BLM LIBRARY

Raymond J. Boyd
608 Brown Ave.

Ft. CoMms, Goto. 80525

88070387

A PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF
WYOMING AND ADJACENT STATES

with

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DENSITY AND HABITAT AFFINITY

by

Reginald Rothwell
Gregory Skutches
John R. Straw
Craig Sax
Harold Harju

PUBLISHED AS A REQUIREMENT OF
CONTRACT NO. YA“5I2“CT8-|26

between

QL
719
. W8
P37
c . 3

U.S. BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT
WYOMING GAME & FISH DEPARTMENT

IDS&oto ^ QL

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f5f

This bibliography was compiled under contract to the Bureau of Land Management C-
(Contract No. YA-512-CT8-126) . The intent was to accumulate information on mammals
in Wyoming, with special emphasis on those publications containing density informa-
tion on which analysis of wildlife losses due to mining could be based. Since
much of the Wyoming mammal literature does not deal with densities, we surveyed
mammal research in states adjacent to Wyoming as well as general literature con-
taining pertinent density or habitat affinity data.

This bibliography is not intended to be exhaustive, since we concentrated on
articles dealing with density or habitat affinity, but most of the published
Wyoming mammal literature is included regardless of its subject. We have un-
doubtedly missed some pertinent works, since we concentrated on published litera-
ture, and did not include many unpublished reports from state and federal agencies.
However, this bibliography and the summaries of important articles are the first
detailed compilation of published mammal information for Wyoming.

Density information is summarized by species in Table 1.

We thank Reg Rothwell, Rick Straw, Greg Skutches, and Craig Sax for their
library research efforts, and Merlin Hehnke, whose idea for the bibliography
stimulated the work.

BLM Library
Denver Federal Center
Bldg. 50, OC-521
P.O. Box 25047
Denver, CO 80225

-i-

'

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

MAMMAL BIBLIOGRAPHY . 1

Mammals, General 1

Opossum ..... 7

Shrews 8

Bats 10

Rodents, Small Mammals, General 12

Pika . 17

Cottontail . 18

Snowshoe Hare . 19

Jackrabbit ... ......... 20

Lagomorphs, General 22

Chipmunk ..... 23

Marmot 25

Ground Squirrel . . 26

Prairie Dog 27

Tree Squirrel . 29

Pocket Gopher . 31

Pocket Mice 34

House Mouse 3 5

Harvest Mice 36

Peromyscus 37

Phenacomys 39

Onychomys 40

Neotoma 41

Clethrionomys 42

Microtus 43

Muskrat 44

Zapus . 45

Porcupine 46

Coyote 4 7

Wolf . . . 49

Fox 50

Beaver 51

Black Bear 52

Grizzly Bear 53

Ringtail and Raccoon 55

Marten 56

Fisher 58

Ermine 59

Long-tailed Weasel 60

Mink 61

Black-footed Ferret 62

Wolverine 63

Badger 64

Skunk 65

River Otter 66

Mountain Lion 67

Lynx 68

Bobcat 69

-ii-

Page

Ungulates, General 70

Elk 73

Mule Deer 79

White-tailed Deer 84

Moose 85

Pronghorn 87

Mountain Goat 90

Bighorn Sheep 92

Bison 94

Burro and Horse 96

LITERATURE SUMMARIES, IN NUMERICAL ORDER 97

DENSITIES OF MAMMALS, BY BLM VEGETATION TYPE 161

LIST OF BLM VEGETATION TYPES 171

ECOLOGICAL POTENTIALS OF MAMMALS BASED UPON ESTIMATED

POPULATION TURNOVER RATES 172

-iii-

1

MAMMALS GENERAL

1. Allen, J. A.

1874. Notes on the mammals of portions of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and
Utah. Bull. Essex Inst., 6 (A) : 43—66 .

2. Armstrong, D. M.

1972.

Mammals of Canyonlands National Park, Utah, I. Preliminary report
of investigations, June-July 1972. Processed report, Canyonlands
National Park, Moab, Utah. 22 pp.

3. 1972.

Distribution of mammals of Colorado. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.
Mono . 3:1-415.

4. 1973.

Preliminary observations on mammalian faunal relationships, Canyon-
lands National Park, Utah. Jour. Colorado-Wyoming Acad. Sci. 7(4)
41-42.

5. 1975.

Rocky Mountain Mammals. Rocky Mtn. Nature Assoc. Inc. & Nat. Park
Service, U.S. Dept. Int. 174 pp.

6. Ballou, Robt. M.

1950. Wildlife activity on beaver ponds in Jackson Hole. M.F. Thesis
Univ. of Mich. School of For. & Cons., Ann Arbor. 1-124.

7. Barash, D. P.

1973. Latitudinal replacement in habitat utilization of mountain mammals.
J. Mammal. 54 (2) : 535-536 .

8. Bell, T. A.

1957.

A study of the economic value of Wyoming's wildlife. M.A. Thesis
Univ. Wyo.

9. Blake, I.

H.

1945.

An ecological reconnaissance in the Medicine Bow Mountains. Ecol.
Mono. 15(3) : 207-242 .

10. Burt, W. H.

1959. The history and affinities of the recent land mammals of western
North America. Zoogeography, Amer. Assoc. Advancement Sci.,
pp. 131-154, 4 figs.

2

11. Cahalane, V. H.

1939.

The evolution of predator control policy in the national parks.
J. Wildl . Mgmt . 3(3) :229-237.

12. 1964.

Cougar, grizzly and wolf in North America. New York Zool. Soc.

12 pp.

13. Cole, G.

F.

1972.

Grizzly bear-elk relationships in Yellowstone National Park. J.
Wildl. Mgmt. 36(2) : 556-561 .

14. Coues, E.

1877.

Fur-bearing animals: A monograph of North American Mustelidae.

U.S. Geol. Surv. Territories, Misc. Publ. No. 8, xiv +348, 20 pis.

15. Crowe, D.

. M. and D. Strickland

1975.

Population structures of some mammalian predators in Southeastern
Wyoming. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 39 (2) : 449-450.

16. Davis, P.

, R.

1976.

Response of vertebrate fauna to forest fire and clear-cutting in
Southcentral Wyoming. PhD Thesis, Univ. Wyo . 94 pp.

17. Davis, W.

B.

1939.

The recent mammals of Idaho. The Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho.
400 pp., frontis., 33 figs.

18. Devos, A.

1969.

Ecological conditions affecting the production of wild herbivorous
mammals on grasslands, p.137-183 in Advances in ecological research,
Vol. 6. Academic Press, London

19. Diem, K. L. , L. A. Ward, and J. J. Cupal

1974. Cameras as remote sensors of animal activities. Int . Congr. Game Biol
11:503-509.

20. Durrant, S. D.

1952.

Mammals of Utah, taxonomy and distribution. Univ. Kansas Publ.
Mus . Nat. Hist. 6:1-549.

21.

and N. K. Dean

1959.

Mammals of Glen Canyon. In: C.E. Dibble (ed.). Ecological studies
of the flora and fauna in Glen Canyon. Univ. Utah Anthro. Pap.

40: 1-226.

3

22. Editors Note.

1966. Mammals of the Pannsagunt Plateau Region, Utah. Great Basin
Naturalist. 26:43-44.

23. Fautin, R. W.

1977.

Terrestrial vertebrates. Section X in H. L. Bergman and M. D. Marcus
(eds.). Final report, environmental assessment of the Black Thunder
Mine Site, Campbell Co., Wyo.

24. Findley,

J. S. and S. Anderson.

1956.

Zoogeography of the montane mammals of Colorado. Jour. Mamm.,
37:80-82, 1 fig.

25. Frischknect, N. C.

1975.

Native faunal relationships within the pinyon- juniper ecosystem.
Proceed. Pinyon- juniper symp . , Utah State Univ., Logan, Utah.

26. Hall, E.

R. and K. Kelson.

1959.

The mammals of North America. New York, The Ronald Press, 2 Vols.
1083 + xxx + viii + 158 pp., 553 figs.

27. Hayward,

C. Lynn.

1948.

Biotic communities of the Wasatch Chaparral, Utah. Ecol. Monogr.
18:473-506.

28. Heller, E.

1925. Big game animals of Yellowstone National Park. Roosevelt Wildlife
Bull. 2 (4) : 405-467 .

29. Hoffmann, R. S., P. L. Wright and F. E. Newby.

1969. The distribution of some mammals in Montana. Part 1. Mammals other
than bats. J. Mammal. 50 (3) : 579-604 .

30. Laycock, W. A.

1970.

Life history, food habits, habitat requirements and population dynamics
of small herbivores on semi-desert grasslands. Pp.-198 - 1-212 iri
R. G. Wright and C. M. VanDyne (eds.). Simulation and analysis of
dynamics of a semi-desert grassland: An interdisciplinary workshop

program toward evaluating the potential ecological impact of weather
modification. Range Sci. Dept. Sci. Ser. No. 6. CSU.

31. Lechleitner, R. R.

1969. Wild mammals of Colorado, their appearance, habits, distribution, and
abundance. Pruett Press, Inc., Boulder, Colo. 254 pp .

4

32. Linhart, S. B. and W. B. Robinson.

1972. Some relative carnivore densities in areas under sustained coyote
control. J. Mammal. 53 (4) : 880-884 .

33. Linsdale, J. M.

1938. Environmental responses of vertebrates in the Great Basin. Amer.
Midi. Nat. 19:1-206.

34. Long, C. A.

1965. The mammals of Wyoming. Univ. Kansas Pubis., Mus . Nat. Hist.
14:493-758.

35. Merritt, J. F.

1976. Population ecology and energy relationships of small mammals of
a Colorado sub-alpine forest. PhD. Diss. Univ. Colo., Boulder.

146 pp.

36. Negus, N. C. and J. S. Findley.

1959. Mammals of Jackson Hole, Wyoming. J. Mammal. 40:371-381.

37. Oakes, Kathleen M.

1976. Vertebrates of Coal Creek, Wyoming. M.S. Thesis, Dept, of Zoo. &

Phys., Univ. Wyo. 105 p.

38. Pank, L. F.

1974. A bibliography on seed-eating mammals and birds that affect forest
regeneration. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl.

No. 174. 28 pp .

39. Pattie, D. L. and A. M. Verbeek.

1967. Alpine mammals of the Beartooth mountains. Northwest Sci. 41:110-117.

40. Robinson, Weldon B.

1953. Population trends of predators and fur animals in 1080 station area.
Jour. Mamm. 34:220.

41. 1961, Population changes in some coyote control areas. Jour. Mamm. 42:

510-515.

42. and E. F. Grant.

1958. Comparative movements of bobcats and coyotes as disclosed by tagging.
Jour. Wildl. Mgmt. 22:117-122.

5

43. Skinner, M. P.

1927.

The predatory and fur-bearing animals of Yellowstone National Park.
Roosevelt Wildlife Bull. 4 (2) : 159-281 .

44. Snow, C. D.

1952.

A study of vertebrate animals within the mountain mahogany community
in the Laramie, Wyoming area. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Wyo., Laramie 74 pp .

45. Spence, Liter E.

1963.

Characteristics of the dorsal guard hairs of thirty-two species of
Wyoming mammals. M.S. Thesis, Dept, of Zoo. & Phys., Univ. Wy.

158 pp.

46. Stebler, A. M.

1939.

An ecological study of mammals of the badlands and the Black Hills of
South Dakota and Wyoming. Ecology, 20:382-393, 3 figs.

47. Svihla, R. D.

1931. Mammals of the Uinta Mountains Region. Jour. Mamm. 12:256-266.

48. Taylor, D. L.

1969.

Biotic succession of lodgepole pine forests of fire origin in Yellow-
stone National Park. PhD. Thesis, Univ. Wyo.

49. Taylor, Dale L.

1973.

Some ecological implications of forest fire control in Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming. Ecology 54 (6) : 1394-1396 .

50. Thorne, E. T.

1975.

Normal body temperature of pronghorn antelope and mule deer. Jour.
Mamm. 56:697-698.

51. Turner, R. W.

1974.

Mammals of the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Univ. Kans .
Mus . Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 60:1-178.

52. United States Dept, of Interior.

1974.

Final environmental impact statement, development of coal resources
in the Eastern Powder River coal basin of Wyoming. Cheyenne, Wy 5 Vol

53. Warren, E. R.

1910.

The mammals of Colorado. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. New York and London
pp . 300 .

54. Warren, Edward R.

6

1924. Ground squirrels and weasels. Jour. Mamm. 5:265-266.

55.

Wenzel ,

W.

1959.

Mammal populations of the Laramie Area. M.S. Thesis,
Wyo. 83 pp.

Univ. of

56.

Whitlow,

W. and E. R. Hall.

1933.

Mammals of the Pocatello region of southeastern Idaho.
Pubis. Zool., 40 (3) : 235-276 , 3 figs.

Univ. Calif.

57.

Winn, D.

S . , Jr .

1976.

Relationships between terrestrial vertebrate fauna and

selected

coniferous forest habitat types on the north slope of the Uinta
mountains. PhD. Diss. Utah State Univ. 194 pp .

7

OPOSSUM

58. Brown, Larry N.

1965. Status of opossum, Didelphis marsupialis, in Wyoming.
Nat. 10(2) : 142-143.

Southwest .

8

SHREWS

59. Brown, L. N.

1967. Ecological distribution of six species of shrews and comparison
of sampling methods in the central Rocky Mountains. J. Mammal.
48(4) :617-623.

60. Caire, W. and R. B. Finley, Jr.

1977. The desert shrew Notiosorex crawfordi, new record from northwestern
Colorado. Southwest. Nat. 22 (2) : 284-285 .

61. Clark, T. W.

1973. Distribution and reproduction of shrews in Grand Teton National
Park. Northwest. Sci. 47 (2) : 128-131 .

62. Clothier, R. R.

1955. Contribution to the life history of Sorex vagrans in Montana. J.
Mamml. 36:214-221.

63. Conaway, C. H.

1952. Life history of the water shrew Sorex palustris navigator. Amer.
Midi. Nat. 48:219-248.

64. Durrant, S. D. and M. R. Lee.

1955. Rare shrews from Utah and Wyo. Jour. Mamml. 36:560-561.

65. Findley, J. S.

1955. Speciation of the wandering shrew. Univ. Kansas Pubis., Mus . Nat.
Hist. 9:1-68, 18 figs.

66. Hoffman, R. S. and R. D. Taber.

1960. Notes on Sorex in the northern Rocky Mountain alpine zone. J. Mamml.
41:230-234.

67. Marti, C. D.

1972. Notes on the least shrew in Colorado. Southwest. Nat. 16(3-4):
447-448.

68. Mickey, A. B.

1948. A record of the shrew Sorex nanus for Wyoming. Jour. Mamm. 29:294-
295.

69. and C. N. Steele.

1947. A record of Sorex merriami merriami for southeastern Wyoming. Jour,
mamml. 28:293.

9

70. Williams, 0. and G. S. McArthur.

1972. New information on the least shrew in northern Colorado.
Nat. 16 (3-4) : 448-449 .

Southwest .

10

BATS

71. Allen, G. M.

1916. Bats of the genus Corynorhinus . Bull. Mus . Comp. Zool. 60(9) : 3 3 1 —
356, 1 pi.

72. Allen, H.

1864. Monograph of the bats of North America. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.
(165), 7:xxxii + 85, 68 figs.

73. 1894. A monograph of the bats of North America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.

43:ix + 198, 38 pis.

74. Dalquest, W. W.

1943. The systematic status of the races of the little big eared bat
Myotis evotis. H, Allen, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 56:1-2.

75. Easterla, David A.

1965. The spotted bat in Utah. J. Mamml. 46 (4) : 665-668 .

76. Engels, W. L.

1936. Distribution of races of the brown bat (Eptesicus) in western North
America. Amer . Midi. Nat. 17:653-660.

77. Findley, J. S.

1954. Reproduction in two species of Myotis in Jackson Hole, Wyo . J.

Mamml. 35:44.

78. and C. Jones.

1964. Seasonal distribution of the hoary bat. J. Mamml. 45 (3) : 461-470 .

79. Harris, A. H.

1974. Myotis yumanensis yumanensis in interior southwestern North America
with comments on Myotis lucifugus .

80. Handley, C. 0. Jr.

1959. A revision of American bats of the genera Euderma and Plecotus . Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 110:95-246, illus.

81. Hoffman, R. S., D. L. Pattie, and J. F. Bell.

1969. The distribution of some mammals in Montana - Part Two - Bats. J.
Mamml. 50 (4) : 737-741 .

11

82. Jones, J. K. , Jr. and H. H. Genoways .

1967. A new subspecies of the fringe-tailed bat, Myotis thysanodes, from

the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. J. Mamml . 48:231-235.

83. Krutzsch, P. H. and C. A. Heppenstall.

1955. Additional distributional records of bats in Utah. Jour. Mamml.
36:126-127.

84. Mickey, A. B.

1961. Record of the spotted bat from Wyoming. Jour. Mamml. 42:401-402.

85. Quay, W. B.

1948. Notes on some bats from Nebraska and Wyoming. Jour. Mamml. 29:181-
182.

86. Turner, R. W. and J. K. Jones, Jr.

1968. Additional notes on bats from western South Dakota. Southwest. Nat.
13(4) :444-458.

12

RODENTS, SMALL MAMMALS GENERAL

87. Armstrong, D. M.

1977. Ecological distribution of small mammals in the Upper Williams Fork
Basin, Grand County, Colorado. Southwest. Nat. 22 (3) : 289-304 .

88. B. H. Banta and E. J. Pokropus.

1973. Altitudinal distribution of small mammals along a cross-sectional

transect through the Arkansas River Watershed, Colorado. Southwest.
Nat. 17(4) ‘.315-326.

89. Austin, D. D. and P. J. Urness .

1976. Small mammal densities related to understory cover in a Colorado
plateau pinion- juniper forest. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. Arts Lett.

53(1) : 5-12.

90. Bond, R. M.

1945. Range rodents and plant succession. Trans. 10th N. Amer . Wildl.

Conf. pp. 229-234.

91. Brown, Larry N.

1967. Ecological distribution of mice in the Medicine Bow mountains of
Wyoming. Ecology 48 (4) : 677-680 .

92. Cattrell, E. B.

1964. Some effects of chemical control of big sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata
Nutt., on wild animal populations in Wyoming. M.S. Thesis, Div. of
Plant Sci., Univ. of Wyo. 76 p.

93. Egoscue, Harold J.

1965. Records of shrews, voles, chipmunks, cottontails, and mountain sheep

from Utah. J. Mamml . 46 (4) : 685-687 .

94. Fautin, Reed W.

1951. North American census of small mammals. Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial
Lab. Release No. 4.

95. Flake, L. D.

1971. An ecological study of rodents in a short-grass prairie USIBP of

northeastern Colorado. Tech. Rep. Grasslands Biome Program, No. 100
118 p. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins.

96. 1971. A study of rodents in northeastern Colorado. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst.

Program Interbiome Abstr. 1(1): 39.

13

97. Flake, L. D.

1971. An ecological study of rodents in a short-grass prairie of north-
eastern Colorado. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst. Program. Interbiome. Abstr.

1 (4) : 241-242

98. 1973. Food habits of four species of rodents on short-grass prairie. J.

Mamml. 54:636-647.

99. 1974. Reproduction of four rodent species in a short-grass prairie of

Colorado. J. Mamml. 55:213-216.

100. Gordon, K. G.

1943. Natural history and behavior of the western chipmunk and mantled
ground squirrel. Oregon State Monogr., Stud. Zool. 5:7-38.

101. Gutz, J. M. and Reed W. Fautin.

1949. North American census of small mammals. Rodent Ecology Project.,

John Hopkins Univ. , Release No. 2.

102. Halfpenny, J, C., J. S. Beckman, C. E. Fuenzalida, and M. Johnson.

1977. Reconnaissance of the rodents of Devils Tower National Monument,
Wyoming. J. Colo-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 9(1): 42-43.

103. Hall, E. R. and E. L. Cockrum.

1953. A synopsis of the microtine rodents. Univ. Kans . Publ. 5:373-498.

104. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. and D. B. Cook.

1945. Small mammals and the forest. Trans. 10th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf.
pp. 137-139.

105. Hansen, R. M. and I. K. Gold.

1977. Blacktail prairie dogs, desert cottontails and cattle trophic relations
on shortgrass range. J. Ra. Mgmt . 30(3) : 210-213 .

106. Harris, L. D.

1971. A precis of small mammal studies and results in the grassland biome.

pp . 213-240 In N.R. French (ed . ) . Preliminary analysis of structure
and function in grasslands. Range Sci. Dept. Sci. Series 10, C.S.U.
Ft. Collins.

107. Hatfield, D. M.

1938. Studies on rodent populations of a forested area. Jour, of Mamml.
19(2) : 207-211 .

14

108. Hoffman, R.

1971. Bridger site small mammal live trap grid data. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst.
Program Interbiome Abstr. 1(3): 136.

109. Johnson, D. W.

1976. Populations of small mammals on isolated buttes in Canyonlands
National Park, Utah. M.S. Thesis, Dept, of Zoo. & Phys . , Univ.
of Wyo. 84 p.

110. Johnson, Donald R.

1961. The food habits of rodents on rangelands of southern Idaho. Ecology
42(2) :407-410.

111. 1962. Effects of habitat change on the food habits of rodents. PhD. Thesis

C.S.U., Ft. Collins.

112. and R. M. Hansen.

1969. Effects of range treatment with 2, 4-D on rodent populations. Jour.

Wildl . Mgmt . 33:125-132.

113. and K. L. Groepper.

1970. Bioenergetics of northern plains rodents. Amer. Midi, Nat. 84(2):
537-548.

114. King, T. W.

1967. A study of vegetation, soils and small mammals of limber pine stands
in north-central Wyoming. M.S. Thesis. Division of Plant Sci.,

Univ. of Wyo. 55 p.

115. Larrison, Earl J. and Donald R. Johnson.

1973. Density changes and habitat affinities of rodents of shadscale and
sagebrush associations. Great Basin Naturalist. Vol. 33, No. 4
255-264.

116. LaTourette, J. E,, J. A. Young and R. A. Evans.

1971. Seed dispersal in relation to rodent activities in serai big sage-
brush communities. Jour. Ra. Mgmt. 24:118-120.

117. Maxell, M. H.

1967. Ecological studies of rodents in Goshen County, Wyoming. M.S. Thesis.
Univ. of Wyo., Laramie 65 pp .

118. and L. H. Brown.

1968. Ecological distribution of rodents on the high plains of eastern
Wyoming. Southwest. Nat. 13:143-158.

15

119. Maxell, M. H.

1973. Rodent ecology and pronghorn energy relations in the Great Divide
Basin of Wyoming. PhD. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo., Laramie 208 pp .

120. McCann, S. A.

1977.

Home ranges of the meadow vole and deer mouse on a reclamation test
pit in eastern Montana. Proc . Mont. Acad. Sci. 36:11-17.

121. McGee, J.

R.

1976.

Some effects of fire suppression and prescribed burning on birds and
small mammals in sagebrush. PhD. Thesis. Dept, of Zoo. & Phys .
Univ. of Wyo. 134 p.

122. Miller, W. B.

1964. An ecological study of the mountain mahogany community and related
biotic associations of the Big Horn Mountains. M.S. Thesis. Div.
of Plant Sci., Univ. of Wyo. 152 p.

123. Mitchell, R. S.

1972. Small mammal census along the South Platte River at the proposed
Narrows Dam Site. J. Colo-Wyo Acad. Sci. 7(2-3): 71.

124. Montgomery, D. H.

1957. A study of small mammal populations in the separation creek area
of Carbon County, Wyoming. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo.

125. Nichols, D. W. , H. D. Smith and M. F. Baker.

1975. Rodent populations, biomass, and community relationships in

Artemesia tridentata, Rush Valley, Utah. Great Basin Nat. 35:191-202

126. Pefaur, J. E. and R. S. Hoffman.

1975.

Studies of small mammal populations at three sites on the Northern
Great Plains. Occas . Pap. Mus . Nat. Hist., Univ. Kans . 37:1-27.

127. Robinson,

L. D.

1966.

The vegetation and small mammals of the juniper zone in northcentral
Wyoming. M.S. Thesis. Div. of Plant Sci., Univ. of Wyo. 89 p.

128. Smith, H.

D.

1969.

Small mammal populations in bioenergetics in the Wasatch Mtns . , Utah.
PhD. Thesis, Univ. Illinois 129 pp .

129. 1974.

Small mammal populations in Strawberry Valley, Utah. Proc. Utah.
Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 51(1) : 1 9—44 .

16

130. Stinson, N., Jr.

1977. Habitat utilization by alpine tundra rodents. J. Colo-Wyo Acad.

Sci. 9(1): 40 .

131. 1978. Habitat structure and rodent species diversity on north and south-

facing slopes in the Colorado lower montane zone. Southwest. Nat.
23(1): 77-84 .

132. Strube, B. E.

1962. A study of the kinds and numbers of small rodents within a burned-
over area of the Medicine Bow National Forest, Albany Co., Wyo.

M.S. Thesis. Univ. Wyo. p. 17.

133. Vaughn, Terry.

1969. Reproduction and population densities in a montane small mammal
fauna. Univ. Kans. Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ . 51 pp . 51-74.

134. Vaughn, T. A.

1974. Resource allocation in some sympatric subalp ine rodents. Jour.

Mamml . 55 (4) : 764-795 .

135. Williams, 0.

1955. Distribution of mice and shrews in a Colorado montane forest. Jour.
Mamml. 36:221-231.

136. Wrakestraw, George and Reed W. Fautin.

1950. North American census of small mammals. Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial
Lab., Release No. 3.

17

PIKA

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

Barash, D. P.

1973. Territorial and foraging behavior of the pika, Ochotona princeps
in Montana. Amer . Midi. Nat. 89 (1 ): 202-207 .

Bunnell, S. D.

1974. Ecology of the pika (Ochotona princeps) in North Idaho. M.S. Thesis.
Univ. Idaho, Moscow 54 pp .

and D. R. Johnson.

1974. Physical factors affecting pika density and dispersal. Jour. Mamml.

55 (4) : 866-869 .

Johnson, D, R.

1967. Diet and reproduction of Colorado pikas. Jour. Mamml. 48 (2) : 311-315 .
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1966. Energy dynamics of Colorado pikas. Ecology 47 (6) : 1059-1061 .

Krear, H. R.

1965. An ecological and ethological study of the pika (Ochotona princeps
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Univ. of Colo.

Millar, J. S. and F. C. Zwickel.

1972. Characteristics and ecological significance of hay piles of pikas.
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Severaid, J. H.

1955. The natural history of the pikas (mammalian genus Ochotona) . PhD.
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Skinner, M. P.

1925. Winter movements of the cony. Jour. Mamml. 6:202.

18

COTTONTAIL

146. Krumm, R.

E.

1969.

An ecological study of the Audubon's cottontail on the Laramie Plains.
M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo . , Laramie 64 pp .

