ie Wetha hs He BoB ee Lebatin as pl ba Hi ih Deb i Wa 9 to Shaw CY fe hte oath = i 4 erthao as Fo tortMe oft bepeDT doin ator Ow arent ¥: ey ssc: i i \ M9: rarleitorenie : nt S ee Lr 3 Sas iaarene eit Let ys Deipice eho be rede ’ q rm : arson ane * aaprech:bupraeepis vhs pe Pad tte ly eal fe De Wehiahwd tat ipuie seacdeatesbe nt oeaacue es ne ire pa nearteciaetces Tipe reefer ner te Piheaes peas hegn: as t + she SO te dsiet Hasery * r % orbs Tae AL 89 ih ef oi the soebaleisherstedsoen: dat shete bee aes Bo Balls od «Pot 2 Rot. weed adhe! (otha smote: UTE be nepere Peliy ete gt inte): 7 ee We ibe baie debe wits ‘fs vehi Fabrics Hibs ielewaasus pel Orla het ie geret fOabiigres ei reste : ar it abe r er DORIA Horde: bet e ode inetre’ Order aiensy.: D bebe Bee tei "ew " pret palte Wee db shege dewrbeneth Sethe eles i ene 6 be ait otis ow mast dato wo. Me G-b- pris b er arns heed sath Down | de We tis wz Ba bebe -ieit ee p209 th hi ree : $ee at Padi eee Hicpetsietehy jel * Artioige C408 besten =) = AL ati trpebat vere 3 ~ . - ie J ath Heb. ore \s ; 4+ $8 1a ibe botalle Ds beads bei Hvenen ane ere Pedeaten een b Otstrt , PM Popedri a Cesar isa | o> Sache : . risk ) haat Or yey is ho nr 4 “1 Stead hee Saori tet, Le $3 ~ ath bei erat Af i 253 FP Chir renee i i woth 1e%. eB ate fin ah ae need (eet AE Ta Brae FEM) AtwIRe Hed EL B iS Feed dey pons At ae RE ats Weta Oa Saar) ths Bedbeugs | an tlib # Deeds b Dsivdetabers sheds 32 tie Pa8 Belle Ha vs Wasbotie Be eeOr Ol oth eG eth bs bthabe mies y7g05 163s Nebe eee stems pote 2Re bbs bees Be be os he Doe rT) reget . HH betied tm gine s0zb-03 A toda Ty, Peiriereneer ih ROR tt Hrs) i) 4 ty Le Belen ‘g i bas ae he Fl \ ys sp atina ‘ a riety i tiaer, DNindag: ot H cd bat she b hearpstses hs cam eel eieeritde Peachtree sep etarers SAE betes tisisacve ve Qed Atiobegets bs baie bwiser ere rere re eee ; 38 ied ls bedehe: a oP he Ble! De} u sini sede . ee Preerbabeik mote vince asaeis eaett ss 3 aeeebie aver fitaat 688 een a or seen i A ca eat Bi as ry fesseimuattnitaanstgtemisatne wala retire te atin 31> jays debt % rings orn Perit pier raea ts * a po teis tem chee seatietites aeasitbspe cae Pays iege pas ain 4 de ieee cpicwer mf case miabtevaresipaietet: ibe wt ipa Fite De rh honda he ehaahe (pa fs 10 2th es ing 8 oak fear! ty te, ed We oie ee es ‘te UH Un t aie er ' ates Hes “ ava ‘" Be Fa 10h BO si aariaetiiee iitueteartchepraris Sei 4 ister: ie eae yapein aN R auras FP s4eits ABGsO ab: Mord Ar ihe Segr be ere: I Sore Wa UHL Me Bethe far bm da Aetataine. tualanard paste Hep beh re wes be Fat Ay wep tone thc pony 7 = Serena te get Sty Mb Wa 08 Yabeihete tel da Ged ved Wei 9 fei 1 ey Masiee seanbey 5 seo es thediaUst4s Napa anni jeicisbatedess Wa serve tard! ances asain Spinetti ee renres epee ne he ew es bebo k & ebeaspeuvesied “eae Patt iis Mas teLari es 0 isin nares ares nae he Dot y rt We tb p0r a Vai ve Uededae ose orbee eer a a thle a ks ters * Vb pibea py joins as ena tocotan racks = erths be Py Teertrerternitt ry a9 9 i WS ates 2: 540959 hdl Sol mei elpy by UNO aowe ds " pert es th tI ARS or ee seorO Nets hen rita ni peor, RAHA Donn aren LP plea sorts Be Le re of ee ris Fetes cies 2H E sib 6 BOER VG coe game: Ta prkeas ous be Oto Bes 9: OQ cet Es t n ote thy Lustuseat vais M Pah 16 sigan toes Wiatirt ntraranasy BD Ssbabede 1 cas Grbsa a tobeise ts M aie Chas ne SPEEA Be OMT he Oe Ue ni wee ia oe ee Guiexerrashterr te iti ses bode peted-aahs aeieagos ise r jaye. Me We balbaH UE ot 2B lly Saif ahem 8 Ws We pi Uomtas wore aig plate att cutelatrity) bu2 9 oe eta de Bethabs pal He IMB atheganrneacionets SH Rent ihe Leetr tates tahend pel TC . . ' re Lt sis whore spel Y Orie a ney ao Cn + wi beth) Det f Ne Barts ae 1 on ein ert ine ott uke oy" Oe ” Nites ys Hatten t ate ait (Yy erGrt esas re sitet ie VAR Seles he te wrt i rt ng Heys eee Die de ihe Fe on Be He Or, + r writs rs . fees Cru * ie V3 ore ‘) La ety bats ty ” Pon Per lier tet ae Mb rteiay bee foto hetiedy& e AAR AAR AAR AAAAR AR AR AARARAAAR ROR AAAAR AA a Aa, Pe \elelalalele pe a = on) WIAA ARARARAA RA Za ee eee Amana AryyY {1 Y - PARARARA SAR AAARAR A ee eee ~~ a an | mAARAAAAH "~~ eae Aa aaan PY aaaae os marr AAR RAR -A™ A panna nnn PARAAAAnny RA Rnncct AARARAS = ~ eel R AR AR RSS pAARARS A ao oe PO om RNP fy oS NNN NINN RNA pe, ~oor LQ a _ ale on aamne am ANNO ARR RRARRADASS aaa Pa). + YY}. i AP AAP AARRRRRL AEA CEEL pe a 5 —— Olea , ; ; a oh an a NN nm pan pn pm mn PN i po Pl = = a, an —~_ ARR AAA AR Ae BAA tl ee ee pn ge gee el NS ern ry PPP aaaneenmarerrr’ sa aaat ar OP a8 aaaaaanae ar . en mm PM ee i nm wt el el a ay POS SS Se ie _ PRAY pa \ as RRR FARRAR APAARARRAAAL CE, Anna anna nnnnneee ee AAam i ga nanaaaennc’ =| rN aan ry | | ~ “ann nnan Aaa ) oncasananeaaeases Rae ARARA Raa aan ABER NCA? +) Pp» y- aa ee: Arnaaganae | a / | ili a ci | lk \ | a | a, an oe a AAAs, FFF EPEPERRE aaaaas , / ( - (i | f ~~ Gi ical y 1 } j (5 Sia a nanannnmannnnn ReaegAa an. AanAnnnnanannnnn BAAR AAA RAAAR seeaeaceee = AAA paepeeroaaeee a ae om Vem\ eR) Ss) om EA nas annnnnnmnn nnn a | WF ART | RRMA ARAMA iA =e = massannnnannannann AREEE EA Ve | xm A oe V a. PW i ~ y, VY } \7 \A lal 1 1. sale! A Za EN 2 VA) = } : aan AAAAPAAAAAA Aaa as aRAAAR van (—— (ame! aa eee ey Ie Og * 4 a a ‘ Bac, 7 ita PPh a eal . ie ty ire ro A He THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ALVIN J. COX, M. A., PH. D. GENERAL EDITOR SECTION A CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES EDITED WITH THE COOPERATION OF W. E. PRATT, A: M.; R. R. WILLIAMS, M. S.; D. S. PRATT, Pu. D. J. R. WRIGHT, Pu. D.; H. C. BRILL, Pu. D.; G. W. HEISH, M. S. RICHARD C. McGREGOR, A. B.; H. E. KUPFER, Pu. B. VOLUME X 1915 WITH 30 PLATES AND 40 TEXT FIGURES MANILA BUREAU OF PRINTING 1915 186791 & > a J a . 4 - _ ae a 4M IEE SHAT TOVGIOE TO TAMAS fiw h Mw eo Ava : h. VAjipote a 20° Vos LAO OU Gt aa Lat PaciV SHT GHA ee o. mn Mond yi’) “ip BTS Saha as AALS ON We Oe a a Ste ee : ry i Ae feta t yy ; qt | : mi SU Te Oa Ok ORR ate oe Y SMARDV cLE@t PAU 4 20h 1h We eptary Ob onrh CONTENTS No. 1, January, 1915 PRATT, Davin S. Papain: Its commercial preparation and digestive DEO DERLLCS My Ue Nes NEAL ih RRR Mie URI hd ee ee esas oe ded Two plates and 4 text figures. BLAcKwoop, O. H. A determination of the diurnal variation of the radioactivity of the atmosphere at Manila by the active deposit PEOYSE NOY es Ne NO aed EEE aa Oe a Five text figures. Gipss, H. D., and Britt, H. C. Diethylsuccinosuccinate (ethyldioxy- dihydroteraphthalate): A study of its constitution, some deriv- atives, and absorption spectra .........-2......-.-s2cceceeeceeeceeeeeeceeecceeeeeeeeeees Three text figures. HEISE, GEORGE W. Water supply for the city of Iloilo.........0.022.000..... One text figure. HEISE, GEORGE W. Boiler waters of Iloilo Province...........................----- SMITH, WARREN D., EDDINGFIELD, F. T., and FANNING, PAUL R. A preliminary check list of Philippine minerals.....................2-...---.---- J STORUAD DN AS: a et a esp ge oR ea a en Eee No. 2, March, 1915 Gipgs, H. D. Proposed modification of ylang-ylang oil standards.... BRILL, HARVEY C., and AGCAOILI, FRANCISCO. Philippine oil-bearing ScedSmanduthe improper tle sic pelle errata eee nena neta see neenee ee Two text figures. BRILL, HARVEY C. The enzymes of cacao._..........-....-.0.---2-c-ceecceeeeceeeeeeee HEISE, GEORGE W. Water supplies in the Philippine Islands: IL........ FEU VEE VV Slee orton ee Grate ec A le SNEME veep uae) ROUEN SERA Sega ER eae unl esac No. 3, May, 1915 SMITH, WARREN D. Notes on a eeolegle reconnaissance ioe Mountain PO VAT CO saps UZ0 Teena tence as Numer roel Wn Tian Tee OT Le era Five plates and 5 text figures. SMITH, WARREN D. Notes on the geology of Pamnay......................--.-.- One plate and 8 text figures. No. 4, July, 1915 PRATT, WALLACE E. The location of artesian wells in the Philippine Islands from a geologic viewpoint.........-.........-.--.-------eecceeeeeeeceeeeeeeeeeee PRATT, WALLACE EH. Petroleum and residual bitumens in Leyte........ One plate and 2 text figures. PRATT, WALLACE FE. On the occurrence of petroleum in the Province OTH © CTD Urs se eee leer mee rac A ie a BEBE SUE I Soe cet Two text figures. Page. 37 51 65 75 81 97 99 105 123 135 171 177 211 231 241 281 iv Contents No. 5, September, 1915 PRATT, WALLACE E. The persistence of Philippine coal beds............ 289 Three text figures. PRATT, WALLACE E. Geologic reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines Province 0. f A nc 803 One plate and 2 text figures. PRATT, WALLACE E. Iron ore on Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, CAMOTINOS ! 8s oiler eccsccooicks cxcdcnasere schon ee ee 323 Two text figures. PRATT, WALLACE E., and LeEpNIcKy, Victor E. Iron ore in Surigao PLOWING wcesneciitisicceciseronenoncensese heen dhe canscsen ee 335 One plate and 1 text figure. No. 6, November, 1915 GANA, VICENTE Q. The leather industry of the Philippine Islands... 349 Two plates. Cox, ALVIN J., and Dar JuAN, T. Salt industry and resources of the Philippine Islands:....;.:............ 2S eee 375 Seventeen plates and 5 text figures. INDEX h “plats and: the Bataks of Palawan (7... were’ his publication, show rl Penh ty el edt men making fire t inaene 5 pa raya bound untes one over. of Dean aabcattavee enon end Xarloue oR. Ber cae Sea ee a Ss ape people themselves. My 7 °THE. Bat DIALECT pasion Oe esa os eh Pe Sa + ek Hi Bs Otro Scruemen . ay a abi rath ates pee eee “! ‘sige as Nar oe Ang eae Pe at Owe yan y ne ES Ga A) A el Meg pee SRM t Ray) 10 Di ‘ Metre " “By B. Ropinson 88? ANDY? Dy POs f ap . 5 ( _ LANGUAG * rae, > prter No. bea ke Paper. ; of Ny P E See 4 he, Sy : a -& . , raft’ oF * erie a etek.) Me Sesnat eee te if ee ss Dike Gs oe PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE BU AU. OF Bie ide i ae ay 0S MANILA, PHILIPPINE ISL! inate? ie: Pg / ‘> By Wakite’ Olhicpons Gia eae ehh } By Nagy M. Saree d . mete y Order Ne, 408. Paper 89 pages, $0.75, / Order Noi 405.” Paver, gar 16 — postpaid. ' plates, 5 diagrams, mo- The yooabulary 1s/given’ in ‘osroenainh vee ater Te he Pon Sohn and Clean ake : This volume | deals» with ‘the » earliest , A ed wah, - weltten recone, of the Moros In peng b —, Manet Paso revordsd oy cat Che yulere. of Magindanao am. ; Y Pagitia een n. five mi ‘THE NABAIOI DIALECT. (|. i ae ae eet a RS hs Fa Cte Wat’ By Orro Scurenm 0. Sy } Fe ON ag it A! Sea es? © eget, oF ZAxmanes Be ge ¢ ) THE BATAKS OF PALAWAN 65) ‘By Waussa Aas Rew ett é -.