of discipline are too voluminous to be cited here in full.
They also differ some'what in the different schools, but on the whole they are
framed in a strict military spirit, which looks upon obedience to rules of conduct
.as a first requisite to a successful course of study.

99

A young man who has graduated from an elementary to a middle forest
school, and from that to the university, or high school of forest culture, who has
obtained his diploma at the latter, and has also passed the two State examinations,
may be said to be thoroughly fitted for his profession, and besides undoubtedly
clean, healthy, robust, and thoroughly manly in a physical as well as in a
moral sense.

EXTRACTS FROM GENERAL FOREST LAW OF AUSTRIA IN FORCE SINCE JANUARY

1, 1853.

Cultivation of Forests.

m

Sec. 1. Forests are distinguished as (a) State or Imperial forests under the
control of the State authorities. (6) Common forests, belonging to the city and
country communities, (c) Private forests, belonging either to private individuals,
•or to corporations, or to orders, monasteries, benefices or prebends.

Sec. 2. No forest can be withdrawn from cultivation and used for other
purposes except by consent. This consent can only be granted with reference to
State forests by the proper authority, and if questions of strategy or military
defence arise the concurrence of the Ministry of war is required.

With reference to common and private forests the consent of the district
authorities is required, and all parties interested are to be heard on the application,
and in case of conflict of interests the matter is to be submitted to the proper
civil judge.

The arbitrary use of forests for other purposes is punished by a five of five
florins per joch. (1 joch equals 1.42 acres).

The area thus converted to improper use must be replanted within a certain
time, to be fixed by experts. In case of default the fine is again imposed.

Sec. 3. Newly-cleared tracts of State or common forests must be replanted
within five years. A longer time may be allowed for the replanting of private
forests, according to circumstances, and in pursuance of the provisions of
section 20.

Sec. 4. No forest should be devastated ; that is, so treated that the cultiva-
tion is either jeopardized or made impossible. If the cultivation has only been
jeopardized a fine will be imposed in accordance with section 2, and the replanting
is to be enforced. If, however, cultivation has been impossible, a fine up to ten
florins per joch will be imposed.

Sec. 5. A cultivation which exposes neighboring forests to injury from winds
is prohibited. A strip of woods at least twenty Vienna klaf ter wide must be left,
when such danger exists, along the margin of the neighboring woods until the
same is in full growth. In the meantime this wind-cloak can only be thinned.

Sec. 6. On sandy soil and on steep mountain slopes the timber can only be
cut in narrow strips or thinned out, and must be immediately replaced. The
woods upon the summits of mountains must only be thinned.

See. 7. On the shores of large rivers or lakes, if the shores are not composed
-of rocks, and on the slopes of mountains where land slides are possible great care
is to be exercised, and roots can only be dug if tho fissure is immediately
repaired.

Sec. 8. Violations of sections 5, 6 and 7, are punished with a fine of from 20 to
500 florins. Damage accruing to others to be paid by offender.

100

Sec. 9. Provides for cultivation of common forests, and for limitation and
official control of grazing1 and other privileges and uses.

Sec. 10. Grazing is not permitted in young timber, where it might injure the
gnnvth, and no more cattle are to be driven into any woods than can find suffi-
cient food within the area. Herdsmen must be employed, and the cattle shall
graze together, and not isolated, as much as possible. The driving of cattle to the
place of grazing to be done with due regard to the preservation ©f the forest ; if
necessary a circuitous route is to be taken.

Sec. 11, Bedding of dry leaves and moss must be gathered only with wooden
rakes, without scratching up the soil. In young timber no gathering of bedding
is permitted.

•

Sec. 12. From felled trees all the branches may be cut ; from standing trees*
selected for future cutting, the lower two-thirds of branches may be cut. The
young shoots between the strong branches must be preserved. From trees which
are not to be felled immediately the branches must be cut between the months of
August and March, excepting only during severe frost. No climbing vines are
permitted.

Sec. 13. The gathering of bedding can only be permitted on the same ground
every third year. Young shoots, may, however, be gathered with permission of
owner.

Sec. 14. Provides for regulating the exact time within which parties possessing
the privilege may gather bedding. Time to be fixed by the owner.

Sec. 15. Provides for the different marks on timber to be felled.

Sect. 16. Where the preservation of young timber requires it the cutting and
transporting of timber must take place in the fall or in winter during snow fall.
Generally timber may be cut also in spring or summer, but in such case it must
be taken out of the woods before the next ensuing spring.

From trees felled in the green leaf the bark is to be peeled at once ; from
these felled in the late fall the bark must be taken in strips before the next
spring. The stumps must not be left too high. In felling trees, hewing and
transporting timber, all injury to standing trees is to be avoided. The same rule
obtains with reference to the gathering and transportation of bedding, which
must be removed out of the woods within three months.

Sec. 17. All products of the woods must be removed on the road designated
by the owner. The time of removal as agreed between owner and purchaser
of timber to be requested ; if not so requested owner may give fourteen days'
notice and dispose of products if notice is not complied with.

Sec. 18. Provides that forest officials (political authorities) shall decide all
differences and disputes. Owners of forests who violate regulations to be fined,
for each offence from 20 to 200 florins.

Sec. 19. Provides that the State, in case of necessity, can take possession of
forests for the purpose of protection against avalanches, land slides, etc. If claims
for damages arise they are to be settled according to law.

Sec. 20. Provides manner of proceeding for the purpose of taking such
possession, examination of experts, etc. ,

Sec. 21. As a rule no partition of common forests can be made.

Sec. 22. For the purpose of insuring the proper cultivation of forests all
owners of forests of sufficient dimensions (which dimensions are prescribed by the
authorities) are required to emplo}7 only such forests officers as are considered
qualified by the government.

101

Sec. 23. The political authorities are charged with the general superinten-
•dence of all forests in their respective districts.

Transportation of Forest Products.

Every land owner is required to permit forest products to be transported
across his land if no other outlet is convenient, or if other transportation is too
expensive.

The transportation must be conducted with proper care, and all damages
accruing must be paid.

The political authorities decide whether such transportation across lands of
third parties is necessary and also fix amount of damages, from which decision as
to damages an appeal may be taken to the courts.

Sec. 25. Provides for jurisdiction with reference to transportation over public
roads, etc.

Sec. 26. The transportation of wood by means of rafts and the building of
booms require special permission by the authorities of the district. If the use of
private waters is required proceedings must be had according to section 24.

Sees. 27 to 43. Refer to the regulation of rafting, marking of timber trans-
ported by rafts, use of rivers and other waters, public and private, for rafting, etc.

Forest Fires and Damages by Insects.

Sec. 44. The greatest care must be exercised in igniting fires or in using
combustible materials in or near the forests. If dangers arise in consequence of
neglect to use such care the offenders must pay all damages, and may according to
circumstances, be either prosecuted under the general criminal code or fined from
5 to 40 florins, or imprisoned from one to eight days.

Sec. 45. Every person who finds a deserted and unextinguished fire in or on
the edge of a forest is required to extinguish it if possible. If any person observes
a forest fire he is held to give notice to the next inhabitants in the direction of
the road which he travels. These parties so notified are required to give notice
to the nearest local authorities and to the owner of the forest or to his forest
officials.

Sec. 46. All surrounding villages can be required by the owner of the forest,
or his forest officials, or by the local authorities to extinguish the fire. The posse
must at once repair to the place of the fire with the necessary fire-extinguishing
apparatus. The local authorities and the forest officials must accompany the
posse.

Sec. 47. Unconditional obedience is to be paid to the superior officer com-
manding the posse The other local officials must preserve order among the fire-
men and cause the execution of the orders. After the fire has been extinguished
the place where it occurred is to be guarded from one to two days, or longer, if
necessary, and tie necessary number of men must be furnished for this purpose.

Sec. 48. Local officers who neglect to perform their duty will be fined from
5 to 50 florins, and all persons who refuse to obey their orders will be punished
by a fine of from 5 to 15 florins or by imprisonment from 1 to 3 days.

Sec. 49. Damages to property of third parties, caused by extinguishing these
fires, are to be paid by the parties for whose benefit the posse was called, unless
this third party was protected against still greater loss by the efforts of the posse.

102

Sec. 50. The damages caused to forests by insects are to be closely watched.
The owners of forests and their employees are required, in case they cannot succeed
in preventing the spread of such damage to adjacent woods, or on their own
grounds, to notify the political authorities at once, or rti default thereof to pay a
fine of from 5 to 50 florins. Every person is authorized to give such notice.

Sec. 51. The political authorities, with the assistance of experts, must at
once take the proper measures to prevent this damage by insects. All owners of
forests whose woods may be in danger are bound to render assistance and to
submit to the order of the authorities, who are herewith authorized to enforce
their orders.

The expense shall be borne by the owners of the forests in proportion to the
dimensions of their respective tracts.

Forest Preservation Service.

Sec. 52. Provides for the organization of forest guards to be attached to the
forest administration service. These guards, whether employed by the State, by
communities, or by private individuals, to take the oath of office. (Form of oath
general, with reference to performance of duties in preserving forests as law
requires).

Sec. 53. These sworn guards to be regarded as public guards, with all rights
guaranteed to public officers by law, and authorized to carry the usual arms.
Every persons is required to obey their orders given in the line of their duties.

Sec. 54. The guards shall use their arms only in case of self-defence. To

«/

wear uniforms.

Sec, 55. The guards are authorized to order suspicious persons to leave the
forests and to confiscate all tools used for gathering forest products if the parties
carrying them in the forest cannot give a satisfactory explanation.

Sec. 56. Confiscation of forest products in possession of suspicious party"
in the forest.

Sec. 57. Offender who are strangers to the guards are to be arrested ; offenders
known to the guard are to be arrested only in case they attack or abuse him, or
if they have no fixed home. Persons arrested to be delivered at once to the
competent authorities.

Sec. 58. In case the offender was caught in the act and took flight he may
be pursued beyond the forest and the stolen product attached.

Miscellaneous.

Chapter five contains an enumeration of minor forests offences not hereinbe-
fore particularly mentioned, and fixes the punishment.

These offences are : Gathering of loose wood and twigs, marking and barking
of trees, using climbing irons, boring into trees, appropriating bark from felled
timber, exposing the roots of trees, cutting or tearing off limbs or twigs or leaves,
digging or cutting out young trees, grathering twigs for brooms, gathering tree juice
of all sorts, gathering tree seeds or sponges or rotten wood or digging out roots,
gathering bedding of all sorts, especially if gathered with hoes or iron rakes ;
taking away earth, clay, turf, stones, and other minerals, or cutting sod, or mo wing
grass and herbs.

This chapter also provides for proceedings and estimate for damages to
forests by cattle. Chapter six provides for mode of procedure and proper tribunal
to fix damages:. Chapter seven provides for proceedings on appeal.

103

KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA ; REPORT OF CONSUL WAMER OF COLOGNE.

FOREST AREA IN THE PRUSSIAN MONARCHY.

The total area of the Prussian Monarchy amounts to 35,479,536 hectares.*
Of this amount 8,124,521 hectares are forests, being an equivalent of 23.33 per
cent, of the total area. It may be stated that this estimate includes all land
devoted to the culture of wood.

The apportionment of the forests is as follows : —

(a) 29.4 per cent., equivalent to 2,374,039 hectares belong to the State.

(6) 11.9 per cent., equivalent to 983,727 hectares belong to the Communes.

(c) 1.5 per cent., equivalent to 122,759 hectares belong to institutions.

(d) 2.1 per cent., equivalent to 170,063 hectares belong to corporations.

(e) 55.1 per cent., equivalent to 4,473,933 hectares belong to private
individuals.

Under the same heads the Rhenish Province and the district of Cologne have
the following area respectively :—

RHENISH PROVINCE. COLOGNE.

Hectares. Hectares.

(a) 143,284 (a) 11,766

(b) 321,019 (b) 7,358

(c) 7,149 (c) 1,773

(d) 15,303 (d) 1,201

(e) 342,687 (e) 98,284

The forests of Prussia stretch from the Baltic coast over the mountains of
the Sudeten, Hartz, Thuringia, Teutoburg, Meissner, Taunus, Rhon, and the slate
mountains of the Lower Rhine.

According to a rough estimate, 4,043,800 hectares of forest area are level,
2,089,500 hectares are hilly, and 1,991,200 hectares are mountainous.

GOVERNMENT SUPERVISION OVER COMMUNAL FORESTS.

Although the Communes are left free to manage the Communal forests, the
State government reserves for itself certain rights over the general administra-
tion in order to prevent any mismanagement or abuses. For instance, in West-
phalia and the Rhineland, which embrace this consular district, the communities
and public institutions are left free to administer their own forests, but at the same
time the government gives certain instructions regarding the culture and
utilization of the forests, which, the local authorities are bound to carry out without
any alteration on their part not first consented to by the government. Whether
it is considered best that the Commune should appoint the officials intrusted
with the supervision of the forest is left to the discretion of the government.
In leaving the election of the forest officials to the Communes, they are to elect

*Consul Warner says : — Considering the vast amount of technical knowledge required to fully com-
prehend the whole system of forest culture in Prussia, I have found it extremely difficult in preparing
a report on this subject, and I am greatly indebted to Oberforstmeister (head forest master) von Wurmb,
chief sf the forest departmpnt oP the Governrrent district of Cologne for such information.

One hectare is equivalent to 2.471 acres.

The total area of forest in the Empire of Germany is 13,900,611 hectares, or 55 per cent, of the
total land area.

104

such persons whose qualifications are approved by the government, to whom the
election is submitted for consideration and confirmation. It is the duty of the
government, either by virtue of its office or for some special reason, to examine
into any changes made in the management of the Communal forest, and to proceed
against all adverse administration by assuming special supervision or by insti-
tuting any other judicious precaution.

As technical organs for the supervision of the Communal forests, the
government can make use of its foresters, who are generally bound to report to
government any wrong done to the Communal forests that may come to their
knowledge. The technical supervision is conducted by its technical foresters,
namely, by the oberforstbeamte (head forest officers), and forstmeister (forest
master).

Each forstmeister has a special geographical district allotted to him, who has
not only to superintend the State forests, but also, at the request of the govern-
ment department of the interior, of which he is a technical member, to examine
the management of all the Communal forests situated within his particular
district. The oberforstbeamte (head forest officer), has general supervision over
the administration of all the Communal forests situated within the government
district of which he is the head, and by whom all orders are issued. The
privileges of the Communes in their forests consist in their having sole benefit of
all the income or any other profit derived from the forests. The use of the
pastures, as well as the straw and grazing, is usually permitted to the consumers
whenever such use is very necessary, but is so far restricted that the condition
and value of the forests and the maintenance of the pastures may not suffer
thereby. The Communes are bound to bring all sand dunes and waste lands
under forest cultivation as soon as it is shown it can be profitably done. On all
sales of Communal forest area the permission of the Government must first be
obtained.

ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT FOREST BUREAUS.

The State forest administration is under the Ministry for Agriculture,
Domain, and Forest. The chief direction of forest affairs is divided into four
heads : —

1. The central direction: Forest Department in the Ministry for Agricul-
ture, Domain, and Forests.

2. Local direction : Inspection and control by the district government under
the Department of Taxes, Domain, and Forest.

3. District administration by the chief forester (oberforster], respectively the
Bureau of Eeceipts and Disbursements. ___^_^

4. Forest preservation and special superintendents over the management of
the subordinate foresters (the so-called forstschutzbeamten).

The revision of all forest accounts is done at the so-called Ober-Recknungs-
kammer (Head Bureau of Accounts) of the Ministerial Department. The entire
organization is based upon the division of the State forests into so-called ober-
forstereien (forest districts). Every principal forest district is an independent
administration, for whose administration a separate finance is kept, and the chief
forester, who is the responsible administrator of the finance, submits all the
accounts through the forest treasurer of his district to the Finance Department
of the government, for auditing.

The duty of the oberforster (head forester) is to watch and take care of the
rvation of his forest district and to make his administration useful in every

105

^possible way. It is, therefore, the duty of the oberforster to possess the most
exact knowledge of the working of the district confided tp his care, and not to
neglect visiting the forest daily, if possible.

The ober/orster is an independent officer, and is alone responsible for the
duties and salaries of his assistants.

The oberforster, on having passed the scientific examination required by the
State, is appointed by the Minister of Agriculture, Domain, and Forest, and
receives a definite salary, with the right of pension. His rank is that of a
government assessor. The extent of each forest district varies. There are 679
forest districts in Prussia, and the average size of each district is 3,496 hectares.

The following table shows the area of State forests in the different Provinces,
also the number and the average size of each oberforsterei :—

Province.

Forest area.

Oberforsterei.

Average size of
oberforsterei.

East Prussia

Hectares.
359,241

Number.

74

Hectares.
4,855

A>Vest Prussia .

273,174

47

5,812

Brandenberg

369,510

72

5132

Pomerania

170,619

42

4 062

Posen ...

162,029

28

5 787

Silesia

151,325

34

4 451

Saxony ....

169 480

55

3 081

Schleswig

30 111

16

1 882

Hanover

235 074

104

2 260

Westphalia

57 189

19

3 009

Hessen-Nassau

253 003

146

1 7SS

Rhine Province

143,284

42

3 412

Total

2 374 039

679

4^ 47ft

*

There is a treasurer for each oberforsterei. He is an independent officer and
is alone responsible for the administration of his bureau. The government
appoints him, and he is required to give bond for the faithful discharge of his
duties.

The foresters under the supervision of the chief forester (oberforster), are of
two classes, namely, those who protect and attend to the practical management
of the forests, the so-called forsters (foresters), and waldwarter (forest attendant),
and the assistant foresters, the so-called forsthulfsaufscher. The immediate head
of the chief forester is the district government, especially its department of
finance, and whose organs for the administration and supervision of the forests
and the finances are in the person of the forstmeister (forest master), and oberforst-
meister (head forest master). The former has control over a certain number of
the chief forests within the government district, and the latter over all in the
government district.

106

The forstmeister resides at the seat of the district government as a technical
member of it. He has to personally inspect every part of the district at
least three times a year, assist in carrying out the regulations of work and in
adjusting the finance, in controlling and fixing the annual plans of culture and
the felling of the forest, subject to the supervision of the (her forstmeister.
Further, he has to examine all the work done in the forest and its protection,
inspect the book of the dberforxter, and the accounts of the treasurer, check the
forest cash account and the inventories, and inspect once in every five years all
the forest boundaries of every forest district within his district and report as to-
their condition. As a member of the district government he has to work out all
business matters which directly concern his inspection district, except in cases
where the work is specially provided for. All reports of the oberforster to the
government must be sent through the hands of the forstmeister.

The forstmeisters are appointed by His Majesty the Emperor and King, on
the proposal of the Minister for Agriculture, Domain, and Forest, of the ober-
forsters who have distinguished themselves by their superior technical education,
and business management of forests. They have not to pass any special
examination for this promotion beyond the forest scientific examination originally
passed and required by the government for oberforsters.

Forstmeisters rank as regierungs rathe (government councillors). The
number of forstmeisters at present in Prussia is 92, which is on an average of
about 6 to 7 oberforstereien (chief forest districts) to each forstmeister. This
estimate, however, does not include the communal forests of Westphalia and the
Rhineland nor the 80 royal ober/orstersien under the supervision of 2G oberforst-
meisters who are the directors of the whole administration of the entire govern-
ment district, and, as such, are the superior officers of the forstmeister.

Accordingly, there is one ober forstmeister for each government district, who
is, by virtue of his office, a member of its department. The ober forstmeister is
selected out of a number of the most capable forstmeisters, who is proposed by
the Minister for Agriculture, Domain and Forest, with the sanction of the
State Ministry, and appointed by His Majesty, the Emperor and King. The
ober forstmeister, having the entire forest administration of the government dis-
trict, has to make annually, in conjunction with the forstmeister, an inspection
tour and to see that the management of the forest is properly carried out. He
has, under the direction of the government district president the appointment and
arrangement of the pay of the forest police according to the general instructions
issued by the Minister. He has, further, the regulating of the general business,
the preparing of the budget, the super-revision and approval of the annual fell-
ing and cultivation plans, the distribution of the means for the cultivation of the
forests, and the disposition of the funds set apart for the entire district.

The Ministry for Agriculture, Domain and Forest contains in its depart-
ment for forest the central direction for the entire state forest administration, con-
sisting of an oberland- forstmeister (head State forester) a ministerial director
and four forest technical ministerial councillors, whose departments of business are
arranged according to the Province. The general regulations for the mainten-
ance and utilization of the State property, consisting in forests, are fixed by
Minister, who also takes care that they are properly executed.

107

EEVENUES FROM GOVERNMENT FORESTS ; COST OF MAINTAINING OR MANAGING
FORESTS ; PROFITS OF FOREST CULTIVATION.

The estimated revenue and expenditure of the State forests for the years
1886-87, according to official statement, are given as follows:

Gross receipts M. 56,070:000

Ordinary expenses M. 31,062,200

Surplus M. 25,007,800

Extraordinary expenses 2,450,000

Net income M. 22557,800

FOREST SCHOOLS.

In Prussia there exist three kinds of forest schools.

(a) Two preparatory forest schools for forstcr and forstschutzbeamte. The
pupils, from 12 to 17 years of age, receive at these schools an elementary edu-
cation and practical instruction in forestry under the direction of a forster.
These schools are intended to take the place of the apprenticeship of two or
three years which the student, on the completion of his elementary education
elsewhere, would otherwise be obliged to serve at an oberforsterei under the
direction of the oberforster. The advantage of the former is that it combines the
elementary education with practical forest instruction.

(6) Two forest academies, one at Eberwalde and the other at Minden, under
the department of the Minister for Agriculture, Domain and Forest, and the
immediate supervision of the oberlandforstmeister, one of the chief state forest
officials in the Forest Department of the Ministry. These academies are in-
tended to give a scientific education and to fit students for the forest adminis-
stration service, that is to say, for the higher forest career, from oberjorster
upward.

The term of study is two years and embraces the following branches :

*

A. Fundamental Science

1. Physics, including meteorology and mechanics.

2. Chemistry, organic and inorganic.

3. Mineralogy.

4. Geognosy and geology.

5. Botany.

(«) General botany.

(6) Anatomy, physiology and pathology of plants.

(c) Special forest botany.

(d} Anatomical and miscropical demonstration.

6. Zoology.

(a) General zoology.

(6) Special zoology particularly with respect to the different kinds of
forest animals and birds.

108

7. Mathematics.

(a) Repertory and practice in arithmetic, planimetry, trigonometry and
stereometry.

(b) Principles of analytical geometry.

(c) Principles of high analyses.

8. General political economy, particularly with respect to forest affairs.

B. Branch Science.

1. History and literature of forest affairs.

2. Forest statics.

3. Forest planting.

4 Forest preservation.
5. Forest technology.

0. Forest valuation, wood measuring, forest survey.

7. Forest statistics.

8. Forest administration, particularly with respect to the organization of
forest affairs in Prussia.

9. Forest administration.

10. Redemption of forest claims.

C. Adjunct Science.

1. Jurisprudence, Prussian civil and penal code.

2. Forest road construction.

3. Game law.

A.S aids to study, these academies have extensive collections relating to
forest and natural science, botanical gardens, seed collections, etc. Each academy
is under the direction of an oberforstmeister. The lectures are given by scien-
tifically educated foresters and special professors. The student, before he is
admitted to these academies, must produce a diploma showing that he has passed
the course of studies required at a German gymnasium or at a Prussian
technical school of the first class. He must be under 25 years of age. have a
good character and show that he possesses the necessary means for studying.

EFFECTS OF FOREST DESTRUCTION.

The destruction of forests is caused mostly by parcelling off large forest
estates, which leads to a careless felling of the trees and little • disposition to
restore the loss. An eminent authority on forestry science, Dr. Otto von Hagen,
in writing on this subject makes the following observations :

"The forest is a trust handed down to us from past ages, whose value con-
sists not alone in the income derived from wood, but also in the importance
which it exerts, through its influence on Climate and rainfall, on land culture.
Its importance is not merely a question of the present day or of the present
ownership, but is also a matter which concerns the future welfare of the people.
This is a truism beyond contradiction, but nevertheless it is daily disregarded by
those who are indolent and selfish.

109

" When such evils reach the stage of common danger, and this is in a great
measure already the case, it then becomes a duty to interfere by legislation.
Neither the decrease of the wood production nor the difficulty at times to meet
the demand for wood, nor the rise in the price can confer upon the State the
right to interfere with the freedom of private ownership or of private adminis-
tration of forests, but this right and duty would devolve upon the State in case
that any injury is done to the welfare and existence of the inhabitants of a cer-
tain locality resulting from the destruction of the forest. How entire districts
which flourished in the past have been reduced to poverty and want through
forest destruction, has been seen in Prussia, where large tracts of land^s have suf-
fered under such calamities.

" By stripping the beeches of their forests in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, the sea coasts have become exposed to all winds and storms. Fields,
once fertile, have been transformed into waste sand dunes, and whole villages,
whose agricultural people formerly prospered, have ceased to exist.

" In the middle and eastern Provinces light and undulating soil has been
replaced by small or large sand hills, and places where forests once stood and
served to carry off stagnant moisture, have been turned into marshes. In the
western mountainous Provinces the fertile forest soil, the waste product of thou-
sands of years of the trees, has disappeared. It has been dried up by the sun
and wind, and washed into the valleys by rain and snow-water, and left the
mountains bare and unfertile, whose soil is scarcely capable of supporting any
vegetation save heath and broom-grass.

" The rich meadows in the valleys have vanished, they have been again and
again, after every rainstorm, washed and torn by the water rushing from the
mountain tops. The high moors which have been formed by the destruction of
the forest, emit at all times of the year vapors and fogs which kill vegetation
far into the land. Thus the soil becomes directly impoverished, and the climatic
conditions change and become worse. Instances of the injurious effect upon the
culture of the soil caused by the destruction of the forests can be seen to a smaller
or larger extent throughout Prussia."

A BRIEF RETROSPECT.

Early in the fourteenth century, in the more thickly populated sections 01
Switzerland, the people appear to have been forced, through apprehension of a
deficiency in their wood supply, to take some measures for the preservation of
their forests. In the year 1314 Zurich forbade its foresters (vorsters) to " fell,
raft or sell wood from the Sihlwald." In 1339 Schwyz issued a prohibition
against charcoal burning, and in 1438 Freiburg decreed that no wood should be
cut in the environs of the city. In Entlebuch it was forbidden in 1471 " to draw-
wood from forests situated high up in the mountains," and in 1592 Berne called
attention to the need of economy in the use of wood. Finally similar decrees
became general, but while serving to preserve forest areas they proved a hindrance
to the progress of agricultural and vine-growing interests. Zurich, for instance,
in 1563, forbade the establishment of any new vineyards, and the prohibition
was kept in force up to the beginning of the eighteenth century. At that period
the dread of a deficiency of wood became so general that it was even forbidden
to purvey or export any of it from one village to another. Contemporaneously
with these prohibitions were issued others forbidding the pasturage of cattle,
sheep and goats in the forests. The old law generally ran in some such homely
text as this : Whoever keeps a cow at home in summer is allowed to drive no
goats, and nCbody more than he actually requires for his house-keeping.

110

But spite of all these precautions and prohibitive measures the lack of com-
bined action became painfully apparent. Moreover the individual owners were
refractory, resented interference, and held on to their woodlands, so that, in fact,
to-day the comparatively small forest area belonging to the State is what has
principally been acquired by direct purchase, by inheritance or by the suppres-
sion of monasteries, as in the Bernese Jura, in Thurgau and in Schaffhausen.

With the advent, however, of the eighteenth century, Swiss forestry took
on, in an official sense at least, a more active existence.

In 1702 Zurich, always foremost in the work, appointed a commission to
devise a general forestry system. In 1825 Berne followed suit, and later Frei-
burg, Lucerne and Schwyz took action in the same direction. From this time on
the several cantons managed their own forestry matters as they wished, and
entirely independent of each other up to ten years ago, when the imperative
needs of combined action having become apparent the matter was taken in hand
by the federal authorities, whose attention had been called to the pressing
demand for a legislative action to arrest the destruction of forests especially in
the higher mountain regions. Accordingly on the 24th of March, 1876, a law
was passed establishing federal control over the forests in all the mountain regions
of Switzerland, embracing eight entire cantons, viz., Appenzell, Glarus Graubun-
den, Schwyz, Tessin, Unterwalden, Uri and Valais, and parts of seven others, viz.,
Berne, 41.48 per. cent.; Freiburg, 32.70 per cent; Lucerne 53.50 per cent ; St.
Gallen, 76.17 per cent ; Waadt, 22.98 per cent ; Zug, - - per cent ; Zurich, 6.86
per cent.

ZURICH FOREST SYSTEM.

As will be observed from the foregoing, Zurich has always evinced an
actual and especial interest in forestry matters, and the result is that her forestry
system at the present day is a model one, and is so regarded throughout Switzer-
land. Her forestry law, which has been in operation in its present form for over
a quarter of a century, is so complete in every detail as to form a report in itself
and it is therefore translated and incorporated in full herewith.

1. ORGANIZATION.

1. Cantonal, township, and corporation forests shall be subject to the con-
trol of the government forestry system. Private forests come under the same
provision, in so far as the safety of the others or regard for a common danger
renders necessary.

2. According to article 49 of the law pertaining to the organization of the
government council, supreme control of the forestry system is vested in the
direction of the interior. A yearly sum of 8,000 francs will be allowed it for the
cost of management, and for the interests of forest culture, as, for instance, in
the award of premiums for distinguished services, establishment of a course of
instruction for foresters etc.

3. The canton is divided into four forestry districts, the limits of which shall
be fixed by the council.

4. The cantonal forestry board shall consist of one overforest master and
four district forest masters. The council is authorized to furnish an adjunct
thereto. In said board is vested the duty of superintending all forestry affairs.
The maintenance of the cantonal forest under control of the director of
finance is also transferred to it ; the duties of its members will be especially deter-
mined by official instructions from the council.

Ill

5. Only those who shall have passed a government examination, as prescribed
oy the council, and have been declared competent by the direction of the interior,
^shall be employed as forestry officials.

G, The overforest master, the district forest masters and the adjunct, shall be
chosen by the council on the simple, though not binding, nomination of the
direction of the interior.

The term of service of the over and district forest masters shall be for three
years. The adjunct shall be chosen for a period to be fixed by the council. Retiring
officers are eligible for re-election.

7. The overforest master receives a salary of 3,500 francs. When travelling on
'official business, his cash outlays will be reimbursed. The further sum of 1,000
francs is allowed for clerk and office expenses.

8. District forest masters receive an annual salary of 2,200 francs. While
•on official journeys on forest service, they receive a daily allowance of 10 francs,
and while on official journeys, in the interest of cantonal forests, a daily allowance
to be determined by the council.

9. The council shall fix the sum to be paid to the adjunct out of the appro-
priation provided in article 2.

10. The daily allowances, when involving cash outlays, shall be paid from
the cantonal forestry fund, or from the appropriation provided in article 2,
depending on whether they concern business connected with the cantonal or non-
cantonal forests.

11. Forestry officials are required to give bonds in the amounts to be deter-
mined by the council.

12. Each corporation shall elect a board of overseers of not less than three
members, for a period of three years, and shall give notice of such election to the
directors of the interior.

13. The employment of foresters is obligatory upon (a) the canton for all forests
directly or indirectly belonging to it, (6) all forest-owning townships, and (c) wood
corporations. Townships and corporations are directed to appoint an over-
forester. Several townships or corporations may unite on one and the same
person for this purpose. Forestry officials appointed by townships and corpora-
tions, are, at the same time, subordinate to the cantonal forestry officials in
matters pertaining to cantonal forests.

14. Townships, corporations, and private owners are to pay the salaries of
forestry officers appointed by them. Where the forests of a township or corpora-
tion are so small that such salary does not amount to 100 francs, then the township
or corporation in question shall unite with one or several neighboring townships
or corporations to appoint a forester in common. The proper method of procedure
in such cases shall be determined by the direction of the interior.

15. Cantonal foresters shall be chosen by the direction of finance on the
simple, though not binding, nomination of the overforest master. The choice of
township and corporation overforesters and foresters is vested in the board of
overseers, which may, for this purpose, be increased to six or eight members.
The term of service for overforesters and foresters shall be three years. Elections
shall always be held after the renewal of the board of overseers. Retiring
members are eligible for re-election. This period of service takes effect in indivi-
dual cases from the first election held after the promulgation of 'this law.

16. The providing of foresters for private forests is left to the owners. But,
in case a forest district is adjacent, the owner may decide upon the appointment

112

of a forester and be present at his election, at which the minority must submit
and assume its proportional share of the salary. The proportional voice in voting,
as well as in paying, shall be determined on a ratio of the area represented.
Private individuals may, with the consent of the township or corporations,
transfer to the Jatter's foresters the care of their forests, in which case they shall
arrange with said township or corporation for what they are to pay.

17. Applicants for the position of overforester must furnish proof of their
competency in the form of an essay to be submitted to the overforest master.
Special instructions as to the nature of such essay will be furnished in an order
from the direction of the interior. As conditions of eligibility as forester, active
citizenship, a good physical constitution, and a knowledge of reading, writing, and
arithmetic will be required.

18. Elections of overforesters and foresters by boards of overseers of town-
ships and corporations, are subject to examination and confirmation by the direction
of the interior. To this end, certificates, stating the manner of election, name,
age, and former employment of the candidate, and the annual salary pertaining
to the position, shall be forwarded, through the Statthalter's offices, to the direction
of the the interior. The examination by the latter covers in part the validity of
the election, and in part the existence of the lawful qualifications, and it is ordered
that confirmation be withheld where a candidate has previously been convicted
of serious violations of, or misdemeanors against, forestry regulations. After
confirmation, the newly-elected candidate is ordered to be sworn (oaths are no
longer administered, the " hand vow," as it is called, having been substituted),
which duty is to be performed by the Statthalter's office. Private owners appoint-
ing foresters must have them sworn by the Statthalter's office.

19. Sworn forestry employees stand, in regard to the performance of police
duties, on an equal footing with police employees. The same official credit is,
consequently, to be accorded to their reports, made under the provisions of article
96 and the following article of this law, as would be accorded to the same, if made
by the police officers.

20. It shall be the duty of foresters in the cantonal, township and corporation
forests to attend a course of instruction on the subject of forestry, to be provided
by the direction of the interior, and imparted by the forest masters. They may
be required by the direction of the interior to attend a second course, when a
previous examination shall have proved unsatisfactory. They receive their
service instructions from the direction of the interior. Foresters in private forests
shall be allowed to participate in the courses of instruction referred to.

21. The consent of the direction of the interior is necessary whenever the
overforest master, forest masters, or foresters, in cantonal forests desire to fill any
other official position, or follow any other pursuit in conjunction with their position
as stated. Overforesters, and foresters in township and corporation forests, cannot
at the same time be members of their election boards. Before entering upon any
other township office or service, they must procure the consent of the direction of
the interior.

22. The following of any business in wood, or manufactured wooden- ware,
or of any industry in which wood is the leading material, is unconditionally
forbidden for all persons in the cantonal, township and corporation forestry service.

113

FORESTRY IN FRANCE.*
THE WOODS AND FORESTS OF FRANCE.

In 1876, the last year for which anything like complete details are available,
the total wooded area of France, exclusive of isolated trees, such as those growing
in parks and on road-sides, which were not planted for the sake of the timber
they produce, amounted to 35,464 square miles, or a little more than 17 per cent,
of the entire area of the country. The proportion in other European countries is-
as follows, viz.:—

Per cent.

Russia 40

Sweden 34

Norway 29£

Germany .. - 26

Turkey 22

S witzerlan d 18

Greece 14

Spain, Belgium, and Holland, each 7

Portugal 5

The British Isles 4

Denmark 3|

The average of all European States taken together, is 29i per cent-
The population of France being 181 per square mile, it follows that the 'area
area of woodland per head is about three-fifths of an acre.

Some changes, which will be noted in a subsequent chapter, have taken
place in the area of the State forests since 1876, but in that year the woods and
forests were owned in the following proportions by the different classes of pro-
prietors, viz.:—

Square miles. Per cent

The State 3,734 10.7

Communes and sections of communes 7,949 22.4

Public institutions 124 0.3

Private proprietors 23,657 66.6

Total 35,464 100.

and these figures may be taken as fairly representing the actual position at the
present time.

Forests are not so exhausting to the soil as agricultural crops. In the case
of the latter, the entire plant, except the roots, which are sometimes also taken,
is removed, whereas with a crop of trees, the leaves, flowers and fruit, which are
far richer in nutritive elements than the wood, are annually returned to the soil,
and thus serve to maintain its productive power, as well as, by their protective
action, to keep it in a good physical condition. Hence forests can flourish on
comparatively poor soil ; some kinds of trees, notably most of the conifers, being
able to grow on ground that would be quite incapable of producing a series of

*By Major F. Bailey, R. E. Vol. XI. of the " Transactions of the Scottish Arboricultural Society."
8(F.)

114

remunerative agricultural crops ; and it is, therefore, genei'ally speaking, out of
place to keep rich fertile valleys under forests, which ought rather to be main-
tained on ground which cannot be profitably cultivated. In well populated
districts, matters naturally tend to settle themselves in this manner ; the better
classes of ground being brought under the plough, while every acre of the rest of
the country is kept wooded, in order to meet the domestic and agricultural wants
of a dense population. But it is otherwise in less favored localities. Here vast
areas might be devoted to the production of wood ; but while, from the nature of
the case, the local consumption is, in such places, very small, the absence of com-
munications frequently renders export very difficult. Hence wood has but a very
small value, and the forests tend to disappear gradually before the excessive
grazing to which they are subjected ; for the population of such regions, being
unable to make its living by agriculture, is, generally speaking, driven to adopt a
pastoral life.

Forests grow in France at all altitudes up to about 9,000 to 9,500 feet above
the sea, a much larger proportion of them being found at low than at high levels.
Thus it has been calculated that, if the country were divided into altitude-zones
of 200 meters each (656 feet), the lowest zone would contain 36 per cent, of the
forests, while the highest would not contain more than .04 per cent, of them ; the
fifth zone (2,600 to 3,300 feet) wTould, however, on account of the extensive
plateaus existing at this level, contain more than the fourth. Forests situated at
high altitudes do not produce so much wood, and are, therefore, not so profitable
as those grown lower down ; consequently the private owners, who have done
their best to preserve their woods in the plains and low hills have, in the majority
of cases, allowed the mountain forests they once possessed to be destroyed by
over grazing Hence it arises that, while at altitudes below 4,000 feet, the pro-
portion of State and communal forests is comparatively small, hardly any private
woods are found above the level of 6,000 feet, such forests as exist there being,
generally speaking, maintained by the State or communes in the public interest,
as a protection against avalanches and the formation of torrents. The private
forests are then, taken as a whole, more favorably situated than those which
belong to the State and the communes, both as regards soil, climate, means of
export, and proximity to the markets. It has been calculated that the distribution
of the forest area by zones of altitude is thus proportioned : —

Forests under the

£ * „ .
o -g J2 -g

forest dept.

rC SH £_| O .

Altitude.

<D*c8 2 ** +3

Total.

State.

Com-
munal.

f §-g £ §

£

M. M. Ft. Ft.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Plains , 0 to 200= 0 to 656

41

5

45

36

Low hills 200 to 500 = 656 to 1,640

32

48

25

31

Mountains above. . . . 500 = above 1,640

27

47

30

33

100

100

100

100

115

It is said that if the trees could be grouped together, so as to form a series
of pure forest, the proportion of th 3 total area which would be occupied by each
species would be as follows : —

Per cent.

Oak (Q. sessiliflora and Q. pedunculata) 29

Beech.' 19

Hornbeam • , 12

Silver fir ., , 7

Scotch pine 4|

Evergreen oak (Q. ilex) 4

Maritime pine 3

Spruce * 3

Larch 2

Other kinds

Total 100

The small number of species which enters to any important extent into the
composition of the French forests is very remarkable. Thus it appears that oak,
beech, and hornbeam occupy 60 per cent, of the tree covered area, more than one
half of the remainder being taken up with six other species ; but many other
kinds are disseminated throughout the forests in various proportions according to
circumstances. As a matter of course, however, the trees are not grouped
together in the above manner, and, neglecting blanks, the crop on the ground is
.actually constituted somewhat as follows :•—

Pure forests — Per cent.

Broad-leaved (oak or beech) , 15

Coniferous (silver fir, pine, spruce, or larch) 13

28

Mixed forests —

Broad-leaved (oak, beech, and hornbeam) 52

Broad-leaved and coniferous (beech and silver fir, or

oak and pine) 18

Coniferous (silver fir and spruce) 2

— - 72

Total 100

Or separating the broad- leaved and the coniferous forests from those which con-
sist of a mixture of the two, we have : —

Per cent.

Broad -leaved forests, pure and mixed 67

Coniferous forests, pure and mixed 15

Broad-leaved and coniferous forest 18

The State forests show a smaller proportion of pure crops than are found in
those of the communes, but they also comprise a very much larger proportion of
forests in which the crop consists of a mixture of broad-leaved and coniferous
species. The first of these differences is due to the circumstance that a mixture,
which is always desirable from cultural considerations, has been systematically
maintained in the State forests from a remote period, whereas this has not always
been the case in the communes. The second difference is chiefly accounted for

116

by the fact that those parts of the State broad-leaved forests, where, from various
causes, the soil has become much deteriorated, have frequently been planted up
with conifers, which are the only kinds likely, on account of their capacity to
grow on poor soil, to succeed under such conditions ; but these are in such cases,
only intended to act as nurses to broad-leaved species, which are subsequently to
be raised under their shelter. But little work of this kind has yet been accom-
plished in the communal forests from want of the needful funds. The private
forests resemble those of the communes rather than those which are State property
but a further comparison in this respect between them and the other classes of
forests need not be made at present.

Many circumstances combine together to influence the nature of the vegetable
growth, which characterizes any particular locality.

Thus, a " limestone soil," which is one containing more than four or five per
cent, of carbonate of lime, is usually marked by a rich and varied vegetation ;
while on a silicious soil the flora is much more simple and uniform, the under-
growth being often formed of bilberry ( Vaccininm myrtillus), broom and
heather. Forty-four per cent, of the French forests are on limestone. But the
principal forest trees are not much affected by the chemical composition of the soil,
the two deciduous oaks, the beech, the hornbeam, silver fir, spruce fir, the larch,
being classed as " indifferent " to it The ever-green oak, however, shows a pre-
ference for limestone ; and the Scotch pine flourishes best on a silicious soil ; but
the maritime pine will not grow on limestone. The climate, which varies with
the latitude, altitude, amount and distribution of the rainfall, proximity, or
otherwise of the sea, and other conditions, is the principal factor in determining
the distribution of trees, each of which finds its home in the locality which best
suits its temperament. The hot region of the south, the temperate regions
of the north and centre, and the mountains, are each characterized by the
spontaneous vegetation to which they are adapted. Thus, in the south, are found
the evergreen oak and the maritime pine ; while the spruce, the silver fir, and the
larch inhabit the mountains ; and the five other species mentioned, grow chiefly
in the temperate regions. The physicial condition of the soil also exercies an
important influence on the growth and local distribution of trees ; for example..
Quercus pedunculata, and the hornbeam, will grow on moist soil, which does not
suit either Quercus sessiliflora, the beech or the evergreen oak.

Ouring the entire course of their development, trees of all kinds require
light ; but during the early stages of their existence, some of them must be
completely in the open, without any cover at all ; while for others, various degrees
of shade are necessary. This quality of the young plants is, generally speaking,
in direct relation to the abundance of the foliage of the adult tree from which
they spring.

Those which, when young, require much light, such as the larch, the pines
and the oaks, are called the " robust," or trees of light cover, while others, which
will not stand exposure such as the beech and silver fir, are called "delicate," or
trees of heavy cover. The spruce and the hornbeam are classed intermediately
between kinds of light and heavy cover. This is a very important question to
the forester not only with reference to the method to be adopted for raising a crop
of any particular kind of trees, but also with regard to their coppicing power,
their effect on the soil, and other matters. Trees of light cover, generally speak-
ing, coppice better than those of heavy cover, but the latter have a much greater
effect than the former in improving the soil.

It is estimated that the 35,464 square miles of woods and forests yielded
the following produce in 1876, viz., 17,896,227 loads (50 cubic feet) of wood of

117

all qualities, 321,741 tons weight of tanning bark, 2,556 tons weight of cork, and
31,539 tons weight of resin ; the whole being valued at £9,471,017. The average
production of wood was therefore 39 cubic feet per acre ; and the gross revenue,
omitting that on minor produce, which was very small, was equal to 8s. 4d. per
acre.

But in addition to this, it is calculated that the isolated trees, not grown for
the sake of their timber, and vines yield together three and one-hali' million loads
per annum, valued at £1,000,000 ; so that the total production of wood in France
is raised to about twenty-one and one-half million loads, and the value of the
wood, bark, and resin to about £10,500,000. This gives the amount of wood and
the money value of the forest produce per head of the population as 29^ cubic
feet, and 5s. 9d. respectively.

Of the twenty-one and one-half million loads of wood produced, about four
million loads were timber and the rest firewood. The latter sufficed for the
national requirements, but the former was far from doing so ; for the imports of
wood of this class exceeded the exports by 2,062, 432 loads, valued at £6,408,000
—that is to say, that it was less than two-thirds of the amount required. The
question of foreign timber supply is, therefore, a very important one, even for
Prance, which has 17 per cent, of its area under forest.

FORESTS MANAGED BY THE STATE FOREST DEPARTMENT.

The forest law of 1827, which is still in force, confirmed the previous legisla-
tion, under which all woods and forests which form part of the domain of the
State, all those which being the property of communes or sections, or of public
Institutions, are susceptible of being worked under a regular system, and finally
all those in which the State, the communes, or public institutions possess a
proprietary right jointly with private persons, are administered directly by the
State Forest Department in accordance with the provisions of the forest law.

The areas thus administered at the commencement of 1885 were as follows,
viz.,

Hectares

Square

miles

State forests

1 012 688

— 3 910

"Communes, sections, and public institutions

1,967,846

- 7 598

Total

2 980 534

— 11 508

These figures, which include the dunes, represent about 5J per cent, of the
•entire area of France, and nearly one-third of the total wooded area. An
additional 144 square miles of barren land had, up to the end of 1884, been
purchased by the State in connection with the project for the consolidation of
bare and unstable slopes on the great mountain ranges ; and this area is also
administered by the department under the forest law. About 40 per cent, of the
State forests are situated in the plains, while the rest of them, together with
nearly the whole of the communal forests, are found in about equal proportions
on low hills, up to an altitude of 1,700 feet, and on the higher mountain ranges.
About one half of them stand on limestone rock, 92 per cent, of their entire area
being actually under wood.

118

The principal object of the following pages is to sketch in a brief and
summary manner the system of management adopted for these forests, so that
some general idea may be formed of what the business of the French forest
department consists in, and what the results of their labors have been, up to the
latest date to which information is available under each head. The organization

of the professional staff of the department, and the manner in which it is recruited,,
will then be explained

STATE FORESTS.

The forests now belonging to the State owe their origin to one or the other of
the following sources : — They either formed part of the ancient royal domain, as it
was consituted at the time of the ordinance of 1669, or of the sovereign domains-
united to France since that year ; or else they were ecclesiastical property
confiscated at the time of the revolution in 1790, or they have been more recently
acquired by purchase, legacy or gift. About one-half of them are ancient roya
domains.

The State forests were formerly of much greater extent then they are at
present. In 1791 they covered an area of 18,166 square miles, which was reduced
to 3,792 square miles in 1876, the i eduction being almost soleby due to sales-
effected for the benefit of the exchequer ; but the loss of territorty after the war
of 1870 was the cause of a diminution of 374 square miles. The records show
that, between 1814 and 1870, 1,362 square miles of State forests were sold for
nearly twelve and one-quarter million pounds sterling( or about .£14 per acre;
but since 1870 no such sales have taken place, and since Ib76 the area has been
somewhat increased by purchases and otherwise. It now includes 33 square
miles of lorest owned jointly with private persons, and 450 acres are temporarily
held by the families of some of Napoleon I.'s generals, whose right will in the
course of time either lapse or be commuted. The remainder of the area is owned
absolutely by the State, but the enjoyment of the produce does not belong
exclusively to the treasury, for, as will be explained hereafter, certain groups of
rightholders participate in it.

In the next section, the principal points of laws relating to the communal
forests, and of their management by the State Forest Department, will be brought
to notice ; while in the subsequent sections of this chapter the work of the depart-
ment in connection with the State and the communal forests will be briefly
treated of in such a manner as to bring out and compare the results obtained in.
the two classes of forests.

FORESTS BELONGING TO COMMUNES, SECTIONS AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.

The territory of France is divided into 39,989 communes or village com-
munities, of which about one-third are forest proprietors. Certain groups or
sections of the inhabitants have, however, rights and own property, apart from
the commune in which they reside, and these are also owners of considerable
areas of woodland. Those forests belonging to communes or sections, which are-
susceptible of being worked on a regular system, are managed directly by the
State Forest Department for the benefit of their owners, the principal features of
this management being as follows, viz. : The laws relating to State forests are,,
generally speaking, but with certain exceptions, applicable to them ; they cannot
be alienated or cleared without the express and special sanction of the govern-
ment in each case ; they cannot be divided up among the members of tne com-
munity ; the annual sales of produce are effected by the State forest officers, and

119

the money realized is paid directly by the purchasers into the communal treasury;
before the sale takes place the quantity of timber and firewood required by the
inhabitants for their own use is made over to them usually standing in the forest,
and it is subsequently worked out by a responsible contractor ; three-quarters
only of the total annual yield is available for distribution or sale, the remaining
quarter being left to accumulate, and thus form a reserve fund or stock of timber
from which exceptional necessities either in the way of wood or money can be
met ; the distribution of firewood is made according to the number of heads of
families having a real and fixed domicile in the commune ; the entry of goals into
the forest is absolutely prohibited, while the grazing of sheep is only permitted
temporarily, and under exceptional circumstances, with the special sanction of the
government in each case ; no grazing of any kind can be carried on in the forests,
except in places declared out of danger by the forest officers who have the power
to limit the extent to which it can be practiced with reference to the quantity of
grass available ; the forest guards are chosen by the communal authorities,
subject to the approval of the forest officer, who delivers to them their warrants ;
the State defrays all expenses of management, including the officers' salaries, the
marking of trees, notifying of sales, office charges, and the prosecution of offences ;
the State is reimbursed by the payment from the communal treasury of a sum
equal to 5 per cent, on the sales of principal produce, including the value of the
wood, made over to the inhabitants ; but this payment, which forms a first charge
on the forest revenue, can never exceed the rate of one franc per hectare (about
four pence an acre) of the total area thus managed ; the communes pay the guards'
salaries, the taxes, and all charges for the maintenance and improvement of the
forest, including planting, sowing, and road-making, as well as those for extra-
ordinary works, such as demarcation, survey, and the preparation of working
plans. In all this the forest officers are bound by law, to act on the principle
that they are managing the property for the benefit of its owners, who must be
consulted through their representatives, the mayor and municipal council, in all
matters affecting their interests, and whose wishes must be acceded to when they
are not opposed by the legislation, or contrary to the recognized principles of
scientific forest management.

The principal public institutions are hospitals, charitable associations,
churches, cathedral chapters, colleges, and schools ; and the forests belonging to
them are subject to administration by the State Forest Department on precisely
the same terms as are those of the commune and sections.

Of the area of 7,598 square miles shown as being thus managed on behalf
of these bodies at the commencement of 1885, about 100 square miles belong to-
public institutions, and about 7,500 square miles to communes, including sections.
Of the remainder of their forests, about 410 square miles owned by the latter
and about 27 square miles by the former are managed respectively by the com-
munes themselves under the municipal laws, and by the administrative councils
of the institutions.

Changes in this respect frequently take place ; for every year a certain
number of applications to free forests from the restrictions which State control
involves are granted, while in other cases the owners demand or consent to their
imposition. The records show that sanction has, since the year 1855, been
accorded to the clearing of thirty-five square miles and to the alienation of forty
square miles of the forests belonging to these bodies, but it is probable that the
permission has not, in all cases, been acted on.

For the sake of convenience the forests belonging to communes, sections and
public institutions will in future be spoken of collectively as " communal forests.'^

120

DEMARCATION AND SURVEY.

Up to the end of 1876 the work of demarcation had made good progress in
the State forests, only 13 per cent, of which then remained to be completed,
while 30 per cent, of the communal forests had still to be dealt with. The
demarcation is indicated by dressed-stone pillars, with intermediate ditches or
dry-stone walls, according to the custom and resources of each locality. The
ground is usually resurveyed after the demarcation has been completed, and at
the end of 1876 about three-fourths of the State forests and one-half of the
communal forests had been thus re-surveyed and mapped, the prevailing scale
being MTinr (12 2/3"= = 1 mile) and lT^ (6 1/3" = -] mile). Pending the completion of
this work, the old maps are used for such of the forests as have not yet been
resurveyed. In the communal forests the work of demarcation and survey is
less advanced than it is in the State forests, because the charges for such work
have to be defrayed from the communal treasury, and the needful funds are not
always forthcoming.

SYSTEMS OF CULTURE.

The climate of France is singularly favorable to the natural regeneration of
forests, which is, generally speaking, relied on — planting and sowing being only
resorted to in the comparative!}^ rare instances in which success cannot otherwise
be achieved, such cases including, of course, the stocking of extensive blanks.

There are two main systems of culture — one known as "high forest," and the
other as " coppice."

A high forest, which is usually destined to produce timber of large size, is
one composed of trees that have been raised from seed, its regeneration being
effected by means of seed, generally speaking, self-sown. There are two methods
of treating the forest in order to produce this result. In one of these the trees
of each age-class are grouped together, and are subjected to periodical thinnings,
nntil the time arrives for regeneration, which is effected by a series of fellings,
the first being a more or less light thinning, intended to promote the formation
of seed and the springing up of the young seedling plants. The seed-felling, as this
is called, is followed at intervals by a series of secondary fellings, usually three
or four in number, which are made in order to meet the gradually increasing
requirements of the young growth in the way of light ; and ultimately the
remainder of the old stock is removed by a " final felling." In this manner the
marketable steins are gradually cut down and disposed of, the young crop being
left to go through the same stages as its predecessor, and so on throughout
successive generations of trees. In the selection method (known as jardinage),
on the contrary, the trees of all ages are mixed over the whole area of the forest ;
there are no regular thinnings of the kind made under the first method ; and the
annual cuttings are effected by taking marketable trees here and there within a
certain area of the forest, the blocks composing which are successively treated in
the same manner, so that the entire forest is worked over within a fixed period of
time. When treated by the first method, the forest is grown under very artificial
conditions ; for the aged classes are never in nature found thus grouped together ;
but by the selection method, on the contrary, a more or less near approach to a
natural forest is obtained.

In the coppice system the regeneration is principally effected by means of
coppice shoots.

There are two methods of treatment, sivfiple coppice, in which there are no
reserve trees, and the crop is clean-felled over successive portions of the forest :

121

and coppice under standards, in which standard trees are selected and reserved,
with a view to their remaining throughout several generations of coppice shoots,
generally at least three, but often four or five. Many forests are now undergoing
conversion from the system of coppice to that of high- forest.

The following statement shows the extent to which the two systems were
applied in the State and communal forests in 1876, since which year no important
changes have taken place. The areas are given in square miles :

High forest

Under con-
version.

Coppice.

Pastures.

Total-

State forests

1,648
2,229

1,121
54

740

4,808

225
92

3,734
7,183

Communal forests

Total .

3,877

1,175

5,548

317

10,917

It will be seen that there is a marked difference between the State and
communal forests in this respect. In the former nearly three-quarters of the
total area are either now under high-forest or under conversion to that system ;
while in the latter two-thirds of the total area are under coppice, and less than
one third is either under high forest or under conversion.

High forest being usually destined to produce large timber, the trees must
be left standing until they have attained a considerable age ; and the capital,
both in timber and money, which is locked up in it is therefore much larger than
that in a forest under coppice. Other conditions being equal, the quantity of
wood produced annually is, however, much the same under both systems ; but
owing to the greater value of the produce obtained from the high-forest, its
money revenue is greater than that of the coppice, while on the other hand, it is
found that coppice yields a higher rate of interest on its smaller capital value than
than high forest, and on this account it is a more suitable system for adoption by
communes. Coppice possesses, also, a further advantage for them, in that it yields
for the use of the inabitants timber and other produce more varied in kind and
dimensions than are obtainable from high-forest, and it thus satisfies their
requirements, which are chiefly in fuel and small-sized timber, much better than
forests managed under the latter system. But even in cases where the conversion
of communal coppice to high-forest is deemed advisable, it is always found diffi-
cult to reduce the annual fellings to the quantity necessary in order to allow the
growing stock to accumulate to the required extent ; while the small size of the
greater part of these forests renders them unsuited to the treatment which they
would have to undergo in order to effect their conversion. The coppice system,
including coppice under standards, is therefore in vogue in almost all communal
broad-leaved forests, such high-forests as the communes possess being found chiefly
in mountainous regions, and being composed of coniferous trees, which will not
•coppice. The area of communal forest shown a? under conversion, consists princi-
pally of tracts in which the coniferous trees are spontaneously taking possession
•of the ground and driving out the broad-leaved species. It follows from what
lias been said above, that the Sbita alone cm, generally speaking, raise broad-
leaved high-forest on a large scale, or undertake the conversion of coppice to high
forest.

A further difference between the systems of culture generally adopted for
the State and the communal forests may be noted, viz., that whereas in the former

122

less than one-fifth of the high forest is treated by the selection method, three -
fourths of the communal forest are so treated. In mountainous regions, where,
as has just been said, the greater part of the communal high-forest is found, the
selection method possesses incontestable advantages, in consequence of the continu-
ous cover which it affords to the soil ; but although the respective merits of the
two methods, as applied to coniferous forests situated in such regions, are much
disputed at present, there has of late years been an undoubted tendency to return
to selection, which has for some time past fallen into discredit, and, taking the
State and communal forests together, somewhat more than one-half of the total
area of their high forest is now treated in this manner.

Two variations of simple coppice are sometimes practised, (1) that known
in the Ardennes as sartage, in which, after the wood has been cut and removed,
the twigs and chips are burnt on the ground, in order that their ashes may give
to the soil sufficient manure to permit of the growth of a crop of cereals during
the year immediately following the cutting. This system, which, as carried out
in France, seems to be practised rather for the sake of obtaining the crop of corn
han as a method of forest culture, is gradually dying out. It is not adopted in the
areas under the State forest department. (2) That known as furetage, in which
instead of clean cutting the coppice, those shoots only are taken which have
attained to certain fixed dimensions, the operation being repeated annually, or after
intervals varying from two to five years. Furetage prevails chiefly in the valley
of the Seine, in the forests from which the fuel supply of Paris is drawn ; but it
is also employed in the mountainous districts of the south, in the case of forests
maintained for the protection of steep slopes, which it is undesirable to denude
entirely.

It it is impossible here to enter into anything like full details regarding
these sylvicultural questions. To study them completely, as they are taught and
practised in Frence, reference must be made to the books on the subject, among
which may be mentioned " The Manual of Sylviculture," by G. Bagneris, (trans-
lated into English by Messrs. Fernandez and Smythies), Ryder & Son. London ;
and " Le traitement des bois en France," by C. Broillard, Berger-Levrault, Paris,

WORKING PLANS.

Working plans or schemes, will, in course of time, be prepared for all forests
administered by the forest department. The law provides that all these forests
shall be subjected to the provisions of such plans, and that no fellings which are
not provided for therein, and no extraordinary cuttings, either from the communal
reserve, or in the blocks destined to grow from coppice to high forest, shall be
made without the express sanction, in each case, of the government, by whom all
plans must be approved before they can be adopted.

Subject to due provisions being made for the exercise of rights of user, the
working plan provides for the management of the forest in the way that will best
serve the interests of the proprietor. Unlike an agricultural crop, which ripens
and is gathered annually, trees take many years to grow to a marketable size,,
the actual period that they require being dependant not only on their species and
the natural conditions under which they are grown, as climate, soil, etc., but also
on the use to which they are to be put. Thus a coppice being required to yield
wood of small size only, may be cut every twenty-five to forty years, whereas a
high forest, which is destined to produce large timber, must stand for a much
longer time. It would be excessively inconvenient if the entire crop of such a
forest were felled only once in every 100 or 150 years; and it is chiefly to avoid
this that a working plan is required, which prescribes the arrangement necessary

123

in order to allow of the produce being taken out annually, without intermission
and in equal quantities, so that a regular and sustained income may be drawn
from the forest. For example, a simple coppice thirty acres in extent, of which
the crop is to be felled at the age of thirty years, might either be entirely cut
down at one time, and then allowed to grow up again for thirty years, or, which
would be found much more convenient, it might be divided into thirty one-acre
compartments, each of which is to be felled in succession, so that by taking one
plot each year, the whole area would be worked over in thirty years. The
working plan must then, in the first place, prescribe the age at which the trees
are to be felled, with reference to the average number of years that they take to
arrive at maturity, or to attain the required size, and it must then fix the yield,
or the amount of wood to be annually removed, this quantity being expressed
either in the form of an area to be cut over, or a number of cubic feet of wood
to be taken out. But in the case of a high forest managed under the selection
method, it is suffiicient to fix the number of trees of a minimum size to be cut
out annually.

