THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

PERMANENCE AND EVOLUTION

PERMANENCE AND EVOLUTION

AN INQUIRY INTO THE
SUPPOSED MUTABILITY OF ANIMAL TYPES

BY

S. E. B. BOUVERIE-PUSEY

LONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., i, PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1882

(The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved?)

PREFACE.

IT may seem almost presumptuous on the
author's part to attempt to reopen once more
the whole question of evolution, especially as
in doing so it is necessary to call in question
the views of so many very eminent men of
science.

At the same time, any one who calls attention
to any neglected facts, or who questions assump-
tions too carelessly allowed to pass muster,
helps to elucidate the subject of which he treats,
and so aids the cause of scientific knowledge,
whether the particular views he propounds are
right or wrong. Bearing this in mind, and
observing, or thinking I observe, that while the

vi Preface.

hypothesis of evolution is almost universally
taken as proved, and while fierce war is waged
over its details, the primary grounds adduced for
its support have been accepted with far too
much facility and too little investigation. I
have, therefore, published some reflections
upon facts within my knowledge, which may
tend to exhibit this important subject in a
new light

I have endeavoured to keep a broad distinc-
tion between evolutionism in general and Dar-
winism in particular. An evolutionist is one
who believes it to be scientifically demonstrable,
or at any rate to be much the most probable
hypothesis, that living types originate by de-
velopment the one out of the other, under the
influence of agencies at work now, and which
we are capable of knowing now, or may expect
to know in a reasonable time. A Darwinian,
in addition to this, believes that the sole or
principal agency by which living types are

Preface. vii

evolved, is natural selection, or the survival of
the fittest (that is, the presence of a general
tendency to vary indefinitely, coupled with the
gradual accumulation and intensification of such
variations as happened to be favourable to the
organism), either coupled or not with sexual
selection.

The hypothesis of evolution in general, and
the special Darwinian form of it, stand on very
different bases, and require very different modes
of treatment. It is the object of this work to
show, that while Darwinism proper is impro-
bable, evolutionism in any form is as yet un-
proved ; while, on the other hand, the more we
investigate the facts of inheritance, the more we
are compelled to regard differences so slight,
that they would usually be considered casual
variations, as within the limits of our existing
knowledge strictly permanent.

The animal kingdom only is spoken of in this
treatise, as I have no knowledge of plants. The

viii Preface.

most superficial acquaintance with the frequent
sports and new varieties of cultivated flowers,
etc., is enough to show that vegetables exhibit
an amount of variability far greater than any-
thing we have any reason to believe existing
among animals ; yet I cannot but think that,
mutatis mutandis, the general principles which
in the ensuing pages I attempt to trace out, will
be found applicable to the whole of organised
nature.

What I am endeavouring to establish is not
the assertion or negation of any particular
views as to the origin of organic races, but on
the contrary the conviction that the whole
matter is beyond our present ken. But if I
were asked in what way the subject could
be brought within the area of possible science,
I should say that two things must be done.

The first, and by far the easiest, of these
tasks is to find out by careful experiment
v/hat changes really can be produced in a

Preface. ix

pure strain, and how, in the same way as we
have ascertained the behaviour of chemical
elements and compounds. This requires trouble
and patience — little more.

The next requisite, of even greater importance,
is vastly more difficult to obtain, for it involves
some knowledge on our part of the mode
of action, if not of the nature, of the forces by
which the formation and precise arrangement
of the several parts of the mechanism of an
organism are determined, as well as of those
laws under the influence of which one creature,
say, is caused to be of one colour, while another,
in other respects very closely allied, has a
different colour imposed upon its correspond-
ing textures, and so with regard to other
characters.

Until such knowledge is obtained, it is difficult
to see how any intelligent conception of the
relative importance of the various zoological
characters of living forms can be reached.

x Preface.

We are scarcely on the threshold of such
knowledge at present, and as long as this is
so, I confess it seems to me little more than
beating the air to throw out conjectures as
to the origin of organic races.

PERMANENCE AND EVOLUTION.

INTRODUCTION.

THE notion of genus and species in the animal
kingdom originates with Linnaeus, as also does
that of unity of descent as connected with the
latter. I think he was brought to this doctrine
by considerations of a dogmatic kind. Linnaeus,
who was an orthodox Lutheran, finding in
Genesis that all living beings were created after
their kind, and finding elsewhere in Scripture
that all races of men sprang from one pair,
presumed that all animal types logically equiva-
lent to the types of man, also sprang from one
stock. But gradually, where Linnaeus had seen

B

2 Permanence and Evolution.

only identity, subsequent investigators saw unity
in diversity. It was soon found out that where
Linnaeus only saw the pheasant there were
many permanent types of pheasant, and gradually
it was doubted if all domestic animals bearing
the same name originated from one stock, and
the same doubt was extended to the races of
man.

At first these doubts only attached them-
selves to the better marked breeds of domestic
animals and the principal races of men, but
the authors of " Types of Mankind " saw
that, e.g., the fair and dark races of Europe
were equally permanent with the Negro or the
Hottentot, and Agassiz maintained that men
were created in nations.

Meanwhile these views were partially applied
by Broca (articles in " Journal de la Physiologic
de 1'Homme et des Animaux "), Brent (" Pigeon
Book," &c.), from the point of view of a prac-
tical breeder, and the Rev. T. Dixon (" Orna-

Permanence and Evohttion. 3

mental and Domestic Poultry and Dovecot and
Aviary"). This gradual development of opinion
in the direction of a more and more thorough
polygenism seems to me to be right, at any
rate provisionally, during our present state of
knowledge, or rather ignorance. Further in-
vestigation would no doubt have led to an
increasing and still increasing recognition of
distinct permanent forms, if it had not been
that none of these investigators had a clear
idea of what is really meant when breeders are
said to improve or alter a breed.

While public opinion was in this state, Dar-
win's " Origin of Species," and the simultaneous
labours of Wallace, took the scientific world
practically by storm. Since then (with the
exception of the remarkable protests of Sanson,
"Zootechnie Econome du Betail," as a poly-
genist, and of Wigand of Marburg, "Darwin-
ismus," virtually as an adherent of the old
notion of limited variability), though not all

4 Permanence and Evolution.

naturalists have been strict Darwinians, yet
nearly all have been evolutionists of some
kind or other ; they have all believed that
species, genera, and larger divisions originated
the one from the other, by the agency of known
causes acting now, which is the main point.
A man who fancies that they were trans-
muted through causes not now in operation,
is not a real evolutionist, but an advocate of
permanence, who, to his scientific belief in per-
manence, chooses to join an odd cosmogonical
guess, avowedly outside the limits of induction.
While these new evolutionists are really the
extreme opposite of the American polygenist
school which immediately preceded them, in
some important respects they have an odd
agreement, so that many (Broca, Vogt "Lec-
tures on man," Ed. Hunt, Blyth, " Annals and
Magazine of Natural History " * — " Land and
Water," f early volumes) passed from one to the

* First Series, vol. xix. p. 102. t Vol. ii. p. no.

Permanence and Evolution. 5

other. They both agree that what are called
varieties and species differ in degree only ; but
one school made varieties lesser species, the
other made species (not to say higher divisions)
only better marked varieties. They both had
the tendency in common to oppose the con-
fused and conventional notion of species (though
Darwin is reduced by the necessities of his
argument, while in general making the dis-
tinction appear small, when he wishes to prove
that pigeons or fowls are not derived from
several stocks, with great inconsistency to build
up the very distinction he has before been
pulling down). Still, in general, the two agree
in that, and whatever else becomes of Darwin's
labours, the conventional notion of species,
which includes together all domestic cattle and
all human beings, and at the same time sepa-
rates the wolf from the jackal, can never be
built up again.

In fact, the conventional idea of species

6 Permanence and Evolution.

is the antipodes of a clear idea, combining,
as it does, the notions of origin from one
stock, real or possible ; existence as distinct
races in a wild state, even in separate areas ;
fertile reproduction inter se, breeding together
naturally, without human interference, and a
certain undetermined degree of likeness. That
these things go together is taken for granted,
hence interminable debates as to whether any
given races of animals are distinct species,
or only varieties of one species. It is often
brought forward as proof of the specific unity
of two animal forms, that when crossed they
produce perfectly fertile offspring. Now if we
adopt the definition of species founded on fertile
interbreeding, this is tautology ; if any other,
it is an unproved assumption on a subject of
which we can know nothing except from ex-
perience. There is no reason why there should
not exist in nature any number of original races
differing in all manner of degrees, and capable

Permanence and Evolution. 7

of producing crosses of all grades of fertility,
from zero to perfect productiveness. It is owing
in great measure to the element of descent in
the conception of species that an importance is
attached to it different in kind from that be-
longing to the conceptions of family, order, etc. ;
species represents, it is said, a matter of fact,
the others are only arranged as a question of
convenience. Going on this principle, and no
rule being known for determining what differ-
ences are permanent and what not, when
dealing with wild animals, every, or almost
every, distinguishable race has been put down
as specifically distinct (A sinus onager and Hemip-
pus for example), and when dealing with
domestic animals, races are placed as of one
species, which, if wild, would have had no
chance of being so placed (the European and
Indian cow for example).

It is to the credit of the evolutionists to
have done much to end this state of things ;

8 Permanence and Evolution.

to have pointed out, for instance, that the
existence on the two sides of Behring's Straits
of the American and Old World forms of fox,
and the American and Old World forms of
wolf, are to all appearance facts of the same
kind. But a clear and firm conception of this
is just as consistent with a tendency to make
stricter as to make looser our notions of per-
manence of type. There is no difficulty in
believing that at the first formation of animals
there existed independently, not only what we
happen to call distinct species, but also sub-
breeds, and strains still more faintly charac-
terised.

It may be taken as generally known and
admitted, that the power to produce fertile
hybrids often does not run in close conformity
with morphological affinity. The causes of
sterility are in the present state of our know-
ledge very obscure. We know that some fertile
individuals of the same species are incapable of

Permanence and Evolution. 9

breeding with one another, as Darwin points
out (" Origin of Species," Edition IV., p. 302, et
seq.\ It is, then, rash to feel sure that the
difference between races which will not cross, not
only so as to produce sterile offspring, is deeper
or more fundamental than that between some
which produce fertile crosses, for it may be that
it only happens to affect the reproductive
system and not any other part of the organism.
Even granting it is more fundamental, it does
not follow that permanence of type is less
absolute in the one case than in the other.
Most of the disputes there have been as to the
specific unity of different animals arise out of
the appropriation of parts of the definition of
species by naturalists, who have ignored the
remaining parts.

For instance, when De Blainville (" Os-
teographie") found that the differences be-
tween the several Eastern forms of wild hog
were small compared with what he was ac-

io Permanence and Evolution.

customed to find between forms classed as
species, he forthwith made them one species,
taking the purely morphological ground of
determination founded on a certain unde-
termined degree of likeness. Thereupon he
supposed those Eastern races to be of one
origin, and the descendants of escaped domestic
pigs. So the eminent anatomist John Hunter
supposed the dog, the wolf, and the jackal to be
necessarily descended from one stock, because
the dog would breed with both the other two, and
the offspring would breed again with the dog ;
whilst, on the other hand, the so-called splitters
start from some other point in the definition of
species, as distinct existence in a wild state, for
example, and sink the morphological side of the
notion altogether, and with it the aesthetic
symmetry of a natural system. In disquisitions
as to the specific unity of domestic breeds,
species means little more than wild stock.

I think it would be best, in the present imper-

Permanence and Evolution. n

feet state of knowledge, to drop altogether the
use of a word which has become so pretentiously
indefinite, and which savours so much of the
empty and misleading abstractions of the school-
men, and to limit ourselves to facts known or
ascertainable — to speak of races, breeds, or
forms, and to ascertain directly or by analogy
the permanence or impermanence of each
separate breed or of each particular character,
with as little importation of doubtful and ex-
traneous consideration as possible.*

* So Huxley, Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1880, p. 286.
" As for species no one zoologist has ever yet agreed with the
estimate of another as to what should be considered species,
and what local varieties among Wolves and Foxes ; and as there
is no criterion by which the question can be decided, it is
probable that such agreement can never be attained. The sug-
gestion that it may be as well to give up the attempt to define
species, and to content oneself with recording the varieties of
pelage and stature which accompany a definable type of skeletal
and dental structure in the geographical district in which the
latter is indigenous, may be regarded as revolutionary; but I
am inclined to think that sooner or later we shall have to adopt it."

12 Permanence and Evolution.

DARWIN AND LYELL: COMPARISON
AND CONTRAST.

THERE is a great difference in kind between
Lyell's hypothesis (if hypothesis it can be called)
of the unity of past and existing geological
causes and the hypothesis of evolution. The
former has to do almost entirely with mechanical
motion, and the causes producing change are,
in the case of aqueous agents, exactly — in the
case of igneous, approximately known. In the
other case, both effects and causes are infinitely
complicated and ill-understood. There is a
great fallacy in putting things quantitatively,
which are in truth matters of kind. It is said
that species differ far more than varieties and
varieties than family strains, and that this
greater difference is the result of lapse of time ;

Permanence and Evolution. 13

but genera, if properly established, will be found
to differ not only more than species, but in
different respects (see Wigand, Vol. I.), and
so species as compared with varieties, if the
distinction can be maintained. Each case must
stand by itself. The burden of proof must
always lie on the asserter of mutability, for the
permanence of the forms of organised nature
that which is first impressed upon the casual
observer, and that which additional inspection
only serves more and more thoroughly to
demonstrate. Granting that it is proved that
colour can vary independently of reversion,
this proves nothing as to the shape of the limbs
nor that last as to the dental formula.

Darwin says that some authors have asserted
that an important part never varies, and that
the same authors rank only such parts as
important as never vary ; but even so there
would be no arguing in a circle, for at any
rate we should be told that there were some

14 Permanence and Evolution.

parts which never vary, that variation has
its limits. But this is not at all the whole
of what is probably meant. In the first
place, we must not consider only or mainly
the points of the topography of the organic
system in which differences may happen to be
located, but also much more the nature of the
differences themselves, just as in some diseases
it is only the unscientific who classify them
according to the parts of the organism which
they may attack, e.g., all eye diseases, all affec-
tions of the chest, etc. Secondly, such dis-
tinctions are important as go along with and
serve as an index to pervading differences
running through the whole system, e.g., differ-
ences hi the dental formula ; those on the other
hand are unimportant which exist between
forms in all other respects identical or nearly
so, e.g., differences in colour. Granting, then,
that natural selection with spontaneous variation
could within the period of history develop out

Permanence and Evolution. 15

of the rock dove a fantail, I do not see how we
are any nearer the conclusion that in ten times or
a hundred times that period, these causes would
develop the Goura pigeon ; granting that, that
a millionfold as much time would evolve any
of the true Gallinaceae. Lyell only pointed out
that if a given cause elevated the bed of the
sea a foot in a century, the same cause con-
tinuing a million years would elevate it 10,000
feet. If we suppose the case to be strictly
parallel, we must suppose that as selection,
natural or methodical, has in 200 years
lengthened the carrier pigeon's bill half an inch,
so in 800 it might be lengthened two inches
and so on. Whatever we may think of this
argument, at any rate the thing known and the
thing supposed are analogous in kind ; but if
we, knowing only that the bill could be
lengthened, presumed with no other evidence
that its colour could be altered, we should be
really cutting loose from experience altogether.

1 6 Permanence and Evolution.

To give an instance. The European cow and
the humped cow differ according to Blyth (cited
Darwin, "Animals and Plants," vol. i. p. 79)
in the shape of their ears, in the point where the
dewlap commences, in the typical curvature of
their horns, etc., and in the one being born with
teeth protruding through the jaws, the other not
so ; not to mention the presence or absence of
a hump and important osteological differences
mentioned by Riitimeyer (genus Bos). From
these reasons, Darwin conceives that they must
have originated from separate wild stocks ; but
yet of course, in accordance with his funda-
mental hypothesis, supposes that at some period
they diverged from one original form. But I
do not see how in this case the supposition of
more time is of any use. If we knew that these
characters were producible in a small degree,
there would be some sense in the supposition
that in a sufficient length of time they might
be increased to a vast extent But as we have

Permanence and Evolution. 17

no evidence that they vary in any degree, either
in cattle or in any other animals, I do not see
of what use immense periods of time would be
to the theorist. Darwin in one place (" Animals
and Plants," p. 233) seems conscious of this,
and says that it has been objected that the
differences between domestic pigeons can throw
no light upon those between wild Columbae,
because they do not differ in the same respects ;
to which he replies that man would only select
such differences as were externally conspicuous.
But, if so, where is the positive evidence of the
other modifications being producible ? I do not
well see how we can have any, and therefore in
those cases the general presumption of perma-
nence must prevail. There is also perhaps no
reason why granting natural races to be modi-
fiable at all, they should all be modifiable
in exactly the same degree.

Another question here suggests itself. When
we are dealing with the gradual upheaval

C

1 8 Permanence and Evolution.

of land from sea, we do not scruple to
suppose slow processes of rise or fall, which
we know to have gone on for hundreds of
years, to have gone on for thousands or
millions ; but it is doubtful whether we may
make an analogous supposition as to living
organisms. We are only justified in going be-
yond the naked results of experience when we
understand the laws by which the part of nature
we are dealing with is regulated. Now this we
know, speaking generally in proportion to the
degree to which these laws are simple. But
nothing in nature is regulated by such a
complex of little known laws as a living
organism ; therefore, it is much less safe to
travel beyond the mere data of experience here
than in any other departments of nature, which
are simple and better known. No one who was
employed in sawing through a granite column,
and who found that he got through an inch in
a month, would doubt the possibility of his

Permanence and Evohttion, 19

getting through a foot in a year ; but we should
think rather ill of a physician who, finding that
a patient who when he first came to him could
only walk two miles an hour, at the end of six
months could walk four miles, should presume
that at the end of a year his patient would be
equal to eight miles per hour, and at the end of
two years to sixteen miles.

A living organism is more like a machine
than like anything else we know of, and we
know that machines can be played tricks with
in certain respects up to a certain degree, and
yet continue to go on working ; while in other
respects, and to more than a certain point in
any respect, they totally refuse to be interfered
with. It seems then that the principles we
ought to go upon in discussing evolution are
these :—

First, to find out by carefully recorded and
sifted experience what characters, if any, are
liable to variation, and in what respects, care

2O Permanence and Evolution.

being taken to eliminate the effects of rever-
sion.

Secondly, when these are found, we may to a
certain extent generalise so far as to suppose in
the same or closely allied natural groups the
possibility of a moderately greater amount of
change through the same causes acting through
longer periods. As to all beyond, we must
suppose permanence to prevail, having no reason
to think the contrary. Our instances must
naturally be sought almost entirely among
domestic animals.

In one chapter of Darwin's "Domestic Animals
and Cultivated Plants," he enunciates truths
which tend to the overthrow of his whole hypo-
thesis. I mean those in which he speaks of the
power of inheritance, and especially calls atten-
tion to the fact that characters can be " fixed,"
as for instance when (Vol. II. p. 24, Edition II.)
he says that no character is more fleeting than
colour, especially in the horse, but that it

Permanence and Evolution. 21

appears that with careful selection fixed races
of uniform colour may be formed. What is this
but to say that colour in the horse is not fleeting
but permanent, and that if it appears otherwise,
the cause lies in the absence of selection, i.e.y in
intermixture. We must take care not to be
deceived by words ; there are in nature per-
manent races so much alike that they intermix
naturally when found on the same area ; for the
breeding together of these we have no name,
breeding them apart we call applying selection.
There are other races somewhat more distinct
which only breed together when secluded from
their own immediate kind ; for the separate
breeding of these we have no name, but their
commixed breeding we call crossing. Another
fallacy of language consists in giving an inde-
pendent existence to abstractions, as in saying,
"the horse is very variable, the ass less so,"
which means the type we call horse exists con-
joined with much more diversity than the type

22 Permanence and Evolution.

ass. The facts of inheritance are so well known,
and those of reversion so well established, that
we are entitled, or rather compelled, to treat
any case of apparent non-inheritance as due to
reversion till the contrary be clearly shown.

. To obtain absolute demonstration on this point
is probably impossible. It is only of a few
privileged animals that pedigrees are kept ; and
there is no certainty exactly how far reversion
may operate, but if we find that most characters
of animals are accounted for by direct inherit-
ance, that of the remainder, a large proportion,
can be immediately shown to be the result of
reversion, and that in proportion as the circum-
stances are more distinctly known, this more
and more appears to be the case, we are justified
in presuming that inheritance is at all events
at present within the sphere of our knowledge
absolute, and that the small residuum of in-
stances which we cannot resolve is due to our
ignorance or mistake. For it can never be

Permanence and Evolution. 23

enough repeated, the real question between the
adherent of evolution and the opponent of such
views, is not properly whether organic races
were evolved out of other organic races, or out
of some other form of matter, or produced in
some other way, but whether or no organic
races were produced by means we can under-
stand or make familiar to us with our present
knowledge.

I do not say that existing races. were not
evolved out of a smaller number of forms,
but feel sure that (if they were) some agency
was at work which is either not at work now,
or else carefully conceals itself from view;
and I feel also individually convinced that
nobody knows anything, or is likely soon to
know anything, as to the mode of their produc-
tion. If I am asked whether this implies that
the production of living races is for ever beyond
the ken of science, I answer by no means, for
the motions of the heavenly bodies were equally

24 Permanence and Evolution.

inexplicable before Newton and his immediate
forerunners. But as it was the duty of a scien-
tific man to maintain the unfoundedness of the
Cartesian vortices and similar pseudo-explana-
tions, based on loose analogies and on no real
evidence, though himself unable to explain the
facts, or even in any way to contribute to or
forsee their explanation, so in my opinion is it
with Darwinism, etc., now.