* By; Epwarp ¥- Miuipe * aoe . Order Noi -A02,- i ion, fe vor ‘Order’ nee Paper, $0.25; half mo Rage eet era $0.25; vend me _ rpeco, $0.75; postpaid. ee waits posted. The “NabalolDidlect | (65° pags, 29.) iil ve from photographs. many of nt with) mn phi mn adh hat bie These two’ papers. are: jsshea. sini one cy Naa the alec ep eee rip, eS over.) 4 Regr ‘Paper, $0. ig Renee 5 ‘ ’ * $ , ght ot Boe ad ORD Bul A ‘ 29 fy "es a is hiviss So: a EO DREL i ae Mee LESTER eae 2, Qo THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE ~~ THE SUBANUNS OF aes Ga Ss, Cirkt fee "OF NEGEOB i neh Rg ; wy eR LE LS aad See Pe Rg ye RT Aer ¢ By Exmson B. Custis u BEM Bgl ek tenes eae Order Now 410. 101 | pages, {2 >) Order thy yt postpaid. 9 Sito Bay is. situated on the north Pos C6 ered * ern opast of boanga Peninsula. The Su- » ' ~aioal ca banuns ‘of this region ,were studied’ by Mr... jn. the | 2 oaks, raep during’ two" periods of fiveg and: ‘eiwigl Os Menara eotive The i 39 lat i iiastrate Sh Subanuns at work’ and at play}: their in ‘iés, chien dg Os ph : ~Jaltars, and qecehaenntye and the betes my | ae we Phaiaentres, Saftey yaa te 2 eu ~ yerites. t Pa “" a J ate, tet Cae eat i Pha - Ge THE aistoRy ¢ Oa mit 6 63 2 ea NS v2 ‘By Naira M. SAueeby ea aa ; vis! bes eae maps, 2. eeu $0.75,: postpaid. ae mi In the préparation ‘ef his manusoript for hi der The: History(of Sulu, Doctor Saleeby Bos tuch® time and. ‘effort in Petar acess y in AM to documents in: the possession of Sultan | med Set ie of Sulu.) This, book is a history of the’ ~~ ‘act, = / Moros in ihe ad Pi from. the eerie ey ‘other w times to a fosies i) hase a. i ’ ; 7 ot meas Meret + 2s ae i pttop Fa rit an mite % i Seine y uk 7 Lad has pete , 5 eee * ‘ he ‘ UJ ay hi, 4 » e.7 , ” . THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VoL. X : JANUARY, 1915 No. 1 Cai Baz PAPAIN: ITS COMMERCIAL PREPARATION AND DIGESTI : PROPERTIES w JU 231996 4 5 By Davin S. PRATT STion ay muse (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) TWO PLATES AND + TEXT FIGURES Papain is the name usually given to the proteolytic enzyme elaborated by Carica papaya L. and secreted in the milky latex that forms a prominent characteristic of the plant. The papaya tree is normally an erect plant, from about 5 to 10 meters in height at maturity, seldom branched, with a soft trunk and a crown of large palmately lobed leaves. The plentiful fruits are melon shaped, up to 40 centimeters in length, with a golden- orange pulp and numerous small black seeds. They are used to a large extent in many tropical countries as a refreshing food, although possessing little actual nutritive value.* The name papaya is said to have been derived from the Carib ababai, and has been further altered to the English term pa- paw. The plant is a native of the Caribbean region, Gulf of Mexico, and South America, and has spread thence to many parts of the world. It was introduced into India early in the ' seventeenth century, and has been cultivated there ever since. Suitable conditions for its growth exist in many other countries, among which the Hawaiian Islands, Assam, Ceylon, and the Philippine Islands deserve special mention. Various medicinal uses of papaya have been known for many *Pratt and del Rosario, This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 69. 181717 2 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 years. The Caribs have long employed the ripe fruit as a cos- metic, and the remarkable complexions of these people are at- tributed to the use of the pulp as a skin soap. It is also said to remove freckles, and is frequently used by the natives of Ceylon as a soap to remove stains and to intensify colors, especially black, in washing fabrics. The juice is used in the Antilles as a poultice in the treatment of ulcers, sores, yaws, and other skin diseases, and I found similar application made of it by Sin- ghalese who reported very beneficial results. Antiaphrodisiac properties are frequently ascribed to the papaya by the natives of Ceylon, and a similar superstition is widespread in the Philip- pines. The well-authenticated action of sliced green fruit in softening meat is known to native cooks in many countries both in Central America and in Asia. Griffith Hughes noted this custom in 1750 when he wrote in his History of Barbadoes, “The juice is of so penetrating a nature, that if the unripe fruit when unpeeled is boiled with the toughest old salt meat, it will soon make it soft and tender.” European residents of the tropics are familiar with the important beneficial results of eating ripe papaya. Obstinate cases of dyspepsia and constipation yield readily to the pleasant and simple expediency of including a papaya in the breakfast menu. I have personally known of a sufficient number of such instances to leave no doubt in this respect. All of these properties are to be attributed to the presence of papain. The latex containing this enzyme is present in all parts of the plant, and exudes from the slightest injury. It is found to the greatest extent in a network of circulatory vessels beneath the surface of unripe fruits, and is collected in com- mercial quantities by scarifying such papayas. The fresh latex is dried to the consistency of gum and shipped in a crude state, principally to London and Hamburg, whence it is largely re- exported to the United States. The best quality of papain at the present time is produced in the West Indies, followed by Mexico and Ceylon, although the last produces by far the largest amount of gum. I recently had the opportunity of witnessing Singhalese gather the papaya latex and dry it for shipment. A casual inspection of the primitive methods employed in the Kegalle district, whence the greater part of Ceylon gum is obtained, sufficed to explain why so much unjust criticism has been made regarding the use of papain in medicine and why many physicians have become scep- tical of its value as a substitute for pepsin. A brief descrip- AN Pratt: Papain R tion of the general procedure from tapping the fruit to export of the gum should be of interest. Kegalle is situated between Colombo and the Royal Botanic Gardens at Paradeniya, with an annual rainfall of from 190 to 250 centimeters and with soil conditions well adapted to the growth of papayas. Gathering and drying the latex is entirely in the hands of ignorant natives, who are not capable of appre- ciating the care and cleanliness which should always be employed in dealing with a sensitive material, such as an enzyme. Good results cannot be expected, and it is rather surprising that the final product shows any proteolytic activity, especially as gross adulteration is the rule rather than the exception. The papaya trees are not planted with any degree of regularity, but are found scattered through coconut and areca-palm groves. They receive neither cultivation nor care, but in spite of difficulties continue to bear fruit and support a rather numerous population. Preparations for gathering latex are very simple, and consist in cutting and forming the leaf sheath of an areca-palm leaf into a shallow basket. A crossbar is tied to the papaya tree at a convenient height, and the basket is hung beneath the unripe fruit, in which slight cuts are made longitudinally, whereupon the milky juice exudes and drops into the basket. The flow is rapid for a few seconds, but becomes slower and slower as the latex coagulates, until it ceases entirely. The jellylike frag- ments adhering to the fruit are scraped off with a paddle cut from a leafstalk and added to the contents of the basket which are stirred for a few minutes until coagulation takes place (Plate I). It is a common practice to add boiled rice starch at this point for the purpose of increasing the weight and lightening the final color of the gum, the amount of adulterant varying from about 10 to as much as 80 per cent. Other extraneous material, such as clay, bread crumbs, dried fruit, and India rub- ber latex, are occasionally used. The juice is now spread out on papers in the sun to dry, three or four days generally being sufficient for the purpose. On several occasions, I noticed papers of partially dried gum exposed to clouds of dust and dirt from near-by thoroughfares. The color gradually darkens as the drying proceeds, until the final product is dark brown to nearly black in the case of straight gum or light brown where large percentages of starch have been added. The former is known to Colombo brokers as No. 1 and the latter as No. 2. Foreign markets demand a light-colored papain, and will not accept No. 1 grade. Pure gum, light in 4 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 color and of high activity, could hardly be made by the native process outlined above. An attempt is, therefore, made to meet the requirements of London and Hamburg dealers by blending No. 1 with No. 2. This gives No. 2 mixed (Plate II). The two components may readily be recognized in such a mixture, as the individual lumps are large enough to render separation by hand picking a simple matter. The effect of this blending is to lighten the color considerably, but at the same time very greatly to decrease the activity of the gum. It will be shown later that the light-brown fragments of highly adulterated gum are prac- tically inert, and as this grade frequently comprises from 30 to 50 per cent of an entire shipment it may be seen how seriously the product is injured. Many dealers in Colombo informed me that they were adverse to blending the two grades of papain in this manner, but that dark-colored No. 1 was unsalable and pure light-brown gum could not be made. The latter statement does not correctly represent the situation, as Mexican papain is lighter in color and the West Indian product resembles dried bread crumbs. Further difficulties have arisen during the past year. Many shipments of Colombo No. 2 mixed have been refused admittance