147. McGinnes,

B. S., J. S. Lindzzy, G. W. Wood, and G. R. Dudderar (compilers).

1969.

A partial bibliography of the cottontail rabbits. Va. Polytech. Inst.
Ext. Div. MT-83 29 pp .

148. Stout, Gene G.

1970. The breeding biology of the desert cottontail in the Phoenix region,
Arizona. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 34(1): 47-51.

149. Wainright, Larry C.

1968. Cottontail reproduction in Colorado. M.S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins

150. 1969. A literature review on cottontail reproduction. Colo. Div, Game,

Fish, Parks Spec. Rept. No. 19 24 pp .

19

SNOWSHOE HARE
151, Adams , L.

1959. An analysis of a population of snowshoe hares in northwestern
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152. Baker, F. S., C. F. Korstain and N. J. Fetherolf.

1921. Snowshoe rabbits and conifers in the Wasatch mountains of Utah.
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153. Bider, J. R.

1961. An ecological study of the hare (Lepus americanus) . Can. J. Zool.
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154. Billard, Ruth S.

1965. A partial bibliography of snowshoe hare. N.E. For. Wildl. Res.
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155. Clark, W. R.

1973. Reproduction, survival and density of snowshoe hares in northeastern
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156. Dolbeer, R. A.

1972. Population ecology of the snowshoe hare in Colorado. PhD. Thesis.
C.S.U., Ft. Collins 190 pp.

157. _ and W. R. Clark,

1975. Population ecology of snowshoe hares in the central Rocky Mountains.
J. Wildl. Mgmt. 39(3) :535-549.

158. Grange, W. B.

1932. Observations on the snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus phaenotus)

Allen, J, Mamml. 13:1-19.

159. Lawrence, Irwin E.

An ecological study of the snowshoe hare, Lepus americanus bairdii,
Hayden in the Medicine Bow National Forest of Wyoming. M.S. Thesis,
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1955.

20

JACKRABBIT

160. Braun, C. E. and R. G. Streeter.

1968. Observations on the occurrance of white-tailed jackrabbits in the
alpine zone. J. Mamml. 49:160-161.

161. Currie, Pat O'Carroll.

1963. Food habits of the black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and
forage competition between jackrabbits and domestic livestock on
native range in northwestern Utah. PhD. Thesis. Utah State Univ.
87 pp .

162. and D. L. Goodwin.

1966. Consumption of forage by black-tailed jackrabbits on salt-desert
ranges of Utah. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 30 (2) : 304-31 1 .

163. Donoho, H. S.

1971. Dispersion and dispersal of white-tailed and black-tailed jackrabbits,
Pawnee National Grasslands. Tech. Rep. No. 96, Grasslands Biome
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164. 1971, Dispersion and dispersal of white-tailed and black-tailed jackrabbits

on Pawnee National Grasslands. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst . Program. Inter-
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165. Flinders, J. T. and R. M. Hansen.

1971. Diets and habitats of jackrabbits within a shortgrass ecosystem.

USIBP Grassland Biome Tech Rep. No 98. C.S.U., Ft. Collins 53 p.

166.

and R. M. Hansen.

1972. Diets and habits of jackrabbits in northeastern Colorado. Ra. Sci.
Ser. 12 C.S.U., Ft, Collins 29 pp ,

167. French, Norman R.

1964. Analysis of reproduction in a black-tailed jackrabbit population.
Proc. 16th Int. Congr. Zool. 1:258

168. Ray McBride, and Jack Detmer.

1965. Fertility and population density of the black-tailed jackrabbit.
J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(1): 14-26.

169. Gross, Jack E.

1967. Demographic analysis of a northern Utah black-tailed jackrabbit
population. PhD. Thesis. Utah State Univ. 132 pp.

21

170. Lechleitner, R. R.

1958. Movements, density, and mortality in a black-tailed jackrabbit
population. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 22:371-384.

171. Rusch, Donald H.

1965. Some movements of black-tailed jackrabbits in northern Utah. M.S.
Thesis Utah State Univ. 43 pp.

172. Skinner, M. P.

1927. The white-tailed jackrabbit eats dandelion stalks. J. Mamml. 8:249.

173. Stoddart, L. C.

1972. Population biology of the black— tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus)
in northern Utah. PhD. Thesis Utah State Univ., Logan 135 pp.

174. Tiemeier, 0. W.

1965. Bionomics. p5-37 in_ the black-tailed jackrabbit in Kansas. Kan.

State Univ. of Agr. and Appl. Sci., Agr. Exper. Sta. Tech. Bull.

No. 140 75 pp .

175. Vorhies, C. T. and W. P. Taylor.

1933. The life history and ecology of jackrabbits Lepus alleni and
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49:471-587.

176. Wagner, F. H. and L. C, Stoddart.

1972. Influence of coyote predation on black-tailed jackrabbit populations
in Utah. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36 (2) : 329-342 .

22

LAGOMORPHS GENERAL

177. Brown, H. L.

1947.

Coactions of jackrabbits, cottontails and vegetation in mixed prairie
Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 50:28.

178. Flinders, J. T. and R. M. Hansen.

1973. Abundance and dispersion of leporids within a shortgrass ecosystem.
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179. Hall, E. R.

1951.

A synopsis of North American lagomorpha. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus.
Nat. Hist., 5:119-202, 68 figs.

180.

and K. Kelson.

1951. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North
American rabbits. Univ. Kans . Pubis., Mus. Nat. Hist. 5(5): 49-58.

181. Hansen, R. M. and J. F. Flinders.

1969.

Food habits of North American hares. C.S.U. Ra. Sci. Dept. Sci.
Ser. No. 1 18 pp.

23

CHIPMUNK

182. Broadbrooks, H. E.

1970.

Populations of the yellow-pine chipmunk, Eutamias amoenus.
Midi. Nat. 83(2) : 472-488.

Amer .

183.

Brown , J .

, H.

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Mechanisms of competitive exclusion between two species of
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chipmunks .

184.

Hart, E.

B.

1971.

Food preferences of the cliff chipmunk, Eutamias dorsalis,
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in northern

185.

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Life history notes on the cliff chipmunk, Eutamias dorsalis
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, in Utah.

186.

1976.

Seasonal movements of the cliff chipmunk in northern Utah.
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Proc .

187.

Long, C.

A. and D. Cronkite.

1970.

Taxonomy and ecology of sibling chipmunks in central Colorado.
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188.

Sheppard,

D. H.

1971. Competition between two chipmunk species (Eutamias) . Ecology 52:

320-329.

189. Skryja, D. D.

1970. Some aspects of the ecology of the least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus operarius)
in the Laramie mountains of southeastern Wyoming. M.S. Thesis Zool.

Univ. of Wyo, 104 pp.

190. Tomberlin, D. R.

1968. Population ecology of two chipmunk populations in southern central
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191. Wadsworth, C. E.

1969. Reproduction and growth of Eutamias quadrivittatus in southeastern
Utah. J. Mamml. 50(2) : 256-261 .

192. 1972. Observations of the Colorado chipmunk in southeastern Utah. Southwest.

Nat. 16(3-4) : 451-454 .

24

193. White, J. A.

1952. A new chipmunk (genus Eutamias) from the Black Hills. Kans . Pubis.,
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194. White, John A.

1953. Geographic distribution and taxonomy of the chipmunks of Wyoming.
Univ. Kans. Pubis., Mus. Nat. Hist. 5:583-610.

25

MARMOT

195. Barash, D. P.

1973. Social variety in the yellow-bellied marmot (Marmot a f laviventris)
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196. Fryxell, F.M.

1928. Melanism among marmots of the Teton Range, Wyoming. J. Mamml .
9:336-337.

197. Nee, James A.

1969. Reproduction in a population of yellow-bellied marmots
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198. Pattie, Donald L.

1967. Observations on an alpine population of yellow-bellied marmots
(Marmota f laviventris) . Northwest Sci. 41 (2) : 96-102 .

199. Svendsen, G. E.

1974. Behavioral and environmental factors in the spatial distribution
and population dynamics of a yellow-bellied marmot population.
Ecology 55(4) : 760-771.

26

GROUND SQUIRREL

200. Bridgewater, D. D. and D. F. Penny.

1966. Predation by Citellus tridecemlieatus on other vertebrates. J.
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201.

Clark, T.

W.

1968.

Food uses of the Richard's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii elegans)
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202.

1970.

Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) in the
Laramie Basin, Wyoming. Great Basin Nat. 30:55-70.

203.

1971.

Notes of the biology of the thirteen-lined ground squirrel on the
Laramie Plains, Wyo. Southwest. Nat. 15:499-502.

204.

and R. H. Denniston.

1970.

On the descriptive ethology of Richardson's ground squirrel. Southwest.
Nat. 15(2) : 193-200 .

205.

Denniston

, Rollin H. II.

1957.

Notes on breeding and size of young in the Richardson's ground squirrel.
J. Mamml. 38:414.

206.

Gunderson

, D . R .

1961.

Some life history and ecological activities of the Richardson's
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207.

Martin, Robert F.

1935.

Occurrence of ground squirrels along highways. J. Mamml. 16:154

208.

Skryja, D

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1970.

Reproduction, seasonal changes in body weight, fat deposition, spleen and
adrenal gland weight of the golden-mantled ground squirrel,

Spermophilus lateralis lateralis, (Sciuridae) in the Laramie Mountains,
Wyoming. Southwest. Nat. 15(2) : 201-208.

209.

Slade, N.

A. and D. F. Balph.

1974.

Population ecology of Uinta ground squirrels. Ecology 55 (5) : 989-1003 .

210.

Walker, R

. E.

1969. Local distribution in a population of Uinta ground squirrels. PhD.
Thesis. Utah State Univ. 71 pp .

27

PRAIRIE DOG

211. Bakko, Eugene B.

1966. Annual reproductive cycle of the white- tailed prairie dog
(Cynomys leucurus). M.A. Thesis. Dept, of Zoo. & Phys., Univ.
of Wyo. 49 pp.

212 and L. N. Brown

1967. Breeding biology of the white-tailed prairie dog, Cynomys leucurus,
in Wyoming. J. Mamml. 48:100-112.

213.

Clark, T.

W.

1969.

A study of the population dynamics of a colony of white-tailed prairie
dogs (Cynomys leucurus) in the Laramie Plains, Wyoming. J. Colo-Wyo
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214.

1971.

Notes on white-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus)
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burrows .

215.

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Ecology and ethology of the white-tailed prairie dog
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(Cynomys

leucurus) .

216.

Crocker-Bedford, D.

1976. Food interactions between Utah prairie dogs and cattle. M.S. Thesis.
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217. and J. J. Spillett.

1977. Home ranges of Utah prairie dogs. J. Mamml. 58 (4) : 672-673 .

218. Hollister, N.

1916. A systematic account of the prairie dogs. N. Amer. Fauna 40:1-37,

7 pis.

219. King, J. A.

1955. Social behavior, social organization & population dynamics in a black-
tailed prairie dog town in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Contrib.
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220. Koford, C. B.

1958. Prairie dogs, whitefaces and blue grama. Wildl. Monogr. No. 3 78 pp.

221. Smith, Ronald E.

1967. Natural history of the prairie dog in Kansas. Univ. Kans . Mus. Nat.
Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 49 p. 1-39.

28

222. Stockard, Alfred H.

1927.

Reproduction and development of the white-tailed prairie dog,
Cynomys leucurus. M. S. Thesis. Dept. Zoo. & Phys . , Univ. of
Wyo. 75 p.

223. 1929.

Observations on reproduction in the white-tailed prairie dog
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224. Tileson, J. V. and R. R. Lechleitner.

1966. Some comparisons of the black-tailed and white-tailed prairie dogs
in northcentral Colorado. Amer. Midi. Nat. 75 (2) : 292-316 .

29

TREE SQUIRREL

225. Carleton, William M.

1966. Food habits of two sympatric Colorado sciurids. J. Mamml. 47(1):
91-103.

226. Dolbeer, R. A.

1973. Reproduction in the red squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, in Colorado.
J. Mamml. 54 (2) : 536-540.

227. Durrant, S. D. and R. M. Hansen.

1954. Taxonomy of the chickaree (Tamiasciurus) of Utah. J. Mamml. 35(1):
87-95.

228. Farentinos, R. C.

1972. Observations on the ecology of the tassel-eared squirrel. J. Wildl.
Mgmt . 36(4): 1234-1239.

229. Ferner, J. W.

1974. Habitat relationships of Tamiasciurus hudsonicus and Sciurus aberti
in the Rocky Mountains. Southwest. Nat, 18(4) :470-473.

230. Finley, Robert. B. Jr.

1969. Cone caches and middens of Tamiasciurus in the Rocky Mountain region.
Univ. Kans. Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 51 233-273.

231. Hatt, R. T.

1943. The pine squirrel in Colorado. J. Mamml. 24(3) : 311-345.

232. Hoover, R. L. and L. E. Yeager.

1953. Status of the fox squirrel in northeastern Colorado. J. Mamml.
34:359-365.

233. Keith, James 0.

1965. The Abert squirrel and its dependence on ponderosa pine. Ecology
46(1-2): 150-163.

234. King, J. A.

1951. The subspecific identity of the Black Hills flying squirrels
(Glaucomys sabrinus) . J. Mamml. 32:469-470.

235. Patton, D, R. and W. Green.

1970. Aberts squirrels prefer mature ponderosa pine. USDA For, Serv.
Res. Note. RM-169 3 pp.

30

236. Patton, David R.

1975. Abert squirrel cover requirements in southwestern ponderosa pine.

USDA Forest Ser. Res. Paper RM-145, Rocky Mtn. For. & Ra. Exper.
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237. Ramey, C. A. and D. J. Nash.

1971. Aberts squirrel in Colorado. Southwest. Nat. 16 (1) : 125-126 .

238. Rothwell, R. H.

1977.

The effects of forest type and mast crop on winter territories and
populations of red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus baileyii) in
the Laramie Range of southeastern Wyoming. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of
Wyo., Laramie 142 pp.

239. Squallace, A.

1953. Effect of squirrels on the supply of ponderosa pine seed. N. Rocky
Mtn. For. & Ra . Exper. Sta. Res. Note, No. 131 1-4 (mimeo) .

240. Yeager, L. E.

1959.

Status and population trend in fox squirrels on fringe range,
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241. Zuril, D.

L. and W. A. Fuller.

1970.

Winter fluctuations in size of home range of the red squirrel
(Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). Trans. 35th N. Amer. Wildl. Nat. Res.
Conf. 115-127.

31

POCKET GOPHER

242. Baker, A. E. M.

1974. Interspecific aggressive behavior of pocket gophers

(Thomomys bottae and Thomomys talpoides, Geomyidae, Rodentia) .
Ecology 55(3) : 671-673 .

243. Colorado Agr. Exper. Sta.

1966. Some relations of pocket gophers to rangelands on Grand Mesa,
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244. Colorado Coop. Pocket Gopher Project Committee.

1960. Pocket gophers in Colorado. C.S.U. Exper. Sta. Bull. 5085

245. Douglas, C. L.

1969. Ecology of pocket gophers of Mesa Verde, Colorado. Univ. Kans.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 51 p 147-175.

246. Ellison, L.

1946.

The pocket gopher in relation to soil erosion in mountain ranges.
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247.

and C. M. Aldous.

1952.

Influence of pocket gophers on vegetation of subalpine grassland
in central Utah. Ecology 33:177-186.

248. Foster, M. A.

1977. Impact of the plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius) on rangeland.
M.S. Thesis. Div. of Plant Sci., Univ. of Wyo . 91 p.

249. Goldman, E. A.

1939. Remarks on pocket gophers, with special reference to Thomomys talpoides
J. Maraml. 20:231-244.

250. Hall, E. R.

1951.

A new pocket gopher (genus Thomomys) from Wyoming and Colorado.
Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 5 (13) : 219-222 .

251.

and H. G. Montague.

1951.

Two new pocket gophers from Wyoming and Colorado. Univ. Kans. Pubis.,

Mus. Nat. Hist. 5(3):25-32.

32

252. Hansen, R. M. and G. D. Bear.

1964. Comparison of pocket gophers from alpine, subalpine and shrub-
grassland habitats. J. Mamml . 45:638-640.

253. and R. F. Beck.

1968. Habitat of pocket gophers in Cochetopa Creek Drainage, Colorado.

Amer. Midi. Nat. 79(1) : 103-117.

254. Hooper, E. T.

1943. The type locality of Thomomys bridgeri and Thomomys ocius. J. Mamml.
24:503.

255. Ingles, L. G.

1952. The ecology of the mountain pocket gopher, Thomomys monticola.

Ecology 33:87-95.

256. Julander, 0., J. B. Low and 0. W. Morris.

1959. Influence of pocket gophers on seeded mountain range in Utah. J.

Ra. Mgmt. 12:219-224.

257. 1969. Pocket gophers on seeded Utah mountain range. J. Ra. Mgmt. 22(5):

325-329.

258. Keith, J. 0., R. M. Hansen and A. L. Ward.

1959. Effect of 2, 4-D on abundance and foods of pocket gophers. J. Wildl.
Mgmt. 23:137-145.

259. Kuck, L. E.

1969. The influence of pocket gophers on reforestation losses. M.S. Thesis.
Univ, Idaho.

260. Laycock, W. A.

1953. An ecological study of the pocket gopher (Thomomy talpoides tennellus Goldman)
in the Jackson Hole region of Wyoming. M.S. Thesis. Div. of Plant Sci.,

Univ. of Wyo.

261. 1957. Seasonal periods of surface inactivity of the pocket gopher. J. Mamml.

38:132.

262. Marston, R. Brad, and 0. Julander.

1961. Plant cover reductions by pocket gophers following experimental removal
of aspen from a watershed area in Utah. J. For. 59 (2) : 100-102 .

263. Miller, R. S.

1964. Ecology and distribution of pocket gophers (Geomyidae) in Colorado.
Ecology 45 (2) : 256-272 .

33

264. Myers, Gary T, and Terry A. Vaughan *

1964. Food habits of the plains pocket gopher in eastern Colorado. J.
Mamml . 45 (4) : 588-509 ,

265. Tryon, C. A.

1947.

The biology of the pocket gopher (Thomomys talipoides) in Montana.
Mont. St. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 448 30 pp .

266.

and H. N. Cunningham.

1968.

Characteristics of pocket gophers along an altitudinal transect.
J. Mamml. 49 (4) : 699-705 .

267. Turner, G. T.

1969. Responses of mountain grassland vegetation to gopher control, reducing
grazing and herbicide. J. Ra. Mgmt . 22:377-383.

268. Vaughan, T. A.

1967.

Food habits of the northern pocket gopher on shortgrass prairie.
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269.

and R. M, Hansen.

1964.

Experiments on interspecific competition between two species of
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270. Wirtz, John H.

1954. The biology of the pocket gopher, Thomomys talpoides rostralis ♦
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271. Yorgason, I. R.

1960.

An ecological study of the food habits of the pocket gopher
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Univ. of Wyo . 38 p .

34

POCKET MICE

272. Brown, L.

1966.

273. Eisenberg

1963.

274. Forbes, R

1964.

275. Hayward, (

1958.

N. and Don Metz.

First record of Peroganathus flavescens in Wyoming. J. Mamml .
47:118.

J. F.

The behavior of heteromyid rodents. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 69:
1-114.

B.

Some aspects of the life history of the silky pocket mouse,
Perognathus flaws. Amer . Midi. Nat. 72 (2) : 438-443 .

!. Lynn and Merlin L. Killpack.

Distribution and variation of the Utah population of the great basin
pocket mouse. Great Basin Nat. 18:26.

35

MUS MUSCULUS

276. Croweraft, Peter.

1959. Spatial distribution and feeding activity in the wild house-mouse
(Mus musculus 1.). Ann. Appl. Bio. 47 (1) : 150-155 .

277. Delong, K. T.

1967.

Population ecology of feral house mice. Ecology 48 (4) : 61 1-634 .

278. 1966.

Population ecology of feral house mice: Interference by Microtus

Ecology 47 (3) : 481-484 .

279. Quadagno,

D. M.

1968.

Home range size in feral house mice. J. Mamml. 49 (1) : 149-151 .

36

HARVEST MICE

280. Jones, J. K. , Jr. and B. Mursuloglu.

1961. Geographic variation in the harvest mouse, R.eithrodontomys megalotis,
on the Central Great Plains and in adjacent regions. Univ. Kans .
Pubis., Mus. Nat. Hist. 14(2) : 9—27 , 1 fig.

281. Richins, Gary H., H. Duane Smith, and Clive D. Jorgensen.

1974. Growth and development of the western harvest mouse. Great Basin
Nat. 34(2) : 105-120.

37

P

DEROMYSCUS

282. Baker, R. H.

1968. Habitats and distribution. In: J. A. King (ed.). Biology of

Peromyscus (rodentia) . Amer. Soc. Mamml. Spec. Pub. 2

283. Bendell, J. F.

1961. Some factors affecting the habitat selection of the white-footed
mouse. Can. Field-Natr. 75 (4) : 244-255 .

284. Brown, L. N.

1966. Reproduction of P^ maniculatus in the Laramie Basin of Wyoming.
Amer. Midi. Nat. 76:183-189.

285. Cinq-Mars, R. J.

1967. Ecological distribution and reproduction of the rock mouse,
Peromyscus difficius. M. A. Thesis. Univ. Wyo .

286. Collins, T. C.

1973. Brown adipose tissue of Peromyscus maniculatus from four Wyoming

mountain communities: Influence of habitat, sex, age, and climatic

factors. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo. 115 pp .

287. Clark, T. W.

1975. Ecological notes on deer mice in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming.
Northwest Sci. 49:14-16.

288. Dice, L. R.

1942. Variation of the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) of the Bad Lands

and Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Contr. Lab. Vert. Genetics,
Univ. Mich. 19:1-10.

289. Douglas, C. L.

1969. Comparative ecology of pinyon mice and deer mice in Mesa Verde National
Parks, Colorado. Univ. Kans . Publ. Mus . Nat. Hist. 18:421-504.

290. Gashwiler, J. S.

1971. Deer mouse movement in forest habitat. Northwest Sci. 45:163-170.

291. Long, C. A.

1964. Comments on reproduction in the deer mouse of Wyoming. Trans. Kans.
Acad. Sci. 67(1) : 149-153.

38

292. Murie, 0. J. and Adolph Murie.

1931. Travels of Peromyscus . J. Mamml. 12:200-209.

293. Ranney, R.

1966.

The local distribution of two species of Peromyscus in Yankton County,
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294. Williams,

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PHENACOMYS

295. Foster, J. B.

1961. Life history of the Phenacomys vole. J. Mamml . 42(2) : 181—198.

296. Howell, A. B.

1926. Voles of the genus Phenacomys . N. Amer . Fauna 48:1-66.

297. Negus, N. C.

1950. Habitat adaptability of Phenacomys in Wyoming. J. Mamml . 31:351.

40

ONYCHOMYS

298. Bailey, U

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299. Hollister

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41

NEOTOMA

300. Armstrong

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301. Finley, R

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302. Goldman, ]

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303. Hooper, E

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304. Negus, N.

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D. M.

Habitat of woodrats (Neotoma) in the Needles District, Canyonlands
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Two new pocket mice from Wyoming. Proc. Bio. Soc. Wash. 30:147-148.
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The name Neotoma cinerea cinnamomea Allen applied to woodrats from
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C.

Fluctuation in the population of Neotoma cinera (woodrat) in Jackson
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CLETHRIONOMYS

305. Cockrum, E. L. and K. L. Fitch.

1952. Geographic variation in red-backed mice (genus Clethrionomys)
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43

MICROTUS

306. Anderson, Sydney.

1954. Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus montanus , in Wyoming and
Colorado. Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist. 7:489-506.

307. Anderson, S.

1956.

Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming,
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308. 1959.

Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole,
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12 figs.

309. Clark, T.

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Aberrant coloration in Microtus pennsylvanicus from Grand Teton
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310. 1973.

Local distributions and interspecies interactions in microtines,
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311. Cruzan, J.

1968.

Ecological distributions and interactions of four species of Microtus
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312. Douglass,

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Spatial interactions and micro habitat selections of two sympatric
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313. Findley, J. S.

1951. Habitat preferences of four species of Microtis in Jackson Hole,
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314. Hodgson, J. R.

1972. Local distribution of Microtus montanus and Microtus pennsylvanicus
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315. Merriam, C, H.

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316. Murie, J. 0.

1963, Investigations of habitat segregation in Microtus in western Montana.
M. S. Thesis. Univ. Mont. 81 p.

44

MUSKRAT

317. Krear, H. R.

1953. An ecological study of the muskrat in the Laramie area. M
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45

ZAPUS

318. Brown, L. N.

1967.

Seasonal activity patterns and breeding of the western jumping mouse
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319. 1970.

Population dynamics of the western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps)
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320. Clark, T.

W.

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Ecology of the western jumping mouse in Grand Teton National Park,
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321. 1975.

Body measurements of western jumping mice from northwestern Wyoming.
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322. Gorgas, L.

1969.

Home range and longevity in Zapus princeps in Colorado. Amer. Midi.
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323. Krutzsch,

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1954. North American jumping mice (genus Zapus) . Univ. Kans . Pubis.,
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46

PORCUPINE

324. Taylor, W. P.

1935. Ecology and life history of the porcupine (Erethizon epixanthum)
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Univ. of Ariz. Bull. 6(5) : 35.

47

COYOTE

325. Bond, R. M.

1939. Coyote food habits on Lava Beds National Monument. J. Wildl. Mgmt .
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326. Camezind, F. J.

1974. Territorial and social behavior of free-ranging coyotes. Paper
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327. Clark, F. W.

1972. Influence of jackrabbit density on coyote population changes.

J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36(2) : 343-356.

328. Ender, Robert K.

1955. False heat in the yearling coyote, Canis latrans. J. Mamml. 36:133.

329. Fichter, E., G. Schildman and J. H. Sather.

1955. Some feeding patterns of coyotes in Nebraska. Ecol. Monogr. 25:1-39.

330. Fitch, H. S.

1948. A study of coyote relationships on cattle range. J. Wildl. Mgmt.
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331. Grimm, R. L.

1940. Trout and crayfish eaten by coyotes. J. Mamml. 21:458-459.

332. Knowles, C.

1976. Observations of coyote predation on mule deer and white-tailed deer
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333. Knowlton, F. F.

1972. Preliminary interpretations of coyote population mechanics with some
management implications. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36:369-382.

334. and S. Hibler.

1974. Preliminary interpretations of coyote movement patterns. Paper
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48

335. Murie, A.

1940.

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336. Murie, 0.

J.

1935.

Food habits of the coyote in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. USDA Circ.
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337. 1945.

Coyote food habits, Montana and British Columbia. J. Mamml .
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338. Robinson, W. B.

1952.

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339.

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1947.

Notes on behavior of coyotes. J. Mamml. 28:63-65.

340. Snow, C. J.

1968. Behavioral and morphological development of coyote pups. M. S.
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341. Sperry, C. C.

1941. Food habits of the coyotes. USDA Wildl. Res. Bull. 4 70 pp.

342. U.S. Dept. Int.

1974.