Of other forms of evolutionism I can hardly
speak so much, as they scarcely even profess
to be scientific hypotheses or more than
loose conjectures. Lyell's resolution of past
geological phenomena into the effects of ex-
isting causes, has often been supposed to
afford a parallel to the doctrines of modern
evolutionists, but the things are different, not
to say extremely opposite. Lyell collected
with great care a vast number of instances
of the actual operations of aqueous and igneous
causes, all carefully and accurately recorded

Permanence and Evolution. 25

and investigated, and depending for the most
part on perfectly well known mechanical laws,
entirely expressible in terms of more or less ;
and he proved, or rather he pointed out, that
only suppose these operations to have gone
on long enough, they must have produced
appearances similar to those we see in the
earth's crust. Here, then, was nothing which
was not clear, closely reasoned, and scientific.
How different when the matters spoken of are,
as I showed before, not properly quantitative,
and still more when the modern changes ad-
duced are entirely conjectural. In science we
have nothing to do with what is probable as a
basis ; we may form hypotheses as guides for
investigation, or to group together instances,
but our bases must be proved facts. One man's
probable is another man's improbable.

Lyell no doubt at times used incautious
language, as if the supposition of causes having
acted at one time of the world's life, and not

26 Permanence and Evolution.

at another, was in itself anti-scientific, a view
hardly reconcilable with present astronomy ;
for the doctrine of the secular cooling of the
solar system seems to imply an absolute be-
ginning of force, in kind differing from any-
thing we know to exist now. But there is
nothing unscientific in saying, " Here is evidence
of a cause not now in operation as far as we
know," provided we do not attempt to define
this cause except negatively. It is merely a
question of evidence. The reason why the
causes assigned by sixteenth century cosmo-
gonists for the origin, e.g., of fossils, " stellar in-
fluence," " a fatty matter," " a lapidifying juice,"
were absurd, was not only or mainly because
they were supposed to operate formerly and not
now, but because they were themselves vague
and assumed without evidence. The cosmo-
gonists would not have made their case much
better by maintaining that the lapidifying juice
or the like, were making shells at the present
day also.

Permanence and Evolution. 27

The agency, whatever it is, by which species,
varieties, etc., were formed, seems to have
been at work on this planet up to and during
the immediately post-tertiary period, and not
later, as far as we have grounds to believe.
Of what nature it was, what laws it followed,
why its manifestations have not been apparent
of late, whether it will ever wake up again, are
matters about which we know as little as about
whether its operations are limited to this planet,
or extend through any or all of the other globes
in the universe. The whole matter lies far
beyond our present ken.

Now> speaking with only slight exaggera-
tion, we may say that no facts have been
alleged in favour of the origination of new
specific or race characters at the present day.
I do not mean only that no such instance has
been proved. • I say almost none has been
alleged. It has been said that there are these
and the other domestic breeds, and that it is

28 Permanence and Evohition.

unlikely that if they existed in a wild state
they should have been exterminated ; that
such and such animals have been in such and
such ways modified by transportation to America
— that is, that some observer has seen races in
America which he does not know how to parallel ;
that "the climate of the Moluccas appears to
cause the duck to vary to a remarkable extent,"
which means that in the Moluccas are found a
remarkable number of races of duck ; that such
and such characters are variable in such and
such breeds ; that is, that strains otherwise alike
exist differing in these respects. What is wanted
is evidence that at such and such a date of such
and such a strain kept so as to eliminate rever-
sion, were born offspring exhibiting such and
such new characters. Bearing in mind these
principles, I will attempt, at the risk of some
repetition, to go through the portions of Darwin's
work referring to each of our principal domestic
animals.

Permanence and Evolution. 29

THE DOG.

It is admitted by Darwin that the dog has
in all probability descended from more than one
wild stock. In many countries the dogs are
indistinguishable from the wolves or other wild
canines — dogs are often kept by savages who
have no other domestic animals ; many wild
canines are very tameable, and no argument can
be drawn from the alleged sterility of hybrid
wolf-dogs kept in close confinement. But
besides these there are other breeds, the most
common in Europe, very distinct from any
known wild animal. Darwin says that they are
" unnatural forms," and that " no one has been
bold enough to maintain that they existed in
a state of nature ; " but seeing how true they
breed, I do not see why the principal and best
marked (the greyhound, the mastiff, the terrier,
the spaniel, etc.) should not have so existed,
and the others have been formed by crossing

3o Permanence and Evolution.

between them, and very likely the principal
races may have existed ab initio in various sub-
races.

It is said that in the last century " an entirely
new foxhound was raised," but it is added
"it is believed that this was done by a cross
with the greyhound." An able writer believes
that English greyhounds are the improved
descendants of Scotch ; 'the pointer also is
supposed to have come from Spain, and is not
like any dog found there now. Not much can
be inferred from these facts and suppositions.
Some breeds are said to have been improved by
simple selection ; later on we shall have a better
opportunity of inquiring the meaning of this.
It is said that European dogs in India uncrossed
grow like the native cur, chiefly it appears in
being lanky, but as it is also said that they will
not continue to live and breed there, it appears
that the phenomena are really those of un-
healthiness.

Permanence and Evolution. 31

THE CAT.

About the cat also there is little to be said.
There are a multitude of small wild felines with
which the tame cat will breed, and there are
tame cats sometimes said to be very closely
similar to them (in India it is said there are
some indistinguishable from F. torquata). In
different countries there are markedly different
breeds of cats, but in the same country we find
no well marked breeds, only "a considerable
amount of fluctuating variability ; " the explana-
tion is that indiscriminate crossing cannot easily
be prevented. Very true, if selection could have
been applied we should have had many distinct
breeds, i.e., if cats did not habitually cross, their
offspring would resemble the parents. In Para-
guay, according to Rengger (Saugethiere von
Paraguay, p. 42, et seq.), the cat, which has been
bred there for 300 years, presents a striking
difference from the European cat, which must

32 Permanence and Evolution.

mean from any Rengger happened to know.
In New Zealand the feral cats assume a streaky
grey colour like that of wild cats. This is one
of the commonest colours in the tame cat
Where is the evidence that their colour was ever
anything else ?

THE HORSE.

Very little need be said about this animal, of
whose wild origin little is known. There are
a great number of breeds and sub-breeds, which
reproduce their like with remarkable persistency,
even colour, as Darwin remarks, being trans-
mitted with great accuracy ; and we see that
several races of wild horses exist in various
parts of the world, which have been supposed to
be feral, but may just as easily be truly wild. I
see therefore no ground for saying with Darwin,
that few will agree with Colonel Hamilton
Smith ("Naturalist's Library") in maintaining
that the horse has proceeded from five different

Permanence and Evolution. 33

stocks. I do not see why there may not have
been a great many more. I will only say a
few words on the way in which Darwin tries to
prove that all horses have descended from one
dun-striped stock.

It appears that the Norwegian pony, a Bur-
mese breed of pony called the Shan, and the
lanky Kattywar race in India, are all often
or predominantly dun-striped ; besides, this
dun-striped colour has been noticed in in-
dividuals of various breeds such as heavy cart
horses, light South American horses, Welsh and
Devon ponies, etc. Darwin asks whether it is
likely that such different breeds living in dif-
ferent quarters of the globe should all have
been crossed by any one aboriginal dun stock,
and says that it is unlikely that the effects of
a cross at a remote period could be transmitted
through so many generations. With regard to
the breeds which are predominantly dun-striped,
these no doubt, however different in other

I)

34 Permanence and Evolution.

respects, were dun-striped from the beginning ;
as to the other cases, nothing is known of the
individuals in question, so there is no reason
to suppose the cross by which their colour was
acquired to have been remote ; this is not the
only instance in which Darwin speaks of breeds
when he ought to have spoken of individuals.
Against this we have to place the known per-
manence of colour in the horse ; if out of a
hundred horses born of parents of the same
colour, only ten come wrong, and when the
grandparents are of the same, no appreciable
number, how then from a uniform dun-striped
stock, with no tendency to revert to anything,
can the birth of the first black horse, bay or
other, be made conceivable ? Darwin says the
reason why inheritance appears more certain
with the horse than with other animals, is
probably only because its breeding has been
more attended to. With this I heartily concur.

Permanence and Evolution. , 35

THE Ass.

There is less diversity of appearance in the
ass than in the horse. In some countries there
are well-marked breeds ; of the origin of these
breeds nothing is known. Of the existing known
wild asses only one (A tceniopus of Abyssinia)
bears any close resemblance to any domestic
ass, but it does not follow that it is the sole
origin of all breeds ; in fact it seems (see " Blyth
Field," vol. xxxviii. p. 51) that there are now
in existence undescribed wild forms. The asses
with extra markings are probably derived from,
or crossed with, some form resembling in colour
the zebras.

THE HOG.

As in so many similar cases, it used to be
supposed that all domestic pigs had one origin,
the wild boar of Europe. Pallas first insisted
that the East Asiatic hog (called by him Sus

36 Permanence aad Evolution.

indicd) was from a separate wild stock, a pro-
position hardly disputed by any one who has
attended to the subject, specially now we know
many wild pigs nearer to it, than it is to the old
European pig or the wild boar of Europe.
Riitimeyer (" Fauna der Pfahlbauten," p. 3, et
seq., also see p. 179) has discovered the bones
of a wild or half-wild race of pig in the lake-
habitations, called by him the "marsh hog,"
from which he supposes the breeds of South
Europe to descend. We thus have three origins
instead of one, leaving the greyhound pig as a
descendant of the European wild boar. But it
seems very doubtful if this last can be assumed.
Many of the more conspicuous differences be-
tween the wild and the tame pig of Europe are
the result of abortion of organs, arising from
disuse (Nathusius, " Schweineschadel," p. 99, et
scq.}, but there remain many difficulties. The
characteristic colour of the wild boar seems to
be seldom or never exhibited among tame pigs,

Permanence and Evolution. 37

nor the stripes on the young pigs in any
ordinary breed, though in the Turkish and
Westphalian breeds these last appear with great
regularity ; showing that domestication has no
tendency of itself to obliterate them, and it does
not seem likely that they should have been
eliminated by selection for no easily divinable
motive ; not to speak of the much larger rela-
tive size of the wild boar's head, not only in
length, but in all proportions.

About the origin then of the North European
tame pig nothing is known. This race exists,
or perhaps I ought to say existed, in various
sub-breeds more or less distinguishable. These
sub-breeds differ conspicuously in such points
as length of the ears and legs, curvature of ribs,
colour, etc. They bred very true; for each
limited area had its own characteristic sub-
breed ; their characters, as Nathusius (" Racen
des Schweines," p. 45) remarks, might be made
more or less by selection, which does not prove

3 8 Permanence and Evolution.

weakness but strength of inheritance. In the
Sus indica or Chinese pig, we see also many
local breeds differing in the above-mentioned
respects, of whose origin nothing is known*
Also of solid-hoofed swine ; pigs with jaw-
appendages, etc., which probably proceed from
reversion to some unknown form.

In South America and the West Indies there
are many feral pigs descended from Old World
stock. These reassume the characters which the
domestic has lost from abortion and disease, and
which are characteristic not more of Sus apcr
than of any other of the wild races of true Sus.
Their tusks become large, their muzzles long,
and their bodies bristly. Their young are longi-
tudinally striped, as are those of Turkish, West-
phalian, and some African pigs. In colour they
do not resemble the wild boar, some being
black, others reddish-brown, and some "black,
with a white band across the stomach, often
extending over the back ; " this last in New
Granada.

Permanence and Evolution. 39

It is not known whence these pigs are
derived ; those of Jamaica are said tradition-
ally to come from Africa, which derives con-
firmation from their resemblance (see above) to
African pigs, and in general the slave trade has
made the relations between Africa and America,
specially tropical America, close. Many of the
Jamaica feral pigs have a curiously plumed tail,
which certainly it would have been thought
improbable to derive from a separate wild stock
if it had not been known that this characteristic
belongs to the Indian wild boar, and to many
domestic pigs in India. The Portuguese con-
nection, both with India and Brazil, was no
doubt the origin of their importation into
Jamaica. Here again we find that an apparently
trifling variation is really the mark of aboriginal
diversity, and generally in the history of the
pig we find that in proportion as we examine
closely what before appeared one, reveals itself
as multiple, and that apparently trifling charac-

4O Permanence and Evolution.

teristics are permanent when the strain is kept
pure.

CATTLE.

Here, as usual, earlier naturalists supposed
only one domestic ox — Bos Taurus — of which
the Lithuanian bison, or so-called aurochs, was
generally supposed to be the original stock ;
the American bison to be a climatal variety of
the same. Cuvier pointed out the fundamental
differences between the domestic ox and both
European and American bisons ; but all kinds
of domestic ox, humped and non-humped, were
still generally considered variations of one stock.
Lately, Blyth (apud Darwin, " Animals and
Plants," 2nd Edition, vol. i. p. 83, also " Land
and Water," vol. iv. p. 10) from the point of
view of a descriptive naturalist, and Riitimeyer
(" Der Linnesche Genus Bos ") as an anatomist,
have pointed out such essential distinctions
between the humped and non-humped cow,

Permanence and Evolution. 41

that now, probably, they are not more likely to
be confounded than any of them is with the
bison. Each of these is divisible into a- number
of races : about those of the Eastern form
nothing can be said as to their origin, but as to
European cattle rather more can.

There have been found in the Swiss Lake-
dwellings the bones of three forms of ox,
called respectively Bos primigenius, trochoceros,
and longifrous. Trochoceros is supposed by
Rutimeyer, but without positive evidence, to
be a domestic variation of primigenius, while
longifrons is completely distinct, thus making
two original stocks ; whereas Nilson considers
all three distinct. Primigenius is supposed
to be the prototype of the large Dutch or
Flemish cow, closely allied to our short-horn ;
while longifrons appears to resemble the little
Alpine cow — a very characteristic race.

But these identifications would seem to be
rather vague, for Rutimeyer, on being shown

42 Permanence and Evolution.

the skull of a Chillingham Park cow, pronounced
it an almost unaltered representative of Bos
primigenius, i.e., of the same race to which the
Dutch and short-horn cow belongs. Now the
Chillingham cow is a kyloe, differing from other
kyloes in hardly anything but colour, therefore
of a breed as different from a short-horn as
from any cow in Europe. Anyhow, each of
these forms may have existed in primitive times
in any number of local races whose bones would
not be distinguishable. Under these circum-
stances it is of very little use to pile up accounts
of various breeds of cattle as proofs of evolution.
In many parts of the world feral or half-wild
cattle are white, with red or black ears. Of the
origin of these races nothing is known, but they
appear occasionally to produce black calves, or
calves with black or brown spots, from which it
seems likely that the coloured ears are the result
of a cross. All of our domestic breeds have been
much improved by selection, that is, the better

Permanence and Evolution. 43

strains have been preserved and the worse
exterminated ; and here I may allude again to
the nature of the so-called changes effected by
modern breeders.

It is often said that breeders have changed
the whole character of a particular race, and
the success of their endeavours is often
considered a proof of the mutability of living
forms, whereas it is a proof of the contrary.
First. We must part off all that comes under
the head of functional gymnastics, so called by
Sanson, namely, all that refers to organs which
increase in power or virtue by activity, specially
the muscular and nutritive system ; all, in fact,
that is alterable in the same adult, of the same
sex, at the same season of year. This corre-
sponds roughly with Darwin's direct effects of
conditions of life and with his use and disuse.
These effects, though often inherited, are not
strictly race or family characters. Thus strains
of various races of any animal type may be

44 Permanence and Evolution.

made within certain limits fatter or leaner, more
precocious, agile, etc. Not that race characters .
go for nothing in these points, certain individuals
and certain families have aboriginally more
tendency to fat, etc., than others, previous to all
measures of functional gymnastics ; for this
reason certain strains became more famous than
others. And there is no reason to suppose that
this quality, namely, the possession with little
cultivation of excellencies, which in other strains
of the same breed can only be obtained by much
care, is less strictly inherited that any other
quality.

The task of the breeder is thus twofold—
to select such strains as present naturally the
required characters ; and, secondly, to assist
them by judicious hygiene, if the characters are
such as to admit of it, which is only the case
when the improvement required is in a large
sense of a hygienic nature. There is, therefore,
nothing more true than the remark of Youatt,

Permanence and Evolution. 45

that the breeder's art is " founded on the axiom
that like produces like," not on the mutability
of race characters ; it is in fact at bottom the
art of distinguishing slight sub-divisions where
previously nothing has been seen but that which
is in common. So that when Youatt says that
the power of selection enables the agriculturist
not only to modify the character of his flock,
but to change it altogether, what is meant is,
the destruction of inferior members, and the
multiplication of favourite strains. No doubt
the first individuals selected do not exhibit. the
desired characters as much as their descendants
will, but then it is only after selection that the
desired types are freed from admixture with
inferior forms. We know that in highly bred
animals, of which the pedigrees are preserved,
every strain has its marked characters, is in fact
a little race to itself.

It is said that while the great effect
produced on a breed by one superior stallion

46 Permanence and Evolution.

or bull, shows the force of inheritance ; the
fact of his superiority shows that inheritance
is not absolute. It shows this only if it is
assumed that all strains of one breed spring
from one pair contrary to all we know in
modern times, if we suppose all animals to be
''created in nations," as Agassiz supposed of
man, then it shows nothing of the kind. But to
return to the ox. There are very few things
known of the breeding of the ox which are any-
thing else but an illustration of these principles.
It is alleged that the famous bull, Shakespeare,*
by whom the long-horn breed was so much
improved, though of the pure Canley race,
scarcely inherited a point of the long-horn type,
except his horns ; but on examination we find
that the genealogy given to prove his purity
does not prove it, on the face of it, as all four

* See Youatt, "Cattle," p. 193, edition 1867. Shakespeare
was got by Bakewell's long-horn bull D. out of a daughter of
the long-horn bull Twopenny, also bred by Bakewell, but the
maternal grandmother seems not to be known.

Permanence and Evolution. 47

grandparents are not given, and, since he came
from a frontier district, at a time when
methodical selection had only just begun, there
is every likelihood that he was crossed with the
short-horn breed which he resembled.

There remains only to speak of the cattle of
South America, derived from Old World stock.
It would be very interesting if Spanish American
cattle, sheep, etc., were examined and compared
by some one well acquainted with the breeds of
the Old World. This has never been done, and
it is rather gratuitously assumed that all the
domestic races of tropical America are derived
from the existing races of Spain ; though there is
no improbability in old Spanish races having sur-
vived in America which have died out at home,
and though the relations of Spanish America
seem to have been very strong with Africa, of
whose breeds we know next to nothing.

We can therefore attach little or no import-
ance to mere statements of the existence of

48 Permanence and Evolution.

fine haired, naked, and other peculiar races
of cattle in South America, still less to loose
talk like that of " two races of cattle in Brazil,
one like European cattle (query, what breed ?),
the other peculiar with remarkable horns," and
so on. But something more must be said on
the now famous niata breed, which Darwin, an
eye-witness, speaks of thus : —

"These cattle occasionally occur in Europe,
but not as a separate permanent race, i.e. (in
Europe no one breeds them apart, as Indians
and others in South America seem to have
done)," they are considered by Rutimeyer
nearly allied to the extinct form called by
him Bos trochoceros; their peculiar formation,
which causes them to die off during a drought,
closely resembles that of the extinct Indian
ruminant Sivatherium. Now here, I think, we
may see that the niata race is not a new but an
ancient form, extinguished by natural selection
in time of drought like the Sivatherium which

Permanence and Evolution. 49

A
belongs to a land of droughts, occasionally

reviving by reversion, and after some such
revival preserved in South America by me-
thodical selection. This may be found to throw
light on many instances of odd breeds character-
istic of places where they are not likely to be
indigenous, and specially on some we shall have
to deal with in treating of

THE SHEEP.

Of the origin of any of our domestic races
of sheep nothing is known. According to Blyth
(" Proceedings of Zoological Society of London,"
Part viii. p. 62), there are about fourteen races
of wild sheep now living ; how many there may
once have been we do not know. Darwin men-
tions with a note of admiration that Anderson
supposes British sheep to be the descendants of
no less than eleven native wild forms, " with a
bold defiance of all that is known as to
geographical distribution ; " but if (as palseon-

50 Permanence and Evolution.

tology seems to show) our present fauna is only a
feeble excerpt of that of the latter tertiary age,*
then there is no reason why there may not just as
soon have been ten times that number or more.

Therefore not much need be said in detail.
Sheep brought into many tropical countries
show a tendency to grow more hair and
less wool ; this is well explained by Darwin
as being only a case of unequal development
(hygienic). There are two breeds said by
Darwin to have suddenly originated in modern
times, one in France, the other in the United
States of America. The one is the Mauchamp
(or silky- woolled) sheep, raised by M. Graux
at Mauchamp, in France, from a Merino ram-
lamb born in 1828. Darwin very truly observes
that if nothing were known of the origin of this
variety, many naturalists (those of the school
followed by the author) would have felt certain

* See the late Dr. Falconer's " Palaeontological Memoirs,"
vol. i. p. 245.

Permanence and Evolution. 51

that the Mauchamp Merino descended from, or
had been crossed with, some unknown aboriginal
form. But in this case we happen to know on
the testimony of A. Sanson ("Bulletin de la
Societe d'Anthropologie," vol. iv. p. 267), than
whom no one is better acquainted with the
domestic animals of France, that this variation
appears occasionally wherever Merinos are kept,
at Rambouillet and elsewhere, and Graux has
only the merit of preserving and fostering it.
Knowing this, and knowing also as we appear to
(vide Low, " Domestic Animals,"* p. 134, et seq. ;
Youatt, " Sheep," p. 145) that the Merino is
itself a complex of various fine-woolled breeds
of antiquity, the suggestion seems to me almost
unavoidable that the silky-woolled Merino
represents an aboriginal form.

Of the other, the ancon, or otter breed,

* The Spanish sheep we find from Columella were crossed
with Italian and with African sheep, and the coloration of
modern Merinos has been supposed to bear traces of the black,
red, and tawny strains mentioned by modern authors.

52 Permanence and Evolution.

said to have originated in Massachusetts in
1791, we know much less as it is now
extinct, and we have apparently only one
account of it, from a Colonel Humphreys,
written in 1819, which account we have no
means of controlling or verifying. I suspect
that there is some mistake or exaggeration in
the alleged suddenness of the appearance of
this breed, and that more time and more
selection was really employed than appears.
We know nothing of the breed of the sheep
among whom the first ancon lamb was born,
but it seems (vide Youatt) that the sheep of
America were in a highly mongrelised state —
a condition* extremely favourable to reversion.
We have also reason to believe that this form
has been observed in Europe, and therefore
may be considered as a race of unknown origin
(vide Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, " Histoire
Naturelle").