by the United States customs, because adulterated with starch although invoiced as papain. Thus the sale of Ceylon papaya gum has decreased considerably, but various brokers who have dealt in this product for many years informed me that they could readily sell at least a ton per month of high-grade papain provided it were free from adulteration and light colored. Quotations from various drug houses in the United States indicate that properly prepared gum would find a ready market at prices ranging from 11 to 13 pesos per kilogram (2.50 to 3 dollars per pound). This investigation was undertaken for the purpose of com- paring papaya gums made in a variety of ways and, especially, to ascertain whether it was possible to conserve the entire effi- ciency of fresh latex by employing proper methods for drying. Various means for determining the digestive value of papain have been suggested from time to time, and many firms handling the gum employ arbitrary standards based upon what they con- sider a satisfactory preparation. Graber? uses finely ground steak in dilute hydrochloric acid solution, Rippetoe* prefers > Journ. Ind. & Eng. Chem. (1911), 3, 919. * Ibid. (1912), 4, 517. X, A, 1 Pratt: Papain 5 coagulated egg albumen in’ 0.10 per cent sodium hydroxide solution, while others advocate fibrin, ete. The duration and temperature employed also vary greatly. No systematic inves- tigations have been made that enable one to form a logical opinion regarding the digestive powers of papain; the optimum conditions of temperature, alkalinity, or acidity; the rate of digestion; etc. It was greatly to be desired that some method for analysis be found which would give accurate results without requiring elaborate apparatus or laborious manipulation and that would not depend upon some sample of papaya gum arbitrarily se- lected as a standard. Methods depending upon the comparative volumes of undigested material are not trustworthy, and those in which it is necessary to determine the increase in soluble nitrogen during digestion are not only unsatisfactory, but also exceedingly tedious when many analyses have to be made. The following scheme for assaying papain has given satis- factory results in many hundreds of cases, and may be recom- mended as simple, rapid, and accurate. It has the advantage of being carried out readily in any laboratory, and gives all the information necessary for determining the quality of the sample. METHOD FOR THE ANALYSIS OF PAPAIN Milk, as nearly as possible free from butter fat, is the most satisfactory material to employ as substrate. The various well- known brands of condensed skimmed milk possess reasonably constant composition, and are well suited to the purpose. I employed a 40 per cent solution of sweetened condensed skimmed milk in the analyses recorded in this paper, not only because fresh skimmed milk was not procurable in Manila, but also for the reason that the canned milks keep well and are thus always available. The enzyme solution was prepared by dissolving 0.75 gram of powdered papain in 150 cubic centimeters of distilled water. Papain is not completely soluble in water, but by warming the mixture for thirty minutes in the thermostat at 40° the active principle is dissolved and upon filtering a clear solution is ob- tained. Well-prepared gums give a colorless filtrate, which is slightly acid and shows a marked tendency to froth. The di- gestions were carried out in 150 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks. The volumes of milk, water, and papain solution used may be seen from Table I. 6 The Philippine Journal of Science 19165 TABLE I.—Typical digestion experiment. | } | No. of : | Papain ‘ flask: Milk. Water. solution. | Papain. : | | | ce. ce. ce. } omg. | 1} 25 | 23 | 2 10 2 25 | 21 | 4 20 3 | 25 | 19 6 30 4 25 17 8 40 5 25 15 10 50 | 6 25 13 12 60 7 25 ll 14 710 | 8 25 9 16 80 9 25 7| 18 #0 10 25 5 20 100 | ve 25 25 0 0 The milk and water were always measured into the flasks and mixed by shaking. The enzyme solution was rapidly added from a burette, the contents were well mixed by a few vigorous shakes, and the flasks were at once placed in the thermostat. At the expiration of exactly thirty minutes they were removed in the same order, 20 cubic centimeters of ice water added to each, and the flasks placed in melting ice to stop digestion. The contents of each flask were then successively washed into a 500 cubic centimeter beaker, sufficient water being used to give approximately 75 cubic centimeters of final volume. The undigested protein was then precipitated by slowly adding 0.5 cubic centimeter of copper sulphate solution (60 grams per liter), followed by 0.5 cubic centimeter of glacial acetic acid, the solution being vigorously stirred during precipitation. The contents of the beaker were now washed into 100 cubic centimeter measuring cylinders and allowed to stand for a short time to permit the curd to settle, after which they were filtered through 11-centimeter ashless papers, which had been previously numbered, dried at 100°, and weighed. It frequently happens that filtration proceeds very slowly, in which case it is not advisable to wait until all the liquid has passed through, but is better to proceed with the washing. The curd is washed back into the cylinders with distilled water warmed to about 60°, and is thoroughly disintegrated by means of a rubber-tipped stirring rod. The sediment now settles readily, and the solutions filter rapidly. The undigested protein is washed three more times in this manner to remove sugars and soluble digestion products, gentle suction is applied to remove the surplus water, AS Pratt: Papain i and the papers are dried to constant weight at 100°. No cor- rection for the amount of papain used is necessary, as it is not precipitated by copper sulphate and acetic acid. The weight of protein digested by the various amounts of papain may be calculated from the blank in which no enzyme was used. The entire determination with the exception of drying may be made in from three to four hours, and duplicate analyses agree within about 2 per cent. The curves obtained in this manner show at a glance the relative proteolytic power possessed by samples of papain, as well as the rate at which digestion has proceeded with increasing amounts of enzyme. No antiseptic is necessary with such short periods of incubation. Analyses. were carried out in this manner with commercial samples of papain from various sources. A great divergence in activity wa’ encountered, ranging from gum possessing prac- tically no proteolytic power to highly active material. The curves obtained from these data are plotted in fig. 1. ANALYSES OF PAPAIN No. 1. Papain from local drug store.-—This sample was of un- known origin, and had been obtained from Germany several years previously. It was light colored, and possessed an odor resem- bling pepsin. A small portion boiled with water gave a positive test for starch with iodine solution. The analysis is shown in Table IT. TABLE II.—Analysis of papain, sample 1. | aA | Hanceick 4 rotein A A protein Maaee | Mik. | water, | Eapsin | papain, | “ungi. | frotein | spretels | digestea | | | papain. —— SAY Le pu ENS I ee ce. ce. ce. mg. mag. mg. Per cent. 1 25 23 2 10 | 1, 160 0 ONO S222 eee 2 25 21 4 20 1, 163 0 (0) Jeet sea | 3 25 19 6 | 30 1, 159 0; OLO}| 22 se se 4 25 17 8 | 40 1, 151 4 0.3 | 0.1 5 25 15 10 50 1, 149 6 0.5 | 0.1 6 25 13 12 60 1, 132 22 1.9 0.3 7 25 il 14 70 1,116 39 3.4 0.5 8 25 9 16 80 1, 107 48 4.2 0.5 9 25 7 18 90 1, 098 57 5.0 0.6 10 25 5 20 100 1, 092 63 6.0 | 0.6 Protein in blank =1,155 milligrams. Acidity of papain solution as HC] =—0.005 per cent. The sample was practically inert, although it retailed at 1 peso (50 cents) per 20 grams. The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 No. 2. Ceylon papain. Grade 2.—I obtained this sample from the warehouse of a prominent broker in Colombo, who informed me that it represented the usual quality of the light-colored, highly adulterated grade. The analysis is shown in Table III. TABLE III.—Analysis of second-grade Ceylon papain, sample 2. j | | / / } Protein / | pl No ; Milk. Water. | | kane Papain. and laicceee. digested. disentea | | | | | oe | | Paeeinat | Tp aah cia — a ce. cc. / cc. | mg | mg. mg. | Per cent. | | 1| 26 238 | 2 10 a | 1 | 0.1 0.1 | | 2 | 25 21 | 4 20] 1am] 9... Od bee 3} 25 | 19 | 6 | 30} 1,120 | eel ee 4! 25 | | 8] 40) 1, “221 | op. ae 5 25 15 | 10 50; 1,104 | 16 14 0.3 | 6 “ 13 2} 60} 1069) 51] a] ae | 7 25 | 11 | 14 | 70 1, 093 27 | 2.4 0.4 | 8} 25 | 9 16 | 80 1, 086 34 3.0 0.4 | 9 | 25 | 7 18 9} 1,101 19 | 12 0.2 | 10 | 25 5 20 | 1.2 0.1 1, 107 | 13 } } | Protein in blank=1,120 milligrams. Starch present in large amounts. Practically inert. No. 3. Ceylon papain. Grade 1—This sample was from the same source as the preceding. It was chocolate colored and non- friable. The analysis is shown in Table IV. TABLE IV.—Analysis of grade 1, Ceylon papain, sample 8. ae 7 > 7 Py een Es me ee ek 7 | | mee | co e . 1 * protein : maa Milk Water. cy Papain. ae pee F icakrarh a part papain. | a ea Ream Ie a ce. ce. co: | Ag. mg. | mg. | Per cent. 1 25 23 Al 4 1, 064 | 56 | 6.0} 56 | 2| 25 21 4 20 996 | m| i101 6.2 | 3 25 19 | | 30 890 230} 20.6 7.6 | 4 25 7 8 40 885 235| 21.0 5.8 | 5 25 | : 10 | 50 858 262| 23.4 5.2 | 6 25 12 | 60 827 293 26.2 4.9 7 25 = 14 70 789 331 29.6 4.7 | 8 25 9 | 16 20 | 748 372 33.2 4.6 9 25 | 7 | 18 9 | 720 400{ 35.7| 44 10 | 25 | 5 | 100} 674 446| 39.8 4.0 | 1 : ; Protein in ey 120 i PR, Starch present. Acidity of papain solution as HCI=0.008 per cent. The activity is not high, and the ratio is very low even with small amounts of gum. KAI Pratt: Papain 9 No. 4. Ceylon papain.—I obtained this sample from another prominent dealer in Colombo. It closely resembled the preceding in appearance, and was considered as unadulterated. The analy- sis is shown in Table V. TABLE V.