Predator survey of western U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Res
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343. Young, S.

P. and H. H. T. Jackson.

1951.

The clever coyote. The Stackpole Co. & The Wildl. Mgmt . Inst.,
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344. Zadra, F.

D.

1977.

Some factors affecting food selection by coyotes in a foothills
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49

WOLF

345. Aulerich, R. J.

1964. Status of the wolf in North America. M.S. Thesis. Mich. State
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346. Fryxell, F. M.

1926. An observation on the hunting methods of the timber wolf. J. Mamml .
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347. Goldman, E. A.

1937. The wolves of North America. J. Mamml. 18:37-45.

348. Jorgensen, S. E., C. E. Faulkner and L. David Mech.

1970. Proceedings of a symposium on wolf management in selected areas of
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349. Mech, L. D.

1970. The wolf: The ecology and behavior of an endangered species. Nat.

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350. White, T.

1969. Wolves on the Saskatchewan-Montana-Dakota border. Defenders of
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50

FOX

351.

352.

Fichter, E. and R. Williams

1967. Distribution and status of the red fox in Idaho. J. Mairnnl.
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Findley, J. S.

1951. A tame red fox cub. J. Mamml . 32:117.

48(2)

51

BEAVER

353. Collins, Tom C.

1976. Population characteristics and habitat relationships of beavers.
Castor canadensis, in Northwest Wyoming. PhD. Thesis. Dept, of
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354. Osborn, Dale J.

1953. Age classes, reproduction, and sex ratios of Wyoming beaver. J.
Mamml. 34:27.

355. Scott, John W.

1940. Winter kills in beaver. J. Mamml. 21:462.

356. Wade, Otis.

1935. Time of appearance of young beaver in Yellowstone National Park.

J. Mamml. 16:155.

357. Warren, E. R.

1922. The life of the Yellowstone beaver. Roosevelt Wildl. Bull. 1(2)

358. 1926. A study of the beaver in the Yancey Region of Yellowstone National

Park. Roosevelt Wildl. Annuals 24 (26) : 13-191 .

359. Williges , W. A.

1946. A beaver survey on the Pole Mountain Division of the Medicine Bow
National Forest. Univ. of Wyo., Laramie, M. S. Thesis 108 pp .

360. Williams, Roger M.

1965. Beaver habitat and management. Idaho Wildl. Rev. 17(4): 3-7.

361. Yeager, L. L. and R. R. Hill.

1954. Beaver management problems on western public lands. Trans. 19th
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52

BLACK BEAR

362. Barnes, Victor, G.

1967. Activities of black bear. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ.,

Ft. Collins. 116 p.

363. Bray, Olin E. and V. G. Barnes, Jr.

1967. A literature review of black bear populations and activities for

National Park Service. Natl. Park Serv. & Colo. Coop. Wildl. Res.
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364. Bray, Olin E.

1967. Population study black bear. M. S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins
97 p.

365.

Jonkel, C

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1960.

Black bear population studies. Montana P-R Job
27 pp.

Compl. Rept. W-98-R-1,

366.

1967.

The ecology, population dynamics and management
in the spruce-fir forest of northwestern Montana
Univ. Brit. Columbia.

of the black bear
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367.

and I . McT Cowan .

1971.

The black bear in the spruce-fir forest. Wildl.
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Monogr. No. 27,

368.

Murie, Adolf.

1937,

Some food habits of the black bear. J. Maraml .

18:238-240.

369.

Tisch, E.

L.

1961. Seasonal food habits of the black bear in the Whitefish Range of
northwestern Montana. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Mont. 108 pp.

53

GRIZZLY BEAR

370.

371.

372.

373.

374.

375.

376.

377.

378.

379.

380.

Ball, Ronald E.

1976. The use of time-lapse cameras in distribution and population studies
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Park County, Wyoming. M. S. Thesis. Dept, of Zoo. & Phys . , Univ.
of Wyo. 34 p.

Baggley, G. F.

1936. Status and distribution of the grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis) in
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Cole, G. F.

1973. Management involving grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park.

1970-72. USDI Natl. Park Serv. Nat. Res. Rep. No. 7, 10 p., 1 fig.

1976. Management involving grizzly and black bears in Yellowstone National
Park 1970-75. US Dept. Int , Nat. Res. Rep. No. 9 ii + 26 p.

1971. Preservation and management of grizzly bears Ursus arctos in Yellow-
stone National Park. Bioscience 21 (16) : 858-864 .

Craighead, F. C., Jr. and J. J. Craighead.

1972. Grizzly bear prehibernation and denning activities as determined by
radio tracking. Wildl. Monogr. No. 32 35 pp .

Craighead, J. J. and F. C. Craighead, Jr.

1971. Grizzly bear-man relationships in Yellowstone National Park. Bioscience
21(16): 845-857 .

Greer, K. R.

1972. Grizzly bear mortality and studies in Montana. Int. Union. Conserv.
Nature and Nat. Res. Publ. News Ser. 23:53-66.

Hornocker, Maurice G.

1967. Population characteristics and social and reproductive behavior of

the grizzly bear in Yellowstone National Park. M. S. Thesis. Mont.
State Univ., Bozeman 92 pp.

Johnson, A. S.

1973. Yellowstone’s grizzly: Endangered or prospering? Defenders of

Wildl. News. Oct. 1973, p. 557-568.

Martinka, C. J.

1972. Habitat relationships of grizzly bears in Glacier National Park,
Montana. Nat. Park Serv. Prog. Rept.

54

381. Martinka,

C. J.

1974.

Population characteristics of grizzly bears in Glacier National Park,
Montana. J. Mamml. 55(1) :21— 29.

382. 1974.

Preserving the natural status of grizzlies in Glacier National Park.
Wildl. Soc. Bull. 2(1): 13-17 .

55

RINGTAIL AND RACCOON

383. Richards, R. E.

1968. The ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) in Colorado. A Preliminary Report.
J. Colo-Wyo Acad. Sci. 6(1): 6 1-62.

384. Urban, David.

1970. Raccoon populations, movement patterns and predation on a managed
waterfowl marsh. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 34(2) : 372-382 .

56

MARTEN

385. DeVos, A.

1951. Recent findings in fisher and marten ecology and management. Trans.
16th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. p 498-507.

386. Hagmeier, E. M.

1956. Distribution of the marten and fisher in North America. Can. Field-
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387. 1961. Variation and relationships in North American marten. Can. Field-

Nat. 75:122-138, 6 figs.

388. Hawley, V. D. and F. E. Newby.

1957. Marten home ranges and population fluctuations. J. Mamml . 38:174-184.

389. Koeler, G. M. and M. G, Hornocker.

1977. Fire effects on marten habitat in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness.

J. Wildl. Mgmt . 41(3) : 500-505.

390. Marshall, W. H.

1942. The biology and management of the pine marten in Idaho. Univ. Mich.
PhD. Thesis. Ann Arbor.

391. 1946. Winter food habits of the pine marten in Montana. J. Mamml. 27(1):

83-84.

392. Murie, Adolph.

1961. Some food habits of the marten. J. Mamml. 42:516-521.

393. Newby, F. E. ad V. D. Hawley.

1954. Progress on a martin live-trap study. Trans. 19th N. Amer. Wildl.

Conf. p 452-462.

394. Streeter, Robert G. and Ciatt Braun.

1968. Occurrence of pine marten, Martes americana (carnivora: mustelidae)
in Colorado alpine areas. Southwest. Nat. 13 (4) : 449-451 .

395. Thompson, W. K.

1949. A study of marten in Montana. Proc. West. Assn. State Game & Fish
Comm. 29:181-188.

Weckworth, R. P. ad P. L. Wright.

1968. Results of transplanting fishers in Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32(4):
977-980.

396.

57

397. Yeager, L. L.

1950. Implications of some harvest and habitat factors on pine marten
management. Trans. 15th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf . p 319-334.

58

FISHER

398. Brown, Larry N.

1965. A fisher, Martes pennati, in Sheridan County, Wyoming. Southwest.
Nat. 10(2): 143 .

399. Weckworth, R. P. and V. D. Hawley.

1962. Marten food habits and population fluctuations in Montana. J. Wildl.
Mgmt. 26(1) : 55-74.

400. Williams, R. M.

1962. The fisher returns to Idaho. Idaho Wildl. Rev. 15(1): 8-9.

59

ERMINE

401. Editors Note.

1968. The ermine in western Utah. Great Basin Nat. 28:47-48.

402. Gaughran, George R. L.

1950. Domestic cat predation on short-tailed weasel. J. Mamml . 31:356.

LONG- TAILED WEASEL

403. Hall, E. R.

1951.

American weasels. Univ. Kans. Pubis., Mus . Nat. Hist. 4:1-446,
41 pis . , 31 figs.

61

MINK

404. Mitchell,

J. L.

1961.

Mink movements and a population on a Montana river. J. Wildl. Mgmt
25(1): 48-54.

62

BLACK- FOOTED FERRET

405. Cahalane, Victor H.

1954. Status of the black-footed ferret. J. Mamml . 35:418-424.

406. Clark, T. W.

1976. The black-footed ferret. Oryx 13 (3) : 275-280 .

407. Hillman, Conrad N.

1968. Life history and ecology of the black-footed ferret in the wild.

M. S. Thesis. S. Dak. State Univ. 32 pp .

408. 1968. Field observations of black-footed ferrets in South Dakota. Trans.

33rd N. Amer. Wildl. Nat. Res. Conf . p 433-443.

63

WOLVERINE

409. Newby, F. E. and J. J. McDougal.

1964. Range extention of the wolverine in Montana. J. Mamml. 45 (3) : 485-487 .

410. Wood, N. A.

1921. A wolverine in a tree. J. Mamml. 2:234.

411. Wood, Steven L.

1958. A wolverine in Utah. Great Basin Nat. 18:56.

64

BADGER

412. Drake, Guy E. and Clifford C. Presnail.

1950. A badger preying upon carp. J. Mamml . 31:355.

413. Jense, Grant K.

1968.

Food habits and energy utilization of badgers. M. S. Thesis.
S. Dak. Univ. 39 pp.

414. Keppner, E. J.

1965.

Internal parasites of the badger, Taxidea taxus taxus (Schrebner, 1778),
in Wyoming. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Wyo.

415. 1969.

Occurrence of Atriotaenia procyonis and Molineus mustelae in the
badger, Taxidea taxus (Schreber, 1778), in Wyoming. J. Parasitol.
55(6) : 1161 .

416. 1970.

Studies on the taxonomy and life history of Filaria taxideae n. sp .
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PhD. Thesis. Dept, of Zoo. & Phys . , Univ. of Wyo. 148 p.

417. Schantz,

Viola S.

1950.

A new badger from Montana. J. Mamml. 31:90.

418. Verbeek,

N. A. M.

1965.

Predation by badger on yellow-bellied marmot in Wyoming. J. Mamml.
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65

SKUNKS

419. Mead, Rodney A.

1968. Reproduction in western forms of the spotted skunk (genus Spilogale) .
J. Maraml. 49 (3) : 373-390 .

66

RIVER OTTER

420. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. and W. R. Eadie.

1964. Reproduction in the otter, Lutra canadensis. J. Mamml . 45 (2) : 242-252 .

67

MOUNTAIN LION

421. Currier, M. J. P.

1976. Characteristics of the mountain lion population near Canon City,
Colorado. M. S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins. 51 pp.

422. Hornocker, M.

1969. Winter territoriality in mountain lions. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 33(3)

457-464 .

423. 1970. An analysis of mountain lion predation upon mule deer and elk in

the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildl. Monogr. No. 21:1-39.

424. Nelson, E. W. and E. A. Goldman.

1929. List of the pumas, with three described as new. J. Mamml .
10:345-350.

425. Robinette, W. , J. Gashwiler, and 0. Morris.

1961. Notes on cougar productivity and life history. J. Mamml.

42(2) :204-217.

426. Seidensticker , J. C. , M. G. Hornocker, W. V. Wiles and J. P. Messick.

1973. Mountain lion social organization in the Idaho Primitive Area.
Wildl. Monogr. No. 35:1-60.

68

LYNX

427. Halloran, A. F. and W. E. Blanchard.

1959. Lynx from western Wyoming. J. Mamml. 40:450-451.

BOBCAT

428. Bailey, T. N.

1972. Ecology of bobcats with special reference to social organization.

PhD. Thesis. Univ. Idaho 82 pp.

429. Crowe, D. M.

1974. Some aspects of reproduction and population dynamics of bobcats in

Wyoming. PhD. Thesis. Dept, of Zoo. & Phys . , Univ. of Wyo. 177 p.

430. 1975. A model for exploited bobcat populations in Wyoming. J. Wildl.

Mgmt . 39(2) : 408-415.

431. 1975. Aspects of ageing, growth, and reproduction of bobcats from Wyoming.

J. Mamml . 56(1) : 177-198.

432. Gashwiler, J. S., W. L. Robinette, and 0. W. Morris.

1961. Breeding habits of bobcats in Utah. J. Mamml. 42(l):76-84.

433. Young, S. P.

1958. The bobcat of North America. Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 193 pp .

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UNGULATES GENERAL

434. Anderson, C. C., W. I. Crump, and T. C. Baker.

1956. Food habits of antelope, elk, deer, and moose. Wyo. Game & Fish
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435. Capp, John C.

1967. Competition among bighorn sheep, elk, and deer in Rocky Mountain

National Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins 132 pp .

436. 1968. Bighorn sheep, elk, mule deer relationships/ A review of the literature

including a brief history of bighorn sheep in Rocky Mountain National
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437. Compton, T. L.

1974. Some interspecific relationships among deer, elk, domestic livestock,
and man on the Sierra Madre of southcentral Wyoming. PhD. Thesis.
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438. Constan, K. J.

1972. Winter foods and range use of 3 species of ungulates. J. Wildl.

Mgmt . 36(4) : 1068-1076.

439. Davis, P. R.

1977. Cervid response to forest fire and clearcutting in southeastern
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440. DeNiro, R. M.

1938. Elk and deer foods and feeding habits. Trans. 3rd N. Amer. Wildl.
Conf. P. 421-427.

441. DeVos, A., P. Brokx and V. Geist.

1967. A review of social behavior of the North American cervids during
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442. Douglas, C. H.

1938. The principal factors controlling big game populations in the Central
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443. Dusek, G. L.

1975. Range relations of mule deer and cattle in a prairie habitat. J.
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444.

445.

446.

447.

448.

449.

450.

451.

452.

453.

454.

Gastler, G. F. , A. L. Moxon and W. T. McKean

1951. Composition of some plants eaten by deer in the Black Hills of South
Dakota. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 15 (4) : 352-357 .

Grieb, J. R., R. J. Boyd, M. C. Coghill, R. B. Gill, D. F. Gordon, and E. J.

Prenzlow.

1968. Deer-elk investigations. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish & Parks., Game
Res. Rev. (1967) 12-19.

and L. D. Hibbs.

1968. Bighorn sheep and mountain goat investigations. Colo. Dept. Game,

Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rev. (1967) 22-23.

Grimm, R. L.

1939. Northern Yellowstone winter range studies. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 3:295-306.

Hansen, R. M. , R. C. Clark, and W. Lawhorn.

1977. Foods of wild horses, deer and cattle in the Douglas Mountain area,
Colorado. J. Ra . Mgmt. 30(2) : 116-118.

Hansen, R. M. , R. C. Clark

1977. Foods of elk and other ungulates at low elevations in northwestern
Colorado. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 41(1) : 76-80.

Hays, K. G., G. N. Hunter and C. Robbins.

1961. Big game management in Colorado, 1949-1958. Colo. Dept, of Game
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Heyl, Bruce.

1961. A study of the effects of certain tranquilizing drugs on pronghorn
antelope, elk, and mule deer and the development of quantitative
methods of determining particular drug levels in the blood and
prepared foods. M. S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo.

Hoskins, L. W. and P. D. Dalke.

1955. Winter browse on the Pocatello big game range in southeastern Utah.

J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19(2) :215-225.

Julander, 0. and D. E. Jeffrey.

1964. Deer, elk and cattle range relations on summer range. Trans, 29th N. Amer.
Wildl. Conf. p. 404-414.

Lyon, L. J.

1966. Problems of habitat management for deer and elk in the northern forest.

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1959. The antelope of Colorado. Colo. Dept. Fish & Game, Denver, Tech.
Bull. No. 4 110 pp .

613. Hoover, J. P. and J. G. Nagy.

1971. International biological program. Food habits of pronghorn antelope
on the Pawnee National Grasslands. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst. Prog.
Interbiome Abstr. 1 (4) : 259—260.

88

614. Ingold, P. A.

1969. Social organization and behavior in a Wyoming pronghorn population.
PhD. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo., Laramie. 142 pp .

615. Jacobs, Jerry G.

1973. A microtechnique index to pronghorn diet and sagebrush digestion
coefficients. M. S. Thesis. Div. of Plant Sci., Univ. of Wyo.

49 p .

616. Kitchen, D. W.

1974. Social behavior and ecology of the pronghorn. Wildl. Monogr. No. 38.
96 pp .

617. McCutchen, Henry E.

618

619,

620,

621

622

623,

624

1969. Age determination by the incisor cementum. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 33:172-175

Menzel, K. E., Chairman.

1970. Proceedings of the fourth Antelope States Workshop/ January 27-28,

1970/ Scottsbluff, Nebr. Nebr. Game & Parks Comm. 139 pp .

Morrison, B. G.

1961. Some aspects of the histology and growth of the horns of
Antilocapra americana. M. S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo.

Prenzlow, E. J.

1965. A literature review on pronghorn behavior. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish

and Parks, and Colo. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit Spec. Rept. No. 3 28 pp.

Severson, K. E.

1966. Grazing capacities and competition of pronghorn antelope and
domestic sheep in Wyoming's Red Desert. PhD. Thesis. Div. of Plant
Sci., Univ. of Wyo. 118 p.

and M. May.

1967. Food preferences of antelope and domestic sheep in Wyoming's Red
Desert. J. Ra. Mgmt. 20(1) :21— 25.

Skinner, M. P.

1922. The prong-horn. J. Mamml . 3:82-105.

Spillett, J. J.

1965. Effects of livestock fences on pronghorn antelope movements. M. S.
Thesis. Utah State Univ. 138 pp .

89

625. Sundstrom, C., W. G. Hepworth, and K. L. Diem.

1973. Abundance, distribution, and food habits of the pronghorn.

Wyo. Game and Fish Bull. No. 12 61 pp.

626. Walker, B. R.

1974. Cardiopulmonary function in pronghorn. M. S. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo.

627. Wenzel, L. E.

1955. The anatomy of the pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana americana
(Ord) 1815, with special reference to the digestive system. M. S.
Thesis. Univ. of Wyo. 102 pp .

628.

Yoakum,

Jim.

1960.

Transactions/ Interstate Antelope Conference. 136 pp . $1.00

available from Jim Yoakum, Box 1551, Reno, NV.

629.

1961.

1961 Transactions/ Interstate Antelope Conference. 54 pp . $1.00

available from Jim Yoakum.

630.

1962.

Interstate Antelope Conference/ 1962 Transactions. 114 pp . $1.00

available from Interst. Antel. Conf . , Box 1551, Reno, NV.

631.

1963.

Interstate Antelope Conference/ 1963 Transactions. 102 pp .
Available on application to Intersta. Antel. Conf., Box 1551, Reno.

632.

1967.

Literature of the American pronghorn antelope/ An annotated
bibliography with abstracts emphasizing food habits and range
relationships. USDI, BLM (Reno, NV) 82 pp .

90

MOUNTAIN GOAT

633.

634.

635.

636.

637.

638.

639.

640.

641.

642.

643.

644.

645.

Brandborg, S. M.

1948-1950. Ecology and management of the mountain goat in Idaho. Cont . Prog.
Repts. Vols. 1-3. Idaho Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit Quarterly Repts.

1950. The life history and ecology of the mountain goat in Idaho and
Montana. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho, Moscow.

Casebeer, R. L., M. J. Rognrud, and S. M. Brandborg.

1950. The Rocky Mountain goat in Montana. P-R Proj . 1-R, Bull. No. 5,
Montana Fish & Game Dept. 107 pp .

Hanson, W. 0.

1950. The mountain goat in South Dakota. PhD. Thesis. Univ. of Mich.,

Ann Arbor .

Harmon, W,

1944. Notes on mountain goats in the Black Hills. J. Mamml. 24:149-151.
Hibbs, L. D.

1965. The mountain goat of Colorado. M.S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins.

1966. A literature review on mountain goat ecology. Colo. Dept. Game,

Fish & Parks and Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit Spec. Rept. No . 8 23 pp.

1967. Food habits of the mountain goat in Colorado. J. Mamml. 48 (2) : 242-248 .
and F. A. Glover.

1965. Ecology of the mountain goat in Colorado. Colo. Coop. Wildl. Res.

Unit. Tech. Pap. 2 4 pp .

and D. L. Gilbert.

1969. The mountain goat in Colorado. Trans. 3rd N. Amer. Wildl. Nat.

Res. Conf . p. 409-418.

Lentfer, J. W.

1955. A two-yeaf study of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains,
Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 19 (4) : 417-429 .

Saunders, J, K. Jr.

1955. Food habits and range use of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy
Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19 (4) : 429-437 .

Skinner, M. P.

1926. Mountain goat not found in Wyoming. J. Mamml. 7:334.

646. Smith, B.

91

L.

1976.

Ecology of Rocky Mountain goats in the Bitterroot Mountains,
Montana. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Mont. 203 pp .

647. Swift, L.

W.

1940.

Rocky Mountain goats in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Trans.
5th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf . 441-443.

92

BIGHORN SHEEP

648. Buechner, H. K.

1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present and
future. Wildl. Monogr. No. 4:1-174.

649. Capelle, K. J.

1966. The occurrence of Oestrus ovis L. (Diptera: Osstridae) in the

bighorn sheep from Wyoming and Montana. J. Parasitol 52 (3) : 618-621 .

650. Davis, William B.

1938. Summer activity of mountain sheep on Mt . Washburn, Yellowstone
National Park. J. Mamml. 19:88-94.

651. Desert Bighorn Council.

1960-69. Desert Bighorn Council transactions. 1500 N. Decatur Blvd . , Las
Vegas, Nev.

652. Drewek, J,, Jr.

1970. Population characteristics and behavior of introduced bighorn

sheep in Owyhee County, Idaho. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho 46 p.

653. Frisina, M. R.

1974. Ecology of bighorn sheep in the Sun River area of Montana during

fall and spring. M.S. Thesis. Mont. State Univ., Bozeman 67 pp .

654. Frost, N. M.

1942. Gestation of bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis. J. Mamml. 23:215-216.

655. Honess, R. F. and N. M. Frost.

1942. A Wyoming bighorn sheep study. Wyo Game & Fish Dept., Bull. No. 1,
vi and 126 pp., 45 figs., 1 map.

656. Moser, C. A.

1962. The bighorn sheep of Colorado, Colo. Dept. Game & Fish Tech.

Publ. No. 10 49 pp.

657. Oldemeyer, J. L.

1966. Winter ecology of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone National Park.

M. S. Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins 107 pp .

658. , W. J. Barmore and D. L. Gilbert.

1971. Winter ecology of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone National Park.
J. Wildl. Mgmt . 35(2) :257-269.

93

659. Packard, F. M.

1946. An ecological study of the bighorn sheep in Rocky Mountain National
Park. J. Mamml. 27:3-28.

660. Shepherd, H. R.

1975. Vegetation of two dissimilar bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado.

Colo. Div. Wildl . Div. Rept. No. 4 1-223.

661. Simmons, N. N.

1961. Daily and seasonal movements of Poudre River bighorn sheep. M.S.
Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins. 180 pp .

662. Streeter, R. G.

1969. Demography of two Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep populations in
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663. Woolf, A.

1968. Summer ecology of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone National Park. M.S.
Thesis. C.S.U., Ft. Collins. 112 pp .

664. and T. O’Shea and D. L. Gilbert.

1970. Movements and behavior of bighorn sheep on summer ranges in

Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgmt . 34 (2) : 446-450 .

94

BISON

665.

666 .

667.

668.

669.

670.

671.

672.

673.

674.

675.

676.

Cathalane, V. H.

1944. Restoration of wild bison. Trans. 9th N. Amer . Wildl. Conf .
p. 135-143.

Cole, James E.

1954. Buffalo (Bison bison) killed by fire. J. Mamml . 35:453.

Fryxell, F. M.

1928. The former range of the bison in the Rocky Mountains. J. Mamml.
9:129-139.

Fuller, W. A.

1950. Aerial census of northern bison in Wood Buffalo Park and vicinity.

J. Wildl. Mgmt . 14 (4) : 445-451 .

1961. The ecology and management of the American bison. Terre Vie
2:286-304.

1962. The biology and management of the bison of Wood Buffalo National

Park. Can. Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Mgmt. Bull., Ser. 1, No. 16 52 pp .

Galbreath, E. C. and H. Stein.

1962. Bison occidentalis in South Dakota. Proc. S. Dak. Acad. Sci. 41:41-43.
Graham , Maxwe 1 1 .

1923. Canada’s wild buffalo. Can. Dept, of Int .

Meagher, M. M.

1973. National Park Service Scientific Monogr., Series No. 1, The bison
of Yellowstone National Park. US Natl. Park Serv. Sci. Monogr.

Ser. 161.

Miller, G.

1977. The American bison (Bison bison) : An initial bibliography. Can.

Wildl. Serv. (Edmonton) 89 pp .

Negus, Norman C.

1950. Breeding of three year old females in the Jackson Hole Wildlife
Park buffalo herd. J. Mamml. 31:463,

Peden, D, G.

1972. Preliminary activities and results in bison research on the Pawnee
site. USIBP Anal. Ecosyst. Prog. Interbiome Abstr . 2(l):78-79.

95

677. Preble, E. A.

1908. A biological investigation of the Athabaska^-Mackenzie region.

US Dept Agr, N. Amer. Fauna No. 27:143-150.

678. Roe, F. G.

1951. The North American buffalo. Univ. Toronto Press, Canada 957 pp .

96

BURRO

679.

680.

681.

AND HORSE

Berger, Joel.

1977. Sympatric and allopatric relationships among desert bighorn sheep
and feral equids in Grand Canyon. Southwest. Nat. 22 (4) : 540-543

Feist, J. D. and D. McCullogh.

1976. Behavior patterns and communication in feral horses. Zeitschrift
Fur Tierpsychologie 41 (4) : 337-37 1 .

McKnight, Tom L.

1958. The feral burro in the United States: Distribution and problems

J. Wildl . Mgmt . 22:163-179.

97

5

Sorex cinereus occurs in moist meadows, bogs, about springs and along shores of
ponds, lakes, and streams. It is sympatric with the wandering shrew.

Sorex vagrans occupy moist habitats in forested areas (marshes, bogs, edges of
swamps or springs) . They also occupy moist microhabitats in the forest (rich
accumulations of humus around fallen trees or piles of debris), riparian
communities of foothills as low as 5,300 ft., and dwarf willows above timberline
(home range 4,000 sq . ft.).