* According to Darwin, "Animals and Plants under Domes-
tication," vol. ii. p. 13, et seq.

Permanence and Evolution. 53

THE GOAT.

Very little need be said of the goat more than
that nothing is known as to the origin of any
one of its races or sub-races. They are
commonly supposed to be derived from Capra
(Egagrusy but the direction of the horns is
different, and it is not easy to see how this
could be influenced by domestication.

THE RABBIT.

Of the origin of domestic rabbits nothing is
known. Gervais has pointed out that even the
grey domestic rabbit is not quite identical with
the common wild. Darwin thinks it would be
odd if domestication had no influence in altering
the rabbit, but whether this seems odd or not
depends on the general theory we adopt. Some
of the characteristics of the tame breeds (such
as lop ears and albinous whiteness) are no doubt
due to the direct influence of close confinement,

54 Permanence and Evolution.

etc., but other marks, e.g., blackness, are marks
of races which we have no reason to believe
anything else but permanent and original. Lop
ears and certain colours — qy. albinous whiteness
— are said to be transmitted rather doubtfully,
but others, such as blackness sprinkled with
white, in the so-called silver-grey, are trans-
mitted with absolute truth.

We are told that "when variously coloured
rabbits are turned out in Europe they generally
re-acquire the colouring of the wild animal ;
there can be no doubt (sic) that this does
really occur, but we should remember that
oddly coloured and conspicuous animals would
suffer much from beasts of prey and from
being easily shot ; this at least was the opinion
of a gentleman who tried to stock his woods
with a nearly white variety, and when thus
destroyed they would in truth be supplanted
by (instead of being transformed into) the com-
mon rabbit." Silver-greys when living in a

Permanence and Evolution. 55

warren nearly in a state of nature breed true,
but a warren must not be stocked with both
silver-greys and the common kind, otherwise
in a few years there will be none but common
rabbits living, through prepotence in intermix-
ture evidently.

In the Falkland Islands there are feral rabbits
of various colours, but "how the rabbits were
coloured which were turned out is not known."
The Porto Santo rabbit is supposed to be a
striking instance of transmutation. In the
island of Porto Santo there are wild rabbits much
smaller than English rabbits, remarkably wild
and active (more like large rats than rabbits),
nocturnal to a great extent in their habits, and
of exceptional wildness, and which it appears
breed not easily with other rabbits. They are
differently marked from common rabbits, but
here Darwin noticed differences in the same
individual, which he attributed to the English
climate, but which more likely arose from age

56 Permanence and Evolution.

or the season of the year. As he says quite
truly, if nothing else was known of them they
would be universally put down as a good
species. But they are supposed by him to be
the offspring of escaped rabbits, on the authority
of a story in the narrative of Cadamosto, and in
local histories of Porto Santo, to the effect that
Zarco, the founder of the colony, about 1418, had
a female rabbit on board which littered on the
voyage, and the mother and young were turned
loose on the island, and that from them were
descended an innumerable multitude of rabbits.
It is difficult to speak seriously of this tale as
the foundation for grave scientific conclusions,
but Darwin reasons gravely on the details " as
the rabbit was taken for food, it is unlikely she
should be of any peculiar breed " (what breed of
rabbits was most common in Portugal, circa
1418), "that the breed was well domesticated
was shown by her having littered on board, etc."
Pursuing the same line of investigation, one

Permanence and Evolution. 57

would like to know something about the buck,
and the ancestors of both sides.

But, speaking seriously, I must say that
the whole story is probably a myth, like
similar ones about the Andaman pig, the
North American fox, and other such "myths
of observation," as Burnet Tylor would call
them. Granting that the first colonists turned
out rabbits, it is impossible to know that
there were none before, nor for the matter of
that, that none were introduced afterwards,
and granted that the Porto Santo rabbit is
the descendant of introduced animals, in the
words of Darwin as to the Falkland Islands,
" how the rabbits were coloured (or otherwise
* characterised ') which were turned out is not
known." On referring to " R. Major's Dis-
coveries of Prince Henry the Navigator," the
latest and best authority on these Portuguese
voyages, I find p. 77 that Zarco " had in a cage
a pregnant rabbit . . . which littered during the

58 Permanence and Evolution.

voyage, and with her young ones was taken to
the island. The race increased so rapidly that
they consumed everything that was planted by
the colonists. The following year, after a short
absence, they found the rabbit increased to such
an extent, spite of all their efforts to destroy
them, they produced no sensible diminution in
their numbers." There is then on the face of
the story no sense in connecting Zarco's cage-
rabbit with the plague of wild rabbits which
appeared immediately on her landing.

THE PIGEON

is supposed to be the strong point of transmu-
tationists, and we often hear the unmixed descent
of domestic pigeons from the rock dove spoken of
as a fact. Darwin, who has practical experience
in pigeons, says that they breed so true that it
was a long time before he could believe that all
the difference between them was prpduced under
domestication. He says that the more marked

Permanence and Evolution. 59

races, had they been found wild, would have had
separate genera established for their reception ;
which is perhaps true, but shows only in what a
chaotic state the classification of birds is, never-
theless he thinks the evidence of common de-
scent stronger in this case than in that of any
other creature. His grounds are chiefly these
six : —

ist. If the principal breeds of domestic
pigeon have not descended from one stock (the
rock dove, Columba livia, comprising three sub-
races : C. livia proper, the European rock dove ;
C. intermedia, the Indian rock dove ; and
C. affinis, the chequered wild pigeon, and one
or two others equally slightly different), they
must have descended from at least eight or nine
aboriginal forms very distinct, otherwise the more
distinct domestic races could never have been
produced. If so, they must either now exist
wild somewhere or be extinct. The former, he
says, is so unlikely that it may be put aside ;

60 Permanence and Evolution.

with this I agree entirely. As to extinction
since the historical period, he says it is unlikely,
as man has not yet exterminated the common
rock dove even on small islands.

2nd. This hypothesis implies that several
species have been well domesticated, which ex-
perience shows to be unlikely.

3rd. Most of our domestic animals have run
wild in different parts of the world, but fancy
pigeons have nowhere run wild, though, being
transported to all parts of the world, they must
among others have been carried to their native
home.

4th. If domestic pigeons descend from several
wild stocks, we must suppose that primitive
man, either intentionally or by accident, picked
out a most abnormal set of pigeons, long-necked,
short-billed, etc., and that these have since all
become extinct, which he says is a double un-
likelihood.

5th. All the domestic races breed together,

Permanence and Evolution. 61

and produce perfectly fertile offspring, which is
rarely the case with wild species.

6th. All the domestic races, while exhibiting
isolated, odd characters, which are almost of
generic value, in all other, or nearly all other
points, resemble each other and the rock dove.
Darwin also mentions that in all or most breeds
there occur birds with the peculiar markings of
the rock dove.

As to these points, I have to remark that
some of them seem to me of little importance
in any case, while others might undoubtedly
have their weight, if it were otherwise known that
modification, and such particular direction of
modification as is required, was a vera caiisa, while
they are totally incompetent to prove it. As to
the first consideration, Darwin would seem entirely
to have forgotten all he ever wrote about our
ignorance of the causes of extinction, when he
assumes that wild birds, which have become
extinct since the historical period, have there-

62 Permanence and Evolution.

fore been exterminated by man. We know
extremely little of the causes of the extinction
of any forms, but we can, I think, see that the
same qualities which may be summed up as a
certain unadventurous tameness of disposition
(as is shown by Galton),* which adapt an animal
for subjection to man, may also render its long
continuance in a wild state less likely.

The common rock dove has not been exter-
minated even on small islands, but then it is
one of the wildest and boldest of birds, with
difficulty, (according to Brent, "Pigeon Book,"
p. 14) made really tame. The other breeds
of pigeons are less wild, shy, and vigorous,
and besides had, in the Old World, the
rock dove to contend with in the struggle
for life. Being extinct they evidently must
have had some disadvantage to struggle against
in their native country ; it is, therefore, not to
be expected that their descendants would be-

* Transactions of Ethnological Society, vol. iii. new series, p. 133.

Permanence and EvohUion. 63

come wild in it. I can see nothing unlikely
in primitive man having picked out grotesque-
looking birds, which were also easily domestic-
able ; it accords with what we know of man,
both primitive and cultivated. As these races
resemble the rock dove, and each other, in every-
thing except one or two conspicuous points, it
need not surprise us that they produce perfectly
fertile offspring, or that they all share the attri-
bute of breeding freely in captivity, and being
easily tameable.

There remains the fact of their odd differ-
ences, coupled with general likeness to the
rock dove. Darwin thinks that if these races
were derived from a cross, the originals must
have been equally or more grotesque. But
that does not altogether follow, because we
know that half-bred creatures often combine the
characters of their parents in very odd ways,
especially in matters of proportion, still more if
their breeding has been directed by selection,

64 Permanence and Evolution.

with a view to singularity, e.g., if the prototype
of the carrier was a much larger bird, then its
long neck and huge bill would have been much
more appropriate.

Then as to the individual birds in various
breeds marked like the rock dove, either
these are crossed or not ; if they are, cadit
qucestio, if not, then on the hypothesis of
limited variability, they depend on creatures
with similar constitutions being attacked by
circumstances in the same way ; leaving the
cause of this similarity undecided, on the
hypothesis of no variation, all the breeds may
have contained sub-strains ab origine coloured
like the rock dove. Darwin maintains and gives
instances to show that rock dove markings have
a tendency to spring up when different breeds
are crossed. But in none of these cases does he
appear to know much about the pedigree of the
particular birds, but pins his faith on generalities,
on the unlikelihood of reversion acting for more

Permanence and Evolution. 65

than twelve generations, and of these birds,
" though highly valued by fanciers," being so
recently crossed with the rock dove, or rather,
perhaps, with similarly marked sub-strains of
their own breed, when evidently we want to
know all about the history of the particular
strains, and the views of the owners through
whose hands they had passed ; besides that, in
what is said about reversion, there is a confusion
between a cross diminishing at each generation,
as when a black barb, one of whose parents is
white, is paired with a black one of pure pedi-
gree, and a cross not diminishing, as when two
black barbs are paired, both of whom had one
parent white.*

The rock dove, in its three various sub-
races, is the common pigeon of all parts of the
world, and therefore likely to cross the fancy
breeds accidentally. It is also the handsomest

* It is also quite possible that the domestic' races of pigeon are
crosses between the rock dove and certain extinct types, the
rock dove being one element in every breed.

F

66 Permanence and Evolution.

sort, or among the handsomest, at any rate,
and therefore the most likely to be crossed with
them, in order to impress its -colour, as the
phrase is. In a number of instances Darwin
produced birds coloured like the rock dove by
crossing pigeons of various breeds and colours,
not known or supposed to have any cross, so
that either the colour sprang up spontaneously,
or the strains Darwin employed (about which he
does not seem to have known much in the way
of pedigree) were not so pure as he took them
to be. There is not much said in the remark
that "white fantails breed perfectly true, and
have never been known to show any other
colour." If pure bred, no doubt, but the question
is of the particular strain employed. It is also
true that intermediate forms can be found be-
tween the most remote breeds, and that some of
the breeds have had their characters intensified
by selection at no remote period ; but these
intermediate breeds, and these less characterised

Permanence and Evolution, 67

forms on which selection works, are they pure or
mixed ? That is the question, and it is one to
which we can find no answer, and which we
therefore answer provisionally, at least, in ac-
cordance with the principle of inheritance.

It may be remarked that it would probably
have been thought absurd to suppose that the
common, Indian, and chequered rock doves,
sprang from separate wild stocks, if it had not
been known to be a fact ; also that the fantail,
a variety of Eastern origin, when blue, usually
has a blue'rump, showing a cross with the Indian
rock dove, and also showing the strength of the
principle of inheritance. I cannot, therefore,
see that (unproved assumptions apart) the famous
example of the pigeon offers any particular
support to the theory of evolution.

Sanson has made a study of the breeds of
domestic pigeon from an osteological point of
view, relying on the characters of the cranium
and vertebral column, and finds four clearly

68 Permanence and Evolution.

differentiated races or species, with a fifth, which
he has examined less. These, which frequently
run athwart the breeds, so-called, of the fanciers,
are : —

1. The type of the English carrier.

2. The Bagadotten carrier of Germany. The
runts belong to one or both of these types.

3. The type of the rock dove, including most
pouters, also fantails, trumpeters, nuns, swal-
lows, etc.

4. The type of the tumbler, including tumblers-
and barbs.

5. Another type among pouters distinguished
by the number of its vertebrae, but whose
craniology is not further known. See " La
Philosophic Positive Revue," No. X. p. 89, and
prec. and seq.

It is evident that these results place the whole
question in a light entirely new, and that should
they be confirmed by future investigation, the
whole of Darwin's argument as to the breeds of
domestic pigeons will fall to the ground.

Permanence and Evolution. 69

THE FOWL.

The fowl is a case analogous to that of the
pigeon, but, according to Darwin, less forcible.
The breeds of this bird are supposed all to have
descended from Gallus Bankiva, or Ferrugineus,
which is practically identical with the black-red
game-fowl ; there is no other extant wild form
from which they could have descended. Darwin
supposes it, as usual, to be extremely improbable
that any wild form should be extinct, though
the wild game-fowl only manages to exist by its
extreme agility, in which it exceeds any other
bird, and which the other breeds do not possess
(and which is indispensable, owing to the habit
the hen has of announcing by a cluck the laying
of an egg), not to mention that if the various
races existed in the same area the others would
be likely to be exterminated or absorbed by the
game-fowl, as happens now in a mixed poultry
yard.

70 Permanence and Evolution.

In crossing different breeds of different colours,
Darwin found a tendency show itself to assume
" black-red " plumage, so that, as in the analo-
gous case of pigeons, either the sport arose
spontaneously, or there had been at some
time a cross with the black-red game, which,
considering its beauty, strength, and general
"game" qualities, is by no means unlikely,
We know that strains of fowl intended for
exhibition are frequently doctored in many
ways, by surreptitious crossing. The same may
be conjectured when black-red plumage appears
in so-called pure bred Cochins, Dorkings, Ham-
burghs, etc. ; as to the gold-spangled Hamburghs,
which have so strong a tendency to run black-
red ; some of my readers may, perhaps, remember
a controversy, famous some time ago in the
poultry world, in which it was maintained, on
one side, that all sickle-tailed, gold-spangled
Hamburghs were crossed with game. What
is said about individual variability, i.e., differences

Permanence and Evolution. 71

between families of the same breed, would be of
weight if we had reason to know that all families
of the same breed came from one pair.

THE DUCK.

Little need be said on this head beyond what
has been said on the fowl and pigeon. We
know nothing of the origin of domestic ducks
or their breeds.

About the goose, the turkey, and the guinea-
fowl nothing need be said more than that
nothing is known as to their origin also. Feral
guinea-fowl in the West Indies are more likely
derived direct from Africa than from Europe.

THE PEA-FOWL.

Darwin, on the faith of several distinct and
definite allegations, supposes that the black-
winged pea-fowl, Pavo nigripennis, was suddenly
produced in England out of the ordinary kind.
He quotes five distinct accounts of its having

72 Permanence and Evohition.

been produced among flocks of the common, or
common and white, or pied sort, and adduces
the usual considerations of probability against
there having been an unknown cross.

He also says, " We may suppose that a breed
of dogs (rather, colleys, or fox-hounds, dog as
distinguished from wolf is much too vague an
expression) had been crossed at some former
period with a wolf, but had lost every trace of
the wolf-like character, yet that the breed gave
birth in five instances in the same country, within
no great length of time, to a wolf, perfect in
every character ; and we must further suppose
that in two of the cases the newly produced
wolves afterwards spontaneously increased to
such an extent as to lead to the extinction of
the parent breed ! "

I think that if a judicious naturalist was
told of such a thing under circumstances which
did not allow of its rejection as a simple fiction
or mistake, he would treat it as we treat won-

Permanence and Evohition. 73

derful tales we do not altogether reject — he
would make allowance for error, and the natural
exaggeration by which a singular incident
becomes a marvellous one. He would sup-
pose that the strain of fox-hounds was really
crossed with the wolf, and that close examina-
tion would probably have detected the cross :
he would suppose that this crossed strain pro-
duced a very wolf-like animal, but by no means
a perfect wolf, and that selection did the rest.

Now it appears to me that something of the
kind must have happened, specially when we
consider that the pea-fowl is a bird which has
never been subjected to the fancier's art, and
whose breeds or varieties might therefore till
quite recently not have been noted with care.
As the sport took place once among common
and white, another time among common and
pied pea-fowl, it seems likely that the cross
might have been introduced through a hen,
which, odd as such a mistake is, must have

74 Permanence and Evolution.

passed as a hen of the ordinary white or pied
sort. Strange as this is, would it not seem yet
stranger, even to an evolutionist, that a sudden
modification should have occurred in five inde-
pendent instances, of so marked and typical a
character, both sexes being equally differentiated
from the parent stock and from one another.
Specially as Swinhoe found this breed in con-
finement in Hainan, P.Z.S., 1868, p. 30. Now
unless it was taken there from Europe, which
no one is likely to suppose, either the same
new form must have sprung up independently
in England and Eastern Asia, which would be
contrary to Darwinian ideas, and upset the
whole argument from geographical distribution,
or it was imported from Asia here, in which
case we know nothing of its origin.

As to gold-fish and hive-bees, we know nothing
of the origin of their respective breeds, and
perhaps not much about the canary. We do
not even know if the different Canary and

Permanence and Evolution. 75

neighbouring islands have different . local races
from which perhaps the cage varieties may be
descended. The yellow colour of many canaries
is, however, simply a case of sub-albinism arising
from close confinement.

Darwin promised us a work on variation
under nature, a promise which has not as yet
been fulfilled, but many have written on this
subject in a more or less evolutionist sense,
but it does not seem to me that this very
obscure subject lends much more support
to one hypothesis than to another. We find,
firstly, cases of little differentiated local races,
but whose differentiation is permanent and
easily definable, as, for instance, the North
American and European red-fox, or the French,
Barbary, and Greek forms of the red-legged
partridge ; secondly, we find such races as I
have just mentioned connected by promiscuous
intermediate forms along a frontier, as in the
case of the Kalij pheasants. Evidently there is

76 Permanence and Evolution.

nothing in the first to suggest transmutation,
'and the instances of the second kind suggest
original distinctness and subsequent confluence
more strongly than anything else.

Next we have different sub-types of the same
form, each predominant in a certain district, but
not exclusively or even nearly so, as the differ-
ent-coloured forms of the North American wolf.
Then instances where the whole race is variable,
like the common ruff, where it is difficult to find
two males coloured exactly alike, in this re-
sembling common mongrel barn-door fowls.
Last of all we have instances in which abnormal
individuals, chiefly in colour, are found in such
small numbers that it seems they must be often
born from parents both of the normal form,
though anything positive is seldom known about
the matter, as, for instance, the black form of
fox, both in Europe and North America. Now
these latter instances seem to me equally con-
sistent with the explanation of original diversity

Permanence and Evolution. 77

and subsequent intermixture, which is a known
cause, and in nature, as well as under domesti-
cation— witness the intermixture of the common
and Royston crows, the Tetrao urogalhts and
Tetrao tetrix, coupled with reversion, which is
also a known cause, as with that of transmuta-
tion, which is a cause purely conjectural.

Let us suppose two varieties or strains of
horse, say white Arabs and black 'Suffolks, living
on adjoining areas ; we should probably see a rim
of animals with intermediate characters along
the frontier, while if the two breeds arriving
from opposite quarters peopled a district to-
gether, we should no doubt see a promiscuous
mass of mongrels, while if one sort were vastly
preponderant over the other, either in numbers
or prepotence, we should see a tolerably uniform
mass of say white Arabs, with only an occasional
black specimen, or one in some other way re-
calling the Suffolk race. I think there can be
no doubt that this is what any breeder would

78 Permanence and Evolution.

predict under the supposed conditions, and it is
very like whatever we see in nature to which
the name of natural variation can be applied.

Very often we find a pervading character
applicable to all the local races of a certain
area, as, for instance, that the West American
squirrels are black, and the local race of racoon
too, and so on. These facts are very curious,
but equally consistent with any hypothesis of
the origin of types. We do not see how the
direct influence of the conditions of life should
make animals black ; in fact, we know from
most varied experience that they have no such
influence. Just as difficult is it to conceive how
natural selection could have acted so, and why
black forms should have primarily arisen in one
place more than another is equally unaccount-
able. The fact gives no support to one hypo-
thesis more than to another. Some naturalist
was supposed to have seen nature in the very
.act of transmuting forms, when what he did see

Permanence and Evolution. 79

was simply different coloured strains of the same
type in one country, the transmutation being
read into the facts by preconceived hypothesis.

An eminent naturalist finding that animals to
a certain degree intermediate between horse and
tapir existed before there is at present any
evidence of the existence of true horses, has
pronounced evolution no longer an hypothesis
but a proved fact, and has framed a pedigree
of the horse. But the genealogy is merely con-
jectural ; there is not the smallest positive
evidence of blood-connection between the sup-
posed links ; there is not the slightest evidence
even alleged of the possibility of such changes
as would be necessary to convert a hipparion
into a horse, or an orohippus into a hipparion ;
and if the geological record is as imperfect as
we know it to be, still more, as evolutionists
must suppose, it is almost useless attempting
to rely on negative evidence which has so often
deceived us. And it is even not wholly im-

8o Permanence and Evolution.

possible, however unlikely, that some day we
may find a true horse contemporary with
orohippus ; and although every intermediate
link may have been in particular instances
attempted to be traced, the general aspect of
palaeontology is, as we know it, not favourable
to the origin of marked types by slow grada-
tions. Nothing requires more care than the
tracing of supposed intermediate links between
types of large generality. In one sense every
organic type is intermediate between two or more
others, and yet how difficult do naturalists find it
to classify say the Ruminantia or Carnivora in a
regular series, how much more fossil animals, of
whom we have only a limited number of usually
imperfect remains of the bony parts only.