—Analysis of Ceylon papain, sample 4. aoe | | pants of | % rotein . > : protein | gee’ | Milk. | Water. | ARID. | Papain. | undis' | Reest, discs, | digested | papain. eu Me kate eva ee a ASD tcl = cc. ce. ce. mg. mg. mg. | Per cent.) H 1 25 23 2 10 1, 033 96 | Bt GLB} 2 25 21 4 20 943 186 16.5 9.3 | 3 25 19 6 30 877 252 22.4 8.4 | 4 25 17 8 40 802 327 29.0 8.2 | 5 25 15 10 50 759 370 32.8 7.4 6 25 13 12 60 717 412 36.5 6.9 | 7 25 1 14 70 688 441 | 39.1 6.3 | 8 25 9 16 80 645 Bedi) Wieraoie | wl ged 9 25 7 18 90 612 517 45.9 5.7 10 25 5 20 100 589 540 48.0 5.4 Protein in blank=1,129 milligrams. Starch absent. Acidity of papain solution as HC]=0.004 per cent. No. 5. Ceylon papain.—This sample was from the same source as No. 4 and is similar in appearance, but it contains starch as adulterant. The analysis is shown in Tables VI and VII. -TABLE VI.—Analysis of Ceylon papain, sample 5. \ ee a H parte of | . rotein * . protein ‘fast, | Milk. | Water. | P protein Migact | Mik, | Water. | EAR. | Papatn, | "und | irc | digesta, dient | | papain. | i: cc. ce. ce. mg. mg. | mg. ' Per eent.| 1 25 23 | 2 10 815 400 32.9| 40.0 2 | 25 21 | 4 20 | 697 | 518 42.7; 25.9 | 3 | 25 19 6 30 | 593 | 622 51.2] 20.7 4 25 7 8 40 | 458 757 62.6 18.9 5 25 5 10 50 416 799 65.8! 16.0 6 | 25 13 12 60 | 343 | 872 78). one 7 | 25 | 1 | 4 7 295 920 75.8 13.1 8 | 25 9) 16 80 271 | 944 71.8) 18 9 | 25 7 18 90 251 | 964 | 79.8 10.7 10 5 20 100 | 243 | 972 80.0 8.0 25 | ‘ | | ' ! Protein in blank=1,215 milligrams. Starch absent. Acidity of papain solution as HCI=0.005 per cent. Mead Johnson & Co. states that it regards West Indian gum as the best produced, and this view is clearly substantiated by the above analysis. The results of the above analyses are plotted in fig. 1, where the various curves show not only the percentage of total protein digested by increasing amounts of papain, but also give graphic- ally a clear idea of the marked differences existing in the pro- teolytic activity of the samples, whose numbers are given. Thus, the amount of milk protein digested in thirty minutes at 40° by 1 milligram of West Indian papain is seen to exceed that digested under similar conditions by 100 milligrams of sample 7, representing ordinary Ceylon papain. ‘ PREPARATION OF PAPAIN Various methods for converting fresh latex into dry papain were investigated, in order to ascertain the extent of deteriora- tion during drying and the possibility of preparing papain commercially which would exceed the West Indian product in its proteolytic activity. The fresh latex for this work was obtained under my personal supervision. Green fruits were scarified with steel knives in the usual MEWAG Pratt: Papain 13 manner, and the juice was collected in porcelain evaporating dishes. The entire collection, amounting to approximately 0.5 kilogram, was thoroughly mixed to insure uniform composi- tion, using a bone spatula, and was divided into various portions Per cent protein digested. LRSM ZON SO WM SOONPSO (N60) Fo) 80 ge as ae agih a yreeai lle i 2 | OV & 50 | Seay ayer ra Ty AAA ¥ig. 1. Curve 1. Papain from local drug store. Curve 3. Ceylon papain, sample 38. Curve 4. Ceylon papain, sample 4. Curve 5. Ceylon papain, sample 5. Curve 6. Ceylon papain, sample 6. Curve 7. Ceylon papain, sample 7. Curve 8. Mexican papain, sample 8 Curve 9. West Indian papain, sample 9. Curve 10. Fresh papaya latex, sample 10. Curve 12. Papain by aleohol precipitation, sample 12. which were treated in different ways. The activity of the original latex designated No. 10 was obtained by analysis in the above manner, the weight of latex used being computed to dry papain. The results of the analysis are shown in Table XII. 14 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE XII.—Analysis of fresh papaya latex, sample 10. ey | a2 | Parts of } : : ro ein ‘ pro n Mszet | nm. | water, | apaln | panain. | Fandi” | sctey reel | digested | | papain, ) . 7 i “a tr | cc. ce. ce. mg. | Wigs wl we, Per cent. | 1 25 | 23 2 10 702 458 39.6 45.8 2 25 21 4 20 | 473 687 59.2 34.4 3 25 | 19 6 30 | 338 §22 71.0 | 27.4 4) 25 17 8 40 312 848 73:8 |° 22 5| 5 15 10 | 50 er} s3| 76.8] 10.7 6 | 25 13 12 | 60 257 | 903 77.8| 15.1 | 7| 25 il 14 | 70} 244) 916 | 79.0) Ba | S 25 9 16 80 | 230 930 80.3 11.7 | 9 / 100 E | lLaeees an a Sm g Nw tw EE ££ 2 2 2 a 3 |— | oS aa Protein in blank=1,160 milligrams. Acidity of enzyme solution as HCl=0.006 per cent. The relationship between enzyme and percentage of protein digested in thirty minutes at 40° is plotted as curve 10 in fig. 1. It is evident that the fresh latex is considerably more active than dried papain from the Antilles, although both preparations are capable of digesting approximately the same amount of milk protein with relatively large amounts of enzyme present. The curve for fresh latex shows a rapid increase in digestion with increasing amounts of papain up to about 20 milligrams cor- responding to 58 per cent digestion of the total protein content, while the West Indian papain gives only 44 per cent digestion at this concentration. A portion of the fresh latex was spread out in a porcelain dish to form a thin layer and was sundried. It was frequently stirred, and the gummy lumps were sliced to facilitate the rapid evaporation of moisture. The color darkened slightly, and ap- proximated that shown by the West Indian papain. The product designated No. 11 was readily friable when thoroughly dry, and gave the analysis shown in Table XIII. The results of this analysis are not plotted, as the curve closely approximates that given by fresh latex. The central portion shows somewhat less digestion, the maximum divergence being about 3 per cent with 40 milligrams of papain. It thus appears that sundried papain is not necessarily less active than the fresh latex, but in this case it must be remembered that considerable care was given the sample to insure rapid drying, the exclusion of dust, etc. It was also dried promptly after collection. This is very important, as fermentation takes place x, A, 1 Pratt: Papain 15 TABLE XIII.—Analysis of sundried Philippine papain, sample 11. | ea Hants of - | rotein | . | : pro ein Meat | Milk | Water. |GfRfon.| Papain. | undi-’ gisot0d. ascaton.| dicested | papain. | ce. ce. ce. ; mg. | mg. mg. Per cent. 1 25 | 23 2 10 701 454 | 39.4 45.4 2 25 21 4 20 510 645 55.8 32.3 3 25 19 6 30 | 404 | 751 | 65.0 25.0 4 25 | 17 8 40 347 | 808 | 70.0 20.2 5 25 | 15 10 50 | 308 847 | 73.5 16.9 | 6 25 | 18 12 60 278 877 | 76.0 14.6 7 25 11 | 14 70 259 | 896 Ra 12.8 | 8 25 9 16 80 249 906 78.5 11.3 9 25 | 7 | 18 | 90 235 920 79.6 10.2 10 25 5 20 100 203 | 952 | 82.5 9.5 Protein in blank=1,155 milligrams. Acidity of papain solution as HC]=0.008 per cent. rapidly in papaya latex with the production of nauseating odors and destruction of the enzyme. Small portions of the fresh latex were dried rapidly in vacuo over sulphuric acid. The resulting papain was a light cream color, was easily friable, and upon analysis showed little if any difference in activity from the original. The chief advantages resulting from drying in this manner are the shortness of the time required, lighter color, and more porous nature of the resulting papain. Its successful application on a large scale would necessitate special machinery, whereby the latex might be thoroughly stirred during drying. Further difficulties would arise from the gummy consistency of the partially dried prod- uct and the necessity of avoiding contact with metals that cause darkening of the color. Many enzymes may be purified and separated from extra- neous material by precipitation with alcohol. This method is applicable to papaya latex, and gives excellent results pro- vided the action of the alcohol is limited to as short a time as possible. Twenty grams of the fresh latex were well mixed with 100 cubic centimeters of 95 per cent alcohol. A gummy white * coagulum was thrown down that was readily collected in a ball. The alcohol was poured off and replaced with 50 cubic centimeters of the same strength. The papain readily crumbled to a fine powder during the second treatment with alcohol. It was filtered with suction and washed twice with ether to remove a semisolid yellow wax and to facilitate drying. The washed 16 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 papain was dried in vacuo, giving a perfectly white powder with a faint characteristic odor; yield, 3 grams. The time required from latex to dry papain was about twenty minutes. An analysis of this product designated No. 12 is shown in Table XIV. TABLE XIV.—Analysis of Philippine papain, sample 12. | | | ; | No. of ; | Papain | : Protein | Protein | Protein | ‘pretein | flask. Milk. | Water. | .olution.| Papain. Mini ‘digested. digested. Sa psted | | papain. j my Ut ee : bt Bl eS ss 3 re rs le et Peo! A a ce. | ec. | cc. | mg. mg. | mg. | Per cent. | 1| 25 | 23 2 | 10 | 451 | 722 61.5] 722 | 2 | 25 | 21 | 4| 20 | 330 843 7.8| 42.1 3 25 | 19 | 6 | 30 | 266 | 907 77.3! 30.2 4| 25 | 17 8 | 40 | 234 | 939 80.0} 28.5 5 | 25 | 15 10 | 50} 224 949 81.0) 19.0 6 25 13 12 60 | 196 977 83,2 16.3 | 7| 26 | 11 | 4 | 70 183 990] 845| 141 | 8 | 25 | 9| 16 | 80 185 | 988 | 84.0 12.3 | 9) 25 | 7 | 18 | 90 | 182 | 991 84.5) 110 10 | 25 5 | 20 | 100 175 | 998 85.3 10.0 i i ' | ! i : i { Protein in blank=1,173 milligrams. Acidity of papain solution as HC1—0.004 per cent. The results of this analysis are plotted in fig. 1 as curve 12. It may be seen that this sample of papain is very active, 10 milligrams being capable of digesting as much milk protein as 22 milligrams of the Philippine sundried papain or 40 mil- ligrams of the West Indian product. This probably represents the most active papain that could be prepared commercially. Its manufacture by this method would necessitate a still for re- covering the waste alcohol. The use of ether would hardly be practical in tropical countries, but could be employed by drug firms using papain, if desirable. Papain prepared in this manner is nearly soluble in water, giving an opalescent solution with small flocks of white insoluble material. The solution rapidly curdles milk, with the forma- tion of a fine curd that quickly redissolves. This property of papain should make it of great value in preparing milk for infant feeding, as the formation of heavy indigestible curds in the stomach may thus be avoided. RATE OF DIGESTION All of the preceding digestions were carried out at 40° for a period of thirty minutes. The following experiment was made to determine the rate at which milk protein is digested by pa- GWA, A Pratt: Papain 17 pain. All of the flasks contained the same amounts of milk, water, and enzyme solution, but were maintained at 40° for vary- ing lengths of time before precipitation. The results of this series are shown in Table XV. The papain used was sample 6 from Ceylon. TABLE XV.