Sorex nanus inhabit mountains and foothills, forests (broken and unbroken), open
woodland, rocky, shrubby foothill slopes and alpine and subalpine rockslides. The
altitude range is 5,500 - greater than 10,000 feet.

Sorex palustris are confined to mountains, along streambanks , margins of lakes and
ponds and in marshes .

Sorex merriami prefer habitats of sagebrush, stands of mountain-mahogany or other
shrubs, woodlands of ponderosa pine or pygmy conifers and grasslands (5,000 -
9,500 feet).

Microsorex hoyi favor drier upland forests. They are intermediate between masked,
wandering shrews, and dwarf shrews in moisture requirements.

Myotis lucifugus inhabit forests and woodlands at moderate elevations in and near
mountains up to 11,000 feet. They forage over water, especially along wooded streams.

Myotis evotis favor wooded areas (coniferous) and forage in woodlands over ponds.

Myotis volans occurs primarily in wooded areas and forests to 11,500 feet.

Myotis leibii occupy lower to moderate elevations (to 8,000 feet), and rocky areas
at lower elevations.

Lasionycteris noctivagans are forest dwelling. Their preferred habitat is streams,
ponds, and woodland clearings to 10,000 feet.

Eptesicus fuscus have broad ecological tolerance. They inhabit forests of mountains
to 11,000 feet, to eastern plains, rural, open country or woodlands, deserts or
riparian forests.

Lasiurus cinereus favor mountains to 9,500 feet or riparian forests or plains.

Plecotus townsendii inhabit rough broken country of lower to moderate elevations
(9,500 feet), brushy or woodland habitat.

Ochotona princeps (8,500 + feet) require rock slides or piles, or talus of sufficient
size not filled with debris.

Sylvilagus nuttalli occupy brushy, forest edges, and sagebrush (to treeline).

(5)

98

Lepus americanus is a boreal mammal which occupies densely forested areas with
abundant understory of brush, shrubs (3,000 feet - 11,000 feet).

Lepus townsendii inhabits open grasslands (summer) and shrubby country (winter)-
(4,000 feet - 14,000 feet).

Eutamias minimus have the broadest ecological tolerance. They inhabit shrub deserts,
badlands, openings in moist evergreen forests, and ecotones to above timberline.

Eutamias umbrinus (8,000 feet - timberline) prefers forest edges.

Eutamias quadrivittattus occupy foothills, rocky areas below 8,000 feet.

Marmot a f laviventris requires boulders for cover and lush herbage. It prefers rock-
piles about subalpine meadows but may occur from foothills to above timberline in
open areas.

Spermophilus richardsonii inhabit open country with well-drained soils such as
parks, open vallqys, meadows, sagebrush steppe, plains, and grasslands, at
elevations of 6,000 - 12,000 feet.

Spermophilus lateralis requires locations exposed to sun most of the day. It occupies
areas around rocks near edges of forests and woodlands.

Sciurus aberti inhabit ponderosa pine woodlands.

_T. hudsonicus occur in heavy forests of middle elevations and in mixed conifer
habitats. It least prefers ponderosa pine.

Thomomys Talpoides is a mountain mammal inhabiting open areas with well-drained
soils .

_P. maniculatus is common in drier upland areas, forest edges, and broken, shrubby
terrain.

Neotoma cinerea

Clethrionomys gapperi inhabit spruce-fir and lodgepole forests at middle elevations
and elfin woodlands near timberline.

Phenacomys intermedius reside in streamside communities, open pine woodlands, dense
subalpine forests, shrubby burns to alpine tundra.

Microtus montanus occupies moist meadowlands and bogs and aspen woodlands, subalpine
forests with herbaceous ground cover.

Microtus longicaudus inhabits moist habitats, streamside woodlands, aspen groves,
spruce-fir forests, upland meadows, ponderosa pine woodlands and krummholz stands
at timberline.

Zapus princeps Inhabits moist streambank communities, lush grasslands about beaver
ponds and rank forb story of aspen groves and dwarf thickets of willows at elevations
of 6,000 to 11,500 feet.

Vulpes vulpes occupy mountainous areas and forested country.

99

(5)

Urocyon cinereoargenteus inhabits rough, broken country covered with shrubs or
woodland, pinyon- juniper country and foothills ponderosa pine.

Ursus americanus

Bassariscus astutus occupies rough, broken country (shrub vegetation), semi-desert
areas, but must have water.

Procyon lotor prefers moist situations (streambanks and shorelines).

Martes americana occurs in subalpine spruce-fir, lodgepole, and montane woodlands.

Mustela frenata reside in bushlands, dense forests, montane parks, alpine tundra,
stream courses, and brush covered areas.

Mustela erminea favor forests and areas of heavy cover such as aspen woodlands,
subalpine forests, talus slopes.

Mustela vison occupy marshes, lakes and streams.

Gulp gulp inhabit heavy boreal forests or taiga , arctic tundra.

Taxidea taxus

Spilogale putorius inhabits broken, rocky country at moderate elevations with shrub
cover (canyons).

Mephitis mephitis prefer margins of parks, streamside woodlands, and aspen groves.
Felis concolor inhabit broken country with good cover of brush or woodlands.

Lynx canadensis

Lynx rufus occupy woodlands, shrublands, and forest edges.

23

An inventory of mammals on the Black Thunder Coal Lease site in northeastern
Wyoming was conducted in 1974.

Small mammals were live trapped on 0.81 ha plots and along snap-trapping
transects in sagebrush, shortgrass prairie, and grass-opuntia vegetation types.
Nine species of rodents were captured, of which the deer mouse was most abundant.
Population densities of rodents varied from 18.7 - 42.3/plot, with an average of
21.2/ plot .

100

27

A study of the Wasatch Chaparral communities in northeast
following small mammal densities:

Utah revealed the

Species

Numbers per Hectare

April

May

Average

Peromyscus maniculatus

115

90

102.5

Peromyscus truei

5

0

2.5

Reithrodontomys megalotis

0

10

5.0

Eutamias dorsalis

8

7

7.5

The investigator compiled the

following

results for total

small mammal species

Climax Community

Numbers per Hectare

Shadscale (4,400 ft)

42.2

Lower chaparral (5,500 ft)

117.5

Upper chaparral (6,800 ft)

Lower montane climax (7,000 ft)
Upper montane climax (10,000 ft)

56.5

30.9

30.4

29

Eutamias ruficaudus is restricted ecologically to subalpine coniferous forests.

Marmot a f laviventris ranges out into the Great Plains wherever rocky hills or
river bottoms provide outcrops or talus slopes with rocks of sufficient size.

Sciurus niger inhabits riparian cottonwood forests.

Perognathus parvus inhabits sagebrush areas and areas almost devoid of vegetation.

Microtus montanus occupies dry grasslands, wet meadows and marshes at high elevations
where M^ pennsylvanicus is absent.

Microtus ochrogaster is sympatric with M^ montanus in many areas. Where they are
found together, M^ montanus occupies grasslands at higher elevations (including
grassy alpine tundra) and M. ochrogaster is restricted to the plains and foothills.

(29)

101

Water vole (Arvicola richardsoni ) inhabits subalpine riparian communities and
parallels S. lateralis in its montane distribution in central Montana.

Vulpes vulpes is restricted to mountainous areas in western and southwestern Montana.

Procyon lotor occupies river bottoms and riparian habitat.

Lynx canadensis inhabits boreal forests and sporadically occupies the Northern
Great Plains.

Myotis volans lives at higher elevations than other Montana species.

36

Small mammals were live- and snap-trapped in major representative plant
communities in N. Jackson Hole - Trapping Plots = 150 ft. x 150 ft. The trapping
units operated for three nights. Standard traplines were used in other sites and
to supplement quadrat trapping.

Results of three trap-nights (half acre quadrats) :

Species

Sagebrush

Grass

Grassi-sedge

Meadow

Willow

Savannah

Timothy

Meadow

Grass-forb

Meadow

Aspen

Lodgepole

Forest

Alpine

Meadow

Spruce-f ir-
whitebark
Pine Forest

Sorex cinereus

1.0

2.0

Sorex vagrans

0.8

1.0

1.0

3.7

1.0

1.0

Eutamias minimus

1.5

Thomomys talDoides

3.5

1.0

2.0

3.0

0.3

Peromyscus man.

3.0

1.7

1.6

7.0

Microtus montanus

0.5

1.0

1.0

9.0

6.0

2.3

15.6

Microtus penn.

4,0

6.5

1.0

Microtus richard.

4.6

Penacomys inter.

0.8

Clethrionomys gap.

1.0

1.0

4.0

Zapus princeps

3.0

2.0

2,3

(36)

102

S . cinereus commonly associates with PL_ pennsylvanicus .

S . vagrans is capable of inhabiting more xeric habitats than S_^ cinereus .

S . vagrans is most commonly associated with ML_ montanus .

S. palustris (4) were taken along small streams bordered with willows, grasses
and sedges.

Myotis lucif ugus prefers forested areas of Jackson Hole.

Myotis volans (14) were obtained over waterholes in sage-grass.

Myotis evotis (3) were obtained over waterholes in sage-grass associated with
Myotis volans .

Lasionycteris noctivagans (1) was taken along Gros Ventre in cottonwood-willow
community.

Lasiurus cinereus (1) - Leigh Lake (1939)

Martes americana - spruce-fir (and lodgepole) .

Mustela erminea (11) were taken in willow savannah and (1) in an adjacent timothy
meadow. It is associated with Microtus and Clethrionomys .

Mustela f renata were taken in willow savannah and (1) in spruce-fir.

Mephitis mephitis were seen in sagebrush communities, hayfields, and in cottonwood-
willow near water.

Taxidea taxus were observed only in sagebrush associated with Spermophilus armatus .
Spermophilus armatus are found in sage or sage-grass.

Spermophilus lateralis are obtained only on edges of spruce-fir and at timberline.

Eutamias minimus are common in sage, edges of forest of lodgepole and in edges of
spruce-fir up to timberline.

Eutamias atnoenus are found in aspen and lodgepole forests where forests are open
and support ground cover of shrubs and forbs. They are also found in sage and
open forb-grass meadows near the edge of the forest. They may be found
occassionally in willow-grass-sedge.

Eutamias umbrinus are found in spruce-fir of Togwotee Pass on borders of clearings
and meadows in woods .

Tamiasciurus h. ventorum inhabit conifer forests.

Glaucomys sabrinus inhabit lodgepole and lodgepole-aspen .

Thomomys talpoides occupy sage, forb-grass meadows, hayfields, aspen groves, sub-
alpine and alpine meadows and forest clearings.

103

(36)

Peromyscus maniculatus live in lodgepole, spruce-fir, alpine and subalpine meadows
and grass-sage.

Phenacomys intermedius (4) were taken in sage-grass, (2) were taken on hillside
sage-grass, and (1) was taken in dry subalpine meadow in the vicinity of boulders,
and (2) were taken along streamside on subalpine meadows in the habitat of
Microtus richardsoni .

Clethrionomys gapperi is a common inhabitant of willow-grass-sedge in the vicinity
of small streams. Eleven were taken in the spruce-fir forest.

Microtus pennsylvanicus inhabit hydrosene communities (grass-sedge meadows and
willow grass savannahs). They are replaced by PL_ montanus and richardsoni
in drier and alpine communities.

Microtus montanus were captured in alpine meadow, subalpine meadow, lush grass-
forb meadow, wet sedge meadow, willow savannah, timothy meadow, aspen forest,
sage-grass, and willow-alder (streamside). The densest populations were found
in alpine meadows.

Microtus longicaudus were taken in aspen forest, rocky, wooded slopes (signal
Mountain) , and along small streams (in association with Microtus richardsoni) .

Microtus richardsoni were found along small streams of alpine meadows and sub-
alpine meadows at low elevations. They are associated with Sj_ palustris ,

Pherv intermedus, and M. longicaudus at these elevations, and at low elevations
are associated with Zapus princeps , S . palustris , S . cinereus , and
Phenacomys .

Lagurus curtatus - Sheep Creek.

Zapus princeps were found in aspen forest, lush forb-grass meadow, timothy
meadow, willow-alder thickets, and along streams. They are most common in
aspen groves.

Ochotona princeps (7,200 feet) - inhabit talus slopes and rock outcrops.

Lepus townsendii is common in south Jackson Hole in sage-grass and cultivated
fields .

37

Mammal populations were censused on Coal Creek, Campbell County, Wyoming
in 1975.

Three species of small mammals were trapped during the summer trapping. These
were deer mice, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and grasshopper mice. Generally,
transects in open, grassy habitats yielded fewer rodents than transects in habitats
that had more cover.

Trapping results for sagebrush yielded twice the number of rodents found on
reseeded pipelines. The most successful trapping was along a sagebrush ridge
indicating the importance of cover.

(37)

104

Four other small mammal species were observed on the study area. minimus

were seen near rock outcrops along ridges and near fallen cottonwood limbs along
tree-lined ravines of the East Fork of Coal Creek. Burrows and tracks of kangaroo
rats were seen along roads and pipelines indicating they prefer open habitats with
friable soil. Pocket gopher sign was seen, but unfrequently , indicating they were
in low densities on the site. Muskrats were observed at a large reservoir just
west of the site boundary.

Mean rodent densities estimated from trapping results were: 9 individuals

per ha in big sagebrush communities; 14 individuals per ha in a sprayed sagebrush
community; and 8.6 individuals per ha in mixed grass prairie. In the sagebrush
community, only maniculatus was captured. In the sprayed sagebrush community,

P. maniculatus was most common (9.6), S. tridecemlineatus was second must common
(4.0), and 0. leucogaster was uncommon (0.3).

In the mixed grass prairie, S_;_ tridecemlineatus was the most abundant of the
three species (4.3/ha), 0_. leucogaster was 2.5 individuals/ha, and P. maniculatus
was least common (1.8 individuals/ha).

The results indicate thirteen-lined ground squirrels prefer open, grassy
habitats. Deer mice were common throughout the study area except in large open
stands of mixed grass prairie, indicating they showed a definite affinity for
shrubby vegetation providing some cover.

White-tailed jackrabbits and cottontails exhibited a preference for the areas
of big sagebrush. They both averaged 0.5 per ha in the sagebrush and 0.1 per ha
in grass. These values are probably underestimated since counts were taken in
early summer.

Cottontails utilized areas of cover other than big sagebrush. They were very
abundant along rocky ridges and tree-lined ravines.

39

A survey of mammals was done on the Beartooth Plateau of Montana.

46

Mammals of two regions were inventoried in South Dakota. The following results,
by habitat type, summarize the findings of that study.

Western yellow pine association: Altitudinally , it ranges from about 3,500 feet

above sea-level on the east and 4,000 feet on the west to an elevation of about
6,000 or 7,000 feet. At the higher levels, the yellow pine develops beautiful park-
like forests; whereas on the lower sites, the trees form an open woodland.

The following mammals were collected; Black Hills marmot (Marmota flaviventris dakota) ;
Northern chipmunk (Eutamias minimus borealis ) ; Black Hills chickaree (Sciurus
hudsonicus dakotensis); Osgood deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodi) ; badlands
white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus aridulus) ; Colorado bushy-tailed woodrat
(Neotoma cinera orolestes) ; short-tailed red-backed vole (Clethrionomys brevicaudus) ;

(46)

105

Nebraska yellow-haired porcupine (Erethizon epixanthum bruneri) ; American wapiti
(Cervus canadensis canadensis) ; Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) .

Bur Oak Association: Along the borders of the streams in the Black Hills, the pines

give away to deciduous trees. The most prominent species of trees are: Bur oak

(Quercus macrocarpa) , quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) , and paper birch (Betula
papyrifer a) .

The following mammals were collected: Little long-eared bat (Myotis evotis) ;

Mountain ^bobcat jLynx uinta) ; Northern chipmunk (Eutamias minimus borealis) ; Black
Hills chickaree (Sciurus hudsonicus dakotensis) ; Osgood deer mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus osgoodi) ; Badlands white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus aridulus) ;
Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) .

Mountain Prairie Association: In certain situations in the Black Hills where the

soil texture, moisture, and depth appear to reach a favorable balance, a grassland
or prairie type of habitat is developed. The elevation of this prairie ranged from
5,200 to 5,500 feet above sea-level, and in places it approached a width of 2 miles.

The following mammals were collected: Page striped ground squirrel (Citellus

tridecemlineatus pallidus) ; Northern chipmunk (Eutamias minimus borealis) ; Black
Hills pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides nebulosus) ; Osgood deer mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus osgoodi) ; and Black Hills cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttallii granger!) .

Riparian Association: This association is restricted to the streams and their

banks .

The following mammals were collected: Black Hills marmot (Marmot a f laviventris

dakota) ; Osgood deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodi) ; Sawatch meadow vole
(Micro t us pennsylvanicus modestes) ; Great Plains muskrat (Ondatra zibethica
cinnamomina) .

47

The following is the result of reconnaissance of mammals of the Uinta Mountains,

Utah .

Sorex palustris inhabit mountain stream tributaries in the pine zone (8,450 feet).
Spilogale putorius occupy upper sonoran zones.

Mephitis hudsonica occur in the transition zone.

Spermophilus lateralis inhabit streamside habitat of sagebrush, pinyon-juniper,
mountain parks of pine belt in sagebrush, and streamside habitats.

Spermophilus armatus occupy streamside habitat on the Green River.

Cynomys leucurus live in sagebrush habitat where soil is workable.

Eutamias minimus

require streamside habitats of sagebrush belt.

(47)

106

Eutamias minimus consobrinus occupy streamside, sagebrush, rockslide, and alpine
habitat types.

Eutamias umbrinus inhabit streamside, sagebrush, rockslide and alpine habitat types
in pine, spruce-fir and alpine zones associated with minimus consobrinus .

Eutamias dorsalis live in rock cliffs, talus slopes and cedar-pinyon areas of
sagebrush.

Tamiasciurus fremonti occur in pine and spruce-fir regions.

Glaucomys sabrinus prefer lodgepole pine.

Thomomys t. pygmaeus occupy flood plain banks of streamsides in the pine zone.
Thomomys talpoides reside in alpine meadows.

Perognathus parvus occur in the sagebrush habitat of the plains.

Dipodomys ordii prefer sandy areas of sagebrush.

Peromyscus maniculatus inhabit the sagebrush zone below 9,000 feet. They prefer
streamsides, sagebrush, rock cliffs or rock slides, and edges of forest, (stream-
side and sagebrush habitats had the highest number) and yellow pine with sagebrush.

Peromyscus boylei reside along the Green River.

Neotoma cinerea occupy rock cliffs and rock slide habitat.

Clethrionomys gapperi inhabit streamsides at the spruce-fir zone (10,500 feet).
Microtus m. manus occur around streamside habitat in the sagebrush belt.

Microtus largi mordax prefer streamside habitat in the pine belt.

Zapus princeps occupy willows on streams of the pine belt.

Erethizon dorsatum inhabit forest habitats and canyons of sagebrush belt, and
juniper-pinyon .

Ochotona princeps prefer talus slopes.

Lepus townsendii inhabit sagebrush plains, juniper-pinyon woodlands.

Lepus americanus occupy pine and spruce-fir and alpine meadows.

Sylvilagus nuttallii inhabit streamsides and adjacent sage of sagebrush belt.

48

Information on mammals was obtained during a study of animal and vegetation
composition on burns of various ages in lodgepole pine forests in Yellowstone

(48)

107

National Park, Wyoming. From 5-12 species were captured, depending upon the age
of the burn. Big game use declined to almost nothing in very old burns.

49

Table 1. Number of species of herbs, shrubs, trees, birds, and mammals present
in lodgepole pine communities ranging in age from 1 to 300+ years.

Study

Years since

Estimated numbers of species

Area

burn

Herbs

Shrubs

Trees

Birds Mammals

Total

1966

1

6

1

1

no no

estimate estimate

a

3

17

1

1

no no

estimate estimate

1960

7

31

2

2

15 5

55

1954

13

41

1

2

16 9

69

1942

25

73

5

3

19 12

112

1910

57

18

4

3

10 4

39

1856

111

18

3

2

10 5

38

Oldest

300?

14

3

3

13 5

38

a) The

1966 area

was

examined again in 196S

i .

Table 2. Summary
pine forests.

of avifauna and

small mammal successional trends in lodgepole

Time (in

years)

since study areas were last burned

Small mammals

7

13

25 57 111

300

No. captured/ 100

trap

nights

4.7

4.7

3.6 4.7 1.9

5.6

Biomass

captured

(gm)

1,662

2,212

1,547 1,477. 759

2,260

55

A study of the small rodent populations was made in three different biotic
communities located in the vicinity of Laramie, Albany County, Wyoming. The three
communities investigated included the short grass plains, sagebrush and mountain

108

(55)

mahogany communities.

Ten different species of rodents were trapped during this study. The average
population density for all plots was 11.7 rodents per acre.

The number of rodents taken from each plot in the short grass plains community
ranged from zero to eight per acre with an average of four per acre. The deer
mouse was the most abundant species taken in all communities.

The number of rodents taken from each plot in the sagebrush community ranged
from 6 to 24 per acre with an average of 12.9 per acre.

The number of rodents taken from each plot in the mountain mahogany community
ranged from 5.9 to 35.9 per acre with an average of 23.4 per acre.

56

Following is listed the results of reconnaissance of small mammals in the
Pocatello region:

Sorex vagrans occurs in or near swampy creeks at elevations of 4,400 - 6,500 feet.

Sorex palustris inhabit waters edge or small creeks.

Citellus armatus live in creek bottoms and adjacent hill sides.

Eutamias minimus reside in the Snake River plains (sage and bromegrass) .

Eutamias amoenus occur in fir timber or on margins along brush creek banks.

Thomomys townsendii inhabit bottomlands of Portneuf River and in irrigated and
cultivated lands.

Thomomys quadratus reside in bottomlands along lower courses of tributes of the
Portneuf and along the Portneuf.

Perognathus parvus prefer fine sand and clay soil.

Clethrionomys gapperi occur near rotten logs in dry woodland meadows.

Microtus pennsylvanicus inhabit edges of cattail swamp.

Microtus mordax inhabit swampy creek banks.

La gurus curtatus - inhabit fine, windblown sand.

59

Pitfall traps were used to sample shrews in several habitats in the Medicine
Bow Mountains and Laramie Basin of Wyoming in the summer of 1966.

109

(59)

The following table lists results of trapping:

Habitat and Elevation

Sorex

cinereus

Sorex

vagrans

Sorex

nanus

Sorex

merriami

Microsorex

hoyi

Total

Collected

Cottonwood-willow

(7,160)

2

14

0

0

0

16

Short-grass prairie

(7,180)

0

0

0

3

0

3

Sagebrush

(7,220)

4

11

0

3

0

18

Mountain mahogany

(7,250)

2

6

0

2

0

10

Aspen

(8,205)

5

16

0

0

0

21

Bog in aspen

(8,200)

28

12

0

0

0

40

Subalpine rockslide

(8,480)

11

20

25

0

0

56

Lodgepole pine

(9,300)

6

16

0

0

0

22

Bog in lodgepole

(9,295)

29

11

0

0

0

40

Spruce-fir

(9,630)

8

18

0

0

0

26

Bog in spruce-fir

(9,620)

32

15

0

0

6

53

Alpine tundra

(10,470)

4

8

2

0

0

14

%

Alpine willow bog

(10,460)

9

5

0

0

0

14

Alpine rockslide

(10,600)

3

9

21

0

0

33

S . cinereus and vagrans were most cosmopolitan in distribution, being in all
habitats sampled except short-grass prairie. These species were always taken together.
S . cinereus was generally more abundant than vagrans in the worst bog localities
regardless of altitude. vagrans had higher populations in the mesic communities

that were paired with bogs (aspen, lodgepole pine, spruce-fir, and alpine tundra).

The vagrant shrew was also slightly more abundant than S_^ cinereus in the other mesic
situations sampled such as rockslides, sagebrush, mountain mahogany, and cottonwood-
willow communities.

The dwarf shrew was abundant in two restricted habitats and was present at a
third. It was more numerous than vagrans by a slight margin in the subalpine
rockslide and was the predominant shrew in alpine rockslides. S . nanus was also
represented in alpine tundra. This represents an altitudinal range extending from
8,480 to 10,600 feet and includes several types of montane plant communities.

The predominance of nanus for rocky areas in the mountains is supplemented
by captures in an open clear-cut area of spruce-fir forest.

Sorex merriami was trapped in three plant communities that were represented

(59)

110

only at lower elevations in southern Wyoming. These habitats were short-grass
prairie, sagebrush, and mountain mahogany. None of these habitats occurred higher
than the mountain foothills (7,500 feet). In the short-grass prairie, S. merriami
was the only species of shrew present; in the low foothills, where sagebrush and
mountain mahogany communities were sampled, they were present in low numbers with
S . vagrans and S_^ cinereus . In southeastern Wyoming, merriami occurred in the
driest habitats and generally at lower elevations than did other species. Merriam’s
shrew was taken with Lagurus curtatus in the sagebrush and short-grass prairie, but
L. curtatus was absent in mountain mahogany communities.

Micro sor ex was encountered only around the periphery of bogs in areas dominated
by a deep, springy mat of sphagum moss. Here, they were taken in equal numbers
with cinereus and were in greater numbers than Sj_ vagrans . The habitat preferences
of Microsorex also include heavy woods, clearings, and pastures in both wet and dry
situations .

Sorex palustris were taken in habitats ranging from alpine willow bog at 10,470
feet to willow-alder bog in aspen communities at 8,200 feet. The species was never
found at a distance greater than 100 feet from a mountain stream or pond.

The most productive habitats for shrews were rockslide areas and marshes or
boggy areas, both of which have high invertebrate populations, serving as a readily
available food supply. The least productive habitat was short-grass prairie,
possibly due to the scarcity of suitable cover or a relative scarcity of invertebrates.

61

Six plant communities were sampled in Jackson Hole, Wyoming during 1968 and
1969, to determine habitat preferences of shrews. The six communities sampled are
sedge-meadow, sedge-grass meadow, shrub-swamp, shrub-sedge grass savannah, aspen,
and big sagebrush.

Shrews were captured in all of the communities. Both S_^ cinereus and vagrans
were found in five communities (S . cinereus was not found in big sagebrush and
S . vagrans was not found in sedge-meadow) . S^ palustris was trapped only in the
shrub swamp. S, cinereus was most abundant in the sedge-meadow and was the only
species trapped there. The lowland aspen yielded 33% of all captures and the shrub-
swamp yielded 22%.

All three species favored habitats with greater than 75% plant cover and mesic
soils. palustris and S . vagrans were restricted to mesic conditions. Sj_ cinereus

was found in both mesic and hydric situations.

Most shrews taken (96%) were captured within 25m. of standing water; and 95%
of S. cinereus were taken within 0.25m. Over 90% of S. vagrans were found 25m. or
less from water, although they were taken up to 100m. away.