The provisions of a working plan vary according to the nature of the forest
to which it relates. In the case of the simple coppice instanced above, the
first thing to do would be to obtain a map showing the principal features of the
ground, such as the edge of the plateau, the stream, and the road. The area
would then be broken up, for purposes of examination and description, into tem-
porary plots, each plot comprising a portion of forest more or less homogeneous
in its composition. This study of the crop would enable the area to be divided
into the thirty permanent compartments above alluded to, and it would also
determine the order in which they should be numbered, so that the older portions
might be cut first. It is evident that if one of these be cut every year the series
of compartments will, after the lapse of thirty years, contain forest of all ages,
from one to thirty years ; and if the annual felling be invariably made in the
oldest compartment, it is evident that the age of the crop cut will always be
thirty years.

To make a working plan for a regular high forest, to be treated by successive
thinnings, is not quite such a simple matter. If the forest is of great extent, it
is, first of all, divided into two or more series or sections, each of which is dealt
with separately. .After the examination and description of the temporary plots,
the section is divide I into a number of equal compartments called affectations
and when the ground has once been completely worked over the crop on each of
these will always be, within certain limits, in the same stage of development, and
subjected to the same kind of treatment. Thus, if the trees are to be felled at
the age of 120 years, and there are six compartments, the sixth may contain the
young growth, aged from one to twenty years ; the fifth young poles from
twenty-one to forty years old, and so on ; the first containing the old trees which
are to be felled. The compartments having been formed, each of them is
then sub-divided into compartments usually corresponding in number with the
years over which the fellings within it are spread (twenty in this case), and
while the trees are being cut in the first compartment, clearings and thinnings,
of various recognized degrees are going on in the compartments of the others, until
each in its turn arrives at the age at which the trees are to be removed ; and it is
clear that in this case also the forest will ultimately contain a due proportion of
trees of all ages, from one to 120 years, which is an essential condition.

The working plan prescribes the order in which all this is to be done, and it
lays down the number of cubic feet of timber of the oldest class which are to be
taken out annually from the first or oldest compartment, so that the entire stock
on it may be removed within the first period of twenty years, windfalls and dead

124

or dying trees being always taken first ; each of the remaining compartments is
similarly dealt with when its turn to be felled arrives. The quantity of wood to
be removed !>y thinnings cannot be prescribed by the working plan, as they must
be made to the extent which is judged necessary in order to develop the trees
which an- leit. The forester's art is to do this skilfully, and ultimately to remove
the old trees in such a manner that they may leave behind them a young self-
sown crop to take t>heir place, and so on throughout successive generations.

For a high forest to be managed under the selection method the arrange-
ment is different. Here it is, of course, equally" necessary that all the age-classes
should be represented in clue proportion, but instead of the trees or poles of each
class being grouped together in separate compartments, all classes are mixed
indiscriminately over the entire area of the forest, and there is thus no necessity
for the formation of affectations, or compartments, of the kmd just described.
After the main features, such as the streams, ridges and roads, have been laid
down on the map, the temporary plots, and the descriptions of them are made as
before. The forest might in the present case be divided into three sections, the
upper of which being on the crest of the hill, is required to be kept as dense as
possible, and will not be dealt with in the working plan, as dead or dying trees
alone will be. removed from it Suppose that the annual yield of the central
section which is 150 acres in extent, has been fixed with reference to the
estimated rate of growth and degree of completeness of the stock, at 50 cubic feet
per acre, and the trees of marketable girth within it contain on an average 100
cubic feet of timber, it follows that the number of such trees which may be
removed annually from the section is 1-^5?==75. Theoretically this number

should be taken one here and one there over the whole area ; but this would be
very inconvenient, so the forest is divided into twelve or any other convenient
number of equal or nearly equal blocks, from each of which, in succession, the
entire number of trees is to be cut ; after taking windfalls, the choice falls on the
ripest trees, those which are dead or dying being selected first. The section
below the road is in another zone of vegetation ; it is 100 acres in extent, and its
annual yield is calculated at the rate of 60 cubic feet per acre. Suppose, then,
that the trees of marketable girth contain on an average 110 cubic feet of timber,
the number of such trees to be cut annually i°!L?J>? — 54. ^ne sectiOn will then be
divided into blocks, from each of which in succession the entire number of trees is
taken. In this manner each zone of altitude may be dealt with on its own
merits, while at the same time, the annual fellings being localized, are easy to
supeivise, and the wood can be disposed of more readily and more profitably
than if the trees had been felled here and there over the entire area. The work-
ing plan for a forest under conversion would, of course differ from any of the
above ; but this somewhat complicated question will not oe dealt with here. It
is only bv an arrangement similar to one of those above briefly sketched that a
permanent annual yield of a particular class of produce can be assured, and that
the forest can be secured against the risk of gradual extinction.

A special branch of the forest department is charged with the preparation
of working plans, which are not made by the local officers, except in the case of
small forests, the plans for which they can frame without interference with their
ordinary duties ; but they undertake the revisions, which are made every ten or
fifteen years in order to guard against errors, and to allow for changes in the
rate of growth, or other causes of disturbance. Pending the preparation of such
regular plans the forest department draws up provisional rules, which must
accord with local usages, where these are not opposed to the recognized principles
of sylviculture. Up to the beginning of 1877 regular working plans had been

125

completed for more than two-thirds of the total area of the State forests, and for
somewhat less than one-half -of the communal forests. The work progresses more
slowly in the latter than in the former, because in their case the funds have to
be provided by the communes, and the money is not always available ; but as a
matter of course the most important forests were taken in hand first, and these
have tor the most part been completed.

The question of working plans has only been dealt with above in an
extremely superficial manner. In order to gain anything like a complete idea of
the systems pursued in France the following works, should, among others, be
studied, viz., " Amenagement des Forets," by C. Broillard, Berger-Levrault, Paris,
1878, and " Amenagement des Forets," by A. Puton, A translation of the latter
work has appeared in vols. VIII. and IX. of the " Indian Forester."

PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THE FORESTS.

The yield in wood of various classes having once been fixed by the working
plau it is the business of the department to realize it as nearly as circumstances
will permit.

As to tanning bark, all that the felled trees or poles will yield Is utilized.
Cork bark is taken from the living trees, which will not bear the removal of a too
large proportion of their protecting covering, and hence care has to be taken not
to overwork them. Resin is collected on a large scale in forests of maritime
pine (Pinus maritima), which only yields it freely on the hot and damp c >asts of
the south-west.

The yield of minor produce, such as grass, moss, litter, and other things,
being small, and details regarding it not being available, this class of products
cannot receive more than a passing mention. Neither can account now be taken of
the numerous advantages which the forests undoubtedly render to the population,
but which cannot be expressed in the bulk or weight of the products drawn from
them.

The latest available statement of yield relates t-> 1876, in which yeir the
state and communal forests taken together gave 5,620,663 loads (50 cubic feet) of
wqpd, or an average of about 40 cubic feet per acre ; also 50,742 tons of tanning-
bark, 292 tons of cork bark, and 1,967 tons of resin.

The yield of wood per acre of the State forests somewhat exceeded that of
the communal forests ; but while, in explanation of this, it must be said that the
greater extent to which grazing is practiced in the latter affects their wood pro-
duction unfavorably, it must also be admitted that a large proportion of their
produce is made over to the inhabitants for their own use, and that this is
estimated at a low figure, so as to reduce as far as possible, the charges against
them on account of management by the forest department ; and the apparent
difference is largely due to the latter cause. Of the total yield in wood 1, 364,84-0
loads were timber and 4,255,817 loads were firewood; and as might be expected
from what has been said before regarding the different systems of culture
adopted, the State forests give the larger proportion of timber, one-third of the
wood from them being of that class, while in the case of the communal forests,
the proportion of timber was only one-fifth. A still more striking result would
follow a comparison of the nature of the produce obtained from the State and
from private forests ; and since timber is a more useful and valuable product
than firewood, the advantage to the country from this point of view, of consider-
able areas of forest land being owned by the State is apparent, and the more so
when it is remembered that France does not grow more than two-thirds of the
amount of building timber that she consumes.

12(1

The communal high forest is for the most part situated in the mountains,
and is Composed of coniferous treej, which explains the fact that the greater part
of the timber derived from the communal forests is fir and pine, whereas only
about one-third <>f that coming from the State forests is of those kinds.

SALES AND EXPORT.

rrti'cifxd produce (luood, bark and resin). — With the exception of the
produce made over to right-holders, and of that delivered to the inhabitants of
the communes from their forests for their own consumption, as well as of compara-
tively small quantities of tiaiber cut in the State foiests for the war department
and admiralty, the whole of the annual produce is sold by public auction, and no
other mode of sale is permitted. There are three principal systems of disposal,
viz.: — Fiist, sale of standing trees ; second, sale at a rate per cubic metre, or other
unit of the produce, cut, converted, and taken out by the purchaser ; and third, sale
of produce cut and converted by departmental agency. The first of these systems
necessitates a previous marking, either of the trees which are to be removed. <>r
of those which are to be reserved. There is no guarantee o-iven either as to the
number of trees, or as to their species, size, age or condition; but they are bought
and sold on the best estimate that either party can make of their value as thev
stand. The purchaser, as a matter of course, cuts up and exports the wood at
his own cost, and in the form which bests suits him, being bound under seveie
penalties to carry out this work in the manner prescribed by the conditions of
sale. It has been urged that this system needlessly introduces a middle man
between the producer and the consumer, and that thus the profits of the former
are reduced, while the regeneration of the forest may be compromised by felling
and exporting the trees in a careless or ignorant manner ; but in reply to this it
may be said that the wood merchant must always exist, as it is but rarely that
the actual consumer can himself go to the forest to get what he wants, and that
by strictly enforcing the conditions of sale, which are framed with special regard
to this object, interference with the regeneration of the forest is practically
avoided.

The second method differs from the first only in that the auction sale deter-
mines the rate at which each of the various classes of produce is to be paid for ;
but it is open to the objection that the classification of the produce is difficult, and
it thus leads to frequent disputes, in the settlement of which the interests of the
proprietor (State or Commune) may be allowed to suffer. This method is rarely
adopted, except in the case of thinnings, when the quantity of wood cannot well
be accurately estimated beforehand.

The sale of timber, cut and fashioned by departmental agenc\~, is rarely
resorted to. It has certainly the advantage that the work is better done, and
that more complete precautions can be taken to secure the regeneration of the
forest ; but on the other hand, the State or the commune, as the case may be,
must advance all the money for the work, and the forest officers become charged
with a large amount of supervision and accounts, while a number of purchasers
are admitted to the forest, and offences of various kinds are from time to time
committed by them. But the chief objection to the system is that the wood is
n}t always cut up in the manner which best suits the requirements of the market
at the moment, a matter with which the forest officer can never be so well
acquainted as the professional timber merchant, and th'.is not only do the general
interests of the country suffer by failure to supply wood in the form in which it is

127

most required by the consumers, but the prices realized are not always so good as
those which the produce might have been made to fetch, had it been cut up in
some other manner.

Timber sold standing, usually commands a higher rate than it does when
disposed of in any other manner, and for this and the other reasons that have
been given, the lir>t of the three systems is the one generally adopted in both the
State and the communal forests. This method of sale is not generally followed
in other European countries ; but the French system has stood test of experience;
and it is greatly facilitated by the honesty which, as a general rule, prevails in the
tiade to which it has given rise. In consequence of the absence or insufficiency
of export roads in Corsica, and of the difficulty experienced in getting purchasers
who are willing to take the produce for a single year only, a law was passed in
1840, which enacted that the timber to be cut in any part of that island during a
-fries of years not exceeding twenty, might be sold at one time to a single
purchaser, the State, at the expiry of the term, becoming possessed of all works
erected by him without liability to the payment of compensation for them. A
few of such contracts exist to the present day : but both the system of roads
and the timber trade having largely developed during the last forty-live years,
the practice of entering upon such engagements is gradually dying out.

Minor product:. — Receipts on account of minor produce form an insignificant
portion of the gross revenue derived from the French forests, the most important
item being that which is due to the sale of hunting and shooting permits. Produce
of this class is not sold so much as a source of revenue, as to enable the agricul-
tural population to make use of it, without giving rise to the idea that they are
entitled to it by right. It is sold by private contract, the price being tixed by
the conservator, or by the prefect, or the mayor, in the case of the State and
communal forests respectively. The conditions under which such sales are
effected in the State forests are determined by each conservator, with reference to
local circumstances, and he retains the power to forbid the sale from the com-
munal forests of any classes of produce, the removal of which would, in his opinion,
be detrimental from a cultural point of view. Payment for minor produce is
often accepted, especially by the communes, in the form of days' work done in the
forest.

Wood supplied to the admiralty. — Every year a notice is sent by the forest
•department to the admiralty, showing the localities in which trees suitable for
naval purposes are to be felled ; and the latter department then notifies the
number and description of those which it desires to have reserved in each forest.
The purchaser of the timber sold from these blocks, fells, barks and conveys the
trees marked for the above purpose to an appointed place in the forest, where
they are inspected and taken over by the admiralt}' officials, who cut from them
what they want, the rest of the wood being sold by the forest department in the
ordinary manner. The forest officer and the marine engineer then agree upon
the sum to be paid as the price of the wood removed, and as compensation, to
cover losses caused by the depreciation in value of that rejected, and the account
i> subsequently adjusted in the financial department. Up to the year 1837 the
admiralty had the light to select trees everywhere, including the private forests ;
but the -ysu'in was not found to answer, and it was abandoned in that year.
Even under existing regulations a very .small proportion of the wood used by the
admiralty is obtained directly from the forests, the greater part of it being bought
in the open market.

128

.^applied to the war department. — The requirements of the war
department are met, as far as possible, from the State forests, the trees being:
marked and felled by the forest department,and removed either directly by the mili-
tary authorities, or by the forest department at their cost. The account is adjusted
in the financial department. But the amount of wood so supplied is very small, asr
except in cases where the State forests lie near the fortifications or garrison
towns, it is found more convenient and cheaper to purchase what is required in
the market.

ROADS AND BUILDINGS.

Without roads, which are required in order to render the forest accessible
and to facilitate the export of produce, this form of the natural riches of a country
cannot be utilized ; the construction of good export roads being one of the most
important means than can be adopted for raising the forest revenue., Thus in
Corsica, where, before 1850, the State forests did not produce more than £200 a
year, the annual revenue derived from them was raised in 1868 to £8,000, the
improvement being due almost entirely to the development of the communications.
At the end of 1867 there were 2,440 miles of metalled, and 5,380 miles of unmet-
ailed, roads in the State forests, and since that year their length has been at least
doubled.

The great importance of accommodating the forest guards in suitable houses
within the forests is fully recognized; and out of 3,200 guards, 1,400 are lodged
in 1,213 houses, the remainder of them being granted allowances to lodge them-
selves in neighboring villages. The proportion of roads and buildings in the
communal forests is much less than in the State forests, partly because the com-
munes have to pay for their construction, and funds are not always available, but
partly also because the average size of these forests, being smaller, roads and
guards' houses within them are not needed to- the same extent.

At the end of 1867 there were 126 saw-mills in the State forests, all worked
by water-power.

Timber-slides, sledge-roads, wire-rope tramways, and such like means of
exporting the wood, are very little used in France. A great deal of timber is
required for their construction and maintenance, and, considering the price that wood
of all kinds can command, it is found better and cheaper, even in mountainous
regions, to make permanent roads suitable for timber carriages and carts. They
are to be found on)y in a few localities where the conditions are exceptional.

Portable iron tramways have not yet. come into general use as a means of
exporting timber from the forests, and it is believed that there is only one in use
in France at the present time, viz., that at Baccarat at the base of the Vos^es ;
but the advantages which the employment of this means of transport affords will
doubtless shortly be better understood than at present, and a development of the
system is to be anticipated, at any rate, in the forests of the plains. The floating
of large timber is almost unknown ; but firewood for the supply of Paris is still
floated from the hills of Morvau down to the railways.

FINANCIAL RESULTS OF WORKING.

The profit derivable from a forest is dependent on a number of causes, among-
which may be mentioned the species of which the crop is composed, the depth
and nature of the soil, the climate, the system of culture, the proximity of great
centres of consumption of produce, and the existence of good lines of export.

129

Taking the average of the last three years for which the accounts have been
.audited, it is found that the receipts, expenditures, and surplus of the State
forests were as follows, viz.:—

Revenue £1,297,748 = 10s. 6d. per acre.

Expenditure 571,347= 4

Surplus £726,401= 5s. lid. per acre.

But if the money spent on the afforestation of mountain slopes and dunes,
and on the purchase of additional areas, be excluded, the expenditure on the
existing forests is reduced to about £480,000, and the surplus is raised to 6s. 8d.
per acre. The actual profit is indeed slightly more than this ; for the figures
include both expenditure by the State on the management of the communal
forests, and the contributions paid by the cummunes on this account. The
receipts are supposed to cover the payments, but the}7 rarely do so, and some
allowance may be made for this fact when calulating the net profits derived from
the State forests, which, during the years referred to, probably fell little short o
7s. an acre. Recent information relating to the receipts, expenditures and surplus
resulting from the working of the communal forests is not available.

The latest year for which full details regarding the gross revenue per acre
of the State and communal forests are obtainable is 1876, when the figures were
as follows, viz. :—

t!f Qt-0

Com-

munal.

Principal produce (wood, bark, resin)

s. d.
12 6

s. d.
7 5

s. d.
10 0

Minor produce

0 7

0 3

0 5

Total

13 1

7 8

10 5

The revenue from the State forests was then, in 1376, considerably higher
than that above given as the average of the last three years ; and this was due
to two causes, of which the first is the exceptionally large number of windfalls
wllich occurred in that year, and the second the comparatively high rates which
timber than realized. All but a small fraction of the revenue on the principal
produce was obtained by the sale of wood arid tanning bark, cork being pro-
duced only in the forests near the Mediterranean and in Corsica and resin
almost exclusively on the shores of the south-west. The figures relating to the
State forests show the results of actual sales, but this is not so in the case of
communal forests, as a large proportion of the produce from them is made over
to the inhabitants for their own use, and its value is estimated at a low rate, in
order to keep down the amount of their contribution for the services of the
State forest department, which is levied in proportion to the sum of their gross
revenue and the value of the wood delivered to them. In addition to this it
should be said that the revenue on minor produce shows cash receipts only, no
credit being taken for the payments made chiefly in the communes by means of
days' work done in the forests. These circumstances account to some extent for
the smaller revenue obtained from the communal forests ; but the true explana-
tion of this result is to be found in the important influence exercised by the
system of culture adopted. In 1876 it was observed that the highest rate of
gross revenue was obtained from high-forest, and the lowest from simple coppice,
while coppice under standards occupied an intermediate place. It was also found
9 (p.)

130

that in the case of high-forest, the area under coniferous trees yielded a much
higher revenue than those under broad leaved species, chiefly on account of the
form of their stems, which enables a very large proportion of sawn timber to be
obtained from them, but partly also from the greater value of the thinnings
taken from them during the early stages of their growth — in the form, for
example of telegraph and hop-poles, etc. The revenue from forests composed of
coniferous and broad-leaved trees mixed together lay between these two. But,
of course, this is not an universal rule ; for a high forest of beech might yield a
better return than a coppice with oak standards, and a similar comparsion
might be made between forests stocked with other trees of different relative
values, and managed under various systems. The following figures, showing the
results of sales in the Nancy conservatorship, will serve to illustrate what has
been said : —

Per acre.

Simple coppice Yielded 4s. 4d.

Coppice under standards 11s. 8d.

High forest of broad-leaved species 13s. Id.

High forest of coniferous and broad-leaved species.. .. 23s. lOd.

High forest of coniferous species 51s. 6d.

Looking, then, at the large proportion of the communal forests, which is
under coppice and at the relatively greater proportion of firewood and timber of
small size that they consequently produce, the smaller gross revenue per acre
that they were able to yield is no longer surprising. Taking the State and the
communal forests together, it was found that their gross revenue was 22 per
cent., per acre, higher than that of the private forests, notwithstanding that
these latter are as a rule, on better soil and are frequently grown under other
more favourable natural conditions.

The average all-round rate actually realized in the State forests per load
of wood of all sorts, including tanning bark, was 14s. od. ; while that obtained
in the communal forests was only 9s. 8d. The corresponding rate for the whole
of the French forests, including those belonging to private proprietors, was
10s. 7d., so that the rate of the State forests exceeded the general average by
37 per cent., while that in the communal forests fell to 9 per cent below it.
The revenue obtained by the sale of minor produce was derived principally
from shooting leases and permits.

It is not an easy matter to determine the capital value of a forest, but in
1873 an estimate was made, which put that of the State forests at nearly fifty
and one-half million pounds sterling, which is equivalent to a little over fifty
pounds per acre. The gross revenue derived from them in that year represented
a return of 3.15 per cent., but the net profit did not much exceed two per cent.,
on the estimated value. The capital value of the communal forests is certainly
less per acre than that of the State forests, on account of the younger age at
which the trees are, generally speaking, cut ; and notwithstanding that their
revenue is smaller, it is probable that they pay a higher rate of interest than
the State forests.

It has been estimated that the relative rates of interest on their capital
value, paid by forests in which the main crop is removed at various ages, is
something like the following, viz. : —

Per cent. Per cent.

25 years 4 60 years 2

30 3i 100 ' " 1

40 3" 200 "

131

These figures are intended to give a general idea of the manner in which,
notwithstanding the increased value of the produce the relative rate of interest
declines as the age to which the trees are left standing is prolonged. They
have no claim to absolute accuracy, even as representing the average of French
forests, and still less can they be assumed to apply to the forests of other
countries. They serve, however, to explain what has been previously said, viz.,
that on account of the higher rate of interest which coppice, generally speaking,
yields, as well as for other reasons, it is a more suitable system for communes
than hio-h forest ; and this remark applies with equal and even greater force
to private forests.

RIGHTS OF USER.

The principal rights of user are those relating to timber, firewood and
grazing ; but there is also a small number of others, such as those which
permit the cutting of turf, the collection of dead leaves, and the like injurious
practices. In the State forests the right-holders are, almost without exception,
village communities ; the instances in which private persons possess rights in
them being extremely rare. The communal forests are, comparatively speaking,
free from such burdens.

The law of 1827 provided for the investigation and disposal of all claims
to exercise rights in the State forests, and barred the acquisition in them of any
fresh ones. Hence those only have now to be dealt with which have been
formally admitted and recorded in favour of the communities or persons who
possess them.

The aim of the department has always been to free the forests from such
claims as far as possible, and the law provides for this being done in the
following manner, viz., all rights of wood may be commuted by surrendering a
portion of the forest itself in lieu of them, the terms being arranged by mutual
consent, or in case of disagreement by the courts ; but the State alone can
demand such a commutation, the right-holder cannot do so. Other rights,
including those of pasture, cannot be got rid of in the above manner, but the
State can buy them out by the payment of a sum of money, the amount of
which is either settled by mutual agreement or by the courts. The sale of
pasture rights cannot, however, be enforced in places where their exercise is
absolutely necessary for the inhabitants, the question of such necessity being, in
case of dispute, referred to the conseil de prefecture* subject to an appeal to the
conseil d'etat.^ The law also provides that the exercise of all rights which have
not been got rid of in either of the above ways, may be reduced by the forest
department with reference to the condition of the forests and the mean annual
production of the material in respect of which they exist ; and none can be
exercised otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of the law and the
rules based on it.

The principal features of the legislation regarding the exercise of wood-
rights are the following, viz. No wood can be taken which has not been formally
made over by the forest department ; persons who possess a right to dead fallen
wood cannot employ hooks or iron instruments of any sort in its collection ;
when firewood is made over standing in the forest, it is felled, cut up and taken
out by a contractor, selected and paid by the right-holders, but previously
approved by the forest department ; the partition of the wood among the inhabit-

* An administrative tribunal, established in each department of France.

t The central administrative tribunal, established at Paris for hearing appeals from the decisions of
the conseils de prefecture.

132

ants cannot be made until the work is entirely completed ; the contractor is
responsible in all respects as if he had been the purchaser of the produce, but he
acts under the pecuniary guarantee of the body of right-holders, who can-
not barter nor sell the wood made over to them, nor put it to any use other than
that for which it is given to them ; timber made over in satisfaction of a
right, but not used in a period of two years, may be reclaimed by the forest
department.

No right can exist to take goats into either the State or the communal
forests, as the grazing of these animals is considered incompatible with the
maintenance of the ground under wood. The old law suppressed without com-
pensation to the right-holders, the practice of grazing sheep in the forests of the
ancient royal domain of France, and the law of 1827 suppressed it also, on pay-
ment of compensation, in those State forests which are of more recent origin ;
but the government has the power to permit sheep grazing in certain localities
as an exceptional and temporary measure. No right to pasture any kind of
animals can be exercised in any part of the forest not declared out of danger by
the forest department, which has also the power to limit the number of animals
to be admitted, and the period during which they may graze, with reference to
the condition of the forest and the quantity of grass in it. Right-holders
can only pasture animals which they keep for their own use, not those which
they keep for sale.

On the first of January 1877, about one half of the total area of the State
forest was burdened with rights of the estimated annual value of £38,400,
while only three per cent of the communal forests were so burdened, the annual
value in their case being estimated at £6,700. The commutation and purchase of
rights, which was commenced in a systematic manner in 1857, is effected by the
officers of the ordinary service, as well as by those who are charged with the
framing of the working plans. As a general rule, the arrangement with the
right-holders is made by mutual consent, appeals to the courts being of rare
occurrence. The State is in no hurry to spend large sums in the purchase of
grazing rights which will probably disappear with the progress of agriculture ;
a result which has alredy been realized in the north of France, where the greater
portion of these rights has lapsed through failure to exercise them.

GRAZING.

Goats, sheep and cattle have always been the emenies of forests, and they
are indeed the principal agents of their destruction, especially in hot and dry
climates, where the vegetation is not sufficiently vigorous to resist the effects of
over-grazing.

Animals are admitted to the forests under three different conditions, viz : —

(a) In virtue of a right of user.

(b) As a means of raising revenue and of utilizing the grass.

(c) By tolerance, as a temporary arrangement.

Grazing by right. This has been treated of in the preceding section.

Grazing as a means of revenue and of utilizing the grass. Neither goats
nor sheep are admitted into the State or communal forests with this object. In the
State forests it is sometimes the custom to allow cottagers living near the forest to
graze their cattle in exchange for a number of days' work, but this is not done to
any important extent. In these forests in fact very little grazing is sold, for
the practice can only be permitted in the imwooded portions, which are rarely

133

available for the purpose, because, althoagh they are of considerable extent
(about 450 square miles) they are either required as grazing grounds for the
cattle of right-holders, or they are being planted up, and hence the revenue from
this source is insignificent. It was only £360 during the last year for which
the record is available, but it is otherwise in the case of the communal forests, where
local custom often necessitates the maintenance as pasture land of blanks, which
could otherwise be most advantageously filled up ; and some communes derive
almost their entire revenue from this source. The receipts by them amounted in
the .same year to nearly £15,000.

Grazing by tolerance — It has been said that no right can exist to graze
either goats or sheep in the State or communal forests ; and the inhabitants of
the communes are specially prohibited by law from admitting their own goats
and sheep into their forests ; but the government has the power to sanction the
grazing of sheep (not goats) in certain localities under exceptional circumstances.
Permission to drive sheep into the State forests is, however, very rarely accorded,
except in seasons of extraordinary drought, when the flocks of the neighborhood-
ing communes are sometimes admitted for a single season. But in the case of
the communal forests, such temporary sanction is, of necessity, more freely
accorded, for the forests belong to the inhabitants, and even through their true
interests might be better served by keeping out their sheep entirely, it is not
found possible to change their pastoral habits all at once ; and on this account,
permission has frequently to be granted them to graze their sheep in their
forests, eitheir for a single year or for periods up to five years. They can, how-
ever, graze their own horned cattle, horses, ponies, donkeys and pigs there with-
out special permission ; and they usually do so on payment of a fee into the
communal treasury. According to the latest available record, the number of
animals of all kinds, thus admitted in a single year, was as follows, viz.:

Horned cattle, horses, ponies and donkeys 359,164

Pigs 48,388

Sheep (by special sanction) 936,960

The animals can, however, only be grazed in places which have been declared
out of danger by the forest officers, and their numbers can be limited with refer-
ence to the quantity of grass available ; but it is not always possible to enforce
these restrictions rigidly ; and the forests in certain regions, have much to con-
tend with from the extent to which grazing is practised. The receipts by the
communal treasury on this account have been estimated at 4s. 6d. per head of
large cattle, 3s. lid. per pig, and Is. for sheep ; but this only represents an average
revenue of lOd. per acre of the area grazed over, whereas wood yields, on an
average, about 8s. 4d. per acre ; and it seems probable that this consideration
may gradually lead, in the agricultural districts, at any rate, to the abandon-
ment of the practice of pasturing cattle, on forest lands. There is no doubt that
when the grazing even of large cattle, is permitted, it is carried on at the
expense of the crop of wood ; and that where it is practised to any considerable
extent the forest, properly so called, tends to disappear ; and this is notably the
case where, for the time being, local circumstances, such as the absence of export
roads, renders wood a less profitable crop than grass. Here the forests, gradu-
ally become almost unproductive, and finally succumb from excessive grazing.

About four-fifths of the total area of the communal forests are still used as
grazing grounds, nearly one-half of the latter being open each year ; and the
average area provided for each class of animals is about three acres per head of
large cattle, two acres per pig, and three-fifths of an acre for sheep. Separate

134

grazing grounds are allotted for each class, and these figures represent the average
of all qualities of pasture land ; they could not therefore, even supposing that the
grazing were not excessive, be taken as a guide to the area which should be pro-
vided per head in any particular locality, even in France, and still less so in other
countries.

OFFENCES.

Until the year 1859 persons who were charged with offences against the
forest laws had always to be tried by the courts ; but in that year a law was
passed which enabled the forest department to take compensation from offenders
instead of bringing them before the tribunals, and this method of dealing with
them is now largely practised. The department has alwa}7s the power to charge
the delinquents before the courts, while they, on the other hand, have always the
right to refuse payment of the compensation demanded, and thus bring about their
formal trial. Officers of lower rank than that of conservator are not. however,
authorized to deal with cases in this manner, and the power of the conservator is
limited to the acceptance, by way of compensation, of sums not exceeding £40 ;
if it is desired to exact a larger amount, the sanction of the government must be
obtained.

This system has many advantages. For while it is necessary in the public
interests that infractions of the forest rules should be checked, a large proportion
of them are usually of a petty nature, and in many cases the persons who commit
them hardly deserve the severer penalties that must be inflicted on their being
found guilty by the courts. The system of taking compensation, on the other
hand, permits the adoption of a scale of punishment more suited to this class of
offenders, while it at the same time enables the means of the delinquents, and
the attendant circumstances of. each case, to be taken into account. The punish-
ment can also be made to follow promptly the committal of the offence, without
the necessity for dragging the accused and the witnesses from their occupations
to attend before a tribunal, the time of which is thus not occupied in the trial
of these petty cases. The present system is easy and simple for the forest
department ; and that it acts very leniently on the population living near the
forests will be seen, when it is stated that the amount of compensation exacted
during the last year for which the record has been prepared, amounted to only
one-fifth of the sum which the courts must have awarded had the offenders been
proved guilty before them. Occasionally the compensation is allowed to be paid
in the form of a number of days' work, done in the forest.

With the advancing prosperity ot the country, forest offences become lest
frequent, and the number committed annually is very much smaller now than is
used to be a few years ago. It is worthy of remark that they are more than
twice as numerous in the communal as in the State forests, probably because
individual inhabitants of the communes think that there is not much harm in
committing minor depredations on property which they doubtless regard as their
own. During the year 1876, the number of offences was 26,377, there being
three per thousand acres in the State forest, and seven per one thousand acres in
those belonging to the communes. More than half the offences were connected

O ^j

with the theft of wood or injury to trees, and nearly a quarter related to pasture
and cattle trespass, 31,281 persons being involved in the charges. As might be
expected, wood stealing is more, prevalent in winter than in summer, while the
reverse is the case with regard to breaches of the grazing laws. Of the total
number of charges made in 1876, 7 per cent, were abandoned, either owing to
the trivial nature of the offences, or owing to want of sufficient evidence ; 70 per

135

cent, were dealt with under the compensation law, and the remaining 23 per cent,
were taken into court, convictions being obtained in 99 per cent of these cases.

In addition to clauses dealing directly with wood thefts, illicit grazing, and
other fraudulent practices, the forest law provides that no person having cutting
instruments in his hand can leave the ordinary roads which pass through the
forests, and that no fire can be either lighted or carried within, or at a less
distance than two hundred yards from any forest boundaries. A regular tariff
exists, which fixes tho penalties for damaging trees of various ages and species.
The law also prohibits the erection, without permission, of brick-works, or lime-
kilns, carpenters'-shops, timber-yards, or saw-mills, within certain distances of
the forest. At the time that the law was passed, it was much more necessary
than it is at present to check the erection of such buildings, and applications for
permission to construct them are now usually accorded on suitable conditions.

INJURIES CAUSED BY WILD ANIMALS AND INSECTS, STORMS AND FIRES.

Wild animals and insects. — The principal wild animals which cause injury
to forests, either by devouring the seed or the young seedlings, or by peeling the
bark off the young plants, are deer, pigs, hares and rabbits. The insects which
attack the leaves, the bark, and even the wood of trees, belong chiefly to the
families Goleoptera, Lepidoptera,&nd Hymenoptera. But the damage done is not
excessive, and it is, in fact, far less than that produced by the same causes in
many other countries. It is of course exceedingly difficult to put a money
value upon injuries of this sort, which include not only the actual death of
a certain number of old and young trees, but also a reduction in the growth
of others. An estimate was, however, made regarding the damage done in
1876, and it is said to have amounted to about 4s. per 100 acres, taken on the
entire area of the State and communal forests. The coniferous trees generally
suffer more than the broad-leaved species, as they are more exposed to the attacks
of insects which do not infrequently kill them outright, whereas the latter species
more often suffer merely a diminution in their rate of increase.

Storms. — The damage done by storms of wind is a much more serious matter.
Injuries are caused to the forest by them which it is not always possible either
to prevent or even to modify. In the first place, the windfalls interfere with
the arrangements laid down in the working plan, and the considerations which
guide the execution of felling are thus thrown out ; they remove too large a pro-
portion of the seed-bearing trees, and consequently it is sometimes necessary to
substitute a difficult and artificial process fur the natural regeneration which
would otherwise have been effected ; while in addition to this they break or
otherwise damage neighboring trees by their fall. In the second place, the value
of the windfalls themselves is, speaking generally, small, as they are frequently
broken or otherwise injured, while most of them have probably not attained the
age or dimensions at which it was intended that they should be felled. They are
also specially liable to attacks by insects, which often appear in large numbers in
forests where many trees were blown down, particularly in case of the coniferous
species. Even uninjured windfalls fetch a lower price than trees felled in a regu-
lar manner, because they are usually found scattered here and there, instead of
being concentrated in one part of the forest.

The year 1876, which is the last for which figures can be obtained, was a
disastrous one, the amount of windfalls being exceptionally large, probably
•double of that which occurs during an average year. The number was put

136

at 1,145,708 trees, and the damage caused was estimated at £10,300, or about
£3 4s. per 100 acres in the State forests, and 12s. per 100 acres in those belonging
to village communities.

The latter being, for the most part, coppice under standards, suffered less-
than the former, while the proportion of windfalls in the coniferous forests was
greater than that in those composed of broad-leaved species. The windfalls were
sold for nearly £021,000.

The forest officers, when arranging the annual felling, are careful to provide,
as far as possible, against the effect of storms, by leaving a protecting belt of
trees standing on the side of the forest from which the dangerous winds blow,
and in other ways ; but much depends on natural conditions which are beyond
their control, such as the configuration of the ground, the shelter afforded by
neighboring hills, the nature of the soil and its physical condition, the kinds of
trees and their root development, as well as their size, age, and the system of
treatment to which they have been subjected.

It may be added that hailstorms often do great damage by stripping the
tiees of their foliage, and by breaking or otherwise injuring the young plants.

Fires. — The penal code provides for the punishment of persons who cause
forest fires, either intentionally or through carelessness ; and the forest law-
prohibits the lighting or carrying of fire either inside the forest or within 200
yards of their boundaries, but the ordinary laws do not prevent proprietors from
lighting fires in their own forests to the danger of their neighbor's property.
This an important question in the Maures and Esterel,* where the bad practice
is followed of systematically lighting fires in the forests, in order to burn up the
heather and other shrubs which interfere with the regeneration of the crop of
trees; and in 1870 a special law was passed prohibiting the proprietors of those
districts from lighting tires in their forests except at seasons fixed by the prefect ;
and also compelling them to clear fire-lines around all woods and forests which
have not been completely freed from all inflammable shrubs.

In 1876 there were 290 fires in the area managed by the forest department*
nearly all of them being the result of accident. The surface burnt over
measured 2,350 acres, or about j~ part of the entire area, and the damage was
estimated at £3,280 or 28s. per acre of forest burnt. The proportion of fires was
greater in the broad-leaved than in the coniferous forests, but on the other hand,
the amount of damage done per acre in the latter was three times as great as in
the former, the resin in the trees themselves and in the dead needles on the
ground rendering the fir and pine forests excessively inflammable. It is also
worthy of remark that, although as a general rule, fires were of more frequent
occurrence in the spring than at any other season of the year, the autumn fires
were, on account of the recently fallen leaves, by far the most destructive. But this
is by no means true of all regions and the general result may be mainly ascribed
to the great damage done by fires occurring during the autumn in the south of
France. In the north, forest fires are of small importance, and occasion little
damage.

HUNTING AND SHOOTING.

The right to hunt and shoot in the State forests is, generally speaking, let
out on nine years' leases, which are sold by public auction under the rules for
the sale of timber and other forest produce ; but when this is not possible, it is
sold by means of annual permits issued under the direct authority of the Minister

* Low mountain ranges in the south of France.

137

of Agriculture, the sport being always carried on under the surveillance of the
officers of the forest department. No forest officer can become a lessee of the
shooting within the limits of his own charge, and the forest guards are never
permitted to shoot in the forests under any circumstances.

The municipal councils are, subject to the approval of the prefect, free to
dispose of the right to hunt or shoot in their forests in any manner that they
wish.

DESTRUCTION OF WOLVES.

The destruction of wolves, boars, and other animals which are considered
dangerous or harmful, is entrusted to a corps of 410 lieutenants de louveterie
(wolf -hunters). These officers, who are unpaid, but have the right to wear a
handsome uniform, are under the control of the conservator of forests, and are
appointed by the prefect on his recommendation. They are as a rule landed
proprietors, who accept their appointment for the sake of the sport it affords
them. They are obliged to keep bloodhounds and packs of dogs, and are charged
to organize and direct, in communication with the local forest officers, the battues
which are, from time to time, ordered to take place in the forests. But as this
system has not been found a very efficient one, a law has recently been passed,
under which a reward, varying from £1 12s. to £7, is payable to anyone who kills
a wolf ; and the mayors are authorized, when the snow is on the ground, to organize
battues for the destruction of wolves, boars, and other animals, anywhere within
the limits of their respective communes, on condition only that they give due
notice to the proprietors of the lands on which the beat is to take place.

The rewards paid for killing wolves amount to about £4,000 a year.

AFFORESTATION WORKS— WORKS UNDERTAKEN FOR THE CONSOLIDATION
AND PROTECTION OF UNSTABLE MOUNTAIN SLOPES.

Excessive grazing, both by local herds and flocks principally of sheep and
goats, as well as by vast numbers of these animals which are annually driven up
from the plains to the hill pastures, have produced complete denudation over
very large areas, and have thus caused incalculable damage in the great mountain
regions of France, principally in the southern Alps, and in the level country
below them. They eat down the grass to the level of the ground, and then teai1
out the very roots, breaking up the surface of the soil, and rendering it liable to
be washed down by the rain. These hills are of a loose formation, the strata
being contorted and dislocated to a remarkable degree, and as soon as the soil is
deprived of its protective covering of trees, shrubs and herbs, whose roots hold
it together, the slipping and falling of the mountain sides are produced with a
constantly increasing intensity. The rain-water, no longer interrupted in its fall,
retained by the spongy, vegetable mould, nor hindered in its downward flow by
the thousands of obstacles which a living covering would oppose to its progress,
flows off the surface of the ground with extraordinary rapidity, and carrying
with it large quantities of loose soil, suddenly fills up the torrent beds. These
latter, scoured out by the rush of water, charged with mud, stones and rocks,
cut their way deeper and deeper into the mountains, and their banks, deprived of
their support at the base, fall inward, the debris being borne onward to
level ground below. The cracks and slips occasioned in this manner extend to a
great distance on either side of the torrent, especially on the side on which the
strata slopes toward it, and the effect is much increased when the upper layer of
rock is loose, and lies upon an impermeable bed ; the water then saturates

138

the loose rock, and penetrating through it, and through the cracks and fissures,
flows over the hard surface, the superincumbent mass being precipitated, either
suddenly or by slow degrees into the valley below. The same effect is produced
in the whole net-work of water-courses, both principal and tributary, which
traverse the mountain side ; the upper strata over enormous areas, with fields,
houses, and even entire villages, being carried down into the valleys, and the
whole region, which presents litttle to the eye but a series of unstable slopes of
black marl, has an indescribably desolate appearance. It may be added that
when the hillsides are covered with trees, the snow, which has accumulated
during the winter months, disappears gradually under the influence of the milder
temperature which accompanies the advancing spring ; but when the trees have
been removed, and the masses of snow are consequently exposed to the full force
of the sun's rays, they melt rapidly and produce results on the mountain sides
similar to those which follow the occurrence of heavy storms of rain.

But the damage does not stop here ; for on reaching the comparatively level
valleys which form the main lines of drainage of the mountain range, the stones,
gravel and sand transported by the numerous torrents are deposited. These
valleys being usually very fertile, are occupied by fields, villages, and towns,
which are connected by roads and sometimes by railways, constructed with many
bridges, retaining walls and other masonry-works, and as, by degrees, enormous
areas become covered with debris — sometimes this result is produced suddenly
without warning — the buildings are either thrown down or overwhelmed, the
railways and roads are blocked, and the bridges are overthrown, while the fields
are completely and irretrievably destroyed. The damage thus caused is most
serious, both i'n its nature and extent, and to it must be added the great incon-
venience and loss occasioned by the interruption of traffic on the roads and rail-
ways. But this is not all. If the debris transported by the torrent is carried
into the river before it can be deposited, it is either borne on at once and thrown
on to the level country lower down, or it remains and turns the course of the
stream over the fields and buildings on its opposite bank. Occasionally the
deposit temporarily blocks up the valley and causes the inundation of villages
and fields on the upper side of the barrier, and when this latter ultimately
gives way, the most disastrous results ensue, both in the lower part of the
valley and in the open country at the foot of the mountain range. It is to
mitigate these terrible evils that the vast enterprise of afforesting the mountains
has been undertaken as the only means of dealing with them. But, owing to
the enormous cost of the work, it cannot be hoped that the forest thus raised
will ever prove directly remunerative, and their creation, with a view to their
ever becoming so, could not for a a moment be justified.

The works are of two classes, viz. : Firstly, the treatment of the torrent beds
by a series of weirs and other structures, destined to bring them gradually and
by successive stages to a normal slope, and thus not only prevent " scour," but by
the filling up and widening of the beds behind the weirs to afford support to the
unstable ^sloping sides, and thus gradually to consolidate them with a view to
their being ultimately planted up. Secondly, the immediate planting up of all
areas, the surface of which does not seem likely to be washed down within the
period occupied by the construction in that locality of the first class of works.
A commencement was made in 1860 ; but the law passed in that year not having
been found sufficient, a new law came into force in 1882 which provides both for
the works to be undertaken directly by the State, and for those to be executed
by the proprietors of the ground, with or without State aid, as well as for simple
measures of prevention.

139

Works undertaken by the State. — The proposal to take up ground for this
purpose emanates from the forest department, and is followed by a formal
inquiry, under the direction of the prefect, into the circumstances of the case,
regarding which a special commission, with a forest officer as one of its members,
makes a 'report. If the proposal is approved, a law is passed declaring the work
to be one of public utility, and under it the ground with all existing rights, either
of the proprietor or other persons in it, is bought by the State, either by mutual
agreement or by expropriation. The area is then under the forest law, and the
•works are undertaken at the public cost.

Works undertaken by the proprietors. — If, however, the proprietors, who
are for the most part village communities, do not desire to part with the land
they must, before the expropriation has been ordered, agree to execute the
specified works themselves, within a fixed time, and to maintain them, under the
control of the forest department. In some cases, but not always, pecuniary aid
is then afforded to them. If the proprietors of land outside the areas which are
taken up for treatment as works of public utility, desire to undertake measures
for the consolidation of the soil, or for the improvement of their pastures, they
can obtain assistance from the State in the way of money, seeds, plants, or of
work done for them ; but when any such aid is afforded, the operations are
under the surveillance of the forest department, and in certain cases the money
so advanced has to be refunded.

Preventive measures. — When the condition of the ground is not such as to
warrant its being dealt with in the above manner, it may, after the same
preliminary formalities as before, be closed against grazing for any period not
exceeding ten years, in which case compensation is paid annually to the proprie-
tors for their loss of the use of it. During this interval the State has the power
to execute works, in order to promote the more rapid consolidation of the soil,
but the nature of the property cannot be changed thereby, and the proprietor
cannot be called upon to pay anything for the improvements thus effected ; while
if, after the lapse of ten years, it is found necessary to continue the exclusion of
cattle, the State must buy the land either by mutual agreement or by expro-
priation.

But none of the measures above described would deal effectually with the
situation unless the source of the evil were at the same time attacked, by bringing
the pastoral arrangements on the neighboring hills under control, so as to avoid
over-grazing; and the law therefore provides that in 313 village communities, all
those in which works are undertaken being included, as well as many others, the
grazing must be carried out in the manner approved by the forest department.
The communes are therefore obliged to submit to the prefect annual proposals on
this subject, showing the nature and extent of their pasture lands, the portions
that they propose to use during the year, the number of animals of each kind
that are to graze, the roads by which they are to reach and return from the
pastures and other matters. These proposals are considered by the forest
department, and modified if necessary. In addition to this, with a view to
encourage the pastoral population of the mountains to take care of their grazing
grounds, and to put a stop to abuses resulting from ignorance and from the
continuance of injurious customs, the forest department is empowered to grant
money rewards to fruiteres (associations of cattle-owners for the manufacture of
cheese) for improvement made by them to their pastures. It is also desired to
encourage, as far as possible, the substitution of cows for sheep ; but the popula-
tion of the mountains does not like the afforestation of their grazing grounds,
and the principal reason for the offer of rewards by'the State is that it is con-

140

sidered politic to do something to aid them in their industry, as some set-oft
against the inconvenience to which individual communities are sometimes put
by these operations.

Scope and progress of the entire work. — The total surface to be treated as
a work of public utility in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Cevennes, is estimated to
amount to 1,035 square miles, in addition to about 1,900 linear miles of torrent
beds. Up to the end of 1885, 152 square miles of this surface and 373 miles of
torrent beds had been completed, the expenditures having amounted to £819,320,
and the rates having varied from £3 2s. 6d. per acre, and from 2s. to 7s. 6d. per
linear yard of torrent bed. There remain to be treated, therefore, about 883
square miles of surface, and 1,500 miles of torrent beds. In addition to the
above, the State has paid £138,000, or hall the cost of treating 212 square miles,
as "permissive works," under the old law, and £12,000 toward pastoral improve-
ments.

DRAINING AND PLANTING OF SWAMPS AND WASTE LANDS.

Measures of the nature above described for the consolidation and protection
of mountain slopes are undertaken in the interest of the population generally,
In the case of sterile unproductive wastes or swamps, not requiring to be dealt
with on these grounds, the government has thought it better, as a general rule,
to leave each proprietor free to do what he considers most to his own advantage,
confining it to the exemption from taxes for thirty years of all lands planted up.
But the State has the right to force the communes to drain their swamps and
wastes, with a view to rendering them suitable either for cultivation or for the
growth of trees ; and when this is done advances of funds may be made under
certain conditions, one of which is that the commune has the right to surrender
to the State in satisfaction of all claims, a portion of the area not exceeding one-
half.

THE DUNES OF THE WEST COAST.

The winds that blow continually from the ocean on to the west coast, carry
with them enormous quantities of sand, which, advancing steadily over the
country at the rate of some fourteen feet per annum, in the form of moving
hills called dunes, bury under them the fields and villages they reach. It has-
been calculated that nearly ninety cubic yards of sand per yard of coast line are
thus annually transported inland. Works to arrest the destructive effects of this
invasion of sand have been in progress since 1789 ; they were originally carried
out under the Department of Public Works, but since 1862 they have been placed
under the forest department. The total area of the dunes is said to be 224,154
acres, a part of which belongs to the State, and a part to private owners, while a
much smaller portion is communal property.

In exposed situations the protective works consist of a wooden palisade,
erected at a short distance above high-water mark, and destined to promote the
formation of an artificial dune, with a view to prevent fresh arrivals of sand from
being blown over the country. Under its shelter, seeds of various kinds, princi-
pally those of the maritime pine (Pinus maritima), broom, gorse, and gourbet
(Arunde arenaria), are sown ; and the seeds being covered with brush- wood to-
prevent the sand in which they are sown from moving , and the sowing is thus,
continued inland, in successive belts, until a crop of trees is raised on the entire
area. In less exposed situations a wattled fence is substituted for the wooden,
palisades. In the Departments of Gironde and Landes, forests of the maritime
pine have been most successfully raised in this manner, the trees being tapped for

141

Tesin, and the wood of those which have been exhausted being sold for railway
sleepers and other purposes. But north of the Loire the maritime pine is not
sown, as in that region it does not yield a sufficient quantity of resin to repay the
cost of its introduction, and here it is sought merely to establish a crop of grass
on the ground.

The law of 1810 relative to the treatment of the dunes, which is still in
force, provides that the government can order the planting up of any area which
in the public interest requires to be so dealt with. When the land or any part
of it belongs to communes or private proprietors, who cannot or do not wish to
undertake the work, the State can execute it, reimbursing itself with interest
from the subsequent yield of the forests. As soon as the money so advanced
has been recovered, the land is restored to the proprietors, who are bound to
maintain the works in good condition, and not to fell any trees without sanction
of the forest department. This system of raising forests on private lands would
not be likely to succeed elsewhere ; but here the extremely profitable cultivation
of the maritime pine, due to the large quantity of valuable resin that it yields in
the hot and moist climate of the south-west littoral coast, renders it a safe transac-
tion for the State to engage in.

Before the forest department took over the work in 1862, 111,787 acres had
been dealt with ; and the entire area has now been completed. The works have
to be most scrupulously maintained, in order to prevent a recurrence of the evil.

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND DEPARTMENT STAFF.

Administrative Organization. — In order to carry out the work which
has been briefly described in the preceding chapters, a corps of professional
foresters, composed as follows, is maintained, viz. : —

1 Director of the forest department. j

9 Inspectors-general.

39 Conservators. Superior staff.

24o Inspectors. j

234 Assistant-inspectors.

308 Sub-assistant-inspectors (gardes generaux)
3532 Brigadiers (head guards) and guards, subordinate staff.

This body of officials is employed, partly in the ordinary duties of the
department, as being in administrative, executive, or protective charge of the
units into which the forests (including those of Algeria) are grouped, for their
more effective and covenient control ; partly in special branches, such as those which
-are charged with the preparation of working plans with the treatment of unstable
mountains, and with the communal grazing arrangements ; and partly also in the
•central offices at Paris. The following statement shows the number of officers of
the superior staff employed on each kind of duty :

142

h

.'i

£ «
° g

g

o
.u

cS

m
(H

O

to

(H

, O

S|

£2
J5

01 O

5

s

Q

"S tc

0)

ft

O)

M

h

y>
m

3
o

-S
o

ft

09

1— 1

II

00

<J

'ia

U

e
02

Is

-*J
1

Central offices

I

8

10

19

^

Ordinary duties

35

180

9no

P.M

Working1 -plans branch .

15

QK

Consolidation of mountain slopes

15

12

4Q

7(5

Communal grazing ....

2

o

1

Schools

1

1

3

c

n*

Algeria .

3

17

in

Q7

R7

Detached duty

3

i

of

D<

Total on active list

1

9

39

245

234

308

836

* Exclusive of two forest officers who have been removed from the active list as professors and three
professors who are not forest officers.

THE CENTRAL OFFICES AT PARIS.

Since 1877 the forest department has been under the Minister of Agriculture
instead of, as formerly, under the Minister of Finance. And the change has
proved a most beneficial one ; for the forests are now regarded more from the
point of view of their utility in augmenting the general prosperity of the country,
than from that of the money revenue they can be made to yield ; and they are
no longer looked upon as available for sale whenever the low state of the exchequer
may seem to suggest this course, which was not seldom in olden days. The
Minister of Agriculture is the president, and the director of the forest department
is the vice-president, of a council of administration formed by the eight inspectors-
general, which considers all questions submitted for the orders of government.
The central office is divided into seven sections, each of which deals with certain
branches of the work, and is presided over by an inspector-in-charge, who is-
assisted by two or three other forest officers and a number of clerks.

Ordinary duties in the forests. — The unit of administrative charge is the
division (inspection) which is held by an inspector ; but for purposes of executive
management this charge is split up into sub-divisions (cantonments), under
assistant or sub-assistant-inspectors, who are also at the disposal of the inspector
for any special work that he may require of them. Occasionally, when the
division is a small one, the inspector himself holds charge of a sub-division. The
divisions are grouped into conservatorships, and these again into six circles
(regions') each of the latter being assigned to an inspector-general. The forests,
State and communal, managed by the forest department are 11,508 square miles
in extent, and they are divided into 414 sub-divisions, 192 divisions, and thirty-
five conservatorships ; consequently, the average area of each of these charges'is
as follows, viz., sub-division, twenty-eight square miles ; division, sixty square
miles ; conservatorship, 329 square miles. The average area of an inspector-
general's circle extends over 1,918 square miles.

The sub-divisional officer is essentially an out-of-doors man, who personally
directs all work going on within the limits of his charge, in accordance with the
instructions given to him by the inspector, whose assistant he is, and who can at
his discretion employ him on special duties outside his sub-division. The divisional
officer is the manager of the forest estates. He prepares projects for the various.

143

works that are to be undertaken, and directs the subordinate officers in their
execution ; he is also the prosecutor in all cases taken into court for the suppression
of forest offences. The conservator exercises a general control over the divisional
officers employed under him ; and it is his duty to see that all work is directed
in accordance with the views of the government, as they are from time to time
communnicated to him from the central office. He alone has control of the
expenditure, and has power to issue oi'ders on the public treasury. As regards
his circle, the inspector-general is not an administrative officer, but he makes an
annual tour and is required to become personally acquainted with all the work
going on, and with the qualifications of all ranks of officers employed within it,
seeing that each fulfills his duties properly. During the remainder of the year
he is at head-quarters, where he is able to make use at the council-board of the
information collected during his tour, by advising the government both in the
issue of orders for works and in the selection of officers and subordinates for pro-
motion to fill the vacancies that may occur.

It may here be mentioned that in addition to the charge of the State and
communal forests, the officers of the department are called upon to exercise certain
functions in the private forests, which will be explained hereafter.

Working plans. — A separate branch of the department is charged with the
framing of working plans for the most important forests, those for the smaller
ones being prepared by the local officers. The thirty-five inspectors, assistant
Hiid sub-assistant-inspectors, who are thus employed, are divided into nineteen
sections, which are at present working in twenty-four conservatorships. As the
operations are concluded in one locality, the sections are moved to another. The
officers are under the orders of the local conservator, who transmits their proposals
to head-quarters with his own opinions and recommendations.

Consolidation of mountain slopes. — The branch of the department to which
this vast under-taking is intrusted, is presided over by an inspector-general and
is composed of seventy-six officers of the superior staff, working in eighteen
centres. These officers are under the orders of the conservator within whose
charge they are employed ; and he transmits their projects and proposals to the
inspector-general, who is thus enabled, by the exercise of his supervision, to utilize
the experiences gained in the various localities for the benefit of the entire work.
The inspector-general reports to the director of the department all matters
relating to this undertaking which are to be laid before the council of adminis-
tration.

Communal grazing arrangements. — The five officers who are employed in
the three great mountain regions to prepare projects for the control of the
communal grazing arrangements, and the issue of rewards for improvements to
the pastures effected by the fruitieres (associations for cheese-making), are placed
in the same relation to the conservators as are the officers employed on the
consolidation of mountain slopes.

Accounts. — It is a fundamental principle of the French system of forest
administration that the forest officers have nothing to do with either the receipt
or the payment of money. They sell the produce by auction, or by the gran ti no-
of permits, as the case may be ; but the sums realized on account of such sale's
are paid by the purchasers directly into the public or communal treasury. The
inspector prepares a budget estimate for his proposed expenditure on works, and
when this has been sanctioned the various undertakings are commenced. Towards
the end of each month he submits to the conservator an estimate of his proposed
expenditure for the following month, during the last days of which that sum is
paid to him, and he disburses it at once, transmitting the vouchers, together with
the unexpended balance, should there be any, to the treasurer-general ; he keeps

144

no money in his hands, In exceptional cases, however, the conservator can grant
orders for advances to the officers employed under him ; but in this case they
must, at the end of each month, adjust the advance by vouchers handed in to the
treasurer-general, along with any balance of cash that may remain unexpended in
their hands. The treasurer-general thus keeps all accounts, both of receipts and
expenditure of the department.

Departmental staff'. — Members of the forest department are ineligible for
any other office, either administrative or judicial ; they are prohibited from
engaging in trade, or in any industry connected with wood, and they must
be regularly sworn in before they can enter upon the exercise of their functions.
They have as regards forest offences, the powers of police, including the right
to make domiciliary visits for purposes of investigation and to arrest suspected
persons ; but these powers are exercised chiefly by the members of the surbordi-
nate staff. Officers of the superior staff act as public prosecutors in forest cases.
Superior staff. — Candidates for the superior staff are, as a rule, trained at
the national forest school at Nancy ; but one-third of the appointments to the
lowest grade (Garde general) are reserved for the promotion of deserving
subordinates. A young forest officer on leaving the school is employed for a
time; usually about a year, in learning his duties under an inspector ; and his
advancement from this probationary stage, as well as his further promotion
through the higher grades depends on his own qualifications and exertions, as
reported by his immediate superiors.

A promotion list is drawn out every year by the council of administration
and published for general information. On it are inscribed the names of those
officers of each grade who are considered to be the most deserving of immediate
promotion, the number of names on the list being limited to three times the
number of the anticipated vacancies.

The minister of agriculture makes all promotions up to and including
the grade of inspector, but the conservators, the inspectors-general, and the
director of the department are nominated by the president of the republic. No
officer can, however, be selected for promotion whose name is not found on the
list and who has not served at least two years in the lower grade.
The yearly pay of the various grades is as follows :

£ £

Director of the forest department 800

Inspectors-general, three classes 480 to 600

Conservators, four classes 320 to 480

Inspectors, four classes 160 to 1^40

Assistant-inspectors, three classes 120 to 152

Sub-assistant-inspectors, three classes 80 to 104

Sub-assistant-inspectors, on probation 60

In addition to their salaries, the officers receive travelling allowances, usually
a fixed sum per annum, at various rates according to local circumstances.

A pension, at a rate which varies according to the grade of the retiring
officer, is obtainable after the age of sixty years ; but no inspector can become a
conservator after he has passed the age of fifty-five years. Conservators are
usually pensioned at the age of sixty-two and inspectors-general at sixty-five.

Subordinate staff. — All members of the subordinate staff must have served
in the army, and as a general rule, they must have attained the rank of non-
commissioned officers; they cannot be less than twenty-five or more than thirty-five
years of age at the time of their appointment. They receive their first nomination
from the minister of agriculture, who promotes them from a list similar to that
which is annually prepared for the superior staff. The scale of annual salaries

145

is as follows, viz., head guard, three classes, £36 to £44 ; guard, two classes,
£28 and £30 with an additional £2 after fifteen years service.

They must live in or near the forests, where they are provided, as far as
possible, with accommodations for themselves and their families in houses specially
built for them ; but if such houses are not available, they receive a lodging
allowance. In addition to their pay, they are given a fixed quantity of firewood
per annum and they are allowed to cultivate a plot of ground not exceeding two-
and- one-half acres, and to graze two cows in the forest.

Each guard has a beat which he is bound to visit daily, the average size of
such charge being about 1,200 to 1,300 acres, or say two square miles. The head
guard has four or five guards under his orders : he superintends their work, and
communicates to them the instructions received by him from the sub-divisional
officer.

The duties of the subordinate staff are chiefly those of protection ; they act
as forest police, and have the power to serve summonses as well as to arrest delin-
quents. They are bound to report all offences committed within their beat : and
should they fail to do so, they become responsible for the payment of any fines or
compensation money which might be levied from the offenders. Acting under
the orders of the sub-divisional officer, they superintend all work going on within
the limits of their charge ; and in addition to this they, under his direction,
tend the young plants, prune the stems of the reserve trees, fill up small blanks
in the forest, and perform such like minor operations with their own hands.
Rewards are given annually to men who have specially exerted themselves in
this manner ; but they are forbidden to accept without special sanction, any
gratuity from " communes " or private proprietors for services rendered by them
in the execution of their duties. They are entitled to a pension when they have
attained the age of fifty-five years, and have completed twenty-five years' service,
including the time spent in the army.