—Rate of digestion of milk protein. ee Farts of 2 rotein 5 . protein “W&all atocntion, und | divested, dicontea,| uvested papain. Mins. mg. mg. Per cent. 1 10 862 281 24.7 11.2 2 20 816 327 28.6 13.1 3 30 183 360 81.5 14.4 4 40 760 383 33.5 15.3 5 50 741 402 35.1 16.0 6 60 714 429 37.5 17.0 7 10 103 440 38.4 17.6 8 80 102 441 38.5 17.6 9 90 708 | 485 38.1 17.4 10 100 664 479 41.8 19.1 1 110 685 458 40.1 18.0 12 120 675 468 40.9 18.7 13 130 681 462 40.3 18.5 14 140 668 475 41.6 19.0 | 15 150 658 485 42.4 19.4 Protein in blank =1,148 milligrams. Each flask contained 25 cubic centimeters of milk, 20 cubic centimeters of water, and 5 cubie centimeters of enzyme solution equivalent to 25 milligrams of papain. These results are plotted in fig. 2. An inspection of this curve shows that digestion proceeded rapidly during the first ten min- utes and practically reached its maximum within an hour. The nature of the protein and conditions of solution, concentration, etc. would affect the equilibrium to a greater or less extent, so that this period of digestion must not be taken as applying to some other substrate, such as beef. DIGESTION UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS The literature of papain contains many conflicting statements regarding the conditions suitable for digestion. Some authors claim that the enzyme acts in neutral, alkaline, or acid solu- tion; others, that one or the other is best suited for proteolytic activity. The question is important in its bearing upon the use of papain as a medicinal agent and interesting in comparing papain with other enzymes, such as pepsin and trypsin. 1817172 18 The Philippine Journal of Science Per cent protein digested. 1/0 20 30 40 3 | = E 5 2 £ B Fic. 2. Rate of digestion of milk protein by papain. 1915 MAS Pratt: Papain 19 PAPAIN DIGESTION IN ACID SOLUTION The following experiments were made to determine the effect of hydrochloric acid on the digestion of milk protein. The digestions were carried out in the usual manner for thirty min- utes at 40°. The results are shown in Table XVI. TABLE XVI.—Papain digestion of milk protein in acid solution. i Hydro- i xl _ |Parts of a Mitt. | Water. |,Pap2in| papain.| ehloric| chiorie | unis | dic. | aie” [decsteal : Y ealation! acid. | gested. | gested. | gested. |by 1 part papain. ce. ce. cc. mg. ec. ‘Percent.| mg. | mg. |Per cent. | 1 265 15 10 60 0 0. 00 651 | 505 43.7 10.1 2 25 14 10 50 1 0. 02 671 | 485 42.0 9.7 3 25 13 10 50 2 0.04 670 486 42.0 9.7 4 25 12 10 50 3 0. 06 719 437 37.8 8.7 | 5 25 il 10 50 4| 0.08 750 (8 || Si Bn 6 25 10 10 50 5 0.10 838 318 27.6 6.4 x 25 9 10 60 6 0.12 946 210 18.2 4.2 | 8 26 8 10 50 7 0.14 982 174 15.1 3.5 | 9 25 7 10 50 s| 0.16 998 TE) BEECH | (RRP ! 10 25 6 10 50 9 0.18 1, 000 156 13.5 3.1 | 11 25 5 10 50 10 0. 20 1,003 153 13.2 3.1 Protein in blank=1,156 milligrams. TABLE XVII.—Papain digestion of milk protein in acid solution. A Hydro- Hydro- | Protein | Protein | Protein Ree pio: ot Milk. | Water. Peapainl Papain. chioric chloric | undi- di- di-_ jdigested| eetiont acid. | gested. | gested. | gested. |by1 part; papain. | — — | —~ = } ec. ce. ce. mg. | ce, \Per cent. mg. | mg. (Percent. 1 25 20 6 25 0 0.00 951 250 20.8 10.0 | 2 25 19 5 25 1 0.02 951 250 20. 8 10.0 3 25 18 5 25 2 0.04 974 | 227 18.9 9.1 4 25 17 5 25 8 0.06 989 212 17.7 8.5 5 25 16 5 25 4 0.08 1,004 197 16.4 1.9 6 25 15 5 25 5 0.10 1, 060 14] | 11.8 5.6 7 25 14 5 25 6 0.12} 1,110 91|/ 7.6 3.6 | 8 26 18 5 25 7 0.14 1,115 86 | 7.2 3.4 | 9 25 12 5 25 8 0.16 1, 123 78 6.5 3.1 10 25 11 5 25 9 0.18 1, 136 65 5.4 2.6 11 25 10 5 25 10 0. 20 1, 188 68 | 5.3 2.5 Protein in blank=1,201 milligrams. The results of this experiment are plotted as curve 1 in fig. 3. This curve shows that amounts of hydrochloric acid up to 0.06 per cent have only a slight retarding action on the diges- tion of milk protein. Increasing amounts from 0.06 to 0.13 per cent acid very greatly reduce the activity of the enzyme, 20 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 although any further increase up to 0.20 per cent causes practi- cally no change. A sharply defined range of acidity thus reduces the digestion to one-half its former value. One more example Per cent protein digested. 10 20 30 40 50 Per cent hydrochloric acid. Fic. 3. Digestion in hydrochloric acid solution. Curve 1. With 50 milligrams of papain. Curve 2. With 25 milligrams of papain. of digestions under similar conditions, but with a less amount of papain, will serve to show the same peculiar effect. The results are plotted as curve 2 in fig. 3. It will be noticed that the two curves are entirely analogous and that the percent- SPAT Pratt: Papain DA age of protein digested by 25 milligrams of papain is almost exactly half that found with 50 milligrams at corresponding points on the curves. In all cases, the mineral acid was neutral- ized by an equivalent amount of sodium hydroxide solution im- mediately before precipitating with copper sulphate and acetic acid. Otherwise, milky solutions are encountered that will not permit filtration. The peculiar transition point in these curves was thought to indicate the appearance of uncombined hydrochloric acid, but such is not the case. A similar series was prepared for the purpose of determining free acid by titration, using Topfer’s reagent (dimethylamidoazobenzol) as indicator. None of the flasks showed the presence of free acid. The milk in the flasks containing 0.02 per cent acid was not coagulated, that with 0.04 and 0.06 per cent showed slight coagulation, while the re- mainder was coagulated. In as much as the enzyme solution had been added after acidifi- cation, there was a possibility that the papain acted only as the surface of curds thus formed and that the results, therefore, did not represent the true rate of digestion. This possibility was avoided by adding the enzyme solution to the milk and water before acidifying. All the solutions were maintained at 0° to prevent digestion before the addition of acid. It was impossible to start the digestions as promptly in this manner as in previous cases. The time, therefore, was extended to ninety minutes to compensate for irregularity at the beginning and to insure equi- librium. Papain 6 was used. The results are found in Table XVIII. TABLE XVIII.—Papain digestion of milk protein in acid solution. a : el N A | Hy dro- Hydro- | Protein| Protein| Protein | Sena pio OF Milk. | Water. qe abeln Papain. euloric chloric | undi- di- di- digested solution? acid. | gested. | gested.| gested. jby 1 part papain. ce. cc. ce. mg. cc. Per cent. mg. mg. |\Percent. 1 25 15 10 50 0 0.00 620 522 45.7 110. 4 2 25 14 10 50 1 0.02 617 525 46.0 10.5 3 25 13 10 50 2 0. 04 640 502 44.0 0.0 4 25 12 10 50 3 0. 06 687 455 39.38 9.1 5 25 11 10 50 4 0, 08 TAT 395 34.5 te) 6 25 10 10 50 5 0.10 820 322 28.2 6.4 7 25 9 10 50 6 0.12 937 205 | 18.0 4.1 8 25 | 8 10 50 7 0.14 987 155 13.6 3.1 9 25 7 10 50 8 0.16 982 160 14.0 3.2 10 25 6 10 50 aN) 0.18 1, 001 141 12.4 2.8 11 25 5 10 50 10 0.20 1, 005 137 12.0 74. ih Protein in blank=1,142 milligrams. 22 The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 The results are practically identical with those given in Table XVI, and show that no different effect is obtained by adding the enzyme solution before coagulation. Digestion experiments were carried out in solutions contain- ing sodium bicarbonate in amounts ranging from 0.0 to 0.2 per cent. The presence of this alkali had no effect on the digestion of milk protein. Similar negative results were obtained with concentrations of sodium chloride varying from 0.10 to 1.0 per cent, although both of these are said to accelerate the digestion of beef by papain.‘ HYDROCYANIC ACID Much of the early work that is recorded in the literature of papain must be questioned, because hydrocyanic acid was em- ployed as the antiseptic. It is now known that papain digestion of protein proceeds more rapidly and more completely in the presence of this acid than when toluol or other antiseptic is used. Vines * stated that his experiments “strikingly demonstrate the remarkably favourable effect of the presence of HCN upon the proteolytic activity of papain.” Mendel and Blood® have con- firmed this statement in an extended series of experiments with commercial samples of papain, and state that the accelerating effect [of HCN] is not limited to the hydrolysis of peptone but is also shown in the digestion of raw and coagulated egg-white, fibrin, edestin, and excelsin whether one take as the gauge of digestion the appearance of tryptophane, leucine and tyrosin, the conversion into products not precipitated by hot trichloracetic acid or the rate of solution of insoluble protein. No satisfactory explanation of the action of hydrocyanic acid has been advanced. The following series was run with increas- ing amounts of acid to determine its effect on the digestion of milk protein by pure papain. The enzyme was prepared by the alcohol-precipitation method, and was very active. The data and results are shown in Table XIX. It may be seen from this table that hydrocyanic acid also in- creased the percentage of milk protein digested by papain. The ratio increased by about 2 units, although no positive color test with bromine water for tryptophane could be obtained. The presence of 0.02 per cent acid was sufficient to give the maximum effect under these conditions, higher concentrations causing no further increase. * Private communication from L. D. Johnson. * Ann. Bot. (1903), 17, 606. * Journ. Biol. Chem. (1910), 8, 182. Roa, y Pratt: Papain 23 TABLE KIX.—Effect of hydrocyanic acid on papain digestion of milk protein. edroe ‘ Parts of Ne: of Milk. | Water. ce abein Papain. cyanic eeaiie Hroten Erove ie Brot in eared . q eaiation® acid. | gested. | gested. | gested. |by 1 part papain. —— — {= cc. ce. Cor mg. ce. Per cent.