In a number of instances we are able to show
that differences so slight as to appear likely to
be most variable are in reality most permanent ;
let us take external colour (commonly called
fleeting and variable) as an instance. And here

Permanence and Evolution. 81

let me protest against the common use of the
terms albinism and melanism. Albinism, in the
only correct use of the word, means a diseased
state of the system in which there is a total or
partial deficiency of pigment, producing pallor
or a sickly white, and in the eyes a red colour
(that of the blood). This morbid state is often
hereditary, specially among animals kept in
close confinement, as mice, rabbits, canary birds,
ferrets ; but white animals of normal health and
with eyes of the normal colour are not albinoes,
nor have they any relation to albinoes (the
shade of white is also very distinguishable),
though they are often improperly so called,
especially when rare. There are often white
individuals and strains of some animal form not
otherwise distinguishable from the ordinary sort,
also black strains, but there is not the slightest
evidence of the existence of any disorder
called melanism and parallel with albinism.
In no instance of all those which have been

G

82 Permanence and Evolution.

collected of the occurrence of exceptional black
or white specimens of animals whose normal
colour is different, is anything really known
about their pedigree. It tells us nothing to
know that they came from the same brood
as others of ordinary colour, unless we know
what was the tint of the parents.

Compare the blue-rumped form of the rock
dove, which in domestication has never received
a separate name or been considered even as
a distinct sub-breed, how wild would have
seemed the notion of a separate source for
this form if it had not been known to be a fact.
The same may be said as to the black-breasted
red game with red and white ear-lappets, which
marks characterise respectively the Indian and
trans-Indian local races of Gallus ferrugineus.

The Corsican and Sardinian varieties of
moufflon differ chiefly in colour, and if they
were known only in domestication it would
seem quite absurd to suppose for them two

Permanence and Evolution, 83

wild stocks. The same is true as to many
other local races, as for instance the Java
tiger, which differs from the Indian only in
having its belly somwhat suffused with yellow,
or different European varieties of fox, between
which the only recognisable distinction lies in
the colour of the tip of the tail. Supposing
also the several closely allied wild races of
mocking thrush, described by Darwin as existing
in the Galapagos, had been domesticated, and
suppose also that they had become extinct in a
wild state, which with regard to races confined
each to one small island, would be surely not
surprising, would it not be considered quite
absurd to suppose that these forms originated
each from a separate wild stock ? Supposing
these only were known in domestication, how
puerile it would have seemed, not only to
evolutionists, but also to most naturalists who
are not evolutionists, to suppose that they
sprang from corresponding wild forms.

84 Permanence and Evolution.

These and similar facts ought to make
us very careful about assuming supposed
modifications produced by domestication with-
out positive evidence. With regard to the
breeds of so-called modern origin, we must
distinguish between those cases where, as
with cattle and horses, the improvement was
effected through known individual animals, and
where, as in sheep, no such celebrated ancestors
are on record. The language used by the
breeders themselves has rather tended, un-
intentionally, to confuse the matter. We read,
for instance, Darwin, "Animals and Plants,"
vol. ii. p. 182, of Bakewell having changed the
aspect of the New Leicester sheep, when what is
meant is that, by encouraging some family
strains in preference to others, he altered the
general aspect of the sheep in the country.
This arises from breeders erecting the abstrac-
tion, a breed, into a kind of fetish, just as syste-
matic naturalists make a fetish of species, instead

Permanence and Evolution. 85

of descending to the ultimate unit of classifica-
tion— the Family.

But if with Agassiz we start from animal
" nations," it is easy to see how by (in any
of these nations) selecting certain families
and eliminating all impurities in them and
exterminating the rest, we change the whole
aspect of the nation, and this may be called,
rather loosely, modifying the breed, without
there being, in a scientific sense, any real
modification in the matter. For instance, we
know by the experiments of Hofacker, " Ueber
die Eigenschaften," etc., and others, the nearly
absolute permanence of colour in the horse, but
most breeds contain permanent strains of more
than one colour ; and if, for instance, the pre-
dominant white type of Normandy horse were
discouraged and roan strains encouraged, the
colour of the breed might, in common parlance,
be said to be modified. In the breed for
instance of Hereford cattle, we can still detect

86 Permanence and Evolution.

the two " lines of stock " kept by Tomkins, the
original breeder, distinguishable by colour chiefly,
and, as usual, of the ultimate origin of those sub-
types nothing is known.

It is said that Darwinism undertakes to prove,
first, that species can possibly be formed by
natural selection ; secondly, that if they are so
formed, it accounts for a great deal of what we
see. It is evidently primarily necessary to prove
the first, and we see that nothing can be shown
for it except vague hypotheses and supposed
probabilities, not unlike some to be found in
systems of continental jurisprudence. If in any
other branch of science facts are stated, they are
understood to have been proved. If, for instance,
in chemistry we are told that water is produced
from oxygen and hydrogen, we understand that
the experiment has been tried by scientific men
of known repute, under conditions carefully
selected to avoid the possibility of mistake, and
continually verified afterwards ; so if we hear

Permanence and Evolution. 87

that various domestic pigeons are descendants
of the rock dove, this ought to mean that from
a strain of the rock dove of known purity, under
conditions carefully excluded from the chance of
reversion or casual impurity, these several
varieties have been raised, and that the ex-
periment can be repeated by any one who has
the means and the patience to try it properly.
If that were done, we should have at least
a fact to start with, and on which to build
our superstructure. Now we have absolutely
none ; and if we grant that species as they
commonly stand can be produced by evolu-
tion, we are only a very little advanced, for
it would be arguing from the less to the
greater to think that this threw any light on
the more important structural differences which
separate genera and so on to natural orders,
etc., which can only in a few instances be re-
presented as differing only in degree from the
former. But now we have the course of scientific

88 Permanence and Evolution.

research inverted, and Pelion piled upon Ossa
by using first the smallness of the difference
between domestic varieties to support a guess
that they descended from one pair, and then
making that last support a still wilder guess as
to the common origin of genera, orders, and
classes.

To take a very small instance, the presence
of callosities on all four legs of the horse
(as distinguished from the other equi), how
can we have reason to suppose that that has
been evolved ; and granting that all the
varieties and breeds of domestic horse have one
origin, what variation do they offer at all analo-
gous to that ? The only answer I have ever
seen made to this is, that the differences existing
between natural species are produced by natural
selection, which can act on all parts of the
system indifferently ; whereas the differences
between domestic breeds are produced by man's
selection, which can only single out externally

Permanence and Evolution. 89

conspicuous characters. But let alone that we
want positive evidence, it is difficult to say why
callosities should be less likely to be encouraged
under domestication than length of bill. Man-
kind, of course, could not select purely internal
characters ; but if correlation occupies such an
important place in the scheme of organised
nature as according to Darwinism it must do,
such points must often be correlated with those
man has selected, also points grossly conspicuous
to man must equally often be correlated with
others of importance to the being 'itself. The
whole idea rests on a misconception of what in
selection we do. When, e.g.t we get a white
horse by pairing two white horses, and so in a
few generations establish a white sub-breed, we
simply abstain from crossing ; we show the per-
manence, not the mutability of types. The only
case where a doubt occurs is where we get
offspring possessing qualities not possessed by
their parents, or possessed in a lesser degree; but

9O Permanence and Evohition.

from what we know of the effects of reversion,
we are likely to think that is the cause, unless we
know to the contrary.

Very often we are able to trace particular
strains back for some time, as in the case of
the two branches of Herefords, which descend
from two cows belonging to Tomkins (Low,
" Domestic Animals," p. 364). I think there
can be no doubt that in proportion as we in-
vestigate animal forms, both wild and domestic,
so we derive an increased notion of the per-
manence of organised types. If we begin with
the popular notion of species, we come to see
that the principal varieties must be reckoned
absolutely permanent; then we see that this
holds equally of less marked sub-races ; further,
we perceive that we can only rest in still more
finely differentiated strains little, if at all, dis-
tinguished from what we generally call families,
till at last we are brought to recognise the
possibility of an idea which has been suggested,

Permanence and Evolution. 91

to me, and which seems to me very probable,
though not yet proved, namely, that except in
points in a large sense hygienic there is no
variation whatever ; that is to say, the children
of A and B are the joint result of the characters
first, of their parents in varying degrees (which
alone would give rise to infinite shades of
difference between human beings) ; secondly,
often of some one or more of their four grand-
parents, C, D, E, F, also in infinitely varying
degrees and proportions ; thirdly, sometimes of
remoter reversions, the same rule applying to
physical and mental characters, the origin of
primary types being unknown.

But however this may be — and I do not
consider this as anything but a conjecture —
I feel sure that it is important to begin at
this end ; instead of starting from variability
and asking how far does inheritance extend,
we" ought to start from permanence and
ask how far does variation extend. Most, by

92 Permanence and Evolution.

far, of the characters of any living being are
directly inherited from one or other parent*
When this is not so, they can usually be traced
to a grandparent or some near ancestor ; when
this cannot be done, the matter can often be
explained by more distant reversion ; but if
experiments were tried with the object of ascer-
taining whether there was any residuum, and if
it was ascertained that there are sometimes new
characters which arise without inheritance and
without any reasonable chance of reversion, then
we should define what these characters are and
under what conditions they arise ; and when we
had done this, we should know what we are
talking about when we speak of variation and
evolution.

I recommend such experiments to all na-
turalists, specially evolutionists, if they are
anxious to found their hypothesis on facts, not

* So even Darwin, "Animals and Plants," vol. ii. p. 57.
" Hence we are led to look at inheritance as the rule, and non-
inheritance as the anomaly."

Permanence and Evolution. 93

merely on conjectures and legends. I feel con-
vinced myself that if such spontaneous variation
does exist, it will be shown to be of the most
limited and trifling kind ; but what is the truth
as to this, time and experiment I hope will show.
If, however, we go further arid ask the origin
of the primitive and immutable forms of organ-
ised life, all we can say is, that we know of no
cause adequate to produce them, either out of
each other, or out of inorganic matter. We
may guess, if we like, and no one has a right to
complain of another for guessing, so long as he
knows and admits that his guess is neither a
scientific discovery nor a scientific hypothesis.
If we are to guess at all, I quite agree that some
form of evolution is one of the most plausible
guesses we can at present make ; but I think
the analogies on which it rests, though often
tempting, may very likely be entirely misinter-
preted ; and it seems to me, personally, that the
best thing we can do is to abstain from conjee-

94 Permanence and Evolution.

ture on a subject which cannot be elucidated by
known causes, but to acquiesce in ignorance,
while abstaining also from the negative presump-
tion of dogmatically asserting that we shall
never know the origin of living types.

The hypothesis of evolution is so vague that it
may be used to explain anything. Darwin was
much impressed by seeing fossil remains of huge
Edentata in South America, where smaller
Edentata make up a considerable part of the
existing fauna, and had the hypothesis of evo-
lution suggested to him ; but he might have seen
fossil Edentata in North America and Europe,
where none exist now, and as they have become
extinct, while other contemporary types have
.survived, evidently there have been influences at
work all over the world, the nature of which we
cannot in any way fathom, hostile to the pre-
servation of Edentata, and these evidently worked
less in South America than elsewhere. Under
these circumstances it is not very accordant with

Permanence and Evolution. 95

the harmony of nature that fresh Edentata should
be produced in North America and Europe, and
it is certain that if they had been so produced
they would soon have been extinguished, while
if no Edentata had ever been found out of South
America, then it might have been supposed that
the only reason was, that being first developed
there, they had not had an opportunity of mi-
grating elsewhere.

The various aborted and apparently useless
organs, such as the mammae of the male,
the useless wings of the apteryx, and other
similar instances, are supposed by evolu-
tionists to be quite absurd and inexplicable,
except on their theory ; and these things, per-
haps more than anything else, serve as a popular
argument in its favour. But I find it difficult to
understand this, when I consider that if we
adopt that version of evolution in which natural
selection is supposed to be the sole or principal
agent of change, we must suppose that a vast

96 Permanence and Evolution.

number of apparently useless organs have uses
unknown to us, or are correlated with other
organs which are useful ; it is, then, impossible
to prove, and even rash to presume, that the
wings of the apteryx answer no purpose. If, on
the other hand, we agree with those evolutionists
who consider the conditions of life or unknown
agencies as the main factors in development,
then there is no reason why the same causes
should not account for imperfect as well as for
perfect structures. If these aborted structures
were the only ones in which we could see no
use, then the explanation would have some locus
standi.

Also, it seems to me that the evolutionist
argument from embryogeny is more poetical
than scientific. I do not see why the life of the
individual should in that way be supposed to
reflect the life of the race. We see a vast num-
ber of animal forms, many of which are very
like each other, and their distinctions less pro-

Permanence and Evolution. 97

nounced in youth. I cannot see anything
particularly surprising in this, or any great argu-
ment against the permanence of characters. It
may seem easier to the imagination to suppose
that a strain, say of wild dogs, which should be
born black, and turn grey with the first moult,
should now and then, without assignable cause,
produce a black puppy which should remain
black all its life, than that the same sport should
take place in a strain which should be grey from
the beginning ; but it has yet to be shown that
this is more likely than the other to happen in
nature. It is said, indeed, by Darwin that the
observation of domestic varieties (pigeons), etc.,
shows1 that variations are apt not to be trans-
mitted to the young as long as they remain
such ; but we have seen that the forms from the
observation of which this is said are, in all pro-
bability, originally distinct.

It ' must be remembered in comparing the
youthful and embryonic stages of certain living

H

98 Permanence and Evolution.

forms with the adult state of others, that our
tests are very imperfect. The ova of all
mammals are, at the earliest stage of growth,
indistinguishable, yet they turn into dogs, cattle,
human beings, whales, etc. Now when two
objects, apparently indistinguishable, yet under
the same circumstances behave differently, there
must be some cause for this ; if we believe in
a specific vital force as the cause of organisation,
then we may perfectly suppose that the ova
of man, cow, and dog are materially identical,
but if we reject the conception of vitality as
something sni generis, then we are shut up to
believe that these ova, though with our present
tests indistinguishable, are really in some way
physically different. If it is not one way, it
must be the other ;N and for my present purpose
it is quite indifferent which of these two views
is the truth.

So the stripes of the lion whelp resemble
to apparent identity those of the adult tiger ;

Permanence and Evolution. 99

but the fact that in the one case they soon
disappear, in the other they remain till death,
shows that they depend on somewhat different
conditions ; and we must know much more
than we now know (for we now know nothing)
about what these conditions are, before we can
say whether it would be easier for natural
selection, or any other modifying cause, to evolve
a striped feline from a lion with stripes on its
young, than from some similar creature with
no stripes at any time.

It has been said that evolution offers the
only or best explanation of the deep-seated
and pervading affinities between organised
beings on which a natural system is based.
It is said that birth from one stock is the
only known cause of resemblance between living
beings, and that affinity by blood is what is
really, though unconsciously, sought for by
all who have attempted to construct a natural
system. In the first place, there seems to be

ioo Permanence and Evohition.

in the way of putting this a mistake, arising from
a confusion between the methods of physical
science and those of historico-critical investi-
gation. Science seeks mainly for laws, history
for events. If the common descent of all the
species of one genus be a fact, this fact will be
the cause of the pervading likeness between
those forms which causes them to be rightly
placed in the same genus, but the justification
for their being so placed lies in the likeness
itself, whatever opinion we form as to its cause,
The distinction between likenesses which imply
systematic affinity and those which, however
conspicuous they may be, indicate nothing of
the kind, is that the one sort are indications of
resemblance of kind (see " Mill's Logic " ), that
is, of a profound principle of likeness pervading
the whole structure of the creature, as opposed
to being quite isolated likenesses, or associated
with nothing except what may be directly corre-
lated with them. The real question is whether

Permanence and Evolution. 101

we have any good reason to think that common
descent is the cause of this pervading likeness.
And here I think we come upon the real gist
of the evolution hypothesis, upon that which
gives it, to so many minds, both an imaginative
charm and an appearance of scientific verisimili-
tude, and which causes such very doubtful and
exceptionable evidence to be eagerly accepted
if it only appears to support it. Yet, however
seductive this tendency is, however much it
takes hold of eminent scientific minds, I think
it may be shown to belong to the sphere of
mythology rather than of science. It is a
common, mythological fallacy to suppose that
where we see, or think we see, a similarity
between two objects, there we may suppose
community of origin. It is a portion of the
larger fallacy of supposing that things which are
associated together in our imagination, are there-
fore, associated in nature. One of the grossest
instances of this is to be found in the numerous

IO2 Permanence and Evolution.

legends among different nations, in which rocks
bearing some likeness to human beings and
brutes are supposed to be really transformed
men, women, and animals. Another example
more to the present purpose may be found in
the theories of the alchemists, who, rightly re-
cognising the fact that the metals form a natural
class connected together by affinities of kind,
were by that led to the belief that they were
produced and producible the one from the other.
The crystals form a class very closely allied to
the organised creation, a class too divided into
many natural subdivisions ; but the reason for
the similarity of different crystals is not the
generation of one out of the other, but the
genesis of all of them out of analogous materials
under identical laws. If crystals had been
known distinctly in the time of the alchemists,
there can be no doubt that they would have
been supposed by them to have been not as they
are, separate and incommutable though analo-

Permanence and Evolution. 103

gous formations, but commutable modifications
of one primitive crystal, as the metals were
actually supposed to be manifestations of one
metal, and the salts (so far as they were then
known) of one salt. This supposed notion as
to crystals, the nearest approach to organism
in the inorganic world, would have been strictly
analogous to the hypothesis of evolution as now
maintained with regard to organised beings. It
is no doubt true, as Darwin says, that it is hardly
possible to state the facts of homology without
using evolutionist language. But one of the
most common sources of mythology has been
the taking literally the necessary metaphors of
language.

Very instructive in this context are the re-
marks of the late G. Lewes on evolution in
" The Physical Basis of Mind," pp. 1 1 1, et seq.
He was himself an evolutionist, yet his line
of argument seems largely to sap the deepest
foundations of the evolution hypothesis. He

104 Permanence and Evolution.

seems to consider that the similarities between
organised beings have a twofold origin — common
descent and community of component elements ;
and he dwells strongly and forcibly on the
improbability that life appeared only in one
form and on one favoured spot. If, as strict
Darwinians seem to suppose, all organised
creatures spring from one cell, or from a number
of fac-simile cells, in one small area, then that
is totally unlike anything else we see in nature,
where nothing appears to be in that way isolated.
Everything is a specimen of a class. He says
(op. cit, p. 121) : "The conclusion seems in-
evitable that wherever and whenever the state
of things permitted that peculiar combination
of elements known as organised substance, there
and then a centre was established, life had a
root. From roots closely resembling each other
in all essential characters, but all more or less
different,, there have been developed the various
stems of the great tree."

Permanence and Evolution. 105

He also says (op. cit, p. 118): "The
absolute identity of chalk in Australia and in
Europe is a proof that there was absolute
identity in the formative conditions and the
constituent elements, but no proof whatever
that the two substances were formerly connected
by genesis. In like manner the similarity of
a plant or animal in Africa and Europe may
be due to a common kinship, but it may also
be due to a common history. It is indeed
barely conceivable that the history, from first
to last, would ever be so rigorously identical in
two parts of the globe as to produce complex
identical forms in both ; because any diversity
either in structure or external conditions may
be the starting point of a wide diversity in
subsequent development, and the case of organic
combinations is so far unlike the inorganic
that while only one form is possible to the latter
(chalk is either formed or not formed), many
forms are possible to organic elements owing to

io6 Permanence and Evolution.

the complexity and indefiniteness of organic
composition. But though forms so allied as
those of species are not readily assignable to
an identical history in different parts of the
globe, it is not only conceivable, but is eminently
probable, that orders and classes have no nearer
link of relationship than is implied in their
community of organised substance and their
common history. . . . When we find the metal
tin in Prussia and Cornwall and nowhere else in
Europe, must we not conclude that in those two
countries, and nowhere else, a peculiar conjunc-
tion of conditions caused this peculiar evolution."
These remarks appear to me to be true and
irrefragable ; but if we accept such views, what
becomes of the argument for evolution from
geographical distribution, the argument from
ontogeny, or still more what becomes of the
profound assumption that resemblance between
organised beings necessarily or probably implies
community of descent. Lewes's combination of

Permanence and Evolution. 107

evolutionist and anti-evolutionist views may
possibly be the truth. I see no particular im-
probability in it, but I do not see how it could
ever be demonstrated, or even raised above the
position of a mere conjecture, unless we could
actually witness the making of organised
beings.

Also it is necessarily supposed, not indeed by
all evolutionists, but by all pure Darwinians,
that organised beings have their structure de-
termined by no strictly internal principle, but
only by an indefinite tendency to vary in all
directions, taken advantage of by natural selec-
tion, giving permanence and gradual increase
to such modifications as are favourable to the
creature in the struggle for life ; but the
naturalists who urge this are usually the same
who insist very strongly on the analogy between
living beings and crystals, in which analogy
they seem, to themselves, to see the key to the
secret of physical life at any rate. Now crystals

roS Permanence and Evolution.

develop their symmetrical and typical structure
under the influence of strictly internal laws,
grounded in the nature and chemical com-
position of each particular crystal, and with
which, as they are not propagated by gen-
eration,, natural selection, and the survival of
the fittest, cannot conceivably have anything
to do.

It would seem then, that, according to Darwin,
whereas the different species of crystals develop
themselves in symmetrical forms, each of most
stiff and unyielding type, organisms which are
now very generally supposed to be, as it were,
crystals raised to a higher power, are evolved
from formless protoplasm ; or from a single cell
with no fixed or internal principle of develop-
ment by the mere influence of, ist, a tendency
to vary in all directions, 2ndly, the opposite
tendency to remain in the groove once impressed,
3rdly, the influence of natural selection. It
appears, therefore, to me that the analogy of

Permanence and Evolution. 109

crystals points much more to the fixity than to
the mutability of organised beings, and especially
tells dead against pure Darwinism.