Distribution of shrews was influenced mainly by plant cover (not types) .

63

This paper reports habitats in which water shrews (S. palustris) were trapped

Ill

(63)

during specimen collection. This species was taken in limited habitats which were
along fast cold mountain streams having banks which offered favorable cover. These
banks were composed of large stones, boulders and tree roots forming many crevices
and overhanging ledges. Many specimens were taken where streams flowed beneath the
banks in the crevices or where small springs entered a larger stream.

Vegetation of the habitats where shrews were taken was typically Canadian in
composition. Mosses and liverworts were present on rocks near the water. Plants
such as green pyrola, sidebell pyrola, red baneberry, and bearberry lined the
streams. The abundant tree species along good habitats was Douglas fir. Grand
fir and Pacific yew were present in some habitats.

64

The following information refers to two rare shrews taken from Colorado and
Wyoming.

Sorex merriami leucogenys - (SE Utah) . This species was taken in relatively dry
meadows of Potentilla , Car ex, Descampsia caespitosa, Festuca montana , Poa pra tensis
and Poa alpina . Other mammals taken here include Microtus longicaudus , Peromyscus
maniculatus , Eutamias minimus , and Sorex vagrans .

Sorex nanus - (San Juan Co., Utah). This species was taken in moderately damp and
shaded forested area on the northeast slope adjacent to the meadow. Predominant
plants are: Populus tremuloides , Quercus gambeli , Symphor icarpus vacinnioides , and

Poa sp. Associated mammals include Sorex vagrans , microtus longicaudus , P . maniculatus
and minimus . Specimens were also collected in Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National

Park, Wyoming at 10,500 feet elevation in rocky tundra. They are restricted to high
montane habitats (8,000 feet to 10,500 feet).

66

Field work in the summers of 1957 and 1958 in the Northern Rocky Mountains of
Montana and adjacent Wyoming has provided new information on two species of shrews,
S . vagrans and S^_ nanus , which occur at high altitudes in this area.

The following table lists information on S^_ vagrans :

Table 1. Plant and mammal associates of alpine Sorex vagrans.

Area

Habitat, plant associates

Mammal associates

Logan Pass Near stream; Salix commutata,

Carex, Phyllodoce

Microtus richardsoni ,
Peromyscus maniculatus ,
Citellus columbianus

Meadow; Erythronium grandif lorum, Phenacomys intermedius

Carex, Luzula

Logan Pass

(66)

112

Table 1.

Continued

Area

Habitat, plant associates

Mammal associates

Beartooth

Plateau

Near stream; Salix wolfii,
Deschampsia caespitosa,

Carex scopulorum; growing on
water-saturated hummocks

Microtus richardsoni,
Microtus montanus

Crazy

Mountains

Moist meadow below solifluction
terraces; Deschampsia caespitosa,
Festuca ovina var. brachyophylla

Penacomys intermedius

The vagrant shrew occurs in moist hydrophyte communities of the high subalpine
to alpine zones.

Sorex nanus was taken in a polygenal rock field in which rock gutters alternate
with patches of vegetation. The vegetation covering the soil between the rock
polygens was dominated by dry tundra forms such as Carex scopulorum, Geum rossi ,
Trifolium spp. , Silene acaulis , Phlox caespitosa, and Pedicularis racemosa ♦ The
only other small mammal taken in this habitat was I\_ maniculatus , but Ochotona
princeps and Marmota f laviventris were common in this area. Other S_^_ nanus were
trapped in a dry tundra fellfield in which spaced rocks provided cover. The vegetation
of the fellfield consisted of mat plants similar to the polygenal field, but dominant
plants were Arenaria obtusiloba, Carex elynoides , Fescuta ovina , and Selaginella
densa . Other small mammals taken included P^ maniculatus , Phenacomys intermedius ,
and Eutamias amoenus.

69

During a small mammal trapping study, Sorex merriami merriami was collected
in a ditch on Hwy. 230, 3.6m. west of Laramie. Associated mammals were Perognathus ,
Microtus pennsylvanicus , and Sorex, spp.

70

During a study of small mammals, investigators ran 840 trap-nights in a 3-acre
segment of an old field in Boulder, Colorado. Twelve shrews were taken (eight in
long, dry grass; others in heavily vegetated marshy area). Shrews comprised 57%
of the total catch. Microtus pennsylvanicus and Mus mus cuius made up the remainder.

75

Euderma maculatum was mist-netted over a water hole in a tree-less Artemisia
trident a ta-Chry so thamnus viscidif lorus community. Ponderosa pine forests were
within 3-4 miles of the site.

113

82

Myotis thysanodes pahasapensis is found only in the Black Hills of South
Dakota-Wyoming at elevations of 3,800 to 6,150 feet.

83

The following notes were made on habitats where several bat species were
collected:

Myotis evotis were taken while foraging in Pinus ponderosa .

Lasionycteris noctivagans were taken over open, grassy alpine meadows and over
the Green River.

Pipistrellus hesperus require arid and semi-arid habitats.

86

Specimens of bats were taken in the Black Hills, South Dakota. The following
observations were made:

Myotis lucifugus were taken over water or grassy meadows or along edges of conifer
stands (Pinus ponderosa and Picea glauca) .

Lasionycteris noctivagans prefer grassy valleys surrounded by well-forested hill-
sides of ponderosa pines and containing a source of standing water.

Eptesicus fuscus were taken over grassy, pine-bordered meadows or ponds (also
streams) .

Lasiurus cinereus were taken over streams and meadows bordered by ponderosa pine
and often associated with EL_ fuscus .

Plecotus townsendii is the most common bat in the Black Hills.

88

Habitat preferences of small mammals were investigated along an altitudinal
gradient in the Arkansas River Watershed in south-central Colorado.

Sorex cinereus occupies a variety of mesic habitats including streamside woodland,
brush, meadows in the mountains, and wetlands on the plains.

Sorex vagrans prefers marshy habitats.

S . nanus was taken in the rockiest parts of the study area with Pinus eduli s ,
Quercus cercocarpus and cottonwoods.

114

(88)

Perognathus fasciatus prefers short-grass communities on sandy soils with little
exposed soil surface.

P. flavus is most abundant in well developed Bouteloua-Stipa-Aristida communities
on loamy soils, and is tolerant of areas with scattered shrubs.

Reithrodontomys megalotis is typical of moist, brushy areas of mixed grass.

Peromyscus maniculatus was common and widespread in all communities, but P. leucopus
was restricted to riparian woodland or brush communities.

Microtus montanus occupied streamside communities.

89

Seven cover subtypes in a mature pinyon- juniper stand in northeastern Utah
were studied in relation to small mammal densities. The study area was on a narrow
belt on rocky alluvial fans extending down-slope into shrub-grass lowlands. Soils
on the site are course, and elevation ranges from 1,650m. to 2,000m.

Ord’ s kangaroo rat showed a definite preference for areas along the fringe of
the pinyon- juniper stand. These areas had abundant big sagebrush and other shrubs.
The other habitat preferred by this species was areas of high big sagebrush and
cheatgrass densities.

The pinyon mouse and canyon mice were abundant in areas of low vegetative
understory, low density sagebrush, abundant shrubs, and in areas of abundant shrubs,
grasses and cacti under pinyon and juniper.

Deer mice were abundant on all areas with a strong preference for low under-
story densities. Other rodents taken include Colorado chipmunk, northern grasshopper
mouse, bushy-tailed woodrat, desert woodrat, desert cottontail, antelope ground-
squirrel, golden mantled ground squirrel, and apache pocket mouse.

91

Six species of mice were studied in the Medicine Bow Range of southeast Wyoming.

Zapus princeps and Microtus longicaudus were most abundant in willow-alder,
aspen and subalpine meadow communities. Both species preferred sites adjacent to
water and sites having dense ground cover. M^ montanus preferred moderate to dry
alpine tundra and subalpine forb-sedge meadows with dense to intermediate ground
cover, Lodgepole pine and spruce-fir forests supported high numbers of Clethrionomys
gapperi . This species was found at a distance from water and in sparce, intermediate
or dense ground cover. Phenacomys intermedius was taken in low numbers but appeared
to prefer subalpine meadows, spruce-fir forest and alpine tundra with no regard to
ground cover. Peromyscus maniculatus was the most widely distributed species. They
were found in most abundance at low elevations in sagebrush, mountain mahogany,
aspen and subalpine meadows. Areas of dense cover were about twice as productive
as those with sparce cover.

115

95

Four rodent species (Dipodomys ordii, Onychomys leucogaster, Peromyscus maniculatus,
and Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) werestudied on the short-grass prairie of notheastern
Colorado during 1969 and 1970. Three half-section pastures subject to long-term
cattle grazing at light, moderate, and heavy intensities were live trapped to determine
possible effects of grazing on rodent populations. Habitat relations, reproduction,
food habits, and population levels.

Populations of P_^ maniculatus were directly related to the intensity of grazing
pressure while S. tridecemlineatus were inversely related to grazing pressure.

Although differences between pastures were not great, 0. leucogaster showed no
definite relation to grazing pressure though populations were generally lowest in
heavily grazed pasture.

Mean percent volume of animal matter in diets of rodent species was as follows:

D. ordii (4.4%), 0^ leucogaster (73.9%) , I\_ maniculatus (39.0%), and tridecemlineatus
(44.0%); and was composed almost entirely of arthropods. Plant parts in diets of all
species consisted of seeds, leaves, stems and flowering parts of various species of
grasses, sedges, forbs and shrubs. Seeds were by far the most common plant matter
of ordii and P^ maniculatus , while plant matter in _SJL tridecemlineatus and 0 .
leucogaster was more evenly divided between seeds and non-seed parts of grasses,
sedges and forbs.

Population levels of the four species are listed in the following table:

Species

Number /ha

Percent species composition

Spermophilus tridecemlineatus

1.2

64

Onychomys leucogaster

1.8

21

Peromyscus maniculatus

1.2

9

Dipodomys ordii

0.3

6

Total

4.5

100%

Peak populations of 0^ leucogaster were attained in early fall after the breeding
season and low levels in late spring. S. tridecemlineatus reached peak levels in
mid-summer after emergence of young and lowest levels in late spring before emergence
of young.

D. ordii populations were much higher than on most of the short-grass prairie
in generally disturbed habitats with large amounts of sand and/or barren surface
soil and a general abundance of annual forbs and shrubs. 0j_ leucogaster were wide-
spread, avoiding only bottom-land areas subject to flooding. Abundance of P .
maniculatus was greater in areas with deep vegetative cover, a high percentage of
bare surface soil and/or nearby barren areas than on "normal" short-grass prairie.

S . trideceml ineatus were widespread on the Pawnee Site, avoiding only areas of
deep vegetative cover.

(112)

116

Dandelion reestablished dominance within 6 years following treatment of a perennial
forb range; big sagebrush showed little sign of recovery 5 years after treatment.

The density and litter size of the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) was little
affected by the 2, 4-D treatment. The density of northern pocket gophers (Thomomys
talpoides) and least chipmunks (Eutamias minimus) was reduced. Montane voles (Microtus
montanus) increased in abundance following treatment of a perennial forb range.

With the reestablishment of forb dominance, pocket gopher and vole populations
returned to pre-treatment levels. Density changes of pocket gophers on treated
ranges were due primarily to changes in the availability of food, those of chipmunks
to both food and cover, and those of voles to cover changes.

115

Rodent populations were studied in several common habitat types of the Northern
Great Basin in Idaho. Plant communities studied were big sagebrush, shadscale,
wheatgrass, kochia, greasewood, halogeton, winterfat, juniper, salt sage, and black
sage .

Deer mice were about twice as abundant in depleted shadscale communities than
those in better condition. Shadscale in good condition and winterfat supported
higher populations of chisel-toothed kangaroo rats and Great Basin pocket mice than
deer mice. Deer mice were the most abundant rodent in salt sage, black sage, and
Utah juniper.

Least chipmunks were most abundant in depleted shadscale stands,

Ord kangaroo rats were most common in stands of kochia and along roadsides,
and was a successful inhabitant of wheat grass seedlings.

In pristine shadscale and winterfat communities, chisel-toothed kangaroo rats
were most common and sometimes the only rodent taken.

Western harvest mice were most common in wheat grass seedlings and grant wild
rye. The Great Basin pocket mice were most abundant in seeded stands of wheat-
grass and in big sagebrush-Idaho f escue-bluebunch wheat grass communities.

Onychomys leucogaster was present in all habitat types. Lagurus curtatus was
found in sage brush -cheatgrass sagebrush-grass, and crested wheatgrass. Perognathus
longjmembris was taken in healthy shadscale, depleted shadscale, sagebrush-cheatgrass ,
and crested wheatgrass, and Neotoma lepida was taken in greasewood, healthy shad-
scale, hopsage, sagebrush-cheatgrass, black sage, and juniper-big sage.

Dense stands of vegetation supported large numbers of deer mice. A treated sage-
grass area which now supports weedy annuals, contains few rodents. Former sagebrush-
grass sites presently covered with tansy mustard and peppergrass contain few rodents.

The highest number of rodents taken in big sagebrush were P^ maniculatus .

117

111

This dissertation discusses the kinds, frequencies, and amounts of food eaten
by deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) , least chipmunks (Eutamias minimus ) , and
montane voles (Microtus montanus) in western Colorado during a three-year study
of both perennial forb and shrub ranges. Food habits of rodents on ranges treated
with 2, 4-D were compared with those of rodents on untreated ranges. Foods

were identified microscopically by comparing a sample of the stomach contents
mounted on a slide with known reference material.

Foods of deer mice comprising more than 5% of the food volume are listed in
order of importance: in spring (June), cutworms (Euxoa brocha) and other

lepidopterous larvae, scarabaeid and carabid beetles, forb leaves, and spiders; in
early fall (September), seeds of rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), pingue (Hymenoxys
richardsonii) , and grasses, lepidopterous larvae, grasshoppers (Hippiscus sp.) and
their oviposited eggs, grass leaves, spiders, and beetles; in winter (December and
March), seeds of rabbitbrush, pingue, and grasses, and grass leaves. There was
incidental ingestion of fungi (Endogone sp . ) and parts of small mammals. Most of
the foods eaten by deer mice were obtained at or below ground level. The diet of
young differed from that of adults. On shrub and perennial forb ranges, where
vegetation composition was altered by treatment with 2, 4-D, deer mice ate more
grasshoppers and grass seeds and leaves and fewer forb and shrub seeds than on
untreated areas.

The foods of least chipmunks comprising more than 5% of the food volume are
listed in order of importance: in spring (June), lepidopterous larvae and forb

and shrub seeds and leaves; in early fall (September), composite seeds, grass seeds,
and arthropods. Some foods were obtained among the branches of shrubs. Least
chipmunks ate more grass seeds and fewer forb and shrub seeds and leaves on areas
treated with 2, 4-D.

The stems and leaves of forbs and shrubs comprised 85-95% of the food of
montane voles in summer on both treated and control areas. The greater abundance
of voles on treated areas is likely related to an increase in grass cover rather than
to the abundance of food.

Deer mice and least chipmunks secured some of their food from different parts
of the same habitat. Neither chipmunks nor voles competed with deer mice for
arthropods .

There was increased production of some rodent food plants such as grasses,
owlclover (Orthocarpus luteus) and goosefoot (Chenopodium sp . ) within one year
after treatment. Most forbs and shrubs decreased. Deer mice responded to habitat
changes and ate the kinds of arthropods, seeds, and leaves available, with the
relative proportions of these foods unchanged. Availability governed the diet of
least chipmunks occurring on treated areas, but habitat change had no effect on the
diet of montane voles.

112

The treatment of perennial forb and shrub-grass ranges with 2, 4-D in western
Colorado usually produced an increase in grass cover and a decrease in the cover
of most forbs and shrubs. Recovery time of herbicide-sensitive species varied.

118

117

During a study of rodent communities in Goshen Co., Wyoming, habitat affinities
were defined.

Citellus spilosoma appeared to be a resident of sage-grass and yucca-grass
communities in sand and loamy sand soils where the height of dormant vegetation
exceeded 10 inches and more than 40% of the soil was bare. They seldom occurred
in short grass communities in loam soils where bare soil was at a minimum.

Citellus tridecemlineatus occurred predominantly in short grass communities
with variable soil types and exposed soil surface.

Dipod omys ordii were most abundant and the predominant species in the sand
dune communities where the height of the dormant vegetation exceeded 10 inches and
where more than 40% of the soil surface was devoid of vegetation. Sandy, fine
textured soils appeared to have been one of the most important features of the
habitat with where D. ordii was associated.

Perognathus f lavus was most common in mixed grass although it was taken in
yucca-grass and sage-grass, also. It was in low numbers in all communities.

P . f lavescens were found in greatest numbers in sage-grass and yucca-grass
communities with variable soil types and bare soil surface where the height of the
dormant vegetation was greater than 20 inches. , It was also taken in grass and
sand dune communities.

P . hispidus were taken in all habitats in areas of sandy loam and loam soils
where less than 40% of the soil surface was bare.

Rie thro don t omys megalotis was taken in greatest numbers in yucca-grass and sage-
grass communities in loamy sand soils with vegetation height greater than 20 inches
and bare soil surface less than 40%. R^ montanus was abundant in the various grass
communities with vegetation height less than 10 inches and bare surface soil at a
minimum. >

Peromyscus maniculatus were relatively abundant in all communities except the
sand dunes.

Onythomys leucogaster were taken in greatest numbers in short grass communities
in loam and loamy sand soils. They occurred in all habitat categories.

Microtus ochrogaster were captured in greatest numbers in sage-grass in sandy
and sandy loam soils where vegetation height was greater than 20 inches and bare
soil surface was at a minimum.

Geomys bursarius were restricted to deep, fine-textured soils covered by various
vegetation. Thomomys talpoides were sympatric with G^ bursarius , but were not
restricted to any particular soil type.

Sciurus niger was restricted to the North Platte River drainage and it's
tributaries. They were also present in the Black Hills.

Cynomys ludovicianus were restricted to short grass communities on the floor
of the plains in Goshen County.

(117)

119

Neotoma cinerea is restricted to areas containing cliffs and canyons around
the escarpment in the mountain mahogany-juniper zone.

119

Small mammals were studied in the Great Divide Basin, Wyoming. Habitat affinities
of several small mammals were determined.

Least chipmunks were taken most frequently in typical shrub grass communities
where sagebrush was the dominant shrub and vegetation cover and height were 40%
and 12 inches, respectively. The chipmunk was also common in the limber pine habitat
on the western edge of the basin.

Richardson’s ground squirrels were captured in greatest numbers in the shrub-
grass communities where sagebrush, greasewood and rabbitbrush were dominant shrubs
and where vegetation cover was less than 40% and height was less than 12 inches.

This ground squirrel avoided sandier soils.

Thirteen-lined ground squirrels were taken in greatest numbers in shrub-grass
communities where sagebrush was the dominant shrub and vegetation cover and height
were less than 40% and 12 inches, respectively. It occurred predominantly on sandier
soils .

Golden-mantled ground squirrels occurred almost exclusively in limber pine
where abundant cover occurred.

White-tailed prairie dogs were taken on loam and clay textured soils. They
were restricted to shrub-grass communities where sagebrush was the dominant shrub
and vegetation cover and height were less than 40% and 12 inches, respectively.

Northern pocket gophers were widely distributed. They were particularly
abundant on uplands in sandier soils.

The olive-backed pocket mouse was captured predominantly in sagebrush-grass
communities on sandy soils where vegetation cover was greater than 40%.

Kangaroo rats occurred predominantly on sandy soils where vegetation cover
was less than 40% and vegetation height was greater than 12 inches. Kangaroo rats
were restricted almost exclusively to sand dunes and adjacent areas.

Deer mice were most abundant in the shrub-grass communities where vegetation
cover exceeded 40%. They were the least restricted of all rodents and then the only
limiting factor appeared to be high densities of other rodents.

Northern grasshopper mice were taken predominantly in shrub-grass communities
on sandier soils. They were most abundant in areas close to ant hills.

Montane voles were found predominantly in grass and sedge-grass communities
along spring and water drainages where vegetation cover and height exceeded 40%
and 12 inches, respectively.

The long-tailed vole occurred primarily in limber pine communities. Extensive
cover and high vegetation appeared to be important habitat criteria.

(119)

120

The sagebrush vole prefers sagebrush stands and surrounding grass communities.

121

Small mammals were trapped on Burro Hill, Jackson Hole, Wyoming in a study of
the affects of fire suppression and prescribed burning. Three study sites $ a control,
a spring burn, and a fall burn, in a big sagebrush community were trapped during the
summers of 1974, 1975 and 1977. Eight species of rodents, two species of insectivores
and one carnivore are listed as follows:

Peromyscus maniculatus Spermophilus armatus

Zapus princeps Microtus montanus

Microtus longicaudus Thomomys talpoides

Clethrionomys gapperi Sorex vagrans

Sorex cinereus Mustela f renata

Thomomys was taken in small numbers, probably because trapping was not oriented
towards catching them. One Clethrionomys was taken, but probably was exploring.

Trapping success was not adequate to estimate individual species densities.

122

Six species of small mammals were trapped within Cercocarpus ledif olius commun-
ities in the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming. Peromyscus maniculatus were most abundant
with Eutamias minimus the second most abundant. Neotoma cinerea , Microtus montanus ,
Dipodomys ordii , and Zapus princeps were also captured. A higher trapping yield
was obtained on the western flanks than on the eastern flanks of the range. Canyon
sites on the western flanks yielded more rodents than did the front slopes.

Exposure and elevation appeared to influence population densities. P. maniculatus
was taken most frequently on southern exposures and Eh_ minimus was taken more
frequently on north-facing slopes.

124

Nocturnal small mammals were trapped in a sagebrush-greasewood community in
the Red Desert, Wyoming.

Estimates of Peromyscus maniculatus and Onychomys leucogaster in September and
May were 21.1 deer mice and 2.0 grasshopper mice per acre,

Dipodomys ordii were taken in too low numbers for density estimates.

125

Densities of small mammals were estimated from trapping results in three

(125)

121

Artemisia tridentata communities.

Area 1 had deep silt-clay alkali soils typical of arid and semi arid valley
bottoms. Artemisia tridentata, Chry so thamnus puberulus , and Distichlis stricta
were the principal cover plants.

Area 2 was also in a semi-arid valley bottom. Principal cover plants were
A. tridentata, Sarcobatus vermiculatus , and various grasses.

Area 3 was on a dry sub humid alluvial fan with deep, loamy, dry soils. Dominant
plants on this site were A. tridentata, Lupinus spp. and various grasses.

The following table lists estimated densities:

Lincoln ' s T no./ 14. 5 acres
(5.86 ha)

Period

Species

Area 1

Area 2

Area 3

1

P.M.

25

18

26

E.M.

33

34

P.P.

25

R.M.

58

52

51

2

P.M.

44

12

36

E.M.

39

46

P.P.

1

40

R.M.

18

101

59

76

3

P.M.

50

16

49

E.M.

31

13

P.P.

2

29

R.M.

1

82

31

78

4

P.M.

48

26

55

E.M.

23

28

P.P.

8

36

R.M.

71

62

91

5

P.M.

41

27

58

E.M.

5

24

2

P.P.

9

38

R.M.

46

60

98

6

P.M.

35

43

47

E.M.

8

59

P.P.

10

54

R.M.

43

112

101

(125)

122

Table 1. Continued

Lincoln '

sn. no./ 14. 5 acres

(5.86 ha)

Trap Period

Species

Area 1

Area 2

Area 3

7

P.M.

33

E.M.

12

45

8

P.M.

43

E.M.

3

P.P.

47

93

9

P.M.

61

P.P.

6

67

Key: P .M. -Peromyscus maniculatus; E .M.-Eutamias minimus; P .P .-Perognathus parvus;

R.M.-Reithrodontomys megalotis .

129

Small mammal populations were studied in red elderberry stands in the Wasatch
Mountains, Utah.

Peromyscus maniculatus averaged 22.0 mice/acre in 1964. In 1965, P. maniculatus
averaged 6.7 mice/acre, and in 1966 their density was 26/acre. In 1967 and 1968,
they averaged 9.63/acre and 13.67/acre, respectively.

Microtus longicaudus averaged 20.9/acre in 1964. Their densities were 3.5/acre,
16/acre, 4.78/acre, and 2.78/acre from 1965-1968.

Zapus princeps averaged 6.7/acre in 1964, 7.5/acre in 1965, 3.0/acre in 1966,
9.33/acre in 1967, and 9.66/acre in 1968.

Eutamias minimus averaged 5.40/acre in 1964, 13.5/acre in 1966, 5.0/acre in
1967, 4.78/acre in 1968, and were taken in too low numbers for a 1965 estimate.

In 1964, Clethrionomys gapperi averaged 0.6/acre, and none were taken in 1965.
Average densities in 1966-68 were 2.5/acre, 0.67/acre, and 2.56/acre, respectively.

Thomomys talpoides was trapped in sufficient numbers in 1966 (2.79/acre) and
1968 (3. 22/acre)only .

Sorex vagrans averaged 0.68/acre in 1964 and 3.0/acre in 1965. Insufficient
numbers were taken in 1966 and 1967. In 1968 estimated density was 0.56/acre.

Mustela frenata was taken occassionally and averaged 0.44/acre density in 1967.

123

132

This study was designed to obtain knowledge of the kinds and numbers of mammals
present within a burned-over area of Medicine Bow National Forest, and to determine
ecological niches of individual species and observe movements and distribution of
the individual small mammals within the study area.

Five species were present within the study area. These were the deer mouse,
Peromyscus maniculatis nebrascensis ; the least chipmunk, Eutamias minimus operarius ;
the gapper’s red-backed mouse, Clethrionomys gapperi galei; the mountain heather vole,
Phenacomys intermedius intermedius ; and the golden-mantled ground squirrel, Citellus
lateralis lateralis .

A total of 46 mammals were taken from the area. The deer mouse was most abundant
on the study area (19) and the least chipmunk was second (18). The red-backed
mouse and the Phenacomys totaled four each, and only one golden mantled ground squirrel
was captured.

Deer mice males outnumbered females eleven to eight, while least chipmunk
females outnumbered males ten to eight. Red-backed mice numbered three males to
one female, and the four Phenacomys captured were all females. The only golden-
mantled ground squirrel was a male.

134

A study was conducted to investigate resource allocation in rodents in Grand
County, Colorado. The site was at an elevation of 3,020m. Vegetation and topo-
graphy were rolling subalpine meadows supporting perennial grasses and annual and
perennial f orbs . The meadows were on well-drained ground with few wet spots.

Small Englemann spruce-subalpine fir stands were scattered throughout the meadows.