| mg. mg. Per cent. 1 25 | 15 10 50 0 0.00 270 | 881 76.5 17.6 2 25 | 14 10 50 fis NOLO 197 954] 82.8) 19.1 3 25 13 | 10 50 2 0.04 178 | 973 | 84.5 19.5 4 25 12 10 50 3 0.06 196 955 83.0 19.1 5 25 11 | 10 50 4 0. 08 200 951 82.6 19.0 6 25 10 10 50 5 0.10 189 962 83.5 19.2 7 25 9 10 50 6 0.12 181 970 84,2 19.4 8 25 8 10 50 uf 0.14 179 972 84.4 19.4 9 25 7 10 50 8 0. 16 178 973 84.4 19.4 10 25 6 10 50 9 0.18 179 972 84.4 19.4 i 25 5 10 50 10 0.20 187 964 83.7 19.3 | Protein in blank=1,151 milligrams. Time of digestion, thirty minutes. Temperature, 40°. The remarkable effect of hydrocyanic acid was not studied in detail, as it has no bearing on the actual use or preparation of papain. However, the difficulty of obtaining samples of pure papain of known history made it worth while to examine the digestion of peptone under these conditions. THE FORMATION OF TRYPTOPHANE FROM WITTE’S PEPTONE The following mixtures were prepared and incubated at 40°. Mixture 1. Peptone, 5 per cent Papain, 1 per cent Water, distilled Toluol Mixture 2. Peptone, 5 per cent Papain, 1 per cent Hydrocyanic acid solution, 0.1 per cent Toluol Mixture $3, control, Peptone, 5 per cent Hydrocyanic acid solution, 0.1 per cent Water, distilled Toluol 24 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Portions were removed and tested with bromine water for tryptophane. Nos. 1 and 3 gave no color, while No. 2 gave a pronounced purple after twenty-four hours’ incubation. These results are in accord with the data given by Mendel and Blood,’ working with commercial material. DIGESTION AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES Digestions of milk protein were carried out in the usual manner at temperatures ranging from 0° to 70° to determine the activity of papain under these conditions. The papain used in these de- terminations was prepared by the alcohol precipitation method, and was very active. All digestions were for thirty-minute periods. That at 0° was carried out with all flasks surrounded by finely cracked ice, contained in a well-insulated thermostat. The temperature was not allowed to rise until after the final precipitation with copper sulphate and acetic acid. The analysis is shown in Table XX. TABLE XX.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 0°. i | 41 : Protein 5. | protein Tanks | Milk. | Water. | Chtion.| Papal. | und: leet, dered digested | papain _ eee ae | eee Sree -| = | as cc. | cc. cc. mg. mg. mg. | Per cent. 1 25 | 23 | 2 10} 1,102 38 | 3.8 3.8 2 | 25 21 | 4 20| 1, 048 92 | 21) 03a 3 25 19 | 6 | 30 | 993 uz} 12.9 4.9 | ‘| 5 17 8 40 | 987 153 13.4 3.8 5 25 15 | 10 50 922 218 19.1 4.4 6 25 13 | 12 60 861 279 24.4 4.7 7) 25 u 14 70 827 | 313 27.4 4.8 8 25 9 | 16 817 | $23 28.4 4.0 ie 7| | = 9 789| 351 30.8| 3.9 | 10 25 | 5 | 20 | 100 756 | 384) 83.7 3.4 Protein in blank =1,140 milligrams. Papain shows a remarkable activity at low temperatures, as may be seen from the curve in fig. 4 plotted from the above analysis. The results of a series of digestions run at 10° are shown in Table XXI. * Loe. cit. X, A, Milligrams of papain. Pratt: Papain Per cent protein digested. Fic. 4. Digestions at temperatures from 0° to 70°. 25 26 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE XXI.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 10°. | | Parts of | | Protein protein } phd Milk. Water. Papain | | Protein | Protein digested } solution. Papain. Aecee’h | digested.| digested. by 1 part | papain. = 1. v= SSS Ee pee ee | | ce. ce. } ce. | mg. | mg. mg. Per cent. 1 25 4 2) 10 | 965 | 155| 13.6] 15.5 2 25 21 4} 20 | 903 | 237; 20.8) 19 3 25 19 6 | 30 827 | 313| 27.4!) 104 4 25 11 | a | o| sw) sal “om 5 25 15 | 10 so} ms} aa | 36.6, 8.8 6 25 13 12 | co} 685} 455) 399) 7.6 7 25 | | 14 70 | 652 | 488/ 428) 7.0 8 25 9 16 80 | 631 | 509 44.6 | 6.4 | 9 25 1 18 9 | 605 | 586 47.0 5.9 10 25 | 5 | 20 100 598 | BAT 48.0| 5.6 Protein in blank=1,140 milligrams. The results of a series of digestions run at 20° are shown in Table XXII. TABLE XXII.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 20°. | | | Protein Parts ot| igh bg Milk. Water. Elprraed Papain. a Protein | Ponca digested | ) tet A zl papain. ce. ec. ss mg. ' mg Per cent. 1| 25 | 23 “9 800 326| 29.0 32.6 2) 25 21 4 a 648 478 42.6 23.9 3 | 25 | 19 6 30 576 550 | 48.9 18.3 qi 25 7 8 | 40 501; 625} 556! 15.6 5 | 25 | 15 10 50 469/ 657) 584) 182 6 25 | 13 12 | 60 | 456 670 | 59.5 11.2 | 1 | 25 | u 14 | 70 434 se} 615| 99 8 | 25 | 3 16 | 80 | 412 | 714| 63.4 8.9 9 25 7 18 | 9 | 395 | 731} 65.0 1 | 10 | 25 5| 20 100 382 744 | 66.0 | 74 ! Protein in laa ae 126 aii saan? The results of a series of digestions run at 30° are shown in Table XXIII. The results of a series of digestions run at 40° are shown in Table XXIV. The results of a series of digestions run at 50° are shown in Table XXV. The values obtained closely approximate those given in Table XXIV. There appears to be very little difference in the rate of digestion in the neighborhood of 40° to 50°. Ay) Pratt: Papain oT TABLE XXIII.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 30°. | | - ats Parts of No. of : Papain a rotein | protein | Protein | Protein | flask. Milk. Water. solution. Papain. ee digested. | digested. ae eee | | i papain. a mate fe ee [ent | ce. | ce. | ce. mg. mg. mg. Per cent. | 1 25 23 2 10 740 423 36.4 42.3 2 25 | 21 | 4 20 583 580; 49.8 | 29.0 | 3 25 19 6 | 30 501 662 | 56.9 oe 4 25 17 8 40 | 443 | 720 61.8) 18.0 5 25 15 10 | 50 409 | 754 | 64.8) 15.1 | 6 25 13 12 60 385 | 778 | 66.8 13.0 7 25 11 14 70 365 798 | 68.7} 11.4 8 25 9 16 80 340 823 | 70.6} 10.3 | 9 25 | "i 18 90 302 861 | 74.0 | 9.6 | 10 25 5 | 20 100 294 869 74.8 8.7 | Es ee — PTI rare Protein in blank 1,163 milligrams. TABLE XXIV.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 40°. | | “2 ; Parts of No. of ; Papain ; “si en Protein | Protein | Protein. flask. Milk. | Water. solution. | Papain. oe digested. | digested. perl | | : | papain. ce. ce. cc. mg. | mg mg Per cent. 1 25 | 23 2 10 483 | 715 59.6 71.5 2 25 21 | 4 20 | 358 840 70.0 42.0 3 25 19 6 30 | 298 900 75.0 30.0 4 25 | 17 | 8 40 275 928 77.0 23.1 5 25 15 10 50 254 944 | 18.7 18.9 i 6 25 13 12 60 230 968 80.7 16.1 a 25 11 14 70 | 228 975 81.3 13.9 | 8 25 9 16 80 | 209 | 989 82.6 12.4 9 25 7 | 18 90 208 990 82.6 11.0 | 10 25 | 5 20 100 202 996 83.0 10.0 | Protein in blank =1,126 milligrams. omONAA Se oN’ iw) ot Protein in blank =1,129 milligrams. AS a Barts of . rotein : . protein Water, ERRE,| Pavan. | "on | roel | fsctty| desea 2 papain. ce. | ce. mg. mg. mg. Per cent. 23 2 | 10| 546 588 | 51.7/ 583 21 | 4 | 20 367 762 67.7} 38.1 19 | 6 | 30 293 836 74.0| 27.9 17 | 8 40 249 880 78.0! 22.0 15 10 50 | 233 896 79.5| 17.9 13 | 12 60 202 927 82.1} 15.4 11 | 14 70 199 930 92.5] 13.3 9 16 80 191 938 83.0} 11.7 7 18 90 184 945 83.8| 10.5 5 20 100 180 949 84.2 9.5 28 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The results of a series of digestions run at 60° are shown in Table XXVI. TABLE XXVI.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 60°. ’ | aor | Protein | protein Moat | mime | Wate || Pecan) Sa ee, eee | diner | | | a papain. eres LE SEE Yih bias cam | ee. ) cc. ee. mg. | mq. mg. | Per cent. 1| 25 | 23 2 10 | 635 | 529 45.5| 52.9 2 | 25 | 21 4 20 | 421 | 748 63.8} 27.1 3 | 25 | 19 6 30 | 827 | 837| 92.0] 27.9 4 25 | 17 | 8 40 286 | 878} 15.5] 22.0 5 | 25 | 15 | 10 50 253 | 911 78.2 18.2 6 25 13 | 12 | 60 241 | 928 79.8! 15.4 7 25 11 | 4 70| 229 935, 80.3| 18.4 8 25 9 16 80 | 224 90| 80.7] 118 | 9 | 25 7 18 | 90 | 214 950| 86] 10.5 10 | 25 9.5 5 20 | 100 | 212 92/ 817 Protein in blank =1,164 milligrams. Parts of a These results show that the optimum temperature has been exceeded, as corresponding values are less than those of Tables XXIV and XXV. The results of a series of digestions run at 70° are shown in Table XXVII. TABLE XXVII.—Papain digestion of milk protein at 70°. Protein | No. of P Papain : . Protein Protein | flask. Milk. | Water. solution. Papain. | undi- digested. ghrotein | gested. cc. cc. ce mg. | mg. mg. le cent. 1 25 23 2 10 789 359 / 313 2 | 25 21 4 20 588 560 48.7 8 25 19 6 30 465 683 59.6 | ‘ 25 7 8 40 381 767 66.8 5 | 25 15 10 50 325 823 71.7 6 25 18 2 60 294 854} 74.4 / 7 25 1 14 70 291 857 74.7 8 25 9 16 80 254 894 77.8 9 25 | 18 90 241 97/| 79.0 10 25 5 | 20 100 233 915 | 79.6 Protein in blank =1,148 milligrams. | | AT Pratt: Papain 29 The digestions at 70° show that the activity in the presence of large amounts of enzyme is not greatly weakened, but with de- creasing percentages of gum the loss becomes more marked. The data covering the digestions at various temperatures are plotted in fig. 4. This resistance to heat is rather unusual for an enzyme, but has been commented upon by various investigators of papain. Delezenne, Mouton, and Pozerski* note the rapid action upon egg white and serum at temperatures of 80° and 90°. Chittenden °® found that papain in acid solution digests more meat protein at 70° than at lower temperatures. However, I have found that a papain solution rapidly heated to 100°, allowed to boil five seconds, and immediately cooled with ice no longer shows any proteolytic activity. STANDARD EVALUATION OF PAPAIN An examination of the curves in fig. 1 shows that the per- centage of protein digested in thirty minutes increases rapidly with small increments of enzyme in the first portion of the curve. The range between 0.0 and 10 milligrams of papain closely approximates a straight line, especially with ordinary samples of gum, while the ratio of papain to protein digested falls off more or less rapidly beyond this point, depending upon the activity of the enzyme. The percentage of protein digested by amounts smaller than 10 milligrams of low-grade papain is so slight that this weight of gum has been decided upon as the best for routine analyses. It is suggested that the average of 6 determinations carried out in the manner pre- viously described under “methods of analysis,” using 25 cubic centimeters of milk, 23 cubic centimeters of distilled water, and 2 cubic centimeters of a filtered solution representing 10 milligrams of papain digested for thirty minutes at 40°, be accepted as the standard and that the proteolytic activity of the gum be designated by the ratio so obtained of 1 part of papain to the digested protein. This may be called the activity number of the sample. Table XXVIII shows the activity upon this basis of the different samples of papain mentioned in this paper. *Compt. rend. Soc. biol. (1906), 60, 68 and 809; Pozerski, Ann. Inst. Pasteur (1909), 23, 205 and 321. *Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts & Sci. (1892), 9, 311. 