From this point of view I join issue in toto with
Kovalewski ( " Osteology of the Hyopotamida,"
Philo. Trans., 1873, pp. 44, 45), whose remarks
are as follows : — " The extreme constancy in the
relations of the bones in all paradigitata being
ascertained, the problem which is unavoidably
presented to the mind of the observer may be
stated thus : very irregular small bones, intended
to constitute a movable articulation between the
long bones of the extremity and the metatarsals
and metacarpals, arranged themselves in a certain
way in reference to each other, and to these meta-
tarsals and metacarpals this arrangement remains
the same in all paridigitata, recent as well as
fossil, notwithstanding the greatest diversity of
form, size, and habits of life ; and if some slight
change is to be seen, it is due clearly to the
over-development of certain digits, and conse-

no Permanence and Evolution.

quent reduction of others ; but in all cases the
reason of change is at once apparent

" How can such similarity in animals so entirely
different be explained ? To all naturalists who
accept the gradual descent and differentiation
of all paridigitata from one common form, the
fact must appear as a perfectly reasonable and
intelligible one. If the immediate progenitor
of the paridigitata presented the given arrange-
ment of the tarsal and carpal bones, then, at
the gradual differentiation of this type, every
small change in one bone called forth a corre-
sponding change in all its neighbours ; and as
the link that connects all the forms together
was never destroyed, and the changes were
slowly going on, we meet now, in the extremely
differentiated descendants, a unity of organi-
sation which was inevitable, if all these forms
descended from one common progenitor.

" But if, leaving the point of view of evolu-
tionists, we look at the matter from the special

Permanence and Evolution. 1 1 1

creation principle, this similarity of structure
in animals so widely different is really an
awkward fact. To the supporters of special
creation, the question presents itself in its
simplest form thus : we have now on the earth
a large assemblage of paridigitate mammals,
presenting widely diversified generic and specific
forms, fitted for the most different conditions
of life, some leading an amphibious existence,
sharing the large streams with crocodiles, while
others inhabit inaccessible rocks or burning
sand plains ; some heavy and sluggish, others
light and swift, etc. And yet the creative force,
in calling separately into existence these diver-
sified forms, made them all on one plan, and
this to such an extent that even the seven bones
of the carpus and tarsus, notwithstanding their
irregular shape, were always arranged in the
same way, so that a certain facet of one bone
always touched a certain particular facet of
another, and never otherwise.

1 1 2 Permanence and Evolution.

"That this could really occur in every
separate case of creation is almost as probable
as that seven dice thrown out of a dice-box
should give us the same number of points
similarly arranged in a hundred successive
throws. Notwithstanding the thousands of
different ratios which might exist between seven
multangular bones, we get always only one, and
in the whole range of living and extinct animals
we see no exception to the common rule of
typical arrangement of the carpal and tarsal
bones. The point at issue is, can this uniformity
be accounted for by the principle of special
creation, or by the theory of descent and modi-
fication ? No naturalist can in our time hesitate
between the two, and while all the adduced facts
are wholly inexplicable by the first theory, they
seem most natural in the light of the second.
We may still not be fully informed as to all the
true causes which induced the variation and
consequent differentiation of animal types ; but

Permanence and Evolution. 113

the principle of descent must be conceded as
the only one by which all future researches
into the structure of the extinct world must be
guided."

Here we find, very well expressed, the (as it
appears to me) fundamentally erroneous mode
of thought of which I am speaking. When he
asks why, on the hypothesis of special creation,
the carpal and tarsal bones of the paridigitata
are all formed on one plan, it is as if any one
should ask, why do the other bodies of the uni-
verse, as judged by the spectrum and the analysis
of meteorites, contain the same elements, i.e.,
the same combination of sensible properties as
this earth does, instead of exhibiting any groups
of attributes that the mind can picture ? Why
do all the planets turn on their axes ? Why
are the laws of light the same, whether it
proceeds from our sun, or from the remotest
fixed star which the telescope can reveal ? Why
do chemical elements combine in definite pro-

I

1 1 4 Permanence and Evolution.

portions, instead of in all imaginable ? Why does
every particle of matter gravitate equally ? Why,
to sum up, is the world a kosmos and not a
chaos ? * That this is so renders physical science
possible — why this should be so physical science
can render no reason. We may either seek an
answer elsewhere, in the realm of religion or
metaphysics, or we may, with Auguste Comte,
pronounce the question unanswerable, and the
attempt to solve it simply a waste of the powers
of the human mind ; but in any case, it cannot
surprise us that the universal principle of har-
mony and order which pervades the whole of
nature, also permeates the whole of organic life,
and is there most perfectly exemplified. Nor
ought we, without positive evidence, to call into
account for the harmonious analogies found in

* And if it should at any future time be proved, as some
expect it will, that all forms of matter are modifications of one
simple element, the question would only recur with increased
emphasis ; why does every particle of matter in the universe, at
bottom resemble every other particle ?

Permanence and Evolution. 115

animals and plants, special causes like generative
descent, natural selection, and the like, which
are, from their very nature, inapplicable to the
inorganic ; yet it is probable that such reasonings
as those I have quoted, in spite of their radical
fallacy, have done more for the spread of evolu-
tionism than conjectures as to the origin of the
fantail pigeon, or legends of the Porto Santo
rabbit, and that those last have much rather
attained their currency owing to a previous bias
in many minds in favour of transcendental
evolutionism, than vice versa.

It is often said by evolutionists, if you do not
believe that species arose by evolution, how do
you think they did arise ? Do you think they
started out of the ground as they now are ? To
which the proper answer is- — I have simply no
theory as to how these races, species, or ©ther,
arose ; but I think I can show negatively that it
was by some process we cannot at present grasp.
But do you think we shall ever understand it ?

1 1 6 Permanence and Evolution.

Even that I hold it premature to affirm or deny.
As I said before, it seems easier to imagine that
a horse was evolved out of an ass, than that
it was produced in any other way, specially if
we disguise the real incomprehensibility by
multiplying imaginary intermediate links ; but
it does not follow that it is really easier in
nature.

It would seem to the eye of a layman (and
with regard to the origin of life we are all lay-
men) easier to make one salt out of another
salt closely resembling it, than out of an acid
and a base which do not resemble it at all.
Yet we know that the one is possible, and the
other supremely impossible. So to a savage
it would no doubt seem easier to turn, say,
a watch on the Swiss horizontal principle into
an English chronometer, than to make the last
anew out of bare metals ; yet in point of fact
the Swiss watch, as such, could not be con-
verted, but would have to be entirely re-

Permanence and Evolution. 117

constructed. Organised beings, whatever else
they are, are certainly machines far more won-
derful and complicated than any made by
human art, and towards these machines we
stand related as a savage does to the manu-
factured products of civilised ingenuity.

The " doctrine of special creation " has been
sometimes opposed to that of evolution in such a
way as to imply that whoever is not an evolu-
tionist has no choice but to believe that organic
forms originated not only apart, i.e., not by
generation one from the other, but also without
any physical link between them, so that their
resemblance cannot be physically explained in
any way. But it is not more likely that
organised productions, springing up separately,
should not show traces of having been formed
under the influence of the same general laws
than that crystals should not.

Let us for instance suppose that , organised
beings are merely chemical products of exces-

1 1 8 Permanence and Evolution.

sive complexity — of complexity proportioned
to their elevation as organisms, and whose
systematic affinity is dependent on the resem-
blance between their elements, and that the
excessive rarity of their appearance de nova
on this planet arises from the complexity
and consequent rarity of the collocations of
matter necessary to produce them ; this hypo-
thesis, though totally without positive evidence
to support it — and I certainly do not mean to
propose or defend it, is in itself quite as clear and
definite, and (what is called) explains the facts
about as well as the hypothesis of evolution.

To me it seems that the reason why the hypo-
thesis of evolution appears to many so much
more easily conceivable than any other mode of
origination, arises mainly from utterly vague and
inadequate notions as to the strictness of in-
heritance, which vagueness is itself the result of
forming our notions mainly from highly mixed
races, such as civilised man and domestic animals.

Permanence and Evolution. 119

Eminent German Darwinians, or rather hyper-
Darwinians, have said that the hypothesis of
evolution in its strictly Darwinian form is no
more to be considered an hypothesis than the
law of gravitation ; and we are told that the one
proves itself true by explaining the facts, as
much as the other. But here the fallacy lies in
the word explain. Newton went through a
number of calculations stupendously vast, com-
plicated, and exact, and found that these calcu-
lations came . exactly right when compared with
the facts of nature. If this had not been possible,
and had not been done, Newton's labours would
have gone to limbo with those of many others
who united much crude and semi-mythological
speculation with more or less prevision of, in a
very general sense, the kind of views which
science was destined to establish a long time
after they were dead.

For whether we take strict Darwinism or
any other form of evolutionism, we shall still

I2O Permanence and Evolution.

find it impossible to reduce the hypothesis
to a form definite enough to be capable of
verification. First take the former.

Organised beings are supposed to have a
tendency to vary from unknown causes in un-
known directions. This process may go on so
fast as to produce a form considered by com-
petent naturalists a good species in a few
centuries (Porto Santo rabbit), or even in a few
years (black-winged pea-fowl), or so slowly that
the amphioxus has not yet, through millions of
ages, entirely acquired all the characteristics
of a vertebrate animal. The same strain may
be benefited by developing in opposite direc-
tions, under slightly different circumstances, the
difference being imperceptible with any means
of observation that we can employ. The
modifications go on imperceptibly, and the
geological record is so imperfect, that no reliable
indications can be gathered from it. Unlimited
time is at our disposal, and the way in which

Permanence and Evolution. 121

changes may be beneficial is practically equally
unlimited.

It is plain that such a view, resting on a
cause of which we neither a priori know the
nature, nor inductively can calculate any laws,
enables us to take advantage of any facts
that seem favourable, and to ignore all of a
contrary tenour. If Newton could have sup-
posed the centripetal and centrifugal forces to
proceed at uncertain rates, and to counteract
each other indefinitely, he would have saved
himself a life of labour, but also have ranked as
a physicist with Fludd or Campanella. And so
here there is nothing which can be required of a
Darwinian. There is nothing of which it can
be said, if Darwinism is true this must be, the
hypothesis is too elastic. But still, one or two
remarks may-be made by way of showing the
reason why I, personally, think that whatever
else is the origin of species, natural selection
certainly is not. It does not seem to me that

122 Permanence and Evolution.

natural selection will explain how the higher
races were evolved out of the lower. Natural
selection tends to make races improve only in
the sense of such modifications being preserved
as tend to better adaptation to the circumstances
under which they are placed.

It is not that this implies greater complexity
of organs, or what we generally mean by higher
development. I think existing facts point rather
to the idea that the lowest forms are those
which best fill their places in nature. It does
not appear that it would be easier to extir-
pate vermes than frogs, or frogs than mammals.
It seems, on the contrary, that insects and
fish swarm as higher beings never do. The
way in which natural selection would be most
likely to act would be by conferring fertility,
hardiness, and early maturity — fertility to make
up for losses by enemies or disease ; hardi-
ness to enable the creature to live on little
food, or various kinds of food, and resist

Permanence and Evolution. 123

climate ; early maturity to minimise the waste
of energy produced by the mother having to
cater for and protect her helpless young.

Now, it cannot be maintained that in these
points the higher animals exhibit any superiority
over the lower. In fertility they are immeasur-
ably inferior; in hardiness, probably, on the
whole inferior ; enormously inferior in earliness
of maturity. Now, hardiness and fertility and
(though in a very much less degree) early matu-
rity, are points in which closely allied forms
differ much, e.g., the hare and rabbit, or different
families of the same domestic breed of any
animal.* Therefore, on evolutionist principles,
it would have been, so to say, an easy task for
nature, and one which would have taken a com-
paratively short time (the importance of this last
point will appear later on) to have brought all

* These characters are also of such a nature that they would
remain beneficial to the creature under any conceivable change
of conditions, and so not be liable to the difficulty urged at
pp. 135, 136.

124 Permanence and Evolution.

forms in existence, say toward the middle of the
secondary period, up to the highest possible
standard of efficiency, in these respects, pre-
serving the general type, rather than to have
invented so many wonderful modifications, only
indirectly affecting the preservation of indi-
vidual and race. Instead of which, we find in
these all-important points not progression, but
retrogression — precisely the opposite course to
what natural selection would pursue.

In the highest, therefore, according to Darwin,
the latest developed of brutes, the anthropoid
apes, we find considerably lower fertility than
in most other animals, a longer period of infancy
compared with the whole life of the creature,
and a most delicate constitution ; and it cannot
be said that an animal inhabiting the tropics
has no need of a constitution formed to resist
cold, for in all countries there are relatively
cold seasons, which would press hard upon a
chimpanzee or an orang. So that these high

Permanence and Evolution. 125

primates must have lost instead of gaining (as
far as the struggle for existence is concerned)
in the course of their development out of lower
types.

I think the only reason why these facts
have not hitherto received as much attention
as is their due, is from the want of sufficient
distinction between " advance," " improvement,"
in the sense of " increased adaptation to the
conditions of life, in the respects important to
the continuance of the race," and the same
words in the sense of "increased complexity
of organs." An hypothesis of retrogression
would probably be more consistent with natural
selection than one of progress, but would land
its adherents, if it had any, in still more hope-
less difficulties, both by the impossibility of
finding any one standard of perfection from
which all forms could have degenerated, and
from collision with the palseontological and
ontogenical evidence.

126 Permanence and Evolution.

In one most important part of the animal
kingdom, however, a consistent evolutionist
will be forced by ontogeny to assume retro-
gression where progress has hitherto been
assumed. I allude to the anthropoid apes,
whose young are much more like man than
the adults are afterwards, and we must therefore
suppose, unless we give up the idea hitherto
maintained by nearly all evolutionists, and
which is one of the bulwarks of the develop-
ment theory, that the growth of the indi-
vidual pictures in miniature the growth of the
race, we must suppose that these are de-
generated from a human or semi-human con-
dition, while the real series of missing links
between man and the lower monkeys has been
hopelessly lost, which, though a necessary con-
sequence of the theory, makes wider still a gap
already quite wide enough.

In addition to the many other considerations
•which put it into the power of Darwinians to

Permanence and Evolution. 127

accommodate their hypothesis to almost any
conceivable state of things there is this primary
reason, that almost every characteristic of
an organised being can be plausibly repre-
sented as beneficial or injurious to it, or
may serve a turn on different grounds, as,
for instance, large size is an advantage to one
individual or family strain of a given race, in
competition for food for females, etc. ; on the
other hand, small size is an advantage to a race,
by enabling a greater number to be supported
on the same area, thus making the chances of
extermination by accidents less, and on Dar-
winian principles increasing the chance of favour-
able variations arising. So, whereas we usually
think conspicuous colour must be disadvantage-
ous to creatures liable to the attacks of beasts of
prey, it is suggested by Wallace that the stripes
of the zebra may be beneficial to it, by enabling
individuals the sooner to recognise and rejoin
their companions. If so, it would seem that

128 Permanence and Evolution.

the " desert colour " must be injurious to the
wild asses who exhibit it ; though it is generally
supposed to have been given, or acquired, as a
protection against wild beasts. So, in case we
had reason to suppose that the earliest animals
were omnivorous, it could easily be explained
how carnivorous and herbivorous animals were
evolved ; for, on the principle of division of
labour, it is obvious that a stomach adapted to
digest either flesh or vegetables, must do its
work less well than one of a more exclusive
character ; while if, on the other hand, primitive
animals appeared to be either purely carnivorous,
or purely herbivorous, why, then, the matter
would be still plainer. What an advantage would
any strain of beasts have who developed ca-
pacity for a more varied diet What additional
resources they would have in time of casual
scarcity. How much better their chances of
survival, and how wedded must any one be to
obsolete prejudices, who refused to see a truth
so obvious.

Permanence and Evolution. 129

So the rudimentary organs, on which so
much stress is laid, as traces of former perfect
organs, could probably be about as well inter-
preted as indicating the stages by which the
organs were developed, and the genealogy of
the horse be read in an inverted sense, were
Equus Eocene and Orohippus modern. How far
from the precision of a scientific law, or even a
scientific hypothesis, is a theory which furnishes
such easy explanations of almost any conceiv-
able state of facts, however opposite !

Also it ought to be considered that while
endeavours have often been made by Dar-
winists to trace the mode by which the
larger divisions have been evolved one from
the other, pedigrees have been drawn up of the
descent of mammals on the one hand, and birds
on the other, from reptiles as a common root,
and this has been done with some plausibility,
though no one, I should think, can fail to see
how remote this is from anything that can be even

K

130 Permanence and Evolution.

supposed to rest on positive evidence ; yet, on
the other hand, when they attempt to account for
the origin of the differences which divide closely
allied species, while, no doubt, the thing con-
jectured is less startling to the imagination, and
is nearer to what is commonly supposed to be a
known fact, the origin of domestic breeds from
one stock, yet, at the same time, it is found
simply impossible to give any even plausible
theory of the mode of development on the doc-
trine of natural selection.

Take, for instance, the Fringillidae or the
Columbae. What we see is a number of
forms, closely similar in general organisa-
tion and type, differing in a great number of
minor points, apparently unconnected with
each other, or with any teleological purpose
these forms existing on the same area, with
much the same habits, food, etc. I think it is
impossible to overrate the enormous difficulties
this state of things offers in the way of pure

Permanence and Evolution. 131

Darwinism. I do not mean to say that it can
be proved to be impossible that all these types
have been formed by natural selection. We
know so little of the mutual interdependence of
the parts of any organism, and of their relation
to the creature's surroundings, that we cannot
say of any one character that it cannot have
been acquired by natural selection.

But I think it cannot reasonably be denied
that the impression produced by the facies
of any genus or family is as unlike as any-
thing can be to what natural selection might
be expected to produce, unaided by some far
profounder and more penetrating cause of
likeness and unlikeness. What we should
expect unaided natural selection to show us
would be a multitude of forms differing in
nothing but some one or two points, often or
generally traceable to the creature's habitat
and the conditions of life under which it exists.
Anything more opposite to what we actually do

132 Permanence and Evolution.

find cannot well be imagined ; and this unlikeness
makes pure Darwinism, to say the least, ex-
tremely implausible, and as a certain plausibility
is the only ground for attaching importance to
the evolution hypothesis in any form, this is suffi-
cient for the condemnation of the theory of natural
selection pure and simple, which, possessing a
kind of apparent likelihood, as long as we keep
in the regions of the purely vague, as the evo-
lution of mammals from reptiles, yet is seen to
break down utterly when we attempt to apply it
to such more concrete problems, as the develop-
ment of the horse, ass, and zebra from one
common origin. On any other form of evo-
lutionism these particular remarks have, of
course, no bearing whatever.

Also it may be asked with truth : Darwinism
rests on the supposition that all the characters
of an organised being are acquired by natural
selection, or are correlated with attributes so
acquired ; but these correlations, whence do they

Permanence and Evolution. 133

come ? How come indifferent, or sometimes
noxious, characters to be correlated with others
that are useful ? How came it about that
animals have to pass through a long period of
infancy? Would not the tendency of natural
selection be to attenuate this time of weakness
and helplessness to nothing ? whereas in man we
find it longer than in any of the lower animals.

Also, after all that has been said by Dar-
winians, it remains an enormous difficulty that
nothing, or next to nothing, has been discovered
which can be interpreted as a vestige of the
innumerable fine transitional links which must
have existed between species of the same genus,
and genera of the same family.

Connecting links are supposed to have been
found between the horse and the tapir, and
between Canidae and Insectivora. In such dis-
coveries there is evidently great room for
conjecture and subjective bias.

But of the way in which e.g. the various Equi

134 Permanence and Evolution.

proper were developed from one root, if evolu-
tionism be true, we know as little as ever, and
I think that what Darwin has said against this
must strike a candid reader as a mere plea in
extenuation rather than anything else.

There are, besides, some particular characters
for which it is difficult to account. Take, for
instance, the instinct or principle of attachment to
man, which we find in some animals. When this
is seen in long-domesticated animals like the
dog, and some individual cats, or the horse, it
may easily be supposed to have been gradually
developed by methodical selection ; but we have
fairly good evidence of this attachment being
shown in a considerable degree by wolves
taken young from the forest and tamed (see
Griffith's " Cuvier," vol. ii. p. 342, et seq. ; Lloyd,
" Scandinavian Adventures," vol. i. p. 460, et seq. ;
Lloyd, " Northern Field Sports," vol. i. p. 345,
et seq.}. It is understood to be conspicuously
manifested by the elephant, an animal which

Permanence and Evolution. 135

never breeds in confinement, and every indi-
vidual of which is forest born; and this same
principle of loyal attachment to a human master
is also very strongly marked in the bullfinch, a
bird which breeds scarcely at all in confinement.
I have known a bullfinch which refused to eat
on being separated from its mistress ; while on
the other hand, the canary, though of the same
family, now long domesticated, shows little or no
attachment to man whatever. Now how is it
conceivable that wild animals should acquire
by natural selection the tendency to love man ?
Of what use could it be to them in a state of
nature ? *

It also seems to me that there is another
point which has not been enough remembered.
The whole hypothesis goes on the idea that we
have practically unlimited time to dispose of.

Lately arguments, whose force (from ignorance
of the subjects dealt with) I am entirely unable
* See Note, p. 173.

136 Permanence and Evolution.

to estimate, have been brought forward to show
that the time occupied by the past history of
organic life, though vast, is still confined within
definite and ascertainable limits. But whether
this be so or not, I think it is not remembered
that when we speak of natural selection gradually
by insensible modification producing characters
advantageous to the race under particular cir-
cumstances, we ought to consider the likelihood
that before the organism is vastly changed the
circumstances may be changed too, whether the
circumstances be cold, heat, moisture or the
presence of noxious, or food-producing other
organic forms, etc. It will be a race between
the permanence of a given type and that of its
surroundings, and when we consider that within
the period since we can be sure of the existence of
the present varieties of man (the polished stone
period, probably about 8,000 or 10,000 years ago
at least), no organic form seems as far as we
know to have changed in a state of nature, while

Permanence and Evolution. 137

changes of the land- and sea- line, the extinction,
local or entire, of many forms, all changes con-
nected with the spread of man, must have
greatly altered the surroundings of every form
now existing. Considering this, it seems likely
that the type would prove more obstinate than
its external conditions.

It may also be not unfairly argued that Dar-
win's theory of sexual selection is not very con-
sistent with his general principles. In the first
place, it is said that (bright or conspicuous)
" colour being dangerous, ought not to exist in
nature," and there is no doubt that, cceteris
paribuSy dull colour is an advantage in harm-
less animals, by concealing them from their
natural enemies — in animals of prey, by hiding
their approaches from their victims ; to which
it has been answered that only those forms are
bright-coloured which have some other means of
protection. But granting this, still, on Dar-
winian principles, strains which were dull-

138 Permanence and Evolution.

coloured would have an advantage, and would
gradually supplant the others, there being no
reason why they should have less of any other
protection.