As above stated, one-third of the appointments to the grade of sub-assistant-
inspector are reserved for the promotion of deserving members of the subordinate
staff. Ordinarily men so promoted must have at least fifteen years' service,- and
be less than fifty years of age ; but they can be promoted after four years' service,
if they have passed successfully through the secondary school at Barres.

Military Organization. — Under the law which provides that all men belong-
ing, in time of peace, to regularly organized public services can in time of war,
be formed into special corps, destined to serve with the active or with the terri-
torial army, the members of the forest department form a part of the military
forces of the country ; and the officers of the superior and the subordinate staff are
organized by conservatorships into companies or sections, according to their
numerical strength. In case of the mobilization of the army, the forest corps is
at the disposal of the war minister, and its various units assemble at previously
determined points. The students of the forest school at Nancy receive military
instruction and are drilled, the time passed at the school counting as service with
the colors. The officers of the superior staff hold rank as officers of the reserve,
or of the territorial army, and in time of war may be employed either in com-
mand of the companies and sections of the forest corps, or otherwise as may be
ordered. From the day that they are called out, the companies form an integral
part of the army and enjoy the same rights, honors, and rewards as the other
troops which compose it. They are inspected by their own officers annually in
time of peace, and the head guards, and guai'ds who form the the non-commis-
sioned officers and rank and file of the companies enjoy at all times certain privi-
leges as soldiers.

10 (F.)

146

In virtue of this service, a military uniform is prescribed for all grades,
including the students at the schools. The subordinates wear it always ; and the
officers do so on all ceremonial occasions, including official inspections of the
forests by their superiors.

FOREST SCHOOLS.— THE HIGHER SCHOOL AT XANCY.

The forest school at Nancy is the only one existing in France for the train-
ing of officers of the superior staff. It was founded in 1824, before which year
the department was recruited either by means of young men, often of good fami-
lies, who worked gratuitously in the inspectors' offices in the hope of ultimately
obtaining an appointment, or by means of retired officers of the army. Very few
forest officers received under the old system, a professional training sufficient to
enable them to discharge their duties satisfactorily ; and it was to remedy this
state of things that the school was established. The arrangements were modest
at first ; but a great development has taken place during the sixty -two years
that have elapsed since 1824. The present organization of the school will now be
briefly described.

The controlling and teaching staff is composed as follows, viz.: —

1 director, with the rank of inspector-general (professor of political economy
and forest statistics).

1 deputy-director (professor of forestry).

1 assistant professor of forestry.

1 inspector of studies (professor of law).

1 assistant-professor of law.

1 professor of natural history.

1 assistant-professor or natural history.

1 professor of applied mathematics.

1 assistant-professor of applied mathematics.
• 1 professor of agriculture.

1 professor of German.

1 professor of military science,

1 assistant-inspector for experiments.

All these are forest officers except the professors of agriculture, German, and
military science ; and none of them, except the professor of agriculture, who is
dean of the faculty of science at Nancy, have any other duties.

The salary of the director rises from £360 'to £480, with £80 a year sump-
tuary allowance. The professors of forestry, natural history, law, and applied
mathematics, receive, on first appointment £80 a year in addition to the pay of
their grade, whatever it may be ; but if, after some years, they desire to be
permanently attached to the school, they may be removed from the active list,
on a salary rising from £280 to £360 a year, when they are entitled to a higher
rate of pension than they would otherwise receive. The assistants take part in
the instruction under the control and guidance of professors, whom they are in
training to succeed ; they receive £40 a year in addition to the pay of their
grade. The salaries of the professors of agriculture, German, and military
science are fixed from time to time, the maximum rate being £240. The
appointment of deputy-director and inspector of studies do not entitle their
holders to any extra pay ; but these officers, as well as the director, have free
quarters at the school. The staff is completed with an accountant, two adjutants
(corresponding to sergeant-majors), a librarian, a gate-keeper, and other sub-
ordinates.

147

The director of the school is the president, and the professors and assistants
are the members of a council of instruction, which assembles at the school from
time to time to consider any matter which may be brought before it by the
director.

A ceuncil sits at Paris at least once a year for the consideration of such
general questions as may be brought before it, relative both to the instruction
given at the forest schools at Nancy and Barres, and the conditions of admission
to, and the regulations in force at, those institutions. President ; the minister of
agriculture : members ; a senator, a member of the conseil d'etat, the director of
the forest department, the director of agriculture, the agricultural hydraulics, and
inspector-general of forests, the directors of the forest schools at Nancy and
Barres, a conservator of forests, a retired forest officer, the director of the agro-
nomic institute, a member of the national agricultural society, an inspector-
general of mines, a chief engineer of naval construction, the professor of surveying
from the military school, and an officer of the army.

Admission to the school is obtained by public competition. Candidates must
be between the ages of eighteen and twenty -two years ; they must be in sound
health, and hold a certificate showing that they have completed their course of
general studies at the lycee (high school). The subjects in which they are
required to pass the entrance examination are as follows, viz. :

Arithmetic, elementary geometry, algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry,
descriptive geometry, natural philosophy, organic and inorganic chemistry, cos-
mpgraphy, mechanics, the German language, history, physical and political
geography, and plan-drawing. Two passed students from the agronomic institute
and two from the polytechnic school, can if otherwise qualified be admitted every
year without further examination. The number of candidates admitted annually
is, as a general rule, from fifteen to eighteen, and the course of study extends
over two years, so that there are from about thirty to thirty-six regular students
at the school at one time. The young men while at Nancy are housed in the
school building, but take their meals in the town. Their parents deposit £60 a year
for their maintenance including the purchase of books and instruments, but they
do not pay anything for their instruction, or toward the annual expenses of the
school, which may be estimated as follows, viz.:—

Salaries, scholarships, tours and examinations £4,170

Maintenance of the buildings, library, museum, etc 742

Total annual payments by government £4,912

If the number of students passed annually through the school be taken as
sixteen and a-half, the actual expenditure per head, for the entire period of two
years' residence is £298 ; but if interest at four per cent, on the estimated capital
value of the buildings and collections (£22,000) be added, the annual expenditure
becomes £5,702, and the amount spent by the State on each student during the
period of his training is raised to about £350.

Each year of study at the school comprises six and a-half months of theo-
retical and two and a-half months of practical instruction ; one month being
devoted to examinations, and there being two months of vacation. During the
period devoted to theoretical instruction, the following subjects are taught, viz. :
First year, sylviculture in all its branches ; botany, including vegetable anatomy
and physiology, as well as the classification of plants and their geographical
distribution, special attention being paid to forest trees and shrubs ; political
economy with special reference to forests ; forest statistics ; law, including forest
laws and rules ; together with such general knowledge of the common law of the

148

country as is judged necessary ; surveying and the construction of roads ; the
German language ; military science ; riding. Second year, working-plans or
schemes of forest management ; mineralogy and geology, with special reference
to the chemical and physical properties of forest soils ; zoology, especially the
branch relating to the insects which attack trees ; agriculture ; buildings, includ-
ing houses, saw-mills and bridges ; the treatment of torrent beds, including the
construction of masonry and other weirs. The teaching of surveying, law. the
German language, military science and riding is continued. During the last
month of each theoretical course weekly excursions are made into the forest, but
with the exception of this and the riding drill the whole of the instruction is
given in the class rooms.

The practical course which occupies two-and-a-half months of each year, or
five months in all, consists of tours made into the forests in the neighborhood of
Nancy as well as into those of the Vosges and Jura, and occasionally to other
localities for the purpose of studying forestry, natural history and surveying, a
part of the time being devoted to military exercises. An area of 7,500 acres of
forest situated near Nancy and placed under the director of the school is used as
a field of practical instruction as well as for various experiments and researches,
to carry out which an assistant-inspector is attached to the staff. The subjects
dealt with by him are principally meterology, the growing of plants in nurseries,
various methods of pruning, the effects of different systems of thinning, the rate
of growth of various kinds of trees living under different conditions and many
other thing's.

O * . •

The school is well equiped in every way. Besides commodious buildings to
accomodate the director, the deputy-director, the inspector of studies, the students,
the adjutants, and other subordinates, there is a spacious amphitheatre with halls
of study ; a recreation room, and an infirmary are also provided. The museum
contains very complete collections, illustrating the courses of mineralogy, geology,
palaeontology and botany, with woods, fruits, seeds and carefully arranged dried
specimens of the foliage and flowers of trees and other plants, as well as raw
forest products. There are also stuffed mammals, birds, reptiles and fish, and a
collection of insects, with sections of wood showing the damage done by them to
the trees. The school possesses an excellent professional library, comprising
about 3,350 volumes and a number of maps, It has also a chemical laboratory,
in which many interesting researches are made either at the instance of the
professors or of forest officers of the ordinary service who may desire the inves-
tigation of questions which have arisen in the course of their work. There is a
collection of models of saw-mills, of torrent beds treated with weirs, and of sand
dunes, etc., as well as a fencing hall and a botanical garden. It is estimated that
the buildings are worth about £12,000, and that the library and other collections
are worth £10,000 ; total £22,000.

The students having passed out of the school at the end of their course of
instruction are appointed to the forest department as Gardes generaux (sub-
assistant-inspectors), and are employed on special duty for a time before being
instructed with the charge of a sub-division.

Both Frenchmen and foreigners can obtain permission to follow the course
of the school as " free students " without the payment of any fees. Since the
foundation of the school in 1824, 1,334 regular students, candidates for the 1'rench
forest service, have been received ; and complete or partial training has been
afforded to 239 free students of whom 30 were Frenchmen, 73 Englishmen and the
remainder were foreigners of other countries.

The Englishmen are sent by the Secretary of State for India to be trained
for the Indian service, under a special arrangement made with the French

149

Government. Ordinarily the free students merely attend the lectures, and as a
matter of course, are not examined ; but the English students have to pass all
the school examinations.

THE SECONDARY AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS AT BARRES.

The secondary school was established in 1883, in order to train a class of
men who should occupy an intermediate position between the officers of the
superior and those of the subordinate staff. Of the students who entered in that
year, seventeen passed out as head guards, and one of these has been promoted
to the superior staff as a sub-assistant-inspector. But the school was reorganized
in 1884, and it is now maintained in order to facilitate the entrance of subordi-
nates into the superior staff, by completing the education of such of them as may
be deemed otherwise fitted for advancement. Candidates for admission to the
school are selected by the conservators from among those of their head guards
and guards who are thought to possess the needful qualifications, and to be
capable of passing the required educational tests ; ordinarily, they must have
completed four years' service in the forests, and be under thirty-five years of
age, but passed students of the primary school can be admitted after two years'
service in the forests. They are subjected to an entrance examination in the
following subjects, viz., Dictation, elementary geometry, French history, French
geography, timber measurement, the selection and marking of trees to be felled
or reserved, and the duties of forest subordinates generally.

The director of the school is a conservator of forests, who receives the pay
of his grade and free quarters ; he is aided in the administration and teaching by
two assistant- inspectors, each of whom receives an allowance of £40 a year in
addition to his pay. Teachers who are not forest officers can be employed when
their services are required. As is the case at Nancy, the director and the
professors form a council of instruction and discipline. The students all hold the
rank and wear the uniform of a head guard. They are lodged at the school, and
receive an allowance of £2 a month to provide themselves with food and clothing.

The instruction, which extends over two years, is both general and special
or technical; the object being to improve the general education of the students,
and also to give them such a professional training, theoretical and practical, as
may fit them for the position they are to occupy. The course is arranged as
follows, viz. :—

First year, — Sylviculture, the cutting up and export of wood, estimates of
quantity and value of timber, sales of forest produce, arithmetic and geometry ,
the elements of algebra and trigonometry, surveying and map drawing, levelling,
forest law, the elements of forest botany, (including vegetable anatomy and
physiology, and the classification of the principal forest trees), planting and sow-
ing, and geography.

Second year, — Working plans, buildings and roads, the elements of mine-
ralogy, geology, and zoology, the treatment of torrents and dunes, forest law and
administration, the elements of inorganic chemistry, agriculture and agricultural
chemistry, literature and the geography of France. Most of the above subjects
are taught not only in the class room, but also practically in the forest. The
school is established on a property purchased before 1873 for the primary school
from M. Vilmorin, who had raised on it a large number of exotic trees of many
kinds. There is also on the estate, a small forest treated as a coppice under
standards, which, with the State forest of Montargis, situated at a short distance
from the school, is used for the practical instruction of the students. The buildings
comprise the residence of the director, the class-rooms, and students' quarters, as
well as a museum, containing collections to illustrate the various courses of study.

lod

The examinations are conducted before the director of the forest department,
or an inspector-general deputed by him for this duty, and the students who pass will,
under the new organization, be appointed to the superior staff as sub-assistant-
inspectors. Like the officers trained at Nancy, they will be employed for about a,
year in learning their duties under an inspector, after which they will become
eligible for further promotion on their merits, as are the other officers of the depart-
ment. Subordinates from the communal forests are permitted to pass into the
superior grades of the government service through this school. Nine students
entered it during 1884 and 1885, and are still under instruction, eight of them
having previously passed through the primary school. One free student followed
the courses for a short time in 1883.

The primary school is a branch of the establishment at Barres, the instruc-
tion being given by the director and professors of the secondary school. It was
established in 1878 for the training of young men who desired to enter the
service of government as forest guards, or that of private proprietors as guards
or wood managers, there being no restriction as regards their parentage. Up to
the year 1883, 148 students had passed through it into the government service,
and eight of these have since entered the secondary school. But in 1884 the
primary school was reorganized, and it is now reserved solely for the education
of the sons of forest officers and subordinates who may desii-e to enter the
government service as forest guards, with a view in most cases, of their ultimately
gaining the ranks of the superior staff through the secondary school.

Candidates must be between twenty-four and twenty-seven years of age ;
they must have completed their military service and be of good character, with
a sound constitution. They are obliged to pass an entrance examination in
dictation, French composition, arithmetic, elementary geometry, and French history
and geography. While at school they are styled " Student-Guards " ; quarters
are provided for them, and they receive from government a part of their uniform,
and an allowance of £1 16s. a month, to provide themselves with food and
clothes.

The course occupies eleven months, and embraces the following subjects,
viz. : Arithmetic, plane geometry, algebraical signs, surveying and levelling, the
French language, French history and geography, the elements of sylviculture, the
elements of forest botany (including vegetable anatomy, physiology, and the
classification of the principal forest trees), and the elements of forest law, and
adminstration. The instruction is given partly in the class rooms and partly in
the form of practical work done in the forests.

Passed students are, as vacancies occur, admitted to the government service
as forests guards of the second class ; and after two years passed in the forests
in that capacity they are eligible for entrance into the secondary school. During
1884 and 1885, however, only three students entered the primary school, two of
whom are still there and one has received his appointment.

Free students can be admitted with the sanction in each case of the director
of the forest department, but as yet none have entered the school.

THE PRIVATE WOODS AND FORESTS OF FRANCE.

Those woods and forests which are neither State nor communal property-
belong principally to private proprietors, of whom the number is very great, but
also partly to civil, religious, commercial and other societies. Their extent
varies of course from year to year, according as clearances are made for cultiva-
tion or planting work is undertaken. No very exact record of the area is avail-
able, but the latest figures show it to be 23,657 square miles, or about two-thirds

151

of the total wooded surface of France. It is probable that at the present time
the private woodlands are being somewhat added to, rather than reduced, for it
is believed that the areas annually planted up or sown exceed in extent those
which are cleared. The private forests are not entirely free from State control ;
while at the same time they are protected by the legislation almost in the same
manner and to the same extent as are the State and communal forests. For
instance, private owners, in common with the government and the communes,
enj*>y the power to free their forests from wood-rights by making over a portion
of the ground to the right-holders in lieu thereof. Grazing rights can only be
exercised in those parts of them which are declared by the forest department to
be out of danger from the entrance of cattle, and the number of animals can be
limited with reference to the supply of grass, while no right can exist to graze
sheep or goats in them. Owners have also the power to free their forests of all
rights, except those of wood, by the payment of compensation ; and speaking
generally, it maybe said that the}'' have the same protection against injury to
their prope-ty by right-holders as is enjoyed by the State and the communes.
The law also places them in the same position as regards the punishment of
forest offences, including trespass by persons carrying cutting tools, cattle tres-
pass, and the lighting or carrying of fire in or near the forests, with a claim to
damages for injury caused. Proprietors can obtain for their forest guards, if
they have them regularly sworn in, the same powers for the protection of their
property as are exercised by the State and communal guards.

On the other hand, private owners cannot cut down and clear their forests
without notifying their intention to do so at least four months beforehand, and
the forest department can, with certain exceptions, successfully oppose the
clearance if the maintenance of the woods is desirable on any of the following
grounds, viz. :—

1. To protect mountain slopes.

2. To protect the soil from erosion, and to prevent encroachments by rivers,
streams or torrents.

3. To preserve springs and water-courses.

4. Tc protect coasts against the erosion by the sea and the encroachments
of moving sand.

5. For the defence of the national frontier.

6. For sanitary reasons.

The minister of agriculture decides whether the clearance may be made or
not. Between the years of 1828 and 1884 sanction has been accorded to the
clearing of 1,795 square miles of private woodlands, but there is no record
showing what proportion of this area has actually been cleared ; and it is known
that sanction is sometimes obtained merely to give an enchanced value to the
property by the removal of restrictions on it. It is worthy of remark, however,
that while the average area of which the clearance was annually authorized
during the whole period above mentioned, amounted to 20,lfiO acres, the average
during the last ten years was 5,404 acres, and during the last five years it was
only 3,731 acres. These figures seem to show that woods are acquiring an
increased value in France, and that they are cleared for cultivation to a less
extent than formerly.

It has already been said that there is a special law relating to the forests of
the Maures and Esterel, where fires are systematically lighted in order to get
rid of the injurious undergrowth, and that under it private proprietors in
those regions are only permitted to light forest fires at certain seasons, while
they are compelled to cut fire-lines round all woods which are not completely
cleared of inflammable shrubs.

152

The manner in which the laws relating to the consolidation of mountain
slopes and the planting of the dunes affect private owners has also been briefly
explained in a previous chapter.

What has already been said regarding the systems of culture generally
adopted for the State and communal forests respectively, will lead to the correct
conclusion that those belonging to private owners are, as a rule, treated as simple
coppice, or coppice under standards, private high forests being usually composed
of coniferous trees, and situated in mountainous regions. But many of the
forests that have been planted in the plains of the Landes, Salogne and
Champagne are stocked with coniferous species, which are frequently more
suited to the local conditions, under which they yield a better revenue than could
be derived from other kinds of trees. Notwithstanding that the private forests
are, as a rule, more favourably situated than those owned by the state or by
communes, the gross revenue per acre derived from them is considerably less;
because the trees, being cut down at a young age, yield a large proportion of
timber of a small size and firewood. On the other hand, their capital value is less,
and when they are properly managed they should give a higher rate of interest.

But, unfortunately, although there are exceptions to the general rule, and
some of the private forests are maintained in an excellent condition, it cannot
be said that, generally speaking, they are so. For while coppice, and particularly
simple coppice, is exhausting to the soil, from the young age at which the crop
is cut and removed, and, in consequence of the comparative frequency with
which the ground is denuded, tends to its physical deterioration, working plans
are rarely prepared, and there is consequently no guarantee that the cuttings are
confined within proper limits. The fellings are, in fact, too frequently regulated
according to the financial requirements of the owner, rather than by the
considerations which ought to govern such operations ; and hence it -follows
that the condition of the private forests is not always such as could be desired.
This is found to be the case in all countries ; but it is probably especially so in
France, where the laws relating to the division of the land on the death of its
owner, and the custom of the country tend constantly to diminish the number
of large properties, and to leave in the hands of each proprietor an area of
woodland too small to admit of its management on a regular system.

The produce derived from the private forests is, however, large in amount,
and of very great value. Exact figures are not obtainable ; but it is probable
that the 26,657 square miles yield annually over 12,000,000 loads (of 50 cubic
feet) of wood, with about 270,000 tons of tanning bark, 2,250 tons of cork bark,
and 30,000 tons of resin — worth altogether, more than £6,000,000 ; while the
isolated trees and vines yield another three and a half million loads of wood,
valued at £1,000,000. The number of foresters and guards employed in these
forests, is, however, comparatively speaking, very limited ; this being due, in a
great measure, to the small size of the individual properties, which are con-
sequently in a very large number of cases, managed directly by their owners.
There are no private institutions for the training of foresters and woodmen ;
and although the State forest schools are open to receive " free students " very
little advantage is taken of this privilege. The Nancy school has only trained
thirty such students since it was established in 1824, and the secondary and
primary schools have only received one student between them. Neither the
owners, nor their managers or guards, have then, as a rule, had any professional
education, notwithstanding that the means of obtaining it is open to them ; and
it is not to be wondered at if grave mistakes in the management of their forests
are of frequent occurrence. In some places they have the means of getting a
certain amount of advice from the State forest officials, who are occasionally

153

permitted to render assistance in this manner ; but they frequently attempt to
imitate what is being done in the State forests, without knowing the reasons for
what they see; and they are thus led to commit serious mistakes, as, for
example, when, in treating a forest which is to be permanently maintained as
coppice under standards, they follow the procedure adopted in a neighboring
State forest which is undergoing conversion into high forest. In many cases, of
course, the private woods are too distant from the State or communal forests to
permit of their owners obtaining any advice or assistance from the officials of
the forest department, and they are then thrown entirely on their own
resources.

154

THE TIMBER RESOURCES AND TIMBER TRADE OF CANADA.*

From the geographical position of Canada and the United States, and the
natural and artificial routes of transportation that exist along the line, and
across the boundary between them, it is reasonable to expect that the interests
of trade will, in the future as in the past, draw from the timber resources of
both countries for their respective wants, so long as either of them has these
commodities to supply Besides this common interest in the forests, for meeting
the demand for consumption, both countries have, for a long period, been com-
petitors in the foreign lumber and timber trade, and have shared alike in the
vicissitudes that have attended it.

It therefore appears proper to present in connection with the statistics already
given concerning our foreign commerce in forest products, as full information as
can be derived from official and trustworthy sources, as to the nature and extent
of this business in Canada, extending back to the date of the present Dominion
Government, and in some instances to an earlier period. The series of tables
that we present will sufficiently represent the tendencies of the trade during the
years they embrace, and its extent as compared one Province with another, and
in different years.

The great prominence of the timber interest of Canada has in recent years
led to thoughtful inquiries into the extent of these resources, a synopsis of
which will be first presented.

INQUIRIES CONCERNING THE TIMBER INTERESTS OF CANADA.

A Select Standing Committee on Immigration and Colonization, appointed
by the Dominion Parliament, has at recent sessions thought proper to institute
inquiries having reference to the condition of the forests of the country, and
the extent, value, and prospects of the lumber trade. The chairman in the
session of 1878, ^Mr. James Trow,) in introducing the subject remarked:

That the actual condition of the timber supply of the Dominion was a
subject of the utmost importance, and one that deserved the special attention of
the committee. It involved not merely the prosperity of the greatest of the
manufacturing industries of the country, and the main staple of its foreign
commerce, but exercised also a controlling influence in regulating the extent of
future settlements, in as much as the forests tempered the climate by rendering
it more equable — maintained the regular flow in rivers by preventing inunda-
tions, and furnished new settlements with the cheapest building material and
fuel.

Mr. Stewart Thayne, an English journalist of some years' experience, who
had for the last five years been engaged in researches having reference to the
lumber interest, and who had been for two and a half years exclusively engaged
in studying this subject of timber resources in Canada, appeared before the
committee, and gave in substance the following information : —

' The advantages which Great Britain derives from the Canadian supply of
timber are numerous, the principal being :—

1. The best quality of Canadian pine is the most valued of the soft woods,
used in the United Kingdom.

2. The dimensions of the soft woods shipped from Canada are larger than/
can be procured from the timber-producing countries of Europe

*F. B. Hough : Report upon Forestry (U. S.) 1878-79.

155

3. The colonial supply maintains a healthy competition in the trade,
decidedly favorable to the interests of the British consumers.

This trade affords employment for a large amount of British and colonial
tonnage.

The kinds of wood exported are, among the hard woods, oak, elm, ash,
birch, etc., and of soft woods, the white and red pine, and spruce.

" The dimensions now exported are less than formerly. It was quite usual
for the square-timber shipped from the St. Lawrence about thirty years ago to
average from 70 to 75 cubic feet per log, whereas, at the present day, the aver-
age of the season's log crop does not range beyond 55 cubic feet. Then, in
regard to the quality, it was no unusual thing at the period just referred to, for
the pine rafts to yield from 70 to 80 per cent., of first quality of wood. I
think it would be within the mark to state that the pine at present sent to the
Quebec market does not furnish 20 per cent , of first quality. About two years
ago I took the trouble to ascertain the qualities of the stock wintering at
Quebec, and the estimate I then found was lower than the one just quoted ;
indeed, the deals, in my opinion, did not show 15 per cent. Perhaps however,
some allowance should be made for the fact that this stock was that which was
left after the season's shipments.

" The quantity of lumber that passes through the lakes and down the St.
Lawrence is comparatively small, and I am not of opinion that it is all of the
first quality. The British Board of Trade returns estimate the value of the
Canadian wood imported during the year 1877 as something like $26,000,000.
The total imports of hewn timber, during the year, amounted to 103,980,650
cubic feet, of which quantity British North America furnishes 24,286,000 or a
little less than one-fourth. This included every description of wood not sawn
or split. Of sawn wood there was imported during the same period 228,637,4-00
feet, of which the Dominion supplied 62,810,600 cubic feet. So that in rough
numbers it may be said that Canada supplied the United Kingdom with one-
fourth of its timber imports. The total estimated value of these imports,
exclusive of furniture wood, is set down at £19,705,447, and the value of the
Canadian goods at £5,500,000 sterling. It may be gathered from these figures
that a higher value is given to the Canadian produce than to that received from
other countries.

' In respect to the present timber trade of Canada, as compared with that
of thirty or forty years ago, there is a very great difference in the proportion.
For instance, in the year 1831 the total importation of hewn wood into Great
Britain amounted to 28,109,950 cubic feet, and of this quantity 20,943,950 cubic feet
were sent from British North America,

" In 18^2, 1833, 1834 and indeed up to 1840, Canadian shipments held their
position ; the total quantity imported by Great Britain is gradually increasing,
but the exports from this country do not bear the same ratio to the general
trade. Thus in the latter year, the total importation of hewn wood reached
40,858,150 cubic feet of which Canada contributed 32,497,650.

' The square timber trade of Canada held its position in the English market
up to the change in the tariff, during Sir Robert Peel's administration. The imme-
diate result of the reduction of the duty on foreign wood was to increase the importa-
tion of the latter very considerably, during the years 1845, 1846.. 1847 and 1848.
During these years the exports from Canada increased also, but not in the same
ratio as the foreign. In 1850, the figures representing the then volume of trade
are as follows : Total imports of hewn wood, 43,408,950 cubic feet ; from Canada,
30,901,950 cubic feet; sawn wood, total, 39,708,900 cubic feet; from Canada,
21,740,900 cubic feet.

156

" The following table shows the expansion of the trade in recent years, the
quantities being cubic feet :

1872 Total imports

89,131,650

154,167,450

From British North America

22,174,200

39,414,400

(i^ercentage from British North America)

24.7

25.6

1873 Total imports . .

103,569,500

170,786,150

From British North America) . . . .

18,293,750

47,717,800

(Percentage from British North America)

17.6

27.9

1874 Total imports

122,369,700

190,262,350

From British North America

23,818,750

53,809,400

(Percentage from British North America) . .

19.5

28.3

1875 Total imports

84,396,950

164,891,500

From British North America ....

16,843,350

47,661,400

19.9

28.9

1876 Total imports

107,914,750

205,130,900

23,527,450

55,367,350

(Percentage from British North America)

21.8

27.0

1877 Total imports .

103,980,650

228,637,400

From British North America .

24,286,000

62,810,600

23.3

27.4

" A 11 the timber-producing countries of Europe have participated in furnish-
ing these immense supplies of wood ; but the most notable increase apparent,
during the past few years, has taken place in the quantities of pitch-pine
imported from the Southern States. A few years back the demand for this wood
in England was limited, being used only for a few special purposes. Immense
quantities have been shipped to Europe during the last few years, and, having
been sent on speculation, it was sold frequently at very low prices, in some cases
at rates that did not cover the freight and expenses, hence it has been intro-
duced into many districts where it was formerly unknown, and competes with
the lower grades of Canadian pine, but more particularly with the red pine.

" Sweden and Norway supplied the United Kingdom with from 4,000,000 to
6,000,000 cubic feet of hewn wood during the last few years more than Canada.
" But a very large proportion of the goods under this heading consists of pit-
props, and spars, and other small wood of little value. In the matter of sawn
wood, these countries furnish Great Britain with some twenty or twenty-five
million cubic feet more than the Dominion. The best Swedish deals do not compete
with the best quality of Canadian pine, but find a readier sale than the second
and third qualities of the latter.

" This trade must be of great value to the shipping interests of Canada and
Great Britain, but I have no means of ascertaining the exact number and tonnage

167

of the vessels engaged in this trade during the last few years. The quantity of
timber shipped to the British Islands alone must require a carrying capacity of
something like 1,500,000 tons. The timber carrying of Europe is confined almost
exclusively to foreign bottoms, and though these latter figure largely also in the
colonial trade, still British shipping finds in it a source of profit, particularly
since the construction of so many new iron vessels has deprived the wooden ones of
the carriage of much valuable freight over long sea voyages. Another advantage
the shipping interest derives from this trade is the fact that the vessels can be
employed in it for a longer period than in almost any other.

" As a matter of fact, there is no other soft wood imported into Great Britain
that finds more favor, or that can command a higher price than the first quality
of Canadian pine. The consumption is increasing (as shown by the figures above
quoted,) at a rapid rate. In 1831 the import of hewn timber amounted to 28,000,-
000 cubic feet, while in 1877 it exceeded 100,000,000 cubic feet. The increase
in the import of sawn wood is still more extraordinary. The trade has never
ceased to expand. No doubt the annual returns show occasionally very serious
reductions in the quanties imported. The timber trade has experienced seasons
of depression, but they have always followed periods of inflation. Such vicissi-
tudes are inevitable in any branch of commerce where the speculative element
has full play. The averages for any given series of years prove, however, that
the consumption has advanced with remarkable regularity.

" The common pine and spruce from Canada are used in England for general
purposes, but the best quality of pine is now extensively employed in the finishing
work of the higher class of dwelling-houses. This wood, when very clear and
soft, commands a high price among engineers, metal founders, etc. Its advan-
tages are : that it is easy to obtain a remarkably smooth surface, and the wood is
susceptible of being worked to the highest degree of finish, and to the finest
edge, without the risk of chipping or breaking like other woods, rendering it very
useful to moulders, and I understand that the quantity purchased by them for
this purpose is very considerable.

"As to its preference over other woods for finishing purposes I should consider,
judging from its frequent appearance in architects' specifications — that it is a
favorite wood with the profession, but its merits are so transparent that I do not
consider this surprising. No doubt very strong prejudices existed against Cana-
dian wood in England at one time. A constructor of the royal navy stated
before a parliamentary committee that a ship constructed of colonial timber
could not be depended on for more than twelve months on accounts of its
partiality to the dry-rot. Builders came forward on the same occasion to allege
that a house having a covered beam of Canadian pine was dangerous to human
life, because it might cave in at any moment, while there were some who did not
hesitate to maintain that a building containing any portion of this despised wood
would speedily become uninhabitable owing to its tendency to breed bugs. One
gentleman who boasted of his experience, said that the pine in its native woods
harbored myriads of these insects ; that they might be seen swarming the logs at
Quebec ; that they infested the ships that brought this kind of timber to Europe,
and finally thronged the woodyards of Liverpool."

. To an inquiry as to the quantity of first quality of pine now at Quebec, as
compared with that of former years, Mr. Thayne replied : " I saw only a small
proportion of the stock that could be considered first quality, and should imagine ,

15<S

therefore, that it must be much less than in former years. By quality, I mean
not the size but the texture of the wood."*

In answer to the question as to why the importation of timber into England
from Canada had fallen off, it was replied : " T imagine that the reason why the
export of square timber from Canada has not kept pace with the home demand,
is your inability to supply the description of it that is most particularly wanted.
I think also that your profits have diminished because so much of your timber is
of poor quality. I think it is safe to contend that the reason why more of your
best pine is not purchased is that it cannot be had, and I fear that your power of
producing it is not likely to flood the home markets.-f-

" No doubt there is still some excellent timber in Canada. What I have been
attempting to explain is, that however good the produce of certain sections may
be, or however well some portion of the present supply may compare with that
of former years, still the total quantity of such wood brought to market is
•small when compared with that of former years, perhaps not one-fifth of a
season's manufacture."

With respect to the probable duration of timber supply, at the present rate
of consumption, exportation, and waste, Mr. Thayne did not like to give a
definite opinion for the following reasons :—

1. Because he could not find data sufficiently reliable to guide him to a safe
conclusion ;

2. Any calculation that would ignore the quantity of young timber standing
in the woods, but which may become available in the course of twenty or thirty
years, would rest on an unsound basis ; and,

3. Because there are so many sections of timber-producing land in these
Provinces which, though not extensive when considered separately, still form, in the
aggregate, no mean source of supply, and which, though now lost sight of, would
soon be opened up, provided a profitable demand should spring up. Having
made this statement, he added : " I feel bound to say that every test I have
applied to ascertain the quantity of merchantable timber actually standing in
any section of the country has convinced me that the resources available are
much smaller than public opinion supposes them, particularly those woods
adapted to the export trade."

In reply to a member, the witness said : — " No doubt the duration of the
timber suppty of the United States is a point of much interest to this country.
Any interruption of the supplies now drawn by the eastern States from the west
would at once compel the former to resort to your markets. Under such circum-
stances it is easy to foresee that Canadian lumbermen would seek an outlet nearer
home for their produce. It would, moreover, be easy for the New England dealer
to compete with the English buyer, burdened, as the latter will always be, by a
heavy ocean freight."

* To this statement Mr. Cockburn, a member of the committee said : " I must join issue with you on
this point, as the quality we are getting now is very fine. In fact, I believe that the soft pine now is of
better quality than that formerly dealt with. The pine growing in the free grant lands, or in Northern
Ontario, meets with a very ready sale. The quality is found by experience to be very fine. A.t one time it
was supposed to be very inferior, but happily, experience has shown it is of a very superior quality, al-
thought not so large. Though smaller it can take its place beside the larger Michigan pine. " Another
member remarked that formerly the difference in price between first quality and fair average was less than
now, but that at present regard is had, not so much to size as to quality, a small log being sometimes worth
more than a large one.

t It was here remarked, by a member, that large pines came from Michigan, up to 22 inches. Good
pines were obtained from Laurentian range region of Ontario, of a size that only goes to 18 or 19 inches,
strong and clear, which sells as fast or faster than the Michigan, though smaller. Another member re-
marked that the texture of Canadian wood is not so open as the American ; it is closer in grain. But we
should bear in mind that these woods, although competing favorably with Michigan timber of the present
day, do not compare with the larger timber produced in Canada some years ago. We produced as good a
<1 uality of a larger size, fifteen years ago.

159

With respect to principal lumbering districts, the Ottawa valley, so far as the
export trade is concerned, was by far the most productive, the area drained by
the Ottawa and its branches being about 8,000 square miles. Over four-fifths of
the square white pine shipped to the United Kingdom is manufactured in this
valley.

The chairman remarked that altogether the average area of timber lands in
the Dominion is about 280,000 square miles, The river Saguenay and St. Maurice
drain large regions extensively timbered.

Great Britain imports masts and spars from Puget Sound, and some splendid
pine boards from British Columbia find their way to the workshops of furniture
manufactories in London ; but the cost of freight is so great that it will effectually
preclude importation from that quarter on a large scale. There is not sufficient
freight outward to occupy a small fleet, and the journey is too long and costly to
entice vessels merely for a return cargo.

Of the $30,000,000 to $35,000,000 worth of soft woods imported annually by
France during the five years preceeding the late war, only a very small proportion
was obtained from Canada — a few cargoes of spruce and red pine. The French
do not seem to value the white pine. This may arise from the fact that the native
hard woods are used very extensively in household construction. Of birch, a very
fair quantity enters into consumption in England, large shipments being made
from the Maritime Provinces.

It has been computed that the lumber trade of the Ottawa valley alone
affords employment to upwards of 25,000 men.

In regard to the duration of timber supply in the north of Europe, a definite
answer could not be given. Russia is credited with a large forest area, that
might be made available by railroads. Austria likewise possesses some magnificent
forests in the centre of Europe, which can only be reached by similar means.
Whether so bulky an article as timber can bear the expense that such transporta-
tion in Europe would involve, can only be decided by experience. It is true
that the European governments are beginning to show a great deal of interest in
protecting the forests ; but this newly awakened feeling does not owe its existence
entirely to any desire to promote the exportation of forest products, but rather to
the fact that they are alarmed at the injuries sustained by the arable land conse-
quent on stripping the hills and river banks of their wood.

With respect to the waste attending the system of leasing limits, by selecting
the best logs and allowing a large portion of the trees to rot in the woods, it was
deemed to have been greater formerly than at present, the present tenure of these
leases being looked upon as so secure that no apprehension of arbitrary inter-
ference on the part of the government is now entertained. There is, of course,
great waste in the manufacture of square timber, as one-fourth of the best part of
the tree was left in the woods in the form of chips. The present system of
imposing dues does not present an inducement to waste, but there was a time
when a sort of premium was paid for cutting only the largest size of timber
because the dues were the same on the smallest sticks as on the largest. At the time
referred to, the dues were computed by the piece, red pine at thirty feet average,
and white at seventy feet, and the object of the lumberman was, consequently, to
cut sticks as large as he could.

With respect to the replanting of denuded timber lands, the witness replied
to an inquiry touching the feasibility of the measure, as follows : —

' It is difficult to understand how some steps in this direction have not been
take;i. In the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, the local governments derive a
handsome revenue from the timber-lands, and yet they seem to regard their
disappearance with perfect indifference. Every tree that is felled contributes to

160

their exchequers, still millions have been destroyed by fire without exciting the
least effort to prevent such wholesale destruction. These Provinces are spoken of
as the future home of millions of people, and yet there is no foresight displayed
in reserving, for their use, such indispensable necessaries as cheap building
material and fuel. In these two Provinces there exists an immense area that will
never be fit for settlement, but which, if judiciously managed, would place Canada
in the front rank as a timber-producing country, thereby affording constant
employment to a large section of the population, and supporting both commercial
and shipping interests. To attain these results, it is neither necessary to injure
or disturb such vested rights as have been acquired, nor to adopt very extraordi-
nary or costly expedients.

" Either to lease such lands for long terms, on condition of keeping up the
supply, and restricting the cut according to the growth and species of timber on
the limit, or by resuming possession of those lands which have been cleared of
their pine, and placing them under the charge of practical foresters, replace the
pines by varieties that would repay the cost of culture. I am aware that the
mere mention of forest-culture seems something far fetched and impracticable to.
Canadian ears, but that does not alter the fact that, of all descriptions of culti-
vation, it is the most profitable. When, further, in a country like this, it becomes
a question of utilizing a territory not adapted to any other purposes, and which
otherwise must remain barren and unproductive, there should be no hesitation
respecting the course to be pursued.

" It is, no doubt, very unfortunate that a line of policy, which is calculated to
stir up some grumbling and opposition, and of which the advantages can scarcely
be fully appreciated for one or two generations, is not likely to enlist the sym-
pathy of politicians, but this very reason should decide a patriotic statesman to
undertake it with determination."

The opinion was expressed that white pine, valuable as it is, would scarcely
pay to cultivate. By preserving the young trees, it may still last for a number
of years, particularly as there is not much likelihood that the soil which it occupies
will be required for other puposes. It requires something near a hundred and
fifty years to attain maturity. It was remarked that of late years experiments
made in various countries having widely different climates have established the
fact that trees may be successfully grown in regions far removed from their
original habitat, and can already compare favorably with those of mature growth.
There is, therefore, no reason why similar results should not be attained in
this country.

The Eucalyptus, an Australian gum-tree, was mentioned as an illustration of
this fact, it having been found to thrive remarkably well in the south of France,
in Algeria, Hindostan, and California, but it would not survive the winters of
Canada.

As to the appointment of inspectors of forests, to report on the timber, and
enforce the laws for prevention of forest fires, it is said :—

" The appointment of such a staff would supply one of the most urgent needs
of the country — the prevention of forest fires. If it were generally understood
that the lowest estimate of the average annual loss through the forest fires, places
it at $5,000,000 in the Ottawa valley alone, it appears to me that public opinion
would soon interfere to prevent such a fearful waste of the national wealth,
for it should be remembered that in the great majority of cases these fires originate
in causes that could be easily controlled. But that the country should derive the
fullest benefit from the services of such a corps, it is necessary that these inspectors
should be practical foresters, of high education and ample experience in thS best
training schools of Europe. It would be comparatively easy to secure the services

161

of such a class, who, when once established in the country, could train their assist-
ants. Officers of this stamp would, in the course of a few years, be in a position
to furnish the government employing them with such information as would
render the inauguration of a sound forest policy comparatively easy. It may be
objected that this plan would involve considerable expense, but what would the
heaviest outlay under this head amount to after all, but an infinitesimal premium
of insurance against the average annual loss sustained through these fires, leaving
all other considerations out of sight."

To the question as to whether it would be deemed arbitrary on the part of
government to make it imperative upon the settlers to plant a certain number of
trees on their homesteads, it was replied : " I would consider such a provision one
suggested by ordinary prudence. In the treeless districts these plantations would
insure a continual supply of fuel, and afford shelter to the land. And here again
the necessity of practical foresters in a district makes itself apparent. In order
that the settler may derive the fullest benefit of such woodlands, the trees should
be planted in positions where they would be of real service to the arable land.
I would go even further in suggesting that where new town lands were laid out
for settlement, the position to be occupied by the plantation should be selected
in such manner as to afford protection to the more exposed districts. The new-
comer should also be advised as to the description of timber best adapted to the
soil, etc."

Returning to the subject of the difficulty of raising white pine, the question
was raised as to whether it would not be advantageous to replant sections of
the country with spruce — a rapid-growing timber — the witness said : " Most
decidedly. 1 imagine however that it would be only in rare instances where it
would be necessary to incur the expense of planting ; regulations providing for
the proper protection of the young trees would answer the purpose in view. At
the same time the government should offer inducements, either to farmers or
limit-holders, to devote a small portion of their lands to the cultivation of both
native and foreign trees, and ascertain from time to time the rate of growth, etc.
The government should provide either the seeds or saplings upon which the
experiments were to be made."

A member remarked that in the spruce country, by ten or fifteen years, you
would get quite a good crop ; but it would take a long time to grow trees from
the seed. When eight or ten inches in diameter let them stand ten or fifteen
years, and they will yield good cutting timber.

Spruce is used in England in very large quantities. The Maritime Provinces,
the Gulf ports and the lower St. Lawrence ship a very considerable amount.
Norway is the principal source of the European supply of this wood, but it is a
very small size, battens 6^ inches wide and boards as narrow as 5 inches.

A considerable portion of the trade between the north of Europe and Great
Britain is in the shape of manufactured goods — flooring boards, window sashes,
doors, mouldings, frames, etc. There are many obstacles to the successful prosecu-
tion of this trade with respect to Canada. In the first place the manufactured goods
imported from the north of Europe are used principally in the construction of
the inferior class of houses, aud of factories, warehouses, etc. These manufactures
are cheap ; orders for them can be speedily executed, and can be forwarded with
dispatch at a moderate rate of freight to all the principal ports of Great Britain ;
such as are consigned for sale are also sold at very low prices, labor being cheap
in those countries, and the mills close to the seaboard. On the other hand the
builders of first-class houses in which Canadian lumber is probably used, have
their orders carried out under their own supervision, and were it otherwise the
time necessary to forward orders, the delay that might attend their expedition to

11 (F.)

162

any but one or two ports, and above all the short season of open navigation, are
so many obstacles in the path of the Canadian manufacturer.

It might be added to the foregoing that English dwellings of the best class

O O O Cj O

are not constructed with so much uniformity of style as they are on this side of
the Atlantic. An enterprising firm might, no doubt, surmount some of these
difficulties by establishing a depot for the sale of its goods, and forwarding a
plentiful supply of stock during the summer season ; or, better still, appoint as
agents in Europe firms of high standing in the trade, likely to be able to dispose
of large consignments. But to succeed it would be necessary to possess enter-
prise, capital, and an intimate acquaintance with the details of English building
operations.

As to hemlock, it was thought that when pine becomes more scarce and
costly it would come into demand. If its peculiar qualities were as well known
in Europe as in the United States, it would be generally used there also for the
flooring of large warehouses, particularly where grain is stored.

" In respect to fires, forests in Europe are differently situated from those in
this country. They are not in such unbroken stretches as they are here. Except
in parts of Russia and the north of Sweden, there are numerous villages scattered
through them. Most of the inhabitants of those villages are employed in the
forests, either as charcoal-burners or otherwise. Every forest of any extent has
its regular staff" of officers and rangers, whose special duty it is to watch over its
safety. Open spaces and broad belts of cleared land are kept up on purpose to
prevent fire from spreading. The ground is not encumbered with such quan-
tities of debris as is usual in this country. There are no inexperienced settlers,
no reckless workmen, and no careless hunters at hand to court the ravages of this
destructive element. The people employed in the forests are interested in their
preservation, and stringent police regulations control all others. Notwith-
standing all these precautions, fires do occasionally occur ; but of late years they
are becoming rare, 'and on a smaller scale. Probably very few fires occur from
lightning, as it is almost invariably accompanied by heavy rain-storms and if a
fire should occur from lightning the rain would almost invariably put it out. In-
quiries directed to this point had resulted in tracing two great fires in the Ottawa
Valley to lightning, but they occurred some time ago."

The question of the influence of forests upon the climate of the country and
of the effect of clearings being raised, Mr. Thayne replied : " I have endeavored
to obtain information upon this point, but without results that would enable me
to form a definite opinion. Unfortunately such meteorological observations as
have been registered were made at points too far from the influence of forests to
be able to denote any but the most trivial changes during the comparatively
short period that the subject has received attention. These observations, to be of
real use for the purposes referred to, should be made at many points scattered
over a wide area. There can be little doubt that the clearings made by the
settlers, and more particularly by the forest fires, must already begin to exercise
a certain amount of influence on the climate of this portion of the Ottawa Valley.
Still, the total absence of any observations at or above this point renders it
impossible to express any opinion on the subject."

The effect of planting upon the prairies being referred to, its importance was
urged in the strongest terms : " In the various accounts I have read of the prairie
land of the North-west, I find frequent mention of the sudden changes of tem-
perature. Severe frosts occur sometimes after the crops have been sown, and
again before they have been reaped ; or the temperature of the night is often
much lower than that of the day. Then these plains are exposed to violent
tempests through the cold currents of the Arctic regions coming into contact

163

with the heated ones of the plains. To -ameliorate a climate presenting such
contrasts there is only one method — that of planting wherever the nature of soil
will permit it, and forming the settlements under the shelter of these plantations.
Of so great importance is this to our western country that, in my opinion, upon
its solution depends whether that region will realize the sanguine expectations
now entertained of its being able to support an immense population ; or whether,
after many sore disappointments, perhaps, it will deserve the name of the Lone
Land. If some of the most fertile regions of the earth have been reduced to the
condition of sterile wastes through the destruction of their wooded lands, I think
it not unreasonable to infer that a country exposed to a severe climate cannot
continue to be productive when, instead of being vigorously planted its already
scanty stock of timber is further encroached upon by the new settlers."

The inquiry being raised as to whether a reduction in the amount of exports
would not tend to enhance prices, and thus bring increased profits to the business,
the opinion was expressed that any further reduction in the export of the first
quality of pine would make it so scarce that its sale would be restricted to a few
markets of England, and a substitute would be found for it in many quarters
where it is now used. The best means of preventing fluctuations in the market
would be to export no more than experience had proved to be a fair average
demand. So long as lumbermen manufactured in defiance of every law that
should regulate the rate of supply, they must take the chances as to the prices
which their goods will fetch in the foreign markets.

With regard to the demand of timber for ship-building, a tendency had been
observed towards its decline, sailing vessels being superseded by iron steamships,
in the carriage of all the costlier and finer classes of meischandise.

In reference to some remarks on the lumber and ship building trade of
Prince Edward Island, a member stated : " We import some of our large beams
used in ship-building, for keelsons, etc., from Quebec ; they are of pine and
tamarac. We build our vessels of a class just about the same as our juniper
vessels formerly. We can class from seven to nine years. We own vessels in
Prince Edward Island, and can produce them cheaper than in Quebec. We find
that wooden ships are taking the place of iron ships, and derive a great advantage
from the fact."

In a report of a similar committee upon immigration and colonization, made
in 1879, in considering the capabilities and prospects of the north-western regions
of the Dominion of Canada, the following answer was given by Mr. Thayne to
the question as to how the present growth of wood might be maintained, so as to
prevent its exhaustion :

" P>y a system very different to the one pursued in the older Provinces of
the Dominion, where the forest lands have been treated without due regard
either for present purposes or for the future wants of the country. Here, how-
ever,' the opinion was universal that the timber was inexhaustible, and that its
destruction was advantageous to the country. It is only of late years that the
fallacy of this belief has been brought home to the minds of those who have
examined the matter. In the North-west the case is very different ; no compe-
tent authority affects to maintain that the timber supply is equal to the wants
of such a population as the fertile lands might be expected to support. The
obvious policy of the government would, therefore, be to have the timber-pro-
ducing regions surveyed at the earliest date, before any vested interests are
created, and set apart permanent reserves wherever the adjacent lands require
shelter, or where a large population is likely to settle. These reserves should be
under the direct control of the government, who might either lease them, subject
to the condition that the lessee should maintain a regular supply or, better still,

164

according to the system followed in the state forests of Northern Europe, a
certain proportion of full-grown timber should be disposed of by public competi-
tion the trees to be removed by the purchasers, the number being regulated by
the requirements of the locality and the yield of the reserve."

To the question as to what would be the probable effect on the prairies of
the North-west if the settlers were under obligation to plant a certain number of
acres of trees about their farms, it was replied that no provision would be likely
to be of such general advantage, nor one better calculated to promote the welfare
of the inhabitants, but under existing circumstances such a proposal was hardly
practicable. It would be unreasonable to expect that an immigrant should know
what plants would thrive on the soil he occupied. Very few settlers, indeed, are
likely to have any experience in arboriculture, and with the great majority it is
only too probable that the struggle for existence during the first years of their
occupancy would preclude experiments involving any additional outlay of money
or labor. To impose such an obligation on the colonist, it would be incumbent
on the government to provide him with the means of fulfilling it, and this could
be done only by establishing nurseries in the treeless sections, whence the seed-
lings adapted to the locality might be distributed, either gratuitously, or at a
very low price, with the needful instructions for their cultivation. These nur-
series might be owned by the government or their formation encouraged by
grants in aid to county or municipal authorities or associations.

In reference to the maintenance of supplies in the north of Europe, Mr.
Thayne replied that where the supply is limited, as in Germany, the laws are
very stringent in some States, going so far as to prevent lands once under forest
being devoted permanently to any other purpose ; in others, again, private land-
holders have been prohibited from felling timber in the vicinity of streams, or
wherever the forest inspectors consider the arable land adjacent requires shelter
from the wind. Throughout the whole empire the forests are subjected to the
watchful supervision of a specially trained corps of officials, and no efforts are
spared to render them as productive as is compatible with their preservation,
which latter is the first consideration. In Sweden, the large forests owned by
the government (over 5,000,000 acres) are strictly preserved, trees of mature
growth being sold at so much per stump, standing, the felling and removal being
carried out at the purchaser's expense, but under the supervision of forest officials.
Quite recently a law has been passed prohibiting the felling of trees under
certain dimensions, but it only applies to the northern portion of the kingdom.

It was proposed to apply it throughout the southern portion as well, but the
opposition was so strong that the minister who introduced the measure resigned
in consequence of its partial defeat. However, the whole tendency of legislation
in the timber-producing countries of Europe is towards imposing restrictions
upon forest owners, and investing the government with greater control over their
lands, and there is little doubt that any marked decrease in the supply would be
the signal for measures of a far more stringent character.

Being asked as to whether the supply in Norway and Sweden was diminish-
ing, notwithstanding the precautions that had been taken, the witness replied,
that in the former country the decrease had been very considerable, many of the
mill-owners being now compelled to purchase logs of large dimensions from
Sweden. In the latter country there are man}^ districts denuded of all the best
timber, and it may be said that the annual consumption is, throughout, larger
than the annual growth. The falling off in the over- worked districts has hitherto
had no perceptible effect upon the export trade, owing to the extension of the
railway system, which has opened up many sections of forest land previously
untouched. It is alleged by some that the extent of forest that may be made

165

available by railways is very large, while others assert that in these compara-
tively unknown districts the quantity of purely merchantable timber is very
limited. What may be taken for granted is, that while the area under wood
suffers no perceptible decrease, the requirements of the home and foreign markets
are augmenting in a ratio far beyond the productive power of the soil.

To the inquiry as to how the government could promote forest culture in
the North-west this witness replied :

" In my opinion, their first duty is to ascertain the exact nature and extent
of the timber supply in the wooded region, and this can be effected only by an
exhaustive survey. It would then be possible to determine the area that should
be set apart for the support of a permanent forest growth, due consideration
being given to the nature of the climate, the condition of the river and other
water sources, and the wants, present and prospective, of the population which
the arable soil within access is likely to maintain. It would then be in order to
reserve certain tracts for the growth of timber in the most fertile sections of the
prairie lands. County or municipal authorities should be directed to establish
reserves for the protection of river sources or to act as wind-breaks. Railway
companies should be compelled to plant the waste lands bordering their tracts,
and road-boards or trustees should be under a similar obligation wherever violent
winds or snow-drifts were likely to impede traffic or endanger life. Finally,
settlers should be encouraged to plant trees for shade and shelter. It would be
erroneous to suppose that this system of forest preservation and extension would
entail a burden on the exchequer ; the forest lands in the actual possession of the
government may, by judicious management, be made to yield a large revenue
beyond their expenses, and a portion of this income spent in planting the new
reserves would, in course of time, become in such a country the most profitable
of investments."

The possibility of raising a second crop of timber in places where it has been
consumed by fire being a subject of inquiry, no definite opinion could be
expressed. The only experience in Canada was that of nature left to her own
resources. What might be done by systematic culture is doubtful, as no experi-
ments had been made ; nor, indeed, could it be said that the consequences arising
from forest fires had been examined and reported upon by persons of sufficient
authority to have any weight attached to their opinions. This much was certain,
that wherever a fire ravaged a pine district, the new growth was of a totally
different species, and in hard woods the result was similar. When fire runs
along the soil it effectually destroys all vegetative power wherever the rock is.
thinly covered, but when it is confined to the branches and trunks, no reason
could be seen why the same species might not be regrown. It was feared that
the pine would never pay to cultivate in Canada. At a small outlay the Crown
Lands Department might easily ascertain what species of timber could succeed
in pine-growing lands, and settle this and many other points of no small moment
not only to forest science, but to the whole community.

For the renewal of supplies in Norway and Sweden up to a very recent
date, the natural growth has been depended upon to replace the timber felled for
commercial purposes and that destroyed by fire. Of late years, however, the
growing scarcity of wood has induced many Norwegian mill-owners to purchase
cleared or partially-exhausted woodlands, and attempt planting on a large scale,
and this movement is extending. Something similar has been undertaken in
Sweden by the same class as also by the iron manufacturers, who are at the
same time owners of extensive forests. The impression seems to be gaining
ground in both countries that the present rate of consumption cannot be main-
tained, unless steps are taken to assist the efforts of nature. Were the govern-

1G6

ments of those countries to introduce measures for the promotion of timber
culture, they would not be under the disagreeable necessity of imposing restric-
tions that operate frequently to the disadvantage of trade. There is no fact
better proved than the one that capital invested in the cultivation of timber
yields immense returns.

It is claimed that the area under forests in Sweden amounts to 150,000
square miles, and in Norway to 50,000 square miles. Competent judges are of
opinion that, in the former country less than one-half, or about 40,000,000 acres, rep-
resent the total quantity of land bearing merchantable timber ; an area not larger
than that which the Province of Quebec might set apart for the production of
timber without encroaching on lands adapted to agricultural purposes. In the
older Provinces of the Dominion there is an extent of forest territory far greater
than there is in the north of Europe, if we except Russia.

OTHER STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FOREST RESOURCES OF CANADA.

The annual reports of the Montreal Board of Trade and Corn Association >
in giving statements of the dealings in forest products from year to year, have
repeatedly called attention to the great and needless waste that was continually
going on, and have suggested the propriety of compulsory regulations to enforce
economy in lumbering operations. The custom of levying dues upon logs by
number, without reference to quality, naturally leads the lumbermen to select
only the best leaving the poorer grades to rot in the woods. But if these dues
were imposed on the basis of quality an expensive system of inspection in the
woods would be involved, and it has been suggested that the most satisfactory
means of collecting the revenue would be by an ad valorem rate on the timber
sawed and exported, as could be best done by the inland revenue department.

It has been 'further suggested that rigorous measures should be devised and
enforced with the view of preventing the vast damages annually done by forest
fires, and that inducement should be offered for information that should lead to
the punishment of those originating them, whether wilfully or by accident.
" Such a fire may have been set by a stray hunter or fisherman bent on sport, or
by the clearing of some pioneer far in advance of the frontier settlement, or, as
is often the case, by some of the lumbermen's employees, who, troubled by the
flies on the banks of a stream, may have kindled a fire to secure protection from
their tormentors which the smoke affords." The remedy against these acts of
carelessness or malice must be found in adequate penalties rigidly enforced, and
of such degree as to render it certain that due care shall be taken in the handling
of tires in the woods.

With respect to the rate of reproduction of woodlands and the measures
that deserve attention in securing that end, the reports in former years offer the
following statements and opinions :

" To obtain an idea of the regular increase in the value of growing timber it
may be supposed that it grows one-quarter of an inch in diameter yearly, which
is not over the mark ; and as the trees cut will average about twenty inches in
diameter, the increase in size will, therefore, be about seven and a-half feet per
log, board measure, or over three and a-half per cent. If to this, three and a-half
per cent, be added to the sum lost by over-production, an idea of the foolishness
of such a policy may be had. It is quite certain that as timber gets cut away
and becomes scarce, prices will rise ; and that the lumberers of the present genera-
tion are actually killing the hen that would, if properly treated, continue to lay
golden eggs.

167

" Government would deserve the praise of the future inhabitants of the
country if they would originate a scheme for planting with young timber trees
the immense wastes of the Province of Quebec. Such an investment would certainly
not pay a dividend to this generation, but it would utilize what will only be a
wilderness when the present trees are all cut, and would be a mine of wealth to
those who possess it when the timber becomes large enough to be merchantable.
By maintaining a judiciously -matured system of planting, the supply might be
prolonged indefinitely ; as it is, the forests are denuded of all their valuable
timber and comparatively nothing grows up to supply its place. A very large
proportion of the country north of the Ottawa is not fit for farming, and never
can be properly made fit for grain-growing or pasturage, but it is admirably
suited for the growth of timber ; and even a limited experiment would soon
convince all as to the good results likely to accrue. The cost would be small,
there being many large tracts so cleared by repeated fires that there is nothing
left to burn. The expense would only be the cost of the plants and their planting,
and that would not be much ; for the seed could be sown in a cleared spot, where
the plants would be set out. The whole arrangement would, of course, require to
be planned by a practical man and properly carried out ; and, such being the
case, there need be no fear of the result. What is above suggested can be done,
and may yet be accomplished ; and he who does it will be a greater benefactor to
Canada than any of the statesmen of the present day."