Peak densities of small mammals was
each year are given below:

Species-Year

Thomomys talpoides

1965

1966

1967

Eutamias minimus

1965

1966

1967

Peromyscus maniculatus

1965

1966

1967

39.3/acre in 1967. Densities per species

Mean Density/Acre

10.3

10.3

5.8

7.1

4.6

9.0

6.9

6.3

7.7

124

(134)

Species-Year

Mean Density/Acre

Microtus montanus

1965

1967

6.0

12.8

Sorex vagrans

1965

1966

1967

1.8

<1.0

4.0

TOTALS

1965

1966

1967

32.1

21.2

39.3

Chipmunks were abundant in meadows and in areas of scattered conifers. They
were absent from continuous forest and from moist areas of willows or tall grasses
and f orbs . Stumps and rocks provide important lookout points. The majority of
chipmunks seen or captured were near these features.

Chipmunks' primary foods are seeds, but arthropods and plant material are used
when the primary foods are in low abundance.

Pocket gophers were widely distributed except in densely forested areas and poorly
drained meadows. They were taken in areas with higher frequencies of certain
forbs and lower frequencies of grasses than were in the study area in general.

Forbs were the preferred food, but grasses and sedges were taken in seasons
before and after the main period of forb growth. The important forbs were used
consistently, but were eaten mainly during certain stages of growth.

Peromyscus maniculatus were not taken in moist soil areas and those with
willows and dense grasses and sedges. In mid-summer, the drier areas with low
annual forbs were the preferred habitats. Seeds and arthropods are preferred over
other types of foods.

Microtus montanus avoided drier sites. Moist sites with vegetation that
provided good cover were preferred. Leaves of forbs comprised the major portion
of vole diets with grasses second.

Sorex vagrans ate only anthropods. Other species were taken, but in numbers
too low to discuss.

Small mammals were trapped in a forested valley on the eastern slope of the
front range in Colorado.

135

(135)

125

Sorex clnereus and Sk_ obscurus were taken in a streambottom and in lodgepole
pine forest, but appeared more numerous in the streambottom.

Peromyscus maniculatus occurred in greatest numbers in communities in early
successional stages after fire, timbering and mining. It was the most abundant
species and was found in all habitat types.

Phenacomys intermedius was uncommon, but was found in a variety of habitats,
especially wet stream bottom and successional communities.

Clethrionomys gapperi was taken in a pure stand of lodgepole pine and a mixed
lodgepole-dominated forest only, but was the most abundant where taken.

Microtus montanus was found in grassy, dry meadows and drier parts of the
stream bottom. mordax occupied a range of habitats from cold wet areas near a

stream to the dry grassy slope of a ponderosa pine community.

Zapus princeps was strictly limited to the stream bottom.

138

A study of the ecology of the pika was conducted from October, 1968 to March,
1970 on St. Joe Baldy, Benwah Co., Idaho. Study sites were rock slides 1487m. -
1645m. in elevation. The sites are within the Daubenmire Abies lasiocarpa series
of habitat types.

Densities of pikas in each rock slide are given below:

Slide

//

Pikas

Density (#/100mz)

Perimeter

Area

1

2

0.35

113

565

2

5

0. 13

325

3740

3

2

0.26

138

768

4

2

0.65

159

308

5

2

0.29

103

682

6

0

0

97

524

7

5

0.23

289

2161

8

2

0.67

73

292

9

3

0.37

171

799

The author concluded that the size of pika territories, and subsequently the
population of the slide is influenced more by food accessibility than by the area
of the slide.

126

139

Effects of certain physical factors of habitat were investigated in nine rock-
slides on St. Joe Baldy, Benewah County, Idaho from 1969-1972.

Each 1000m. of perimeter supports 16 pikas, meaning that each pika territory
occupies about 62m. of perimeter. Food accessibility on the periphery of a rock-
slide influences the number of territories.

Rock size is another important factor. There is an optional size which allows
the pikas to move freely within the slide yet offers protection from predators.

Depth of a slide also may have an influence on pikas. Below a depth of 1M. ,
the rock slide offers fewer routes within it and less protection.

143

Pikas were studied along the Front Range of Colorado at elevations from 1,400
to 2,600 m. Pikas were found wherever rocks were large enough to provide suitable
runways. Feeding areas varied from subalpine forest to alpine tundra. Spruce-
fir forests had sparce understories of grasses and broad-leaved forbs. Open slopes
supported grasses and broad-leaved herbs which varied in density with altitude and
exposure.

Grasses and sedges were the most frequent plants stored in haypiles. However,
pikas would even use conifer boughs and cushion plants in areas where these were
the only plants available.

146

Audubon cottontails were studied at Hutton Lake Wildlife Refuge on the Laramie
Plains, Albany Co., Wyoming.

The study area was in intergradation between grassland and greasewood communities.
Abundant plants were greasewood, saltgrass, saltbush. Upland grasses included
western wheatgrass, needle and thread, blue grama, and indian ricegrass. Other
conspicuous species during certain seasons were prickly pear, rabbitbrush, phlox,
wild onion and lichen.

Cottontail densities are given below:

1967-1968
Month

Trapping Estimate (///Acre)

Oct .

3.1

Nov.

3.9

Dec .

Jan .

4.4

Feb.

4.1

Mar.

2.4

April

2.1

May

1.4

June

(146)

127

1967-1968

Month

Trapping Estimate (///Acre)

July
Aug.
Sept .

1.5

2.8

3.3

The average home range of the adult females was 4.7 acres. The average adult
male home range was 5.4 acres. Juveniles’ home range averaged 3.5 acres.

There was a high correlation between greasewood concentrations and number of
cottontail captures. The author believes that the protection greasewood affords
against avian and mammalian predators and against wind directs their activity to
these concentrations.

A downward population trend exists from February through May, indicating high
winter mortality. However, food availability does not appear to cause this trend.

The study was conducted on Bull Island, Flathead Lake, Montana.

The Douglas-fir - ninebark association was the dominant vegetation type on
the island. Of the 98.8 acres on the island, 17.8 acres was the yellow pine serai
stage. Around the shore line is a margin of moist open sites where cottonwoods,
quaking aspen and juniper and chokecherry are found.

Use of the habitat increases as cover density increases up to a point. Heavy
cover is used less than the high intermediate cover class, but is used more than the
light cover class. Apparently, hares prefer dense cover up to an optimum density
stage .

Maximum home range sizes were found to be 25 acres for adult males, 19 acres
for adult females, 13 for immature males and 15 for immature females. There was
overlap of these home ranges.

Population densities were estimated and are included in the following table:

151

Date

Number

6/53

7/53

8/53

9/53

10/53

11/53

12/53

1/54

2/54

59

64

75

62

56

46

39

31

28

128

155

The study was conducted in the Wasatch Mountains of northeast Utah during
1972-73. Elevation of the 36 ha study area was approximately 2,250-2,500 feet.

Subalpine fir predominated. Lodgepole pine, aspen, and Englemann spruce
accounted for 12-15% each. The understory was shrubby with many deadfalls.
Mountain clover and snowberry were common. The understory also included much
subalpine fir reproduction with chokeberry and aspen in the openings.

Density estimates from live-trapping were 0.77 hares/ha in April, 1972, and
1.00 hares/ha in April, 1973.

156

The mechanics of population balance and fluctuation of snowshoe hares (Lepus
americanus) in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado were studied in 1969-71. Live-
trapping was conducted from mid-April through mid-September in four study areas to
collect information on densities, survival rates, movements and reproduction. Data
on reproduction and age-composition were obtained from autopsy of hares collected
during the reproductive season and December, respectively.

The average size of home range of adult hares from April-August was estimated
to be 7. 3-9. 8 ha (18-22 acres). In July and August, juveniles used open habitat to
a greater extent than did adults. This may have resulted from social interaction
in the more densely populated, forested habitat.

Population density remained stable in 1969-71. Pre-breeding season density
within spruce-fir forests was a minimum of 73 adults per sq km (200 per sq mile).

The average dates of first conception were April 31, May 14, and May 8 in 1969,
1970 and 1971 respectively. Annual variations in dates of first conception appeared
related to spring weather conditions. Virtually 100 percent of adult females surviving
an entire reproductive season in 1969-71 produced two litters. An estimated 33
percent of adult females alive in August, 1969 produced third litters.

The annual survival rate for adults remained the same in 1969-70 and 1970-71,
averaging 0.43 for hares in three study areas in densely-forested habitat. Only
15-20 percent of the juveniles born each summer needed to survive until the following
breeding season to balance the population density. First-litter juveniles had a
higher survival rate than did second-litter juveniles and juveniles residing in
forested habitat had a higher survival rate than did juveniles residing in open
habitat. The growth rate of first-litter juveniles may have been higher than that
of second-litter juveniles. Social interaction among hares in late summer, whereby
"surplus” juveniles were forced into sparsely-populated, open habitat, may have been
an important mechanism of population self-regulation.

157

This study was conducted at two locations. In Summit County, Colorado, hares
were studied at elevations of 3,100-3,415 m. The 56 ha area was 65% densely forested

(157)

129

with Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and, less abundant, lodgepole pine. A generally
unforested transition area between an old burn and the forest comprised 25% of the
study area, and the remaining 10% was occupied by streamside and wet meadow openings
covered with willow. A 10 ha study area and an 8 ha study area were covered with
dense spruce-fir forests. Another area, 20 ha in size, had sparce spruce-fir cover.

The other location hares were studied was in Cache Co., Utah at elevations from
2, 230-2, 490m. The 36 ha study site was densely forested with subalpine fir with
some lodge-pole pine, aspen, and Englemann spruce.

Estimated home range size of adults was 7-9 ha. with a mean of 8.1/ha for 22 hares.
The most preferred habitat contained spruce-fir and spruce-f ir-lodgepole forests.

The absolute minimum pre-breeding density of adult hares on the 56 ha Colorado
study site in 1969-71 was 73 adults/km^ in predominantly spruce-fir forest.

On the Utah study site, the absolute minimum adult pre-breeding season density
was 46 hares/km^ but this estimate may be low due to fewer trap-nights.

159

A study of snowshoe hares was conducted during the winter season at Upper Woods
Picnic Ground in the southeastern part of Medicine Bow National Forest, Albany Co.,
Wyoming.

The study area contained three habitats: A ravine running in a NE-SW direction;
and two slopes on either side. Vegetation of the ravine was dense willows with
some aspen and several mature Englemann spruce on its south edge. The south-facing
slope had an open stand of mature lodgepole pine with a sparce undergrowth. The
north-facing slope was characterized by a dense stand of immature lodgepole pine.
Dwarf juniper was scattered throughout the area, but was concentrated on the forest
edge along the ravine. Buffalo berry was also present as was Potentilla fruticosa .

Estimated population density of the site was 272 hares/sq. mi. It was concluded
that hares were not distributed at random throughout the study area, but were most
abundant where the cover was most dense and along the forest edges near the bases
of the slopes where adequate cover was present in close proximity to the willows
which were utilized extensively as food.

Lodgepole pine and willow, the most abundant plants, were used most extensively
for food.

161

The study areas were located in Curlew Valley, Utah. The vegetation of the
valley is a matrix of shadscale, whitesage, salt-sage, big sagebrush, black sage,
and juniper.

Winter census in the valley yielded estimated densities of from 0.69 to 5.42
jackrabbits per acre with an average of 2.54 per acre.

130

163

Dispersion, dispersal, and density were measured on populations of black-tailed
(Lepus californicus) and white-tailed (Lepus townsendii) jackrabbits on a 10.75 sq.
mile area of native short-grass prairie. Dispersion information was obtained from
a tagging-recapturing program and spotlight counts. Sample size amounted to 136
tagged hares. Black-tails outnumbered white-tails 3 to 1 and occupied most of the
study area. White-tails occupied a smaller range, mostly overlapping the black-
tailed jackrabbit range. Dispersal was measured by a radio telemetry technique which
allowed remote monitoring of instrumented hare locations. Individuals of both
species exhibited ovate occupation areas (or approximately 640 acres) which did not
appear to change in size or location from season to season. Of 28 hares instrumented,
six remained active, 14 were lost from radio contact, and eight died from various
causes. Density was estimated from counts made on 4.25 sq. mile drive plots. The
spring (April) and fall (November) counts indicated 33 hares per sq. mile and 93
hares per sq. mile, respectively. Aerial mapping of hare tracks in snow revealed
the greatest hare activity in low shrubby areas with activity gradually diminishing
toward higher open grassy areas. Trapping and telemetry failed to show correlation
between hare distribution and pastures grazed by cattle at light, moderate, and
heavy intensities.

166

Black-tailed (Lepus californicus) and white-tailed (Lepus townsendii) jack-
rabbits play a large role in the utilization of vegetation within the shortgrass
ecosystem. They affect the occurrence, abundance, and distribution of vegetation
within their habitats.

Both hares demonstrated a high degree of preference for certain plant species.
Western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii rhdb.) was the most highly preferred plant
by both species of jackrabbits. Four plant species comprised greater than 50% of
the diets of hares for each season of the year. A total of 83 plant species were
identified in the combined diets, and a total of 120 plant species were found in
the combined habitats of the two species of jackrabbits. Fifteen plant species
were intrinsic to the diets and 15 intrinsic to the habitats of black-tailed jack-
rabbits; 12 plant species were intrinsic to the diets and 10 intrinsic to the habitats
of white-tailed jackrabbits.

169

Demographics of a black-tailed jackrabbit population were studied in Curlew
Valley, Utah. The study area vegetation is classified as northern desert shrub
generally dominated by other Utah juniper or big sagebrush or shadscale or grease-
wood. Other abundant shrubs are blacksage, winterfat, and Nuttall salt sage.

Jackrabbit densities varied between 36-114 per square mile.

131

The study was conducted in Curlew Valley, a dry, lacustrine basin in Box Elder
County, Utah, and Cassia and Oneida Counties, Utah* Most of the valley floor is
a series of steplike benches and is 1,280m. -- 1,585m. in elevation. Vegetation
is of the Northern Desert Shrub formation and the Northern Desert Shrub biome.

Utah juniper, dominant of one of the major vegetation zones, occurs in sparse
to dense stands on the lower mountain slopes and on the upper areas of the central
hills. Big sagebrush., dominant of the second major zone, is generally associated
with juniper in the juniper zone. At elevations immediately below the juniper zone,
it is the single dominant shrubby species growing in sparse to dense stands over
about half the valley. Shadscale dominates the third major zone below the sage-
brush zone. Greasewood forms a fourth major zone in low areas close to ground
water and occurs in about 5-10 percent of the valley.

Jackrabbits occur throughout the year in the big sagebrush and greasewood zones
using them for food and cover. Shadscale is generally only used along ecotones
with the other vegetation types for feeding. Jackrabbits also frequent the juniper
zone where sagebrush is abundant.

The absolute density estimates ranged from 17 rabbits/kro^ in fall of 1967 to
102/km^ in the fall of 1970.

171

Movements of black-tailed jackrabbits in Curlew Valley, Utah were studied in
1963 and 1964. Major vegetation communities were sagebrush (plus spring hopsage,
gray horsebrush, broomweed, and halogeton) and greasewood (with sagebrush and
rabbitbrush) .

Estimated home ranges were less than 35 acres and sometimes as low as 2 acres.
Home ranges were dynamic, changing with a variety of influences.

182

A population of about 600 yellow pine chipmunks was studied in the Cascade
Mountains in central Washington. The study area was a 42.4 acre plot in a yellow
pine forest.

The population in May was 1.54 animals per acre. After the young emerged in
June, it rose to 3.13 per acre in July and August. It then declined to 1.64 per
acre in September and October. The mean for 1947 was 2.26 per acre.

183

Eutamias dorsalis and E^ umbrinus were studied in Nevada. The author found
that in his study area, E^ dorsalis is restricted to the stands of pinon-juniper
where the trees are small and spaced so that there is considerable open ground
between them. _Eh_ umbrinus replaces dorsalis when pinons and junipers become
sufficiently dense that some of the branches interlock. They both occupy the inter-
mediate zone consisting of areas of aspen, rocky ground mixed with stands of pinon

(183)

132

and juniper with interlocking branches. E. umbrlnus also inhabit dense stands of
trees including aspen groves , chokecherry thickets, and, at higher elevations,
forests of mixed conifers.

Both species feed mainly on seeds and berries of trees and shrubs, grasses
and forbs. However, umbrinus is more arboreal than dorsalis , spending a greater
proportion of its time in trees.

202

Richardson's ground squirrel was studied in the Laramie Basin, Wyoming from
August 1966 to March 1969.

Life-form vegetation present on the study area is 2.5% dwarf shrub, 2.0% mixed-
grasses, 75.5% short grasses, 0.5% mixed-shrubs, and 7.5% pormelia lichen. The
species were mostly blue gramma, western wheatgrass, Poa spp. , june grass, needle-
grass, and prickly pear. Rabbitbrush, greasewood, and saltsage were also present.

Density ranged from 1-2 ground squirrels per 12 acres in March to 1 per 2.1
acres in June.

203

A study on tnirteen-lined ground squirrels was conducted on the Laramie Plains
of SE Wyoming from August - October, 1966, March - October, 1967-68, and March -
April 1969.

The area trapped (5.7 acres) bisected the border between a short grass prairie
habitat type and a greasewood habitat type. Chi-square tests indicate the squirrels
use the short grass prairie type significantly more than the greasewood habitat type.

206

A life history and ecological study was made of the Richardson's ground squirrel
in the north central part of Hyde Co., S. Dakota.

The study area consisted of approximately 25 acres of alfalfa and about five
acres of a buffalo-blue- gramma grass association. Both areas contained gravelly
ridges in which the majority of squirrel burrows were located.

The number of ground squirrels found on the 5 acres of prairie grass during
the summer of 1960 averaged 6/acre; in June, 1968, the average was 8/acre. Density
of squirrels on the alfalfa was 1.6/acre in 1960, and was 2.8/acre in 1961.

Other studies quoted in the text reported highest densities on prairie land
(8/acre on prairie land vs 3/acre on cultivated land in S. Alberta) and on mowed
hayfields (30,3 dens/acre vs 2.4 dens/acre in heavily overgrazed pasture).

133

210

Local distribution of Uinta ground squirrels was studied during the spring
and summer of 1964-1967 on 22 acres of land surrounding Utah State's forestry
field station. The center of the study area was 2.6 acres of lawn and roadways;
the remainder was a mixture of field, brush, and forest.

Estimated populations were:

Year // of Individuals (Adult & Yearling)

1964

75

1965

76

1966

110

1967

92

213

A white-tailed prairie dog colony was studied on Hutton Lake Wildlife Refuge,
Albany Co., Wyoming from June 1966 to September, 1968.

Mean prairie dog density on this grass-shrub dominated site was 1.34 prairie
dogs/acre (Range 0.30 - 2.45).

219

The study was conducted in a town located in an area of mixed grasses including
Bouteloua-Schedonnardus-Agropyron , Agropyron-Schedonnardus , and Bromus-Bouteloua .
Other grasses present are Aristida and Andropogon .

Over a three-year period on the 5.2 acre area, prairie dogs declined from
8.5/acre to 4/acre. In the summer of the last year when pups emerged, density
increased to 15/acre. Following this, the town was increased to 7.3 acres, and the
estimated population was 11.2/acre. The mean density for the five periods was 8.9
prairie dogs/acre.

224

Black-tailed and white-tailed prairie dogs in north-central Colorado were
compared in a study made from January 1959 through September 1960.

Black-tailed Prairie dog

The study site is 6.9 acres of relatively flat to gently rolling rangeland
bounded by a marshy area, tall vegetation, lands allowed to revert to tall vegetation
after cultivation some years previously, and by a large unlined irrigation ditch.

The study site was a portion of a larger 35 to 45 acre prairie dog town about 150
yards to the south, separated by an intervening alkali flat. Elevation of the site

134

(224)

is 5,200 feet.

Soils of the site are dark olive-gray or brownish, silty clay loams with
limy accumulations.

The vegetation is primarily short to mid-grasses. Blue grama, buffalo grass,
western wheatgrass, tumble grass, three awn, ring muhly and inland saltgrass pre-
dominate. The most common forbs are pigweed, Russian thistle, and ragweed. The
plants are distributed in a patchy pattern. Average cover was 35%, but varied from
75% on the buffalo grass-blue gramma areas to less than 10% on the alkali flats.

There were 289 burrow entrances (41.9/acre) within the study site. Many of
these were used by prairie dogs only during certain seasons of the year while others
were completely abandoned.

White-tailed Prairie dog

The study site occupied 11.5 acres of gently rolling sagebrush-grass rangeland
bounded by the steep east facing slope of a butte (Delaney Butte) , by a lake
(Delaney Butte Lake), and by a sagebrush-covered ridge. The site is in North Park
at an elevation of 8,200 feet.

Soils of this site are mostly dark heavy clays.

Vegetation consists of three predominant types: Sagebrush, dry meadow, and

irrigated meadow. The sagebrush type is almost pure stands of big sagebrush with
a sparse understory of grasses and forbs. The plant cover in this type varies
from 3 to 15% with an average of 10%. The dry meadow is characterized by extensive
areas of mat muhly and sedges, with local abundances of western wheatgrass, iris,
and silver sage. The plant cover for this type was approximately 60%. The irrigated
meadow was characterized by dense stands of sedges and tuffed hairgrass, with local
abundances of creeping bent, foxtail barley, timothy, aster, knotweed, and pussy
toes. The plant cover for this type averaged 70%.

There were 252 burrow entrances (21.9/acre) within the study area. Many were
used by the prairie dogs only at certain times of the year, and others were completely
abandoned .

Population densities determined by mark-recapture were 2.6/acre for black-
tailed and 1.4/acre for white-tailed during the breeding season. When pups initially
emerged, the average densities increased to the annual maximum (6.3/acre for black-
tailed and 3.4/acre for white-tailed). Because densities were estimates of the
entire study areas, the black-tailed estimates were low. Since black-tailed prairie
dogs did not use their entire study area, but restricted their activities to coteries,
the density during the emergence of the pups was 12.9/acre of occupied area.

Maximum densities of black-tailed prairie dogs was from early spring to late
fall, declining gradually. White-tailed prarire dogs' maximum densities were during
only a short period from emergence of the pups in early June to early July when
the adults became inactive.

135

228

Tassel-eared squirrels were studied in a medium stocked stand of ponderosa
pine on a foothill mesa (elevation 1940m.) west of Boulder, Colorado.

During the spring of 1970 the density of the squirrel population on the 72 ha
study area was 3.33/10 ha. In the fall of that year the population density increased
to 5.56/10 ha. The increase was a product of recruitment of juveniles after the
breeding season.

232

The western fox squirrel occupies 200 miles of the South Platte River drainage
and contiguous irrigated land in northeastern Colorado. This equals 2,400 square
miles of riparian habitat.

Distribution is restricted by the distribution of cottonwood and willow along
streams and ditches and hardwoods in towns. Barley, corn, wheat, and oats constitute
up to 75% of fox squirrels winter diet. Grain farming coincides with the expansion
of this new resident of Colorado. A variety of miscellaneous foods including buds
are also important foods.

233

Studies of Abert squirrels were conducted at the Fort Valley Experimental
Forest and adjacent areas on the Cacomino National Forest near Flagstaff, Arizona
between October 1953 and June 1955.

Elevations of the study area vary from 6,700-8,000 feet. Ponderosa pine is the
dominant tree species, and it is present in varying ages and densities.

The squirrels are found in close association with the cool dry forests of the
interior ponderosa pine type, which are characterized by pure or nearly pure stands
of ponderosa pine. The squirrels have become dependent on ponderosa pine and in
many areas use the trees almost exclusively for both food and cover.

Population densities were compared with those found by other investigators in
the same area in 1941. In the fall of 1953, four squirrels inhabited an 80 acre
area. In 1941 densities averaged 1 squirrel/2 acres in uncut stands. In 1953 and
1954 densities were 1 squirrel/20 acres. In heavily cut-over stands, the densities
were 12 squirrels/ 100 acres in 1941, and in 1954 they were only 1-2/100 acres.

The long-term decrease in squirrel populations is probably a result of logging
and the periodic failure of this species to regenerate.

On the average, squirrels ranged over about 18 acres during summer and 5 acres
in winter.

The squirrels probably find their best habitat in well-stocked all-aged stands.
Under such conditions they have an abundance of seed and inner bark from young,
vigorous, cone-bearing trees.

i

136

238

A study of winter territorality and habitat requirements was done in the Laramie
Range of SE Wyoming.

Study areas were in two lodgepole pine forests and in a hetrogeneous area
containing a mixture of the following vegetation: Lodgepole pine, lodgepole-limber

pine, lodgepole-limber pine-aspen, aspen, and sagebrush.

Densities of nest sites were:

1974- 75 Heterogeneous

LP 1
LP 2

1975- 76 Heterogeneous

LP 1
LP 2

1976- 77 Heterogeneous

LP 1
LP 2

0 . 8/ha

0.8/ha

0 .99/ha

1.12/ha

0.8/ha

1.1/ha

1 . 28/ha

1.12/ha

1.45/ha

Results of the study indicate that red squirrels are able to exist in hetero-
geneous habitats with overall lodgepole pine (the important food source) densities
as low as 226 trees/ha (basal area - 7.6m. 2/ha). Average basal area per tree in
favored sections of the heterogeneous area were 0.034 m but were as low as 0.014m^
in lodgepole forests. Basal area per tree of serotinous cone-bearing lodgepole was
usually up to 30% greater.

Nest sites in the patchy habitat were located in the most dense stands of
lodgepole pine. A^density of 308 trees/ha of serotinous cone-bearing lodgepole
(basal area 17.2 m ) with an average basal area per tree of 0.056m^ was the lowest
record for a territory site in this heterogeneous area. The lowest density for all
fruiting categories of lodgepole was 672 trees/ha and 21.9m^/ha basal area (average
basal area/tree: 0.032m^).

Stands where squirrels established winter territories in all habitats were
in the 10-25 cm class.

246

During a study on Thomomys talpoides on the Wasatch Plateau (9,500-10,500 feet)
in Utah, densities in subalpine areas (herbaceous interspersed with patches of spruce
and fir) were estimated at from 16.3 adults/acre down to 4/acre.

247

Thomomys talpoides were studied on the Wasatch Plateau of Utah. The Plateau
is at 9,500-10,500 feet elevation. The vegetation is subalpine, dominated by
Artemisia discolor, Penstemon rydbergii , Achillea lanulosa , Stipa lettermanni and
Taraxacum officinale . Shrubs and patches of spruce-fir are also present. Gophers
were found only in open, herbaceous or brushy habitat types. Estimated densities
were 33 individuals/acre.

137

272

Perognathus f lavescens appears to be most abundant in very loose, sandy areas
of the short grass prairie on the eastern border of Wyoming

275

In a study of the distribution and variation of the Great Basin pocket mouse
in Utah, habitat preferences were investigated. Perognathus parvus inhabits bench-
lands and lower slopes of mountains at elevations ranging from 4,500 to 6,500 feet
in that state. Sagebrush communities were the preferred vegetation type. Rocky
soils and even areas of boulders and talus slopes are used. They were taken also
in shadscale and rabbitbrush on fine gravelly soil or flats.

285

A study of Peromyscus dif f icilis was made in the vicinity of Owl Creek Canyon,
sixteen miles northwest of Fort Collins, Colorado.