Here comes in the theory of sexual selection
by which it is supposed that female animals,
especially birds, prefer the brightest coloured
males, who consequently when (having some
other protection) they are not absolutely
stopped by natural selection, have more progeny
than others, etc. We shall, I think, see later that
there is no evidence for this preference of
females ; but if it were a fact, it could be no
more permanent or immutable than anything
else in the animal constitution, mental or
physical ; it must have been acquired, and
acquired too in the teeth of natural selection,
because those strains of animals whose females
had a taste for less gaudy and more useful
coloured mates, would gradually supplant those
families whose females had more frivolous tastes,

Permanence and Evolution. 139

till in course of time dull colouring and the
preference for it would be established throughout
the animal kingdom.

But there are many evolutionists who are
not strict Darwinians, none of whom have at-
tempted to give their views the same systematic
distinctness as Darwin has to his. But before
considering this subject it will be well to say a
few more words on sexual selection, by which
the lacunse in the hypothesis of natural selection
are attempted to be filled up. The hypothesis
rests on these alleged facts : —

That the law of battle prevails extensively in
nature ; also (which last is what is principally
meant by sexual selection) that female animals
exercise an extensive power of choice among
males ; that they select such as exhibit slight
variations in plumage, etc., which happen to be
attractive to them, who therefore have a better
chance of leaving offspring than others, and that
this is the origin of the complicated and brilliant

140 Permanence and Evolution.

colours of animals. On this it may be said, as I
have already pointed out, these preferences on
the part of female animals extending in the same
direction from generation to generation, sup-
posing them to be a fact, require to be accounted
for like any other characteristic of animal races,
and they would seem to run in the teeth of
natural selection, which would have developed
females with a taste for subfusc and safe
coloured males.

Also it is involved in all the nebulous
vagueness of Darwinism generally. If male
animals are decorated with colours to us
beautiful, evidently this is the result of selection
by successive generations of females. If the
colours are not beautiful to us, who knows what
kind of taste the female animals may have ? If
the sexes are coloured almost uniformly, why
then characters originally belonging to the male
only have been transmitted to both sexes,
whereas in other closely allied forms, as near, for

Permanence and Evolution. 141

instance, as the common to the green-necked
peacock, they are transmitted to males only
without our being able to assign any reason for
the difference. Birds, for instance, are much
more beautifully coloured and more sexually
different than mammals ; have female mammals
less taste or power of choice than female birds ?

But the great objection to sexual selection is
total want of evidence for this supposed prefer-
ence of female birds for abnormally coloured
males. This evidence is attempted to be sup-
plied by various anecdotes, which show certainly
that female animals often exercise choice, but do
not at all show that their choice is regulated by
any principles corresponding to what we call
aesthetic. Nor does it well agree with what we
know of the psychology of brutes to suppose
that it is. I can see no reason to think that
modifications in the colour of animals con-
siderable enough to be noticed would be agree-
able to the females, but rather Lthe reverse.

142 Permanence and Evolution.

Some traces of a love of bright colours may
perhaps be found among some animals, but the
rule I think is contrary, and we know that
creatures at all different in appearance from
their compeers are almost certain to be baited.
The. whole notion of gay colours in males being
attractive to female animals is derived, I think,
from a most unsafe source, the anthropopathic
interpretation of the instinctive actions of
animals, of those actions which all animals
of the same race-type perform in the same
manner, such as their gestures in courting the
female.

It is necessary, however, to take notice of
Grant Allen's attempt to account for sexual
selection. His theory is that females learn to
prefer bright colours when they are accustomed
to feed upon bright-coloured fruits and seeds,
and he attempts to show this in detail, though,
as it appears to me, with very considerable par-
tiality. The thing which requires to be accounted

Permanence and Evolution. 143

for (letting alone that sexual selection is quite
unproved) is not simply the presence of bright,
but the presence of various different bright
colours, arranged often in beautifully symmetri-
cal patterns, separately characteristic of different
living forms.

It is true that the most conspicuously beautiful
birds, as, for instance, humming-birds and sun-
birds, are fruit-eating ; but Grant Allen does not
attempt to point out any particular relation
between their colours and that of the fruits
they feed on, though in the Colour Sense (p. 185)
he insinuates that this might be done. Yet it is
evident that till such a test is applied nothing
has been really done for the support of his
hypothesis. If the colouration, say of birds, is
determined by the predilection of the females,
then female birds have an eye for minute shades
of difference amid exquisite arrangements of
colours, and of different strains of female birds
each has retained and improved through count-

144 Permanence and Evolution.

less ages its own pet colour and pet arrangement.
If these predilections of female birds are to be
accounted for by their food, then birds with
much blue in their plumage must feed on blue
fruits, those with bright yellow on yellow fruits,
and how the arrangement of colours is to be
accounted for on that principle I cannot guess,
nor has Allen given any hint. Even if we find
a certain plausibility in Allen's hypothesis, as
long as we limit ourselves to divisions of the
largest generality, how is it to be applied to
closely allied species of the same genus with
similar habits ? Allen, for instance, singles out
the bullfinch as the most notable of our brighter-
coloured finches, and as specially fruit-eating ;
but is the bullfinch really brighter than the gold-
finch or chaffinch ? Again, why are grass-eating
mammalia never green ? According to Allen's
theory one would think cattle and sheep ought
to be predominantly so. Is it answered that
green, through its commonness or any other

Permanence and Evolution. 145

reason, does not impress the eye of female
animals ? Then why is bright green one of the
commonest elements in the colouration of the
more brilliant birds ? As applied to mammals,
this theory breaks down still more completely,
and Allen is obliged to strain his instances very
much. For instance, the monkeys, though
affording some brightly coloured forms, are in
general a particularly dark or subfusc family.
The squirrels, again, offer no particular support
to his theory, their colouration offering a remark-
able analogy to that of the canines. Seriously,
who can contemplate the systematic colour of
the spotted and striped felines or viverrines, or
the systematic and delicate though not bright
markings of so many birds — the sea-gulls, for
instance — and think that they stand in any
relation to their food ? And the markings of the
bright-coloured birds stand in sufficient relation
to these to make us sure that the phenomena
are of like kind. Grant Allen accounts for the

L

146 Permanence and Evolution.

colour of flowers in a way which it does not lie
within the province of this work to criticize, yet
even he is compelled to admit that the brilliant
colouration of such large classes, as sea-slugs,
sea anemones, etc., cannot thus be accounted
for. On the whole, I consider that Allen has
failed to make out his case with any probability,
and that there is no reason to think he has
removed any of the difficulties attaching to
sexual selection.

To continue the subject, none of the evolu-
tionists who are not Darwinians proper have
attempted to give much systematic detail to
their views. Sometimes the direct effects of
known conditions (temperature, moisture, etc.)
have been called in to fill up the deficiency, but
these effects are so plainly incapable of pro-
ducing the complex results we find, that much
time need not be spent in discussing them.
There is not really any evidence that colour is
permanently affected by climatic change ; geo-

Permanence and Evolution. 147

graphical races marked mainly by colour often
correspond with geographico-climatic areas ; but
there is no evidence of a race or a family strain
changing its colour through climatic influences ;
in fact, our most ordinary experience with
domestic animals is enough to show us that
strains of any and every colour may be kept
for any length of time under every sort of
climatic conditions without any change. But
these writers of whom I am now speaking
generally refuse any kind of definition of the
conditions of life on which they lay such stress.
Witness Dr. Andrew Murray, "Geographical
Distribution of Mammals." The only other
form I know of the evolution hypothesis is that
which supposes types to develop fresh sub-types
in a way somewhat analogous to the growth
of the organic individual, and to this I can see
no particular objection ; but neither do I see any
particular reason in its favour, and I do not
think that much is explained by supposing it

148 Permanence and Evolution.

without any positive evidence. Somewhat
similar views are entertained by Mr. Mivart,
" Genesis of Species ; " but much of what he says
seems (though intended only against Dar-
winism) really to tell against the hypothesis of
evolution in any form, while his instances in
support of sudden modifications are mostly
doubtful. I allude specially to what Mivart
says on independent similarities of structure.
He specially instances the sub-divisions of Mar-
supials corresponding to many of the orders of
Placentals (the thylacine to the Carnivores, the
kangaroos to the Macroscelides, the wombat
to Rodents), which suggested at one time to
Huxley the idea that these marsupial sub-
orders were the origin from which the placental
ones had been developed. If this be true, the
characters marking a Placental as distinguished
from a Marsupial must have been several times
independently developed ; if we take the more
common view, viz., that all Placentals and all

Permanence and Evolution. 149

Marsupials came respectively from one imme-
diate stock, then the characters which, e.g.,
the thylacine has in common with Canis,
and so on, must have been independently de-
veloped.

A similar case he gives is that of the relations
of the Carinate birds (all, except the ostrich
family) with the ancient Pterodactyle reptiles
on the one hand, and of the ostriches with the
ancient Dinosaurian reptiles on the other. Here,
again, there is the same alternative. Either birds
had two origins, so that the distinctive characters
of the class were independently produced, or all
birds originated from Pterodactyle reptiles, and
the characters common to ostriches and dino-
sauria originated independently, or all birds
sprang from Dinosauria, and the similarities
between Carinate birds and Pterodactyle reptiles
were separately evolved. These instances Mivart
considers " a dilemma, either horn of which bears
a threatening appearance to the exclusive sup-

150 Permanence and Evohition.

porters of natural selection," because "on this
theory the chances are almost indefinitely
against the independent accidental preservation
of two similar series of minute variations re-
sulting in the independent development of two
closely similar forms,"* and he considers that
any other form 'of the evolution hypothesis is
not affected by the argument ; but it is evident
that the mind, when it is once accustomed to
consider similarity as arising independently of
descent, is likely to have its faith shaken as
to the hypothesis in any form.

The same may be said of Mivart's remarks
on specific variability. He points out with
justice that if species had been formed by
gradual transition, more traces must have re-
mained of the intermediate steps, and thinks
that this difficulty can be avoided by making
the transition sudden, in support of which he
gives instances like that of the black-shouldered

* This, however, seems doubtful. See p. 106.

Permanence and Evolution. 151

peacock and others. Now, even if the black-
winged peacock is a variation, which is doubt-
ful, it is a very slight one, differing, so far as
is known, in colour only. Just in proportion as
we make the transitions between organised
forms sudden, we remove them from the cate-
gory of anything that can even be plausibly
alleged to be observed.

In fact, it may be said that Darwin's best
work has yet rendered the mutability of
organisms more unlikely than before, for while
he has deserved splendidly of science in calling
attention to the principle of natural selection,
it must not be forgotten that natural selection
is a principle which by itself accounts for
nothing else than the preservation and destruc-
tion of various forms of life • in no way by itself
does it account for the origin of new types,
except by supposing in addition an indefinite
variability, for which there is no evidence.
Natural selection is a fact ; no one can doubt

152 Permanence and Evolution.

when his attention has once been called to it,
that of slightly different strains of organised life,
the one which has any trifling advantage is
likely to prevail over the other in the long run ;
but nothing can be inferred from this, unless it
is conjoined with the notion of unlimited varia-
bility, while, contrariwise, natural selection being
certain, any facts which lead to the opinion that
organised forms are not as the unconditional
workings of natural selection, coupled with
spontaneous variability, would have made them,
throw doubt, not on natural selection, but on
the variability of living types.

What are the characters which conduce to
success in the struggle for life ? As I have
elsewhere said, hardiness, omnivorousness, and
fertility, much more than any complicated special
adaptations — witness the rabbit ; these characters
are also what evolutionists call highly variable,
being very different in closely allied forms. Why,
then, has natural selection not stamped these

Permanence and Evolution. 153

characters much more largely than is actually
the case? It seems to show that the material
was intractable, and that therefore living types
were not produced by evolution, or at least not
by evolution under existing conditions.

154 Permanence and Evolution.

THE BEARING OF GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION ON THE ORIGIN
OF LIVING TYPES.

THE geographical distribution of animals and
plants is generally supposed to lend strong
support to the hypothesis of evolution ; and any
mind at all impartial must see that it offers a
nearer approach to evidence than anything else
that can be urged. No one but an advocate
can deny that the general aspect of the facts
connected with organic geography does tend
to suggest the idea that genera, species, etc.,
originate by descent, even if in some manner the
nature of which is now inconceivable ; or, to
express the matter entirely without hypothesis,
it tends to show that a new form of life only

Permanence and Evolution. 155

springs up where closely resembling forms
already exist in the neighbourhood, which of
course suggests descent.

It is now pretty generally known that simi-
larity of products between different areas
depends more on the presence or absence of
communication than on similarity of circum-
stances, and that organic types are diffused,
on the whole, in proportion to the means of
transport possessed by them ; that the number
of forms is small on oceanic islands ; that
barriers of any kind have an important in-
fluence on the facies of the flora or fauna of
any country. This is all true, but it has been
exaggerated. Difficulties have been slurred over.
Then, as I have often said, there will be always
found the difference between adventurous and
cautious minds. It is well if we remember that
conjectures are not science, however much they
may be prophecies of what may be science at
some future period. Sometimes the facts will

156 Permanence and Evolution.

not bear investigation. We find, for instance
("Origin of Species," p. 417), that "no two
marine faunas are more distinct, with hardly
a fish, shell, or crab in common, than those
of the eastern and western shores of South and
Central America. Yet these great faunas are
separated only by the narrow but impassable
Isthmus of Panama." Later investigations,
however, seem to prove (Wallace, " Geo-
graphical Distribution," vol. ii. p. 20) that there
are at least 35 species of shells absolutely
identical, whilst so many more are so close that
they may be only varieties. Nearly 70 others
are distinct but representative species. Of the
genera of marine mollusca, more than 40 are
common to the East and West Coast. Thirty
per cent, of known fish are also identical, not to
mention the affinities shown by Miocene corals.
On these grounds Wallace supposes that the
isthmus has been submerged in comparatively
recent times. Comment on this is superfluous.

Permanence and Evohition. 157

It is simply an instance of over haste ; but there
are other things to be said which cut deeper into
the whole argument.

It has been said, with great primd facie
appearance of justice, that the fact that scarcely
any mammals are found on remote islands
tells strongly in favour of derivation by
descent ; it does not appear why mammals
should not have originated on islands as easily
as other creatures. We know that they are
well capable of maintaining themselves there
wild when once introduced by man, while it is
easy to see the special difficulties there are
to their introduction in a state of nature. It is,
however, remarkable that many islands poor in
mammals contain other creatures whose trans-
port would seem to be equally difficult, as, for
instance, New Zealand, which contains ap-
parently no single indigenous mammal, contains
that remarkable wingless bird the Apteryx, and
contained within the recent period the still more

158 Permanence and Evolution.

remarkable group of Dinornis. Now how was
it easier for these struthious birds to be trans-
ported than for mammals ? Did they come
over with wings and then lose them through
disuse ? But winglessness is characteristic of
the whole struthious order. But New Zealand
is not properly an oceanic island. It was
recently connected with Australia. Then why
has it no native mammal instead of being full
of marsupials ?

Since the time when Darwin wrote that
Batrachia were never found on oceanic
islands, tree frogs have been identified in
the Fiji group (vide Wallace, " Geographical
Distribution," vol. i. p. 449). The same may be
said of the land tortoises of Galapagos. But
the most instructive instance in this respect,
perhaps, is that of the West Indies. There we
have a marked insular fauna, almost no
mammals that are indigenous (although cattle
and goats have flourished and become feral

Permanence and Evolution. 159

under European auspices), but an enormous
profusion of land shells surely as difficult to
transport as mammals. And we know as a
positive fact that large mammals of the
Chinchilla type existed on one and probably
more of the West Indian Islands. Now if the
islands were never connected with the mainland,
how did the large mammals get there ? If they
were once continental, how is it that they no
longer have a continental fauna ? It would
seem that there must be some cause tending to
extinguish mammals on islands after a certain
lapse of time, though they do well enough for
a short period. One cause may evidently be
the greater risk of extirpation within a small
area. We may take it as certain that mammals,
from their large size and comparative confine-
ment to one spot of ground, are amongst the
most easily extirpated of living things ; and, let
us ask, if the small islands of the Pacific had
once been thickly peopled with mammals, what

160 Permanence and Evolution.

chance they would have had against the spears
of the natives in an area of about ten miles
square. I by no means contend that this is the
sole cause, or perhaps even the chief cause, of
the paucity of mammals on small islands, but,
as I have said, I think it proved that there is
some cause hostile to their existence in such
places.

By this and other considerations we are led
to the conclusion that the facts of distribution
can, to a great extent, be shown to have origi-
nated in an opposite manner, not by the
origination of new forms, but by the destruction
of old.

On this subject we may see some suggestive
remarks in Dr. Andrew Murray's " Geographical
Distribution of Mammals," p. 2. On the one
hand an important argument for evolution is
supposed to be derived from the presence or
absence in small islands, etc., of certain large
classes of living forms, on the hypothesis that

Permanence and Evohttion. 161

the distribution of land and sea has remained
much the same since the beginning of the recent
period ; on the other hand we find some evolu-
tionists on zoo-geographical grounds, calling
up huge continents and arms of the sea other-
wise unknown to geologists, thus sapping the
foundations of the former argument.

In fact, there is much reason to think
that towards the end of the tertiary period,
the general facies of the fauna of this planet,
or at all events the northern hemisphere,
was tolerably similar, every type being cos-
mopolitan, while each country had its own
local races, as is the case now in some
groups, say the Canidse, and that what we see
now of certain groups being characteristic of
certain tracts is the result of subsequent extinc-
tion taking place diversely in different parts of
the world. Very often, when judging simply by
the . existing fauna and going on evolutionist
principles, we should be tempted to suppose

M

1 62 Permanence and Evolution.

that special intercourse must have existed once
between two countries ; an examination of their
fossils will show us that the resemblance be-
tween their forms is only that between the two
ends of a long chain, the (geographically) inter-
mediate links of which have become extinct.

For instance, it has been supposed that there
was once a connection between South America
and the Indian Archipelago, and the existence
of races of Tapir in the two has been supposed
to be evidence of this ; but this argument
falls to the ground when we remember that
forms of the same type in the tertiary age
ranged over North America and Europe. Why
types should have become extinct in one place
and not in another sometimes we can tell, but
very often we cannot, any more than an evolu-
tionist can say why a particular variation is
developed in one place rather than in another.
The same applies to the argument for connec-
tion between South America and South Africa

Permanence and Evolution. 163

derived from the presence of Edentata in both,
an order which belonged in tertiary times also
to Europe and North America.

So it is a favourite speculation that there was
once a continent connecting South Africa and
India, but of the common types on which this
is founded many, as for instance the large
felines and the large Pachyderms, can be shown
to be once cosmopolitan ; also the same may
be said as to the Edentata in common between
South Africa and Brazil.

Some other items of circumstantial evidence,
relied upon by evolutionists, seem to be rather
doubtful. For instance, Wallace laid much stress
upon the supposed fact that whereas there was
shallow water from India to Java, and shallow
water again from Celebes to Australia, arguing
land connection in no very remote past, there was
deep sea between, on the one hand, Java and
its appendages, and on the other Celebes and
its appendages, showing that there had been

164 Permanence and Evolution.

no land connection for countless ages, and that
a very marked division between the Indian and
Australian fauna corresponded exactly with
this ; whereas he has now come to the con-
clusion that the Celebes fauna partakes about
equally of both, which latter conclusion is cer-
tainly in accordance with his lists of organised
forms in particular.

Also it ought to be remembered that this
reasoning is deeply tainted by the vice of in-
definiteness, the besetting sin of evolutionist
speculation. When a subject is very obscure,
the habit of calculating all the slight chances
for and against suppositions, which have
nothing in their favour which deserves the
name of serious evidence, is one quite
contrary to the proceedings of science. Nor is
it very easy for evolutionists to make up their
mind whether they suppose land and sea to
have remained pretty constant since the origin
of the present forms of life or their nearest

Permanence and Evohtiion. 165

ancestors, or whether they suppose them to have
greatly changed. If they think the former,
they are involved in great difficulties ; if to
escape these they resort to the latter alternative,
they undermine the whole geographical argu-
ment for evolution. E.g., if South America and
South Africa were ab initio perfectly separate,
how do we account for the presence in both of
atruthious birds ? If they were recently con-
nected by land now submerged, then what
becomes of the argument from the generally
different facies of their faunas ?

Again, how is it explained that the mamma-
lian fauna of Australia consists almost entirely
of marsupials ? To give this any meaning on
the hypothesis of evolution, it must be supposed
that Australia was separated from Asia ever
since the beginning of placental mammalia, i.e.,
at the very beginning of the tertiary period at
least. For marsupials were once dominant over
the whole world, therefore no local product of

1 66 Permanence and Evolution.

Australian conditions. Why did they remain
in Australia and not elsewhere ? The evolu-
tionists can give no answer which does not
imply that the deep but extremely narrow sea
between Bali and Lombok has remained un-
changed since the Eocene period ; rather a large
assumption, considering what we know of geolo-
gical change.

It is evident we have to do with laws we do
not understand and about which conjecture is
rather useless. It is often said that the hypo-
thesis of evolution explains so many facts con-
nected with geographical distribution that we
. may feel sure that the difficulties will be some
day explained ; but every mythological hypo-
thesis was founded on some analogy or other,
and it appears to me that in this case suspension
of judgment is the best.

No one can look at the general facts con-
nected with geographical distribution without
the suggestion of evolution entering his mind,

Permanence and Evolution. 167

but on the other hand, on more minute
investigation, he will find that all his general
views depend on the assumption that hydro-
graphical relations have been much the same
since the origin of existing races or even
existing types of greater generality, while at the
same time he will find himself compelled in
pursuing his notions into detail to suppose
hydrographical changes which must be called
immense, so that he may perhaps be inclined
to feel doubtful of the original suggestion, and
to do more than doubt of evolution; to pro-
nounce dogmatically against it I feel as little
inclined as any man living.