An English traveller, after noticing the apparently abundant supply of wood-
lands observed in passing through the settled parts of Canada — and the same
remark would eqally apply to considerable portions of the once heavily-timbered
regions of the United States — thus remarks, concerning the actual resources
of these forests in meeting the demands of commerce : —

" It must often happen to the traveller who travels only the more frequented
routes, when he sees great rafts made out of huge blocks of timber floating down
the Canadian rivers, to wonder what part of the country produces trees so much
larger than any to be seen along its way. Near the thoroughfares of Canadian
travel hardly any trees of great bulk remain. . . . The fact is that, for the
very large timber, the lumbermen have now to go deep into the country, and far
out of the common way. Along the travelled routes you see woods out of which
all the finest trees have been long ago cut ; and even where you do see trees of
large girth in Canada, they have seldom had such room to spread and such free
air around them as would have enabled them to develop into objects magnificent
in themselves. On the Ottawa, for instance, you may often observe how some
one tree in the thick forest having somehow been endowed with a little more
hardy vitality than its young and half -smothered fellows, has forced its way
right through their competing branches, got its head well into the clear, open
daylight, and so vigorously prospered as to have grown to immense sturdiness of
trunk ; but even it is pretty sure to bear marks of the hard struggle undergone,
and to have had its branches and off-shoots, on some side or other at least, checked
and hindered in their development, if not crushed and blackened into utter dead-
ness. Whatever charm Canadian woods may have, Canada is not the place to see
the beauty of fine single trees. To go in amongst Canadian woods are poor in
comparison with the new forest ; but when the eye ranges over a great tract of
them, often they are indeed most beautiful ; as, for example, where they rise and
fall over hillsides or undulating ground, or are interspersed with gray boulders
and sharp points of jutting rock, and are set off by contrast with waters brightly
glimmering at their foot. Such are the woods along much of the Ottawa's course,
picturesque and lovely at any time, magnificent when kindled with the colouring
<of an American autumn. Scenery like this will not easily pall upon the eye, but

168

to travel miles after miles with your view narrowly closed upon either side by
flat, unrelieved, unbroken woods, of ungainly and half-developed trees, is a thing
far more wearying to the sight than even a journey over the bare wilderness of
the prairie. Then, whenever the continuousness of thick woods is broken, it is
apt to give place to something not more cheerful. Here you come into the
clearing made by some recent fire, where the crowd of living and struggling trees
has been burned into a few bare, blackened poles, standing in their gaunt unsight-
liness, the ghosts of their former selves, with other blackened logs and branches
lying strewn over the scorched ground. Again, you plunge into the forest, and
see it as it makes itself without the ordering hand of man — now dense, and now
thin — trees of different kinds, not generally blended together in intermixture,
but standing apart as nature has sorted them ; and as, in the great struggle for
existence, every kind ousted from elsewhere has been forced into the station best
fitted for its support ; trees of all ages fighting together for bare life ; some
vigorous and freshly green, and feathered down to the very ground ; some weakly
and faded, and only flinging out here and there ragged and ill-balanced branches;
some that are mere dead corpses and have fallen aslant out of their places, bruising
and breaking the living ; some that, with their lower branches all torn and maimed,
have yet stretched up out of the throng, and seem as if straining all the life
within them to peer over the heads of their fellows, and catch glimpses of how
the fire, their deadliest enemy, is spreading havoc nearer and nearer. Again, you
are once more in open grounds, lately cleared by some settler, who has ploughed
and sown among the tree stumps, those broken columns of the forest ruin ; fenced
in his clearing with the rude zig-zag wall of logs, the universal snake-fence of
the country ; built up his log hut in the midst, and set himself to that task which
takes half the lifetime of a man to carry out, the turning of forest land into a
farm. After many hours of such a journey, and after many days of similar
journeyings, the English traveller will not find himself thinking less fondly o£
the more smiling landscape at home."'

THE WASTE IN WORKING SQUARE TIMBER.— ECONOMIES IN THE TIMBER

TRADE.

Concerning the great waste from the preparation of hewn timber, as hereto-
fore practiced, the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the Province of Ontario, in
his report for the year 1879, says : —

" The great loss sustained yearly by the Province and the revenue from
waste of valuable material in the manufacture of square and waney pine,
especially in connection with the former, which is hewn to a " proud edge," has
for some time occupied my serious attention. It is estimated on good grounds,
that one-fourth of every tree cut down to be made into square or waney timber
is lost to the wealth of the country, and that the revenue suffers proportionally.
When the tree is cut down, it is lined off for squaring, and the " round " outside
of the lines is what is called beaten off on the four sides ; the wood thus beaten
or slashed off in preparation for hewing by the broadaxe is the prime part of the
tree, from which the best class of clear lumber is obtained when the timber is
taken in the round to a saw-mill. Besides the destruction of timber of the finest
texture and greatest value, there is the upper portion of the tree, near to and
partly into the top, which would yield lumber of an inferior quality, it is true,

* Sketches from America, by John White, Fellow of Queen's College (1870), p: 166.

169

but suitable either for domestic use or for export to the American market, where,
during general business prosperity, large quantities of the lower grades of lumber
are required for packing and other purposes connected with trade of all kinds, as
much as 100,000,000 feet, it is stated, being sold annually by two or three firms
in Brooklyn and New York, to be used as boxes for packages of petroleum alone;
but the upper part of the tree is rejected by the square-timber manufacturer and
left in the woods, with the fine wood beaten off, to rot and become material for
feeding forest fires, by which more timber has been destroyed than has ever been
cut down for commercial purposes.

" The following will show the estimated loss to the Province and the revenue
from waste in getting out square pine from 1868 to 1877, both inclusive : — Total
quantity taken from public and private lands during the ten years, 119,250,420
cubic feet ; waste, one-fourth of each tree, equal to one-third of the total men-
tioned, viz., 39,750,140 cubic feet, or say, in round numbers, 477,000,000 feet,
board measure, which may be valued, one-half at $10 per 1.000 feet, and one-half
at $5 per 1,000 feet, representing relatively the prime timber beaten off and the
inferior timber from the upper part of the tree, average value say $7.50 per 1,000
feet, equal to $3,577,500 loss to the Province for the ten years, or an annual loss
in material wealth of $357,750.

" The quantity taken from public lands during the ten years is 87,620,135
cubic feet, the waste on which, on the basis given, being equal to 29,206,711
cubic feet, or 350,000,000 feet, board measure, subject to Crown dues at $750 per
1,000,000 feet, equal to $262,500 lost to the revenue during the ten years, or afc
the rate of $26,250 per annum.*

" The loss to the country and revenue from timber destroyed by fires, which
might have been confined to a limited area, and possibly extinguished, before great
damage had been done to the forest, had they not been fed by the debris of trees
left to rot and dry, is incalculable.

" In 1877, 1 instructed the officer in charge of the woods and forests branch of
the department to prepare a paper on the waste of timber referred to, for the
purpose of submitting it to the department of Crown lands of Quebec, with the
view of joint action by the two Provinces towards the discouragement of the
further continuance of the square timber trade.

" On addressing himself to the task, he found that the lack of knowledge of
the mode of dealing with the square timber, after its arrival in the old country in
the square " log," was a great drawback to writing intelligently on the subject,
as it was essential to know how the timber was disposed of at the great centres
of import, such as Liverpool, London, Glasgow, etc.; who the parties were who
ultimately acquired the handling of it ; where it was cut into specification bills
to meet the wants of those who put the product of the " logs," after they had been
reduced to the required dimensions, to practical use, etc , so that the department
might be in possession of facts, more or less important, when it undertook to
show those who are engaged in the trade in Canada, that in abandoning it, and
thereby stopping the supply of square timber, they would create a market for
their material on the other side of the Atlantic in the shape of sawn lumber.

*If every part of the outside wood wasted in squaring timber could be used, the loss might be estimated
at a much higher rate than is above estimated. If the area of a given circle be 1, the area of an enclosed
square is 0.636 nearly. The loss is therefore about 0.364 in the outer wood alone, to say nothing of the tops
left on the ground. But as there must inevitably be some loss in working, there could scarcely be realized
more than 25 per cent. This, in the aggregate of large quantities, is a loss so immense that it should
attract the attention of the manufacturers and lead to a thoughtful study into the means for its avoidance.
In the careless way that lumber is manufactured, and with the wide-set saws too much in use, it could be
easily shown that more than half the material of our forests is wasted, a considerable part of which might,
with proper care, be saved.

170

" I have since procurred some information on the points referred to, from
which I learn that the timber is imported directly by wealthy saw-mill proprietors
either by the venture of individuals singly, in so many cargoes in each year,
or the importation of a number of cargoes annually by several mill-men combined;
or it is consigned by Canadian shippers to brokers or agents to be sold on commis-
sion ; in the latter case, the timber is generally disposed of at auction, at which
the saw-mill owners purchase it, and any surplus over what they require for their
own establishments they sell in small quantities, sometimes a few pieces at a time,
to builders and country dealers of limited means who have it sawn at small mills,
and often by hand, at the villages in the interior for local wants. These saw-mill
proprietors, having virtually a monopoly of the lumber and bill stuff produced
from the timber imported or purchased by them at auction sales, are naturally
opposed to the introduction of wood goods into the market they supply in any
other shape than in the square log, as at present ; but it is time that the Canadian
lumberer engaged in the square-pine business should open his eyes to the alarming
waste of a material, the value of which is increasing every year ; that, in fact, he
is stripping his limits and disposing of his timber frequently at a loss, or at best,
during several years past, at a rate which seldom pays more than the cost of
cutting down, squaring, drawing and taking to market, while at the same time he
leaves in the woods as useless one-fourth of each tree he levels to the ground,
one-half of the timber so left being the most valuable part of the tree ; and see
the necessity of his turning his attention to saw-milling operations as a more
economical mode of manufacturing; his timber, by which he would not only benefit
himself by turning to profitable account what is now so wantonly wasted, but the
Province generally by increasing the field of labor for its people, while the
Provincial treasury would derive additional revenue from the material saved and

•>

utilized.

" It may not be out of place to mention here that saw-milling is, to a certain
extent, a factor in the settlement of the country, from the fact that many of the
employees, from their steady habits and value as workmen, are kept in permanent
employment summer and winter in connection with the establishments, and are
induced in consequence to take up lands in the vicinity, which are improved by
the families of those having grown-up children, and by hired help in the case of
unmarried men, till ultimately considerable sections in the neighborhood of the
mills would become settled and cleared, with comfortable homes on the locations;
while, on the contrary, the men employed in getting out square timber are gener-
ally without fixed homes or continuous employment. Their engagements terminate
in the spring ; in the interim, until they re-engage for the following winter, they
too frequently remain idle, and spend their earnings in a reckless manner, and are
penniless and often in debt when they return to the woods."

After noticing various available forest commodities for exportation from
Canada, such as pit-props, mining timbers, telegraph poles, railway ties, etc., the
forms and dimensions best suited to the English market, and suggestions as to
their preparation, the commissioner refers to the topic he had previously been
discussing with reference to the encouragement of sawn goods for exportation
instead of the wasteful practise of getting out hewn timber. His suggestions
have no local application, and are well suited to any region or conntry that has
commodities to export.

" The characteristic of modern commerce is to seek out markets wherever they
can be found, in which commodities to be disposed of can be sold to the best
advantage whether natural products in a raw state where the means of profitable
manufacture do not exist where they are produced, or in a manufactured state
when such means are available, and in proportion to the energy and enterprise

171

used in pressing forward and occupying every vantage ground in trade, is the
measure of success which attends individuals and communities. It is not usual
in these days to wait until a customer comes knocking at your door to find out
what you have for sale ; to succeed, it is necessary that such should be made
known far and wide ; and to create a business of any magnitude the first object
is to find out what is required not only at home but abroad, and having the
article, to calculate whether or not the field can can be entered at a fair profit in
furnishing what is wanted.

" In the Canadian timber trade there seems to have been no lack of energy ;
but in my humble opinion it does not appear to have been accompanied by that
kind of prudent enterprise which might be expected from the intelligent men
who are engaged in it. The square-pine manufacturers have been contented from
year to year to go on bargaining with a Quebec merchant to get out so many
cubic feet of a certain average for a price agreed upon ; the merchant writes
home to his agent or partner to effect sales, or goes himself or some one for him
for that purpose, or frequently ships on his own account the timber which the
lumberer has contracted for and delivered to him. Not unfrequently the
lumberer possessed of means gets out his timber without advances in money or
supplies having been made to him and takes it to Quebec to sell it at the best
price he can obtain from the dealers there. Sometimes this has succeeded better
than contracting ; but where the venture fails through a downward tendency in
the market or a rise in freights, it becomes a serious matter to hold it over, as cove
charges and other incidentals rapidly effect a shrinkage in the value of the article.

" But so it has gone on since the early days of getting out square pine ;
the same well-trodden rut has been travelled ; the same traffic in the timber in the
crude shape of the square " log " has been continued, the actual producer and quasi
proprietor of the pine upon the timber limits reflecting on the waste of material,
or the propriety and prudence of economizing it and turning it to more profitable
account.

" Saw-mill owners, although they have had trying times during the past few
years, are not generally so unfortunate as the operators in square pine, the
trade in which is peculiarly fluctuating and uncertain. The former have always
had more or less of the domestic trade : and, unless under extraordinary circum-
stances, such as the late prolonged depression, can depend on the United States
for a market, with prices generally affording a reasonable profit, notwithstanding
the American duty of two dollars per one thousand feet ; and with these markets,
domestic and across the line, they have seemed to be satisfied without seeking a
European opening for their lumber.

" I feel a delicacy in giving advice in this matter to parties who may very
naturally say that they know their own business best ; but, nevertheless, I will
venture to observe that those in Canada engaged or interested in the trade in
timber which is next in value to agricultural products in the exports of the
Dominion, viz., in 1878, $20,054,829, and $27,281,089, respectively, should acquire
. a knowledge of and endeavor to cultivate a transatlantic trade, and would
suggest that a spirited effort should be made to extend the sawn-lumber business
to countries which have hitherto imported the timber in a crude state and
manufactured it to suit their purposes. Already have the European and other
markets been successfully invaded by the produce of industries of various kinds,
from the American continent, and there seems to be no reason why our great
staple export should not meet with equal success.

:' It may seem out of place in this report to indicate in anything like detail
the steps which might be adopted to carry out what has been hinted at, but a

172

preliminary step would seem to be for a few saw-mill proprietors to join together
and send to the old country two or three practical men, having a thorough
knowledge of lumbering, the different qualities of lumber produced in Canada,
and the minutias of the working of saw-mills, who might be accompanied by one
or two joiners or house carpenters to make technical observations as to the
various uses and forms in which the lumber is applied. Let these parties visit
the larger saw-mills in England, Ireland, and Scotland, and on the continent, if
deemed expedient, with sufficient time allowed to inspect and report on the
whole subject to their employers, having specially in view the required dimensions
of boards and bill stuff in all forms, which would suit the several markets ; and
also make inquiry as to freights, insurance, port charges, etc., and upon such
report, and after due consideration, the parties interested would be in a position
to come to a conclusion whether or not a fair paying business could be pushed;
in the direction indicated. The attempt seems to be worth making ; and if
prepared assortments of Canadian lumber were exhibited in the principal markets
of the old country, even although they may not take at first, which perhaps would
be too much to expect, there is at least a prospect ot success through the exercise
of sound judgment, patience, and perseverance."

EXPORTATION OF FOREST PRODUCTION OF CANADA.

From the earliest period of colonial trade the export of timber has been an
important item of production for the British market, and much of the timber
exported from the northern frontier of the United States has been shipped from
Quebec, being generally rafted down the rapids of the St. Lawrence and placed'
upon vessels at Quebec. In later years the timber of the country bordering
upon the upper lakes was brought in vessels to Clayton, N.Y. or to the foot of
Wolfe Island, or to Garden Island, near Kingston, at which places for a long
period, the principal business of making up rafts for the navigation of the
rapids has been done. More recently the business of Clayton has much declined,
while that of Wolfe Island and of Garden Island has increased.

This exportation of timber has been largely affected by the tariffs, which
from political and financial reasons, the British Government thought it proper to
impose.

From the report of a select committee of the House of Lords, appointed in,
1820 to inquire into the means of extending and securing the foreign trade of
the country we learn that the encouragement afforded to the importation of
wood from the British Colonies in North America by the imposition of heavy
duties on wood from foreign States was of comparatively recent date, and that it
had not formed a part of the commercial or colonial policy of the country before the
then recent European wars. Till 1809 little or no duty had been imposed upon
the various species of timber, but in that and the succeeding year, however, the
nature of the political relations with the Baltic powers led to an apprehension
that great difficulty might be found in deriving the usual supplies of timber
from that quarter, not only for domestic use, but more particularly for the pur-
poses of ship-building. The Canadian timber trade had not then been large in
the aggregate, although relatively important to the country. There being some
risk and uncertainty in a further expansion of the business, it was deemed
expedient to give Canadian timber the benefit of an exemption from all duties

173

•on such as was fit for naval use, and a duty little more than nominal on other
descriptions, while, at the same time, a considerable increase was made in the
duty on wood from the north of Europe.

High permanent duties and a temporary war-duty were accordingly imposed
upon all descriptions of wood imported from foreign countries.*

The Canadian merchants were never led to believe by the Government that
these duties were to be permanent, but an expectation was held out that the
duty of £2 Is. first imposed would be continued for some considerable time. No
such expectation was fairly raised with respect to the war duty and the duty
imposed in 1813, and the exemptions from duty on Canadian timber had always
been temporary, and were limited to July 1820f

The protection thus begun was continued many years, and the two great
monopolies of corn and timber — -the first maintained for the assumed benefit of
the possessors of land ; the second conceded to the cla nour of a certain class of
ship-owners — became through after years the object of attack by an energetic
• class of reformers, representing the more numerous but less organized class of
•consumers, until their efforts were finally crowned with success. After succes-
sive reductions from time to time the rates on timbar from every country were
reduced about 1859, to the uniform rate of 2s. per ton, and not long afterwards
they were taken off altogether.

The following tables are derived from the reports upon Trade and Navigation
reported annually by the Minister of Customs since the beginning of the
X)jminion Government, July 1, 1867, and previously by the Eeceiver-General of
Canala. The column of years will bs understood to ba calendar years until the
•change ma.de in 1864, when the fiscal year, beginning July 1, was subscituted.

*49 Geo. Ill, c. 93. These were doubled by the 50 Geo. IIL c. 77, and afterwards part-
ally increas3d by the 5L Geo. III. c. 93 and by ths 52 Geo, IIL c. 117 and a duty 25 per cent.
upon the whole of the permanent duties were added by the 53 Geo. c. 33. The several duties
above referred to were afterwards arranged and consolidated by the 59 Geo. IIL c. 52.

The duty upon a load (50 cubic feet) of Biltic timber, which at the beginning of the wars
in the early part of this century had been 6s. 8d. was raised by inconsiderable steps to 26s. 2d.
in 1808, doubled in 1811, ani in 1813 further advanced to 65s. Colonial timber, which had been
admitted free of duty up to 1798, was then subjected to a duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem.
From 1803 to 1803 the ad valorem rate was changed to a specific duty of abj.it 2s. a loid, and in
the latter year this was removed. In 1821, in consequence of the report of the committee of
the House of Lords, above cited, the system was changed by reducing the rate on European
timber, while that from the colonies was made 10s. In 1840, Is. 6d. per load was added to them
respectively. In October, 1843, the duties were reduced to 25s. per load on foreign timber,
.and 2s. per load on that from British colonies. — G. R. Porter's Progress of the Nation, 1847,
p. 380.

t Parliamentary Papers, 1820, vol. 3. (269), p. 4.

174

COMPARISON OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTED

FROM THE PROVINCE OF CANADA DURING THE TWELVE YEARS PRECEDING THE

FORMATION OF THE DOMINION GO\TERNMENT.

(Quantities and Values.}

Years.

Ash.

Birch.

Elm.

Maple.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

1856

2,589

$14,403

4,556

$40,200

36,453

$508,433

18

$169

1857

3,485

25,360

5,026

46,985

37,984

432,822

169

1,593

1858

2,378

16,999

4,005

30,339

19,451

163,389

37

285

1859

4,313

24,067

7,937

56,294

26,278

200,840

84

728

1860

2,478

14,976

12,508

100,759

25,629

207,297

249

1,996

1861

2,422

12,708

8,397

60,585

32,610

265,562

127

1,014

1862

2,496

12,770

4,159

32,424

27,689

202,573

139

882

1863

8,341

42,255

11,256

89,111

53,392

421,180

440

2,620

1864*

1,319

6,667

3,315

26,413

14,331

114,414

53

366

1865t

3,670

22,689

10,488

82,638

49,048

387,655

110

1,350

1866f

2,860

20,986

8,793

72,505

29,483

255,670

152

1,268

1867t

3,631

26,074

9,394

81,355

28,476

252,647

76

643

Half year ending June 30.

t Year ending June 30. Since 1864.

Years.

Oak.

White pine.

Red pine.

Tamarack,

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

Tons.

Value.

1856

33,814

$377,190

361,046

$2,062,003

61,943

$471,691

2,117

$13,381

1857

48,539

576,630

500,781

2,821,320

61,323

526,458

4,571

28,471

1858

26,904

377,561

344,981

1,811,340 53,143

374,079

995

5,411

1859

34,300

359,731

395,694

2,249,006 43,643

363,567

2,185

11,382

1860

41,553

404,861

490,233

2,582,605 62,573

507,610

2,589

17,023-

1861

55,979

' 526,997

523,112

2,594,388 71,381

508,609

1,802

11,116:

1862

47,436

527,317

430,257

2,110,046 66.563

452,113

14,861

33,301

1863

73,327

754,328

650,483

3,304,903 103,329

745,642

19,591

124,955

1864*

28,387

205,546

194,822

918,323 32,653

230,831

5,326

34,994

1865t

118,313

1,089,417

606,300

2,963,534 108,877

761,037

10,681

65,332

1866t

64,026

710,861

450,950

2,324,063 85,638

593,134

11,266

71,938

1867+

62,895

; 696, 461

413,036

2,118,754

78,792

499,858

5,411

36,015

Half-year ending June 30.

f Year ending June 30. Since 1864.

175

EXPORTS TO GREAT BRITAIN.*

The timber trade of British North America is principally concentrated within
the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and throughout the £>t>-
Lawrence and Ottawa River basins, and north-western Ontario.

Up to about the year 1842 — and partially afterwards — a very much lower
duty was levied in Great Britain on wood which was the produce of Canada than
on similar imports from European nations. This led to the fostering of a very
large trade, especially in hewn timber, from Quebec and the lower ports on the
St. Lawrence — a region which forty or fifty years ago was looked upon as Great
Britain's principal source of supply. Large quantities of white pine and spruce
as well as a small supply of red pine are still exported ; the first being partly
hewn and partly sawn, while the second is mostly in a sawn condition. A
considerable quantity of oak, elm, ash and birch is likewise exported.

The following return of shipments will best show the movements of the
Quebec export trade for the nine years ending with 1882.

"-•-* -

In 1874, 854 timber carrying vessels of 636,672 tons cleared out.

1875, 642

1876, 786

1877, 796

1878, 476

1879, 433

1880, 634

1881, 459

1882, 426

478,441
624,110
670,620
399,833
364,628
555,451
380,186
359,925

Small parcels of sawn wood are shipped by steamer from Quebec, and these-
are not included in the above table ; but such supplies although considerably
larger than they were some years ago, are not sufficient to alter the fact that this
export trade of Quebec is declining.

The following is a detailed statement in loads of the principal items of which
that export was composed for the five years mentioned, namely : —

HEWN WOOD *

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883

Square and waney pine

106,009

231,051

182,038

158,243

208,540

Red pine

16,276

28,664

18,440

20,494

20,979

Oak

33,620

46,337

37 667

39 147

42 658

Elm

10 880

20,836

15 943

15 567

14 798'

Birch

3,929

11,177

5,878

42,274

4,661

SAWN WOOD :
Pine deals. .

122,602

266,900

177,659

144 315

183 016

Spruce deals

130,740

147,673

141,962

127,752

125,108

There are no means of ascertaining the exact amount of the Quebec ship-
ments to the United Kingdom, but it is probably about five-sixths of the whole
quantity despatched over sea. The total export of Quebec wood to Europe

*Robert Carrick, Oefle, Sweden, in Forestry and Forest Products (Edinburgh), 1884.

176

in 1883 had an approximate value of $7,802,550. A small but increasing business
is likewise no\v bein£ done with South America.

ci

The city of Ottawa is the headquarters of the timber-manufacturing interest
of Canada. The wood goods sawn here are principally pine boards for the United
States mai'ket, and it is no exaggeration to say that the Ottawa valley production
of sawn timber is at present the largest in the world. This reached a total of
about 1,320,000 loads in 1882. Such a production far exceeds that of any district
in Europe.

New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, however, must for the present be regarded
as the seats par excellence of Great Britain's supply of American spruce. The
chief ports that are engaged in shipping this class of goods, are St. John,
Miramichi, Dalhonsie, Richibucto and Bathurst, the bulk being despatched from
the two first named.

In connection with this question, it is necessary to consider whether the
Dominion of Canada can keep up or increase her present output, without
endangering the future of her forests, and what proportion of that output will be
required at home and in the United States.

In seeking an answer to these queries, only white pine, red pine and spruce
need be considered, seeing that the quantities of oak, elm, birch and ash now being
exported, are comparatively small. 9

So far as red pine timber is concerned, the supply has gradually diminished
to a quarter of what it was in 1863. A substitute for it has been found in pitch
pine, so that it is not much missed.

Hewn and sawn white pine is a most valuable description of timber, and
when of the finest grades, is unrivalled for many purposes, such as house build-
ing, and other wood-work. It has been largely and continuously imported into
the United Kingdom for more than fifty years, and a fully equivalent substitute
will be difficult to find. The White Sea redwood approaches nearest to it in
point of quality, but the latter in addition to its smaller dimensions and greater
knottine.ss has other defects that diminish its value in comparison with the
former.

The quantity of hewn white pine received at Quebec in 1876, was about
19,243,733 cubic feet, whereas in 1883, it was but 11,198,557 cubic feet, or taking
the average for the years 1871 to 1875 inclusive, it exceeded 14,000,000 cubic
feet per annum ; while for the five seasons, 1879 to 1883 inclusive, it was but
8,412,654 cubic feet. On the other hand the supply of white pine deals to
Quebec has not decreased in so pronounced a manner, for although in 1876 it
reached 278,363 loads, and only 147,979 loads in 1883, the average of the five
years ending 1885, was 187,187 loads, against 238,731 loads on an average for the
five years ending with 1880. Such figures in conjunction with the history of
the quantity exported of late years, bear abundant evidence to the fact that a
diminished quantity is available for export to Europe.

Reference may be made to the attempt which was made in connection with
the tenth census of the United States to ascertain the quantity of mature white
pine then existent in that country and ready for the axe. Professor Sargent, who
had charge of this part of the census, reported in 1882 in these words : — " The
entire supply (of white pine) growing in the United States and ready for the axe
does not to-day greatly, if at all, exceed 80,000,000,000 feet ; and this estimate
includes the small and inferior trees which, a few years ago, would not have been
considered worth counting. The annual production of this timber is not far from
10,000,000,000 feet, and the demand is constantly and rapidly increasing."

According to this semi-official statement, there was, some years ago, only
about eight years' supply, and now there is supposed to be only six or seven

177

years' consumption ; there is, fortunately, reason to believe that the statement
is inaccurate, and proof of the assertion that the United States consumes
5,050,000 of St. Petersburg standard hundreds, or 16,665,000 loads of white
pine wood annually, will be awaited with interest. It must be taken into con-
sideration that Canada supplies a good percentage of the present United States
consumption, and that the precise minimum dimension has not been defined which
the census assessors have put down as ready for the axe. The large number of
trees, too, which, in the course of eight or ten years will reach the cutting size,
although now a trifle under it, must also be considered. Taking credit for all these
items, however, and assuming the available quantity to be as much underrated
as the consumption is evidently over-estimated, the outlook is sufficiently alarm-
ing, and amply justifies compulsory replanting and reforesting enactments
wherever the ground is best adapted for the production of forest.*

As regards American spruce, which competes in the British market with
Swedish and Russian white wood, the question of its future supply becomes one
of paramount weight. One of the most important facts to be borne in mind, is

* At a meeting of the Genessee Valley Forestry Association, held in the Chamber of Commerce
Booms at Rochester, on the I0th May, 1892, Mr. B E. Fernow, Chief of the Division of
Forestry, Department of Agriculture, is reported to have said : " Although there is still plenty
of virgin timber in the country, the time when it will be comparatively exhausted is drawing
near. We have in the United States about 500,000,000 acres in woodland. If all this were in
good condition, with full grown timber on it — which is far from being true — there could not be
found on it more than 1,500,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood, which is at the rate of 10,000 feet
b.m. of saw- timber per acre in the average. Since we use annually from 20,000,000,000 to
25,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood, of which 30,000,000,000 to 40,000,000,000 feet b.m. is saw-
timber, it appears that even with these extravagant assumptions regarding supplies, we would
exhaust them in sixty or seventy years, assuming that new growth is consumed by increased
requirements. That this increase takes place may be learned from my computation, according
to which the values of forest products and wood manufactures during the census years 1860,
1870, 1880 and 1890 amount to $300,000,000, $600,000,000, $900,000,000 and $1,200,000,000,
respectively, or an increase of thirty per cent, for every decade ; and since it takes at least sixty
to seventy years to grow saw-timber — what we now cut is usually twice as old, or more — it
would appear that whoever invests his money in forest culture to-day must be amply repaid- by
the crop, albeit his children will reap the profits really. Certain it is that it always requires
time, and quite a long time, before the results of such management become visible, and that is
largely why people are afraid to stake their money in the business.

" For profitable forest management, good, permanent roads are indispensable. Their
money value may be judged from the experience of the little Dukedom of Brunswick, where,
without any other changes, the building of a rational system of roads through its forest domain
increased the income from the forest management by twenty per cent.

"In the government forests the annual net profits range from $4.11 per acre of forest in
the highly cultivated and densely populated Kingdom of Saxony, to $1.19 in mountainous
Bavaria, where the government forests comprise 2,300,000 acres on which the government
spends $3,130,000 and gets in return $5,880,000, netting $2,730,000 every year, and giving
besides employment to a large force of men. In Prussia the net annual profit for every acre of
woodland was at the rate of $1.31 on $6,000,000 acres woodland, the expenditure last year bein^
nearly $8,800,000 for the administration , and with prices in the woods of three dollars per cord
of fire-wood in the average, and ten dollars and thirty-two cents per thousand feet b.m. of saw-
timber, the returns were over $17,600,000, netting $8,835,119, and this is continuous, ever
increasing revenue.

" Why should not the State of New York, now owning as State property twice the area
which little Saxony owns in woodlands, and proposing to acquire additional lands so as to make
the area between that of Bavaria and Prussia's government forests, why should not New York
make its Adirondack forests, if not as profitable, yet fairly so, as those States have made their
woodlands pay ?

" To bring this about, it is necessary to secure as soon as possible the acerage before it be-
comes more expensive, to place it under competent administration, to open up and make
accessible the wilderness by a rational system of well-built roads, and inviting, not keeping out
the railroads, under such restrictions to be sure as will properly guard the forest against danger
from fires, for accessibility is the key-note of practical and profitable forest management."

12 (F.)

178

the ease, rapidity and spontaneous manner in which this tree reproduces itself.
Unlike white pine, which requires a century to grow a standard log, spruce is
almost irrepressible, and a spruce forest from which all the trees measuring
twelve inches and upwards in diameter have been taken, will, after a rest of two
decades, be ready for work again.

It does not appear that any systematic attempt has been made by the
authorities to reduce to figures the available quantity of mature spruce now growing
in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the immense forest belt which lies between
the Ottawa river basin in the west and Mingan in the east. All these districts,
however, according to Mr. Joly, late Premier of the Province of Quebec, contain
immense quantities of spruce.*

The following tables exhibit the total number of pieces of squared white
and red pine and other woods, and of pine saw logs cut in the upper Ottawa
territories of Quebec and Ontario, on Crown lands, and also on private lands
from 1826 to 1881 (30th June) inclusive, that is before and since Confederation
as closely as can be learned from the records of the Crown Timber Office, Ottawa.-f-

FROM 1826 TO 1866 INCLUSIVE.

Square timber.

Pine saw-logs (only).

•

Ontario.

Quebec.

Ontario.

Quebec.

\Vhite pine

3,048,382
1,714,412
255,950

1,739,094
978,064
146,019

4,084,258

2,230,056

Tied pine . .

Other wood .... .

Totals

5,018,744
1,074,418

2,863,177
612,931

4,084,258
874,349

2,230,056
498,804

Deduct from private lands

Cut on Crown lands

3,944,326

1,751,246

3,209,909

1,731,252

*The pitch-pine referred to iu this chapter is the Pinus Australia of Michaux, otherwise the Southern
Pine, the trade in which has been entirely developed during the last twenty years. Its importation to
Great Britain is extending rapidly. It is shipped from the so-called Pitch Pine States, situated to the
east of the Mississippi River, namely, the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, ana Mississippi.

The wood of the pitch-pine tree is the heaviest of the pine family, and, like all high resinous woods, is
supposed to possess great durability in climates of moderate severity. A very large industry has been
developed in the Southern States in connection with the gathering of its resinous products, such as tar,
turpentine, pitch, and the like. Turpentine is the raw sap of the tree, and the " boxing " or tapping neces-
sary to collect this is supposed by some to be injurious to the "alburnum" or sapwood, although it has
probably little effect on the heartwood, or "duramen."

tA. J. Russell, Crown Timber Agent, Ottawa, in Reports on the Forests of Canada, London, (England) 1885.

179

FROM 1867 TO 1881 INCLUSIVE.

Square timber.

Pine saw-logs (only).

Ontario.

Quebec.

Ontario.

Quebec.

White pine

1,925,247
485,141
238,874

1,119,382
118,626
63,319

17,920,850

17,277,103

Red pine

Other wood

Totals

2,649,262
615,879

1,301,327
244,895

17,920,850
3,380,275

17,277,103
2,679,412

Deduct from private lands

Crown timber

2,033,383

1,056,432

14,540,575

14,597,691

TOTAL RECORDED PRODUCT, UPPER OTTAWA AGENCY, 1826 TO 1881, 30TH JUNE

Ontario, 7,173,182 pieces pine ; 494,824 other woods ; 22,005,108 saw logs.
Quebec 3,955,166 " " ; 209,338 " ; 19,507,159

Total, 11,128,348 " 704,162 41,512,267

In the foregoing table it is to be observed that square timber and saw-logs
only are included, and all other wood goods are omitted, as unimportant for the
object of the table. The dues accrued from them are, however included in the
following equally brief exhibit of the revenue accrued from Crown timber dues
in the upper Ottawa territories of Quebec and Ontario respectively from 1826 to
1881 inclusive, being from the remotest period of which there are any records in
the Crown Timber Office, Ottawa.

Period.

Ontario.

Quebec.

Totals.

Years.

1826 to 1834

$ 169,078

$ 46,023

$ 215,101

9

1835 to 1851

934,735^

460,643^

l,395,379f&

17

1852 to 1857

453,058,^

282,879^V

735,937^

6

1858 to 1866

896,096^

609,861^

1,505,957^

9

1867 to 1881

3,279,538^

3,439,882^

6,719,371^

15

1826 to 1881

$5,732,506^

$4,839,240^

$10,571,746^

56

The collection of timber and slide dues being combined, greatly facilitates
and tends to secure the accurate collection of both. The same timber and the
same men are dealt with at the same time. The returns of the timber rangers of
their inspections supported by sworn statements of cullers, afford the means of
effectively checking the accuracy of the certificates the lumberers give the
deputy slide masters, which through careless error or fraud might be quite
erroneous, as to the numbers of saw-logs especially, and as to where they came

180

from. On the other hand, the assistance the Dominion Officers of Inland Rev-
enue and Customs, and their collectors of canal dues, are authorized to render at
the request of the Crown timber agent, in preventing the departure of vessels, or
the passage of barges loaded with lumber through canals is often of the greatest
importance in securing the payment of timber dues. On the River Ottawa no
boats or barges loaded with lumber are allowed to pass through the canals with-
out permits from the Crown timber agent. Such permits are occasionally
withheld for the enforcement of the payment of timber dues, and the detention
of the boats (till released by direction of the Crown timber agent) is always
promptly effected by the officers of the Dominion.

THE PUBLIC TIMBER LANDS OF CANADA. — CROWN LANDS.*

These lands belong to the Provincial governments within which they lie
with the exception of those in the North- West Territories and the Province of
Manitoba, which belong to, the Dominion government. In Quebec and Ontario
these lands are in charge of a Commissioner of Crown Lands ; in New Brunswick,
of the Surveyor-General ; in Nova Scotia, of the Attorney- General ; and in British
Colunbia, of the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works.

It will be seen that hitherto almost no attention has been given in Canada
to the reproduction of timber upon lands from which it has once been cut off;
but all the laws and regulations that have been established have reference only
to the native forests of the country and to the securing of a revenue from the
existing supply. The reservation of young timber, too small for profitable use,
by the limitation of a size below which it should not be cut, has received atten-
tion only in the Province of Quebec, and only in respect to pine timber. Questions
of conservation and restoration are, however, beginning to attract notice, as will
be seen in the following pages, and it is earnestly to be hoped that a knowledge
of the true interests of the country will lead to effectual measures for this end,
before vested rights have been established to embarrass, and before the need of
these measures has become urgent.

FORMER TIMBER REGULATIONS IN CANADA.

The system of granting licenses to cut timber on the public lands in Canada
was introduced in 1825, and since that time the right of renewal, upon compliance
with regulations has been practically acknowledged. In 1845 an Order-in- Council
was passed, making the licenses annual, but with the above understanding, and
in the order of 1849 the lessee was permitted to transfer his limit by simple
assignment. In 1851 a ground-rent system was introduced.

The branch of woods and forests in the department of Crown lands was
organized under the former government of Canada in 1852. A system of local
agencies was established, and reforms much needed had begun to be introduced
at the time when the Dominion government was inaugurated. Among the abuses
of earlier times was the monopolizing of immense tracts without using the privi-
leges or paying an equivalent for them. A ground-rent system was at last adopted,
which made reserved but unoccupied privileges unprofitable to hold, more
especially as the rate increased in geometrical proportion as the penalty for not
using.

As lessons of experience in questions of timber management always have
value, it may be interesting to learn how this expedient, apparently so easy to
enforce, and so effectual to control the mischief, was found to operate when put to
the test of trial.

*Hough ; Report upon Forestry, (U.S.) 1878-79.

181

The Commissioner of Crown Lands of Canada, in his report for the year
1856, in describing the workings of this rule, says : — " It will be readily seen,
however, that the operation of such a system would reach a climax within a
limited period ; that, although it could scarcely be said to be even a check in any
degree upon monopoly, in the first instance, the increase in the annual rents on
unoccupied tracts after the first few years, became so sudden and great that a
crisis became inevitable.

" This crisis arrived in the year before last (1855), the rents of unoccupied
berths having in many cases, reached a figure the preceeding year which, if again
doubled, with a certainty of being quadrupled in 1856, would have rendered the
ground untenable.

" A general effort was therefore made by those interested to have the system
suspended or rescinded. A new feature in the controversy arose on this occasion
from the interference of a great body of the shipping merchants of Quebec, who
submitted a counter-petition opposed to the views of those of the producing
merchants who desired to be relieved from the accumulating ground-rents.

" The lumber trade being one of the principal resources of the country, the
regulations by which it is governed must always be of great moment and worthy
of the greatest consideration, and therefore I trust that the importance of the
subject to the country at large may be deemed sufficient to warrant a pretty
extended reference to the consideration bestowed upon it at the period of the
crisis referred to, and which has resulted in establishing a degree of permanency in
the institutions connected with it which was previously unknown.

" As the lumber trade is ordinarily conducted in this country, there are two
distinct branches of it, viz., that in which the producer is engaged, and that which
is carried on by the shipper. There are some firms who are engaged in both
branches of the trade, but, although mutually dependent, they are always distinct
from and sometimes antagonistic to each other. The principal feature in which
they conflict is that it is the interest of the producer that the prices should rule
high, as compared with the cost of production, while it is the interest of the
shipper that they should rule low in the lumber markets of the country, as com-
pared with the prices in England.

" This subject was very fully treated of in the evidence taken before the
parliamentary committee in 1849, appointed to inquire into the causes of the
ruinous state of the trade which had existed for some years previous to that date
(see appendix P.P.P.P. of that year), which it may not be considered inopportune
to refer to, as perhaps the greatest crisis the trade has ever had to contend with
since it grew to anything like its present importance.

;' By the evidence obtained by the committee on that occasion, it will be seen
that, commencing with the year 1846, there was a supply in the Quebec market
wholly disproportionate to the demand, originally caused by an unwisely forced
production, and aggravated in the succeeding years by a diminished consumption
arising from the general depression in commercial affairs which occurred in 1847.
The important fact to be observed here, is, that in 1846, a year in which the
statistics of the trade proved that all the elements of prosperity existed in the
highest degree, the most wide-spread ruin occurred among the producers. The
business of 1845 was most profitable to the country and to individuals engaged in
the trade, while the business of 1846 was ruinous to individuals and a loss to the
country. The demand and the shipments in 1845 exceeded those of previous
years ; the demand and the shipments in 1846 were equally great, or even slightly
in excess of those of the previous year. The reason of the prosperous state of
the trade in the one year and its ruinous state in the other, is, therefore, to be
found in the fact that in 1845 the supply was in just proportion to the demand,

182

while in 1846 a supply was forced upon the market out of all proportion even to
the great demand and shipments of that year ; the result was that, in the one
year, individuals realized a profit on their business and the country at large
reaped a profit on the total export, while in the other year individuals had, from
over-supply, to sell for much less, timber which (from over-stimulated production,
enhanced price of labor, etc ) had cost more, and were, therefore, in many instances,
ruined, a loss being at the same time sustained by the country at large, which, in
the total export of the season, parted with so much capital at something like
half its value.

" The over-production of 1846 (which did not all reach market that year)
continued to depress the trade for several years, the supply of square timber
resulting from it in Quebec market having been as follows, viz.: — In 1845 there
was a supply of 27,702,344 feet, to meet an export of 24,223,000 feet ; but in 1846
a supply of 37,000,643, to meet an export of 24,242,689 feet ; and in 1847 a supply
(including the overstock of previous years) of 44,027,253 feet, to meet an export
of 19,060,880 feet. Here then the distinctive interests of the different branches of
the trade may be seen. The business of 1845, which was so profitable to the
producers and the country, having been of but doubtful benefit to the shippers,
who had to pay quite as high a price here as the prices in England would justify;
while the business of 1846, which was so ruinous to the producers, who had to
sell at less than the cost of production, was profitable to the shippers, who obtained
the timber in Quebec at about half the price it had cost them the previous year,
while there was not a corresponding diminution of price in the English markets,
at least during that season, and those of them who had contracted realized the full
benefit of their contract prices on the diminished rates they had to pay in Canada.

" It is needless to discuss the continued depression of the succeeding years, in
which the general derangement of commercial affairs, which began in 1847, was
the principal cause ; but there can be no doubt that, so far as the lumber trade
was concerned, the depression was aggravated by the enormous production of
1846, which continued to hang upon the market for years after. But it is
important to observe that the cause of the over-production itself was shown by
the parliamentary inquiry referred to, to have been in part indeed the natural
stimulus arising from the successful operations of the previous years, but, in part
also, the unwise course, at that time pursued by the government, of forcing pro-
duction, as will hereafter appear upon explanation of the regulations.

" It is to the advantage of the shipping interest that production should again
be forced ; it is to the advantage of the producing interest that it should be
limited. Shippers and producers are alike essential to the trade, and while it
would be a mere waste of the labor and capital of the Province for the Government
to force production, it may be safely assumed that the true course is to let the
trade, as far as practicable, regulate itself, without interfering on the one side or the
other. £

" But it so happens that there must be'some regulation to govern the cutting
of timber on Crown lands, and it is an unavoidable incident of such regulations
that they must exercise some influence upon the trade. The object the regula-
tions should have in view, therefore, in this particular, is to exercise that influence
to the least extent possible at the same time that they hold out equal facilities to
all desirous of embarking in the trade, due protection to all in the rights acquired
and full security for investments of capital necessary to be made, to render the
resources of the timber territories available, but not to lock them up in unpro-
ductiveness.

183

" Such being the principles at stake and such the adverse interests involved,
both parties memorialized the government, each endeavoring to secure the
preponderance of their particular views.

" The memorial in the shipping interest did not, however, correctly represent
the grounds upon which those who signed it really opposed the object sought for
by the producing interest. I would indeed be sorry to accuse gentlemen of their
standing and respectability of any intentional mis-statements, but yet, from being
ignorant of that branch of the trade with which they were not connected and of
the regulations by which it was governed they allowed themselves to be led into
a train of argument which raised entirely false issues, some erroneous informatiori
or misconception having led to the result that every paragraph in their memorial
conveyed either inferentially or directly some statement that could not be
sustained by facts.

" They assumed in the first place that the ground rent was " a condition
agreed to by the license holders when they obtained the privilege of cutting,
etc.," which was not the fact as regards the great bulk of the trade, the timber
berths having been obtained without any such condition, and the ground rents
being an additional impost to which they have since been subjected. They next
stated that " of late years the bulk of the timber limits of the Crown have been
monopolized by a few houses," whereas, there had been no change by which this
could have been effected, the only change introduced for several years, having
been the very one they were seeking to maintain, establishing ground rents etc.
as the most efficient check upon monopoly which had yet been found.

" I may here remark that the assumption that a great monopoly of the timber
territory existed was at best a chimera, as proved by the fact that there are upon
an average about nine hundred timber births under license in the hands of about
five hundred persons. The assertion, therefore, that there is monopoly where there
are five hundred competitors, each equally free to deal to a large or a small extent
as he sees fit, or his means will allow, needs no further contradiction.

" There may indeed be some local monopolies, where persons of large means
buy up the lesser establishments in their vicinity ; but anything approaching a
general monopoly in this trade, under existing regulations, is impossible ; and, so
far as any local monopoly exists, it is not by the government that it has been
created or is sustained, but by the influence of capital, the application of which
for the purposes of trade the government cannot control.

" The greatest local monopoly that has yet arisen in the trade was that which
existed a few years on the Saint Maurice, and there it arose from the influence of
capital at public competition, although the regulations on that occasion were
specially calculated to throw the trade of the territory into the greatest number
of hands possible. Capital, however, bore down all opposition for the moment,
and it is due to the firmness with which the government resisted repeated, most
urgent, and most influential appeals to relax the regulations that that monopoly
was ultimately broken up.

" Indeed it may be truly said that the shipping branch of the trade, as carried
on at Quebec, bears much more the character of a monopoly than the producing
branch, the whole of the business arising from about five hundred competitors on
public lands, and perhaps an equally great number of producers on private lands,
being, so far as the business centres in Quebec, in the hands of about forty
shippers, nine or ten of whom do more than three-fourths of the whole business.
But this, in like manner, so far as it can be called a monopoly, is the result of
capital, and is not influenced by government, which can as little interfere to limit
the operations of the producer to one timber berth or a hundred timber berths-
as to limit the business of the shipper to one ship or a hundred ships.

1S4

" The memorialists also stated that the monopoly of which they complained
was 'to the almost total exclusion of those whose means or influence was not so
great as to obtain limits.'

" There was here a remarkable instance of men of high position descending to
meddle with other people's affairs, and being thereby led to commit themselves to
vulgar errors on matters of which they were themselves wholly ignorant.

" It will be seen that in the above they asserted two distinct grievances as the
cause of the monopoly they complained of ; first, that those without a certain
amount of means could not obtain " limits " or timber berths ; and, second, that
(failing means) they might be obtained by influence. The first must indeed be
admitted. Men of means will acquire timber berths, as well as houses and lands
and ships, to the ' exclusion of those whose means are not so great as to obtain
them ' ; it is an old grievance for which governments have not yet found a
remedy.

" And even if, at the suggestion of these memorialists (who, by the way, were
not of the class who usually advocate such a doctrine), the government had taken,
or should yet take, some undefined way of throwing the timber berths into the
hands of those who have not means to obtain them in a legitimate manner, those
who possess means would (provided the tenure justified the investment) imme-
diately buy them out, and then there would be the same cry for a repetition of
the operation.

" With respect to the second grievance, it is sufficient to say that it is not to
be found in the law or the regulations affecting the trade ; and as it could only
exist in violation of both, the memorialists should have established the fact
before they claimed credit for it as such, whereas they did not attempt to
substantiate even one case of such violation.

" They suggested, in conclusion, that if the license holders were unable or
unwilling to pay, etc., their timber berths should be thrown open to competition,
and they, the memorialists, believed that, notwithstanding the depressed state
of the trade at that time, they would be readily taken by others without loss to
the revenue.

" It is difficult to write seriously on such a proposition ; there can be no doubt
that if the opportunity had occured and had been taken advantage of to submit
to public competition, privileges which have already been in many cases dearly
bought, and in the development of which on the whole, hundreds of thousands of
pounds of private means have been expended (as shown by returns laid before
Parliament in 1852), they would readily be taken without loss to the revenue,
but it was an issue not more reasonable nor likely than that the ships of the
memorialists would have been made available to the revenue if they had asked
for a change in the navigation laws.

" Such was the false position assumed by the shipping interest at the period
referred to, but the erroneous grounds upon which they opposed the prayer of
the producing merchants of course made no argument either for or against the
latter, which had to be dealt with upon its own merits!

" The memorial of the producing merchants was signed by some of the ship-
ping merchants also, who are connected with or interested in the business of the
producers and there appeared to be two or three firms, not known to the depart-
ment to be connected with the producing interest, who signed., it is presumed, in
a liberal view of what they conceived to be for the good of the country and the
trade at large : some merchants and others at Ottawa had also joined in it who are
not personally engaged in the trade, but whose interests are bound up with those
of the producers.

185

" The object of the memorialists as expressed, was to obtain a cessation for
three years, or until the then existing depression had passed away, of the penalty
imposed for non-occupation of timber berths. Although the object sought was
professedly of a temporary nature, however, it would no doubt have been made a
precedent for seeking government interference in every fluctuation of the trade
thereafter. It would have been the first precedent that could be quoted since
the adoption of the new system, and therefore I shall state the reasons that
induced its rejection, as I conceive that upon the integrity of the system being
maintained in the future depends much of the prosperity of the trade.

" It is to be observed that when the great depression occurred in the trade,
which began in 184-6, and from which it was about four years before it could be
said to have recovered, the ground rent system was not in force. The license
holders were at that time subject only to the payment of the amount of duty
accrued on the quantities cut ; they were then as now obliged to occupy every
year, but under pain of forfeiture of the right to renewal of license instead of the
penalty of an increased payment.

" It was complained of this system that it favored monopoly, inasmuch as a
berth could only be proved unoccupied at a very heavy expense, and then it was
still subject to be repurchased by the former holder. The standard of occupation
(that is the quantity required to be cut to constitute occupation) was in 1845- 4£
made too high, thereby having a tendency to force production. In obedience to
the cry of monopoly, then prevalent, notice was also given by the department,
about the same time — there being then no statute upon the subject — that
all the larger timber berths would be sub-divided in three years ; this also,
although never actually effected, had a tendency to force production, as license
holders were naturally desirous of making the most of their berths by cutting off
all the best timber in the interim.

" Parties differed in opinion as to the exact amount of influence these rules
exercised upon the over-production, but it was generally admitted that they exer-
• cised some influence in that way. At all events the result of the ruinous state of
the trade was that the government did afford relief in these particulars, the
notice of sub-division was withdrawn, the standard of occupation was reduced,
and finally the parties were allowed from year to year up to 1850 to hold their
timber berths without any condition of occupation at all, and without any pay-
ment where they did not choose to occupy.

" The action of the government on the trade, during the periods of great pros-
perity and succeeding depression referred to, was thus in opposite extremes. It
therefore became expedient that a better permanent system of regulations should
be framed for the government of the trade, and the regulations of which the
ground-rent system is a part were finally the result.

" By this system an annual ground-rent was imposed on timber berths, in
excess of the duty, as a regular permanent charge, and as a check upon mono-
poly it was provided, by way of penalty, that the ground-rent should double
upon each renewal of license on berths which had not been occupied during the
preceding season, and continue doubling every year, so long as the berths con-
tinued unoccupied. Thus the rent paid for the largest size of berth the regula-
tions permit — in excess of all other charges — is £6 5s., the same being payable
annually.

" But upon non-occupation for one season the rent rises to £12 10s. — upon
non-occupation for a second season to £25, for a third season to £50 — -aad so on
(as the system was first introduced) without limit, but reverting to the original
>rate of £6 5s. whenever occupation recommenced.

"For the first few years after the introduction of this system it could not

186

force production to any very sensible extent ; but the constant increase, in
geometrical progression, at last comes to a point when the increase is so great and
sudden that those who held any timber berths in reserve had either to occupy or
relinquish them. Unfortunately as regards the great bulk of the license holders,
the operation of the system had just reached the point (when they had either
to produce more timber or relinquish that which they had already paid a series
of rents for, and in some instances, otherwise laid out money upon, without
return) at a moment when the trade was in a state of considerable depression,
and required a decreased instead of an increased production. This state of
depression, too, arose from causes wholly foreign to the internal management of
the trade ; for it differed from the previous great crisis in the trade (that of 1846-
47, etc.) in this, that it arose less from an excessive production than from a
sudden cessation of demand — the result probably ot the war then raging. It
diff.red also in degree, bearing only the character of a temporary embarrassment
as compared with the wide spread-ruin which fell upon the trade on the former
occasion. It was none the less necessary, however, to apply a remedy, if practi-
cable, in time, and it was in this view that the producers sought to be temporarily
authorized to suspend productions where the ordinary tendency of the regulations
was to enforce it.

" It was not, therefore, as put by the opponents of the producing interest, a
question of the holders of timber berths fulfilling or failing in their obligations ;
and even if it had been so, the maintenance of the penalty in its full force would
not, at least for some time, have compelled any considerable relinquishment of
licenses ; on the contrary, the parties would have continued to hold them, and
endeavored by extended operations to reduce to their original amounts the
ground rents on such berths as the penalty had most accumulated upon, thus
risking the consequences of increased production rather than abandon their licenses.
" The real question at issue, therefore, simply was, whether the penalty for
non-occupation had been made too severe or not.

"But there was also the question of whether the exceptional circumstances then
existing, arising out of the war or otherwise, were such as would justify the
temporary suspension of the penalty.

" On the first head, as regards the penalty for non-occupation generally, it is to
be observed that, if any regulation were to succeed in compelling the occupation of
all the lands licensed, it would force a production far beyond the requirements of
the trade ; no regulation could permanently have this effect, however, as the
result of an excessive penalty would be to cause the relinquishment of a portion
of the territory now under license, which (apart from the question of whether
it would not afford, in every period of excitement, too great a facility for a rush
into the trade) would leave a portion of the timber lands wholly unproductive,
either in ground rents or duties, which now afford a very considerable revenue.

' The system of regulations for the granting of licenses to cut timber began
by a course of trial and error and has gradually been perfected by experience.

" The ground-rent system was a trial ; it has proved a most happy and suc-
cessful one, which has given general public satisfaction to the trade, but it would
be too much to pretend that, in the first trial there had been no error, that it had
been perfected at once without any experience of it practically.

' In the introduction of the system the then remote contingency was not pro-
vided for, that if no limit was set to the ultimate amount the ground -rent
might reach, great hardships might in some cases be the result; such, for instance
as might arise in case of several timber berths being taken up in a previously
inaccessible locality, assuming in such a case that the license holders (joining
together for that purpose) proceed to improve the stream (as is frequently done

187

to the extent of many thousand pounds), lay out all the means they can command
in the operation, and before the rents have reached an excessive amount are
enabled to occupy the lower berths ; but some pressure then comes, they cannot
push their improvements immediately to the upper berths, and the ground rents
arrive at a point where they compel relinquishment, while they could not compete
for the repurchase on equal terms with any new purchaser who would have the
advantage of their outlay.

" It has been su^gesetd that a remedy for this might be found by admitting
improvements in lieu of occupation, which would be just in principle but practi-
cally extremely difficult of application.

" The cases urged upon the department from every part of the country would
be numerous, the evidence to be adjudicated upon would be entirely ex parte,
the exact nature of the improvements to be admitted would always be a matter
of dispute, and, however honestly administered, the system would give rise to
constant accusations of paitiality and favor.

" Upon a full consideration, therefore, of all the circumstances it appeared that
the difficulty might be met by a general rule calculated to perfect and give per-
manency to the system as a whole instead of impairing it.

" A rule was accordingly adopted which consists in limiting the extreme
amount of ground rent on any berth to a sum equal to what the berth would
produce in duty if duly occupied, the rent remaining at that rate per annum till
occupation commences ; reverting then, of course, to the original rate as before.
This, while it entails a heavy payment on those who reserve berths for future
use, as much in fact as th3y would have to pay for the timber if they cut it,
affords no public ground for complaint, for the public get the price of the timber
annually while the timber itself remains, with the public interest in it, for future
revenue, unimpaired ; at the same time it prevents the system from becoming
oppressive, and therefore, inoperative, as all oppressive laws ultimately become.

" On the other head, with regard to the temporary suspension of the system
the same issue as was then involved is now at stake and must continue to be so,
It must be remarked, as a general rule, that any departure, for partial, local, or
temporary causes, from the fixed laws affecting the trade, is bad in principle and
calculated in every case to produce a bad effect.

" If, when a depression has arisen from over-production, or other causes, which
the trade has brought upon itself, the government should once step in to affect
the market or the supply, directly or indirectly, the same interference would be
looked forward to again, and induce an over-speculative spirit in time of
prosperity, sure to end in a similar result. If the government were at any time
to relax the conditions it has seen fit to impose upon the holders of unoccupied
timber berths without some other cause than the ordinary fluctuations of the
trade, public confidence would be shaken either in the efficacy of the system
itself or in the administration of it. Nothing but the strongest necessity, arising
from causes foreign to the trade itself, could at any time justify an exception to
this as a general rule, and the only question on this point worthy of consideration
at that time was, whether the effects of the then state of war were such as to
justify its being made an exceptional case.

" In considering this question it became necessary to take a retrospective view
of the trade for some years, from which it appeared that there had not been any
very excessive supply in the Quebec market as compared with the export. The
supply was indeed somewhat excessive in 1852 and the stock of sqnare timber on
hand at the close of that year(18,15 1,750 feet) was also excessive, but the produ-
cers— profiting from the sad experience of 1846 and the embarrassments of
succeeding years — having cautiously limited their operations, the supply was

188

much less in 1853, and the stock on hand (12,632,929 feet) at the close of the
season greatly reduced. But from the great demand these were years of great
prosperity to the producing interest, and consequently an impetus was giv-jn to the
supply produced in 1854, which was very great ; but the export was also greatly
increased and the stock in hand at the close of the season (13,465,602 feet) though
large, yet with the more limited production for 1855 was not at all such as seri-
ously to embarrass the trade had the usual demand existed. From whatever
cause, however, the demand had greatly diminished, for at the time the subject
was most strongly pressed upon the government, say 2nd July, 1855, the tonnage
arrived in Quebec, from sea, was 121,778 tons against 240,021 tons to the same
period of the previous year ; and at the close of the year 346,449 tons against
580.323 tons the previous year ; and in like manner, the quantity of square timber
exported in 1855 was 15,389,774 feet against 25,346,800 feet in 1854. There is
a defect in the present law which prevents the statistics being got so correctly in
respect of deals. There is also a large quantity of timber usually absorbed in
ship-building and exported in that shape, in which there had also been a falling
off. The result of a full investigation of the subject, however, was to show that
the trade was on the whole in a healthy condition, and that the depression at
that period was only temporary, for although there had been no excessive
production for some years previous, as compared with the export, the export
itself had been great, having been gradually increasing till it produced a tempor-
ary glut, not in the Quebec market but in the English markets, which had precisely
the same effect, and which was in some degree aggravated no doubt by a
diminished consumption resulting from the war and the tightness of money mat-
ters consequent thereon.

" The prayer of the memorialists, therefore, to be authorized to suspend their
operations for three years without incurring the penalty of increased rent, as
provided by the regulations for non-occupation, was refused, for if even such an
extreme case could arise, there did not then appear to be any cause operating to
produce such permanent embarrassment as would have warranted the government
in interfering with the integrity of a system which had, so far, been found to
give stability to the trade and satisfaction to the public.

" The result has justified the course pursued ; the export in 1856 having been
nearly up to the average, or 3,919,378 feet, (equal to forty-six million inch board
measure) in excess of the previous year. The season was in fact, upon the whole
a very fair one, both for the producer and the shipper, and this without any such
extreme measure on the one side or the other as the government had been asked
the year before, to adopt for the safety of the trade.

"The only change adopted was one which had not an immediate effect; it
consisted, as already stated, in making the ground rent on unoccupied berths
cease to increase when it had reached the extreme amount which ground rent
and the dues accruing on timber cut would both amount to upon a berth which
Avas occupied. The public could scarcely ask more, as a protection against
monopolizing timber berths, than that the parties who do so should be made to
pay for the timber when they don't cut it the same as when they do cut and
carry it to market.

" In former years more stringent laws were made against holding timber
berths unoccupied, but the result was, as has already been seen, that when the
crisis came, the government always gave way, thus proving that extreme measures
are always the least effective, while they lead in matters of trade to uncertainty
and fluctuation.

" I have entered thus at length into the circumstances attending the appeal of
the opposing interests to the government in 1855, because there was then undoubt-

189

edly serious apprehension entertained by many that a time of great embarrass-
ment and difficulty was at hand ; while a crisis had actually arrived in regard to
testing the efficacy of the by-laws by which the trade is governed, so far as it is
as a whole affected by the operations on public lands ; and because, therefore, the
action then taken has so far solved a difficult problem and is likely to exercise
a permanent influence on the trade."

As modified by experience, the management of the timber interests upon
the public lands in the later years of the former Canadian Government was in
charge of the Commissioner of Crown Lands, who was authorized to grant
licenses for cutting timber upon ungranted lands at such rates, and subject to
such regulations as might be established from time to time by the Governor-in-
Council and of which notice was given in the Canada Gazette. These licenses
were granted for a period not exceeding twelve months, and obliged the lessees
to make returns at the expiration of the lease, showing the number and kinds of
trees cut, and the quantity and description of saw-logs, or of the number and
description of sticks of square timber manufactured and carried away under
such license, which statement must be verified by affidavit before a justice of
the peace. The Crown dues were a claim upon the timber or any part thereof,
wherever found, and whether in the original logs or made into deals, boards or
other stuff, and which might be seized and detained wherever found until the
dues were paid.