Since mountain mahogany-rock outcroppings showed the largest yeild of dif f icilis ,
a breakdown of the trapping data according to rock types was made to determine if any
one rock type was favored by the mice.

The preferred habitats for P_^ dif f icilis , based on the percentages of trap
localities yielding the species, are mountain mahogany-granitic rock outcroppings
(96.8%) and mountain mahogany-limestone rock outcroppings (100%). Mountain mahogany-
shale proved the next most productive habitat with 80% trap locality success.

Mountain mahogany-sandstone was somewhat less preferred by rock mice in that only
about 53.8% of the trap localities yielded the species.

Granitic rock outcroppings usually were large and broken. Limestone outcroppings
were similarly large and broken. Both types of rock outcroppings provided good
cover for mice. Shales and sandstones were generally less broken and much of the
sandstone was quite smooth. While the common deermouse (P . maniculatus) was taken
on all these sandstone and shale habitats, several of the sandstone locations
yielded no Ik_ dif f icilis .

Rock outcrops per se were not the only factors that limited the distribution of
P . dif f icilis . Most of the closed yellow pine-Douglas fir forests had large out-
croppings of granitic rocks. No P. difficilis were taken in these habitats even
though several of them were adjacent to habitats from which Ik_ difficilis were taken.

Another factor limiting the distribution of P_^_ difficilis is an altitudinal
effect. Rock mice were taken from habitats ranging in elevation from 5,500 feet
to 7,400 feet. At the higher elevations rock mice generally composed only 20-30%
of all Peromyscus trapped. At the lowest elevations, the rock mice generally
composed 70-80% of the Peromyscus trapped. The only other species of Peromyscus
found in the study area was P. maniculatus .

138

287

Habitat affinities of P_. maniculatus were based on the plant community in which
capture was greatest per species. Ninety-nine percent of these mice were trapped in
two communities, both containing woody overstory vegetation and were the driest
stages of the hydrosene succession represented by the six communities.

Table 1. Deer mouse distribution in relation to plant communities in Grand Teton
National Park, Wyoming

Plant Community

No. Mice Caught
(Capture per 100 trap days)

Sedge-Meadow

0(0.0)

Sedge-Grass Meadow

0(0.0)

Shrub- Swamp

0(0.0)

Shrub- Sedge-Grass- Savanna

1(0.1)

Lowland Aspen

33(1.6)

Big Sagebrush

10(0.6)

TOTALS

44(0.4)

289

In Mesa Verde, Peromyscus truei and P^ maniculatus occur together only at the
fringes of the pinyon- juniper woodland, where ecotonal areas provide less than
optimal habitats for both species. Almost all individuals of P. truei occur only
in pinyon- juniper woodland, whereas JL_ maniculatus occurs only in more open habitats
such as grassy meadows and stands of sagebrush.

Pinyon mice were abundant in a variety of associations within the pinyon-
juniper woodland. The highest population densities were in pinyon- juniper woodland
with an understory of mixed shrubs. Pinyon- j uniper woodland having a grass ground
cover and no shrubs supports few mice and this woodland having a Pursha tridentata
understory also supports a few mice.

jP. truei tends to avoid stands of sagebrush or grasslands lacking pinyon or
juniper trees.

Optimum habitat for truei had a rocky floor. Here, shrubs and other plants

are important for food and cover, and the rocks provide additional nesting sites and

cover.

Peromyscus maniculatus prefers open areas having dense stands of grasses or

brushy areas adjoining open terrain. This species lives in stands of big sagebrush,

in grassy areas having an oak-chaparral or mixed-shrub-overstory, and in grasslands
without shrubs. Pure stands of sagebrush do not support large numbers of mice unless
there was additional cover nearby.

P . maniculatus was found in the pinyon- j uniper woodlands in areas of heavy
sagebrush understory or disturbance. This species is the first to colonize areas
that have been burned and invades such areas as soon as primary successional vegetation
becomes established.

(289)

139

It can be stated that in general, I\_ maniculatus is found in the harsher, more
arid habitats. P_^ truei apparently requires the more moderate conditions found in
the piny on- juniper forest.

295

From life history investigations, the author concluded the following are the
most important components of Phenacomys intermedius : Dryness (80%) , proximity to

water (29%), wet habitats (20%), spruce and pine (32%), tree line (23%), grass (16%),
and sagebrush (11%). Percentages are portions of habitat descriptions on which they
were found.

297

It has been assumed that P_. intermedius intermedius was restricted to high,
boreal habitats or Krummholtz ecotones near timberline. The author collected this
subspecies in sagebrush flats at an elevation of 6,700 feet in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
Other habitats where this Phenacomys was collected are along a small stream at the
edge of a spruce-fir forest (7,000 feet) and on a well-drained rocky hillside in a
clearing in the spruce-fir forest (10,000 feet).

310

This paper discusses ecological relationships of microtines in Grand Teton
National Park, Wyoming. The study was conducted in June and July, 1968, and
May-June, 1969. Six lowland plant communities were sampled:

Sedge-meadow (Carex, Aleopecurus , Hordeum) underlain by firm sod covered
with up to several cm. of water.

Sedge-grass meadow (Carex, Agropyra, Bromus , Poa, Agrostis) is slightly elevated
ground rarely covered by water, and with high productivity.

Shrub-swamp £alix , Bromus , Poa, Aster, Calamagrostis , Ranunculus , Castelleja,
Aconitum ) is located on a water table near surface with shrubs over 50% of the
surface.

Shrub-sage, grass savannah ($alix, Bromus , Poa , Aster, Calamagrostis , Ranunculus ,
Castelleja, Aconitum ) - shrubs are less than 50% of the ground cover.

Aspen (Populus , Helianthella, Lupinus) are located adjacent to swamps with
closed tree canopy and moist soils.

Big sagebrush (Artemisia, Purshia, Stipa, Poa , Bromus , Aster , Eriogonuim,
Potentilla) is most widespread and very dry.

The sedge-meadow and sedge-grass meadow were inhabited only by M. montanus .

The big-sage community was occupied only by montanus and pennsylvanicus .

The shrub-swamp contained montanus , M. pennsylvanicus and Clethrionomys gapperi .

All microtines (including longicaudus) studied were taken in aspen and shrub-

(310)

140

sedge-grass savannah.

The closer the plant community to climax, the greater the vole species diversity,
a function of increased habitat diversity. In all six communities, for every
M. montanus taken, 7.5 NL_ pennsylvanicus , 2.5 C gapperi, and 1 longicaudis were
captured

313

Habitat preferences of four species of Microtus were classified in Jackson Hole,
Wyoming in the summers of 1948 and 1949.

H. montanus was the most abundant and the most widespread. It was abundant
in timothy and alpine meadows and occurred in willow-grass-sedge savannah, grass-
sedge meadow, grass-forb meadow, aspen consocies, and alder-willow swamp. It is
least tolerant of extremely dry or wet habitats.

M. pennsylvanicus prefers the lush hydrosere communities in which montanus
is uncommon. It was found in willow-grass-sedge savannah, grass-sedge meadow, and
timothy meadow,

M. richardsoni typically inhabited streamsides in subalpine meadows, but
occurs along these streams at lower elevations.

M. longicaudus was very scarce but found in diverse habitat types: Alder-

willow swamp, forested rocky hillside, and aspen consocies.

314

The objectives of the study were to study relative numbers of M. montanus
and M. Pennsylvanicus in various habitats and attempt to draw conclusions regarding the
composition of preferred habitats.

The results of live trapping are compiled by habitat type:

Table 2. Number of captures per 100 trap-nights of Microtus montanus and Microtus
pennsylvanicus on the nine community types. Calculated = 214.51 and 276.76 for
M. montanus and M. pennsylvanicus, respectively (P< 0.005).

Community

type

Plots

M. montanus

Number per
100 trap-night

M. pennsylvanicus

Number per
s 100 trap-nights

Ratio of
montanus to
pennsylvanicus

Grass-sedge

6

0.22

6.78

1:30.5

Mesic grassland

22

6.10

5.25

1: 0.86

Dry grassland

5

3.93

0.27

1: 0.07

Grass-forb

17

4.86

1.84

1: 0.38

Forb

2

0.33

2.00

1: 6.00

Sagebrush

1

9.00

—

—

Coniferous forest

2

—

—

—

Aspen

2

—

0.67

—

Mountain park

2

3.17

—

(314)

141

The two species were sympatric in 31 of the 52 plots. M. montanus was more
abundant than M. pennsylvanicus in mesic grassland, dry grassland, and grass-forb
communities. In the grass-sedge and forb communities, pennsylvanicus was more-
abundant .

The sagebrush area and the two mountain park communities yielded only M.
montanus in the forested areas, only M. pennsylvanicus was captured.

M. montanus was the most widespread species and the most abundant on 31 of the 59

study plots.

Although both species were caught in 50% of the sampled areas in the grass-
sedge community, M. pennsylvanicus was much more abundant.

In the mesic grassland communities, both species were abundant. In the mesic
grasslands, montanus greatly outnumbered M^_ pennsylvanicus . However, montanus
was less abundant in this community type than on other areas.

M. montanus outnumbered pennsylvanicus in the grass-forb community.

The results indicate that Micro tus is most abundant in grass-like and grass-forb
meadows and is found infrequently or is absent where woody plants predominate.

M. pennsylvanicus was abundant in areas in which grasses and grass-like species made
up at least 50% of the canopy and pennsylvanicus was less common in areas with
less than 50% graminoid coverage. Areas with a graminoid cover ranging from 30-80%
had the highest densities of M. montanus. Areas having ^80% or <30% graminoid
coverage supported smaller populations of FL_ montanus .

Those study plots in which herbaceous standing crops were in excess of 700 g.
per square mile appeared to be most favorable habitats for pennsylvanicus . Those
areas with a biomass of >800 g/m^ and <300 g/m^ had smaller densities of M. Montanus.
M. montanus was most abundant in areas with a biomass of 400-500 g/m^.

Both species demonstrated a positive correlation indicating favorable conditions
in areas dominated by the grasses Bromus marginatus , Dactylis glomerata, and Poa
prat ensis . Microtus montanus was most abundant in areas dominated by Bromus inermis
and Festuca idahoensis, but M_^_ pennsylvanicus was not. Micro tus montanus was uncom-
monly captured in areas dominated by Carex nebraskensis, and pennsylvanicus was
infrequently taken in areas characterized by a dominance of Agropyron spicatum,

Bromus tectorum, and Fectuca idahoensis . When the forb, Medicago sativa, was domi-
nant in an area, both species of Microtus were common. Cirsium arvense was seem-
ingly preferred by M^_ montanus , and those areas characterized by Trifollum repens
was not. Microtus pennsylvanicus was not common in areas in which Taraxacum sp .
was a dominant forb. Both species of Microtus were few on plots characterized by a
subcanopy of shrubs, except possibly areas of Artemisia tridentata, on which M.
montanus was relatively common.

In these areas in which coverage exceeded 85%, M^ pennsy Ivanicus was most
abundant; in areas with <75% coverage, M. pennsylvanicus was uncommon. M. montanus
was most abundant where coverage ranged between 65-100%.

317

The study was done at four alkali lakes and two small ponds on the high Laramie
plains (+ 7000 feet), southwest of Laramie, Albany County, Wyoming.

(317)

142

Four zones of vegetation were present around the shoreline of the lakes.

Scirpus americanus is the most abundant vegetation at the water’s edge, together
with Sal.icornia rubra, Triglochin maritimum. Rum ex fueginus, and Ranunculus cymbalaria .
The second zone is characterized by Carex sp. and Puccinellia airoides. Juncus sp.
is the main plant in the third zone, and the fourth zone is composed mostly of
Distichlis stricta and Rumex maritimus. Further out from the lakes is prairie consist-
ing mainly of Chrysothamnus nauseosus and Bouteloua gracilis . Alkali encrusted
areas near the lakes supports Sarcobatus vermiculatus . Aquatic vegetation present
are Typha latifolia, Scirpus val idus, Scirpus americanus, Eleocharis macro stachya ,
Anacharis sp., Potamogeton vagina tus and Naj as sp.

Muskrat populations within the study area were estimated by muskrat houses and
bank burrows assuming five muskrats per dwelling. The range in the population per
acre in the various lakes varied from 4.5 to 27.5. The estimated total population
in the total area of 77.89 acres was 660 muskrats, or 8.4 per acre.

319

A live-trapping study of the western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps) was con-
ducted in a willow sedge bog adjacent to a montane stream in the Laramie Mountain
Range of southeastern Wyoming.

The population density was estimated at from 0.8/acre (6/66) to 1.8/acre (8/67).
The low June population reflects the population before birth of the young.

320

This study was conducted in the northern part of Jackson Hole Wyoming in Grand
Teton National Park. The elevation of the region is about 6,750 feet.

Habitat affinities were determined by trapping six different plant communities:

1. Sedge meadow community.

2. Sedge-grass meadow community.

3. Shrub-swamp community.

4. Shrub-sedge-grass-savanna community.

5. Aspen community.

6. Big sagebrush community.

The lowland aspen community yielded the highest numbers of captures, and cap-
tures in the shrub-sedge-grass-savanna community were nearly as numerous. The shrub-
swamp and big sagebrush communities yielded considerably lower.

From plant cover measurements in the habitats, it was determined that heavy cover
supported the highest numbers of jumping mice. Few mice were captured in moderate
cover, and no mice were captured in poor cover.

Moderate soil moisture conditions were also found to be important elements of
jumping mouse habitat.

327

The 700 square mile study area is situated in the Curlew and lower Pocatello
Valleys of Utah and Idaho. Sagebrush dominates over half the area with shadscale

(327)

143

and greasewood in the valley bottoms. Juniper dominates the hills and lower ele-
vations of surrounding mountains, and has an understory of sagebrush. About 15%
of the area, mostly in Idaho, is under cultivation. Another 15% is seeded with exotic
grasses for grazing.

An adjusted subjective population estimate, based on Peterson Index and mini-
mum-counts is given below:

Year

Estimat

1966

207

1967

181

1968

168

1969

186

1970

285

Mean

205

351

A state-wide study of red foxes included classification of habitats where
specimens were taken. Altitudes at which foxes were taken ranged from 3500-6500 feet.

Foxes were taken in or at the edge of moist coniferous forests and along moist
willow draws and streamside communities. Others were taken within one or two miles
of the river and the lower reaches of creeks, and to 6 miles from coniferous
forests. Sightings included agricultural areas and woody stream bottoms.

Red foxes apparently use less desirable habitats when they become over-abundant.

353

Unexploited beaver populations in Jackson Hole, Wyoming were investigated from
1974-1976. Beaver abundance on the Snake River and its tributaries within Grand
Teton National Park was 0.9 colonies/km with an average of 5.2 beavers/colony.

Forbs and graminoids constituted 50% of the summer diet. By October, utiliza-
tion had changed to mainly browse (98%) . The author believed browse was used
during the period previous to new growth in spring.

362

Activities of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Yellowstone National Park were
studied from January, 1965, to June, 1967. In general, backcountry and roadside
areas were utilized by two separate populations of black bears.

The southern two-thirds of the backcountry study area was relatively poor black
bear habitat, consisting of lodgepole pine forests. Vegetative understory in the
lodgepole forests generally was sparce. Thus, production of fruits, seeds, grasses
and forbs, which is important for good black bear habitat, was poor. The spruce-
fir forests were heavily utilized all seasons of the year, particularly in spring
and summer. Within this vegetation type forested areas were used more than semi-
open forest types. Mountain parks were important spring foraging areas. In years
of whitebark pine mast crops, this forest type was used from mid-September to mid-
October .

364

144

In 1965 and 1966 a study was conducted In the western part of Yellowstone
National Park utilizing marked animals to obtain population data. Separate black
bear populations existed in roadside and backcountry areas.

Black bear density of the entire backcountry portion of the study area (5800
square miles) indicated a minimum density of 1/20.7 square miles. However, this
density was believed to underestimate the backcountry bear population. Estimated
population in the best bear habitat of the backcountry (30 square miles) yielded
a density of 1/1.4 square miles. Average black bear density in roadside areas on
a linear basis was 1/mile and 1/1.1 square miles on an area basis.

The author states that Jonkel (1960) estimated a density of about 1/0.8
square miles on his study area which was mountainous, with elevations between
4000 to 7000 feet. Jonkel' s area was heavily timbered with spruce and fir and
had some clear cuts, open parks, and burns.

367

The study was done in the Big Creek drainage on the eastern slope of the
Whitefish Range in northern Montana. The drainage is approximately 30 square miles
in area. The study area lies in the spruce-fir zone with Douglas fir and ponderosa
pine and western red cedar occurring on same exposures. Alpine conditions exist on
the highest peaks.

The spruce-fir forests cover about 80% of the drainage. Serai stages comprise
a major portion of this climax association and are very dense stands of either
larch or lodgepole pine.

Open forests constitute 10% of the total area and are either at high elevations
(whitebark pine and spruce) or at low elevations on south-facing slopes (Douglas
fir and/or ponderosa pine) where they occupy steep, rocky slopes.

Open areas comprise less than 10% of the study area. Wet meadows, dry meadows,
snowslide areas, openings along major streams, and artificial openings are the major
types in this category.

The study area is divided into two basic types of habitat. One type meets all
the needs of individual animals and is inhabited year-round. The other provides
supplemental food and cover and is used from mid-July through autumn.

Estimated density on the study area was 1 bear/square mile in 1960 and 1 bear/
0.8 square mile in 1961. The bear density declined to approximately 1 bear/2 square
miles in 1966.

The spruce-fir association was important during all seasons. The other types
were important seasonally: dry meadows in early spring, snowslides and stream

bottoms in early and mid-summer, and open forests in fall.

Greatest movements averaged 1.6 miles for adult females and 3.9 miles for adult
males .

378

145

A study of grizzly bears in Yellowstone Park yielded estimates of 154 in 1959,
169 in 1960, and 166 in 1961. In all three years, a gradual increase in numbers
occurred at Trout Creek where artificial foods were available at refuse dumps.

388

Marten home ranges were studies in a six-square mile study area in Glacier
National Park. Elevations range from 3500 to 4800 feet. Recurrent forest fires
maintain the vegetation in dominant lodgepole pine forests of varying ages. Spruce-
fir, Douglas fir, and western birch-Ponderosa pine communities are present. Open
meadows are scattered throughout.

Mean home range size for males is 0.92 square mile and for females is 0.27 square
mile. Eleven marten lived completely within the study area during winter, although
27 had all or part of their home range within it. Maximum density was 4.4 marten per
square mile and the minimum density was 1.8 marten per square mile during the popula-
tion peak in winter. Densities for the low population during fall were a maximum
of 2.3 marten per square mile and a minimum of 0.5 marten per square mile.

395

A study was designed by the Wildlife Restoration Division of Montana Fish and
Game Department to be set up for a four-year period in an area which presented most
of the problems of fur management. The site was chosen in northwestern Montana,
adjacent to Canada and Glacier Park. The area is about 380,000 acres encompassing
the Whitefish Mountain Range. Fir and spruce are dominant timber types at medium
elevations, and sub-alpine fir is present on the high divides. Extensive burns have
occurred along the north fork of the Flathead River creating opportunities for
lodgepole pine establishment. Topography is varied and occasionally rugged. Eleva-
tion varies from 3500 feet to 8000 feet.

Marten were most common at 4500 feet to 5500 feet, but also used the 4000-
4500 feet and 5500-6500 feet elevation ranges. They confine their activities to the
dense portions of the forest and avoid openings. With few exceptions, marten obser-
vations were of solitary individuals. Marten operate within a given home range,
using different portions at various periods. The species has a home range of about
ten sections.

Red squirrels constitute 35-45 percent of the marten’s diet. Flying squirrels,
red-backed mouse, and snowshoe hare constitute most of the rest of the diet.

401

Report of two Mustela erminea trapped in douglas f ir-maple-chokecherry-rose
habitat (heavy understory of herbaceous plants and grasses in South Willow Creek
Canvon, Stansbury Mountains, Todele County, Montana (elevation 7500 feet).)

404

A mink (Mustela vison) live-trapping program was conducted on the lower Madison
River near Three Forks, Montana, from 1955-1958. The study area is a 5.4 airline-mile
section of the river. Shallow, rapid areas less than 1 foot deep are common on the

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146

river, and depths over 5 feet are rare. The current is relatively swift, and no
streams enter the Madison within the study area.

Dominant trees and shrubs along the main channel include black cottonwood,
firmleaf willow, prickly rose, buckbrush, wild licorice and skunkbrush. Subemer-
gents and emergents are common cattail, common reedgrass, horsetail, American bulrush,
reed-canary grass, American sloughgrass, Nebraska sedge, western waterweed, chara,
ceratophyllus , and smar tweed.

The population within the study area was calculated to be 780 mink in 1957
and 109 in 1958. Home ranges of two adult females were 19.3 acres and 50.4 acres.

408

The study was made in 6 black-tailed prairie dog towns in southwest South
Dakota between April 1966, and September 1967. Five of the towns were on rolling
grassland and one was located on low terraces adjacent to Pine Creek. Vegetation
on these towns was forbs, mid-and short grass species. The towns varied from
15-100 acres in size.

413

A study initiated in 1966 in eastern South Dakota to determine energy utiliza-
tion in badgers. Information was gathered through the collection and examination
of badger digestive tracts. Ground squirrel, mice and rabbits were found to be the
most important mammal food with bird's eggs being eaten only during spring and
summer. Insects were eaten in trace amounts.

Badgers appeared to be able to gain most water requirements from that contained
in their feed.

Ground squirrels were believed to be a major source for fall fat storage.

421

A study was conducted on the western and eastern slopes of Colorado near Canon

City.

The study site used the first season was rough and mountainous, ranging in
elevation from 1600m. to 3000m. Most of the 900km2 study area was above 7000m.

The study site used the second season was 1950km2 of similar terrain.

Both study areas were covered mainly by pinyon-juniper woodlands at the lower
elevations and pine (ponderosa) -Douglas fir at the high elevations.

On the smaller study site in which trapping success was low, the population
estimate was 15-25 mountain lions (36-60 km2/lion) . On the larger study site,
the estimate was 35-65 mountain lions (30-56 km2/lion) .

The following is a summation of results of this and other studies:

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147

Table 3. Recent population estimates of mountain lions from studies

of various western states.

State

Study

area

size

(km2)

Popula-

tion

estimate

Km2

per

lion

Authority

California

450

16-20

23-28.5

Sitton et al . 1976

Arizona

550

16-24

23-34.5

Shaw 1976

Idaho

520

14.6

35.5

Hornocker 1970

Colorado

1950

35-65

30-56

my study (Currier)

Colorado

900

15-25

36-60

my study (Currier)

Nevada

775

7-8

99-111

Ashman 1975

New Mexico

68500

493-636

107-139

Donaldson 1975

Nevada

1800

10-12

150-180

Ashman 1975

Nevada

1675

5-9

186-335

Ashman 1975

423

Studies of mountain lion predation in the Idaho primitive area were conducted

from 1965-1969.

The topography of the 2,000 square mile study area is characterized by high
mountain peaks and ridges dissected by numerous deep, narrow valleys. Major vegeta-
tion types are ponderosa pine zone, Douglas fir zone, spruce-fir zone, and alpine
zone.

Densities for the four-year period were:

Winter

Adult

Males

Adult

Females

Juveniles

Total

1965-66

5

6

7

18

1966-67

4

5

6

15

1967-68

3

6

8

17

1968-69

3

3

7

13

426

148

The study was conducted in the Idaho privitive area in the Salmon River
Mountains. The area is comprised of mountain peaks to 3100m. and deep, narrow
canyons. Ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, spruce-fir and alpine vegetation communities
are the main types in the area.

Capture-recapture census yielded the following results for the 520 km^
study area:

Winter

Adult Adult

Males Females Juveniles Total

1964- 65 5

1965- 66 5

1966- 67 4

1967- 68 4

1968- 69 6

1969- 70 6

1970- 71 3

1971- 72 3

4

6

7

6

4

2

6

4

1

7

4

6

3
1

4

2

10

18

15

16
13

9

13

9

428

Bobcats were studies for 3 years on a 648 km^ area in southeastern Idaho.
The study area was in an area of lava flows, volcanic cones, craters, and caves.
Vegetation was sagebrush-grass.

O

About 35 adults, or 1/18.4 km , used parts of or resided on the study area.
The best bobcat habitat appeared to be in the butte and cave regions and the
poorest in the central region.

435

This study was concerned with the overlapping of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis
candensis) , elk (Cervis canadensis nelsoni) and mule deer (Odoco ileus hemionus
hemionus) . It was thought that the reduction of the bighorn sheep population was
caused by the competition for food by bighorn sheep, elk and mule deer. Capp found
that there is no overlapping of summer ranges between bighorn sheep and elk. The

elk and mule deer do overlap, but there is no problem caused due to the different

food requirement of the elk and mule deer.

437

Observation on distribution of mule deer and elk within this study area indi-
cated that both species possessed fairly well defined summer and winter ranges and

less definite intermediate ranges.

The increased population on winter range areas resulted in winter being the
most critical period for the animals. Only the elk remained aggregated in the
summer .

(437)

149

Migration between summer and winter range was primarily along major drainages
for elk, and although the deer also followed these, they were observed almost every-
where.

Spring migrations are primarily caused by the ''green-up'1, and fall migrations
by snow accumulation and food availability.

Mule deer and elk were found to use the mountain shrub vegetation type most
frequently on a yearlong average. At least six browse species, including big
sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata) , rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.),
antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Saskatoon ser viceberry (Amelanchier
alnifolia) , quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) , and willow (Salix spp.) were used by
both elk and deer during the same season. Desert shrub and aspen types were the
second greatest area of utilization overlap.

438

A study was conducted in Gallatin Canyon, southwestern Montana during January--
March, 1967 to obtain quantitative data on range use, food habits and interspecific
relationships of bighorn sheep, mule deer, and elk. The study area was approxi-
mately 6 miles long by 1 mile wide at an elevation of 5,800 to 7,900 feet. The
vegetation is a complex mosaic of forest, grassland and sagebrush communities found
in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests. Specifically, the vegetation was divided into
five types: bunchgrass, sagebrush, douglas fir, lodgepole pine, and quaking aspen.

The bunchgrass type (bluebunch fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass) occupied 91 acres
(3% of the study area). The sagebrush type, dominated by big sagebrush; Douglas
fir type; and lodgepole forest constituted the majority of the study area. Aspen
was present in small, scattered stands. The minimum number of bighorn sheep using
the winter range was 98 with 31 rams/100 ewe and 57 lambs/100 ewes. Mule deer were
on the study area yearlong, but increased to a conservative 113 in winter. The
winter elk population composed of migrants was 65 animals.

Bighorn sheep, mule deer and elk mostly used the bunchgrass, Douglas fir and
sagebrush vegetation types respectively. Grass and grass-like plants made up 72
and 63 percent of the plants used by bighorn sheep and elk respectively. Browse
made up 62 percent of the plants used by mule deer. Measured utilization of bunch-
grass and sagebrush indicated excessive use of bunchgrass and 53% of sagebrush.