30 The Philippine Journal of Science TABLE XXVIII.—Activity of various samples of papain. | Sample | No. OTHER ENZYMES IN PAPAYA LATEX 1 2 3) 4) Source, | Unknown Ceylon_-.___- Mexico ___. | West Indies Fresh latex .._....--. i Philippine, sundried __._____. : Philippine, alcohol precip- | Activity number. 0.0 0.1 1915 Fresh papaya latex was investigated to determine whether Flasks containing the following mixtures were incubated for twenty-four hours enzymes other than papain were present. at 40°. before incubation. Latex Water, distilled Toluol 1. Active control. 2. Boiled control. Latex, boiled 1 minute Water, distilled Toluol $8. Active extract (made in triplicate). Latex Sucrose Water, distilled Toluol No invert sugar was produced in any of these thus showing the absence of invertase. Latex Water, distilled Toluol 4. Active control. 5. Boiled control. Latex, boiled 1 minute Water, distilled Toluol 6. Active extract (made in triplicate). Latex Starch solution, 1 per cent Toluol g. 9 ee. 50.0 ee 0.5 Sige ee ee. 50.0 ee. 0.5 g.> se g. 0.5 ce. 50.0 ec. 0.5 experiments, g../ 8 ec. 50.0 ee. 0.6 as AL ec. 50.0 ce. 0.5 2. 820 ec. 50.0 ec. 0.5 The solutions were made neutral to phenolphthalein x, A, 1 Pratt: Papain on No reducing sugars were found in any of these experiments, thus showing the absence of diastase in the latex. It is probable that the reported presence of this enzyme in commercial papain is to be attributed to the adulterants used in its preparation. The fresh latex gave a faint blue with tincture of guaiacum, indicating the presence of traces of oxidase. The color darkens to a very pronounced blue upon the addition of hydrogen peroxide, while a control sample boiled for one minute gave no color. The fresh latex gave no color with p-phenylene diamine, but turned deep red at once upon the addition of hydrogen peroxide. Similar results were obtained with Réhmann’s re- agent (p-phenylene diamine and alpha naphthol in sodium carbonate solution). The fresh latex, therefore, contains considerable amounts of a peroxidase, the presence of which is doubtless responsible for the darkening of color that takes place so readily during drying. Digestion mixtures, using olive oil or ethyl acetate as the substrate, were incubated for forty-eight hours in the usual manner employed in testing for fat-splitting enzymes. The presence of lipase could not be definitely established, although in some cases a slight increase of acidity indicated the pos- sibility of traces being present. YIELD OF PAPAIN It is difficult to estimate the amount of papain that may be obtained from papaya trees grown especially for this purpose. There is no doubt but that proper cultivation greatly increases the available supply of latex and that rich free soil produces plants more capable of recuperating from the effects of tapping. Under ordinary conditions such as prevail in Ceylon, a yield of 1 kilogram of fresh latex may be obtained from about 5 trees. Much depends upon the age of the plant and the maturity of the fruit at the time of tapping. ‘Small immature fruits give a meager flow of latex that coagulates immediately, while larger papayas, about two-thirds mature, give a much larger yield and are to be chosen for tapping. The latex from such fruits does not coagulate rapidly, but freely drips into the col- lecting dish for several minutes following scarification. Two hundred fifty such fruits gave 1 kilogram of fresh latex, representing about 200 grams of well-dried papain. This is a much lower yield than may be obtained under favorable condi- tions. Forty fruits of medium size averaging about 800 grams in weight yielded 1 kilogram of latex, or 3 per cent. An average 32 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 tree in full bearing produces from 40 to 50 fruits during a season. Subsequent tappings of the same fruits give a further amount of latex, but the yield in this case is considerably less. The fruits ripen more rapidly after scarification and are injured in appearance, but suffer little if any in flavor. They are not acceptable in the market, but could be utilized in various ways as a by-product where trees are primarily grown for the manufacture of papain. PREPARATION OF PAPAYA Papaya trees mature rapidly, and suffer little from the attacks of insects or plant diseases. They are generally prop- agated from the seed, which should be planted in boxes filled with rich earth, the seeds being about 2 centimeters apart each way and at a like depth. The plants grow freely, and may be transplanted at the end of three weeks. They should be placed about 3 to 4 meters apart, well watered, and shaded for a time. If a nursery is used, the plants may be set out from 20 to 30 centimeters apart in rows at intervals of 1 meter. The young plants should preferably be transplanted before reach- ing a height of over 30 centimeters. Some of the seedlings will be males, and the majority of these should be replaced by either females or bisexual plants. The trees may be depended upon to blossom and produce fruit within a year, but the number and size of the fruits will not reach a maximum until the following season. Tapping may be carried out during the second year and thereafter, until the trees become unprofitable due to age and the decreasing size of the papayas. When the trees become so tall that the latex is difficult to gather, the trunk may be cut off at a height of about 1 meter from the ground. Buds will form from the stump and produce new branches, all of which except 2 or 3 should be removed; otherwise, the fruits will be small. It has been reported that these shoots grow readily when planted, and if this is found to be the case it would probably be the best method for propagation. Seeds for planting should be saved only from the best oblong fruits that have never been tapped and have ripened on the tree. Papaya trees are injured by water standing around the roots, and flourish best in well-drained localities. Excess water and strong winds are the principal factors causing failure, and situations should be chosen where these conditions will not be encountered. If care is taken in collecting the latex to insure freedom from foreign material and the fresh juice is dried x, A, 1 Pratt: Papain 30 promptly before decomposition sets in, there should be no dif- ficulty in preparing a white papain that would find a ready sale. Drug firms at present are at the mercy of the market, and frequently cannot obtain satisfactory papain. The enzyme should be sold under a guarantee covering its activity, thus establishing a standard which would command better prices than at present offered and avoid competition with adulterated products. Letters from various large firms clearly show a willingness to purchase high-quality papain in relatively large quantities, single shipments ranging from 100 to 300 kilograms represent- ing ordinary requests. It must be remembered, however, that the market is limited and, although gradually increasing, that overproduction is always a possibility. The material must be free from impurities, as nearly white as possible, thoroughly dry, and shipped in sealed containers, and must possess the requisite proteolytic activity. The possibility of establishing a papain industry in the Philippine Islands should receive attention, as it does not necessitate a large investment of capital, and the time required is short before returns may be expected. 131717——3 al “ Aterees t ft wih ua ie 4 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Fic. 1. Native of Ceylon with basket made from a leaf sheath of the areca palm for collecting papaya latex. (Photograph by D. S. Pratt.) 2. Showing method of placing support and hanging basket on the tree. (Photograph by D. S. Pratt.) PLATE II Papain samples, illustrating various grades. (Numbers correspond to (Photograph by Martin.) Fic. 1. From local drug store. 2. Ceylon, grade 2. 3. Ceylon, grade 1. 6. Ceylon, from Mead Johnson & Co. 7. Ceylon, from Mead Johnson & Co. 8. Mexican, from Mead Johnson & Co. 9. West Indian, from Mead Johnson & Co. 10. Philippine, prepared by the author. text.) Fig. 1. 3. Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve BONVAAPE & 9. Curve 10 Curve 12 2. Rate of digestion of milk protein by papain. Digestion in hydrochloric acid solution. Curve 1. With 50 milligrams of papain. Curve 2. With 25 milligrams of papain. 4, Digestions at temperatures from 0° to 70°. TEXT FIGURES . Papain from local drug store. . Ceylon papain, sample 3. . Ceylon papain, sample 4. . Ceylon papain, sample 5. . Ceylon papain, sample 6. . Ceylon papain, sample 7. . Mexican papain, sample 8. West Indian papain, sample 9. . Fresh papaya latex, sample 10. . Papain by alcohol precipitation, sample 12. 39 a WS och Ar & ¢ 9 “ pe igi ct lk Ser? on! arighy ‘ : , P ‘ viel im «f gin i Mew! a? 4 °c tear ety Ue mart ’ ' avo crwwit asl age (ovent wil seared i+ unl tao e"% . slam oe Y d i ae | ahi \ bel! iaayt y ae oe” «4 ata be fet 0 ‘7 oor papell oy east on” th wow? walle ; Motive At Ql bathqoeay erie . Ry . ~ > r ors wit ds S age De hah ‘aqe) sefye) 3 me DN Nf aw . Che ote ees Ve ay yore ge Ter med A “a , 7] Sete MPR 5 yy A soyen \aibars viusall .