Speaking generally, it may be said that while
large inferences have been drawn as to the
origin of species from comparing the present
state of different countries with the facies of
their fauna, and sometimes from that facies
inferences have been drawn as to the former
geological relations of land and sea, not nearly

1 68 Permanence and Evolution.

enough has been done in tracing these ancient
geological relations as far as possible by inde-
pendent evidence, and comparing the results
arrived at with the distribution past and present
of organised beings. When this has been done,
I believe that it will be evident that though a
certain appearance will still be presented as if
of evolution, yet this appearance is not one
which gains on being pressed into detail, as it
ought to gain if it is to be the foundation ot
a scientific hypothesis ; but, on the contrary,
that it has something of the nature of the
mirage, which when approached recedes further
into the distance.

Permanence and Evolution. 169

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

THUS we see, after reviewing all that is said
for and against the hypothesis of evolution and
the special Darwinian form of it in particular,
that this hypothesis is itself built on doubtful
hypotheses as to variation ; that it starts from
supposed variations under domestication which
are entirely unproved ; then, assuming that some
animals vary in some directions, it infers that
all animals vary in all directions, contrary to
the analogies of the rest of nature ; that many
of the grounds on which it is supported are
inspired by the idea that all like things are in
fact the same thing transmuted, which idea was
at the bottom of alchemy and many other

170 Permanence and Evolution.

mythical dreams ; that the processes by which
evolution is supposed to act are so vague and
undetermined as to be equally incapable of
proof or disproof; that as far as the hypothesis
of natural selection pure and simple is con-
cerned, the facies of animated nature is in many
respects different from what it would be if that
were true, while no other form of evolutionism
has ever assumed even an appearance of scientific
precision ; that the support evolution derives from
geographical distribution, not unjustly supposed
to be its stronghold, is not so great as is com-
monly supposed, and does not become more
when carefully looked into, but the contrary ;
that sexual selection is a dream.

From all these things it seems to me we
must consider that evolution is not only not
a proved law, but not even a scientific hypo-
thesis, but a mere conjecture which may be
proved or disproved at some future period, yet
likely at present to remain a guess. We must

Permanence and Evolution. 171

therefore for the present, provisionally at any
rate, consider as permanent not only what are
called species, but also varieties, sub-breeds, and
very likely family strains ; while as to how
these were originally produced we must be
content to own that we know nothing.

NOTE.

THERE are many more improbabilities attaching to the
belief that living forms, as we see them, are the unaided
products of natural selection, when once we attempt to
pursue it into detail. As, for instance, we may ask, and
it is not easy to give a good answer to the question, how
it can ever happen that an ancestral and an evolved type
exist at the same time, while the links between the two
have perished ? If, for instance, birds have been evolved
from reptiles, reptiles from amphibia, and amphibia from
fish, why have the intermediate links perished while fish
still exist ? ' How come amphibia to coexist with reptiles,
if the transitional links between reptiles and amphibia
have perished ; because, if their intermediate forms were
unable to compete with reptiles, why do amphibia remain ;
specially as the earlier stages of transition must have come
more irito competition with amphibia than with reptiles ?
And the same may be said of reptiles and mammals, the
anthropoid apes and man, etc. It may be said that our
amphibia are not precise representatives of the original
amphibia out of which reptiles were evolved ; but still, for
the present purpose, the type amphibia may be considered
as one. If the original amphibia, preserving the type
amphibia, became so modified as to hold their ground co-
existently with their improved descendants the reptiles,

1 74 Note.

why did this favourable modification not take place in any
of the intermediate stages between the two — which were,
ex hypothesi, an improvement on amphibia, or they would
never have been evolved ?

Also there is another difficulty, even more formidable,
that has been very well put in the "North British Review,"
vol. xlvi. p. 288, et seq. It is that no race could be formed
in a state of nature by a sport, however advantageous,
unless it be supposed, in addition, quite gratuitously to
possess a quite unheard of and almost impossible degree
of prepotence ; because, otherwise, its advantages would
be more than counterbalanced by the numerical superiority
of the original form. "A million creatures are born ;
ten thousand survive to produce offspring. One of the
million has twice as good a chance as any other of sur-
viving ; but the chances are fifty to one against the gifted
individual being one of the hundred survivors. No doubt
the chances are twice as great against any one other
individual ; but this does not prevent their being enor-
mously in favour of some average individual," and the
favourable variation would soon be reabsorbed into the
ordinary form. The Reviewer goes on to say : " An illus-
tration will bring this conception home. Suppose a white
man to have been wrecked on an island inhabited by
negroes, and to have established himself in friendly
relations with a powerful tribe whose customs he has
learnt. Suppose him to possess the physical strength,
energy, and ability of a dominant white race, and let the
food and climate of the island suit his constitution ; grant
him eve^ advantage which we can conceive a white to

Note. 175

possess over the native ; concede that in the struggle for
existence his chance of a long life will be much superior
to that of the native chiefs ; yet from all these admissions,
there does not follow the conclusion that, after a limited
or unlimited number of generations, the inhabitants of
the island will be white. Our shipwrecked hero would
probably become king ; he would kill a great many blacks
in the struggle for existence ; he would have a great
many wives and children, while many of his subjects would
live and die as bachelors ; an insurance company would
accept his life at perhaps one-tenth of the premium
which they would accept from the most favoured of the
negroes. Our white's qualities would certainly tend very
much to preserve him to a good old age ; and yet he
would not suffice in any number of generations to turn his
subjects' descendants white. It may be said that the
white colour is not the cause of the superiority. True ;
but it may be used simply to bring before the senses
the way in which qualities belonging to one individual in
a large number must be gradually obliterated. In the first
generation there will be some dozens of intelligent young
mulattoes, much superior in average intelligence to the
negroes. We might suppose the throne for some genera-
tions to be occupied by a more or less yellow king ; but
can any one believe that the whole island will gradually
acquire a white or even a yellow population, or that the
islanders would acquire the energy, courage, ingenuity,
patience, self-control, endurance, in virtue of which
qualities our hero killed so many of their ancestors, and
begot so many children — those qualities, in fact, which

1 76 Note.

the struggle for existence would select, if it could select
anything ? "

These considerations seem to me conclusive, at any
rate against the formations of complicated organs, like
the eye or the ear, by natural selection ; which would
seem to imply that exceptional and individual variations
not once, but tens or even hundreds of times, have become
common to a whole race. It would seem, then, that while
there are a vast number of characters (those apparently
useless) for which natural selection accounts with great
difficulty — others, the complicated organs, for which it
cannot account at all — there are only such as increased
strength, speed, hardiness, etc., for which it accounts at
all well, even granting indefinite variability ; and as to
these very characters, we find that they are not nearly as
widely diffused as we should expect to find supposing
animal types to be really indefinitely mutable, closely
allied races often differing most remarkably in these very
respects (see above, p. 123, et seq^). Against transmuta-
tion independently of natural selection, this line of argu-
ment tells even more strongly than against Darwinism
proper ; for then, instead of a sport possessing some
striking advantages over the parent form, and gradually
reabsorbed by force of numbers, we have a sport possess-
ing no particular advantages, and therefore certain to
be reabsorbed immediately. All these considerations
impress upon us more and more that the origin of
organic types is at present, and till we have some new
knowledge enabling us to attack the problem in quite
^i different manner, an insoluble mystery.

INDEX.

Abnormally coloured males conjectured to be attractive to female

animals, 141, et seq.

Aborted organs, popular argument for evolutionism, 95, 96
^Esthetic principles, choice of female animals not regulated by>

141

Africa, South, and tropical America, their relations, 162, 163
African pigs, 39

Agassiz, maintained that man was created in nations, 2
Albinism, 81

Alchemists, their views compared with those of evolutionists, 102
would have supposed that all crystals sprung from one

crystal, 103
Allen, Grant, his attempt to account for sexual selection, its

failure, 142, et seq.
America, South, 162

, marine fauna of shores of South and Central, 156

, North, 162, 163

American polygenist school, 4

wolf and fox, 8, 75, 76

Analogies, harmonious, in animals and plants, 114, 115

Ancon, breed of sheep, 52

Animal forms, their specific unity commonly supposed to be

proved by fertile interbreeding, 6

N

1 78 Index.

Animal forms, their distinctions less pronounced in youth, 96, 97

nations, 46, 85

Animals, geographical distribution of, 154, et sea.

, domestic, 28, et seq.

, female, whether they prefer brightly coloured males, 138

, their instinctive actions not safe to interpret anthropo-

pathically, 142

" Animals and Plants," Darwin's work quoted, 17-20, et seq. 48
Apteryx, its useless wings, 95
Asinus Onager and Hemippus, 7

, Taniopus, 35

Aurochs, 40

Australia, its fauna, 163, et seq.

B

Bagadotten carrier-pigeon, its type, 68

Bakewell, his famous longhorns, 46 n.

Barbs (pigeons), 65

Batrachia, Darwin's assertion as to, 158

Battle, law of, among animals, 139

Bees, hive, 74

Behring Straits, wolves and foxes on both sides of, 8

Birds, female, 138

Bison, Lithuanian and American, 40

Black-red game-fowls, 69

Black- winged peacock, 71, et seq.

Blyth, first a polygenist, afterwards an evolutionist, 4

• on differences between European and Indian cow, 16, 40

on undescribed wild asses, 35

on races of wild sheep, 49

Boar, wild, of Europe, compared with domestic pigs, 36, 37
Bos-primigenius, 41

longifrons, 41

troclioceroS) 41

— akin to the niata cow, 48
Brazil, 39

Index. 1 79

Breeders, modern, nature of changes effected by, 43, et seq.

, erect the abstraction, a breed, into a fetish, 84

Breeds, 3, II, 42
of dog, 29

— of cat, 31

— , dun-striped, of horse, 33

of ass, 35

, Darwin speaks of, when he ought to speak of individuals,

34
— - do not spring each from one only stock, 71

-of hog, 36, 37
, the long-horned, of ox, 46

— of sheep said to have originated in modern times, 50
of rabbit, 53-56

of pigeon, 59, et seq.

Sanson on the, 67, 68

• of fowl, 69, 70

of duck, 71

Brent, a polygenist, 2, cited, 62

Broca, a polygenist, afterwards an evolutionist, 4

Bulls, famous long-homed, 46

Callosities on legs of horse, 88, 89

Campanella, 121

Canary, the, nothing known as to origin of varieties, 74, 75

Canidse, now cosmopolitan as a group, 161

and insectivora, supposed connecting links between, 133

Canines, wild, domestic dogs not easily distinguishable from, 29

wild, many easily domesticable, 29

Cauley race (of cattle), 46

Carinate birds, how they were evolved, 149

Carnivora, difficult to classify in a regular series, 80

Carpal bones, no

Carrier (pigeon), possibly result of a cross, 64

Cartesian vortices, 24

1 80 Index.

Cat, the tame, will breed with many wild felines, 3 1

Cats in India are said closely to resemble F. torquata, 31

of Paraguay, 31

, feral, in New Zealand, 32

, love for man in individual specimens of the, 134

Cattle, formerly supposed to spring from Lithuanian bisonr
40

, feral, or half wild, white, with red or black ears, 42

, Spanish-American, 47, 48

Character, permanence or impermanence of each separate, to be
separately studied, 1 1

Characters most known to come from inheritance, 22

Chinchilla, large mammals of the type of the, once present in>
the West Indies, 159

Chinese pig, 38

Climate of Moluccas, said to cause the duck to vary, 28

Colour, miscalled fleeting and variable, 21

in the horse, its permanence, 34

— — differs in forms otherwise identical, 14

, not changed by conditions of life, 78

, some traces of a love of bright, in animals, 142

Columba livia, intermedia, affinis, 59

Columbae, differences between, not such as natural selection is
likely to have produced, 130, 131

Columella, or origin of Spanish sheep, 51 n.

Conditions of life have no influence in changing colour, 147

may be supposed to produce imperfect structures as-
soon as perfect, 95, 96 .

, indefiniteness of, when put forward by some evolu-
tionists as the main cause of change in organisms, 147

external, less permanent than organic types, 137

Confinement, hybrid wolf-dogs sterile in close, 29

— : — , elephant never bred in, 134, 135

Correlation, its place in scheme of nature according to Dar-
winians, 89

, how originated, 132, 133

Corsican and Sardinian moufflons, 82

Index. 1 8 1

Cosmogonists of sixteenth century, their notions of the origin of
fossils, why absurd, 26

, they would not have made their case better by supposing

fabulous causes operative at the present day, 26

Cow, Dutch or Flemish, 41

, Chillingham Park, 42

, Shorthorn, 42

, European and humped, their differences, 16, 40

, Alpine, 41

, Hereford, strains of, 85

Creation, special, hypothesis of, often unfairly stated by evolu-
tionists, 117, 118

, remarks of Kovalewski upon, 109

, their fallacy, 113, et seq.

Crossing, 21

— among cats prevents establishment of breeds, 31
among dogs, 30

— in the horse, 33, 34

in the ass, 35

among cattle, 42-47

among pigeons, 63, 64

among fowls, 70

among pea-fowl, 72, et seq.

, breeds established by abstention from, 89

Crystals form a class closely allied to organisms, 102-107

if known by alchemists would have been supposed derived

from one primitive crystal, 103
, parallel of, not favourable to Darwinism or to evolutionism

in any form, 108

Cuvier, on love for man in the wolf, 134
, proved difference between bison and tame cattle, 40

D. Bake well's longhorn bull, 46

Dark colour of most monkeys militates against Grant Allen's
views, 145

1 82 Index.

Darwin, his "Origin of Species," its effect on the scientific
world, 3

has destroyed finally the conventional notion of species, yet

inconsistently in places strives to build it up again, 5

, his error as to importance of parts, 13

, his remarks on human and natural selection, 17

• enunciates truths tending to the overthrow of his hypo-
thesis, 20

on the breeds of dog, vagueness and irrelevance of his

statements, 30

, his important admission as to strength of inheritance, 92 n

on the horse, no grounds for what he says in opposition to

Hamilton Smith, 32
speaks of breeds when he ought to speak of individuals,

34

on certainty of inheritance in the horse, 34

speaks of niata ox as an eye-witness, 48

on sheep, 4, et seq.

on rabbit, 53

on feral rabbits, 54, 55

on Porto Santo rabbit, 55, ct seq.

reasons gravely on details of legendary tale, 56

on pigeon, 58

has practical experience in pigeons, 58

, his six grounds for believing that all tame pigeons sprang-

from the rock dove examined, 59
seems to forget all he ever said on causes of extinction, 61

produced, by crossing pigeons of various breeds, birds

coloured like the rock dove, but knew nothing of the
pedigree of the birds employed, 66

on the fowl, 69, 70

on the pea-fowl, supposes that the black-winged pea-fowl

was suddenly produced in England, quoted, 71, et seq.

, his promised work on variation under nature has never ap-
peared, 75

had hypothesis of evolution suggested to him by seeing

large fossil Edentata in South America ; rashness of this, 94, 95

Index. 183

Darwin, fallacy of his remarks on non-transmission of variations

to young while they remain such, 97
, his theory of sexual selection inconsistent with his general

principles, 137, et seq.
, his best work has rendered the mutability of organisms

more unlikely than before, 151
, his over-haste with regard to the marine faunas of the

eastern and western shores of South America, 156, 157
Darwinians, German, their parallel between their hypothesis and

Newton's discovery, its fallacy, 119
can account for the origin of the larger divisions with some

plausibility, but not for the smaller ; can accommodate their

hypothesis to almost any conceivable state of things, 121,,

et seq.
Darwinism, it is the duty of a scientific man to oppose, 24

parallel with Cartesian vortices, etc. , 24

, what it undertakes to prove, vagueness of its evidence, 86

, nebulous vagueness of, 140

, pure, parallel of crystals tells dead against, 109

De Blainville, on Eastern wild pigs, 9, 10

Demonstration, absolute, of the total immutability of animal types

on the contrary is probably impossible, 22
Descent, supposed common, of species of one genus, 99, 1 10-

IIS

Desert colour of wild asses, 127, 128

Differentiation, gradual, of organic types, 75, 1 10, 1 1 1

Dinosaurian reptiles, how they stand related to ostriches, 149

Dixon, Rev. F., a polygenist, 2

Dog, 29

descends from several wild stocks, 29

, many breeds resemble wild canines, 29

said in India to become like the native curs, phenomena

really those of unhealthiness, 30

as distinguished from wolf a vague expression, 72

, love for man in the, 134

, wolf, and jackal, supposed by Hunter to descend from one

stock, 10

184 Index.

Domestic animals classed as of one species which if wild would

not have been so treated, 7
, instances of transmutation must be sought for almost

entirely among, 20

, Darwin's review of our principal, examined, 28

, inadequate ideas of the strictness of inheritance arising

from the contemplation of, 118
pigs, escaped, the Eastern wild races supposed to descend

from, 10
pigeons, differences between, as contrasted with those

between wild pigeons, 17
— — races, origin of, from one stock commonly supposed to be a

fact, 130
Domestication, if only known in, various wild races would be

supposed to be artificial varieties, 82-84
Dove, the rock, 58

, tame pigeons with markings of, 64

, one of the wildest and boldest of birds, 62

, common pigeon of all countries, 65

, Indian, and chequered, 59

, Sanson on the type of, 68

Duck, races of, 28
Dun-striped horses, 33

E

Ears of European and humped cow, 16
Edentata, fossil in South America, 94, 95

in North America and Europe, 94, 95

Elephant possesses the instinct of love for man, though never

bred in captivity, 134, 135
Embryogeny evolutionist, argument from, more poetic than

scientific, 96
Embryonic forms, 97
Eocene period, 129
Equus, 129
European cow, 16

Index. 185

European bison, 40

dogs in India, 30

wild boar, 36, 37

Evolution, hypothesis of, stands on a totally different foot from

Lyell's affirmation of the unity of past and present causes,

12, et seq.) 24, et seq.

, its vagueness, 12, 24

, receives no particular support from the example of

the domestic pigeon, 67

, ought to be submitted to he test of direct experi-
ment, 92
, one of the most plausible guesses we can at present

make as to the origin of organic types, but nevertheless very

possibly quite unfounded, 93

, will explain anything, 94, et seq.

, its real gist, 101

, belongs to the domain of mythology rather than

science, 101

, akin to the theories of the alchemists, 102

, why it seems so plausible to many, 118

, parallel drawn by Germans between, and Newton's

discovery of gravitation, 119, et scq.
, cannot be brought to the test of verification, 119,

et seq.

, Lewes on, 103, et seq.

, Mivart's arguments really tell against, in any form, 148

, how related to physical geography, 154

, its various forms, 146, et seq.

, a mere conjecture incapable of proof or disproof, and

likely long to remain so, 170, 171

, has been applied to animals in a state of nature, 74

Evolutionism, the non-Darwinian forms of, hardly pretend to be

more than loose conjectures, 24, 146, et sey., 170
, non-Darwinian form of argument from general relations of

species of one genus has no bearing on, 132

, transcendental, 115

Evolutionist, who is an evolutionist, 4

1 86 Index.

Evolutionists of some kind or other, nearly all naturalists have
been, since publication of " Origin of Species," 3, 4

, polygenists and, 4

have done much to end the total confusion, in which the

definition and notion of species was formerly involved, 5

, what an evolutionist ought to think of the black-winged

peacock, 74

recommended to submit the permanence of characters to

direct experiment, 92

suppose aborted organs to be quite inexplicable except on

their theory, 95

, G. Lewis, the late, an evolutionist, his remarks, 103

only can explain the relations of fossil and living Paridigi-

tata according to Kovalewsky, no

, what they ought to think of the anthropoid apes, 126, 127

Extinction of the niata cow, and its revival, 48, 49

, causes of, Darwin seems to forget all he has ever said

about, when speaking of the pigeon, 61, et seq.

of mammals on small islands, 1 70

} present distribution of animal forms largely to be ex-
plained by, 161

Fades of fauna or flora of any country influenced by barriers,

155

of this planet towards the end of the Tertiary period,

161

of faunas of different countries, 167

• of any genus or family, 131

Fancy pigeons, 60

Fantails (pigeons), white breed true, 66

, when having any blue has a blue rump, 67

, type of the, Sanson on, 67, 68

Family in classification, 7

Faunas, marine, of shores of Central and South America, 156

, of the West Indies, 159

Index. 187

Faunas, marine, of the planet towards the end of the Tertiary

age, 161

, Indian and Australian, 163, 164

, of Celebes, 164

• , mammalian, of Australia, 165

, of different countries, 167

Felines, many small wild, breed with domestic cat, 31

striped, 99

Fells torquata, tame cats resembling, 31

Female animals, their supposed preference for bright-coloured

males would seem to have been acquired in the teeth of natural

selection, 138, rests on no evidence, 138

birds, 141

rabbit, 56

Feral cats in New Zealand, 32

guinea-fowl in the West Indies, whence probably derived,

71

horses, supposed, may just as soon be truly wild, 32

pigs, their various colours and characteristics, 38, 39

, of Jamaica, 39

rabbits of various colours in the Falkland islands, 55

Fertile reproduction, the notion of, an element in the con-
ventional idea of species, etc., 6

, of different breeds of pigeons, 60, 61

Fiji islands, tree frogs in, 158

Fish swarm as higher beings never do, 122

Fittest, survival of the, cannot conceivably have anything to do
with the laws by which the formation of crystals is regulated,
108

Fixing characters, Darwin on, 20

Flemish cow, 41

Fowl, black-red game, 69

, other breeds of, 69

, where crossed, exhibits black-red plumage, 70

, not unfrequently "doctored " for exhibition, 70

Fox, the black form of, 76

, American and Old World forms of, 8

1 88 Index.