Persons cutting, or causing to be cut, any timber on any of the Crown,,
clergy, school, or other public lands, or removing, or inducing, or assisting in the
removal of timber thus cut without authority, acquired no right or claim for
cutting or preparing for the market, but the whole became forfeited, and if the
timber or saw-logs had been removed out of the reach of the officers of the
Crown lands department, or if it was found otherwise impossible to seize the
same, the person was liable in addition to the loss of his labor and disbursements,
to a forfeiture of $3 for every tree (rafting stuff excepted) that might be proved
to have been cut, to be recovered with costs of suit, in the name of the
Commissioner of Crown Lands or resident agent in any court having jurisdiction
in civil matters to the amount of the penalty. In all such cases it was incumbent
on the party charged to prove his authority to cut, and the averment of the
party seizing or prosecuting that he was duly employed under the timber act
was to be received as sufficient proof, thereof, unless the defendent proved to the
contrary.

Seizures might be made upon information supported by affidavit. If the
timber illegally cut had been mixed with other timber, the whole might be
detained until satisfactorily separated by the holder. Resistance to an officer or
authorized agent, by assault, force, or violence, or by threats of such, was made
a felony, and the carrying away of timber under seizure, whether openly or
secretly, and whether with or without force or violence, was deemed stealing and
rendered the person liable to punishment for felony. Whenever any timber was
seized for the non-payment of Crown dues, the burden of proof of payment, or
as to the land on which it was cut, was to rest on the claimant of such timber
and not on the officer making the seizure or the party bringing the prosecution.

Timber seized was to be deemed to be condemned at the end of thirty days
and publication of notice, unless the person claiming, sooner notified the nearest
officer or agent of the Crown land office that he intended to prove his claim.

Any judge of competent jurisdiction might order the release of timber under
seizure upon receiving from the alleged owner a bond with two good and
sufficient sureties, first approved by the agent, for double the value of the
timber in case of condemnation, such bond being taken in the name of the

190

Commissioner of Crown Lands, and to be delivered and kept by him until the
claim was released or paid. Every person availing himself of any false
statement or oath to evade the payment of Crown dues forfeited the timber on
which dues were attempted to be evaded.

The malicious cutting 01 loosening of a boom, or the cutting loose or
breaking up of a raft or crib, was made punishable by fine and imprisonment of
not less than six months.

Such in brief was the system formerly in force. That it did not insure the
forests upon the Crown lands from pillage and waste by lumbermen is sufficiently
proved by the following statement made by the Commissioner of Crown Lands
of the Province of Ontario, in 1877 in describing the system of supervision then
in use and the abuses that had been formerly practiced.

"Previous to confederation, the guardianship of the forests as regards
surveillance over the cutting of timber under license or in trespass on lands of
the Crown was so ineffective or attended to with such laxity as to be in fact no
guardianship at all, and pillage to a large extent was carried on almost with
impunity ; the seat of government was peripatetic,* and the agents of the Crown
Lands Department for the collection of timber dues were located at certain
points where returns were brought to them of such operations as parties chose
to make, on which dues were paid, and the amount received with statement of
timber, etc., on which it was paid, transmitted monthly to the department
without any actual knowledge of or check on the extent of cutting ; these
returns and moneys were received at headquarters without comment or inquiry,
and the one debited to the agent and the other placed to his credit."

AMOUNTS ACCRUED AND COLLECTED FOR TIMBER DUES, GROUND RENTS,
AND BONUSES IN UPPER AND LOWER CANADA, DURING THE YEARS
PRECEDING THE FORMATION OF THE DOMINION GOVERNMENT.

Accruals.

Collections.

Years.

Upper
Canada.

Lower
Canada.

Total.

Upper
Canada.

Lower
Canada.

Total.

$ c.

$ c.

$ c.

$ c.

$ c.

8 c.

1857

135,310 64

120,797 96

256,108 60

94,921 15

114,023 53

208,944 68

1858

111,739 62

111,081 53

222,821 15

141,185 90

134,476 00

275,661 90

1859

140,409 96

142,071 97

282,481 93

136,189 33

145,745 59

281,934 92

1860

176,400 39

168,973 36

345,433 75

149,921 22

168,330 38

318,252 60

1861

156,253 57

154,101 38

310,354 95

127,995 88

127,849 10

255,844 98

1862

143,357 59

136,830 79

280,188 38

159,330 86

144,321 31

303,652 17

1863

170,160 12

157,484 72

327,644 84

197, C93 73

189,562 80

386,656 53

1864

188,171 74

155,793 97

343,965 71

121,3I!7 79

121,718 52

243,086 71

1865

146,079 67

151,034 24

297,113 91

183,380 75

160,035 23

343,415 98

1866

203,040 46

166,036 54

369,077 00

197,965 85

138,678 05

336,643 89

Total 10 years.

1,570,983 76

1,464,206 46

3,035,190 22

1,509,352 46

1,444,740 50

2,954,092 96

* For some years before the union of 1867 the seat of government of Canada alternated betweem
Toronti and Quebec. It had previously been located at Montreal, and at a still earlier period at
Kingston.

191

HECEIPTS FROM BONUSES AND GROUND RENTS ALONE, DURING THE UNION
OF THE PROVINCES OF CANADA, so FAR AS THESE HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED.

Fiscal years. Amount.

1856-'57 $244,112 90

1957-'58 203,263 59

1858-'59 276,741 16

1859-'60 . '. 316,983 35

1860-'61 290,933 04

1861-'62 283,383 31

1862-'«3 309,252 15

1863-'64 325,294 51

1864-'65 324,535 61

1865-'66 300,486 18

1866-'67 369,800 53

RECEIPT AND EXISTING TIMBER REGULATIONS IN CANADA.

(a) Dominion Lands. — These lands, in Manitoba and the North-west
'Territories, are in charge of the Department of the State and a division thereof
•styled " The Dominion Land Office." The act under which they are administered
was assented to April 14th, 1872. The surveys are conducted by the Surveyor-
general and his deputies, and there are various agents concerned in the duties
incident to this interest.

The system of surveys is by townships six miles square, sub-divided into
sections of one mile square each, unless this arrangement is modified by the
divergence of meridians, irregularities in previous surveys, or other causes.
There is an allowance of one chain and fifty links between all townships and
sections for roads. The townships are numbered northward from the inter-
national boundary, or the forty-ninth degree north latitude, and in Manitoba,
east and west from a principal meridian, ran in 1869, that strike? this line of
latitude about ten miles west of Pembina. The sections are numbered from one
to thirty-six in each township, beginning at the south-east corner and running
alternately from east to west and from west to east, so that the last number shall
be in the north-east corner. In this the order of numbering is just the reverse
of that employed on the surveys of public lands in the United State?. Sections
eleven and twenty-nine in each township are reserved for education.

The sections are divided into sixteen squares of forty acres each, numbered
in the same way as the sections in townships, beginning at the south-east corner.
The lines running north and south are designed to be true meridians, and those
running east and west are chords intersecting circles of latitude passing through
the angles of the townships.

The terms and conditions of the deed of surrender from the Hudson Bay
-Company stipulated a reservation of one-twentieth part of the portion described
.as the " fertile belt," which rendered it necessary to modify the general plan,
-and in the prairie region, where there are islands or belts of timber, a special
mode of sub-division was provided, with the view of affording benefit to the
greatest possible number of settlers, and for the prevention of petty monopalies.
In these cases the woodlands are surveyed into lots of not le?s than ten nor more
than twenty acres each, so as to afford one wood-lot to every quarter -sectio a of
prairie farm in each township. This, however, is not allowed to interfere with
the sections set apart for schools, nor to those set apart and vested in the Hulson
Bay Company. Each wood-lot is required to front on a section road-allowance.

192

In case an island or belt of timber come entirely within a quarter-section, or in
several quarter-sections so that not more than twenty-five acres shall be included
in each, it is not to be separately surveyed into wood-lots. These wood-lots are
conveyed as homestead grants the same as other lands, but the grantee is not
allowed to sell any of the timber on his lot to any saw-mill owners, or to any
other than settlers for their own private use, under penalt}* of prosecution, as for
trespass. Upon conviction they may be fined or imprisoned, or both, and they
further forfeit their claims absolutely.

Any tract of land covered by forest timber may be set apart as timber
lands, and reserved from sale and settlement ; and except as it may be thought
expedient by the secretary of State to divide a township into two or more timber
limits, the several townships composing any such tracts shall each form a limit.
The word " timber " is used to designate all lumber, and all products of timber,
including firewood and bark.

Leases for cutting timber may be granted for twenty-one years, and upon
the following conditions :—

1. The lessee to erect a saw-mill or mills in connection with such limit and
lease, and subject to any special conditions which may be agreed upon and stated
in the lease, such mill or mills to be of capacity to cut at the rate of a thousand
feet, board measure, in twenty-four hours, for every two-a-half square miles of
limits in the lease, or shall establish such other manufactory of wood goods as
may be agred upon as the equivalent of such mill or mills, and the lessee to work
the limit in the manner and to the extent provided in the lease within two years
from the date thereof, and during each succeeding year of the term.

2. To take from every tree he cuts down all the timber fit for use, and
manufacture the same into sawn lumber, or some other such saleable product as
may be provided in the lease, or by any regulations made under this act.

3. To prevent all unnecessary destruction of growing timber on the part of
his men, and to exercise strict and constant supervision to prevent the origin or
spread of fires.

4. To make returns to the government monthly or at such other periods as
may be required by the secretary of State, or by regulations under this act,
sworn to by him or by his agent or employee cognizant of the facts, declaring the
quantities sold or disposed of as aforesaid, of all sawn lumber, timber, railway-
car stuff, ship-timbers and knees, shingles, lath, cordwood or bark, or any other
product of timber from the limit, in whatever form the same may be sold or
otherwise disposed of by him during such month or other period, and the price
or value thereof.

5. To pay in addition to the bonus an annual ground rent of $2 per square
mile, and further a royalty of five per cent, on his monthly account.

6. To keep correct books, of such kind and in such form as may be provided
by his lease, or by the regulation under this Act, and to submit the same for the
inspection of the collector of dues whenever required, for the purpose of verifying
his returns aforesaid.

7. The lease shall describe the lands upon which the timber may be cut,
and shall vest in the lessee during its continuance the right to take and keep-
exclusive possession of the lands so described, subject to the conditions hereinbe-
fore provided or referred to, and such lease shall vest in the holder thereof all
right of property whatsoever in all trees, timber, lumber, and other products of
timber cut within the limits of the lease during the continuance thereof, whether
such trees, timber, and lumber or products be cut by authority of the holder of
such lease, or by any other person, with or without his consent ; and such lease
shall entitle the lessee to seize in replevin, revendication, or otherwise, as his.

103

property, such timber, where the same is found in the possession of any unauthor-
ized person, and also to bring any action or si it at law or in equity against any
party unlawfully in possession of any such timber, or of any land so leased, and
to prosecute all trespasses thereon, and such other offenders as aforesaid, to con-
viction and punishment, and to recover damages, if any; and all proceedings
pending at the expiration of any such lease may be continued and completed as
if the lease had not expired.

8. Such lease shall be subject to forfeiture for infraction of any one of the
condition* to which it is subject, or for any fraudulent return ; and in such case,
the secretary of State shall have the light, without any suit, or other proceeding
at law or in equity, or compensation to the lessee, to cancel the same, and to make
a new lease, or disposition of the limit described thereinto any other party at any
time during the term of the lease so canceled: provided, that the secretary of
State, if he sees fit, may refrain from forfeiting such lease for non-payment of
dues, and may enforce payment of su?h dues in a manner hereinafter provided.

9. The lessee who faithfully carries out the above conditions shall have the
refusal of the same limits, if not required for settlement, for "a further term not
exceeding twenty -one years, on payment of the same amount of bonus per square
mile as was paid originally, and on such lessee agreeing to such conditions and to
pay such other rates as may be determined on for such second term.

It was further provided that any ground rent, royalty, or other dues to the
Crown not paid when falling due, should bear interest at six per cent, until paid.
and be a lien on any timber cut within the limits. After three months' neglect,
the Crown timber agent might seize so much of the timber cut as would be
necessary to pay the claim and expenses, and sell the same at public auction,
paying over to the lessee or owner of the timber any balance left after paying

> claims and costs.

In case the payment of the Crown dues was evaded by removal of the
timber or products out of Canada, or otherwise, the amount due might he charged
upon any other timber cut on Dominion lands by the same lessee or by his
authority, or the claim might be recovered by action at law, in the name of the
secretary of State, or his resident agent, in any court having jurisdiction in civil
cases to the amount claimed.

The secretary of State was empowered to take bonds or promissory notes
for any money due to the Crown, interest and costs, or for double the amount of
all dues, fines and penalties, and costs, incurred or to be incurred, and he might
then release any timber upon which the same would be leviable, whether under
seizure or not; but the taking of such bonds was not to affect the lien and right
of the Crown to enforce payment of such money on any other timber cut on the
same limit, if the sums for which such bonds or notes were given should not be
paid when due.

The penalties imposed for cutting timber without authority were forfeiture
of the timber cut, and a fine not exceeding -.5:J for every tree cut or earned av;iy:
with costs. In :-uch cases the burden' of proof of authority to cut arid take the
timber was to be upon the party charge'!, and the averment of the party seizing
or prosecuting that he is duly employed under this Act was to lie sufficient proof
thereof, unless the defendent proved to the contrary.

Upon information, supported by affidavit, that timber had been cut without
authority on Dominion lands, and describing where the same can be found, or
upon information to a Crown officer or agent as to sm-h cutting without authority.
the officer or a^ent was authorized to seize the timber and place it under custody
until a decision coul I be had by competent authority.

13 (F)

194

If timber, cut without authority, has been made up with other timber into
;i crib, dram, or raft, or in any other manner mixed up with other timber, so that
it cannot be identified, the whole of the timber so mixed is to be liable to seizure
and forfeiture until satisfactorily separated by the holder. Timber held under
seizure may be released upon sufficient security for the payment of its full value
or of double the amount of all dues, fines, penalties, and costs, incurred or imposed'
thereon.

The penalties for resisting seizure, or removing timber after it was seized,
were prescribed and proceedings therein specified. N"o sale or grant of Dominion
lands wa.s to give any title to any slide, dam, pier, or boom, previously erected
upon it, unless expressly mentioned in letters patent, or other instrument estab-
lishing such sale or grant. The free use of such works was not to be interrupted,
and the right of passing and repassing on either side, whenever necessary for use,
and at portages, was reserved.

The Dominion Lands Act makes provision for military bounties, homestead
entries, leases for grazing, and hay-cutting, mining, etc., and for direct sales of
land.

(6) Crown lands of Ontario. — The timber Act now in force was passed in
1860, and is found as Chapter 28 of the Revised Statutes of Ontario, 1887. It is
as follows :—

(1) AN ACT RESPECTING TIMBER IN PUBLIC LANDS.

Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Assembly
of the Province of Ontario, enacts as follows : —

1. — (1) The commissioner of Crown lands, or any officer or agent under him
authorized to that effect, may grant licenses to cut timber on the ungranted lands
of the Crown, at such rates, and subject to such conditions, regulations and
restrictions as may from time to time be established by the Lieutenant-Governor-
in-Council, and of which notice may be given in the Ontario Gazette.

(2) No license shall be so granted for a longer period than twelve months
from the elate thereof ; and if, in consequence of incorrectness of survey, or
other error, or cau.se whatsoever, a license is found to comprise lands included in
a license of a prior date, the license last granted shall be void in so far as it inter-
feres with the one previously issued, and the holder or proprietor of the license
so rendered void shall have no claim upon the Government for indemnity or
compensation by reason of such avoidance.

2. The licenses shall describe the lands upon which the timber may be
cut, and shall confer, for the time being, on the nominee the right to take and
keep exclusive possession of the lands so described, subject to such regulations and
restrictions as may be established : — And the licenst-s shall vest in the holders
thereof all rights of property whatsoever in all trees, timber, and lumber, cut
within the limits of the license during the term thereof, whether the trees,
timber, and lumber, are cut by authority of the holder of the license, or by any
other person, with or without his consent ; and the licenses shall entitle the
holders thereof to seize in revendication or otherwise, such trees, timber, or
lumber, where the same are found in the possession of any unauthorized person,
and also to institute any action against any wrongful possessor or trespassers,
and to prosecute all trespassers and other offenders to punishment, and to recover
damages, if any ; and ail proceedings pending at the expiration of any license
may be continued to final determination, as if the license had not expired.

195

3. Every government road allowance included in any Crown timber license,
heretofore granted, or which may hereafter be granted, under section 1 of this
Act, shall be deemed and taken to be and to have been ungrant^d lands of the
Crown, within the meaning of said section, and liable, as such, to be included in
the license.

4. The licensee or nominee named in any license shall be deemed and
taken to have, and to have had, all the rights in respect of every such load
allowance, and the trees, timber, and lumber thereon, or cut thereon, as were, or,
by the section 2 of this Act, may be conferred upon him, in respect of any
•other Crown lands embraced in such license, and the trees, timber, ai d lumber
thereon, or cut thereon, except that he shall not be entitled to take or keep
exclusive possession of such road allowance.

5. No by-law passed, or to be passed by any municipal council for preserv-
ing, selling, or otherwise appropriating or disposing of the timber or trees, or any
part thereof, on a government road allowance or allowances included in any
such license, shall be deemed or taken to have had or have any force or effect
against any such license.

6. In case the council of any townships, organized as a separate municipal-
ity, or the council of any united townships, have passed, or hereafter pass, any
by-law for preserving or selling the timber or trees on the government road-
allowances within such township or within the senior township of united
townships, and included in any such license, the corporation of such township or
united townships shall be entitled to be paid out of thy consolidated revenue
fund of this Province a sum equal to two per centum of the dues received by Her
Majesty for or in respect of the timber and saw-logs which, during the existence
of the by-law, were cut within the township or united townships, under the
authority of the license ; but no corporation shall be entitled to such percentage
of the clues received for timber or saw-logs cut during the times or seasons when
timber, or trees on any such road allowances were cut or removed, for which
cutting or removal the corporation had, before the fifteenth day of February, one
thousand eight hundred and seventy-one, obtained a verdict against any such

*s
licensee or nominee.

7. No municipal corporation shall he entitled to such payment as aforesaid,
unless a certified copy of the by-law passed, or to be passed as aforesaid, accom-
panied by an affidavit of the clerk or reeve of the corporation, verifying the
copy, and the date of the passing of the by-law, is filed in the Department of
Crown Lands at Toronto within six months from the passing of the by-law ;
and the affidavit may be made or taken before any person or officer who,
under sections 4^ or 43 of " The Public Lands Act," is authorized to take the
affidavits in those sections mentioned.

8. All moneys to be paid as aforesaid, to any municipal corporation shall be
expended in the improvement »f the highways situate within the township or
within the senior or junior township in respect of which such moneys were paid.

9. The percentage to which the junior township or townships of such united
townships may be entitled, shall only be in respect of the dues received upon
timber or trees which shall be cut after the 30th day of April, ISSI. (See Rev.
Stat. Ont., c. 25, ss. 13-1. i, as to the right of the Crown to grant, timber he-uses
on Free Grant Lands.)

196

1O. Every person obtaining a license shall, at the expiration thereof, make to
the officer or agent granting the same, or to the Commissioner of Crown lands, a
return of the number and kinds of trees cut, and of the quantity and description of
saw-loijs, or of the number and description of sticks of square timber manufac-
tured and carried away under the license ; and the statement shall be sworn
to by the holder of the license, or his agent, or by his foreman, before a Justice of
the Peace ; and any person refusing or neglecting to furnish such statement, or
evading or attempting to evade any regulation made by order-in-couucil, shall be
held to have cut without authority, and the timber made shall be dealt with
accordingly.

11. — (1) All timber cut under licenses shall be liable for the payment of the
Crown dues thereon, so long as and wheresover the timber or any part of it
may be found in Ontario, whether in the original logs or manufactured into
di-als, boards or other stuff; and all officers or agents intrusted with the collection
of such dues may follow all timber and seize and detain the same wherever
it is found until the dues are paid or secured.

(2) Nothing in this Act contained shall be construed to repeal the provisions
of the section 4 of chapter 23 of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada, as
regards timber removed into the Province of Quebec.

12. Bonds or promissory notes taken for the Crown clues either before or
after the cutting of the timber, as collateral security, or to facilitate collection,
shall not in any way affect the lien of the Crown on the timber, but the lien shall
subsist until the dues are actually discharged.

13. If timber so seized and detained for non-payment of Crown dues
remains more than two months in the custody of the agent or person appointed
to guard the same, without the dues and expenses being paid, the Commissioner
of Crown Lands with the previous special sanction of the Lieutenant-Governor
in council, may order a sale of the said timber to be made after sufficient notice ;
and the balance of the proceeds of the sale, after retaining the amount of dues and
costs incurred, shall be handed over to the owner or claimant of the timber.

14. — (1) If any person without authority cuts or employs or induces any other
person to cut, or assists in cutting any timber of any kind on the Crown,
clergy, school or other public lands, or removes or carries away, or employs or
induces or assists any other person to remove or carry away, merchantable
timber of any kind so cut from the public lands aforesaid, he shall not acquire
any right to the timber so cut, or any claim to any remuneration for cutting,
preparing the same for market, or conveying the same to or towards market.

(2 1 When the timber or sa '-logs made has or have been removed by any
person out of the reach of the officers of the Crown lands department, or it
is otherwise found impossible to seize the same, such person shall, in addition to
the lo.ss of his labor and disbursements, forfeit a sum of $3 for each tree (rafting
stuff exceptedj which he is proved to have cut or caused to be cut or carried away.

(3) Such sums shall be recoverable with costs, at the suit and in the name of
the Commissioner of Crown lands or resident agent, in any court having juris-
diction in civil matters to the amount of the penalty.

(4) In such cases it shall be incumbent on the party charged to prove his
authority to cut ; and the averment of the party seizing or prosecuting that he is
duly employed under the authority of this Act, shall be sufficient proof thereof,
unless the defendant proves the contrary.

197

15. Where satisfactory information, supported by affidavit made before a
justice of the peace or before any other competent party, is received by the

Commissioner of Crown Lands, or other officer or agent of the Crown Lands
Department, that any timber or quantity of timber has been cut without authority
on Crown, clergy, school or other public lands, and describing where the timber
•can be found, the Commissioner, officer or agent, or any one of them, may
seize or caused to be seized in Her Majesty's name the timber so reported to be
cut without authority, wherever .it is found, and place the same under proper
custody until a decision can be had in the matter from competent authority.

16. Where the timber so reported to have been cut without authority on the
public lauds has been up with other timber into a crib, dram, or raft, or in any
other manner has been so mixed up at the mills or elsewhere as to render it
impossible or very difficult to distinguish the timber so cut on public lands with-
out license from other timber with which it is mixed up, the whole of the timber
so mixed shall be held to have been cut without authority on public lands, and
shall be liable to seizure and forfeiture accordingly, until satisfactorily separated
by the holder.

17. Any officer or person seizing timber, in the discharge of his duty under
this Act may, in the name of the Crown, call in any assistance necessary for
securing and protecting the timber so seized.

18. Whenever any timber is seized for non-payment of Crown dues, or for
any other cause of forfeiture, or any prosecution is brought for any penalty or
forfeiture under this Act, and a question arises whether the said dues have
been paid on such timber, or whether the timber was cut on other than
the public lands aforesaid, the burden of proving payment, or on what land
the timber was cut, shall lie on the owner or claimant of the timber, and
not on the officer who seizes the same or the party bringing the prosecution.

19. All timber seized under this Act shall be deemed to be condemned, unless
the person from whom it was seized, or the owner thereof, within one month
from the day of the seizure, gives notice to the seizing officer 01 nearest officer or
.agent of the Crown lands office, that he claims or intends to claim the same;
failing notice, the officer or agent seizing shall report the circumstances to
the Commission of Crown Lands, who may order the sale of the said timber by
the officer or agent, after a notice on the spot of at least thirty days.

20. — (1) Every judge having competent jurisdiction may, when he deems it
proper, try and determine such seizures, and may order the delivery of the timber
to the alleged owner, on receiving security by bond, with two good and sufficient
sureties to be first approved by the agent, to pay double the value in case of
condemnation.

(2) The bond shall be taken in the name of the Commissioner of Crown
Lands to Her Majesty's use, alfd shall be delivered up to and kept by the
Commissioner.

(3) If the seized timber is condemned, the value thereof shall be forthwith
paid to the Commissioner of Crown Lands or the agent, and the bond cancelled,
otherwise the penalty of such b^nd shall be enforced and recovered.

Every person availing himself of any false statement or oath to evade
the payment of Crown dues, shall forfeit the timber on which dues are attempted
to be evaded.

(•2) — MANAGEMENT OF THE TIMBER LANDS OF ONTARIO.

Previous t<> June 13th, 18r>6, applications for license to cut timber on the
< Yo\vn hinds wen.* mule t<> the several Crown timber agents, who might grant
such privileges upon payment at the rate of 2s. 6d. ($0.50) per square mile
annually, payable in advance. These leases expired on the 30th of April in each
year, and might be renewed before the 1st of July following. The changes since
introduced are described by the Commissioner of Crown Lands in a statement
prepared for the information of the then Premier of the Province of Quebec in
1877, a manuscript copy of which has been furnished us, as follows : On the 13th
of June, 1866, prior i-egulations were superseded, and the clause respecting
licenses to cut timber was modified, so that instead of agents granting them on
application it was provided that such vacant berths as the Commissioner of Crown
Lands saw fit should be offered at public auction, to be held half-yearly in
each timber agency on the 10th of July and 10th of January, or such other
dates as the Commissioner might think proper to fix by public notice, at au
upset price of $4 per square mile, or such rate as he might fix by such
notice, the berths to be awarded to the highest bidder, etc., in addition to the
yearly ground rent of titty cents per mile and tariff dues on timber when
cut, the Commissioner or agent in the intervals between sales to grant, licenses-
on application on payment of the bonus and ground rent mentioned.

The Regulations of 1851 and those of 1806 imposed a fine for non-
occupation of timber berths as follows: If a berth in surveyed territory had
not been occupied, i.e., worked upon during the season for which license was
granted or renewed, or in unsurveyed territory the year after "ranting or

o •/ «/ «' n

renewal of license, the ground rent of fifty cents was doubled, and so on in
case of non-occupation until the ground rent reached 23s. 4d. (S4-.67), or
maximum charge per square mile, at which rate it stood till the berths had
been worked upon, on which the rent fell again to fifty cents per mile ; the
making of an average of 500 feet of square timber, or twenty saw-logs to the,
mile, being admitted as due occupation. The object of compulsory occupation
or the payment of an increased ground rent was to prevent large areas of"
country from falling into the hands of capitalists, to the exclusion therefrom
of men of smaller means ; but the penalty of additional charge for rent was
easily evaded, seeing that the holders of limits had only to cut, or pretend to
have cut, 357 pieces of square timber or 1,000 logs, to have a fifty mile limit
maintained at fifty cents per mile rent, or reduced thereto had the rent been
advanced.

After Confederation, compulsory occupation in Ontario was dispensed with,.
and the ground rent increased from fifty cents to $2 per square mile, and by the
third clause of existing regulations it is made imperative that all new timber
berths should be sold by public auction to the bidder of the highest amount of
bonus per square mile; that berths should be offered for sale at such time and
place as the Commissioner thought fit, instead of at any particular date or place ;.
and that in the interim between sales no new Jicenses be granted, as under the
regulations of 1866.

The duty of the Commissioner of Crown Lands with respect of disposing of
timber berths, would seem clear and simple, mas nuch as he is by the auction
system relieved from the necessity of acting oa individual applications for
licenses ; but the fact is. that the management of public forests in Ontario is
surrounded by many difficulties, not the least of which is the settlement of the
country, which is extensively and rapidly taking place, in territory held under
timber license, where lumbering operations are being carried on simultaneously
with the location of the lands.

199

The management of timber on lands under license in unsarveyed territory,
or in surveyed lands where settlement has not yet penetrated, is comparatively
easy ; all that is required being a close inspection of operations by wood rangers.
But in old settled townships, where licenses granted man}' years past still obtain,
and where settlers who had, prior to 1st July, 1867, purchased lots out of limits,
being actual residents on their lots with certain improvements, are allowed to
cut and sell the timber on their lands under the "settler's license regulations,"
the dues on the timber so sold being applied towards payment of the purchase
money due the Crown, less ten per cent, for collection ; and in newly surveyed
townships in free grant territories covered by license, where locations have been
or are being made under the Free Grants Act, as well as lands sold under the
Land Act of i860 within or adjoining timber limits, subject to the Pine Tree
Regulations under Order-in-Council of 27th May, 1869, there is great care
required in guarding against imposition and fraud upon the revenue, by passing-
timber cut on lands of the Crown in trespass as cut under authority of settler's
license or general timber license, or in process of clearing the lands for cultivation
under the 10th secuon of the Free Grants Act, and the Order-in-Council of '27th
May, 1869, with respect to lands sold under the Land Act of 18GO. To watch the
interest of the revenue and at the s ime time avoid apparent harshness in dealing
with settlers on the public lands demands the greatest circumspection by the
department, and zeal and vigilance on the part of its employees on the ground ;
yet, notwithstanding the exercise of eveiy care and precaution, the conflicting
interests arising between lumber operators and settlers are frequent and perplexing.

The Free Grant Townships in the Muskoka, Parry Sound, and Nipissing
Districts are being rapidly settled upon, the lands being in many cases selected
and large improvements made before they were open for location or sale under
the Act ; in view of this fact, and that it would be impolitic to assume the atti-
tude of retarding the settlement of the country, the question of dealing with the
pine timber on the lands befoi'e they were formally located, so that the timber
might be utilized in the public interest, instead of allowing it to be destroyed by
fires, incidental to the clearing of the land, was somewhat embarrassing, seeing
that the sawn lumber and square timber trade was in such a state of depression
as had never before been experienced, and that in conspqnence the result of
selling the townships situated as described, as timber berths, it was anticipated
would be anything but satisfactory in a revenue point of view ; however, as
settlement could not be kept back, it became imperative that the right to cut the
timber on the lands should be disposed of, so that as much as possible might
accrue to the public chest. Accordingly, eight, or nine townships, in the
condition referred to were inspected as to the pine limber thereon, and
reports examined with regard to the quantities in different parts of the
townships, and berths of various areas from four to twenty-six square miles each
were prepared so as to have the several groups of pine distributed over the
respective berths and thereby as far as possible insure sales ; through the careful
management in the laying out of the berths, the sale, which took place was very
successful, the amount realized giving an average of $200 per square mile

In April, 1869, new regulations were introduced of which the following is a
copy. They took the place of those established by Order-in-Council da ed June
12, 1866, and published in the Cana<l« Gazette of June 23, 1866, and enforced
from that date :—

.(3) CROWN TIMBER REGULATIONS.

(Established under Chapter 23 of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada by
order of His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Coimcil, dated the I6fch
April, I860).

200

1st. The Commissioner of Crown Lands may, at his discretion, cause the
limit lines of any timber berths under license, which have not been already sur-
veyed, to !>>• properly surveyed and run, the costs of such survey to be paid by
the holder <>f the license ; and where two or more licenses are interested in the
survey, the Commissioner shall determine what portion of the costs of the survey
shall be paid by each, and such costs of survey shall be a charge upon the timber
berth, to be paid with the ground-rent before renewal of the license.

'2nd. The Commissioner of Crown Lands, before granting any licenses for
new timber berths in the unsurveyed territory, shall, as far as practicable, cause
the section of country where it is intended to allot such berths to be ran out into
townships, and each township, when so surveyed, shall constitute a timber berth,
but the Commissioner of Crown Lands may cause such townships to be sub-
divided into as many timber berths as he may think proper.

3rd. The berths or limits, when so surveyed and set off, and all new berths
or limits in surveyed territory, shall be explored and valued, and then offered for
sale by public auction at the upset price fixed by such valuation, at such time
and place, and on such conditions, and by such officer, as the Commissioner of
Crown Lands shall direct by public notice for that purpose, and shall be sold to
the highest bidder for cash at the time of sale.

4th. All forfeited timber berths may be offered for sale on the second Tues-
day in August in each year by public auction, at such upset price, and at such
place as the Commissioner of Crown Lands may fix and appoint by public notice,
or at such other rate as he may fix by such notice, and shall be awarded to the
highest bidder making payment at the time of sale, -but should the said timber
berth not be then sold, the same may be granted to any applicant willing to pay
the said upset price and ground- rent or on such other terms as the Commissioner
of Crown Lands may direct.

5th. License holders who shall have complied with all existing regulations shall
be entitled to have their licenses renewed on application to the Commissioner of
Crown Lands, or to such local agent as he may appoint for that purpose.

6th. The Commissioner of Crown Lands shall keep a register of all licenses
granted or renewed, and of all transfers of such licenses; and a copy of such register
with a plan of the licensed limits, shall be kept by the Crown timber agent of
the locality, and open to public inspection.

7th. All transfers of timber berths shall be made in writing, but shall be
subject to the approval of the Commissioner of Crown Lands, to whom they
shall be transmitted for approval or rejection, and they shall be valid only from
the time of such approval, to be expressed in writing.

8th. Timber berths are to be described in new licenses as " not to interfere
with prior licenses existing or to be renewed in virtue of regulations." When the
description of any berth or boundary, as given by any license, clashes with the
description of any other licensed berth or territory, the license of more recent
origin (tracing back only to the time when such license or any previous license,
of which it is a renewal, was first granted) shall give way, and the Commissioner
may amend or cancel such license wholly or in part, and substitute another in
place thereof, so as to correct the description of the berth or limit intended to be
licensed ; and in all cases where any license has issued in error or mistake, or is
found to be inconsistent with any other license, or inconsistent or incompatible
with the regulations under which it was granted, the Commissioner of Crown
Lands may cause it to be cancelled or amended, or he may refer all matters in
dispute with reference to the boundaries and position of Timber limits to arbitra-
tion, each of the conten ling parties to choose one arbitrator and the Commis-
sioner of Crown Lands shall appoint an umpire, naming a day on or before which

201

the award of such arbitrators or of such umpire shall be made and delivered to
the parties and such award shall be binding on them.

9th. Timber cut on limits for which license has been suspended or held in
abeyance shall be considered as having been cut without authority, and treated
accordingly.

10th. Occupants,, locatees, or purchasers of pubic lands, who have not completed
all the conditions of sale or location, shall not, unless under settler's license, or
for clearing, fencing, or building purposes on the said land, be permitted to cut
timber or logs thereon, or to dispose of it to others. Persons found doing so
shall be subject to the penalties established by law for cutting timber on the
public lands without authority.

1 1 th. All timber licenses are to expire on the 30th of April next after the date
thereof, and all renewals are to be applied for and issued before the 1st of July
following the expiration of the last preceding license, in default whereof the right
to renewal shall cease, and the berth or berths shall be treated as forfeited.

12th. No renewal of any license shall be granted unless or until the ground-
rent and all costs of survey, and all dues to the Crown on timber, saw-logs, or
other lumber, cut under and by virtue of any license, other than the last preceding,
shall have been first paid.

13th. All timber berths or limits shall be subject to an annual ground -rent of
$3 per square mile, payable in advance, before the issuing of any original license
or renewal.

14th. Ail timber, saw-logs, wood, or other lumber, cut under any license now
in force, or under any license which may be hereafter granted, shall be subject to
the payment of the following Crown dues, that is to say :-

Black walnut and oak, per cubic foot $0 03

Elm, ash, tamarac and maple, per cubic foot 0 02

Birch, basswood, cedar, buttonwood and cottoiiwood, and all

boom timber, per cubic foot 0 01^

Red and white pine timber (per O.C. 27th April, 1887), per

cubic foot , 0 02

All other woods 0 01

Basswood, button wood and cottonwood, saw-logs, per standard

of 200 feet board measure ,..., 0 15

Red and white pine saw-logs and boom timber, per standard

of 200 feet B. M,, (per O.C. 27th April, 1887) 0 20

Walnut, oak and maple saw -logs, per standard of 200 feet

board measure 0 25

Hemlock, spruce, and other woods, per standard of 200 feet

board measure 0 10

All unmeasured culled saw-logs, to be taken at the average
of the lot, and to be charged for at the same rate.

Staves, pipe, per mille 7 00

Staves, West India, per mille 2 25

Cordwood (hard) per cord 0 20

Cordwood (soft) per cord 0 12£

Hemlock tan-bark, per cord 0 30

Railway timber, knees, etc., to be charged 15 per cent, ad valorem.
15th. The duties on timber shall be charged upon the quantity shown by
the specification of measurement at the office of the supervisor of cullers, at
Quebec, or that of the deputy-supervisor of cullers, at Sorel or Montreal, or by
other reliable measurement, but where such actual measurement cannot be
•obtained, each stick of white pine timber shall be estimated as containing seventy

202

cubic feet, red pine as containing thirty-eight cubic feet, oak, fifty feet, and elm.' i
forty-five feet, and all other wood as containing thirty -four cubic feet.

16th. All licensees, or occupants of timber berths, shall furnish, through
themselves, their agents, cullers, and foremen, to such agent or agents as the
Commissioner of Crown lands may appoint tor that purpose, and at such time I
and place as such agent or agents may require, satisfactory proof upon oath as
to 'the exact locality where all the timber, saw-logs, and other lumber in his or
their possession were cut, giving the number of pieces and description of timber,
saw-logs, and other lumber, cut by themselves and others to their knowledge
upon each of the timher berths held or occupied by him or them, respectively,
designating what quantity, if any, had been cut on settlers' lauds, giving the
names of such settlers, the name of the township, and the number of each lot and
concession, exhibiting at the same time, for the inspection of such agent or agents,
the books of count and measurement of such timber, saw-logs, and other lumber,
under his or their control, respectively ; and shall moreover furnish such agent
or agents all required information and facilities to enable him or them to arrive
at a satisfactory determination as to the quantity and description of timber, saw-
logs, and other lumber, made by him <>r them, or held in his or their possession,
respectively, on which government dues are chargeable ; and in the event of such j
agent or agents deeming it expedient to cause such timber, saw-logs, and other \
lumber to be counted or measured, the said licensee, or occupier of such timber
berth, and his or their agent, cullers and foremen, shall aid and assist in such
count and measurement, but should such licensee or occupier, or his or their agents,,
fail to comply with these conditions, such licensee shall forfeit all right to a
renewal of his license, and the berth and limit shall become vacant. And to
enable persons who sell their timber under settler's license to obtain their refund
of dues, and timber cut on patented lands, to pass duty free, it will be necessary
for the parties interested to prove on oath, taken before such agent or agents, and
to his or their satisfaction, the number of pieces and description of timber and |
saw-logs cut on each lot respectively. And in the event of such proof being '
deemed unsatisfactoiy, the said agent or agents may determine the same by
causing a strict count of the stumps to be made, and then certifying according to
such count.

17th. The Commissioner of Crown lands, or any authorized agent, shall at all
times have free access to and be permitted to examine the books and memoranda
kept by any licensee, showing the quantity of lumber in board measure, sawn by
him from logs cut on his timber berth or berths, and failing to produce such
books and memoranda when required so to do, will subject such licensee to a
forfeiture of his right to a renewal of his license. .

18th. When any license holder is in default for, or has evaded the payment
of dues to the Crown on any part of his timber or saw-logs, such dues may be
levied on any other timber or saw-logs belonging to such defaulter, cut under
license, together with the dues thereon.

19th. Before moving any raft or parcel of timber, lumber, or saw-logs, from
the agency in which it has been cut, the owner or person in charge thereof shall
report the same to the Crown timber agent, making, if required, declaration upon
oath, as to where the said timber was cut, the number of pieces and description
of each kiud of wood contained in such raft or parcel of timber, and the number
of cribs, stating at the same time the number and description of pieces cut on
private lands, also on lands under settler's license, giving the names of the owners
or licensees of such land, with the names of the townships and number of each lot
and concession ; and should such Crown timber agent not be satisfied with the
correctness of such report, he shall cause a strict count to be made of the timber

20M

in such raft ; and on being satisfied of tlie correctness of such report of count, the
Crown timber agent may grant a clearance, in due form, for such raft, stating
the number of pieces and description of timber contained therein, distinguishing
the timber cut on private lands and under settler's license from that cut on the
Crown domain.

20th. The owner or holder of any such raft or parcel of timber shall, within
twenty-four hours after the sani" shall have arrived at its destination at Quebec,
Sorel, Montreal, or other port of >ale or shipment, report the arrival of such raft
to the collector of Crown timber dues, or if at Sorel or Montreal, to the deputy-
supervisor of cullers ; and should the said raft be found by the specification of
measurement to contain , i greater numb r of pieces of timber than is noted in
the clearance, the surplus number of pieces, if not satisfactorilv explained, shall
be held as having been cut on Crown lands without authority, and subject to the
payment of dues accordingly.

21st. Parties omitting to obtain their clearance at such agency, or omitting
to report the arrival of sud'i raft at its destination, as above mentioned, may be
refused further license, and max1 be subject to forfeiture of the timber for evasion
of regulations, as provided in Cap. 23, of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada.

22nd. Persons evading or refusing the payment of timber dues, or the final
settlement of bonds or promissory notes for the payment of such dues, or in
default with the Crown timber office or agent; also persons taking forcible
possession of disputed ground, before obtaining decision in their favor, and persons
refusing to comply with the decision, of arbitrators or of the umpire, as provided
by the Nth section of these regulations, or with the regulations established by
Order-in Council, or who forcibly interrupt surveyors in the discharge of their
duty, shall be refused further licenses, and their berths shall be forfeited at the
expiration of the then existing license.

23rd. Dues of all kinds on timber cut under license, remaining unpaid on the
30th November following the season in which it was cut, shall be subject to
interest from that date, but without prejudice to the power of the Crown to
enforce payment of such outstanding dues at any time the Commissioner of
Crown Lands may think proper.

(•i) ON THK VARIOUS FORMS OF TIMBER LICENSES IN USE.

There are four forms of timber license in use in the Province of Ontario ;
two for what is called the " Western Timber District," and the " Belleville
District,' one coiitamin"1 the right to cut timber on road allowances and the other

o o

not, and neither of them granting the right to cut rafting stuff on lands of the
Crown. Two forms of Houses ar_> used f >r t i .- " Ottawa Agency," on.' hiving a
stipulation concerning road allowances, and the other not, but both conferring
the right to cut rafting stuff from the Crown lands.

The reason why the right to cut rafting stuff is confined to the Ottawa
agency, is because, on the Ottawa timber and logs come from a long distance up
the river, and from different tributary .streams, and have to be rafted, broken up,
and re-rafted in some cases several times before the timber and logs reach their
destination ; whereas on the rivers in other parts of the Province, no rafting
takes place, the timber and logs being driven down the streams loosely till they
reach the large waters of the lakes or the River St. Lawrence, on the shores of
which rafting stuff can be cut or purchased.

The following copy of the simpler form of license used in the Western
Timber District, will, with its notes, give an idea of these different licenses :

204

(5) FORM OF A TIMBER LICENSE IN THE WESTERN TIMMEK DISTRICT.

I'.y authority of Chapter 20 of the Revised Statutes of Ontario, and the I
Crown Timber regulations, dated the 16th day of April, 1869, and for and in
consideration of the payments made and to be made to Her Majesty:

I do hereby give unto and unto I

agents or workmen, full power and license to cut

every description of timber on lands or lots unlocated and unsold at the date of
this License, or sold or located during the time this License is in force, and pine
trees on lands or lots sold under Orders in Council of 27th May, 1869, or sold or
located under the Free Grants and Homesteads Act of 1868 or amendment of the
said Act, by Chapter four of the Statutes of Ontario of 1880, and pine and cedar
trees, when reserved, on lots sold under Order in Council of 3rd April, 1880, prior i
to the date of this License, and pine trees on lots patented under said Chapter
four, or patented as mining lands, under the General Mining Act, or patented or
leased under Statute 54 Victoria, Chapter eight, upon the location described on I
the buck hereof by and to hold and

occupy the said location to the exclusion of all others, except as hereinafter men- j
lioned from to thirtieth of April, 18 , and no longer ; j

with the right of convejdng away the said timber through j

any ungranted, uncleared, or waste lands of the Crown:—

And by virtue of this license, the said licensee ha right by the said
statute to all timber cut by others during the term of this license in trespass on
the ground hereby assigned, with full power to seize and recover the same.

But this license is subject to the following conditions, viz.:—

To the withdrawal therefrom of lots located or sold under the Free Grants
and Homesteads Act of 1868, prior to the passing of Chapter four of the Statutes
of Ontario of 1880, and for which patent may be granted on the ground that five
years had elapsed from the date of such location or sale, and that the conditions
of settlement had been complied with prior to thirtieth April preceding the date
or issue of the license.

That any person or persons may at all times make and use roads upon, and
travel over the ground hereby licensed.

That nothing herein shall prevent any person or persons from taking from
the ground covered by this license, standing timber of any kind (without com-
pensation therefor) to be used for the making of roads or bridges or public
works, by or on behalf of the Province of Ontario, the authority of the Depart-
ment of Crown Lands having first been obtained.

That persons settling under lawful authority or title within the location
hereby licensed, shall not in any way be interrupted in clearing and cultivation
by the said licensee , or any one acting for or by

permission.

That the Commissioner of Crown Lands, under Order in Council of 27th
April, 1885, may at any time during the currency of this license, cancel the right
to cue timber other than pine upon any lots, included in the description in this
license, which may have been sold or located subsequent to the date hereof, or
upon any lots in said description which may have been squatted upon with the
bona fide intention of location or purchase.

And further : under condition that the said license or representa-

tives shall comply with all regulations that are or may be established by Order
in Council, and shall submit all the timber, saw logs or other lumber cut under
this License to be counted or measured, and settle for the duties chargeable
thereon, when required by me or any officer thereunto authorized, — otherwise the

205

said timber will be forfeited to the Crown, and the said licensee be subject to such
other penalties as the Act provides.

Given under my hand, at Toronto, the day of in the

year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and ninety- in duplicate.

Commissioner.

The stipulation in regard to road allowances found in two of the forms, is as
follows :—

And every government road allowance or parts thereof, embraced within
the boundaries of the tracts or parcels of land above mentioned or described,
and all such portions of any government road allowance as border upon any tract,
lot, or parcel of land above mentioned or described, and lie between the side-lines
or between the front and rear-lines, or between a side-line and a front or rear-
line, or between different parts of any line of said tracts, lots, or parcels of land
produced across such road allowance ; provided, however, that when any portion
of a road allowance is found to be included in any two licenses covering lands
on opposite sides of such road allo -vance, then each license is to extend only to
the centre line of such road allowance ; and provided also, that all disputes
arising out of any conflict of licenses covering government road allowances shall
be decided by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, who may define what
portion of any road allowance is included in each license, and his decision shall be
binding.

This license not to interfere with prior licenses.

(6) SYSTEM OF WOOD RANGING. — EFFORTS TO PREVENT WASTE.

The Commissioner of Crown Lands, in the communication already cited

I describes the operation of these regulations and the system of wood-ranging was

\ then introduced. This is admitted as at first crude and experimental, but it has

I since gone on with moilitications as suggested by experience, until it is deemed

at present as perfect as can practically be carried out.

A staff of from twenty to thirty experienced and reliable rangers are
employed each season, some of them being engaged from December till the 30th
of April, and a few of the supervising rangers up to the end of October. The
result has been s i.tisfactory in the highest degree, the revenue having increased
in the several agencies immediately after the inception of the system to the
extent of from h' t'ty pi'r cent , and in one agency even -K)0 per cent.

Instead of agents dealing with accounts for timber dues as formerly, all
returns, together with ringer's reports, are transmitted to the department, where
the timber limit operations and cutting on special lots of land are checked, and
all accounts made up, and transmitted to agents for the collection of the dues
and transmission of the same to headquarters as collected.

Wood-rangers have standing instructions to report generally on any wanton
or special waste, when such has been observed in connection with lumbering"
operations, and in cases of licensees allowing standing pine through which fire
has passed to become lost instead of utilizing it before it is destroyed by what is.
termed the ': boring worm." A few cases of waste transpired some years ago by
licensees arranging with jobbers to cut saw-logs on their timber limits, the logs,
by agreement, to be up to a certain standard of quality — all logs failing short of
the standard fixed being rejecte I and left in the woods — and an attempt made
to leave the rejected timber out of the returns ; but through the vigilance of the
wood-rangers of the department, such transactions were nipped in the bud,, and
abandoned when parties found that they had to account for and mak" payment
to the Crown on every tree cut clown. The only real waste of timber in lumber.

iug is in connection with the manufacture of square pine and board, (or
octagonal) pine timber, especially the former, in squaring which and in the rejec-
tion of the upper portion of the tree where the limbs begin- fully one-third of the
tree is wasted, viz., one-sixth of the best of the timber in siding off to reach the
square, and one-sixth of the upper part of the tree which is left in the woods, but
which if drawn, would be valuable at a saw-mill, where it could be cut into
various qualities of lumber, either fit for domestic use or export. The waste
referred to has been noticed by this department for years past, but under the
regulations past and present and the tenure under which licenses to cut timber
are held, and have been held for many years, it is found difficult to uproot a
system which has obtained so long, and in which there are so many vested
interests and so much capital involved.

PRODUCTION OF TIMBER IN CANADA, 1890.

The following table taken from the Statistical Year Book of Canada (1891), p. 14, gives the
production of timber in the whole of Canada during the year 1890 :

Timber.

Ontario.

Quebec.

New
Brunswick.

British
Columbia.

Nova Scotia.

Manitoba
and N.W.T.

Saw logs - B.M

522,524,283

495,449,000

108,569,122

79,177,05="

* -78. 603, 742

30,605,906

Sciuare timber c. ft.

3 392,629

2,151,791

16,818

Boom pieces .

150,361

5,240

7,. '(75

TIardwood c ft

12,527

67,428

t

Railway tie5* No

672 410

139,550

79,488

29 971

8 747

1 356

Telegraph poles

468

635

3,163

Cedar lin ft

162 346

4,716,201

Cedar posts, tanbark and
boltj cords

4,147

II 10,769

258

Pile timber B M

11 (564

SViinirlps iVT

3 331

615

1 230

14 787

1,449,916

* 1 295

6 820

§ 156,402

±63

Due** received $

878 772

806,052

112,475

29,678

102,951

* Traverses. * *Trans- Atlantic shipments only, t Included in square timber. ± Rafting pins.

|| Pulp and bobbin wood included. § Laths.

THE ONTARIO FIRE ACT.

The following Act (Cap. 213, KS.O.) was passed by the Legislature of Ontario
in 1878, with the view of preventing the occurrence of the fires which have
wrought so much devastation among the forests ot the Province :—

207

An Act to preserve the Forests from destruction by

Fire.

WHEREAS large quantities of valuable timber are an- Preamble,
nually destroyed by tires which are in many instances
the result of negligence and carelessness, it is therefore necessary
to provide stringent regulations for the prevention of such fires.
Therefore Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent
of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Ontario, enacts
as follows :—

1. The Lieutenant-Governor may, by proclamation to be Lt.-Governor
made by him from time to time, issued by and with the advice ™^epd™ctrTct!
.and consent of the Executive Council, declare any portion or

part of the Province of Ontario to be a fire district.

2. Every proclamation under this Act shall be published in Publication of
the Ontario Gazette, and such portion or part of the Province fire

as is mentioned and declared to be a fire district in and by the
said proclamation, shall, from and after the said publication,
become a fire district within the meaning and for the purposes
of this Act.

3. Ever}' such portion or part of the Province mentioned in Revocation,
such proclamation shall cease to be a tire district upon the
revocation by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council of the pro-
clamation by which it was created.

14

4. It shall not be lawful for any person to set out, or cause Fires not to be
to be set out or started, any fire in or near the woods within ^^^^
any fire district, between the first clay of April and the first day purposes and
of November in any year, except for the purpose of clearing "S™^
land, cooking, obtaining warmth, or for some industrial pur-
pose;* and in cases of starting fires for any of the above pur-
poses, the obligations and precautions imposed by the following-
sections shall be observed.

5. Every person who shall, between the first day of April Precautions to

i ,1 ,. . -i n-N-r i LI -LI • ube taken in

and the hrst day of November, make or start a fire within such case of clear.
fire district for the purpose of clearing land shall exercise and ing land,
observe every reasonable care and precaution in the making
and starting of such fire, and in the managing of and caring for
the same at'ter it has been made and started, in order to pre-
vent such tire from spreading or burning up the timber and
forests surrounding the place where it has been so made and
started.

6. Every person who shall, between the first day of April
and the first day of November make or start within such tire i
district a tire in the forest, or at a distance of less than half-a-
mile therefrom, or upon any island for cooking, obtaining
warmth, or for any industrial purpose, shall—

208

1. Select a locality in the neighbourhood in which there is
the smallest quantity of vegetable matter, dead wood, branches,
brushwood, dry leaves, or resinous trees ;

2. Clear the place in which he is about to light the fire by
removing all vegetable matter, dead trees, branches, brushwood
and dry leaves from the soil within a radius of ten feet from
the fire ;

3. Exercise and observe every reasonable care and precaution
to prevent such fire from spreading, and carefully extinguish
the same before quitting the place.

Precautions 7 Any person who shall throw or drop any burning match,

matches' bum- asnes °£ a pipe> lighted cigar, or any other burning substance,

ing sub- or who shall discharge any fire-arm within such fire district

stances, etc. S\VA\\ be subject to the pains and penalties imposed by this Act,

if he neglect completely to extinguish before leaving the spot

the fire of such match, ashes of a pipe, cigar, wadding of the

fire-ar ; . or other burning substance.

Act to be read 8. Every person in charge of any drive of timber, survey or
to employees exploring party, or of any other party requiring camp tires for
su'rveyVlum- cooking or other purposes within such fire district, shall pro-
berers, etc. vide himself with a copy of this Act, and shall call his men
together and cau^e said Act to be read in their hearing, and
explained to them at least once in each week during thn con-
tinuance of such work or service.

Precautions as 9. All locomotive engines used on any railway which passes
tolocomotives. through any such fire district or any part of it, shall, by the
company using the same, be provided with and have in use
all the most approved and efficient means used to prevent the
escape of fire from the furnace or ash-pan of such engines, and
that the smoke stack of each locomotive engine so used shall
be provided with a bonnet or screen of iron or steel wire
netting, the size of the wire used in making the netting to be
not le.-.s than number nineteen of the Birmingham wire gauge,
or three sixty-fourths parts of an inch in diameter, and shall
contain in each inch square at least eleven wires each way at
right angles to each other, that is in all twenty-two wires to
the inch square.

Duty of en- 1O. It shall be the duty of every engine driver in charge of
gine drivers, a locomotive engine passing over any such railway within the
limits of any such fire district, to see that all such appliances
as are above-mentioned are properly used and applied, so as
to prevent the unnecessary escape of fire from any such engine
as far as it is reasonably possible to do so.

Penalty for ^ 1 Whosoever unlawfully neglects or refuses to comply
non compli- with the requirements of this Act in any manner whatsoever,
Ancctewith thls shall be liable upon a conviction before any justice of the

209

peace to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars over and above
the costs of prosecution, and in default of payment of such fine
and costs, the offender shall be imprisoned in the common gaol
for a period not exceeding three calendar months ; and any
railway company permitting any locomotive engine to be run
in violation of the provisions of the ninth section of this Act
shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each
offence, to be recovered with costs in any court of competent
jurisdiction.

. Every suit for any contra vention of this Act shall be Time for
commenced within three calendar months immediately follow- ^j."^ng
ing such contravention.

13. All fines and penalties imposed and collected under this Disposal of
Act shall be paid one-half to the complainant or prosecutor fines-
and the other half to Her Majesty for the public use of the
Province.

14. It shall be the special duty of every Crown Land agent, Government
Woods and Forests agent, Free Grant agent, and _ bush ranger, J^Jj^™^
to enforce the provisions and requirements of this Acb, and in

all cases coming within the knowledge of any such agent or
bush ranger to prosecute every person guilty of a breach of
any of the provisions and requirements of the same.

15. Nothing in this Act contained shall be held to limit or Act not to in-
interfere with the right of any party to bring and maintain terfere with

a civil action tor damages occasioned by fire, and such right f*r da°mages°n
shall remain and exist as though this Act had not been occasioned

. by fire.

passed.
DESCRIPTION OF "FiRE DISTRICTS" UNDER CAP. 213 OF THE STATUTES OF ONTARIO.

District oVo. 1. — Commencing at a point on the north shore of Lake Huron
where Provincial Land Surveyor Albert P. Salter's meridian line between ranges
numbers twenty-one and twenty -two west intersects the water's edge, said
point being the south-west angle of the Township of Plummer; thence easterly,
following the turnings and windings of the shore along the water's edge of Lake
Huron and the Georgian Bay to the mouth of French River ; thence south-easterly,
along the easterly shore of 'the Georgian Bay, and taking in Parry Island, to the
north-west angle of the Township of Matchedash ; thence south-easterly along
the westerly boundaries of the Townships of Matchedash and North Orillia to
the south-west angle Of North Orillia ; Ihence north-easterly along the southerly
boundary of North Orillia to the waters of Lake Couch idling ; thence easterly
across said lake to the south-west angle of the Township of Rama ; thence east-
erly along the south boundaries of the Townships of Rama, Dalton, Digby and
Lutterworth to the north-west angle of the Township of Galway ; thence south-
erly along the westerly boundaries of the Townships of Galway and Harvey to
the south-west angle of Harvey ; thence easterly along the south boundaries ot
the Townships of Harvey, Burleigh, Methuen, Lake and Tudor, to the north west
angle of the Township of Elzevir; thence southerly along the west boundary of

14 (F.)

210

Elzevir to the south-west angle of said township ; thence easterly along the south
boundaries of the Townships of Elzevir, Kaladar, Kennebec, Olden, Oso and South
Sherbrooke, to the south-east angle of the Township of South Sherbrooke ; thence
north-westerly along the easterly boundaries of the Townships of South and
North Sherbrooke to the southerly boundary of the Township of Lavant ; thence
north-easterly along the southerly boundaries of the Townships of Lavant and
Darling, to the south-easterly angle of the Township of Darling; thence north-
westerly along the easterly boundaries of the Townships of Darling and Bagot,
to the north-easterly angle of the Township of Bagot ; thence south-westerly
along the northerly boundaries of the Townships of Bagot and Blitheh'eld, to the
easterly boundary of the Township of Brougham ; thence north-westerly along
the easterly boundaries of the Townships of Brougham, Grattan, Wilberforce and.
Alice, to the waters of the Upper Allumette Lake ; thence north-westerly, follow-
ing the water's edge of said lake and the Ottawa River to the head of Lake
Temiscamingue ; thence due north along the boundary between the Provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, to the northern boundary of the Province of Ontario ;
thence westerly along the said northern boundary to its intersection with the
production northerly of Provincial Land Surveyor Albert P. Salter's meridian line
between the said ranges numbers twenty-one and twenty-two west, and thence
southerly along said meridian line produced to the place of beginning.

District No. 2. — All that part of the said Province lying west of Provincial
Land Surveyor Albert P. Salter's meridian line between ranges twenty-one and
twenty-two west, near Bruce Mines, in the District of Algoma, and west of the
said meridian line produced to the northern boundary of the Province, the said
meridian line being the western boundary of the Fire District established by the
Proclamation of March 27th, 1878.

THE ONTARIO FIRE-RANGING SYSTEM.

In 1888 the Department of Crown Lands (Ontario), inaugurated a system of
fire ranging, explained in the circular-letter to limit-holders given below, the cost
of which is borne in equal parts by the Province and the lumbermen. It is very
generally adopted by limit-owners and is believed to have been instrumental in
greatly reducing the annual loss through forest fires :—

Sir, — The Commissioner of Crown Lands, feeling the importance of creating
some better organization for preventing the destruction of the forest by fire, has
approved of a scheme, the piincipal points of which are herein stated to you, so
that you may, should the position of your limits make it desirable, avail yourself
of its advantages.

It is proposed that during the dangerous period, say from the first day of
May to the first day of October in each year, there shall be placed on such limits
as are exposed to danger a man or men who will be empowered and instructed to
use every tndeavor to prevent and suppress fires in every way possible, and the
ranger who is placed in charge of a limit will be authorized to engage whatever
help may be necessary to cope with a dangerous fire where prompt action is
necessary ; these men will be supplied copies of the " Fire Act," and instructed to
post them up in public and conspicuous places, to visit each person resident on
the limit and give them, if thought advisable, a copy of the Act, explaining to
them its provisions, penalty for its infraction, etc., and to endeavor to enlist their
assistance and sympathy to make the Act effective.

The department will leave the limit holder to suggest the number cf men
who should be placed on his limit, and as it is of all things necessary that prac-

211

tical bushmen of good judgment and well acquainted with the limit should be
selected, he, the limit holder, will nominate the man to be placed in charge of the
limit and his subordinates, if any, the department reserving the right to limit
the number of men to be employed on any limit and also to reject or
remove any man whom it tinds unfitted to discharge the duties of the position.

It is hoped that limit holders will recognize the necessity of recommending
men of good judgement and cool temper who, while fully discharging their duties,
will not harass or annoy settlers or others, as, if an animus is created in the
breasts of the settlers the scheme will undoubtedly fail to effect the result ex-
pected. Limit holders will be expected to exercise supervision over these men
and see that they thoroughly and effectually perform their duties.