The data indicated some competition between bighorns and mule deer. Competition
between elk and bighorns was slight.

443

A study of range use, food habits, and interspecific relationships of mule
deer (Odoco ileus hemionus) and cattle was conducted in the prairie habitat of north-
central Montana during summer and winter. Among vegetation types, the big sagebrush
and grassland types, combined, received 81 and 99 percent of the use by mule deer
in summer and winter, respectively. Sixty-four percent of the observations of
cattle for the period June-Sept ember occurred on the silver sagebrush type compared
to 31 percent in the grassland type. Both mule deer and cattle used the silver
sagebrush type, which occurred in bottoms of major drainages, during late summer.
Browse plants averaged 43, 81, 60, and 59 percent of total volumes of rumens for
mule deer for summer, fall, winter, and spring, respectively. Yellow sweetclover
(Melilotus officinalis) , snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), rubber rabbitbrush

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150

(Chryso thamnus nauseosus), and creeping juniper ( Juniperus horizontalis) were the
most important items in the diet for the respective seasons. Grass accounted for
67 and 85 percent, respectively, of summer and early fall diets of cattle as
determined from the examination of feeding sites. Forbs, including yellow sweet-
clover, were important during early summer. Evaluation of food habits indicated no
significant forage competition between mule deer and cattle. Reproductive perform-
ance of the deer seemed to verify this conclusion. An average incidence of ovula-
tion of 2.0 and a conception rate of 90 percent were determined for females collected
from January to April.

445

Mule deer were distributed over the entire area. Variation in seasonal distri-
bution reflected differences in food and range-use habits in relation to availability
of preferred forage. Seventy-six relocations of 10 recognizable mule deer over
periods of 1 day to 29 months indicated the mule deer movement was largely restricted
to relatively small home ranges. Relocations of two marked females over 29 months
indicated movement within approximately 300 acres. Relocations of three males to
16, 20, and 21 months of age suggested that males moved more extensively after their
second summer. Elk distributions varied in relation to forage conditions. Sixty-
eight relocations of 13 recognizable elk within periods of 1 day to 4 years showed
average movement of 3.4 miles between relocations, with a maximum of 14.5 miles.

The extreme mobility enabled elk to adjust rapidly to environmental changes and
constantly utilize the most favorable portions of the range. Greatest cattle den-
sities occurred during the Apr il-November grazing season. Use of local areas
varied in relation to forage availability, water supplies, and weather conditions.

500

This study investigated herd characteristics, reproductive biology, movements,
migrations and population dynamics of elk on a 199,661 acre preserve bounded by the
north and south forks of the Sun River, Montana.

Grassland coveres 8,000 acres on the Sun River game range and another 7,000-
8,000 acres in surrounding mountain valleys. This vegetation type consists of
four types: Agropyron-f estuca , Danthonia-f estuca , Stipa-f estuca , and Potentilla

f estuca .

Above the grassland along the east face of the mountains is a transition zone
of limber pine with Agropyron-f estuca type understory.

Timber types on the study area consist of apsen communities, lodgepole pine-
aspen types, lodgepole forests, Douglas fir forests, subalpine forests with closed
canopy (Englemann spruce and alpine fir), and subalpine forests with open canopy
dominated by Englemann spruce and alpine fir.

Other vegetation types are burns, beargrass, forbs, bottoms (riparian) and parks.

Grasslands received the greatest use throughout spring. Winter use of grass-
land varied from 59% to 90%. Timber was used only under exceptionally severe con-
ditions when the grasslands were unavailable. This use was concentrated mainly
in the Douglas fir type. Grasses and grass-like plants were preferred in all
vegetation types throughout winter.

(500)

151

Cow and calf groups were consistently larger than bull groups. Small groups of
2 to 10 animals were most common throughout the year for both sexes. Cow-calf
groups reached the greatest mean size during January, and largest group sizes for
all group classifications were observed in winter. The greatest percentage of
single cows was observed during June.

During the summer, elk were distributed from lower elevation winter ranges to
high summer ranges with highest numbers on the latter. In winter, elk moved down
to the lower winter ranges.

Numbers of elk observed in this study were much higher during winter and
early spring than summer and fall: winter, 26,373; spring, 19,471; summer 5,397;

fall 5,813. Winter production figures from 1955 to 1966 show that the Sun River
elk herd was below standard in comparison with other elk herds (29 calves/100 cows) »

504

A study was conducted from June through September, 1963, and from May through
November, 1964, to obtain quantitative data on the distribution, population status,
social habits, movements, and habitat relationships of the relatively non-migratory
elk (Cervus canadensis) of Jackson Hole Valley, Wyoming. The study area and eight
major vegetation types were described. During 302 trips, 42,237 observations of
elk were recorded. The locations of elk observed indicated two major and two minor
resident population segments. Total population estimates were 1,162 in 1963 and
1,793 in 1964. Classifications of 1,302 elk in 1963 and 1,356 in 1964 indicated
different sex and/or age structures for the two major population segments. Yearling
males and, to a lesser extent, yearling females were disproportionately abundant in
the resident herd. Proportions of adult males in 1964 did not reflect the high
occurrence of yearling males in 1963. Five seasonal periods relative to elk social
habits were recognized on the basis of grouping and association data: June 1-15,

calving; June 16-August 15, aggregation; August 16-September 15, dispersal;

September 16-0ctober 15, breeding; October 16-31, re-aggregation. Movements were
analyzed from 1,240 relocations of 383 marked elk. The percentage of migratory elk
that were associated with resident elk declined from a maximum in May to a minimum
in early July, indicating the period of movement for migratory elk. Among resident
elk, the yearling male group showed the most extensive movements during early sum-
mer. The movements of females with calves and yearling females increased in late
summer while those of yearling males decreased. Average home ranges varied from
3.6 square miles for females with calves to 5.7 square miles for yearling males.

Fall movements suggested that hunting may have been effective in restraining resi-
dent elk within or influencing movements to areas closed to hunting. Sagebrush/
bunchgrass was the most important vegetation type used for feeding during all
months of the study. Food habits were studied from 24,450 instances of plant use
at 172 elk feeding sites. Forbs averaged 65 percent, grasses and grass-like plants
26 percent, and browse 9 percent of the diet for the May-October period. Velvet
lupine (Lupinus leucophyllus) was the most important plant eaten.

534

The vegetation and habitat was dominated by Utah juniper woodlands in rough,
broken, foothills country. The Medicine Lodge and Tensleep areas supported curl-
leaf mounta inmahogany stands and associated big sagebrush/grass communities. The
Twin Creek area supported a mixture of sagebrush, rabbitbrush, forb and grass
stands and isolated antelope bitterbrush patches. Deer movements onto, off of and

(534)

152

within each study area was primarily a function of snow depth and crust conditions,
temperature and appearance of spring regrowth. Browse provided from about 75 to 90
percent of the total winter deer diets. The important browse species were juniper,
mountain mahogany, sagebrush and bitterbrush. Juniper woodlands were important
wintering ranges and should be carefully managed.

54 5

A study of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) winter range was conducted on an area
in western Montana, which had been burned in 1919 and where a shrub vegetation type
developed .

A major part of the study was to describe the vegetation and to determine the
amount of deer utilization. The utilization samples indicate that serviceberry
(Amelanchier alnifolia), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) , snowbush ceanothus
(Ceanothus velutinus) and creeping hollygrape (Mahonia repens) were the primary
browse species (see table 5 and figure 1 for specific data) .

550

A mule deer telemetry study in the Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho from June 1973 to
July 1974 and in November 1974 and January 1975 determined home range size and
range use patterns.

Cover types on winter ranges included Douglas fir (30%), slide rock (23%),
big sagebrush (18%), and limber pine (9.5%). Lodgepole pine, three-tip sagebrush,
alpine, creek bottom, curlleaf mahogany, black sagebrush and meadow types made up
about 20%.

Major creeks flow through canyons. Summer range has gentle, rolling slopes
at higher elevations interspersed with steep slopes.

Home ranges were large in summer, averaging 3.87 and 1.62 square miles for males
and females respectively. Winter home ranges averaged about 0.7 square mile for both
sexes. Home ranges were scattered over a larger area in summer, but were concen-
trated on a smaller area in winter.

573

This study of the ecology and condition of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virg inanus) was conducted on the Missouri River bottomlands in northcentral Montana.
Range use was evaluated from 4,647 field observations of the whitetails. Forty and
33% of summer observations and 22 and 35 percent of fall observations, were made in
hay meadow vegetation type and alfalfa fields, respectively. Forty percent of
winter and 19 percent of spring observations were in the cottonwood type. The weed
type accounted for 26 and 53 percent of winter and spring observations, respectively.
Food habits were evaluated from analysis of 48 rumen samples and examination of 51
feeding sites. Browse averaged 45, 81, 65, and 43 percent of rumen samples for
summer, fall, winter and spring, respectively. Forbes averaged 54, 17, 29, and 18
percent for the same seasons. Grass was present in rumen samples during all seasons
but was a minor item except in spring when its volume averaged 38 percent.

581

153

Food habits of the white-tailed deer in the Black Hills were studied during
the fall and winter of 1966-67, 1967-68 and summer 1967. Stomach analysis and pas-
ture studies were used to determine diet.

Rumen analysis showed Oregon grape to be the most important fall food with
bearberry and common juniper also being important. Rumen samples showed common
juniper and Oregon grape to be the most important food in winter. Forbs were
not important during fall and winter. Utilization of Oregon grape decreased as
snow depth increased with deer opting for common juniper.

Important pasture foods were vetchling, American vetch, serviceberry and bur oak.

Most important food species from 9 summer stomachs were vetchling, serviceberry,
mushrooms, aster and spiraea.

584

This study of the group dynamics of the Wyoming moose (Alces alces shirasi)
during the rutting season revealed a markable increase of their population density
during this period. The areas occupied at this time were noted to be the willow (Salix)
studded flats spotted with aspen (Populus spp.) stands. In the main observation
area of this study, which was an area of about 3 square miles, an average moose
population of 8 to 10 head per square mile was observed.

588

Observations of this study were made in winter months of 1953-54.

Vegetation types, composition and distribution were studied. Available
foods, moose density, and movements were also investigated.

Willow constituted three-quarters of moose winter food items. Alpine fir,
second in importance, made up about 1/10 of the total diet. Chokecherry, service-
berry, aspen, cottonwood, and lodgepole pine made up one percent and twenty other
plant species made up the remainder of the diet.

This study indicated that the population was still about the same as 1952 when
the Wyoming Game and Fish Commission estimate of moose was 600 for the Teton Manage-
ment Unit and 200 moose on the study area.

589

This study, which was done during the winter of 1953-54, was conducted to
determine the winter food habits of moose (Alces alces) in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.

Over 4,000 1/I00th acre sample plots were analyzed; 150 individual moose were tracked,
and browsed vegetation along the tracks recorded, 249 feeding moose were observed. .

Willow was found to be the single item of greatest importance, constituting
3/4 of the winter food taken. Sub-alpine fir was second in importance, making up
about one-tenth of the total diet. Chokecherry, serviceberry, aspen, cottonwood,
and lodgepole pine made up the remainder of the diet.

595

154

This study concerned some aspects of moose (Ale es alces) population with
regards to vegetation type and density. The study was carried out over a three-
year period, from 1958 to 1960, inclusive. The author speculated that the dif-
ferences in data from year to year came as a result of a changing amount of rain-
fall, and its effects on the various vegetation types.

603

This study of behavior and socialization of pronghorn fawns (Antilocapra
americana) reveals that sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is important in the
pronghorn’s diet plus furnishes fawning cover. The height of the sagebrush is prom-
inent in the behavior of the pronghorn. Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) tends to
be selected over other vegetation during parturition.

Mountain mahogany fcer cocarpus ledifolius) is found on the study site on the
lower edges of mountain slopes. It is browsed on by the pronghorns during the
summer and fall months.

605

A study of the food habits, range use, and home range of pronghorn antelope with
emphasis on the winter period was conducted in 1966-67 in central Montana. Charac-
teristic features of the 268 square mile study area are sharply rolling upland
plains, shale slopes and bottomlands. Several creeks flow through the area.

The vegetation of the study area is included in the temperate grassland biome
and the mixed grass prairie association. Eight vegetation types were defined. Crop-
land, abandoned -meadow, and woodland types were of little importance to antelope.
Sagebrush grassland occupied 51.3 percent of the study area; grassland occupied
16.6 percent; shale slope occupied 1.6 percent; greasewood communities comprised
2.8 percent and greasewood-sagebrush covered 14.2 percent.

The highest total count of antelope was 529 in mid-July. During the summer
months, herd classifications yielded the following ratios: 23 males/100 females

and 74 fawns/100 females.

The sagebrush-grassland vegetation type received most of the antelope use.
Sixty-two percent of antelope sightings each month and 71 percent of the winter
sitings were in this vegetation type. The sage-grass and greasewood-sage types
combined provided 80 percent of the sightings each month and 89 percent for the
winter. Little or no use was recorded for the other vegetation types.

Most of the antelope observations were in vegetation types where sagebrush den-
sity was 21-40 plants intercepted per 200 feet of line transect. Sagebrush canopy
coverage in these types ranged from 10-24 percent in winter. Group sizes of antelope
averaged 23 individuals on the sage-grassland, 23 on grassland, 48 on greasewood
communities, 34 on greasewood-sagebrush, and 50 on cropland. The average group size
on all vegetation types was 23.5. Summer group sizes averaged 9.4 individuals.

Groups averaged 8 . 2 on the sage-grasslands, 11 on grassland, 8 on shale slopes,

6 on greasewood, 8 on croplands, and 9 on abandoned meadows.

(605)

155

Shrubs were the most important forage class in antelope diets (78 percent by
volume), with big sagebrush the most preferred. Forbs comprised 19 percent by
volume of antelope diets. Grass was unimportant but eaten during the green-up
periods (22 percent by volume).

Average winter home ranges for five age and sex groups of marked antelopes are
listed in the table:

Group

#

Ave(Acres)

Range

Adult F

6

2841.4

1250.1-3840.0

Yearling F

1

5574.4

Fawn F

3

2417.1

915.2-4691.2

Yearling M

1

4160.0

Fawn M

5

1579.5

723.2-2668.8

The yearling female had the largest home range of all groups, followed by the
yearling male, adult females, fawn females, and fawn males, respectively. Fawn
females had the most variable home ranges, followed by adult females and fawn
males, respectively.

607

The stomachs of 24 pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) were sampled to determine
food content, thus establishing food habits for the pronghorn.

Table 1. Autumn foods of pronghorn antelope in Montana

Species

Sage (Artemisia)

Snakeweed (Gutierrezia)

S nowb er r y (Symphoricarpos)
Salt sage (Atriplex)
Greasewood (Sarcobatus)
Cactus (Opuntia)
Miscellaneous Browse

Total Browse
Miscellaneous weeds

Total weeds

Grass

Frequency

22

7

14

5
1
7

6

17

21

Total Grass

Percentage

51.0

14.3

10.3
1.0
0.8
4.2
5.7

87.4

5.3

5.7

6.7

6.9

Principle food in the diet during the autumn consisted of browse. Sage
(Artemisia tridentata) was the most preferred plant. Snowberry (Symphoricarpos)
and Snakeweed (Gutierrezia) were the next prominent food type. No sample showed
significant grass matter. The grass matter present was mostly Agropyron,

Bout el oua and Bromus tec to rum. Cactus seeds and fleshy spined leaves were found
in seven samples.

611

156

The study is a result of observations and literature research into the prong-
horn's (Antilocapra americana) range throughout the United States. In the late
1800 Ts pronghorns ranged as far east as eastern Iowa and Missouri. The northern
reaches were into southern Canada, and south to Mexico. Pronghorn ranged as far
west as Oregon. During these early times, pronghorn were migratory, having summer
and winter ranges. The decline of the pronghorn was due to humans moving into the
range and the mass killing of the animal during migration from summer to winter
ranges. With the pronghorn 5 s population decreasing, efforts to save the pronghorn
took hold, and states with pronghorn populations enacted hunting seasons and regula-
tions .

614

This study concentrated on the population density of pronghorns (Antilocapra
americana) in determining social organization and behavioral patterns. The study
area had four vegetation types: hay meadows; shortgrass, forbs and cacti; sage-

brush with shortgrass; greasewood and alkaline type plants. The study suggested
that fawn production related more to range yields than to the number of does in
the population. Herd density was highest during mating season. Other times of
the year the herd split into small bands of bucks only and does only. Solitary
incidents of does were noticed prior to fawning and until fawns were capable
of movement. The herd only moved from the study area during harsh winters when
foraging was difficult.

616

The study concentrated on the behavior and ecology of pronghorn (Antilocapra
americana) . The study showed that bucks attempted to acquire territories at 3 to 4
years of age. A territory is a specific area of range that is defended by one male.
The territories have water of some sort and forage is available. Within the
territory is an area where the buck can corner the does. The size of the territory
ranges from 0.23 to 4.34 km^. Forage weights varied from territory to territory.

The home ranges are used, frequently by groups or individual pronghorns. The home
range size is not determined by the study and is not defended. The less frequently
utilized territories have less forage availability.

621

This study concentrated on the compat ability of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)
and domestic sheep on the same range site. During the study, the main diet of the
pronghorn was Douglas rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidif lorus) and big sage (Artemisia
tridentata) . Grasses were the primary diet of the sheep. The pronghorn did use grass
as part of its diet during early spring until the rabbitbrush started to grow. Sheep
and pronghorn both used big sage during the winter months. The study concluded the
pronghorn and domestic sheep are compatable on the same range.

622

The study was concerned with food preferences of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)
and domestic sheep. The only overlap by both the pronghorn and domestic sheep was in
the utilization of big sage (Artemisia tridentata). The overlap was insignificant
due to the large amount of big sage present. The only factor contributing to significant
competition would be if a hard winter hit the area and the big sage was the only food
type available for both species.

638

157

Anderson (1940) conducted intensive studies on goats in Washington where he
found that goats generally browse more than they graze. However, he indicated that
if bunch grasses were available on the winter range these grasses might make up as
much as 90 percent of the goat’s diet.

Cowan (1944) examined the contents of five stomachs collected in the summer and
found that the foods of these goats consisted of 63 percent grasses and sedges, 23
percent willow, and 14 percent herbaceous vegetation.

Harare (1947) studied the winter food habits of mountain goats in western Montana
and found that the heaviest use of browse occurred on chokecherry (Prunus demisea) ,
mountain maple, mountain lover (Pachistima myrsinites) , bearberry (Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi) , rose (Rosa woodsii) , and serviceberry (Amalanchier alnifolia) .

Klein (1953) found that goats in Alaska primarily were grazers. He indicated
that browsing was done primarily during the winter, but even then woody plants made
up only a small percent of the diet.

Probably one of the most extensive food habits studies that has been done was
by Casebeer (1948) in Montana. He considered grasses and forbs as secondary in the
summer food habits of the goat. Shrubs were of primary importance. Grouseberry
(Vaccinium sc opart urn) made up 49 percent of the available vegetation and composed
96 percent of the summer diet. He also found that grasses made up 63 percent and
68 percent, respectively, of the winter forage in the Red Butte area and the
Rattlesnake range.

Water.— Although water is an essential factor, it is generally not considered
to be a limiting factor in the mountain goats9 environment. Snow and snow water close
to '’permanent" snow banks probably furnish most of the goats9 moisture requirements
(Lentfer 1955). Anderson (1940) found that watering places apparently were a
necessity in the goat ranges in Washington and thought that the number and location
of such places limited the summer distribution of goats in some areas.

Salt . — - Mountain goats, like most herbivorous big game animals, exhibit a desire
for mineral salts. These minerals seem to be a necessity in the goats' diet, as
they will travel several miles to salt licks. This propensity for salt is greatest
during spring and early summer and might be the result of insufficient minerals in
new, succulent vegetation. It was found that as few as 20 particles of salt per
million particles of soil attracted goats in some areas of Idaho (Brandborg 1955).

Cover. — During periods of inclement weather, heat of the day, and when bearing
their young, mountain goats seek shelter in caves and under overhanging ledges
(Swift 1940). They usually occupy several caves with various exposures which they
use according to the direction of the rain of snow that is driven by the wind.

640

This study is the result of a 2-year investigation of food habits of the mountain
goat (Oreamnos americanus missoulae), which indicated that grasses and grass-like
plants composed the greater part of the diet throughout the year. Kobresia (Kobresia
bellardi) , Scribner wheatgrass (Agropyron scribneri) , blue grasses (Poa spp.)
clover (Trifolium dasyphyllum and T. manum) and sedge (Carexsp.) were the preferred
plants .

644

158

This study concentrated on the food habits and range use of an introduced mountain
goat (Oreamnos americana missoulae) herd in the Crazy Mountains, Montana, during
1952-1953. The order of importance of vegetative types as feeding was grassy slide-
rock slopes, ridge tops, alpine meadows, timber, and cliffs. The results of this
study indicate that grasses, sedges and rushes were taken more commonly than any other
class of plants during all seasons. Forbs were next in importance in summer and
fall, but third in winter and spring. Coniferous trees were second in winter and
spring, but unimportant in summer and fall. Shrubs, mosses, lichens, and ferns were
minor items throughout the year.

652

The study concerned a bighorn sheep herd started by 38 introduced animals.

The sheep were planted into the East Fork of the Owyhee River drainage in 1963,

1965, and 1966. The area is a high plateau at approximately 5500 feet elevation.

Major streams flow through steep walled canyons up to 400 feet deep. Vegetation is
sage-brush-grassland. By sagebrush and low sagebrush are the dominant shrubs; and
Agropyron spicatum Festuca idahoensis, Poa secunda, Sitanion hystrix and Bromus tec torium
are the abundant grasses. Willow lines the stream banks.

Minimum numbers of sheep on the 50 square mile area were 64 in 1968 and 80 in
1969. The population is expanding at approximately 20 animals per year.

657

A bighorn sheep study was conducted on the northern winter range of Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming from June 1965 to June 1966. Two hundred twenty nine bighorn
sheep wintered on the northern winter range. The ewe to ram ratio was 100:78, the
ewe to lamb ratio was 100:47, and the ewe to yearling ratio was 100:20. Grass
utilization varied from 50 percent on MacMinn Bench to over 80 percent on one key area
on Druid Peak. Browse utilization was over 60 percent throughout the winter range.
Grasses made up 61.4, forbs 17.2, and shrubs 21.5 percent of the bighorn’s diet. The
most important forage plants were bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), Idaho
fescue (Festuca idahoensis), phlox (Phlox sp . ) , Douglas rabbitbrush (Chryso thamnus
viscid if lorus) , and winterfat (Eurotia lanata) . Competition between elk and bighorn
sheep was mild during the study.

658

Bighorn sheep (Ovis c . canadensis) were intensively studies on the northern
Yellowstone winter range during the winter of 1965-66, with additional data gathered
during the following two winters. Censuses showed a stable or slowly increasing
population of about 250 animals. Grass and browse utilization was moderately high.
During the winter of 1965-1966, bighorns ate 61 percent grass, 17 percent forbs, and
22 percent browse. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) was the most common
species in the diet. Snow cover was light that winter, and competition with elk
(Cervus candensis) was slight to moderate.

665

159

With the decreasing herds of buffalo, Yellowstone Park started a protection
and feeding program. This program had allowed the buffalo to increase in number to
the point of damaging their winter range. A feeding program was also against the
park’s main objectives of allowing each species to carry out its own struggle for
existance unaided. Because of these reasons, steps were taken to restore the bison
to a wild state. The management included reduction in herd size and reduction
and cessation of winter feeding. Table 1 (below) shows population numbers as
well as some estimates of Bison from 1877 to 1944.

POPULATION

Reductions (Lamar herd)
by live shipments or

Year

"Lamar” herd
(after reduction)

"Wild" herd

Total

slaughters not ini
in column 2

1877

..

3—400

3--4G01

1800

—

600

6001

—

1888

- —

200

2001

1898

----

50

501

—

1902

21 2

252

462

—

1903

28

__

28

—

1904

41

__

41

—

1905

44

30

74

—

1906

57

—

57

--

1907

61

25

86

—

1908

74

32

106

2

1909

__

--

--

none

1910

121

34

155

1

1911

147

__

147

none

1912

143

— .

143

none

1913

163

— .

163

2

1914

193

__

193

4

1915

239

239

1

1916

276

__

276

9

1917

330

__

330

3

1918

385

— .

385

none

1919

414

—

414

3

1920

440

61

501

6

1921

526

76

602

2

1922

578

69

647

4

1923

672

76

748

10

1924

7 53

—

753

6

1925

764

66

830

103

1926

866

65

931

19

1927

936

72

1,008

27

1928

996

61

1,057

51

1929

1,092

—

1,092

100

1930

1,097

—

1,097

123

1931

1,182

—

1,182

111

1932

1,016

—

1,016

222

1933

i,oooi

— -

l,100l

207

(Continued)

(665)

160

Year

"Lamar" herd
(after reduction)

"Wild" herd

Total

Reductions (Lamar herd)
by live shipments or
slaughters not included
in column 2

1934

9503

1.0501

177

1935

l^OO1

,

1,100!

264

1936

7081

2073

91 51

145

1937

4881

2681

7561

52

1938

5771

2231

800l

25

1939

6001

2273

8271

67

1940

6751

2951

970l

3

1941

7001

3201

1 , 0201

205

1942

6591

3563

1,0151

200

1943

8001

2223

1, 0221

none

1944

3523

3953

7473

400

2,554

^Estimate.

^Counts, to year 1932 inclusive.
3 Count .

Blanks indicate no data

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Vegetation type designations used by the B.L.M. are as follows

Type 01 Grass

011 Shortgrass

012 Mid-grass (bunch)

013 Mid-grass (sod)

021 Wet meadow

022 Dry meadow

Type 03 Forbs

031 Forbs (perennial)

Type 04 Sagebrush

041 Big sagebrush

042 Low sagebrush

043 Black sagebrush

044 Silver sagebrush

045 Rabbitbrush

Type 05 Mountain shrub

056 Serviceberry

057 Bitterbrush

059 Mountain mahogany

Type 06 Conifer

063 Lodgepole pine

Type 07 Waste

071 Brush

Type 08 Barren

081 Dry lake bed
083 Sand dune
087 Other

Type 09 Juniper

092 Juniper

Type 10 Broadleaf trees

101 Aspen-cottonwood
104 Other broadleaf trees

Type 13 Saltbush

131 Shadscale

132 Nuttall saltbush

133 Mat saltbush

Type 14 Greasewood

141 Black greasewood

Type 15 Halfshrub

151 Winterfat
154 Other halfshrub

Type 16 Desert shrub

164 Other desert shrub

Type 18 Annuals

Type 19 Cropland

191 Cropland

Beginning with 100 Individuals, Net No. Produced per Individual in

Turnover No. Produced at Intervals of:* the Population after:3

Rate 10 yrs. 20 yrs . 30 yrs. 40 yrs. 10 yrs . 20 yrs . 30 yrs . 40 yrs.

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