Fox, species and varieties in the, Huxley on, 1 1
Foxhound, if crossed with wolf, what might be expected, 72, 73
Fringillidse, their relations not such as unaided natural selection
would have produced, 130, 131

Galapagos islands, forms of mocking-thrush in, 83

, land tortoises in, 158

Gallinacese, the true, how were they evolved ? 15

Gallus Bankiva, or Ferrugineus, 69, 82

Genealogy of the horse might under other circumstances have

been read backwards, 129
Goat, supposed origin of, difficulties as to, 53
Gold-spangled Hamburghs (fowls) run black-red, 70
Gold-fish, 74

Goura pigeon, how was it evolved ? 15
Grass-feeding animals, why are they not green? 145
Green, one of the commonest hues in bright-coloured birds, 145
Guinea-fowl, feral, in West Indies, probably derived from Africa,

71

H

Hair, sheep in tropics grow more, 50
Half wild cattle, white, with red or black ears, 42
Hamburghs, gold-spangled (fowls), show tendency to run black-
red, 70

said when sickle-tailed to be crossed with game, 7°

Hipparion, supposed evolution of the horse rests on no evidence,

79

History seeks for events, not laws, 100

Hofacker on permanence of colour in the horse, 85

Hog, once supposed to have only one origin, 35

, the East Asiatic, now recognized as distinct, 35, 36

Horse, the, said to be variable, fallacy of this, 21
, nothing known about its wild origin, 32

Index. 189

Horse, great number of breeds and sub-breeds, 32

— — , wild horses supposed feral, may just as soon be truly wild

32

, Hamilton Smith maintains five stocks of, 32

supposed by Darwin to descend from one dun-striped

stock, 33

, permanence of colour in, 34

, Darwin on certainty of inheritance in, 34

— -, callosities on all four legs of, 88, 89
, pedigree of, according to evolutionists, might be read the

opposite way, 129

, different breeds of, probable consequences of their inter-
mixture in a wild state, 77» 7&

, permanence of colour according to Hofacker, 85

Hump of Indian cow not known to be producible, 16

Hunter, John, on dog, wolf, and jackal, IO

Huxley, on species and varieties, 1 1

Hybrid wolf dogs, said to be sterile in close confinement, 29

Hybrids, fertile, power of producing, often does not run in close

conformity with morphological affinity, 8
Hygienic nature, characters of a, to a certain extent producible,

44-50, 91

Hyopotamida, Kovalewsky on the osteology of the, quoted, 109
Hyper-Darwinians, German, 119
Hypotheses may be used as guides for investigation, or to

group instances, but not as bases, 25

doubtful as to variation, Darwinism built on, 169

Hypothesis, Lyell's, 12

of multiple origin of domestic pigeon, 60

of limited variability, 64

of no variation, 64

for Darwinian, hypothesis of evolution, of natural selection,

of sexual selection, see Darwinism, Darwinians, Evolution,

Selection

igo Index.

India, European dogs in, 30

, cats of, 31

, dun-striped race of horse in, 33

, domestic pig in, 39

, Portuguese connection with, its results, 39

, shallow water from, to Java, 163

, supposed former continent connecting South Africa and,

163
Indian wild boar, 39

, extinct, ruminant Sivatherium, 48

local race of Galhis ferrugine^ls^ 82

rock dove, 59

tiger, 83

— , West, islands, extinct mammals on, 159

Archipelago, 162

fauna, 164

Indians in South America have bred the niata cow apart, 48
Indies, West, feral pigs in, 38

, feral guinea-fowl in, 71

Individual variability, 70

Inheritance, why it appears more certain in the horse than in

other animals, 34

, strength of, shown in sub-breeds of the hog, 37, 38

not shown not to be absolute, 45, 46

, principle of, its strength shown in the fantail pigeon t

67
, we ought to start from the permanence of, and then see

what subtractions, if any, have to be made, 92
Insectivora and canidae, links between supposed, 133
Instinctive actions of animals, not safe to interpret anthropo-

pathically, 142

Intermediate forms in nature, how to be accounted for, 75
Intermixture in nature, a known cause, 77
Islands, mammals, why not often found on, 157

Index. 191

Islands often contain other creatures whose transport would

seem equally difficult, 157, et seq.
, how large mammals might easily be exterminated on, 159

J

Jackal and wolf, conventional notion of species separates, 5

, clog, and wolf united by Hunter, 10

Jamaica, feral pigs of, said to come from Africa, their peculiar
characters, 39

K

Kattywar, race of horse in India predominantly dun-striped, 33
Kosmos, why the world is a, cannot be explained by physical

science, 114

Kovalewsky, his remarks quoted, 109
has expressed very well a fundamentally erroneous mode of

thought, 113

Lewes, the late G. H., his remarks quoted, 104

, his observations largely true and irrefragable, 106

an evolutionist, yet his arguments sap some of the deepest

foundations of evolutionist views, 103

, his own peculiar combination of evolutionism and anti-
evolutionism not particularly improbable, but altogether im-
verifiable, 106
Limited variability, the notion of, 3

, hypothesis of, how it may be applied to pigeons, 64

Linnaeus arrived at the notion of species from dogmatic considera-
tions, I

Lloyd, L., the traveller, on love to man in the wolf, 134
Low ("Domestic Animals") on complex origin of the Merino

sheep, 51

Lyell, his hypothesis of the unity of past and present geological
causes differs in kind from the hypothesis of evolution, 12, 24

192 Index.

Lyell, contrast between the two, 12, et seq.
— — at times used incautious language, 25

M

Machines, organised beings compared with, 19, 117

Major, R. ("Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator"),

quoted, 57

Male, mammae in the, 95

Males, bright-coloured, whether attractive to female animals, 138
Mammalian fauna of Australia, 165

Mammals not less easy to exterminate than lower creatures, 122
, female, have they less taste for colour than female birds ?

141

, Dr. Andrew Murray on geographical distribution of, 147

are not found on remote islands, 157

, large, of the Chinchilla'type existed formerly in the West

Indies, 159
Man, types of, all living beings logically equivalent to, sprang

from one stock, according to Linnaeus, I

, growing doubts as to unity of origin of, 2

, according to Agassiz, created in nations, 2

, according to Darwin, could only select such differences as

are externally conspicuous, 17

, wild birds extinct in the historical period need not be sup-
posed to have been destroyed by, 61, 62
, primitive likely to have picked out grotesque-looking birds

for domestication, 63

, civilized, highly mixed in race, 118

, the real series of missing links between, and the lower

monkeys must be supposed lost according to evolutionists, 127
Marine faunas of American coasts, Darwin's mistake concerning,

I56
Marsh hog, wild or half wild race, from which the breeds of

South Europe have been supposed to descend, 36
Marsupials, Mivart on, 148, 149
in Australia, 165

Index. 193

Marsupials once dominant over the whole world, 165
Mauchamp Merino, its origin, 50

— — appears wherever Merinos are found, 5 1

Melanism, no evidence for the existence of any such disorder,

Si

Merino, a complex of various fine-wooled breeds, 5 1
Mill, on differences of kind, quoted, 100
Miocene corals, affinities of, on East and West coast of America,

156

Mivart, his "Genesis of Species," 148
, an evolutionist, though not a Darwinian, but much of what

he says really tells against evolutionism in any form, 148

on independent similarities of structure, 148

on formation of species by gradual transition, 150, 151

, his notion of sudden modifications grounded on insufficient

evidence, 151
Mixed races, inadequate notions of the strictness of inheritance

formed from the observation of, 118
Mocking thrushes of the Galapagos islands, 83
Modern breeds so called, 84
Modifications in organisms not to be presumed without positive

evidence, 17, 84

Moluccas, varieties of duck in, 28
Morphological affinity, power to produce fertile hybrids often

does not run in close conformity with, 8
Murray, Dr. Andrew, geographical distribution of mammals,

H7
Mutability of race characters, the breeder's art not founded on,

but the contrary, 45
of organism Darwin has really rendered more unlikely than

before, 151

N

Nathusius on differences between wild and tame pig, 36

on selections among pigs, 37, 38

Natural selection. See Selection

O *

T 94 Index.

Nature, variation under, phenomena so called how to be explained

78

New Zealand, its fauna, 158
Niata race of cow, 48
Nilson on fossil races of cow, 41

Ontogeny will compel a consistent evolutionist to assume retro-
gression in the case of the anthropoid apes, 126
Organic races, how were they produced ? 23
Organised beings, deep seated and pervading affinities between,.

99

, resemble machines, 117

'• 1 supposed to have a tendency to vary in unknown direc-
tions, 1 2O

, similitudes between, have a twofold origin, according,

to the late G. H. Lewes, 103, 104

, distribution of past and present, ought to be compared

with geological results independently arrived at, 168

Organism, a living, more complex than anything else in nature,.
18

, more like a machine than anything else, 19

, crystals the nearest approach to, in the organic world, 103

Organisms, likely that before they are greatly changed, surround-
ing circumstances will be changed too, 136

, Darwin's best work has rendered the mutability of, more-
unlikely than before, 151

Origin of domestic pigs, one formerly supposed, now three-
known, 35, 36

of European breeds of cattle, 41

of breeds of sheep unknown, 49

>- "•• of goat unknown, 53

of domestic rabbits unknown, 53

of the domestic duck, goose, turkey, and guinea-fowl un-
known, 71

of gold-fish and hive-bees unknown, 74

Index. 195

Origin of the canary, 74, 75

of types, 94

, the common, of genera, orders, and classes a wild guess,

87,88
of primary types unknown, 92

— of the complicated and brilliant colours of animals, whether

it is from sexual selection, 140
of similarities between organized beings twofold, according

to Lewes, 104

of the fantail pigeon, conjectures as to, 115

*' Osteology of the Hypotamida," Kovalewsky on, quoted, 109
Ostriches, the, how do they stand related to Carinate birds and

to Dinosauria? 149
Ova of all mammals, apparently indistinguishable but really

distinct, 98
Ox. See Bos, Cattle, Cow

1'achyderms, the large, were once cosmopolitan, 163

Pacific, what would have been the fate of mammals in the small
islands of the ? 159, 160

Palaeontology, general aspect of, not favourable to the origin of
marked types by slow gradations, 80

Pallas first showed the distinctness of East Asiatic hog, 35

Paraguay, cats in, 31

Paridigitata, constancy of the relations of the bones in all,
Kovalewsky's inferences from this fact combated, 109, et seq.

Pavo nigripennis, 71

Pea-fowl, black-shouldered, supposed to have been suddenly pro-
duced out of the ordinary kind, 71

, conjectures of the author as to its real history, 73

, Mivart's remarks on, 151

, differs from the ordinary sort as far as known in

colour only, 151

Pedigree of the horse, supposed, rests on no evidence, 79, 80

might have been read backwards, 129

196 Index.

Pedigree of exceptional white or black specimens of wild animals

not really known, 82

of the descent of mammals and birds from reptiles, 129

Pedigrees only kept of a few privileged animals, 22

of highly^bred animals, 45

of pigeons employed by Darwin to make crosses not known

to him, 64
Permanence of type may be held together with a clear conception

of the arbitrariness of the distinction between species and

varieties, 8
may be absolute even when there exists the power of

producing fertile hybrids, 9
— — of breeds and separate characters ought to be ascertained

directly, II
of organized forms ought to be presumed till the contrary is

shown, 13, 17, 20, 92

of colour in the horse, 34, 85

of characters, the bearing of embryogeny upon, 97

, relative, of types and their surroundings, 136

Permanent forms, what cause hindered the recognition of, 3

— , what differences are, no rule known for determining, 7

types of pheasant, 2

, slight differences shown to be, 80

strains of more than one colour in breeds of the horse, 85

Pig, North European tame, its origin not known, 37

~, solid-hoofed, etc., 38

, feral, in South America, 38

• in Jamaica, 39

, tame, in India, 39

, the greyhound, 36

Pigs, wild, allied to Sus indica, 36

, differences between wild and tame, of Europe, 36

Pigeon, the domestic, 58

, supposed to be the'strong point of transmutationists, 58

, races of, breed true under domestication, 58

, six grounds for supposing to have descended from the

rock dove, stated and examined, 59, ct set/.

Index. 197

Pigeon, the domestic, four or five races of, as enumerated by
Sanson, 67, 68

, the study of, offers no particular support to the hypo-
thesis of evolution, 67

, the chequered wild, 59

, the fantail, conjectures as to the origin of, 115

Placentals and marsupials, their genetic relations a puzzle to
evolutionists, 148, 149

Pointer (dog), conjectures as to the origin of the, 30

Porto Santo rabbit, 55

, account of its origin given by Darwin probably legen-
dary, its real origin entirely unknown, 56, et seq.

, legends of the, 115

Prepotence in intermixture among rabbits, 55

R

Rabbit, origin of the domestic, unknown, 53

, wild and grey domestic, not identical, 53

, feral, 54, 55

, the Porto Santo, its origin, 56, et seq.

Races of man, I

, growing doubts as to their unity of origin after time of

Linnseus, 2

, fair and dark, of Europe permanent, 2

of animals when wild called distinct species, when domestic

only varieties, 7

, local, 1 1 n, 75

, natural, not necessarily all modifiable in the same

degree, 17

, two sets of, in nature, 21

, origin of existing, unknown, 23

of duck, 28

of pig, 36, et seq.

of cattle, 41, et seq.

of sheep, 49

of goat, 53

o 3

198 Index.

Races of pigeon, 59, et seq.

variable, 73

Rengger on cats in Paraguay, 31

Reversion, any case of apparent non-inheritance ought to be

referred to, till the contrary be proved, 22
— ••-, also in speaking of variation we ought to take care to

eliminate the effects of, 20

, a confusion of Darwin's with regard to, 65

a known cause, 75

, chance of, ought to be carefully eliminated in experiments,

87

, whether new characters ever arise apart from, 92

Rock dove. See Dove

Ruminantia difficult to classify in a regular series, 80

RUtimeyer on the marsh-hog, 36

on the differences between the European and humped

cow, 40
on three forms of ox whose bones are found in the Swiss

lake-dwellings, 41

Sanson, a polygenist, 3

on the Mauchamp Merino, 51

, his new views on the races of domestic pigeon, 67, 68

Sardinian moufflon, 82

Selection in domestic animals, what it really is, 21

in the dog, 30

in relation to the cat, 31

in the hog, 3?* 3$

in cattle and in domestic animals generally, its nature, 42,

et seq.

methodical, 47

in the pigeon, 63

in the pea-fowl, 73

, natural, 14, et seq.

Index. 199

Selection, natural, difficult to conceive why it should have pro-
duced in the same country similarly coloured races of different

families, 79

, can have no relation to crystals, 108

, will not explain how the higher races of animals were

evolved out of the lower, 122
, would have promoted hardiness, fertility, and early

maturity rather than have produced complex organs, 123,

124
, not likely to have produced relations like those we see

between species of the same genus, 130, et seq.
, sexual selection would seem to run in the teeth of,

138
, Mivart's objections to, really tell against evolution in

any form, 150
is a fact, and objections to Darwinism must have their

bearing against some other part of the hypothesis, 151
, sexual, Darwin's theory of, not very consistent with his

general principles, 137
, the theory of, involved in all the nebulous vagueness

of Darwinism generally, 140

, absence of evidence for, 138-140'

, Grant Allen's attempt to account for, adverted to,

142, et seq.
, Grant Allen's attempt to account for, removes none

of the difficulties connected with the subject, 146

, is a dream, 170

Sheep, domestic races of, their origin unknown, 49

, wild, fourteen races of, according to Blyth, 49

, Anderson's views on, 49

in tropical countries, 50

, Mau champ Merino, its origin, 50, 51

, Ancon, its origin, 51, 52

Silver greys (rabbits), their permanence, 54, 55

Sivatherium, Indian, extinct ruminant, 48

Size, large, an advantage in some respects, a disadvantage in

others, 127

2OO Index.

Smith, Colonel Hamilton, maintains five wild stocks of the

horse, 32

Solid-hoofed pigs, 38
Species, the notion of, among'animals, originates with Linnaeus, I

originate the one from the other, according to evolutionists, 4

, their relation to varieties,^ according to polygenists and

evolutionists, 5
, the conventional idea of, after Darwin's labours can never

be built up again, 5

, the conventional idea of, the antipodes of a clear idea, 6

, the number of notions combined in it, 6

, the confusion resulting from this, 6, et seq.

, better to drop the word altogether, Huxley quoted in

support of this, 1 1

as they commonly stand, no proof that they can be pro-
duced by evolution, and if we knew that it would prove nothing

as to higher divisions, 87

made a fetish of by systematic naturalists, 84

, the same (or allied), not likely to be produced independently

in different spots, according to Lewes, 106
, a good, may, according to evolutionists, be produced in a

few centuries or even in a few years, 120
, the agency by which they were formed, apparently not at

work later than the immediately post-Tertiary period, 27
differ not only more than varieties, but in different respects,

if the distinction is to be maintained, 13
closely allied, nature of the differences that divide not sue

as natural selection seems likely to produce, 130, et seq.

, what are called, to be considered as permanent, 171

Stock, Linnaeus supposed that all animal types logically equiva-
lent to the races of man sprang from one, .1
, it gradually came to be doubted whether all domestic

animals bearing the same name sprang from one, 2
, the notion of descent from one, enters into the conventional

idea of species, 6
, dog, wolf, and jackal, supposed by Hunter to descend from

one, 10

Index. 20 1

Stock, wild, and species used synonymously when speaking of

domestic animals, 10
, the European and humped cows descend from separate,

according to Darwin, 16
, the dog descends from more than one, according to Darwin,

29
of horse, according to Hamilton Smith, five, according to

Darwin one dun-striped, 32, 33

, pigs with a plumed tail descend from a separate, 39

, Darwin's reasons for believing that all pigeons descend

from one, 59» ct scq.
, many wild races if only known in domestication would be

unanimously supposed to descend from only one, 82, 83
Stocks of European cattle three or two at any rate, 41
Strain, evidence wanted of variation in a pure, at the present day,

28

Strains faintly characterized may have existed from the begin-
ning, 8

, the selection of, by breeders, 44

, all, of one breed not known to proceed from one pair, 46

, different coloured, of one type in one country, 8l

, permanent, of more than one colour in most breeds of the

horse, 85
of the rock dove unmixed, can fancy-pigeons be raised from ?

*7
, particular, can often be traced some way back in time,

85-89

, the most opposite characters may easily be supposed ad-
vantageous to any particular, 127
, dull-coloured, would have an advantage on Darwinian

principles, 137, 138

Struthious birds, their presence in New Zealand, 157, 158
Sits, 38

indica, 35, 36

aper, 3$

Swiss lake-dwellings, the bones of three forms of ox have been

found in, 41

2O2 Index.

Tapir and horse, links between, 133

, races of, in South America and Indian Archipelago, 162

Tett-ao urogallus and tetrix, their intermixture under nature, 77

Transmutation, supposed, of the Porto Santo rabbit, 55

, a cause purely conjectural, 77

now read into facts, 79

Transmutationists, the pigeon supposed to be the strong point
of, 58

Twopenny, Bakewell's longhorn bull, 46, note

Tylor, Burnet, 57

Types, animal, all logically equivalent to the types of man sup-
posed by Linnaeus to spring from one stock, I

Type horse and type ass, 21

Types of domestic pigeon, Sanson on, 67, 68

, living, the origin of, presumptuous to determine that we

shall never know, 94

, contemporary (with fossil Edentata), some have survived, 94

, natural selection does not by itself account for the origin

of new, 151

, variability of living, doubtful, 151

, living, not produced by evolution under existing conditions,

153

, Chinchilla, formerly in West Indies, 159

, all, at one time cosmopolitan, 161

V

Variability, the notion of limited, 3, 64

fluctuating in the cat, 31

, individual, in the fowl, 70

, specific, Mivart's remarks on, 150

, unlimited, of living types, Darwin's best work tends really

to disprove, 151, 152

, indefinite, no grounds for supposing, 151

Variation, spontaneous, 14

Index. 203

Variation, what characters are liable to, must be ascertained by

direct experiment, 19

under nature, how it may probably be explained, 74, et scq.

, limits of, in the horse, 88

, how it ought to be submitted to the test of experiment, 93

Variations according to Darwin not transmitted to the young as

long as they remained such, 97

of one stock, all domestic oxen were till lately considered, 40

Varieties in relation to species, views of Polygenists on, also of

evolutionists, 5

, interminable debates on, 6

, Huxley on, n

, Wigand's views on, 13

Vermes, it would not be more easy to extirpate, than higher

creatures, 122
Vogt, a polygenist first, then an evolutionist, 4

W

Wallace, his labours simultaneous with Darwin's, 3

on marine faunas of opposite shores of Central and South

America, 156

on tree-frogs in Fiji group, 158

Wigand of Marburg, virtually an adherent of the old notion of
limited variability, 3

, his views of genera and species, 13

West Indies. See Indies.

Wolf, American and Old World forms of, 8

, jackal, and dog, why supposed by John Hunter to spring

from one stock, 10

, what might result from a cross of, in a strain of fox-hounds,.

72, 73

, different coloured forms of the North American, 76

, love for man in the, 134

Wolf-dogs, hybrid, their alleged sterility under close confine-
ment, 29

2O4 Index.

Y

Youatt on methodical selection, 44, 45

on the longhorn bull Shakespeare, 46, note,

on the origin of the Merino, 5 1

on American sheep, 52

Zebra, 35

Zoo-geographical grounds for supposing former continents and

seas otherwise unknown, as maintained by some evolutionists,.

161

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SPECIMEN OF TYPE.

4 THE MERCHANT OF VENICE ACT i

Salar. My wind, cooling my broth,

Would blow me to an ague, when I thought
What harm a wind too great might do at sea.
I should not see the sandy hour-glass run
But I should think of shallows and of flats,
And see my wealthy Andrew, dock'd in sand,
Vailing her high-top lower than her ribs
To kiss her burial. Should I go to church
And see the holy edifice of stone,
And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks,
Which touching but my gentle vessel's side,
Would scatter all her spices on the stream,
Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks,
And, in a word, but even now worth this,
And now worth nothing ? Shall -I have the thought
To think on this, and shall I lack the thought
That such a thing bechanc'd would make me sad ?
But tell not me : I know Antonio
Is sad to think upon his merchandise.

Ant. Believe me, no : I thank my fortune for it,
My ventures are not in one bottom trusted,
Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate
Upon the fortune of this present year :
Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad.

Salar. Why, then you are in love.

Ant. Fie, fie !

Salar. Not in love neither ? Then let us say you

are sad,

Because you are not merry ; and 'twere as easy
For you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry,
Because you are not sad. Now, by two-headed

Janus,

Nature hath fram'd strange fellows in her time :
Some that will evermore peep through their eyes
And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper ;
And other of such vinegar aspect

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