With respect to remuneration the department thinks that the man in charge
of a limit should be paid dollars a day, which should cover board and

ordinary expenses, and where subordinates are required, that suitable men can be
obtained at dollars per day, which should also cover board and ordinary

expenses; the men will be appointed -bush and fire rangers and instructed from
here so as to clothe them with authority under section 14 of the Fire Act, and a
copy of the instructions will be furnished each limit holder.

As the limit holder is reaping a large proportion of the benefit, it is intended
that he should bear one-half of the cost of men and expenses which may be
incurred under this scheme.

The department will pay wages and expenses and charge to each limit
holder his proportion, which will be a charge upon the limit and an account will
be rendered at the close of the season, when prompt payment must be made.

Should you desire to avail yourself of this scheme you will at once address a
letter to the department to that effect, stating the limits you wish protected, the
number of your license for current season, the number of men you would
recommend to be employed, and submit a list of those you would recommend for
appointment on your limits.

AUBREY WHITE,

Assistant Commissioner.
DEPARTMENT OF CROWN LANDS,
(WOODS AND FOREST BRANCH,)
April, 1888.

212

AN ACT RESPECTING THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS PARK OF CANADA. I

Chap. 32 of 50-51 Viet, setting- apart a national park at Banff in the Rocky I
Mountains reads thus :—

Whereas it is expedient in the public interest that a national park and
sanatorium should be set apart and established in the North-west Territories ; I
Therefore, Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and
House of Commons of Canada, enacts as follows :—

1. The tract of land comprised within the limits hereinafter set forth, that ]
is to say, commencing at the easterly end of Castle Mountain station grounds, on I
the Canadian Pacific Railway, as shown on a plan of right-of-way tiled in the >
Department of Rail ways and Canals by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, I
thence on a course about south thirty-five degrees east, ten miles, more or less, to I
a point in latitude seven minutes, six seconds and ninety-six hundredths of a
second south of the point of commencement, and in longitude seven minutes, fifty- I
four seconds and ninety-eight hundredths of a second east of the point of com- I
mencement ; thence on a course about north fifty-five degrees east, twenty-six: I
miles, more or less, to a point in latitude five minutes, forty-six seconds and twenty |
hundredths of a second north of the point of commencement, and in longitude I
thirty-seven minutes, twenty -three seconds and thirty -one hundredths of a second
east of the point of commencement ; thence on a course about north thirty-five
degrees west, ten miles, more or less, to a point in latitude twelve minutes, fifty-
three seconds and ninety-one hundredths of a second north of the point of
commencement, and in longitude twenty-nine minutes, thirty-two seconds and
thirty-eight hundredths of a second east of the point of commmencement ; thence
on a course about south fifty-five degrees west, twenty-six miles, more or less, to
the place of commencement, containing by admeasurement two hundred and sixtyl
square miles, be the same more or less, so far as the title to the said tract of land I
in whole or in part, is now vested in the Crown, is hereby withdrawn from sale, I
settlement and occupancy under the provisions of " The Dominion Lands Act " or
any regulations made under the said Act or any other Act with respect to mining
or timber licenses or any other matter whatsoever.

2. The said tract of land is hereby reserved and set apart as a public park
and pleasure ground for the benefit, advantage and enjoyment of the people of
Canada, subject to the provisions of this Act and of the regulations hereinafter
mentioned, and shall be known as the Rocky Mountains Park of Canada.

3. No person shall, except as hereinafter provided, locate, settle upon, use
or occupy any portion of the said public park.

4. The park shall be under the control and management of the Minister of the
Interior, and the Governor-in-council may make regulations for the following
purposes :—

(a) The care, preservation and management of the park and of the water-
courses, lake, trees and shrubbery, minerals, natural curiosities and other matters
therein contained.

(6) The control of the hot springs situate in the said park, and their manage-
ment and utilization for purposes of bathing and sanitation and in every other -
respect.

213

(c) The lease for any term of years of such parcels of land in the park as he
deems advisable in the public interest, for the construction of buildings for ordin-
ary habitation and purposes of trade and industry, and for the accommodation of
persons resorting to the park.

(d) The working of mines and the development of mining interests within
the limits of the park, and the issuing of licenses or permits of occupation for the
said purposes ; but no lease, license or permit shall be made, granted or issued
under this or the next preceding paragraph of this section which will' in any way
impair the usefulness of the park for the purposes of public enjoyment and
recreation.

(e) Trade and traffic of every description.

(_/) The preservation and protection of game and fish, of wild birds generally,
and of cattle allowed to pasture in the park.

(g) The issuing of licenses or permits for the pasturage of cattle, and the
management of hay lands.

(A) The removal and exclusion of trespassers.

(1) And generally for all purposes necessary to carry this Act into effect
according to the true intent and meaning thereof.

(2) The Governor-in-council may, by the said regulations, impose penalties
for any violation thereof, not exceeding in each case the sum of fifty dollars, or,
in default of payment with costs, imprisonment for not more than three months.

5. Every regulation made as aforesaid, shall, after publication for four con-
secutive weeks in the Canada Gazette, and in any other manner that may be
provided thereby by the Governor-in-council, have the like force and effect as if
it was herein enacted, and such regulations shall be laid before Parliament within
fifteen days after its first meeting thereafter.

6. Nothing in this Act contained shall affect the obligations of the Govern-
ment (if any) arising out of the conditions of the acquisition of the North-west
Territories.

7. This Act may be cited as "Rocky Mountains Park Act, 1887."

REGULATIONS RESPECTING ROCKY MOUNTAINS PARK.

By Order-in-Council of Monday, 30th June, 1S90, under authority of " The
Rocky Mountains Park Act," 50-51 Viet., chap 32, s. 4, the Order-in-Council of
the 27th day of November, 1889, establishing regulations for the control and
management of the Rocky Mountains Park of Canada was cancelled, and the
following Regulations, approved in point of form by the Minister of Justice,
were substituted after the 1st day of July, 1890, for the regulations established
by the said Order-in-Council.

(1) No person shall, without permission from the Minister of the Interior,
reside permanently within other portions of the park than those sold or leased.

(2) The superintendent of the park (hereinafter called the superintendent)
may issue permits to visitors for camping upon such ground as he may designate;
any one camping without such permit shall be considered a trespasser, and the
fee for Such permit shall be one dollar per month per tent ; provided, however, that
no such permit shall be granted for camping in any portion of the park situated
south of Bow River.

214

(3) The defacement of any object at any of the hot springs, or of any of the
natural rock formations, or timber, by written inscription, or otherwise, is strictly
forbidden ; as is also the throwing of any stones, sticks or other substances what-
soever into any of the springs or streams in the Park.

(4) No advertisements, other than those issued or permitted by the Minister
of the Interior, shall be posted or displayed within the park, except on leased
property in the town site of Banff, or property in the village of Anthracite.

(5) No live stock shall be permitted to run at large, nor shall pigs, sheep or
goats be brought into or kept within the park, provided, however, that licensed
butchers may bring in and keep for a period not exceeding thirty days, and at
such places and in the manner to be prescribed by the superintendent, animals to
be slaughtered for food purposes.

(6) The superintendent shall from time to time select and designate pastur-
ing grounds within the park, upon which leaseholders may pasture not in excess-
of two milch cows and two horses for each lot leased ; but leaseholders availing
themselves of this regulation shall make provision satisfactory to the superintend-
ent for herding- the animals and driving them to and from the pasture grounds.

(7) All stock found pasturing, except where authorized, may be impounded
and held until a proper guarantee be given that the trespass will not be repeated^
and until a fine be paid sufficient to cover the expenses of impounding such stock,
feeding them while so impounded, and advertising. Failure to give the necessary
guarantees and to pay the fine within thirty days shall render the stock liable to
be sold by the superintendent, and the proceeds of such sale, after paying thereout
the tine, cost of maintenance, advertising and sale, shall be paid by the superin-
tendent to the owner of the stock. The superintendent may authorize any
person to act as pound-keeper, the rates of remuneration to be settled by the
Minister of the Interior.

(8) The superintendent shall, upon application, furnish each owner of a dog-
or bitch, upon payment of a fee of one dollar in the case of a dog and two dollar*
in the case of a bitch, with a license authorizing him to keep such dog or bitch ;
such licenses shall expire on the thirtieth day of June in each year, and shall then
be renewed ; and any unlicensed dog or bitch may be impounded or destroyed, at
the discretion of the superintendent.

(9) No person shall cut or remove any timber, growing or dead, or remove
or displace any mineral deposits or natural curiosities, unless by written permis-
sion of the superintendent.

(10) No rubbish or any matter of an offensive nature shall be deposited,
except in such places and at such times and under such conditions as the super-
intendent shall designate.

(11) No person shall ride or drive on or over any bridge within the park
faster than a walk ; furious riding or driving on public roads is also prohibited.

(a) Horses driven with sleighs shall be provided with bells.

(6) No person shall ride or drive across or on any side-walk, boulevard,
vacant lot, or common within the park, without the written permission of the
superintendent. Horse-racing is also prohibited, except in such places as may be
set apart for the purpose by the superintendent

(c) Horses in use or attached to any vehicle shall not be allowed to stand
without being tied or in charge of some grown person.

(12) The waters of the hot springs shall be controlled by the superintendent,
and shall be supplied to licensed bath-houses at such rental per annum as may be
fixed from time to time by Order-in-Council, and the superintendent may .at any
time shut off the supply of the said water, after two weeks' notice in writing,
from any such bath-house, the lessee of which may be in arrears for rent or who

215

may have in any way infringed any of the provisions of this or the next succeed-
ing clause ; and no person shall in any way interfere or tamper with any spring,
pipes, valves, traps, tanks, or any other apparatus connected with the supply and
distribution of the said water.

(13) The superintendent or his authorized agent shall have free access for
inspection at all reasonable times to any bath-house or building using the water
of the springs, or to any pipe leading to or within such bath-house or building.

(14) The Minister of the Interior shall have power to cause such portion of
the park as from time to time he may designate to be surveyed and laid out in
building lots, for the construction thereon of buildings for ordinary habitation
and purposes of trade and industry, and for the accommodation of persons
resorting to the park, and may issue leases for such lots for any term not exceed-
ing forty-two years, with the right of renewal, at rentals to be from time to time
fixed by him ; also, to set apart such portions of the park as he may think proper
for the sites of market-places, j iils, court-houses, places of public worship, burying-
grounds, benevolent institutions, squares, and for other similar public purposes.

(15) The location, design, and general character of an}' buildings to be erected
as dwelling-houses or for purposes connected therewith, or fences, shall be subject
to the approval of the superintendent and to the sanction of the Minister of the
Interior.

(a) No timber 011 any lot leased for residential purposes, except so much as-
is actually necessary to be removed to make room for the building and reasonable
access thereto, shall be cut or removed, except by permission of the superintendent.

(16) The Minister of the Interior may issue licenses of occupation for the
working of mines and the development of mineral interests within the limits of
the park, subject, however, to the approval in each instance by the Governor-in-
Council, of the terms, conditions, and duration of such licenses of occupation.

(17) All leases or licenses of occupation shall be in such form as may be
approved by the Minister of the Interior and the Minister of Justice.

(18) No bar-room or saloon shall be permitted within the park.

(19) The following restrictions on the sale of intoxicating liquors in the park
shall be imposed and enforced, in addition to the restrictions imposed by the
North-west Territories Act. The sale of intoxicating liquors even under the
special permission granted under section ninety-two of the said Act, is strictly
prohibited, except in hotels, and there it shall only be allowed to hotel guests for
table use. Nor shall an}7 person after obtaining such special permission, sell,
exchange, trade or barter, or have in his possession within the park, even for hotel
use under this regulation, any intoxicating liquor, until his special permission
issued in accordance with section ninety-two of the said North-west Territories
Act has been countersigned by the Minister of the Interior or his deputy, for
which countersigning a fee of fifty dollars shall be charged in each case ; and no
permit for a hotel shall be so countersigned unless such hotel shall have at least
twenty bed-rooms of a size and to be furnished in a manr.er satisfactory to the
superintendent.

(20) If at any time during the continuance of the permit the superintendent
reports that the accommodation hereinbefore specified is not maintained, or if it
is proved to the satisfaction of the Minister of the Interior that the hotel is not
being conducted in an orderly and proper manner, the permit may be revoked
and cancelled by the Minister of the Interior and the permittee shall have no
claim to have repaid to him any portion of the fee paid for countersigning such
permit.

(21) No person shall do business as a peddler in the park or act as guide
therein without a license from the Minister of the Interior, who shall have power

216

to revoke such license in his discretion; and no guide shall be entitled to charge
for his services more than fifty cents per hour for six hours or under, and not
more than three dollars for any day not exceeding ten hours.

('12) All slaughter-houses, butcher-shops, fish-stalls, and any other business
which from its nature is or may become offensive or obnoxious, shall be carried
on only at such places as the superintendent may designate in the license for the
establishment of such business, and shall be subject at any time, on sixty days'
notice in writing delivered lo the owner or lessee in person, or left at his place of
residence or place of business to removal to such other place as the superintendent
may designate. Every license issued under this clause .shall be subject to revo-
cation at any time upon thirty days' notice to the licensee, and the business shall
entirely cease on the revocation of a license.

(23) The Minister of the Interior may issue a license to any person or
persons undertaking to place a steam yacht or other vessel, or vesssels, suitable
for the conveyance of passengers, and in all respects complying with the Steam-
boat Inspection Act or Acts regulating steam and other vessels, on any waters
within the park, to date from the first day of April in each year. The maximum
fare which may be charged for the conveyance of passengers in such boats shall
not exceed when running on regular trips up to eight miles, fifty cents ; above
eight and up to twelve miles, seventy-five cents ; over twelve miles, one dollar.

(24) Licenses to carry on livery stables may be issued by the Minister of the
Interior, the fee for which shall be ten dollars per annum for each vehicle drawn
by two or more horses, and six dollars for each vehicle drawn by one horse ; and
no person shall keep horses or conveyances for hire without first having obtained
such license. The rates which may be charged for the hire of carriages or other
vehicles, and saddle horses, shall not exceed the following : —

(a) For the conveyance of one passenger from or to the railway station to or
from any licensed hotel or boarding-house within a radius of one-and-a-half miles
of the station, fifty cents ; to all points beyond one-and-a-half and within three
miles of the railway station, one dollar.

(6) For the conveyance of one passenger when there are at least four passen-
gers in the vehicle, from any one point within one mile of the Bow River bridge,
at the end of Banff avenue, to and from Devil's Lake, two dollars.

(c) For conveyance in any vehicle, drawn by two horses, and carrying not
more than four persons, for one passenger, one dollar for the first hour, and
twenty -five cents an hour for each additional passenger for the first hour ; and
for every subsequent hour, fifty cents for one passenger and twenty-five cents for
each additional passenger.

(d) For conveyance in any vehicle drawn by two or more horses and
carrying more than four persons, seventy-five cents an hour for each person for
the first hour, and twenty-five cents an hour for every subsequent hour.

(e) For conveyance in any vehicle drawn by one horse, one dollar an hour
for one person for the first hour, fifty cents an hour for an additional person for
the first hour, and fifty cents for each person for every subsequent hour.

(f) For saddle-horses, three dollars for a whole day, two dollars for a half day
or by the hour seventy-five cents for the first hour and fifty cents for each
subsequent hour. In calculating half-a-day, one o'clock, p.m., shall be the hour
of division ; the maximum time allowed lor a half day shall be five hours ; and
twenty-five cents may be charged for each subsequent hour.

(g) The rates for cartage of freight or general merchandise shall be subject
to agreement between the parties interested.

(25) The tires on waggons used for freighting purposes on the roads
.constructed by the government within the park shall be at least two inches and

217

a-half in width ; all vehicles shall be provided with brakes ; and it shall be the
duty of the superintendent to condemn and prohibit the use of any vehicle
which in his opinion is unsafe.

(26) All drivers of public vehicles shall be licensed ; the fee therefor shall
be one dollar ; and such license may be revoked and cancelled at any time by
the superintendent if it is proved to his satisfaction that the holder thereof has
been guilty of incivility, insobriety, or misconduct, while discharging his duties.

(27) No person shall keep a pool, billiard, or bagatelle-table, or bowling-alley
for use by the public, without a license ; such license shall be for one year from
the first day of May in each }7ear, and the fees for such license shall be the
following : —

(a) For one billard or pool-table, twenty dollars and for each additional table
ten dollars.

(b) For one bagatelle, Mississippi, pigeon-hole or other table or board with
balls, twenty dollars and for every additional table ten dollars.

(c) For a bowling- alley, ten dollars.

(28) Every description of gaming and all playing of faro, cards, dice, or other
games of chance for stakes of money or other things of value, and all betting
and wagering on any such games of chance, are strictly forbidden and prohibited
within the park, and no person shall play at or allow to be played on his
premises, or assist, or be engaged in any way in any description of gaming, as
aforesaid.

(29) The shooting at, wounding, capturing, killing, or in any manner injuring
any wild animal or bird within the park, is hereby prohibited, excepting,
however, mountain lions, bears, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, coyotes, wild cats and
hawks. Fishing with nets in any of the waters of the park is also prohibited.

(30) The outfits of all persons found hunting, or fishing with nets, or having
in their possession game or fish killed within the park in contravention of
•clause 29 of these regulations shall be subject to seizure and confiscation.

(31) Permission to cut hay within the park shall be obtained from the
.superintendent and shall be subject at all times to his supervision and control.

(32) No person shall take or use any stone, sand, gravel, or other material
in the park without a permit from the superintendent, and the the following fees
shall be paid to the superintendent for such materials :—

Sand 10 cents, per load.

Stone 25

Gravel 25 "

(33) Persons desiring to burn lime or manufacture brick within the park
shall obtain a permit from the superintendent, defining the location of the kiln
or brick yard, and pay a royalty of one cent and a half per bushel for all lime
burnt, and, for all brick manufactured, a rate per thousand to be fixed by the
Minister of the Interior.

(34) The use of fire-arms within the park, except under permit from the
superintendent, is strictly prohibited.

(35) If any offence is committed under any of the provisions of these
regulations, such offence shall be prosecuted, under the " Summary Convictions
Act," befcre the superintendent of the park, who for the purposes hereof shall
be, ex-officio, a justice of the peace, with jurisdiction anywhere within the park
or before any officer of the North-west mounted police force empowered by
law to sit and act as a justice of the peace.

(36) Except as hereinafter specially provided, every one who violates any
provision of any of these regulations, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding

218

twenty dollars and costs, and in default of payment to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding one month.

(37) Every one who violates any of the provisions of clause number
nineteen of these regulations, which relates to the sale of intoxicating liquors
within the park shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding in each case the sum of
fifty dollars and costs, and in default of payment thereof to imprisonment for a
term not exceeding three months ; and a moiety of every penalty imposed and
collected under the provisions of this clause of these regulations shall belong to
Her Majesty and the other moiety to the person laying the information.

(38) Every one who violates any of the provisions of clause twenty-eight
of these regulations, which relates to gaming, shall be liable to a penalty not
exceeding in each case the sum of fifty dollars and costs, and in default of
payment thereof to a term of imprisonment not exceeding three months ; and a
moiety of every penalty imposed and collected under the provisions of this
clause of these regulations shall belong to Her Majesty and the other moiety to
the person laying the information.

(39) In oi'der the more effectually to repress the offences specified in clauses
numbers nineteen and twenty-eight of these regulations, every officer of the
park, or officer of the North-west mounted police force, or constable of the
North-west mounted police accompanied by or acting under the orders of &
commissioned officer of the said force is hereby authorized, by force, if necessary,
and without the necessity of any intervention or process of law, to enter any
suspected place, to arrest therein on view any person or persons found committing
any of the offences aforesaid, and to bring him or them before any of the
officers who, by these regulations, are empowered to sit and act as justices of the
peace within the Park to be dealt with according to law ; and also to seize any
tables and other instruments, and money, securities for money, liquor and vessels
and appliances used in connection therewith, used in contravention of the said
clauses; and upon the conviction of such person or persons or &ny of them of
such offence, in addition to any penalty imposed in respect thereof, the said
table or tables and other instruments shall be forfeited and sold, or in the
discretion of the convicting justice, destroyed, and the money so seized as-
aforesaid shall be forfeited and applied, together with the proceeds of sales
towards the revenues of the park in a manner hereinafter provided.

(40) The revenues derived from every source under any of the provisions
of these regulations shall be deposited forthwith to the credit of the Receiver-
General on account of the park, except as otherwise herein specially provided.

(41) Printed copies of these regulations, to be furnished by the Department
of the Interior for that purpose, shall be posted and kept in a conspicuous place
in every government office, and in every hotel, boarding-house, bath-house and
livery-stable within the park,

(42) For the control and management of the park in any matter whatsoever
not specially provided for by the Rocky Mountains Park Act, 1887, or by any
other Act of the Parliament of Canada applicable to the park, or by the
foregoing regulations, any existing ordinances of the North-west council in that

O O £5 «/ ™

behalf shall be in force.

(43) Wherever in these regulations the expression " the superintendent of
the park " or " the superintendent" is used it shall mean the officer holding that
office at the present time under appointment by the governor-in-council, or any-
person who may hereafter be so appointed to the said office.

219

MINERAL LANDS IN THE PARK.

The following Order-in-Council was adopted 12th October, 1892, respecting
mineral lands within the Park :—

Whereas section 5 o,1' the Act 55-56 Victoria, chaper 15, amending the
Dominion Lands Act, provides that lands containing coal or other minerals.including
lands in the Rocky Mountains Park, shall not be subject to the provisions of this Act
respecting sale or homestead entry, but the Governor-General-in-Council may,
from time to time, make regulations for the working and development of mines

O ~ -4

on such lands, and for the sale, leasing, licensing or other disposal thereof; provided,
however, that no disposition of mines or mining interests in the said park shall
be for a longer period than twenty years, renewable, in the discretion of the
governor-in-council, from time to time, for further periods of twenty years each,
and not exceeding in all sixty years.

His Excellency, in virtue of the provisions of the above cited Act, and by and
with the advice of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, is pleased to to make
the following regulations to govern the issue of licenses of occupation for the
working of mines and minerals within the Rooky Mountains Park of Canada :—

(1) Licenses to mine coal from lands within the park shall be disposed of by
public competition only, and the Minister of the Interior shall, from time to time,
as he may find expedient in the public interest, survey, lay out, and offer for dis-
posal by auction or by tender, locations for the mining of coal under such licenses.

(2) The duration of such licenses shall be twenty years, unless sooner
terminated by consent of the Crown and the licensee, or cancelled for non-fulfil-
ment of conditions, and such licenses shall be renewable in the discretion of the
Governor-in-Council for farther periods of twenty years each and not exceeding
in all sixty years, on such terms and conditions as may at the time of renewal be
agreed upon by the government and licensee.

(3) The ground rent shall be $1.20 per acre per annum, payable half yearly
in advance

(4) A royalty of ten cents per ton shall be paid by the licensee on all coal,
taken out of the mine. Returns under oath shall be furnished quarterly to the
Minister of the Interior by the licensee, showing the quantity of coal taken out
and the royalty shall be paid at the time of making such returns. If the royalty
which is due for one half-year equals the rental paid for that half-year, then the
amount paid for rent shall be credited to such royalty.

(5) The area to be licensed to one person shall not exceed three hundred and
twenty acres, and the licensee shall not make any transfer or assignment of his
license without the consent in writing of the Minister of the Interior.

(6) The boundaries beneath the surface of the location shall be the vertical
planes or lines in which their surface boundaries lie.

(7) The license shall be subject to the general regulations for the control and
management of the Piocky Mountains Park of Canada, dated the 30th June, 1890,
and to such farther and other regulations as ma}T be made from time to time in
that behalf l>y the Governor-in-Council.

220

THE ADIRONDACK^.

FOREST LK< JISLATION.

A desolation like that which has overwhelmed .many once beautiful and
fertile regions of Europe awaits important parts of America, and other com-
paratively new countries over which civilization is now extending its sway,
unless prompt measures are taken to check the action of destructive causes
already in operation. It is almost in vain to expect that mere restrictive legisla-
lion can do anything effectual to arrest the progress of the evil, except so far as
the State is still the proprietor of extensive forests. Woodlands which have
passed into private hands will everywhere be managed upon the same economical
principles as other possessions, and every proprietor will, as a general rule, fell
his woods unless he believes that it will be for his pecuniary interest to preserve
them. In France, law has been found impotent to prevent the destruction or waste-
ful economy of private forests.

Fortunately for the immense economical and sanitary interests involved in this
branch of rural and industrial husbandry, public opinion is thoroughly roused to
the importance of the subject. Plantations of a certain extent have been made,
and a wiser system is pursued in the treatment of the remaining native woods.

The people of the far west have thrown themselves into the work with much
of the passionate energy which marks their action in reference to other modes of
physicial improvement. California has appointed a State forester with a liberal
salary, and made such legal provisions and appropriations as to render the
discharge of his duties effectual. The hands that built the Pacific Railway at the
rate of miles in a day are busy in planting belts of trees to shelter the track from
snow-drifts, and to supply at a future day timber for ties and fuel for the locomo-
tives. The settlers on the open plains, too, are not less actively engaged in the
propagation of the woods.

It was not till 1869 that the legislature of rhe State of New York turned its
attention to the subject of tree-planting, when it passed a law to encourage plant-
ing trees by the sides of public highways, and in 1872 created by enactment a
" Commission for State Parks," whose duty was to enquire into the expediency of
providing for vesting in the State the title to the timber regions lying within
the Counties of Lewis, Essex, Clinton, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Herkimer, and
Hamilton, and converting the same into a public park. The commission known
as the " park commission " made a report recommending that no more lands
lying in the counties named should be sold, but that as lands were acquired by
the State through tax sales, they should be held for future forest management.
The methods recommended by the commission were not acted upon until 1883,
when a law was passed prohibiting further sales of lands in the counties named
in the Act, and also in the counties of Saratoga and Warren. During the inter-
val the sale of State lands had been continued, and in 1883 the State had a
much less acreage in its possession than it would have had if it had adopted the recom-
mendations contained in the commission's report as soon as they were made.

At the session of the legislature in 1884 there was appropriated $5,000 to be
used by the comptroller of the State in "the employment of such experts as he
may deem necessary 'to investigate and report a system of forest preservation."
In July of that year the comptroller (Hon. Alfred C. Chapin) appointed as such
experts, Prof. Charles S. Sargent, of Cambridge, Mass. ; D. Willis James, Esq., of
New York City ; Hon. William A. Poucher, of Oswego, and Edward AI. Shepard,
Esq., of Brooklyn. The committee, so constituted, reported the result of their
investigations, coupled with their recommendations as to future policy, to the

221

comptroller in January, 1885, and in forwarding their report to the legislature
Comptroller Chapin said : " The problem in its fulness affects the welfare of
many sister commonwealths, and of the nation at large. It is eminently fitting
that in its solution the Empire State should lead the way."

As a sequel to, and the result of the recommendations of the Comptroller's
Committee, the Bill establishing the Forest Commission was passed in the following
May, as follows :—

THE FOREST COMMISSION ACT.

Chapter 283, Laws of 1885 ; as subsequently amended..

An Act to establish a Forest Commission, and to define its powers and duties,
and for the preservation of forests, passed May 15th, 1885.

The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly,
do enact as follows :—

COMMISSIONERS, How APPOINTED.

Section 1. There shall be a forest commission, which shall consist of three
persons, who shall be styled forest commissioners, and who m&y be removed by the
governor for cause. The forest commissioners shall be appointed by the governor
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.

TERMS BY LOT.

§ 2. At the first meeting of the forest commission they shall divide them-
selves by lot, so that the term of one shall expire in two years, one in four years and
one in six years from the first day of February next ensuing. Except as to the
three terms of office thus determined, the term of office of a forest commissioner
shall be six years from the first day of February on which the preceding term
expires.

How APPOINTED AFTER 1888. — VACANCIES.

§ 3. During the month of January, in the year 1888, and in every second
year thereafter, the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
shall appoint one forejt commissioner. Vacancies that may exist in the office of
a forest commissioner after the commencement of a term of office, shall be filled
by the governor's appointment, subject to the confirmation of the Senate at its
next session, for the unexpired portion of the term in which the vacancy occurs.

COMMISSIONERS, COMPENSATION OF.

§ 4. The forest commissioners shall serve without compensation, except that
there shall be paid them their reasonable expenses incurred in the performance of
their official duties.

EMPLOYEES, AND PAY OF.

§ 5. The forest commission shall have power to employ a forest warden,
forest inspectors, a clerk, and all such agents as they may deem necessary, and
to fix their compensations, but the expenses and salary of such warden, agents,
clerk, inspectors, and assistants, shall not exceed in the aggregate, with the other
expenses of the commission the sum therefor appropriated by the legislature,

ROOMS, E-iv.

§ 6. The trustees of public buildings, under Chap. 349, laws of 1883, shall
provide rooms for office for the forest commission, with proper furniture and
fixtures and with warming and lights.

222

FOREST PRESERVE DEFINED.

$ 7. All the lands no\v owned, or which may hereafter be acquired by the
State of New York within the Counties of Clinton (except in the Towns of
Alton;, .Mini I himii'mora) Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer,
Lewis, Oucida, St. Lawrence, Saratoga, Warren, Washington, Greene, Ulster and
Sullivan, shall constitute and be known as the Forest Preserves, except all such
lands within the limits of any incorporated village or city, and except all such
lands, not wild lands, as have been, or may hereafter be, acquired by the State of
New York, upon or by foreclosure of or sale pursuant to any mortgage upon
lands made to the Commissioners for loaning certain moneys of the United States,
usually called the United States Deposit Fund, and all such excepted lands
acquired by the State of New York may be sold and conveyed as provided by law.

STATE LAND CANNOT BE LEASED. CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH IT CAN BE SOLD OR
EXCHANGED. APPRAISERS APPOINTED. DUTY OF COMPTROLLER.

§ 8. The lands now or hereafter constituting the forest preserve shall be
forever kept as wild forest lands, and shall not be sold, nor shall they be leased or
taken by any person or corporation, public or private, except that whenever any
of the lands now constituting the forest preserve or which may hereafter become
a part thereof, owned by the State within any county specified in section seven of
the act hereby amended, shall consist of separate small parcels or tracts wholly
detached from the main portions of the forest preserve and bounded on every
side by lands not owned by the State, then it shall be lawful, and the comptroller
shall have power to sell and convey such separate tracts or parcels, or the timber
thereon, to such person or persons, corporation or association as shall have offered
the highest price therefor ; but no such tracts or parcels of land or the timber
thereon, shall be sold by the comptroller except upon the recommendation of the
forest commission or a majority thereof, together with the advice of the attorney-
general in behalf of the State. Such separate tracts or parcels of land may be
exchanged by the comptroller for lands that lie adjoining the main tracts of th
forest preserve upon the recommendation of the forest commission or a majority
thereof, together with the advice of the attorney -general on behalf of the State ;
but the values of said lands so exchanged must be first appraised by three
disinterested appraisers sworn to faithfully and fairly appraise the value of said
lands, and the difference if any, between the values of such parcels so proposed to
be exchanged shall be paid by the party so exchanging with the State into the
State treasury, but the State shall not pay the amount of any such difference.
Two of said appraisers shall be nominated and appointed by the county judge of
the county in which said lands proposed to be exchanged are situate or in case
such lands are situate in two counties, then the county judge of each county shall
nominate and appoint each one appraiser. The two appraisers so appointed shall
select a third appraiser, and they shall report to the comptroller the result of said
appraisal, before such lands shall be exchanged as aforesaid. The said appraisers
so appointed shall receive the same compensation for their services as is provided
for appraisers of decedent's estates, to be paid by the party so proposing to
exchange lands with the State. It shall be the duty of the comptroller annually
to report to the legislature all sales or exchanges of lands made under the pro-
visions of this act, together with all bids and the amounts received therefor, and
in said report shall be included the reports of appraisers of lands exchanged in
accordance with the foregoing provisions. The proceeds of all lands so sold, or
the receipts from all exchanges so made, shall be invested by the comptroller,
with the approval of the forest commission, in the purchase of forest land adjoin-
ing great blocks of the forest preserve* now owned by the State.

223

FORESTS TO BE PROTECTED AND PROMOTED. — POWERS OF LAND OFFICE AND
COMPTROLLER TRANSFERRED TO FOREST COMMISSION. — RULES GOVERNING
FOREST PRESERVE.

§ 9. The forest commission shall have the care, custody, control and superin-
tendence of the forest preserve. It shall be the duty of the commission to main-
tain and protect the forests now on the forest preserve, and to promote as far as
practicable the further growth of forests thereon. It shall also have charp-e of

j. (3

the public interests of the State, with regard to forest and tree planting, and
especiallv with reference to forest fires in every part of the State. It shall have
as to all lands now or hereafter included in the forest preserve, but subject to the
provisions of this act, all the powers now vested in the commissioners of the
land office and in the comptroller as to such lands as are now owned by the State.
The forest commission may, from time to time, prescribe rules or regulations, and
may from time to time alter or amend the same, affecting the whole or any part
of the forest preserve, and for its use, care and administration ; but neither such
rules or regulations, nor anything herein contained, shall prevent or operate to
prevent the free use of any road, stream or water as the same may have been
heretofore used, or as ma}' be reasonably required in the prosecution of any law-
ful business.

OFFICERS MAY ARREST, WHEN.

. § 10. The forest warden, forest inspectors and other persons acting upon the
forest preserve, under the written employment of the forest warden or of the
forest commission, may, without warrant, arrest any person found upon the forest
preserve violating any of the provisions of this act ; but in case of such arrest,
the person making the arrest shall forthwith take the person arrested before the
nearest magistrate having jurisdiction to issue warrants in such case, and there
make, or procure to be made, a complaint in writing, upon which complaint the
magistrate shall act as the case may require.

ACTION TO RECOVER DAMAGES AND FOR TRESPASS. — TRESPASS DEFINED. — ATTOR-
NEYS, How EMPLOYED. — UNDER DIRECTION OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL.

§ 11. The forest commission may bring, in the name or on behalf ot the
people of the State of New York, any action to prevent injury to the forest
preserve or trespass thereon, to recover damages for such injury or trespass, to
recover lands properly forming part of the forest preserve, but occupied or held
by persons not entitled thereto, and in all other respects for the protection and
maintenance of the forest preserve, which an}' owner of land would be entitled to
bring. The forest commission may also maintain, in the name or on behali of
the people of the State, an action for the trespass specified in section seventy-
four, article fifth, title five, chapter nine, part one of the revised statutes, when
such trespass is committed upon any lands within the forest preserve. In such
action there shall be recoverable the same penalty, and a like execution shall
issue, and the defendant be imprisoned thereunder without being entitled to the
liberties of the jail, all as provided in sections seventy-four and seventy-six of the
said article ; and in such action the plaintiff shall be entitled to an order of arrest
before judgment as in the cases mentioned in section five hundred and forty-nine
of the code of civil procedure. The trespass herein mentioned shall be deemed to
include in addition to the act specified in the said section seventy-four, any act
of cutting or cause to be cut, or assisting to be cut any tree or timber sta nling
within the forest reserve, or any bark thereon, with intent to remove such tiv.>
or timber, or any portion thereof, or bark therefrom, from the said forest pre-
serve. With the consent of the attorney-general and the comptroller, the forest

224

commission may employ attorneys and counsel to prosecute any such action, or to-
defend any action brought against the commission, or any of its members or
subordinates, arising out of their or his official conduct with relation to the forest
preserve. Any attorney or counsel so employed shall act under the direction of
and in the name of the attorney-general. Where such attorney or counsel is not
so employed, the attorney -general shall prosecute and defend such actions.

INJUNCTIONS.

§12. In an action brought by or at the instance of the forest commission, an
injunction, either preliminary or final, shall upon application be granted
restraining any act of trespass, waste or destruction upon the forest preserve.

PARTITION. — ACTION FOR, HOW BROUGHT. — EFFECT OF. — AGREEMENT FOR.

§13. Whenever the State owns or shall own an undivided interest with any
person in any land within the counties mentioned in section seven of this act, or
is or shall be in possession of any such land as joint tenants or tenants in common
with any person who has an estate of freehold therein, the attorney general shall,
upon the request of the forest commission, bring an action in the name of the
people of the State of New York for the actual partition of the said lands
according to the respective rights of the parties interested therein; and upon
the consent in writing of the forest commission, any such person may maintain
an action for the actual partition of such lands, according to the respective rights
of the parties interested therein, in the same manner as if the State were not
entitled to exemption from legal proceedings, service of process in such actions
upon the attorney-general to be deemed service upon the State. Such actions,
the proceedings and the judgment therein, and the proceedings under the
judgment therein shall be according to the practice at the time prevailing in
actions of partition and shall have the same force and effect as in other actions,
except that no costs shall be allowed to the plaintiff in such actions, and except
that no sale of such lands shall be judged therein. 'The foiest commission, may
without suit, but upon the consent of the comptroller, agree with any person or
persons owning land within the said towns jointly or as tenants in common with
the State for the partition of such lands and upon such agreement and consent,
the comptroller shall make on behalf of the people of the State any conveyance
necessary or proper in such partition, such conveyance to be forthwith recorded
as now provided by law as to conveyances made by the commissioners of the
land office.

INCOME.

§14. All incomes that may hereafter be derived from State forest lands shall
be paid over by the forest commission to the treasury of the State.

EXPENSES.

§15. A strict account shall be kept of all receipts and expenses, which
accounts shall be audited by the comptroller, and a general summary thereof
shall be reported annually to the legislature.

ANNUAL REPORT.

§10. The forest commission shall in January of every year, make a written
repoit to the legislature of their proceedings together with such recommendations,
of iurther legislative or official action as they may deem proper.

225

SUPERVISORS PROTECTORS OF STATE LANDS, EXCEPT IN FOREST PRESERVE. —
DUTY OF DISTRICT ATTORNEY. — SUPERVISORS TO REPORT. — DISTRICT AND
FOREST GUARDS.

§17. The supervisor of every town in this State in which wild or forest lands
belonging to the State are located except within the counties mentioned in
section seven of this act, shall be by virtue of his office the protector of these
lands subject to the instruction he may receive from the forest commission. It
shall be his duty to report to the district attorney for prosecution any act of
spoliation or injury that may be done and it shall be the duty of such district
attorney to institute proceedings for the prevention of further trespass, and for
the recovery of all damages that may have been committed with costs of
prosecution. The supervisors shall also report their proceedings therein to the
forest commission. In towns where the forest commission shall deem it necessary,
they may serve a notice upon the supervisor, requiring him to appoint one or
more forest guards, and if more than one in a town, the district of each shall be
properly denned. The guard so appointed shall have such power, and perform
such duties, and receive such pay, as the forest commission may determine.

INSTRUCTIONS IN FORESTRY IN SCHOOLS.

§ 18. The forest commission shall take such measures as the department of
public instruction, the regents of the university and the forest commission
may approve for awakening an interest in behalf of forestry in the public
schools, academies and colleges of the State, and of imparting some degree of
elementary instruction upon this subject therein.

METHODS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

§ 19. The forest commission shall, as soon as practicable, prepare tracts or
circulars of information, giving plain and concise advice for the care of woodlands
upon private land, and for the starting of new plantations upon lands that have
been denuded, exhausted by cultivation, eroded by torrents, or injured by fire,
or that are sandy, marshy, broken, sterile or waste, and unfit tor other use.
These publications shall be furnished without cost to any citizen of the State
upon application, and proper measures may be taken for bringing them to the
notice of persons who would be benefited by this advice.

SUPERVISORS TO A.CT AS FIREWARDENS, WHEN. — DISTRICT MAPS. — FIREWARDENS
PAID BY TOWNS. — FIREWARDENS IN FOREST PRESERVE. — AUTHORITY OF
FIREWARDENS.

§ 20. Every supervisor of a town in this State, excepting within the counties
mentioned in section seven of this act, shall be ex-offlcio firewarden therein.
But in towns particularly exposed to damages from forest fires, the supervisor
may divide the same into two or more districts, bounded, as far as may be, by
roads, streams of water, or dividing ridges of land or lot lines and he may in
writing, appoint one resident citizen in each district as district firewarden
therein. A description of these districts, and the names of the district fire-
wardens thus appointed, shall be recorded in the office of the town clerk. The
supervisor may also cause a map of the fire district of his town to be
posted in some public place with the names of the district firewardens appointed

15 (F.)

226

The cost of such map, not exceeding five dollars, shall be made a town
charge ; and the services of the firewardens shall also be deemed a town charge,
and shall not exceed the sum of two dollars per day for the time actually
occupied in the performance of their duties as such firewardens. The
compensation for services of the persons who may assist in extinguishing forest
fires, shall be a town charge, and shall not exceed the sum of ono dollar per day
for each person employed ; but all bills for such services must be approved by
the firewarden of the town in which the fire occurred before payment shall be
made. It shall be the duty of the board of auditors in each town to examine,
audit, and allow promptly all reasonable bills presented to them for services and
disbursements under this section. Within the counties named in section seven
of this act, such persons shall be firewardens as may from time to time be
be appointed by the forest commission. The persons so appointed shall act
during the pleasure and under the direction of the forest commission ; and
there shall be applicable to them all the provisions of this act, with reference to
supervisors and district town wardens. Upon the discovery of a forest fire, it
shall be the duty of the firewarden of the district, town or county, to take such
measures as shall be necessary for its extinction. For this purpose he shall
have authority to call upon any person in the territory in which he acts for
assistance, and any person shall be liable to a fine of not less than five nor more
than twenty dollars for refusing to act when so called upon.

OFFICERS, POWERS AND DUTIES OF, IN CASE OF FIRE.
See Revised Statutes, Chap. 20, title 14, Part 1, Vol. 3, p. 2086.

§ 21. The forest commission, the forest warden, inspectors, the foresters, and
anv other person employed by or under the authority of the forest commission,
and who may be authorized by the commission to assume such duty, shall within
the counties mentioned in section seven of this Act, whenever the woods in any
such town shall be on fire, perform the duties imposed upon, and in such case
shall have the powers granted to the justices of the peace, the supervisors, and the
commissioners of highway of such towns, by title fourteen, chapter twenty, of
part one, of the revised statutes, with reference to the ordering of persons to
assist in extinguishing fires, or stopping their progress ; and any person so ordered
by the forest commission, the forest warden, the forest inspectors, the foresters,
or any of them, or any other person acting or authorized as aforesaid, who shall
refuse or neglect to comply with any such order, shall be liable to punishment
prescribed by the said title.

No ACTION FOR TRESPASS, WHEN.

§ 22. No action for trespass shall be brought by any owner of land for entry
made upon his premises by persons going to assist in extinguishing a forest fire,
although it may not be upon his land.

PRIVILEGE, CASE OF FIRE.

§ 23. The fire-warden, or the supervisor, where acting in general charge, may
cause fences to be destroyed or furrows to be ploughed to check the running of
fire, and in cases of great danger back fires may be set along a road or stream, or
other line of defence, to clear off the combustible material before an advancing
fire

227

REPORTS OF SUPERVISORS AND FIREWARDENS. — SUMMARY TO BE REPORTED TO

LEGISLATURE.

§ 24. The supervisor of every town of which he is firewarden, as aforesaid,
and in which a forest fire of more than one acre in extent has occurred within a
year, shall report to the forest commission the extent of the area burned over, to
the best of his information, together with the probable amount of property
destroyed, specifying the value of timber as near as may be, and amount of cord-
wood, logs, bark or other forest product, and of fencing, bridges and buildings
that have been burned. He shall also make inquiries and report as to the causes
of the fires, if they can be ascertained, and as to the measures employed and found
most effectual in checking their progress. A cousolidated summary of these
returns by counties, and of the information as to the same matter otherwise
gathered by the forest commission, shall be included in the annual report of the
forest commission.

WHAT RAILROAD COMPANIES MUST Do. — REMOVE GRASS, ETC.

§ 25. Every railroad company whose road passes through waste or forest
lands, or lands liable to be over run by fires within this State, shall twice within
each year cut and burn off or remove from its right-of-way, all grass, bush, or
inflammable material, but under proper care, and at times when the fires thus set
are not liable to spread beyond control.

LOCOMOTIVES. — SPARK ARRESTERS. — ENGINEERS AND FIREMEN.

§ 26. All locomotives which shall be run through forest lands shall be provi-
ded within one year from the date of this Act, with approved and sufficient
arrangements for preventing the escape of fire from their furnace or ash-pan and
netting of steel or iron wire upon their smoke stack to check the escape of sparks
of fire. It shall be the duty of every engineer and fireman employed upon a
locomotive to see that the appliance for the prevention of the escape of fire are
in use and applied, as far as it can be reasonably and possibly done.

NOT TO DEPOSIT ASHES, AND TO REPORT FIRES.

§ 27, No railroad company shall permit its employees to deposit fire, coals or
ashes upon their track in the immediate vicinity of wood lands liable to be over-
run by fire, and in all cases where any engineers, conductors, or trainmen, discover
that fences along the right-of-way, on woodlands adjacent to the railroad, are
burning, or in danger from fire, it shall be their duty to report the same at their
next stopping place and the person in charge of such station shall take prompt
measures for extinguishing such fires.

RAILROAD COMPANIES. — IN CASE OF FIRE.

§ 28. In season of drought, and especially during the first dry time in the
spring after the snows have gone and before vegetation has revived, the railroad
companies shall employ a sufficient additional number of trackmen for the prompt
extinguishment of fire. And where a forest fire is raging near the line of their
road, they shall concentrate such help and adopt such measures as shall most
effectually arrest its progress.

228

RAILROAD COMPANIES. — PENALTY FOR NEGLECT.

§ 29. Any railroad company violating the provisions or requirements of this
Act shall be liable to a fine of one hundred dollars for each ofience.

RULES OF COMMISSION TO BE POSTED.

§ 30. The forest commission shall, with as little delay as practicable, cause-
rules for the prevention and suppression of forest fires to be printed for posting!
in school-houses, inns, saw-mills and other wood- working establishments, lumber
camps and other places in such portions of the State as they may deem necessary.
Any person maliciously or wantonly defacing or destroying such notices, shall be
liable to a fine of five dollars. It shall be the duty of forest-agents, supervisors,,
and school-trustees, to cause these rules, when received by them, to be properly
posted, and replaced when lost or destroyed.

INCENDIARIES. — PENALTIES.

§31. Any person who shall wilfully or negligently set fire to, or assist another
to set fire to. any waste or forest land belonging to the State or to another
person, whereby the the said forests are injured or endangered, or who suffers.
any fire upon his own lands to escape or extend beyond the limits thereof, to the
injury of the wood-lands of another, or of the State, shall be liable to a fine of not
less than fifty dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars, or to imprisonment of
not less than thirty days, nor more than six months. He shall also be liable in
an action for all damages that may be caused by such fires ; such actions to be
brought in any court of this State having jurisdiction thereon.

APPROPRIATION.

§ 32. Fifteen thousand dollars is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in
the treasury, not otherwise appropriated, for the purposes of this act. And no
liabilities shall be incurred by said forest commissioners in excess of this appro-
priation.

§ 83. This Act shall take effect immediately.

CHAPTER 37.— LAWS OF 1890.

AN ACT TO AUTHORIZE THE PURCHASE OF LANDS LOCATED WITHIN SUCH
COUNTIES AS INCLUDE THE FOREST PRESERVE.

The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly,
do enact as follows : —

Section 1. The forest commission, with the approval and concurrence of the i
commissioners of the land office, may purchase lands so located within such
counties as include the forest preserve, as shall be available for the purposes of a
State park, at a price not to exceed one dollar and fifty cents, such approval and
concurrence to be endorsed on a copy of the resolution of the said forest :
commission authorizing such purchase, and certified to by the clerk of said com-
missioners of the land office.

229

§ 2. The forest commission may have such lands appraised by one or more
appraisers, not to exceed three in number, to be appointed by that commission.
The expenses of such appraisal shall be a per diem allowance to the appraisers,
not to exceed three dollars per day for the time actually employed and the
necessary expenses incurred in each case, such expenses to be audited by the
comptroller and paid out of the funds appropriated by the Legislature for the
purposes of this act ; but no purchase of lands shall be made in excess of
previous appropriations for that purpose.

§ 3. The sum of twenty-five thousand dollars or so much thereof as may be
necessary, is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in the treasury, not other-
wise appropriated, for the purpose of this Act ; and no liabilities shall be
incurred by said forest commission in excess of this appropriation.

§ 4. .This Act shall take effect immediately.

In returning the foregoing bill to the legislature with his signature, the
governor filed therewith the following memorandum : —

STATE OF NEW YORK.

Executive Chambers, Albany, March 11, 1890.

Memorandum filed with Senate Bill No. 91, entitled : "an Act to authorize
the purchase of lands located within such counties as include the forest preserve."

Approved. There is no objection to this Act. The criticism which possibly
may be urged against it is that it is good enough so far as it goes, but that it is
wholly inadequate to meet the requirements of the situation. It is not a broad and
comprehensive measure, providing for the establishment of an Adirondack park
such as is imperatively demanded by the best interest of the State, but is simply a
slight step in the right direction. The authority conferred is very inadequate,
the amount appropriated is quite limited, the restrictions upon the prices to be
paid are likely to produce unsatisfactory results, the provisions in regard to
apportionment of lands are incomplete and somewhat unnecessary, and in many
other respects the measure falls short of what it was hoped the legislature might
enact. The bill must be regarded as a mere temporary expedient, and, as such,
can do no harm ; and although it will not afford a proper and complete solution
•of the Adirondack Park question, it encourages the hope that in trie near future a
more substantial and adequate measure may be passed to fully accomplish the
•object recommended in my recent message to the legislature relating to this
subject.

I cheerfully approve the bill, in the expectation that its enactment may lead
ito such a result.

DAVID B. HILL.

CHAPTER 556.— LAWS OF 1890.

AN ACT FURTHER TO AMEND CHAPTER FOUR HUNDRED AND TWENTY-SEVEN OF
THE LAWS OF EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY-FIVE, ENTITLED "AN ACT IN
RELATION TO THE COLLECTION OF TAXES ON LAND OF NON-RESIDENTS, AND
TO PROVIDE FOR THE SALE OF SUCH LAND FOR UNPAID TAXES."

The peop.le of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly,
do enact as follows :—

Section 1. Section seventy-four of chapter four hundred and twenty-seven
•of the laws of eighteen hundred and fifty-five, entitled "An Act in relation to the

230

collection of taxes on the lands of non-residents and to provide for the sale of
such lands for unpaid taxes," as amended by chapter four hundred and fifty-
three of the laws of eighteen hundred and fifty, is hereby further amended so as-1
to read as follows :—

$ 74. The occupant of any such lot, or any other person, may, at any
time before the service of said notice by the purchaser or the person naming
under him, and within three years from the expiration of the two years allowed
by law for the redemption thereof, redeem any land so occupied, by filing in the
office of the comptroller satisfactory evidence of the occupancy required, and
by paying to him the consideration money for which the land to be redeemed
was sold, and thirty-seven and one-half per centum thereon, together with the
sum paid for the deed, if any, and such amount as may have been paid to the
State for subsequent taxes thereon, or for the redemption from subsequent tax sales
thereof, and, in addition thereto, providing such lot has been legally exempt from
taxation for one or more years subsequent to the sale in question, of a sum that
would represent the gross amount of taxes and interest that would have been
due thereon, provided it had been taxed during each of the years it may have
been exempt, on its assessed valuation and at the rate per cent, of taxation
thereon, lor the year when last returned to the comptroller's office. In all cases
of tax sales heretofore made by the comptroller, where the land sold was in the
actual occupancy of any person at the expiration of the two years allowed for
the redemption thereof, and the purchaser or the persons naming under him shall
have failed to serve notice of such sale upon the occupant or occupants thereof, and
to file evidence of such service in the comptroller's, office as provided by section
sixty-eight of this Act, and the occupant or any other person shall fail to file in
the comptroller's office within one year after this Act shall take effect a written
notice of such occupancy, together with an application for the redemption of such
lands, and to furnish the comptroller with satisfactory evidence of the occupancy
required, and make such redemption within two years after this Act shall take
effect, then and in all such cases the said tax sales of such land, and the convey-
ance thereof by the comptroller shall become absolute, and the occupant and
occupants, and all other persons interested in the said land, shall be forever
barred from all right and title thereto.

§ 2 All Acts and parts of Acts inconsistent with this Act are hereby
repealed.

§ 3 This Act shall take effect immediately.

FIREWARDENS.

The organization of the force of firewardens in the State of New York has
not been effected without considerable care and labor, it having involved the care-
ful consideration of 281 separate appointments.

The maintenance of this system entails also a large amount of office work in
the way of correspondence and in forwarding to each firewarden the necessary
packages of posters, rules, and other supplies. In addition to the 281 fire-
wardens in the counties of the forest preserve, there are the 430 supervisors in
the other counties who are firewardens ex officio, with each of whom a corres-
pondence is maintained.

No salary is attached to the position of firewarden ; still the commision has-
succeeded in filling the places with good citizens, intelligent men who have shown
themselves equal to the responsibilities devolving upon them, and have evinced a

231

zeal and efficiency which argues well for the future care and preservation of
our forest lands.

Each firewarden, when appointed, is furnished with a warrant bearing the
signature and seal of the Department.

This warrant reads as follows :—

STATE OF NEW YORK.

THE FOREST COMMISSION, ALBANY, N. Y. 189
Esq.,

Town of County of

The Forest Commision hereby appoints you a firewarden in and for your
town in accordance with the provisions of the "Act to establish a Forest Com-
mission" etc., passed May 15, 1885.

It will be your duty, as firewarden, whenever a forest fire occurs within the
limits of your town, whether it be on State or other lands, to promptly notify a
sufficient force to assist you ; to go to the place where the fire is burning, and to
take charge of and to direct the work necessary for extinguishing it. All persons
in the territory whom you may order to render you such assistance, are required
by law to obey your order, and any person who may refuse to act in obedience
to your order is, by statute liable, to a fine of not less than five nor more than
twenty dollars.

If a forest fire occurs in your vicinity, although it may be in the adjoining
town, it will be as much your duty to go immediately to the place of such fire as
if it were in your own town ; and, in the absence of the fire warden of the town
within the limits of which such fire may be, to assume the same authority and to
discharge the same duties that you are empowered to assume and discharge in
your own town, until the arrival of the fire warden of that town, upon which
yon will turn over all charges of the fire to him.

The same diligence and exertion must be used for the extinction of forest
fires on private lands as on lands of the State. The public welfare requires that
all forests should be protected from fire, no matter to whom they may belong.

After a forest fire has occurred in your town you must make a report of the
same to the forest commission, stating the date and place of the fire, the number
of acres burned over, the amount and nature of the damage, and the cause of the
fire if known.

Your attention is called to the provisions of the twentieth section of the
Forest Commission Act, for dividing your town into fire districts. Action
theron, is left to your own discretion ; but if taken, you should report it to the
commission.

It is essential that the rules and regulations of this commission, governing
the methods of preventing and extinguishing forest fires, should be made fully
known to the public. To that end you will be required to post, and keep posted,
the cards containing the printed rules throughout your town, conformably to the
provisions of section 30 of the before mentioned Forest Commission Act, and
wherever you may judge it to be necessary in order to accomplish a complete
public notification. Such posted card.*, as may, at any time, be missing should be
replaced at once. The cards will be furnished to you, and you can always be
supplied with them on application to the commission.

A fire warden is required, by law, to be a resident of the town for which he
is appointed. If you do not reside in the town, herein named, or if you should
hereafter change your residence to another town, please notify this commission at
once.

232

The office of a firewarden is distinct from that of a forester. Firewardens
are not required to discharge any duties except those necessary for the preven-
tion and extinction of forest fires, as before explained, and such other duties for a
like purpose as may be, from time to time, assigned to them by this commission.

It is provided, by statute, that the pay of a firewarden for his official services
shall not exceed the sum of two dollars a day for the time that he may be actually
employed ; and also, that the bills of firewardens shall be paid by their respective
towns. You are to render all your bills for services to your town and if you
have any difficulty in having such bills audited and paid you should notify the
forest commission. ,

This appointment is tendered to you in reliance upon a recommendation in
which this commission places confidence. Should you accept the appointment,
you are expected to discharge the duties of your office zealously, faithfully, in
full compliance with the letter and spirit of the forest commission Act, and of
the rules of the commission (both of which you are asked to read carefully), and
in a manner at once honourable to the forest commission and yourself.

Be kind enough to inform the commission immediately, whether you accept
or decline your appointment ; and in case that your acceptance is not forwarded
within thirty days from date, you will be understood as declining.

By order of the Forest Commission.
(L.S.) Secretary.

RULES AND REGULATIONS.

These are printed on heavy cards 12x15 inches. Latterly they have been
printed on white muslin as this material has proved more durable, the most of
the placards being posted in the woods, or on fences, school-houses and mills,
where they are exposed to the weather. Over 15,000 of these rules have been
posted by the foresters and firewardens throughout the preserve counties, and
the commission believes that much of the immunity from fire is due to their
general distribution. They have been an important aid in warning the careless,
and in educating the people in this particular.

Much of the force and value of these regulations is lost because there is no
penalty attached to their violation ; and the commission is not authorized to add
any clause in this respect.

RULES FOR THE PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF FOREST FIRES AND FOR THE

PROTECTION OF FOREST TREES.

(Established by the Forest Commission.)

1. All persons intending to light fires for the purposes of clearing or
improvement, must give notice of their intention to the nearest firewarden before
such fire is lighted, They must also give notice to all owners or occupants of
adjoining lands, at least forty- eight hours before lighting such fires, which will
be permitted only when the wind is favourable.

2. No fires, of the character before specified will be permitted until the trees
are in full leaf. After such fires are lighted competent persons must remain to
guard them until the fire is completely extinguished.

'). Fires will be permitted for the purpose of cooking, warmth, and insect
smudges ; but before such fires are kindled, sufficient space around the spot where
the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material ; arid
before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be thoroughly quenched.

4. All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned, are absolutely pro-
hibited.

233

5. Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to originate
irom the use of firearms, cigars, and pipes ; and all persons are warned that they
will be held responsible for any damage or injury to the forest which may result
from their carelessness or neglect.

6. Felling trees, and girdling or peeling bark from standing trees, are pro-
hibited. Fallen timber only, may be used for firewood and camp construction.

7. Foresters and firewardens are instructed, and all citizens are requested, to
report to the forest commission immediately all cases of damage or injury to

forest trees arising from a violation of these rules which may come to their know-

i i •*

ledge.

Beneath these rules, and on the same placard are printed sections 10,
30 and 31 of the Forest Commission Act, and the following:—
Section 74 (as amended by chapter 256, Laws of 1889) :—
Every person who shall trespass on any lands belonging to the people in this
State, or on any Indian lands, or who shall trespass upon any other lands within
the bounds of the forest preserve, or which may hereafter be included in the
forest preserve, by cutting or carrying away timber growing thereon, shall forfeit
and pay the sum of twenty -five dollars for every tree that shall be cut or carried
away by him or under his direction.

FROM THE PENAL CODE.

414. A person who, having been lawfully ordered to repair to the place of fire
in the woods and assist in extinguishing it, omits, without lawful excuse, to comply
with the order, is guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall forfeit the sum of fifty
dollars and be liable to a fine and imprisonment.

640. Malicious injury and destruction of property. — A person who wilfully
cuts down, destroys or injures any wood or timber standing or growing or which
has been cut down and is on lands of another or of the people of the State ; or
cuts down, girdles, or otherwise, injures a fruit, shade, or ornamental tree,
standing on the lands of another or of the people of the State, is punishable by
imprisonment not exceeding three months, or a fine not exceeding two hundred
and fifty dollars, or both.

REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING ADIRONDACK PARK.

The following account of the reasons which induced the people and Legisla-
ture of the State of New York to undertake the work of establishing a great
Park among the Adirondack mountains, and of the means which have so far been
adopted, is condensed from the reports of the New York Forest Commission for
1890 and 1891 :—

In pursuance of a resolution of the Senate adopted January 20th, 1890, the
committee on finance recommended the adoption of the following concurrent
resolutions :—

Resolved, (if the Assembly concur) " That the forest commission be and
hereby is, directed to take into consideration the message of the Governor,
addressed to the legislature, calling attention to the subject of establishing a
State park in and about the headwaters of the rivers having their sources in the
Adirondack wilderness, and after thoroughly investigating the possibilities of
such an undertaking, to report to the legislature its conclusion thereon and its
recommendations as to the most effective methods to be employed to accomplish
that end — either by bill, or otherwise — together with any pertinent facts within
the knowledge of the commission relating to the general subject of forest
preseivation or extension, and further to report the number of acres or square

234

miles of land essential to fulfilling the requirements of a suitable reservation or
park, and the probable cost thereof, and to report also in regard to the other
subjects referred to in said message of the Governor."

The concurrent resolution reported by the committee was passed by the
Senate, March 5th, 1890, and by the Assembly, April 4th, 1890.

The commission of State Parks made a report in 1873, from which the following
is an extract, " It has b^en shown that the forests protect and preserve the springs
and streams among them ; and when we find individuals managing their
property in a reckless and selfish manner, without regard to the vested rights of
others, it becomes the duty of the State to interfere and to provide a remedy.
Here, by ruthless destruction of the forest, thoughtless men are depriving the
country of a water supply which has belonged to it from time immemorial and
the public interests demand legislative protection. The canal interests of the
State are very great, and are already suffering from this wrong. The water-
supply of the Champlain canal is entirely obtained from the streams of this
wilderness, and the Erie canal, from Rome to Albany, is almost entirely supplied
from the same watershed. In the Hudson, near Troy and Albany, navigation at
midsummer has become very difficult. The mill owners at Glen's Falls and at
other points find that their water supply is failing ; and the farming lands
throughout the State suffer from storms and droughts of increasing severity. It
is of no consequence, that, through ignorance of the natural law governing rain
and rivers, men have hitherto permitted without protest, the injustice which they
felt but the cause of which they did not understand. The State must apply the
remedy, and to protect their interests preserve the forest. The great Adirondack
forest has a powerful influence on the general climatology of the State ; upon
the rainfall, winds and temperature, moderating storms, and equalizing through-
out the year the amount of moisture carried by the atmosphere, controlling and
in a measure subduing the powerful northerly winds, modifying their coldness and
equalizing the temperature of the whole State."

The commissioners say, in concluding their report : —

" There is no need for any expenditures save possibly in the improvement of
a few of the principal roads leading to the settlements. The forest is in itself a
natural park, and it would be improper to think of enclosing and fencing it for
it should be a common unto the people of the State. The question before your
Commission is one of great importance to the State, and requires their further
consideration. For the present we deem it advisable and recommend that the
wild lands now owned and held by the State be retained until that question be
decided."

Under the resolution passed by the Legislature of 1890, the forest commission
found itself confronted by four main topics for its examination and decision.

First — Is the establishment of a State park in the Adirondack wilderness
feasible ?

Second — If it be, what shall be the area of the park ?

Third — What lands shall be embraced within the park ?

Fourth — How shall the lands that ought to be included within the park,,
and not owned by the State, be acquired ?

A survey of the actual condition of affairs showed that the region popularly
known as the Adirondacks is diversely estimated at widely different areas.
Taking the most reliable data, the gross area of the Adirondack wilderness

O ' ?5

proper is shown now to be about 5,600 square miles, or 3,600,000 acres This
includes the area of water (lakes, ponds and rivers), overflowed lands, clearings,
farms and some villages, or settlements. This area is by no means a compact
tract, but lies in widely separated parcels, varying in extent from one-quarter of

an acre to 70,000 acres, interspersed among tracts held by individuals and
corporations (mostly lumbermen and paper manufacturers), an unknown number
of clubs or other associations and persons who have established private preserves
and parks in the woods for purposes of pleasure and recreation and of hotel sites.
How to consolidate the lands necessary to form a park became a serious question.
Ouly two methods were suggested. One that the State should condemn and take
the land necessary to form the park by the exercise of its right of eminent
domain ; the other that the State should acquire the land by purchase.

A leading representative of the lumber interest, who has made the subject of
forestry and timber supply and consumption a matter of study both in this
country and in Europe, said to the commissioners : " It seems to me there is a
practical side to this subject that should have some consideration. I have tried
this, summer to make a sufficient study of the way they have been managing
forests in general. I have studied the German system, and have become very much
interested in it. If it is possible to raise the money there is no question but what
it would be the better way if the State could buy the lands outright and own
them, but it is a great question whether the sum of money required for this could
be raised at once, and my hope is that some plan will be devised by which the
land can be boughi at a low price, say about three dollars an acre, and allow the
spruce to be taken out down to twelve or fourteen inches. If that was done the
State would acquire the lands at a comparatively low price. The spruce below the
twelve inch limit in a few years would grow up so that second cutting could be done,
and within fifteen or twenty-five years I think the whole lands purchased by the
State could be paid for with interest and cost the State nothing. The German
forests that I have visited, paid last year some six or seven million dollars to the
German government. I see no reason why our lands cannot be treated in the
same way. The trouble with us is we are alwa}'s afraid of planning out for any-
thing seventy-five years ahead. If you went to the legislature and said you
wanted to spend several millions of dollars, and political questions came up, you
would kill the whols thing. What I am afraid of is that the railways are bound to
come in. The land is not owned by the State. Suppose you own the land, you are
able to prevent any roads going through. It might be that if they went through
they would increase the value of your land. If the land is not owned by the
State the railroad cannot be stopped. There is no question but that railroading
does hurt the Adirondacks. The only advantage of their going through is that it
would bring the whole of the Adirondacks closer together. This would be for
the advantage of the rich and the poor alike. It would give the poor clerks and
poor people an opportunity to go up there and live at low rates. As it is now,
they have got to have guides and go to a large expense. My hope is that some-
thing will be done in the way of buying the land at low prices. There are 25,000
people in the Adirondacks who are depending for their living upon the different
operations in lumber and who are in favor of this park, and will work in the
interest of this scheme if they think they will not lose their livelihood."

The commissioners go on to say that a misunderstanding has prevailed to
some extent with regard to the attitude of forestry to the lumber interests of
private owners. It is, however, generally understood now that the true interests
of the lumbermen are not incompatible with forest preservation, and it has been
declared to be one of the objects of the forestry movement in this country " to
harmonize the interests of the lumberman and the forester, and to devise for the
lumbering interest such protection as is not given at the cost of the forests."
Forestry is not opposed to having trees cut down in the proper way. They must
be cut to supply the world with timber. Civilization could hardly exist without

230

it. It is from trees, and from trees only, that our needs for wood are supplied
through the timber dealer and the lumberman.

The phrase, " lumbered land," is a somewhat misleading one. It does not
imply that such land is cleared, devastated, or even stripped of timber. The term
is used localby to describe lands from which the "softwood" (spruce, hemlock,
pine and tamarac, one or all) has been taken, leaving the hard wood (birch, cherry,
maple, beech, etc.) standing.

Generally, there is so much of this hardwood left on a " lumbered " tract that
an inexperienced eye glancing over it would scarcely detect the work of the axe.
The woodman expects to see such land covered with spruce again, large enough
to be marketable, in about fifteen years.

Even the denuded forest lands to which reference is made are usually
sufficiently well covered with a light growth of poplar and shrubs of various kinds
to play a serviceable part in the purposes of forestry, and they will largely, if
preserved from fire, be reclaimed by the forest.

The questions as to the area of the park and the lands that ought to be em-
braced within its limits have received much consideration from the commission,
and as in the case of other questions a decided difference of opinion has been
found to exist upon them.

The suggestion of the governor in his messsage of January, 1890, was that
the area of the park should be " from fifty to seventy miles square." The smaller
area mentioned would contain 2,500 square miles, or 1,600,000 acres, and the
larger area 4,900 square miles, or 3,136,000 acres. The minimum area for the
park that was suggested to the commission was 1,600 square miles, or about
1,000,000 acres, while most have urged larger areas, ranging from 2,500,000 to
4,000,000 acres.

The objects to be gained by establishing the park are stated by its various
advocates in varying language, although perhaps agreeing in substance. One of
the purposes is alleged in general terms to be " the preservation of the forests."
The benefits derivative from forest preservation are stated as the mainten-
ance of our timber supplies, the conservation of the sources of our rivers by the
protection of watersheds, the protection and preservation of fish and game, and
the founding of a permanent public resort for those seeking pleasure and rest,
and which shall also be a sanitarium for invalids.

The commissioners reported that the loss to the State of New York which
would be entailed by the destruction of the Adirondack forest, taking into
account the manufacturing and canal interests involved, could only be counted by
millions of dollars, and this, without taking into consideration the loss to the
health of the citizens by the removal of the most valuable of ail sanitariums, and
the destruction of the valuable game preserves of the Adirondacks, and they
unanimously recommended that the legislature should enact the necessary and
suitable laws for the establishment and management of a park in the Adirondack
wilderness, for the reasons and upon the general basis set forth in their report.

THE ADIRONDACK PARK ACT.

The Act which was passed by the State Legislature, 20th May, 1892,
respecting the Adirondack Park, is as follows : —

The people of the State of New York represented in Senate and Assembly
do enact as follows :—

Section (1) There shall be a State park established within the Counties of
Hamilton, Herkimer, St. Lawrence, Franklin, Essex and Warren, which shall be
known as the Adirondack park, and which shall, subject to the provisions of this

237

Act, be forever reserved, maintained and cared for as ground open for the free
use of all the people for their health or pleasure, and as forest lands necessary
to the preservation of the headwaters of the chief rivers of the State, and a future
timber supply.

(2) For this purpose the forest commission shall have power, as herein pro-
vided, to contract for the purchase of lands situated within the County of Hamil-
ton, the Towns of Newconib, Minerva, Schroon, North Hudson, Keene, North
Elba, St. Armand and Wilmington, in the county of Essex ; the Towns of
Harrietstown, Santa Clara, Altamont, Waverly and Brighton, in the County of
Franklin ; the Town of Wilmurt, in the County of Herkimer ; the Towns of Hop-
kinton, Colton, Clifton and Fine in the County of St. Lawrence ; and the Towns of
Johnsburgh, Stony Creek and Thurman, in the County of Warren.

(3) In any case where lands are situated within the towns specified in
section two, the purchase of which lands will in the opinion of the forest com-
mission, be advantageous to the State, but which cannot as shall appear to the
satisfaction of the forest commission, be bought on advantageous terms unless
subject to leasesor restrictions, or to the right to remove certain timber as hereinafter
mentioned, the forest commission may make a contract for the purchase of such
lands, providing that the contract and the deed or deeds to be made in pursuance
thereof, shall be subject to such leases, restrictions or right. But no lands shall
be so purchased subject to any right to remove hard-wood timber, or any
trees of soft-wood with a diameter of less than ten inches at the height of three feet
from the ground, 01 subject to any rights, leases or restrictions, or the right to
remove any timber after the period of ten years from the date of the convey-
ance.

(4) The forest commission shall have power, from time to time, due notice
having been given, to contract to sell and convey any portion of the lands within
so much of the forest preserve as is now, or hereafter may be situated within the
Counties of Clinton, Fulton, Lewis, Oneida, Saratoga, Washington, St. Lawrence,
Franklin (except the Town of Harrietstown), Herkimer (except the Town of
Wilmurt), Essex (except the Towns of Newcomb and North Elba), the Town of
Hope in the County of Hamilton, and the County of Warren (excepting, however,
therefrom, all islands in Lake George, and all land upon the shore thereof), the
ownership of which by the State is not, in the opinion of the forest commission,
needed to promote the purpose sought by this Act, or by chapter two hundred
and eighty-three of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-five. The proceeds
of all such sales, as in this section provided, shall be paid to the treasurer of the
State, and shall be held by him in a separate fund and as a special deposit, which
shall at all times be available to the forest commission for the purpose of pur-
chasing lands situated within the towns mentioned in section two of this Act at
such price per acre as may be determined by the forest commission and approved
by the commissioners of the land office as hereinafter provided.

(5) All conveyances of lands belonging to the State which are to be delivered
in pursuance of any contract authorized by section four, shall be executed by the
comptroller and may contain such v restrictions, reservations or covenants as the
forest commission shall deem to be promotive of the purposes sought by this Act,
or by chapter two hundred and eighty-three, laws of eighteen hundred and
eighty-five. No contract made in pursuance or under the authority of this
Act shall take 'effect until the same shall have been approved by the commissioners
of the land office, such approval to be appended to the copy of the resolution of
the forest commission authorizing such contract and certified by the clerk of the
commissioners of the land office.

238

(G) Every conveyance executed in pursuance of this Act shall be certified by
the attorney-general to be in conformity with the contract, and shall otherwise
be approved by him as to form before the acceptance or delivery thereof. Every
conveyance to be received by the forest commission, and executed in pursuance
or under the authority of this Act, shall be made to the people of the State of
New York as grantee, and shall be recorded in the proper county or counties, and
shall after such record, be delivered by the forest commission to the commissioners
of the land office to be treated as part of their archives.

(7) Payment for the purchase of land authorized by this Act, shall be made
upon the certificate of the forest commission and the audit of the comptroller
from moneys appropriated by this Act for the purchase of land or from moneys
received from the sale of lands as provided in section four. Such expenses as
may be necessarily incurred by the forest commission in the preliminary exami-
nation of lands purchased or sold under the authority of this Act, or in the
examination of title of lands purchased under this Act, and all other expenses
incidental to the conveyances and purchases so made shall be paid by the forest
commission from the appropriations made from time to time for the purpose of
such purchases, or from the fund established from the proceeds of the sale of lands
as provided in section four.

(8) All lands now owned, or which may hereafter be acquired by the State
within the towns mentioned in section two of this Act (except such lands in
border towns as may be sold in accordance with the provisions of section four),
shall constitute the Adirondack park. The forest commission shall have the
care, custody, control, and superintendence of the same, and shall have within
the same and with reference thereto and every part thereof, and with reference
to any acts committed thereon and persons committing the same, all the control,
powers, duties, rights of action, and remedies now belonging or which shall hereafter
belong to the forest commission or the commissioners of the land office, within, or
with reference to, the forest preserve or any part thereof, or with reference to
any acts committed therein, or persons committing the same. The forest com-
mission shall have power to prescribe and to enforce ordinances or regulations for
the government and care for the Adirondack park, not inconsistent with the laws
of the State of New York, or for the licensing or regulation of guides or other
persons who shall be usually engaged in business thereon ; to lay out paths and
roads in the manner prescribed by law ; to appoint the superintendent, inspectors,
foresters and all other officers or employees who are to be engaged in the care
or administration of the park and to fix their compensation, the same to be
payable, however, only out of the appropriations made from time to time for the
expenses of the forest commission.

(9) The forest commission shall have power to lease from time to time, as it
may determine, tracts of land within the limits of the Adirondack park, not
exceeding five acres in any one parcel to any person for the erection of camps or
cottages for the use and accommodation of campers, such leases to be general in
form except as to the term and amount of rental, and the term not to exceed five
years, and the leases to contain strict conditions as to the cutting and protection
of timber, the prevention of fires, and a reservation of a right of passage over the
same for travellers at all proper and reasonable times, and to contain a covenant
on the part of the lessee or lessees to observe the ordinances or regulations of the
forest commission, theretofore prescribed or thereafter to be prescribed, as the
same may be from time to time. No exclusive fishing or hunting privilege shall
be granted to any such lessees.

(10) Except as in this act otherwise provided, the Adirondack park shall
for all purposes, be deemed a part of the forest preserve. All laws for the pro-

239

tection of the forest preserve shall be applicable to the Adirondack park,
except as in this act otherwise provided ; and the forest commission may con-
duct the same prosecutions and institute and maintain the same proceedings,
which it is, or shall be entitled to conduct, institute or maintain with refer-
ence to any portion of the forest preserve ; and all acts forbidden upon the forest
preserve are, and shall be deemed forbidden within the Adirondack park except
as herein otherwise provided ; and all violations of law upon the Adirondack
:pa,rk shall be subject to the same punishments and penalties as if such violation
were committed upon any part of the forest preserve.

(11) The foresters and other employees of the forest commission shall, when
so directed by the forest commission act as game and fish protectors ; and as such
they shall have all powers within the Adirondack park which game and fish pro-
tectors have or shall have, under chapter five hundred and seventy-seven of the
laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, and any law hereafter to be enacted,
and they shall from time to time make such report to the commissioners of fisher-
ies as that board may require. Nothing in this act contained shall be construed

1-to permit any violation within the Adirondack park of the game and fish laws
of the State heretofore or hereafter to be enacted, or to restrict or alter as to such
park any of the prohibitions or penalties prescribed or hereafter to be prescribed
by such fish and game laws. It shall be the duty of the forest commission with
the concurrence and approval of the commissioners of fisheries, to provide for the
enforcement within the Adirondack park of such fish and game laws by such
means as the forest commission shall deem wise, in addition to such other means
as are or shall be provided by law.

(12) The forest commission shall include in its annual report an account of its
proceeding with reference to the Adirondack park, and shall make such recom-
mendations with reference thereto as it shall deem wise. The forest commission
shall state also in its annual report the number of acres purchased and sold dur-
ing the year under the provisions of this act, the locality of the same, the prices
paid or received, and all other information of importance connected with sach
transfers ; and shall state the amount of money required in the next fiscal year
for the purchase of lands and for the expenses of the park.

(13) Chapter four hundred and seventy -five of the laws of eighteen hundred
and eighty-seven, and all acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are, so
far as they are so inconsistent, hereby repealed.

(14) This act shall take effect immediately.

PUBLIC UTILITY OF THE PARK.

The Commissioners in their report for 1891, go on to say:—
" At this late day, after all that has been written and said on the subject, we
do not propose to discuss the necessity of forest preservation and the acquirement
of the Adirondack wilderness by the people. Throughout the entire State
there is a demand for this which is continuously urged by the newspapers, the
local forestry associations, and by a general, widespread expression of public
sentiment. Among all the demands and arguments in favour of this project, a
dissenting voice has not yet been heard. If there have been such, they arose from
questions of detail only.

" The original idea called for forest preservation, with reference only to pro-
tecting the head waters of our rivers, and providing a future economic and per-
petual timber supply. But lately the acquisition of this territory has been
urgently demanded by the public for the purposes of a health and pleasure
resort, and the original movement has become largely subordinate to the latter
•one.

24-0

" It is immaterial whether it be called a park or a forest preserve, and its use-
as a pleasure or sanitary resort need not interfere with its management for fores-
try purposes. The friends of the forestry movement, therefore, view with pleasure
the agitation in favour of the Adirondack park, and welcome the promoters of
that enterprise as needed allies in the work of acquiring the necessary land.

" Section three of the Act provides for the purchase of land on which
there is a growth of merchantable soft wood. Such lands are, for the most partv
owned by lumbermen who will not — in fact, could not, part with such lands without
abandoning their business. The State cannot acquire any tracts of this character
except by the exercise of the right of eminent domain, an arbitrary measure which
should not be resorted to until all other methods have failed. Moreover, there is no
reason to believe that a bill authorizing the condemnation of the property of the
lumbermen in noithern New York could be passed. But the lumbermen have,
so far as we can learn, expressed a willingness to turn over their lands to the
State at a low price, provided they could have the privilege of removing the
small proportion of trees comprising the merchantable soft wood. Now, the
lumbermen will certainly remove such timber from their lands, sooner or later,
and the forest commission see no possible way of preventing it. The only ques-
tion is : Shall we secure these lands now, subject to the removal of the soft wood,
or wait until it is removed and then attempt to buy the land ?

" After several years' observation and experience in this very matter, we
believe the delay will only result in the State paying higher prices for these same
lands, the soft wood having been removed in the meantime just the same. Six
years ago prominent lumbermen called at the office of the forest commission and
offered to organize a syndicate that would furnish the State half a million acres
of Adirondack forest land for the nominal sum of one dollar (not one dollar per
acre), provided that they could have the privilege of removing the soft wood and
be relieved of the taxes. We are now willing to pay $750,000 for the same land
which was offered to us then for one dollar, and pay it subject to the same con-
ditions. Further delay in this matter will only result in the State paying higher
prices and under more stringent conditions. It is the old story of the Sybilline
books. There seems to be some misapprehension as to the result of the clause
permitting the removal of the soft wood. The trees which would be removed
under the sanction of section three of the proposed act would not exceed, on an
average, eight trees to the acre. Their removal would not affect the general
appearance of the forest, would not diminish the area of foliage, or lessen its value
as a protection to the watershed of our rivers. The hard wood trees and young
evergreens would still remain. There would be many lots on which scarcely a
tree would have been removed under this clause ; although there might be, here
and there, a few lots on which, by reason of the spruce growing in thick masses
or so called " clumps " there would be a perceptible thinning. But even in the lat-
ter case the young trees would in a few years attain a growth which would cover
all traces of previous operations, and under a properly conducted forestry manage-
ment, furnish future revenues to the State.

' This commission does not consider it necessary to argue in favour of a policy
which has already received the sanction of the best thought of the country. In
1873 a commission, headed by the late Governor Horatio Seymour, made a report
strongly urging the reservation of the Adirondack wilderness.

" On January 22, 1890, Governor David B. Hill forwarded to the legislature a
special report urging the establishment of an Adirondack park and the purchase
of lands necessary to such purpose, his message outlining substantially the pro-
visions adopted in the foregoing Act. In that message he urged that the limits,
within which lands are to be obtained by the State for this purpose, should be

241

settled and defined ; and that all the lands outsiae these limits should be subject
to sale. He recommended that the area of the park should be from fifty

to seventy miles square, the mean area of 2,847,0 esponding with the

amended boundaries now proposed by the com > He also recommended that

the State give permission to persons desirous 'milding summer camps upon
State lands ; and that small parcels should be suitable restrictions at

a moderate rental for such purposes, arguing that occupants would have an.

interest in preserving the forests in al ould be the best of

firewardens or foresters; and that the wilde would thus afford a summer

home to persons of moderate means as wei; hy.

" In the same year a committee of the State Senate re^ that there could

be no dissent from any of these propositions ; and that is admitted that the

creation of 31 park would he of incalculable benefit to the State and the

whole country. The claims of the tourist and the summ ident for a great-

public reservation, where the worker, the traveller and the lover of nature may
find rest, recreation and recuperation, great as they are, sink into insignificance
de the acknowledged fact that the preservation of the Adirondack forest, which
-e accomplished by the liberal action of the State, promptly taken, is a
sanitary necessity. Consideration for the invalid, who, according to eminent
authority- f"10^ nere a rei'age of unsurpassed vah; _:ard for the public

health and protection of v rcial and inanm istries depending

upon the Adirondack forests for even and seasonable distribution of the rainfalls
of that region, alike counsel action in this matter, immediate, liberal and coin-
l • /herisive.'

" The report of this committee was signed by the Hons. George B. Sloan,
Charles T. Saxton and J. S. Fassett. Further than this, the is forestry

associations of the State of New York, and the boards of trade in various promi-
nent cities, together with the entire press of the Stat 'e unanimously and
persistently urged that the legislature no longer delay action in this matter, and
that their action, when taken, should be comprehensive and proportionate to the
magnitude of the interests involved.

" Section 5 provides for the purchase of lands in the Catskill Mountains. The
law of 1885, establishing the forest preserve, contemplated a reservation in the
Catskill as well as in the Adirondacks, and not without good reason.

" As one of the primary objects of forest preservation is the protection of the

watersheds of our chief rivers, the wooded slopes <>!' Hu .watershed

demand special C'mskk , The four comities of Greene. Ulster, Delaware and

Sullivan contain mountains whose forests protect the head waters of important

streams that flow to the Mohawk, the Hudson, and the Delaware. The Schoharie

•ek, which tak in the Catskill Mountains, is a large stream that flows

northward and joins the Mohawk River at Tribes Hill, it- i-s flowing thence

the Hudson. This stream is also utilized as an important feeder to the Erie

Canal. The Esopus Creek a! is in the Catskill Mountains and flowing to

north and east pours its waters into the Hudson at Saugerties. This stream is

valuable for its water power, which is used to advantage by the manufactories

situated near its mouth. The east and west branch* s d' the Neversink, and the

t branch of the Delaware also rise here. The State has already about 50,000

acres of forest land in these four counties, the bulk of which is situated on and

near Slide Mountain, in Ulster County, the highest peak in the Catskills.

<; But there are more important reasons for the establishment of a forest park
in the Catskills. This portion of the preserve is in close proximity to the great
cities of New York and Brooklyn, and the many cities alon-/ the Hudson. It is
easily accessible to three-fourths of the population of the Slate, and receives

16 (F.)

242

annually a far greater number of summer visitors than the famous Adirondack
region. It is a favorite spot with the vast populations of New York and Brook-
lyn on account of its accessibility, cheap railroad fare, and desirable accommoda-
tions for people of moderate means.

•Si ill, aside from all such reasons, the acquisition of forest lands in the
Catskill Mountains is necessary for forestry purposes, and for the preservation of
an important watershed. '

FOREST FIRES.

Under this heading the Commissioners in their report for 1891 say:—
" Forest fires in this State during the past year have done but little damage as
compared with the destructive conflagrations which raged within the wooded
districts several years ago, prior to the organization of the present firewarden
system. That the succeeding reports show a greater number of fires than last
year, is due to the fact that extra effort has been made this season to secure
reports from every town in the State. A. large number of fires reported this year,
it will be noticed, were checked soon after they started and before any serious
damage was inflicted ; and the large number of such cases is encouraging evidence
of the value and efficiency of the organization. In gathering these reports an effort
was made to make the statistics on this matter perfect and complete. To this end
a correspondence was maintained with the 900 firewardens, including the town
supervisors who act as such within the towns outside the forest preserve, all of the
woodlands thoughout the entire State, whether private or public, being under the
charge of the forest commission in this respect. This correspondence was pushed
until every town in the State had reported, the firewardens being directed to
report the absence of fire as well as cases where they had occurred. It will be
noted with interest that the principal causes of these fires were not the ones
which had hitherto been claimed as such. In no case have thej' been reported
as originating in lumbering operations, or in the " slash " lefo by log choppers.
The most frequent source is found in petty farming operations, and the burning
of fallows ; and, next the railroads and locomotives were a prolific cause. The
campers and sportsmen seem to be responsible next, while the remaining instances
were due to various and sometimes unknown causes.

" In cases where the fire was discovered as soon as started, and a posse of men
was promptly warned out, there was no difficulty in extinguishing it ; but where,
by reason of delay, the fire got well started, it was impossible to put it out, and
the efforts of the firewarden and his men were confined to checking any further
spread, and to watching it until the rain could accomplish the work. The
unfailing regularity with which the larger fires were followed by rain was a
noticeable and interesting fact. The system and the work done under it, is
however, far from perfect as yet, but each year has brought with it better
methods and a more effective organization. The commission feels encouraged,
and believes that the present system can be perfected and the laws enforced so
that extensive forest fires in the State of New York will be a rare occurrence.
" In one case a serious fire was started by an incendiary. This occurred
May 14th, near Indian Lake, Hamilton County, and the person started his fire in
the windfall of dead timber and tree tops left by the cyclone of 1888. As this
fire was clearly of incendiary origin, the forest commission offered a reward of
$300 for information which would lead to the conviction of the person or persons
who set fire to* this slash. The printed hand-bills containing the announcement
of this reward were conspicuously posted and freely distributed throughout the

243

country ; but the officers of the commission were unable to obtain any clue what
ever to the perpetrator of the crime.

" Another incendiary fire was started in Franklin County, near Loon Lake,
May 2nd, a full report of which, made by tirewarden Chase, will be found on a
subsequent page.

" The miscreants who start these fire.*, have every opportunity for accomplish-
ing their work without fear of detection. They enter the forest alone and
unobserved, start a fire, and then, aided by their knowledge of the wilderness,
emerge at some point many miles distant. These incendiary fires are the
cowardly means resorted to in revenge for fancied wrongs ; and it is an unpleasant
fact to contemplate that in certain localities the forest is at the mercy of any
lawless man, who, brooding over imaginary grievances, or imflamed by ignorant
passion or drink, seeks to gratify a revengeful spirit by this dire resort. One
need not travel far in the Adirondacks before the ear will catch the discontented
muttering and significant threats which leave no doubts as to the danger from
this source.

"From the table given it appears that of eighty-nine fires reported, the
causes were :—

From clearing land 22

From railroad locomotives , 10

From railroad track hands 3

From hunters and fishermen 9

From mischievous boys 5

From incendiaries 4

From camp fires 3

From mosquito smudge 1

From tobacco smoking 3

From sparks from saw-mill 1

From causes not stated 14

From causes unknown 14

Total 89"

SANITARY BENEFITS OF THE ADIRONDACKS.

The advantages of the Adirondack Park as a health resort are becoming
recognized. On this point the Commissioners in their report for 1891 have the
following :—

" Information regarding the sanitary benefits of the great forest is so largely
sought after that, at the risk of repetition, we quote from one of our previous
reports :—

" The sanitary value of our forests cannot be over-estimated. In addition to
their furnishing a summer resort for the over-crowded population of our towns
and cities, a place where rest, recuperation and. vigour may be gained by our
highly nervous and over-worked people, the healthful and purifying influence of
•coniferous forests has been thoroughly established.

" The testimony, based on personal, careful and scientific investigation of such
men as Dr. E. L. Trudeau, of Saranac, cannot be set aside. Himself an invalid
restored to health by forest life, he has devoted himself to the question of
environment, in its relation to tuberculosis, and by experiment on living
animals, has demonstrated the value of the terebinthine forests of the Adirondack
region as a factor in warding off pulmonary diseases. He says :—

244

Twenty- !i\v int. of tin' patients senl to the Adirondacks suffering

from inripknt consumption come back cured, a proportion only surpassed by th<
-State of Colorado. As a sanitarium tor the State -mil City of New York alone.
tin- . ;dn<- of this ivgiun is inestimable, and many professional men will be ;:
loss w; send their suffering mti.'iits who ar* mal>!<' to p;iy tli

a trip to Colorado or California, unless steps be immediately taken ;

State this heritage that should be preserved for the people.

"Dr. Alfred L. Loomis, of New York, (an eminent authority) h
valuable scientific testimony to the value of evergreen forests as U therapeutic
airnt in lung ions. He writes : —

: Having long- since been convinced by my observations that evergreen
forests hr. powerful purif\ ing effect upon the surrounding atmosphere, and
that it is rendered antiseptic by the chemical combinations which are constantly
,ig on in them, I invite attention to some conditions which may explain their
therapeutic power. Such ambiguous terms .->s ; balsamic influence, ' health-giving
emanations' and 'aromatized atmosphere,' must be regarded as empty phra
and meaningless as scientific explanations. The clinical evidence, however, of
the beneficial effects of pine forests, on phthisical subjects is unquestionable.
The changes attributable to the persistent inhalation of air impregnated with
the emanations of evergreen forests are such as to indicate that the atmosphere
is not only aseptic, but antiseptic, made antiseptic by some element which is not
alone fatal to germ life, but at the same time is stimulant and tonic to normal
physiological processes within the lungs. We are led to the conclusion that this
antiseptic element of evergreen forests, an element which is not found elsewhere
is the product of the atmospheric oxidization of turpentine. It is evident that
the local and constitutional effects of turpentine are those of a powerful germicide,
as well as a stimulant. Its presence in the atmosphere of the pine forests cannot
be questioned. Again, ozone I to be present in excess in the air of evergreen

.-sts, aud the beneficial effects of such an air have been ascribed to this
stance alone. But it seems evident that there is a close relation between an
excess of ozone in the atmosphere and turpentine exalation.

' Recent developments in the treatment of phthisis by gaseous injections, if
they are found beneficial, are apparently due to the arrest of septic poisoning, and
not to the destruction of the tubercle bacilli. It is my belief that the atmosphere
of evergreen forests acts in a similar manner, and facts seem to prove that the
antiseptic agent which so successfully arrests putrefactive processes, and septic
poisoning, is the peroxide of hydrogen, formed by the atmospheric exudation of
turpentine vapours. It is stated that wherever the pine, with its constant
exhalation of turpentine vapour and its never failing foliage can be distributed
in a proper proportion to the population, the atmosphere can be kept not only
aseptic but antiseptic by nature's mm processes, independent of other influences,
than a certain amount of sunshine and moisture. It is not possible for every
one to take his weak lungs to an antiseptic air, but it is possible to render the
air of most localities antiseptic. I would therefore, impress on the public the
importance of preserving our ev rgreen forests, and of cultivating about our
homes evergreen tr<

245

THE CUTTING OF TIMBER FOR PULP WOOD.

The conditions which obtain in the area covered by the Adirondack Park
of the State of New York, in so far as the forest itself is concerned, are analogous
to those in the wooded parts of Ontario, and the following extracts from the re]
of the New York Forest Commission for 1891, relating to the wood-pulp industry,
the tendency to a natural regeneration of the forest under favorable circumstaii'
etc , are interesting in view of what is going on in our own Provinc

' The manufacture of paper from wood is a comparatively new industry in
this country. Its rapid development and the consequent increase in the consump-
tion of valuable forest products demands the attention of everyone interested in
American forestry. The introduction of wood pulp was regarded with satisfaction
by students of the forestry question, because they saw in it.- u^e a market for c
tain small-sized timber, the sale of which is necessary to an econom' cry

management. The successful pecuniary results obtained in the m,- ient of

European forests are due largely to the fact that there is a market for everything

t is left after cutting the large-sized timber ; and so the advent of I
pulp industry encouraged our forestry people to believe that operations in i\\
lucatioii could now be carried on. as the sale of the thinnings would cover the
expense.

"But the consumption of timber by the pulp mills has rapidly

to endanger, instead of promote, the welfare of our forests, hi the last ei.
years the amount of timber used for this purpose has increased 500 per cent.
In the year just passed, 1891, the timber cut for wood pulp in the Great IV
of Northern New York, was equal to one-third the amount cut by the lumb

"It is not the increased consumption of this forest product :hat is so noti
e, but the fact that the entire amount consumed is taken from young tr
Only a small amount" of pulp timber can be gathered from the limbs and tops
by lumbering operations. Spruce and balsams furnish the main supp!
owing to their excuri'ent o'rowth. only the tree trunks of these -varieties are
available.

"The pulp mills 011 the eastern side of the Great Forest use thnb
diameter runs from fourteen down to six inches. On i st side, the mills on

the Black River use woo-! with r as low as three inches. Fr

-een that the introductioi d-pulp, while it might 1

in economic forestry under p ement and restrictions, now <

speedy extinction of the conifers.

" The mills on the Upper Hudson use poplar to an /-rive

cent, and spruce for the balance; but the proportion of po]
less eacl. year. The mills on the Black liiyer use spr !.-;uu, poplar :

some small second-growth pine, Hemlock is used to soi b, when

with other kinds of wood. In making cliemkal libro, however, the sub .ills

ean use one-third hemlock. Tamarac is also used in 5, but il

a -^-.'he-coloured woo ! makes a d;irk, although strong paper. No «-•

used, nor any hardwood. On the Hudson the pulp timber is cut in th
length as logs, an 1 is fixated down tie -jtrei'.ns with the log drives. It is
thirteen feet long, and is sent to thr mill wit;i the 1 >n. The most of the

pulp timber for the Black River mills comes from St. Lawrence and Lewi-
counties, where it is cut into four foot lengths, measured, ami sold by the c
and shipped then over the Carthage and Adirondack Railroad. A lar ion

of the pulp timber cut in Lewis and St. Lawrence Counties is peeled before it is
taken from the forest, thereby obviating the use of barking machines at the
mills. This supply of peeled timber is cut during the bark season, which lasts-
from May twentieth to August fifteenth, before or after which time the bark will
not peel.

" In estimates of a general character, one cord of timber is said to make one
ton of brown pulp, dry weight ; but the actual results indicate that a cord of
wood will produce only 1,800 pounds. In the chemical process, two cords of wood
are consumed in making a ton of dry pulp, or chemical fibre, as it is called.

'Wood pulp, or cellulose, when first manufactured in this country, was used
for paper only, and to a comparatively small extent. But the industry has
developed with surprising rapidity, and now almost the entire bulk of newspaper
stock is made from wood- Other uses for it have been discovered, and these new
adaptations are multiplying each year. Under the name of indurated fibre, it is
used to a large extent in making tubs, pails, barrels, kitchen-ware, coffins, carnage
bodies, furniture, and building material. In this State, there are pulp mills at
Oswego and Lockport which manufacture various wares of indurated fibre, but
these mills do not obtain their timber supply from the Adirondack forest. Wood
pulp is also used to some extent in the manufacture of gun-powder.

' Prof. B. E. Fernow, of the Forestry Bureau, at Washington, says in his last
annual report: — 'While the use of timber has been superseded in ship
building, the latest torpedo ram of the Austrian navy received a protective
armour of cellulose, and our own new vessels are to be similarly provided.
While this armour is to render the effect of shots less disastrous by stopping up
leaks, on the other hand, bullets for rifle use are made from paper pulp. Of food
products, sugar (glucose), and alcohol can be derived from it, and materials
resembling leather, cloth, and silk, have been successfully manufactured from it.
An entire hotel has been lately built in Hamburg, Germany, of material of which
pulp forms the basis, and it also forms the basts of a superior lime mortar, fire
and water proof for covering and finishing walls.'

" The State of New York leads all other States in the manufacture of wood
pulp, having* seventy-five mills engaged in the industry, out of the 237 mills in
the United States. Wisconsin comes next, with twenty-six mills ; then comes
Maine, with twenty-four ; and then New Hampshire and Vermont, with eighteen
each. Canada has also a very large production of wood pulp from its thirty-three
mills, besides supplying large ^quantities of timber to mills situated in the United
States.

"Of the seventy-five mills in the State of New York, sixty-four mills draw
their entire supply from the Great Forest of Northern New York, or what is
known as the Adirondack woods." (pp. 221-227).

SPONTANEOUS RENEWAL OF THE FOREST.

Where the efforts of nature are not thwarted by the ravages of fire, the
tendency of the forest is to re-assert itself. The commissioners note that this is
particularly the case where the previous cuttings have been conducted systemati-
cally, as for instance in the operations of charcoal-burners.

" After crossing the divide, the road runs for a few miles through State land
some of which was burned over about twenty-five years ago, but which is now
covered with anew growth of small trees, indicating that if this land is protected

247

from further damage by fire, it will in a short time completely reforest itself. "
(p. 113).

" From the Summit to Cedar River the appearance of the lands along the road
is disappointing. There is too much open country, and too little of the forest
scenery which one expects to see. The open country is due to unsuccessful efforts
at farming, and the dwarfed condition of the trees to the disastrous fires which
in some places have occurred repeatedly ; but from Cedar River to Blue Mountain
Lake the road runs for ten miles through an unbroken forest which, to an
unpractised eye, shows no diminution of its primeval beauty. Though the
lumberman cut off, years ago, the merchantable spruce and pine, they took so few
trees to the acre that little trace remains of their operations, especially as the
smaller evergreens that were left ar.e fast takino- the place of those which were
cut." (p. 115).

" Part of the forest along this road was cut clean about twenty -five years ago
by the charcoal burners, and persons interested in forestry matters will note with
pleasure as they ride by, that the land has completely reforested itself, there
being little in the present growth which would indicate to a casual observer that
it differed from the original forest on the surrounding lands. There are large
areas in this country which have been cleared by charcoal burners, but which are
rapidly recovering their growth, their present condition affording an encouraging
outlook for the future welfare of these forests." (p. 162).

" Beyond and west of this place are some abandoned charcoal kilns, which are
responsible for the peculiar condition of the tree growth on either side for quite a
distance. The forest was cut here by the charcoal burners, and every tree, lai'ge
and small, was removed ; but the land is now covered with a promising second
growth.

" Throughout the entire region the lands which were cleared for charcoal
reforest themselves quicker, and with a much more valuable growth, than those
which have been denuded by fire. Fortunately, the cutting for charcoal resem-
bles somewhat the coppice system, which is one of the recognized methods of
forest management ; and so, most of the stumps left by the charcoal axemen have
sprouted persistently, and yielded a second growth exhibiting most of the origi-
nal varieties, so far as the deciduous trees are concerned. But where the forest
has been destroyed by successive burnings the soil and seeds are too badly
scorched to reproduce the former trees, and so the land reforests itself with an
inferior crop of small poplars and bird cherries. In driving through Essex
County a good opportunity is offered for studying some of these phases of nat-
ural reforestation." (pp. 169-170).

" Before reaching Aiden Lair the road enters township 26, and for six miles
passes through large tracts of State land, the most of this township having been
acquired through defaulted taxes in 1877. Some of this land has been denuded
by fire, but it was not burned so badly but that it is now reforesting itself. Of
these burned tracts there is one, in particular, which offers an interesting study
in reforestation, owing to a peculiarity in the process. The thick growth of
small poplar and cherry which sprang up immediately after the fire is rapidly
dying off and disappearing ; but it in turn is being succeeded by a promising
vigorous growth of spruce and balsam.

" In this vicinity there is another piece of second growth which is composed
largely of white pine. The trees are strong and thrifty, and in a few years will
be large enough for manufacturing purposes. This second growth white pine
is inferior to the original. The trees are smaller, very knotty, and yield but little
clear stuff. Still the knots are small, red and sound, and the lumber meets with

248

ale. The tune is near when the propagation of this variety of pine
must enter largely into our forest management.

ct of second growth white pine, just referred to, lies along the road
that runs from Minerva, tlr the Hoffman Township, within and near the

south -eastern boundary <>f the park. The land was once cleared and used for
farming purposes ; but It wa> abandoned and it is now overgrown with a thrifty
crop of conifers. Had these lands been denuded by fire, instead of farming, the
ulting crop of trees would have been of a different kind. Poplars and pin
cherries would probably have appeared in that case. The fire burns into the
ground, and destroys every hidden seed. Other seeds, disti 1 by well

known agencies are subsequently deposited on its arid surface, of which the
poplar and bird cherry are the only ones that will germinate in the then un-
oil." (pp. 197-8)

249

THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.

The superintendent of the far-famed Yellowstone National Park, in his
report for the year 1890, makes the following remarks :—

" That the dedication in 1872 of the Yellowstone National Park as a herit;
•wonders for the enjoyment of the people was a wise and timely act few will now
question.

" The Snake River Fork of the Columbia, and Green River Fork of the
Colorado of the Gulf of California (Pacific waters), and nearly all the other great
rivers of that portion of the continent, including the Jefferson, Madison, and
Gallatin Forks, and the Yellowstone, Big Horn, and other branches of the
'.ri-Missis-dppi Atlantic waters, to a great extent radiate from hot springs
or spouting geysers within or adjacent to the great National Park, situated
mainly in North-western Wyoming territory and also embracing portions of
Idaho and Montana. There can V 'oubt that the modern sulphur basins,

sal ses, hissing fumeroles. and spouting geysers are only dwind1 mnants of

the ancient volcanoes and vast and long continued eruptions of lava, which, in
the region of ational Park, characterized the elevation of the Great Plains

and Rocky Mountain Ranges from the oozy bed of a shallow ancient sea.

" It is also evident that at some subsequent but remote period of time many
of these mountain slopes were at an elevation of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet,
covered with dense forests of timber, in size fairly rivalling those upon the
Pacific coast, and that by some oscillation in the elevation of these regions, by
era >hes, mud, and slime, like those which covered Pompeii and

Herculaneum, or other all-powerful and long recurring agencies, forests have
been crushed or covered, often many hundred feet deep, by conglomerate breccias
or other volcanic material.

" Here erosion of the elements, or the blast, or pick and shovel of the tourist,
unearth this ancient timber, which is often petrified entire into a perfect tree or
log of stone ; other timbers, while retaining their form, into opal or chalcedony,
with amethyst or other crystalized cavities, matchless in shape, color and beauty,
which, for cabinet specimens are unequalled elsewhere in nature and unrivalled by
art.

" Many hot springs and mineral streams now petrify timber or coat it with
sparkling lime or silica, build geyser cones and many beautiful forms i cal-

lization. but they are all clearly distinct, and mainly much inferior to those of
the closing eruptive period. This wonderful region is really less one large park
than a group of smaller ones, partially or wholly isolated, upon both sides of the
continental divide, much lower in the park than the nearly unbroken surrounding
mountain range-. Its average altitude probably exceeds that of Yellowstone
Lake, which is some 8,000 feet or nearly a half mile higher than Mount
Washington. Its few yawning, ever difficult, often impassabL n-approaches

along foaming torrents. The superstitious awe inspired by the his-ung sprii
sulphur basins, and spouting geysers ; and the infrequent visits of the surround-
ing Pagan Indians have combined to singularly delay the exploration of this
truly mystic land.

" The animals of the region are the bison or mountain buffalo, elk, white-
tailed deer, black-tailed deer, prong-horned antelope, big-horn sheep, bears,
mountain lion or cougar, wolves, foxes, skunks, badger, rockdog, procupine,
rabbits, rats, mice, burrowing moles, squirrels, chipmunks, beaver, otter, mink,
muskrat, etc., birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects.

250

TIMBER OF THE PARK.

"Black or bastard fir is far the largest variety of timber now growing in the
park, and usually found scattered through forests of smaller timber near the
Mammoth Hot Springs, Tower Falls, Upper Yellowstone, and other elevated
terraces. It is often found from three to five feet in diameter, and one hundred
and fifty feet in height, and is not unlike the eastern hemlock in the irregular
form of it branched top as well as the coarse grained, shaky, and inferior quality
of its timber.

" Black spruce, growing on the moist, sheltered slopes of the mountains near
the snow, though having a smaller trunk, is fully as tall as the black fir, and is
a statelier tree and more valuable for timber or lumber.

" Bed fir is the next in size (which nearly equals that of the Norway pine
of Michigan), and the first in value of any tree in the park for hewn timber for
building bridges, etc., for which purpose it is admirably adapted. It is abundant
in all except the very elevated regions.

" White pine, rivalling in symmetrical beauty the white pine of the east, but
much inferior in size, and somewhat in quality, is the prevailing timber of most
of the elevated terrace groves, and occasionally of the narrow valleys and canon
passes of the mountains. It grows very densely, often rendering travelling
among it on horseback exceedingly difficult when standing and utterly impossi-
ble when burned and fallen, as it is over large areas of the park, proving one of
the greatest impediments to exploring as well as to improvement by roads and
bridle paths. It is the best material found in the park for lumber, shingles,
small timber, rafters, fence poles, etc.

•' Balsam fir, somewhat different from that of the Alleghanies, is abundant and
very beautiful, singly or in dense groves or isolated clumps scattered over the
grassy slopes, just below the mountain snow-fields.

" Cedar of a red or spotted variet}1", growing low, and very branched, but with
timber valuable for fence posts, is abundant.

" Poplar or aspen is found in dense thickets among the sheltered foot-hills.,
dwarf-maple with leaves often scarlet with fungus, is sparingly found, and
innumerable dense thickets of willow ; the main value of all these last named
varieties being for the food use of beaver or for bait."

ACT OF DEDICATION.

The Act by which the Yellowstone Park was dedicated or set apart is as
follows : —

An act to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the head waters of the
Yellowstone River as a public park.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, that the tract of land in the Territories
of Montana and Wyoming lying near the head waters of the Yellowstone River,,
and described as follows, to wit : — Commencing at the junction of Gardiner' s-
River with the Yellowstone River and running east to the meridian passing ten
miles to the eastward of the most eastern point of Yellowstone Lake, thence
south along the said meridian to the parallel of latitude passing ten miles south
of the most southern point of Yellowstone Lake ; thence west along said parallel
to the meridian passing fifteen miles west of the most western point of Madison

251

Lake ; thence north along said meridian to the latitude of the junction of the
Yellowstone and Gardiner's Rivers ; thence east to the place of beginning, is
hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the
laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or
pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people ; and all persons
who shall locate, settle, upon, or occupy the same or any part thereof, except as
hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespassers and removed therefrom.

Sec. 2. That said public park shall be under the exclusive control of the
Secretary of the Interior, whose duty it shall be, as soon as practicable, to make
and publish such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary or proper for
the care and management of the same. Such regulations shall provide for the
preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural
curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural
condition.

The Secretary may, in his discretion grant leases for building purposes, for
terms not exceeding ten years, of small parcels of ground, at such places in said
park as shall require the erection of buildings for the accommodation of visitors ;
all of the proceeds of said leases, and all other revenues that may be derived
from any source connected with said park, to be expended under his direction in
the management of the same, and the construction of roads and bridle-paths
therein. He shall provide against the wanton destruction of the fish and game
found within said park and against their capture or destruction for the purpose
of merchandise or profit. He shall also cause all persons trepassing upon the
same after the passage of this Act to be removed therefrom, and generally shall
be authorized to take all such measures as shall be necessary or proper to fully
carry out the objects and purposes of this Act.

Approved, March 1st, 1872.

NOTE. — The boundaries of the park had not then been surveyed, but they
are mainly crests of snow-capped basaltic mountains encircling the wonderland
of cataracts, canons, fire-hole basins, geysers, salses, fumeroles, etc., unique and
matchless, with an entire area from fifty to seventy-five miles square.

RULES AND REGULATIONS.

The rules and regulations governing the conduct of visitors to the Yellow-
stone Park and the care of same generally, are the following :—

1st. All hunting, fishing, or trapping within the limits of the park, except
for purposes of recreation, or to supply food for visitors or actual residents, is
strictly prohibited ; and no sales of fish or game taken within the park shall be
made outside of its boundaries.

2nd. Persons residing within the park, or visiting it for any purpose what-
ever, are required under severe penalties to extinguish all fires, which it may be
necessary to make, before leaving them. No fires must be made within the park
except for necessary purposes.

3rd. No timber must be cut in the park without a written permit from the
superintendent.

4th. Breaking the siliceous or calcareous borders or deposits surrounding or
in the vicinity of the springs or geysers for any purpose, and all removal, carrying
away, or sale of specimens found within the park, without the consent of the
superintendent, is strictly prohibited.

252

5th. N"o person will be permitted to reside permanently within the limits

park without permission from the Department of the Interior, and any pei
uo\v living \vithlr. the park shall vacate the premises occupied by him within

thirt\ da; r having l:e<>n served Avith ;i written notice so to do l>y the super-

intend. iiis deputy, said notice to be served upon him in person or left at his

pla

NDTK. — The.-e rules ai ilation- ai dopted by the Hon. C. Delano,

Secretary or,,al the dedication of thr park.

Additional rules, sul nciy is-ned ai

(1) The cutting or spoliation of timber within the. park is strictly forbid'
by l;vw. Also the removing of mineral deposits, natural curiosities or wonder-
the displacement of the same from their natural condition.

('2} Permission to use the necessary timb..-r for purposes of fuel and such tem-
porary buildings as may be required for shelter and like uses, and for the
collection of ^uch specimens of natural curiosities as can be removed without
injury to the natural features or beauty of the grounds, must be obtained from
the superintendent, and must be subject at all times to his supervision and
control.

I-'!; i- :I-"N shall oni; '-.indie.} when actually > u-y, and shall be

immediately extinguished when no longer required. Cnder no circumstances
must they be left burning when the place where they have been kin,dled shall be
vacated by the part}7 requiring their use.

(4) Hunting, trapping, and fishing, except for purposes of procuring food for
visitors or actual residents, are prohibited by law , and no sales of game or fish
taken inside the park shall he made for purposes of profit within its boundaries
or elsewhere.

(5) Xo pei -on will be permitted to reside permanently within the park
without permission from the Department of the Interior : and any person residing
therein except under lease, as provided in section 2,475 of the Revised Statute-,
shall vacate the premises within thirty days after being notified in writing so to
do by the person in charge ; notice to be served upon him in person or left at his
place of residen;

(6) Tin: sfdt (.»/ citing liquors is *tri<-fl>/ pr<>]> !liit«!.

(7) All persons trespassing within the domain of said park, or violating any
the foregoing rules, will be summarily removed therefrom by the. superintendent
and his authorized employees: who are, by direction of the Secretary of the
Interior, specially designated to carry into effect, all necessary regulations for the '
protection and preservation of the park, as required by the Statute : which
expressly provides that the same " shall be under the exclusive control of the
Secretary of the Interior, Avho.se duty it shall be to make and publish such rules and
regulations as he shall deem necessary or proper/' and Avho, "generally, shall be
authorized to take all such measures as shall be necessary or proper to fully carry
out the the objects and purposes of this Act,"

Resistance to the authority of the superintendent or repetition of any offence
against the foregoing regulations, shall subject the outfits of such offenders
and all prohibited articles to seizure, at the discretion of the superintendent or
his assistant in charge.

Approved,

S. J. KIRKWOOD, T. W. XORRIS,

secretary. Superintendent.

258

AX ACT TO SET APART A CERTAIN TRACT OF LAND IX TEE STATE

OF CALIFORNIA AS A PUBLIC PARR.

Whereas the rapid destruction of timber and ornamental trees in various
parts of the United States, some of which trees are the wonders of the world
on account of their size and the limited number growing, makes it a matter of
importance that at least some of said forests should be preserved. Therefore, be
it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, that the tract of land in the State of California
known and described as township number eighteen south, of range numbered thirty
east ; also township eighteen, south range thirty-one east, and sections thirty -one,
thirty-two, thirty-three, and thirty-four, township s >;ith range thirty

east, all east of Mount Diablo meridian, is hereby reserved and withdrawn from
settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, awl il'dica
and set apart as a public park or pleasure ground, for the benefit and cn^ment
of the people ; and all persons who shall locate or settle upon, or occupy the same
or any part thereof, except as hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespa-s-
and removed therefrom.

Section 2. That said public park shall be under the exclusive control of the
Secretary of the Interior, whose duty it shall be, as as practicable, to make

and publish such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary or proper for
the care and management of the same. Such regulations shall provide for the
servation from injury of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities, or
wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition. The
Secretary may, in his discretion, grant leases for building purposes for terms not
•-xceeding ten years of small parcels of ground not exceeding five acres, at such
places in said park as shall require the erection of buildings For the accomr
dation of visitors ; all of the proceeds of said leases and other revenues that may be
derived from any source connected with the said park to be expended under his
direction in the management of the same and the construction of roads an 1 paths
therein. He shall provide against the wanton destruction of the fish an found

within said park, and against their capture or destruction for the purp >ses of
merchandise or profit. He shall also cause all persons trespassing up.m the s-ime
after the pissage of this Act, to be removed therefrom, and -ally -hall be

authorized to take all such measures as shall be necessary or proper to fully c u
out ttie objects and purposes of this Act.

Passed the House of Representatives, August 23rd, 1-SOO : approved
• 25th, 1890.

254

ANCIENT FOREST LAWS.

The evolution of law in its relation to forests, game, etc., from the earliest
days to the present time, presents an interesting field of study, but one which
cannot be elucidated here. The following notes have been compiled from Man-
wood's woric and other sources, and may serve to throw some light on the reasons
which at various times have moved men to restrain the cutting of timber, as well
as on the means which they have from time to time adopted with the view of
providing a sufficient store of what in all ages has been regarded as a prime
necessity, and which was never more so than now :—

By a law of King Ina it was enacted, that if anyone set fire to a wood, he
should be punished, besides paying a fine of three pounds (an immense sum in
those days) ; and for those who clandestinely cut, of which the very sound of the
axe was to be sufficient conviction, for every tree they were to be mulcted thirty
shillings. For a tree so felled, under the shadow of which thirty hogs could stand
the offender was to be mulcted three pounds.

It was a law at Frankfort that every young farmer must produce a certificate
of his having planted a certain number of trees (probably in proportion to his
circumstances in life) before he was allowed to marry. In the Duke of Luxem-
burg's dominions, no farmer was permitted to fell a tree, unless he could make
it appear, that he had planted another. Louis the XIV. of France would permit
no oak trees to be cut, to whomsoever they might belong, till his surveying officer
had marked them out ; nor could they be felled beyond such a circuit .as was
sufficiently fenced in by him who bought them ; and then no cattle were allowed
to be put in till the seedlings which sprung out of the ground, were perfectly out
-of danger.

In Saxon times, all beasts and birds that were wild by nature, were wholly
the property of the king on whosever land or grounds they were found, whether
any part of the realm, as well those that were out of the forests, chases, and
warrens, as those that remained within any of them ; so that it was not lawful
for any man to kill, take, or hunt within his own ground ; and if anyone did so,
he was liable to be punished for the same. This law continued till Canute the
Dane came to the English crown, who it appears appointed certain forests and
chases and fixed their limits the first year of his reign. For the preservation of
his own forests he made particular laws at Winchester, from which the following
extracts are translated : —

(1) " Let there be then four men of the higher class who shall have the
right, according to the custom which the English call pegened, followed in each
Province of my kingdom, of distributing justice and of inflicting punishment, and
of all matters concerning the forest, before all my people, whether English or
Danes, throughout all the kingdoms of England ; which four we order to be called
primarii forestce, chiefs (or earls) of the forest.

(2) Let there be under each of these, four of the middling class of men;
(which the English call lespegend, but the Danes yoong men, and which would
now be called yoemen, or perhaps, esquires) who shall undertake the care and
custody as well of vert as of venison.

(3) In administering justice, these (yoong men) shall not interfere in the
least ; and such middling persons, after having had the care of the wild animals,
shall be held always as gentlemen, which the Danes call ealdermen.

255

(4) Again, under each of these, let there be two of the lower class of men
which the English call tinemen ; (or in modern phrase, grooms) : these shall take
the night charge of vert and venison, and do the servile work.

(5) If anyone of this lower class shall be a slave, so soon as he is placed in
our forest, let him be free, and we therefore discharge him from bondage.

(6, 7, 8) Relate to outfit.

(9) Relates to exemption from all summons and popular pleas (hundred
laghe) hundred courts, and from all summons to any other court, except that of
the forest.

(10) Let the causes of the middling and lower officers, and the correction of
them, as well civil as criminal, be judged and decided by the provident reason
and wisdom of the first class ; but the enormities of the first class, if any should
happen, (lest any crime shonld go unpunished), we will punish ourselves in our
royal anger.

(28) Let no one cut any of our wood, or underwood, without leave of the
chiefs of the forest ; which if anyone do, he shall be adjudged guilty of an
infringement of the royal chase.

(29) But if anyone shall cut down an oak (ilicen) or any tree that furnishes
food for the beasts of the forest, beside infringement of the royal chase, he shall
pa}'' to the king twenty shillings.

(30) I will that eveiy free man shall have venison or vert at pleasure in his
•open grounds, (plana) on his own lands, but without chase (or the right of punish-
ing intruders); and let all avoid mine (venison or vert), wherever I think proper
to have it.

(ol to 34) concern dogs and mad dogs. The term forest law is to be under-
stood as applying to large tracts of enclosed land, where deer used to be kept.
As the deer in those forests, and consequently the right of hunting them, were
deemed to belong to the Crown, the forest themselves were brought under the
same class of laws without reference to the deer ; and they remained in this state,
though the trees should fail the laws being executed by the crown with the right
of forest-age, and all. the privilege of royal forests."

The laws of Canute were afterwards confirmed by divers succeeding kin->,
though in practice they generally appear to have been little if anything more
than the will of the Crown, and were so administered until the barons and
others encamped in hostile array on Runningmede from Monday the fifteenth to
Friday the nineteenth of June, 1215 ; during which time they were activdy
employed in rough hewing the broad basis on which the bulwarks of our liberty
are built, by forming the Magna Charta with King John.

The Magna Charta of 9th Henry III., Chap. 21, was the Char/" Forestce of

1 February 10, 1225.

Many liberties were then granted, and customs defined, but the restriction on
cuttino- of wood appears to have been considerably felt.

The 13th of Edward the III., Chap. 1 and 2, gave considerable liberty for
cutting and carrying wood, but it was to be done within view of the keepers of

the forest.

In the 17th and 25th of Henry VIII., there are several acts respecting the
forests, but they are principally modifications of former acts.

Iii the 35th of this rei^n was passed an Act for the preservation of wood, but
principally respecting coal and billet wood. In Chap. 17, an Act for the preser-
vation of" timber, we find: "The king, our sovereign, perceiving and right well
knowino- the great decay of timber and wood universally within the realm of
England, and that, unless a speedy remedy in that behalf be provided, there is a
great and manifest likelihood of scarcity and lack, as well for building houses and

256

ships, . \\-ood ; It is enacted, that in copse of underwood felled at twenty -

o\vth there shall In- left twelve standrells or store oaks, on each acre.
0 many elm, asli .and that they be of suci

ely trees I'd)- timber, and such as In en left at former t'el!;

ha\ e been any left before ; under pain of inri'i-iling 3s. 4d., for every such standard

me h.-df to the crown, and the other to the party who may inform and

sue for it in any court of record, which might be done as in an

, action for debt. When cut under fourteen years' growth, ' nind bl

enclosed or protected for four A proprietor or the lawful p< ir of

the wood under pain for not enclosing for every rood so left unenclosed :Js. 4d.,for

month it may remain so unenclosed. No calves are to ' in for two

years after felling, and no other cattle for four years. When cut from four ::
to i '-four years of age to be six years enclosed under the same penalty ;

after twenty-four years twelve trees to be left under penalty of 6s. od., each tree,
the moiet}' to the Crown, and the informer may recover as before. The ground
to be kept enclosed for seven years under the penalty of Hs. -Id. per rood per
month as before." In the County of Cornwall, within t\vo miles of the ees

might be felled when dead on the top.

Xo wood containing two or more acres, at the distance of two furlongs from
the house of the owner was to be cut down under the pain of forfeiture of ten
pounds for every acre of woodland so destroyed. Woods felled under fourteen

were afterwards not to have colts or calves put into them till eight years
after cutting and enclosing. Most of these acts of Henry, etc., were only tempor-
ary till the loth of Elizabeth, Chap. 25, when the time of protection was enlarged
and the whole made permanent. By the 7th of Edward VI., Chap. 7, the Act of
the 35th of Henry VIII., Chap. 3, was confirmed, and a little modified.

It was then enacted, that every fcaleshide (bundle of cleft wood) be four feet
long beside the carfe; and if named one, to be marked one. and to be sixteen
inches circumference within a foot of the middle ; if t TO, in two, and

twenty-three inches girt; if three, marked as such, and to be i /tit inches

girt ; if four, to girt thirty-three inches ; if five, to girt thirty-eight inches ; anil
so on in proportion. Billet wood was to be three feet four inches in length,
the single one, to be seventeen inches and a half in girt, and erery billet of one
cast as they term the mark, to be ten ; ab »ut ; and of two cas ;e four-

teen inches girt, and t ) be marked within six inches of the middle, mil. the

private use of the owner. Every bound iagot should be three set long, and i
band twenty-four inches in circumference beside the knot. This Aet was prin-
cipally for London, but the -iord of Elizabeth, Chap. 1-i, rendered the statute
more general ; and ordered that the fagots should be every stick three feet in
length except one to harden and wedge the binding of it. This was to prevent
the abuse, then much practised, of filling the middle with short sticks. Th
Acts were confirmed by the 9th of Anne, Chap. 15, and the 10th of the same
reign, Chap. 6, dhects that the assize of billet shall not extend to beech, but that
these shall not be sold in London or Westminster, unless the vendor make them
of the same size as required by the Statutes for other wood. Chnp. 17 of the
7th of K Iward VI.. is an Act for prevnting unlawful hunting in parks, places,
forests, etc. ; and confirms the 38th of Henry VIII.

The 2nd and 3rd of Philip and Mary, Chap. 2. confirms that of Henry 7th
and of the 20th of Henry VIII. ; and in the 27th of Elizabeth, there is another
Act to the same effect, nearly as that ot Henry VIII., which was then made per-
manent; and to render it still more complete and effectual in promoting improve-
ment, it further enacts, that timber of twenty-two years' growth shall be exempted
from tithes. By the 1st of Elizabeth, timber shall not be felled for iron-workers

257

of the breadth of one foot at the stub, and growing within fourteen miles of the
sea or of the River Thames, Severn, Wye, Humber; Dee, Tyne, Tees, Trent, or any
other navigable river or creek, under pain of forfeiture of forty shillings for
every tree, one moiety to the Crown and the other to the informer, recoverable as
before.

Second of Elizabeth, Chap., 19, is an Act for the preservation of timber iu
the wolds of Kent, Surrey and Sussex.

By the 43rd of Elizabeth, Chap., 7, it is enacted that if any idle person cut
or spoil any wood or underwood, pales, or trees standing, and be convicted by the
oath of one or more witnesses, if they cannot pay the satisfaction required, they
shall be whipped. Receivers of wood so cut, knowing it to be so, to incur the
same punishment.

The 2nd. of James L, Chap., 22, is an Act respecting bark, as it relates to
tanners, curriers, shoemakers, and others concerned in leather. By Sec. 19, it is
enacted, that no person shall contract for oak bark to sell again. By Sec. 20,
that no person shall fell or cause to be felled any oak tree meet to be barked,
where the bark is worth two shillings a cartload over and above the charges of
barking and peeling, timber to be employed in building and repairing houses and
mills excepted. but between the first day of April and the last day of June,
upon pain of forfeiture of every such oak tree, or double the value thereof.
And by Sec. 21, for the better preservation of timber, (which by the takers is
spoiled through the desire of gain from the top and lop, or bark of timber trees,)
it is therefore enacted, that no taker, purveyor, etc., or their deputies, shall fell
for the use of the Crown any oak trees meet to be barked, but in the balking
season except for the purposes before mentioned ; or take or receive any profit,
gain, or commodity, by any top, or lop, or bark, of any tree, to be taken or cut
out of the barking season ; and then only those for the king's house or ships,
under pain of forfeiture to the party aggrieved (or on whose ground the tree may
be cut) for every tree so felled forty shillings ; and it shall be lawful for every
party, of whom such tree shall be taken to retain all the bark, top and lop of the
whole of such tree, notwithstanding any commission or other matter.

The loth of Charles II., Chap. 2, is an Act to render the 43rd of Elizabeth
more effective ;' and it enacts further punishment, on account that the destruction
of wood tends to destroy the Commonwealth. It is therein declared that the
officers of justice may apprehend even on suspicion of having carried, or in any-
way conveyed any burden or bundle of wood of any kind, underwood, poles,
young trees, bark, or bast of any tree, gate, stile, post, rail or hedge-row wood,
broom or firs, etc.

Chap. 3, of the 19th of Charles II., is an Act for the increase and preserva-
tion of timber in the forest of Dean. Eleven thousand acres are directed to be
enclosed. Commissioners may sell decayed trees, to make good and maintain
the said enclosures. When and how much shall be laid open, and by what
authority as much shall be enclosed and has been opened, is declared. Wood fit
for sale must be viewed and marked by the justices. Cutting wood contrary to
this Act subjects the party offending to the penalties mentioned in former Acts.
The enclosed land to be all re-aflorested. All estates made out of it to any
person whatever to be null and void. The king may retain game of deer, but
not above eight hundred.

Proviso, for owners, tenants, and occupiers : — Former offences remitted ; pan-
nage shall be re-enjoyed after Michaelmas, 1687 ; and when and in what manner all
privileges to be enjoyed. Letters patent for certain woods and iron works saved.
Coal mines and grindstone quarries may be leased.

17 (F.)

258

The !Hh. and 10th of William III., Chap. 36, is an Act for the preservation
of won,! in the New Forest, in the county of Southampton. Two hundred acres,
purt of this forest, to be enclosed for the growth of timber, alter being set out
by commissioners ; two hundred acres more to be enclosed yearly for twenty
years : and to remain in possession of the Crown for ever. Wood is not to be
(.•at without sufficient authority. No coppice wood to be cut. Enclosures not to
In- ploughed or sown. The foresters to be fined, if they browse or lop any oak
or beech tree in the forest. Charcoal not to be made within one thousand paces
of the enclosure. Persons breaking down fences may be committed as rogues
and vagabonds.

Ninth of Anne, Chap. 17, is for the preservation of white and other pine
trees growing in Her Majesty's colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,
and Province of Maine, Rhode Island, Providence plantation, and the new
Narragansett country or king's province, and Connecticut in New England, New
York, and New Jersey. No person within the said colonies shall presume to
cut, sell or destroy, white or any other sort of pine tree fit for masts, not being
the property of any private person, such trees being the growth of twenty-four
inches and upwards at twelve inches from the ground, without the royal license
for so doing, under the pain of forfeiting £100 for every such offence one moiety
to the Crown and the other to the informer, who may recover the same in any
court of record. The surveyor-general to mark the trees to be cut with the
broad arrow; but no other person than he or his deputy to make any mark
under the penalty of £5.

In the 12th of Anne, we find, an Act Chap. 9, for encouraging the importa-
tion of naval stores from America and Scotland for eleven years, and thence to
the end of the next session.

Sec. 26 observes, " Whereas there are in several parts of North Britain,
called Scotland, pine and fir trees fit for masts, and for making pitch, tar, resin,
and other naval stores, but the land and wood which may yield such naval stores
are mostly in parts mountainous and remote from navigable rivers, therefore for
the encouragement of the proprietor of such lands and woods in making roads
and passages in rivers in those northern parts useful and commodious to the
public, as well as for conveying such naval stores to the sea'ports in North
Britain, to be brought by sea to England ; be it enacted, that there be given a
premium for every ton of hemp, £6, of tar £4, of pitch £4, of resin £3, of masts
20s., to be paid by the officers of the navy on a certificate from the custom house
officer where the stores are landed."

The first year of George I. presents us with an Act, Chap. 48, for the
encouragement of planting and preserving woods. By it, maliciously setting fire
to wood is made felony.

Sec. 17 of Chap. 2, 5th of George I., directs particular examination into the
quality of Scotch tar.

The 6th of George I., Chap. 16, is another Act for the encouragement of
planting and preserving wood. By it damage done to woods is made recoverable
from the parish unless within a certain time it discovers and convicts the
real offender.

Sec. 3 of Chap. 12 of the 8th of the same king directs, that the inspecting
officer shall grant no certificate, unless the articles, of which tar is particularly
mentioned, are of good quality. In it, many sorts of timber are enumerated as
being imported from America ; among them oak, wainscot, pine, etc. ; and in
consequence of these being imported from foreign countries, at very advanced
prices, particularly in time of war, it is enacted that due encouragement be given

259

to importation from the colonies. The law respecting the pine, is nearly the
same as enacted by Anne, but the penalty is reduced.

The 6th of George 111., Chap. 36, is an Act for the better preservation of
timber and trees. It is enacted, that every person, not being the lawful owner,
who shall lop or top, cut or spoil, split down, damage, or otherwise destroy any
kind of wood, underwood, poles, stack of wood, green stubs, or young trees, or
carry or convey away the same, or shall have in their custody any such and shall
not be able to give a satisfactory account how they came by them, shall be
convicted before a magistrate on the oath of one or more credible witnesses, and
be fined for the first offence, any sum not exceeding 40s., with all costs ; for the
second, not exceeding £5 ; and for the third offence be deemed an incorrigible
rogue ; oak, beech, chestnut, walnut, ash, elm, cedar, fir, asp, lime, sycamore, and
birch, to be considered as timber.

This Act was confirmed by Chap. 33 of the 13th of George III., which
further enacted, that poplars, alder, larch, maple, and hornbeam, should be
deemed timber trees.

48th George III., Chap. 72, was for the better preservation of wood in the
forest of Dean, similar to that of the 19th of Charles II., Chap. 3, where 11,000
acres are directed to be kept enclosed in the foiest, and this Act enjoins 6,000
acres to be kept enclosed in the new forest, to be called nurseries for wood and
timber. When the wood in such enclosures is past danger from the browsing
of deer, etc., they may be laid open and other quantities enclosed. Every
person who shall unlawfully destroy, or take away, or break any timber shall
forfeit for the first offence £10, for the second £20, but the third offence is
felony, and incurs a punishment of transportation beyond seas for seven years.

In 50 George III., we have an Act to extend and amend that of the 39th
and 40th of. the present reign for the preservation of timber in the New Forest,
and to ascertain its boundaries ; and another, Chap. 218, for disforesting the
forest of Bere in the County of Southampton. The waste land, it observes, had
been of great value and utility from the timber and underwood thereon, which
•of late years, has been much injured, and in many parts totally destroyed. In
Sec. 64, it is enacted that no sheep, lambs, etc., be kept for ten years in any of
the enclosures of the forest of Bere, unless the owners protect their neighbors'
fences from such sheep, etc.

In 52nd George III., an Act was passed for making perpetual that of the
12th for lowering the duty on bark, after it came to a certain price.

The 10th of Charles I., Sec. 2, Chap. 23, referred to Ireland. By this it is
enacted, that for cutting, peeling, barking, or otherwise destroying trees, the
offenders shall be punished ; and if they be poor and unable to pay the fine,
they shall be whipped. If the constable refuse to execute the order of the justice
of the peace to whip the offender, he shall be imprisoned till he agrees to do so.

10th William III., Chap. 12, enacted, among other things, that every person
having an estate of freehold of £10 a year, and every tenant for years having a
lease of eleven of those years unexpired, and paying .£10 a year, shall plant or
cause to be planted, at seasonable times, yearly, and every year during the term
of thirty-one years, ten plants of four years' growth or more, of oak, fir, elm, ash,
walnut, poplar, abele, or elder, in some ditch or elsewhere on the said lands, and
preserve them from destruction. Every person or society having iron works
shall plant or cause to be planted in ground sufficiently well enclosed for this
purpose, five hundred trees of the aforesaid sorts on some of their ground yearly,
and every year during such time or term as they shall keep or have the said iron
works. Any person having 100 or more acres of land (plantation mtasure) or
other tenants in common, shall, over and above the ten trees, within seven years,

200

enclose \vitli ;i good sufficient fence of stone, wall, ditch, hedge, pale, or rail, one-
plantation acre thereof ; and within seven years aforesaid plant at the least of
the height of one foot above the ground when planted, and the age and at times
before mentioned, for every ten leet square contained in such acre, in such method
as they shall think fit, and keep the same enclosed and fenced from cattle for
twenty years. No sheep or cattle shall be allowed to graze in these enclosures
for twenty years under the penalty of 2()s. for every such sheep, one moiety to the
informer, and the other to the poor of the parish.

Then followed several other Acts, the most important of which is 23 and 24,
Geo. III., Chap. 39, being an Act to amend the laws for the encouragement of
planting timber trees.

It is worth while to notice the great encouragement which the legislatures of
Scotland and England even in very ancient times held forth to the planting of
trees. So far back as the year 1457, by a statute of James II, freeholders are
enjoined to cause their tenants to plant woods, trees and hedges. This is followed
by the Act of James IV., 1503, chap. 74 ; by the Act of James V., 1535, chap. 10;
and by the Act of Charles II., 1661, chap. 41, which are all equally explicit.

Transcripts of these enactments are made and they are very curious in them-
selves, and were passed in time long before systematic forestry was thought of.

(1) Statute, James II, 14th parliament, 6th March, 1457 : " Anent plantations
of woodes and hedges, and sawing of broome ; the lords thinks speedful, that the
king charge all his freeholders, baith spiritual and temporal, that, in the making
of their Whitsundayis set, they statute and ordine, that all their tennents rjant
woodes and trees, and make hedges, and saw broome, after the faculties of their
mallinges, in places convenient therefor, under sik paine as law and unlaw of the
barronne sail modifie."

(2) Statute, James IV, 6th parliament, llth March, 1503, chap. 74, that
hedges, parkes, and dowcottes and cunningares be made. " Item, it is statute and
ordained, anent policie to be halden in the cuntrie, that everilk lord and laird,
make them who have parkes with dears, stankes, cunningares, dowcottes,
orchardes, hedges ; and plant at the least, ane aicker of woode quhair there is na
greate woodes nor forestes."

(3) Statutes, James V, 4th parliament, 7th June, 1535.

10. For planting of woodes, forrests, and orchardes. "Item, for policie to be
had within the realme, in planting of woodes, making of hedges, orchardes,
zairdes, and sawing of broome. It is statute and ordained, be the king's grace and
his three Estaites of Parliament, that the actes maid thereupon of before by
King James the First, and uthers our Soveraine Lorde's progenitoures, be observed,
keiped, and put to sharpe execution in all poyntes, with this addition : That everie
man, spiritual and temporal, within this realme, havand ane hundredth pounde
land of new extent be zeir, and may expend sameikle, quhair there is na woodes
nor foirestes, plant wood and forrest, and make hedges, and having for himself,
extending to three aickers of land, and abone or under, as his heritage is mair or
less in places maist convenient ; and that they cause everie tennent of their landes,
that has the same in tack or assedation, to plant upon their on-set, zeirly, for
everie marke land, ane tree. Ilk laird of ane hundreth pound lande under the
paine of ten pound, and lesse or mair, after the rate and quantity of their landes."

Forest tires in those days were of frequent occurrence, and involved, as now,
very grave consequences. The Statutes of rnuirburn prescribed a period of the
year when the burning of muirs was expressly prohibited under a penalty.

The first Scots Act for regulating muirburn is that of 1st James I, chap. 20,
(Anno. 1424) In the following terms : " It is ordained, that na man mak muir-

261

burning after the moneth of Marche quhir all cornes be schorne, under the paine of
fortie shillings, to be raised to the lord of the land of the burner, etc.

Subsequent Acts were 10 James III, Chap. 75, Anno. 1477 ; 4th James IV,
•Chap. 48 ; 6th James IV. Chap. 71 ; 6th James VI, Chap. 84.

There are also several British statutes regulating the time for making muir-
burn. The 6th George III proceeds thus : "And whereas the laws now in force
in that part of Great Britain called Scotland for preventing muir-burn in for-
bidden time are found defective and insufficient, whereby not only the game, but
•also many valuable woods and plantations have been destroyed ; for remedy
whereof, be it enacted, by the authority aforesaid, that no person or persons shall
make muir-burn, or set fire to any heath or muir in that part of Great Britain
called Scotland, from the last day of March to the first day of November in any
year, under the penalty of 40s. lawful money of Great Britain, for the first
offence," etc. This Act was amended by 13 George III, Chap. 54, sec. 3.

262

FOREST LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES.

A bill to provide for the establishment, protection and administration of
public forest reservations, and for other purposes, was introduced in the Senate
of the 1 'nitrd States in June, 1892. It is unnecessary to set out the bill here, as
it did not actually become law, but the report thereon which was submitted by
Mr. Paddock, from the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, contains matter
of much value and importance as embodying an authoritative expression of
opinion on the condition of the forest lands of the United States. It is given
in full :-

The Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, having had under consideration
the bill (S. 3,235) to provide for the establishment, protection, and administration
of public forest reservations and for other purposes, submit the following
report :—

(1) The United States Government retains somewhat less than 70,000,000
acres of public domain which is designated as timber or woodland, mostly
situated on the slopes and crests of the western 'mountain ranges.

So little regard to the character and condition of the public lands has been
given that it is impossible without much labor to determine how much wood-
land is comprised in them. An estimate was made in 1883, which places the
woodlands at 73,000,000 acres, of which of course an unknown quantity has
since been disposed of. There an; still some woodlands undisposed of in Minne-
sota, Wisconsin, probably a small amount in Michigan, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, and perhaps Florida, but the bulk lies on the Rocky Mountains, Pacific
Coast, and Sierra Mountain ranges, mostly of coniferous growth (pines, spruces,
firs, cedars, and redwoods) and mostly in subarid regions.

(2) This property is at present left without adequate administration, nor
is there in existence any practicable system of management by which the timber
on it can be utilized without detriment to the future condition of the forest
growth.

The public lands are all held for the purpose of disposal to private holders,
hence no further administration or management of the same beyond that incident
to their disposal has ever been attempted. In the case of timber lands, however,
it was recognized to a small extent that there was some additional value to them
that needed consideration and special legislative measures. These measures have,
however, been rather detrimental than otherwise to the future of this property,
besides discriminating unjustly and imposing conditions which cannot practically
be enforced.

In California, Washington and Oregon the law permitted the purchase of
160-acre tracts each by private citizens for their own use. The object of this
law, which was evidently to encourage small holdings of timber lands in con-
nection with agricultural lands and insure consequent protection and manage-
ment of the same, has never been attained. It is alleged that millions of acres
have been taken up under this act without intention to hold them for the use of
the entryman, and immediately transferred to lumber companies, often foreigners,
and immense tracts are being thus held for the same wasteful lumbering opera-
tions that have exhausted the forests of the east.

In the Rocky Mountain States timber lands could not be sold, but the
citizens were authorized " to fell and remove timber on the public domain for
mining and domestic purposes from mineral lands." In addition, railroad

263

companies are allowed to take timber for construction along their right of way.
The impossibility of purchasing in a straightforward, honest way from the
Government either timber or timber- bearing lands-
has compelled the citizens of these nine States and Territories to become trespassers and
criminals on account of taking the timber necessary to enable them to exist.

Settlements upon timber lands in these States and Territories under the homestead and
pre-emption laws are usually a mere pretense for getting the timber. Compliance with those
laws in good faith where settlements are made on lands bearing timber of commercial value is
well nigh impossible, as the lands in most cases possess no agricultural value, and hence a
compliance with the law requiring cultivation is impracticable. As to cutting timber from
mineral lands, perhaps not 1 acre in 5,000 in the States and Territories named is mineral, and
perhaps not one in 5,000 of what may be mineral is known to be such.

By the provisions of the law approved March 8, 1891, the Secretary of the
Interior is empowered to further regulate and restrict this cutting of timber for
domestic and railroad use, but in the absence of officers to control and enforce
these regulations and restrictions they are practically meaningless, especially
since it is almost impossible to obtain convictions where all are equally violators
by necessity, arising from absence of adequate and equitable legislation.

And even if it were possible to enforce the regulations, there could hardly
be expected any method in the cutting performed by an unknown number of
independent individuals, and such a system comes as near deserving the name of
management as the pillaging of a city by a band of soldiers in war time deserves
the name of municipal administration. To verify the general existence of these
conditions the reports of the Secretaries of the Interior, the Commissioners of
the Land Office for the last fifteen or twenty year's, and the report of a special
commission laid down in a volume called " The Public Domain," published in
1884 (House Ex. Doc. No. 47), may be consulted, or Bulletin n of the forestry
division, Department of Agriculture, on the forest conditions of the Rocky
Mountains.

(3) In consequence of the absence of a well-developed system of admin-
istration, the value of this forest property is annually decimated by fire and by
illegal and wasteful cutting.

It is not necessary to argue this point, for it is a necessary corollary of the

preceding.

The Senate Irrigation Committe, travelling two years ago in the western
mountains, was for weeks precluded from any view by dense clouds of smoke from
forest fires, and it is asserted that in that year more timber was burned than has
been used legitimately since the settlement of that country.*

* The acres burned over and values destroyed during the census year 1880 were reported as follows :

States and Territories.

Acres
burned
over.

Value de-
stroyed.

States and Territories.

Acres
burned
over.

Value de-
stroyed.

356 895

$440 750

Utah

42,865

$1,042,800

37 910

713 200

Colorado

113,820

935,500

Oregon

132,320

593,850

Arizona

10,240

56,000

New JMexico

64,034

142,075

KO7 n i f^

3S1 7/17 Qfifl

Total Pacific slope

DZf ,U-ID

«3>1, (i±i ,oUU

Total Rocky IVtountains

432 464

$6,780,371

AT

QQ 090

«i IOQ 000

Idaho . . .

21,000

202,000

Grand total

959,509

$8,528,171

\Vvomina1

83,780

3,255,000

Nevada

8,710

19,000

264

Tin* worst damage of these fires is not so much to be sought in the destruction
of the standing timber but in the destruction of the forest tioor, by which the
chance for germinating of seeds and natural reforestation is annihilated, and the
watrr regulating capacity of the forest is destroyed.

As t<> the amount of depredations, the following table, prepared from reports
of tlic Land Office, is instructive, not only in showing the enormous amounts thus
lost to the public treasury, compared with which the cost of a well-organized
administration would be a mere bagatelle, but also by corroborating the state-
ment that the loss is rarely recovered in the courts.

It should also be borne in mind that the cases reported do not by any means
cover all cases of trespass, presumably only a small part, since the number of
agents to ferret out the cases are ridiculously out of proportion to the area to be
covered.

DEPREDATIONS ON THE PUBLIC TIMBER DURING ELEVEN YEARS.

Year.

Estimated value of timber
reported stolen.

Amounts actually re-
covered, partly by
compromise.

Appropriations for
protection service.

Agents e m p 1 o yed
(number calculated
on the basis of
twelve month a each
per annum).

Market.

Stumpage.

1881

9

891,888
2,044,278
8,144,653
7,289,854
2,862,530
9,339,679
6,146,935
8,397,500
3,603,534
3,067,152
2,347,473

$

225,472
511,069
1,709,824
1,093,178
489,255
1,726,516
1,138,320
840,145
1,182,987
832,420
849,441

$

41,680
77,365
27,741
52,108
49,451
101,086
128,642
128,522
185,002
100,942
116,704

$

40,000
40,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
75,000
100,000

17
31
25
26
23
21
26
25
23
29
33

1882

1883 -

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888 .

1889

1890 . .

1891

Total

54,135,481

10,098,627

1,009,243

780,000

*25

(4) It ^ a ivell-know fact, demonstrated by European experience and
practice, that by a proper system of cutting not only can a forest be reproduced
without the necessity of expensive replanting and kept continuously productive,
but its yield per acre and year, in quantity and quality, can by proper manage-
ment be increased considerably beyond that of the virgin forest left without
management.

The methods of management for natural reforestation, or " regeneration
methods," are practiced, especially in France and Germany, in broad-leaved as
well as coniferous forests. The cutting of the old timber is done with a view of
giving chance for seeds of the desirable species to sprout and for the young
growth to develop satisfactorily. These methods prevail especially in the
mountain regions, where planting would be expensive and sometimes impractic-
able.

Since in the well-managed forests only such species as are valuable are
allowed to grow, to the exclusion of the inferior kinds, which the forester treats
as weeds, the composition of the forest is improved, the growth is kept at the

* Average.

265

most favorable density for development, not only more individual trees but these
of more servicable shape are growing, so that at the harvest the percentage of
waste and useless material is reduced, and it is for these reasons that the yield,
not only in quantity but also in quality, is increased.

While in our virgin forests the percentage of useful saw material is estimated
to rarely exceed 20 or 25 per cent, the percentage in the French Government
forests is over 50, which in pine and spruce of 130 years of age in Germany may
reach the high figure of 60 to even 70 per cent ; that is to say, the management
of the crop is such that the firewood, branches, and waste material are kept down
to from 30 to at most 50 per cent, of the total crop of wood.

Most of the timber cut and sawed in the United States is from trees more
than 200 years of age, while the rotation, i.e., the time during which the crop is
allowed to grow in Germany, for most timber is not more than 100 years.
Comparisons of absolute yield are therefore impossible to make.

But if we allow the high estimate of 10,000 feet board measure per acre to
be an average for the United States, we learn from the large statistical material
on hand for the German forest administrations that the yield of the German
forests is at least three times as large and that produced in a shorter time. We
leave out of consideration, of course, the yield of the Pacific Slope forests, which
is beyond any average computation.

That it is judicious for the government to keep in view the question of
timber supplies and to give, at least as far as it own holdings are concerned,
timely attention to the future, if for nothing else than an example and object
lesson, may be inferred from the following statement in regard to the outlook of
available supplies and demand, which, while not claiming to present actual
conditions, for which statistics are lacking, discusses possibilities or probabilities.

The chief of the forestry division, in an address before the real estate
congress at Nashville, Tenn., in 1892, says :—

The area of timber land in the United States, although changing daily by clearing of new farms
and by relapsing of old ones into woodlands, may roughly be placed at 500,000,000 acres. Even if
we were to class as timber land all the land not occupied by farms or known to be without tree
growth, this figure can not be increased more than 60 per cent. ; that is, the utmost possibility
of the area of natural woodlands in the United States must be within 800,000,000 acres. The
former figure, however, conies probably much nearer the truth. How much of this area con-
tains available merchantable timber it is impossible to tell, or even to guess at. We only know
that supplies of certain kinds are wanting. For instance, the white pine of the North shows
signs of exhaustion, the white ash has become scarce in many localities, the tulip poplar will not
last long, and the black walnut has ceased to be abundant. All we can do is to estimate the
range of possibilities.

With the utmost stretch of imagination as to the capacity of wood crops per acre, if we allow
even the entire area of half a billion acres to be fully timbered, and keep in mind the enormous
yield of the Pacific Coast forests, 1,250 or 1,500 billion cubic feet of wood is all that could be
crowded upon that area. This figure would far exceed the most highly-colored advertisement
of a dealer in timber land, except on the Pacific Coast ; in fact he would be afraid to assert one-
half as much, for it would make the average cut of timber per acre through the whole country
10,00(J feet board measure.

The above figure in cubic feet represents wood of every description, allowing as high as 33^
per cent, for saw timber.

Since we consume between 20,000,000,000 and 25,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood of every
description annually, fifty to sixty years would exhaust our supplies, even if they were as large
as here assumed and if there were no additional growth to replace that cut and no additional
increase of consumption. Regarding the latter it may be of interest to state that according to as
careful an estimate as I have been able to make upon the basis of census figures and other means
of information the increase in the rate of consumption of all kinds of forest products during three
census years, expressed in money values, was from round $500,000,000 worth in 1860 to $700,-
000,000 worth in 1870 and $900,000,000 in 1880, while for 1890 it may probably reach $1,200,-
000,000, an increase of about 30 per cent, for every decade, or somewhat more than the increase
of population, which may in part be explained by higher prices.

266

It will also ;iiil us in din (.•(inception of the.situation to know that the saw mill capacity of the
country in 1SS7 was round 200,000,000 feet (hoard measure) daily, which again may be figured
equivalent io a prohable consumption of wood of all kinds to the amount of at least 20,000.000
cuhic feet round.

It remains to be seen what the chances are of supplying ourselves from the natural repro-
duction of our present forest area.

1 have shown else- where that, while under the careful management of the German forest
administrations, the a\ entire yearly new growth i* computed at 50 cubic feet per acre, or 2.3
cuhic feet for every li 0 cubic feet standing timber, we can here, where there is no management
at all, whore tire and cattle destroy not only young growth but also the fertility of the soil, in
spite of the originally greater reproductive power, expect no such annual crop.

From my observations I would not admit that more than one-half such annual growth is
reali/.ed on the average over the whole arei of 500,000,000 acres, and the likelihood is that much
less is reproduced per acre.

Hence, while 500,000,000 acres reserved as forest at the very best would satisfy our annual
consumption of '25,000,000,000 cubic feet — we need some 5,000,000,000 feet to supply our annual
conflagrations — we are presumably cutting into our capital at the rate of at least 50 per cent, of
our annual consumption ; that is to say, only one-haif the annual cut is represented in annual
new growth. What do these figures mean with reference to the subject in question ? Simply
this, that while as yet prices for timber lands, and still less the price of lumber, are by no means
advancing in proportion to the constantly growing reduction of standing timber supplies, when the
general truth of these figures is recognized, which cannot fail to occur soon, timber lands will
appreciate rapidly in value, and lumbermen, especially in the South, will regret their folly of
having marketed their best supplies at unprofitable and unsatisfactory margins.

Nevertheless, it may be possible by a common-sense management and more
rational methods of utilizing the timber, having some regard to the young growth,
inaugurated now, to avoid the necessity of replanting at great cost and to main-
tain the present forest resources of the United States in sufficient and ever
increasing productiveness.

(5) It is also established beyond controversy that the forest cover, and espe"
dally the forest floor of leaves, twigs, decaying vegetable matter, underbrush, and
root system, influence the regularity of the waierflotu in springs, brooks, and rivers,
as well as the state of the ground water level, the presence or absence of an efficient
forest cover determining the percentage of subterranean or superficial drainage.
Whatever the theories or facts regarding the influence of forest areas upon meteoro-
logical phenomena and climatic conditions — and these are partly at least still in
controversy — there exists but little doubt, if any, among students and observers in
regard to the influence ^vhich a forest cover exerts over the water drainage and
soil conditions.

Since it is in part upon the assumption of the existence of such an influence
that the government is called upon to look to the preservation of forest conditions,,
and since the ideas regarding such influence are still more or less confused, it may
be proper to explain more at length the action of the forest in this direction.

So far as formation of springs is concerned, no doubt, geological conditions
and structure are of primary importance. This does not, however, exclude that the
vegetable cover of the soil has at least a secondary influence upon the feeding and
regular flow of springs. Even if we exclude any action of the forest upon the
increase of precipitation, such as is claimed and partly sustained by observation,
there are various ways in which the supply of springs is influenced by forest
cover.

The forest floor and the foliage breaking the force of the rain drops, prevent
a compacting of the soil ; it remains porous and permits the water to percolate
readily, changing a large amount of it from surface drainage into subterranean
channels ; the root system, no doubt, works in the same direction. Forest floor
and foliage also prevent rapid evaporation, and although the trees consume a/
large amount of water in their growth, evaporation is the worst dissipator of

2G7

moisture, and the balance, between the consumption and the saving of evaporation
by forest growth, is largely in favor of this kind of vegetation as compared with
any other vegetable cover or with naked ground, provided the forest floor of
decayed leaves, twigs, etc., is not destroyed. Furthermore, the melting of snows
is retarded under the forest cover, and finally the mechanical retardation of the
surface water flow promotes subterranean drainage, insuring to springs a greater
supply for a longer time.

This observation, very generally made, used to be explained by popular
writers as due to the sponge-like condition and action of the forest floor, being
able to take up water and then gradually giving it up to the soil below. For-
tunately, the forest floor is rarely like a sponge, for a sponge never gives up water
below, but always by evaporation above after the supply has ceased. The simile
was an unfortunate one.

The open runs, i. e., brooks, rivulets and rivers, receive their supply mainly
from springs, but also from the surface waters which flow without definite channels
down the slopes. The more the supply is derived from springs the more even is
the water flow of the river ; the greater the suppjy of the surface drainage the
more dependent is the water flow on the changeful rains and on the melting of
the snows, and the more changeful is the water flow. While, then, in the first
place, the water flow in rivers is dependent upon the amount and frequency of
rainfall and snow, the manner and time in which the water reaches the channels
determines the greater or smaller extremes of water stages.

The retardation of the melting of the snow, which in a well-covered moun-
tain district may be prolonged for two or three weeks under a forest cover, is of
great significance in reducing the spring floods. The main influence, however, lies
in the mechanical impediment which the forest floor Opposes to the rapid surface
drainage, promoting filtration to the soil and preventing the rapid filling of sur-
face runs and lengthening the time during which the water is to run off. Obser-
vations in one of the reforested parts of the French Alps showed this retardation
to be in the ratio of 5 to 3.

Thus, while in extreme cases, with excessive rainfalls or sudden rises of tem-
perature in early spring, with steep declivities and impermeable rock formation,
even a forest cover may have no practical effect in preventing a flood, it may be
accepted as a generally true proposition that a forest cover has a tendency to
lengthen the time to run off, and hence to reduce in -amount and frequency flood
conditions and to maintain the water flow more even with fewer excessively low
and high stages.

Lastly, but of greater importance than has often been conceded to this influ-
ence, the forest cover prevents erosion of the soil and formation of the so-called
detritus of rocks, gravels, and sands which, carried into the rivers, increase the
danger from floods, impede navigation, and if deposited on fertile lands may. as in
France, destroy the soil value of whole districts. Along the coast and in the
sandy plains the protection of the loose soil and dunes against the disturbing
action of the winds, and in the mountains which are liable to avalanches and
snow-slides, as in Switzerland, the protective value of a forest is also well estab-
lished. If there were any doubts regarding the influence of forest cover upon
water and soil conditions before they have been entirely dispelled by the extenT
sive reforestation work undertaken by the forest department of France.

There seventeen departments or counties had been impoverished and depopu-
lated by the washing of the soil, torrential action of the rivers, and repeated
floods, due to deforestation of the mountains, when the government adopted the
policy of reclothing the denuded slopes with tree growth and sod. The popula-

•2i ;s

in these counties had diminished from 10 to 20 per cent, within less than 20
years, ;md lei-tile lidds had been covered up for more tlian 100 miles from the
sourer .,!' the soil, with the debris brought from the mountains by the rushing
torrents.

The French Government has expended for reforestation of these mountains,
during the l;ist thirty years, over $35,000,000 and expects to have to spend more
than tlie same amount in addition before the damage is repaired. The result of
this work, some of which is now long enough established to show effect, perfectly
justifies the anticipations of its efficiency. In the " perimeters" which have been
recuperated the waters are carried off more slowly and without damage. These
works in their result must quiet all theoretical discussion of the efficiency of forest
cover in this particular. They present ocular proof not only of the fact that de-
forestation invites fioods, erosion, and untold damage, but that reforestation is the
method of remedying the damage and proper attention in time to the forest cover
the method of obviating it.

Recognizing the value, then, which a forest may have in preserving proper
water conditions and soil conditions, and perhaps, too, in some degree in climatic
conditions, the conception in Europe of " protective forests" as distinguished from
the " economic forest," that is, a forest which has value only from a material point
of view, a policy has grown up in the higher developed nations of placing the
first class of forests, which have a significance as a natural condition rather than
as a source of material supply for the whole community, under government control,
direct or indirect.

(6) Aside, therefore, from ike undesirability of destroying or unnecessarily
impairing a valuable resource of material, which can be continuously repro-
duced on land otherwise useless, there is strong reason ^vhy, especially in regions
dependent upon irrigation for their agricultural development, favorable forest
conditions should be carefully maintained.

Modern experience and scientific research have confirmed the experience of
antiquity, namely, that plant production is primarily dependent upon water
and that the management of water supplies is much more essential to the farmer
even in the humid regions, than management of mineral constituents of the soil,
for the latter can be supplied with ease, but the former can be regulated and sup-
plied properly only with difficulty. If, then, water management becomes more
and more important in all sections of our country, it is particularly so in those
regions where, from natural causes, the supply is scanty. No artificial reservoirs
can supply the more easily and cheaply maintained natural reservoir of the forest
floor.

In this connection it will be well to quote the following language from a
memorial recently transmitted to the President of the United States by the Colo-
rado State Forestry Association, to which the Secretary of State, State engineer,
State treasurer, attorney-general, and other leading officers of the State, together
with the chambers of commerce of Denver and Colorado Springs, and some 500
leading citizens of the State have appended their signatures, recommending the
reservation of all the timber lands in their State.

To his Excellency the President of the United States:

Your memorialist, the Colorado State Forestry Association, respectfully represents that the
agriculture of this State, now rapidly increasing in magnitude and importance, is almost entirely
dependent upon systems of irrigation. At least $13,000,000 are invested here in reservoirs,
canals, ditches, and other works for the storage and distribution of water. No less than 13,000
miles of irrigating canals and main ditches are in operation or in course of construction m the
State.

269

The agricultural yield of Colorado (exclusive of live stock) for the year 1891 irnonnted to
$53,900,000 ; the mineral output for the same period was $33,549,000— a large sum, but greatly
inferior to the one tirst named.

It will thus be seen how vitally important to the growth and continued prosperity ot this
Commonwealth is an abundant supply of water for irrigation. In fact it may be said that hence-
forth he agricultural yield of the State will be limited only by its water resources.

The streams upon which the irrigation systems of Colorado depend are fed by the springs,
rivulets, and melting snows of the mountains, which in turn are nourished and protected by
the native forests. Where the forests have been destroyed and the mountain slopes laid bare
most unfavorable conditions prevail. The springs and the rivulets have disappeared, the winter
snows melt prematurely, and the flow of streams, hitherto equable and continuous, has become
fitful and uncertain. Floods and drought alternating clearly indicate that the natural physical
conditions of the region have been unduly disturbed. In winter and early spring, when heavy
masses of snow have been accumulated on treeless precipitous slopes, snow and landslides fre-
quently occur with disastrous results to life and property. Even thus early in the present season
a considerable number of valuable lives have been sacrificed in this manner.

The main Rocky Mountain range extends throughout the State, from north to south, and is
flanked on either side by numerous spurs and minor ranges. The average or mean elevation of
Colorado, 7,000 teet above the sea level, is greater than that ot any other portion of North
America. The high and rugged interior region contains 140 peaks or more, exceeding 11,000
feet elevation, and comprises about one-fourth of the area of the State. Small portions of this
region are used for agriculture and grazing, but in the main it i< unsuited for such purposes. Its
surface, below timber line, was originally quite generally covered with a coniferous forest growth,
but has subsequently been marred and disfigured by fire and the axe. Vast areas have been
thus desolated. Above timber line proper there are many gulches and sheltered places, in some
of which exist a stunted growth of trees and shrubs, where the drifting snows find lodgment,
melting only during the summer months.

At certain of these greater elevations are found morasses, alpine lakes, and during portions
of the year, ice fields of limited extent. The region is mainly one of cold and humidity for long
periods of each recurring season. This is one of the principal, if not the chief, of the distribut-
ing centres of the continental water system. It contains the sources of the North Platte (in part,)
the South Platte, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Dolores, Gunnison, Grand, White, Yampa, and other
powerful streams, the preservation of which is not only important to Colorado but to neighbor-
ing States and Territories. New Mexico would be uninhabited were it not for the life-giving
waters of the Rio Grande, which flow from the snow mountains of Colorado.

In view of the above, and in consideration of many recognized evils which follow the reck-
less and inconsiderate denudation of timbered areas, we respectfully ask that you will, under the
act of March 3, 1891, cause to have withdrawn from disposal a'id constituted a forest reserve,
all public lands along the crests of the mountain ranges and spurs in this State, as above men-
tioned, and upon either side thereof for a distance of 6 miles, more or less, according to the
width of the timber belts in different localities and as may be deemed advisable after due official
examination of the same.

We beg to represent further, that in our opinion the rights o: prospecting and mining and
right of way for public roads within the territory in question should remain inviolate, and that
the general government should inaugurate at the earliest practical period a careful and conser-
vative administration of such public lands. We also believe that, under proper regulation, a
prudent and economical use of the forest resources may be had without endangering the per-
petuity of the forests. Forest conservation should promote, rather than retard, all legitimate
industries.

In this connection it is also worth while to quote the language of the chief
of the forestr}r division from the annual report of the Secretary of Agriculture
for 1891 :-

WATER MANAGEMENT THE PROBLEM OF THE FUTURE.

Before even attempting the control of precipitation, our studies, in the opinion of the writer,
should be directed to secure better management of the water supplies as they are precipitated
and become available by natural causes. How poorly we understand the use of these supplies
is evidenced yearly by destructive freshets and floods, with the accompanying washing of soil,
followed by droughts, low waters, and deterioration of agricultural lands.

It may be thought heterodox, but it is nevertheless true, that the manner in which most of
the water of the atmosphere becomes available for human use (namely, in the form of rain) is by
no means the most satisfactory, not only on account of the irregularity in time and quantity, but
also on account of its detrimental mechanical action in falling, for in the fall it compacts the

270

ground, impeding percolation. A large amount of what would be carried off by underground
drainage is thus rimmed into surface-drainage waters. At the same time, by this compacting of
tin- soil, capillary action is increased and evaporation thereby accelerated. These surface waters
also loosen rocks and soil, carrying these in their descent into the river courses and valleys, thus
increasing 'landers of high floods and destroying favorable cultural conditions.

I Ic-re it is that water management and, in connection with it or as part of it, forest manage-
ment should be studied ; for without Jorest management no rational ivater management is possible.

(7) Experience in the United States has shown that under private owner-
p, forest conditions are almost invariably destroyed or deteriorated, Jor the
simple reason that the timber for present use is the only interest which private
enterprize recognizes in the forest, not being concerned in tin future or in the
consequences of mismanagement to adjoiners, who have to suffer.

It is therefore undesirable to transfer the ownership of the public timber
lands to individual owners in the expectation of having them managed with a
view to the broader interests of the community.

If there were need of other demonstration of this point beyond the history
of the eastern forest lands, which have been for many years in the hands of
private owners, we need only refer back to the working of the law in the Pacific
Coast States, where such disposal to private holders has utterly failed in accom-
plishing its object. There is neither the interest nor even the knowledge to be
found among the many to let us anticipate forest management by small holders.
Besides foresty thrives best on large consolidated areas, from financial as well as
technical considerations.

It will be necessary, in order to promote rational forest management, to do
the same that all other nations have found necessary to do, namely, for the
government to set the example and furnish the object lesson and opportunity for
the others to follow.

The fact that a tree crop takes from fifty to one hundred years and more to
grow to usefulness requires a patience and stability of ownership which our
people have not yet attained, and hence the government must furnish the con-
servative elements where needed, as in our forest policy.

(#) The cession of the public timber domain to the individual States with
a view of having the States devise methods of conservative management, would
fail in accomplishing the object for various reasons. Experience in the past
with such cessions has not proved it practicable to place restrictions or conditions
upon such cessions or to enforce them.

Even if a cession, upon condition that the State provide efficient manage-
ment, could be practically effected, lack of unity in the various systems and
clashing of interests where watersheds are situated in more than one State, make
retention of these lands in the general government desirable, or at least more
promising of conservative results.

Other reasons of expediency make such a wholesale cession of timber lands
impracticable. Among these may be mentioned the difficulty of segregating the
timber lands from public lands of other description or transferring obligations
of the general government toward railroad companies, resting upon such lands.

Nevertheless, co-operation with the State authorities in inaugurating a
sound forest policy is most desirable, and should be made a prominent feature in
whatever measures the general government may devise.

(9) The present proposed legislation keeps in view the following principles :
(a) That the retention of the public timber lands in the general government,
and their administration as such, is the only proper policy for all wooded areas
of the public domain ivhich do not stock on agricultural land.

271

(6) That only a fully developed and separate system of management and
•administration, carried on by competent men under expert advice, can accom-
plish the objects of a rational forest policy.

(c) That the object of the public forest reservations is twojold, namely, to
maintain desirable forest conditions with regard to waterfiow, and, at the same
time, to furnish material to the communities in their neighborhood.

(d] That ivhile the service of protection of watersheds would warrant an
expenditure out of other funds for such service it should, nevertheless, pay for
•itself by the sale of surplus forest material.

It is only necessary to add a few words of explanation on this latter point,
says the chief of the forestry division in discussing the practicability of a
government forest administration :—

To meet any objections on the score of expense, a rough estimate of this question may be
made as follows :—

Allowing 50,000,000 acres of timber land reserved, I find that a tolerably efficient adminis-
tration may be provided for a round $2,500,000, or 5 cents per acre. It would be satisfactory
•of course if only this expense be covered by the revenue. While the annual growth of wood per
acre on the reserved area would exceed in value the assumed cost of administration the local
market and consumption is restricted. But when we consider that the present saw-mill capacity
-of the region affected is over 3,000,000,000 feet B. M., and the resident population 3,000,000,
requiring at least 50 cubic feet of wood material per capita, sufficient margin is assured even if
only half of these amounts are furnished from the government reservations and the average
charge for stumpage is taken at 10 cents.

And in another place (see Annual Report, 1886) :—

(7) The cost of the total service depends of course on the number of districts to be formed.
'Take Colorado al ne, which we will assume contains about 5,000,000 acres of public domain. For
this we may require three hundred rangers and ten inspectors, and the expense may be placed in
round figures at $300,000. This amount could be saved by preventing only one-third of the
forest fires, which seem to destroy over $900,000 worth of public property in that State yearly,
and the 50,000,000 cubic feet or so of timber, which may be cut to satisfy the needs of the
country for its development, would certainly, without hardship to any one, yield enough to help
pay the expenses of less favorable localities and of the central bureau. The expense of the latter,
with the necessary staff of clerks, etc., could certainly be kept within the sum of $50,000. Even
if the whole forest area were as thoroughly organized as proposed for Colorado, the expense of
the service would not be more than 30 per cent, of the income which might be derived from this
•domain, or, which could be saved, by preventing one-half of the fires that yearly destroy about
an equal amount.

Referring to the operations of several European forest administrations we
-find that their expenditures represent from 37 to 58 per cent, of their gross
income, or from $1.33 to $5 per acre, the net revenue being 96 cents to $4.40 per
acre. These are results under conditions of very extensive management and
under highest economic development. Taking Prussia alone, with a round
6,000,000 acres of forest and much poor and undeveloped country, the cut in 1890
amounted to round 333,000,000 cubic feet of wood, of which 215,000,000 feet
-went into cord- wood and 118,000,000 feet in saw-logs, or round 56 cubic feet of
wood representing the annual growth per acre per year over the entire 6,000,000
acres, with a proportion of 45.6 per cent, in saw timber and wood for manufac-
tures. The price received for this material in the woods, butt cut, was at the
average rate of $10.63 per M feet, board measure, and $3.69 per cord, or both
together about 5 cents per cubic foot of wood, the total income from wood being
$16,225,000, of which 62 per cent, came from saw timber. Other revenues of the
fores o administration amounted to $17,632,810, or about $2.63 per acre, as against
$10,888,893 in 1870.

272

The expenditures, amounting to §8,796,740, or, if special appropriations not
recurring are deduced, to ss,."),s2,2<5s, represented 47.38 per cent, of the gross
in< nine. It may U- of interest to indicate in what direction this large amount is
expendt-d :—

There ;ire IL'L' oflicers in higher branches of administration, aggregating

salaries t<> the amount of $154,350

C.s ! district officers or managers 588,276

'1,753 umlerforesters or guards 1,162,8(57

114 (inaiK-ial agents 73,141

Otlier temporary employes and personal expenses 1,073,587

Total personalia . $3,052,221

Cost of harvesting wooil crop (lumbering at a little less than 7 cents per

cubic foot) $2,206,030

Buildings 599,834

Roads and water ways 410,102

Surveys , 110,226

Injurious insects 60,454

Culture 1,230,882

Sundries 280,073

Total salaries and administration $8,009,822

Forestry schools and scientific research * 48,130

Purchase of lands 304,156

Sundries.. 434,632

Grand total $8,796,740

Or $1.33 per acre, leaving a net revenue of $1.30 per acre, as against 97 cents in 1870,.
when the expenditure per acre was 34 per cent. less.

(10) The proposed legislation contemplates a segregation of the timber lan^s
that are stocking on non-agricultural soil from the other public lands and the
transfer of their administration from the Department of the Interior, where
lands are held only for disposal, to the Department of Agriculture, which is
designed to look after cultural matters and ivhere a bureau in charge of forestry
matters already exists.

To save expense in the beginning and to create as quickly as possible an
efficient protective service, the army may well be employed for such duty.
This service has been conferred upon the army in the Yellowstone and the
California parks to the full satisfaction of both officers and men, with the antici-
pated results as far as the protection of the forest property is concerned.

Co-operation with State authorities, such as forest commissions or commis-
sioners, is provided for with a view of enlisting the authorities of the States in
the upholding of a rational forest policy.

Since these forest reservations are not to be in the nature of parks, they are
to remain open to public use and entrance for all purposes, excepting so far as
restrictions appear necessary in order to protect the property from damage and
depredation. Prospecting and mining are to be permitted under proper regulations.

The main features of the legislation, however, are its provisions lor the
cutting of timber under a system of licenses and the creation of the necessary
force of officers to attend to the business of a regular forest administration pro-

* We (i.e., United States) appropriate for a similar purpose, namely, the forestry division in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, whose function it is to build up an interest in the subject and to supply informa-
tion on forestry matters where none existed before, less than one-half of this amount.

273

perly. The attempts hitherto of regulating the cutting of timber have remained
futile for the lack of an organized system, and of the necessary force to maintain
a system.

The license system here provided recognizes the various demands of settlers,
prospectors, miners, and lumbermen as legitimate, and necessary to be provided
for differently according to the nature of their business and in an equitable man-
ner.

When all needs of the population can be legitimately satisfied, with a suffi-
cient force of officers to attend to the wants of the public in a business-like
manner, there is no reason why the existing vandalism with which the public
timber domain has been wasted should not cease, destructive fires be reduced to
a minimum, a system of proper forest conservancy gradually be developed, and
the American nation add to its civilization by a rational treatment of the forests
of the public domain at least.

In conclusion the fact is recalled that, as long ago as 1879 the writer of
this report took occasion to refer to this subject before the Senate in the follow-
ing language (see Congressional Record, February 10, 1879) :—

There is another subject, Mr. President, not strictly agricultural, and yet so closely allied
to that interest as to demand consideration always when agricultural questions are under dis-
cussion. I refer to the preservation of our forest lands from denudation. Those who have in-
vestigated and given much thought to the matter declare that the wholesale destruction of the
forests of a country, without providing for a new growth, not only seriously affects the material
interests but impairs the health and comfort of all the inhabitants thereof. Bitter experience
long ago taught the people of the Old World that they could not with safety wage indiscriminate
war against their trees. Nature is, indeed, a kind mother to those who exercise an intelligent
regard for her habits and her laws, but she is at times terrible in her wrath against those who
blindly defy her decrees. The laying waste of the forests of a country rudely disturbs that har-
mony between nature's forces which must be maintained if the earth is to be kept habitable
for its teeming millions.

We have ourselves heretofore sadly neglected these considerations, but our government can-
not and must not much longer refuse to give to them its most serious attention. If we may not
with propriety restrain the individual from injuring his own property, we can and should at
least furnish information and devise plans through intelligent legislation, which shall incite him
to cooperate with his neighbor to protect their common interests. Most European Governments
have elaborated methods whereby they exercise a supervisory control over the forests of their
dominions, and one day the public welfare will demand that our government shall follow their
example. The subject is a practical one ; it is not a dream of the theorist ; it concerns the
pockets of the people and their welfare in many ways.

Considering the very great importance of this measure early passage of the
bill is recommended.

18 (F.)

INDEX.

A. PAGE.

Accounts 143

Acetate of lime 21

Acetic acid 21

Adirondacks 80, 220, 221

Adirondack Park Act 236

Adirondack Park 239, 243

Administration 141

Admiralty 127

Afforestation 137

Alabama 80

Albumen 19

Alder Shoots .19,20

Alps

Altitudes

Ancient lorest laws. . .

Annual yield

Appenines

Areas under forests . . .
Artificial regeneration
Artificial watering. . . .

Ash

Australia

Austria-Hungary. . . .

B.

Baden

Bagneris, sylviculture

Bailey, Major F

Bark

Barking

Barres

Bavaria;

Bavarian tables

Bell, Dr., distribution of forest trees.

Bilberry

Birch bark

Black forest

Boards, paper

Brandis, Sir Dietrich

British Columbia

Brushwood

Buildings

Burma

Burning

61,

83
113
254
69
83
13
42
55
18
49
92

66, 77
75

113
19
64

149
84
45
26

116
22

64, 66
24

57,62
47
77

128
60
72

C.

Cabbage radish 37

California Park , 253

Canada balsam 22

Canada, production of timber (1890) 206

Canada, timber regulations 180, 191

Canada, timber resources 154

PAGE.

Capital employed 7,8

Capital value 130

Cattle food 22

Cattle 132

Cellulose 24

Central offices 142

Charcoal 20, 21

Charcoal gas 20, 21

Chrome tanning 19

Cleghorn, Dr. H 57

Climate in general 85, 116

Climate of India 53, 54

Climate of New York 80

Coesalpinia , 19

Collagen 19

Collections 190

Colonies 47

Colophony 21

Communal forests 103, 118

Compartment system 42

Coniferin 22

Conolly, Mr 57

Cooper's Hill 7, 59

Conservators 44

Consular Eeports United States 91

Coppice 19, 70, 71, 120, 121

Cork oak •. 19

Creosote 21

Crown timber regulations 199

Currency, European 92

D.

Dalhousie, Lord 57

Damage by insects . '. 101

Debra Doon 59

Debris 169

Deforestation in Russia 14

Demarcation 120

Denudation 80, 83, 137

Deodorising agent 20

Department staff 141

Destruction of forests 108

Divi-divi 19

Dogwood 20

Draining 140

Dunes 140

Duties in the forests 142

E.

Economies in timber trade 168

Economy of woodlands 85

European countries, woodlands in 81, 85, 113

276

PAGE.

Evaporation 9, 55

Kxpt-ndituro 129

KxporUtion 172, 174, 175

Exports 47

European currency 92

F.

Felling, season for 19, 64, 69, 70

Fernow, B. E 177

Field crops 71, 74, 75

Financial results 128

Fire 60, 89, 90, 165, 226, 227

Fire districts 209

Fire ranging 210

Fire-wardens 230

Fish, fresh water 34

Flocks 137

Forest bureaus 93, 104

Forest fires 89, 101, 135, 160, 162, 242

Forest lands, United States 262

Forest laws, ancient 254

Forest, model 39

Forest preservation 102

Forest protection on water frontages 34

Forest, pure 11 5

Forest register 94

Forest schools 59, 95, 107, 146, 149

Forest trees, geographical distribution of . . 26

Forests, administration of 43, 61

areas under 13

as a shelter 17, 36, 85

bye-products 18

capital of , 7

destruction of 79, 108

hygienic effects of 12, 243

in the colonies 47

in Germany 62

in India 47

industries of 43

influence of, on springs 86,

mechanical effect of 11, 55

organization of 44, 93, 103

ownership of, in Europe 14, 91

produce of 18, 63, 125

a protection against air currents 12

protection of soil 12

purify the water 35

regeneration of 40, 246

utility of 7

utilization 63

France 81, 113, 150

Frosts 85

Fuller's practical forestry 17

G.

Gas from wood

Gelatin

Geographical distribution of forest trees
Georgia

69
19
26

80

PAGE.

Germany 62, 84

Gibson, Dr 57

Goats , 132

Grazing 132, 139

Great Britain 81

Ground rent 183, 185

Groups 39, 42

Growing timber, increase in value of 166

Guards . 44, 128

H.

Haddington, Earl of 16

Hemlock extract 19, 24

Herds 137

High forest 75, 121

Himalayas 53

Hops and hop-poles 18

Hornbeam 19

Hough, Dr 21

Hunting , 136

Hygienic effects of forests 12, 243

Hygroscopicity of humus 17

I.

India 48, 52, 53, 54

revenue of state forests 60

Industries of the forest 43

Injuries 135

Insects 100, 135

Inspectors-general 45

Inundations 83

Irrigation 55

Italy 83

J.

Jardinage
Jourdier .

68
84

K.

Karts plateau 83, 84

Kauri wood 48

L.

Labor in forestry

Lake Huron, height of

Landrath

Larch bark

Latex

Leached ashes

Leather

Leaves

composition of

Legislation. . . .48, 50, 57, 58, 99, 131, 73, 77,

212, 220, 223, 226, 228, 229, 236, 250, 253, 254

Levels of the Ottawa 29

Limesstone soil 116

Lyell on torrents 80

Lumber, demand for 88

43
33
73
19
22
23
19
22
23

277

M.

PAGE.

Macgregor

Management, systems of . . . 73, 198

Maritime pine

Market fluctuations

Mattawa, levels of

Measures, European

Mechanical effect of forests 11, 55

Methylic alcohol 21

Michael, Major-General 57

Military organization 145

Mimosa bark

Mineral lands

Mixed forests 115

Model forest

Monsoon 54

Mother trees . . 41

N.

Nancy, school

Natural regeneration . .
Needles, pine and fir .
New growth after fire.
New York, State of . .

New Zealand

Nipissing lake

Norway ....

Nova Scotia

Nurse woods

146
40

22
165
80
48
33
81
47
77

O.

19
134

. 137
22

47, 198

. 206

194

Oak bark

Offences

Officers

Oil, illuminating .

Ontario

Ontario Fire Act

Ontario Timber Act

Organization of the personnel . 44, 59, 93, 104, 105,
110, 141

Osiers

Ottawa city, wood goods 176

Ottawa river, levels 30

Ownership of forests in Europe 14

P.

Pasteboard 23

Pasture 76, 132

Peat soil 68

Pigs . . 133

Pine bark 19

Pine needles 22

Pitch 21, 22

Pitch pine 21, 178

Planting .42, 138, 140, 167

Planting, a plea for. . . 16

Poplar leaves

Precipitations

Prairies, planting of . . . . 162, 164

19 (F.)

PAGE

Preventive measures 139

Private woods of France 150

Products from the fcrests 18, 63, 125

Proprietor's works 139

Protection duties 173

Protection of fish 34

Protection against air currents 12

Protection of the soil 11

Prussia 103

Public institutions 118

Pulp woood 7, 23, 245

Pure forest 115

B.

Rainfall .' 9, 54, 49

Rangers 44, 205

Regeneration-of forests 40, 41, 66, 246

Register 94

Regulations 48, 49, 60, 77, 99, 131, 213, 251

Renewal, spontaneous 246

Reserved forests 60

Resin 21

Revenue 60, 107, 115, 128, 129

Revolution 39

Rhine Valley 70

Rights of user 131

Ringing 72

Rivers and springs 11

Roads 70, 128, 129

Rocky Mountains Park 212, 213

Rotation 6'.t, 76

Rubber 22

Russia. . 84

S.

Sales and export

Sandy beaches

Sanitary benefits of Adirondacks.

Saprolegnea

Sartage

Saw-dust

Saw-milling

Saxon State forests

Scandinavia

Schlich, Dr..

126, 130

37

243

25

75

. . 22, 23

170

7

18
.. 7,41

Schools of forestry 59, 95, 107, 146, 149

Scotch pine

Scotch yield tables

Second growth

Seizure

Seed

Selection system

Shade trees for fish

Sheep

.......... 21

............. 8

............... 90

................. 189

................. 41

............. 42. (17

................. 35

.................. 132

Shelter trees .......................... 17, 85

Shipping interest

Shooting

Shoott and suckers

183

278

Silver fir.
Smoke. . .
Snow. . .

Soil, protection c( .

' PAGE.

64
21

.. 87
11

Sowing 42,175

Spontaneous renewal *. 246

Springs and rivprs 11,85

Splitting 65

Spruce 64, 66, 161, 177

Square timber, waste in - 168, 169

Staff 141,144

State foresta 50, 105, 117, 118

State" works 139

Storms 135

Strip system 42

Styria, system in 74

Sumach 19

Survey 120

Swamps 140

Switzerland 109

Sycamore 18

Systems of culture 120

Systematic forestry 39, 71, 110, 120, 162

T.

Tannin 19

Tanning industry 74

Tapping 66, 140

Tar 21

Telegraph poles 19

Temperatures 17, 49

Thinnings 64,76

Timber Act Ontario 194

Timber dues, collection 179

Timber lands Ontario, management of 198

Timber licenses 186, 189, 203

Timber regulations, Canada 180, 191

Timber regulations, Ontario 199

Timber trade of Canada 154

Timber slides 128

Torrents 12

Torrent beds 137

Tramways 128

Transport of produce 43, 101

Treatment 76

Trees for shelter 17

Trieste 84

Tree culture on water frontages 34, 36

Turpentine .

PAGE.

21

U.

Underground Wood 69

Uniform 137

United States 79, 177, 262

United States Consular Reports 91, 103, 110

User, rights of 131

Utility of forests 7

Utilization 63

V.

Vanillin

Victoria

Village community.

Vincent, Mr

Volatile products. . .
Volga, river

22
50
78
50
21
85

W.

War Department 128

Waste lands. ... 140

Waste in square timber 168,169,205

Water frontages 34

Wattles 19, 37

Weights, European 92

White pine 176, 178

Wild animals 135, 137

Willow .- 20,38

Willow bark 19

Wilmot, Mr. S 35

Wolves ' 137

Woodlands, European Countries 81, 85, 113

Woods, consumption of 88, 89

Woods, uses of 7, 88

Wood pulp 7, 23,245

Wood ranging 205

Wood spirit ... 21

Wood Vinegar 21

Working plans 122, 143

Y.

Yellowstone National Park.
Z.

249

Zones 114

Zurich forest system 109, 110

""MAY

i

»»^»

^>} > ^

~> ^ > ^

) 55

»-»

,. .,

> ^

~ *

K>

z^i;

=^8)

-5^-S :

< -

--^-^j

^ 35

5m^r- —

2 0 1994

KET

RY

SD

131

K57

C.2

FORE

_