® A r" it, We itu. ewe ae é J egalh A ri A) a ied tae ye PT Pog ety) chee gall Ll ejay le + Walia dw tps wre lites AL a8 ' tarjar) hy ws ae a / a “s ia us . oy" i es Ma * 4 : \ . ina P oe eee mutt Tei tes, ee *XALV1 VAVdVd DSNILOATIOO ‘1 ALWId EERO) ‘wed eoose UO yoseq Hu;Huey pue z4Oddns BHuloejd Jo poyzow Hulmoys ‘Zz ‘bl au} JO yjeoys yea] B WOsJ ope yoxSeq YZIM UOJA9g Jo OAEN “T “B14 ‘TON ‘V ‘X “Jog ‘"NUnOLr “IH d]) [‘NOILvuvddyg IVIOWAWWOD SI] :NIvdVd :Livad “a “UE ‘ON ‘V ‘X “IOS °NUNOR “"1I1Hg] ‘SHQVHD SNOIYVA ONILVYLSNTI11 ‘SSTdWVS NIVdWd "1 3LW1d [‘NOILvuvadud IVIOUAWWOD SII : NIVavg 2LLvad A DETERMINATION OF THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE RADIOACTIVITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT MANILA BY THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT METHOD ' By O. H. BLAcKwoop (Prom the Department of Physics, University of the Philippines) FIVE TEXT FIGURES Elster and Geitel? first discovered that when a negatively charged wire is exposed in the open air it becomes coated with an active deposit which may be detected by the ionization produced when the wire is placed in the ionization chamber of an electroscope. Bumstead? showed that the collected mass is a mixture of the active deposits of radium and thorium, and it is generally agreed that its sources are the radioactive substances in the earth. Many observers have attempted to de- termine the amount of emanation per cubic meter of the atmos- phere by measuring the ionization produced by the active deposit collected on a given length of wire at a certain voltage and exposed for a definite period of time. Eve‘ compared the amount of active deposit collected by a wire exposed in the open air with the amount collected by a wire in a closed tank containing the decay products from a known quantity of radium bromide; and, assuming, on experimental evidence, that the wire charged to 10,000 volts collected all the active deposit from a cylindrical space 40 centimeters in radius concentric with the wire, calculated that the deposit per cubic kilometer at Montreal was in equilibrium with 0.14 to 0.49 gram of radium bromide. This is of the same order of magnitude as the amount after- - wards found by Eve* and others by the charcoal absorption method. The active deposit method, owing to its simplicity and to the fact that it is the only one yet devised for the detection of *This work has been carried on with the encouragement of Dr. J. R. Wright, who has assisted with many valuable suggestions. * Phys. Zeitschr. (1901), 2, 590. *Am. Journ. Sci. (1904), IV, 18, 1-11. *Phil. Mag. (1905), 10, 98-112. *Tbid. (1907), 14, 724. 37 38 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 thorium-decay products in the open air, has been of great utility in the examination of the radioactivity of the atmosphere. Nevertheless, its adequacy for the absolute determination of the amount of emanation present is questionable, for the amount of active deposit collected by a charged wire undoubtedly de- pends upon other factors in addition to the amount of emanation present. Rutherford ° states: It has generally been supposed that only the positively charged atoms of radium A are collected on the wire, and that they travel in an electric field at the same rate as the positive ions. Account has to be taken of the rate of re-combination of the charged atoms of radium A with the negative ions of the air, for only those atoms reach the wire which retain their charge. The constant of re-combination is no doubt affected by atmospheric conditions, and the number of nuclei present. At high elevations the air, owing to its reduced density, should cause a smaller resistance to the motion of the charged particles, so they should be swept in more rapidly and from a greater distance than at a lower level. Therefore, the amount of active deposit collected should increase with altitude even if the ema- nation remained constant. Saake’ found that the active deposit at Arosa, elevation 1,800 meters, was three times as great as that of Wolfenbiittel. Other observers have obtained similar results. That this is not due to an increase in the emanation content is indicated by the determinations of Wright and Smith,* who made an investigation of the variation of the radium emana- tion with altitude by the charcoal absorption method and found that the emanation content at Manila, sea level, was approx- imately four times that obtained on Mount Pauai, elevation 2,460 meters. Many observers have found that, for a given locality, the amount of deposit collected depends upon the direction of the wind, but there has been considerable disagreement as to the effect of the variation of the wind velocity. Kinoshita, S. Nishikawa, and S. Ono ® deduced the lines of flow of the charged particles for different wind velocities from theoretical considera~ tions, and found that, above a critical velocity, the variation should not affect the amount collected. The diurnal! variation of the active deposit has been the subject ‘Radioactive substances and their radiations. Cambridge University Press (1913). "Phys. Zeitschr. (1908), 4, 426. * This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 51. * Phil. Mag. (1911), 22, 821. WAG Blackwood: Radioactivity of Atmosphere 39 of a very limited amount of investigation. It was first detected by Simpson,’® who made three determinations per day in Lapland for several months and found that there was a maximum in the morning and a minimum in the afternoon. Hess‘ also found a small variation with a minimum in the evening. Neither of these observers made observations covering the entire twenty-four hours. Dike ** secured the active deposit by forcing a measured stream of air past charged screens. His mean curve for six series of observations, each set of observation extending over a period of about twenty hours, shows a striking variation. The maximum comes soon after midnight, and is more than twenty times the minimum. In the present investigation the meteorological data were secured from the Manila Observatory, which is about 0.1 kilo- meter from the point where the measurements were made. The method was similar to that commonly used in active deposit observations. The testing apparatus was a standard Exner electroscope. The hollow, brass supporting neck was filled with sulphur which supported a central rod and a guard ring, the latter was kept charged to 240 volts by means of a storage battery in order to reduce the natural leak. The upper end of the central rod supported the gold leaf, while the end entering the ionizing chamber was rigidly attached to a wire cage 9 centimeters in diameter and 17 centimeters high. The ionizing chamber was of sheet brass, 22 centimeters in diameter and 24 centimeters deep. A saturation test of the apparatus showed that for the voltage used in the determinations more than 85 per cent of the negative ions reached the charged system. The capacity of the system was about 18 electrostatic units. The motion of the leaf was observed by means of a telescope having a micrometer eyepiece. The electroscope had a sensitiveness of approximately 5 divisions per volt. A bare wire was wound on an iron reel fitting snugly into the ionizing chamber. After the introduction of the reel, the bottom of the chamber was closed, the leaf charged to 240 volts, and the motion of the leaf in divisions per minute recorded as the natural leak. The wire was then stretched horizontally, by means of ebonite rods, at a mean elevation of 3 meters, in the open space north of the physics building. Since no static machine was at first avail- * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (1905), A, 205, 61. “ Sitzungsber. Akad. d. Wiss., math.-nat. Klasse, Wien (1910), 119, 145. “Terr. Mag. 1906), 7, 125. AQ The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 able, the wire was charged by a metal comb which was brought near to another comb fastened to the negative terminal of a Thordarsen induction coil capable of giving a 20-centimeter spark. The silent leak across the air gap was usually sufficient to keep the deflection of a Braun electrostatic voltmeter constant at about 3,000 volts. After midnight, however, the humidity was so great that the potential could not be maintained, so a motor-driven static machine was substituted for the induction coil, the aérial being connected directly to the negative terminal. With this the potential was kept at 8,000 volts, the pressure being regulated by varying the distance between two combs, one of which was in contact with the wire, while the other was grounded. After the wire had been exposed for thirty minutes, it was wound on the reel and introduced into the ionizing chamber. After ten minutes the leaf was charged to 240 volts by means of storage cells, and the time for it to move 40 divisions was recorded as the reciprocal of the amount of active deposit on the wire. Amount of active deposit at Manila.—Elster and Geitel ** took as a measure of the amount of active deposit present the leak per hour in volts which would be caused by the active deposit collected by a wire 1 meter long which had been exposed for two hours at a negative voltage of 2,500, the testing system having a capacity of 9.5. The capacity of my electroscope was about 18 electro- static units, otherwise the experiments were carried on in the same manner. A wire 30 meters long exposed at Manila gave a mean discharge for 5 observations of 300 volts per minute. If the capacity of my electroscope had been 9.5, as in the case of the Elster and Geitel experiment, the discharge would have been about 568 volts per minute. Therefore, a wire 1 meter long would give a discharge of about 19. This is approximately the same as the mean value found by Elster and Geitel for Wolfenbiittel. Diurnal variation of the active deposit—The diurnal variation was determined as follows: The wire was exposed at 8,000 volts for a period of thirty minutes. It was then tested as described above, and the time for the leaf to move 40 divi- sions was recorded as the reciprocal measure of the amount of active deposit collected. The actual determinations are given in Table I. * Phys. Zeitschr. (1908), 4, 526. yA, I Blackwood: Radioactivity of Atmosphere Al TABLE I.—Diurnal variation of active deposit. [Length of wire, 80 meters; voltage, 8,000; time of exposure, 30 minutes.] | | : | ‘Reeipro- | | Wind. Time af-| ,.c2!° | - Dan ash |e | Date. ter mid Tent to humidity! Dirge. | age. aivisions. Pia ee _— i ress | eS | | Hrs. | 1 Of Free“ O28 asian |e mee jae ee AQ Han dO O0SH| secre |nee teehee! ee | PAL Meee (1)( 0p eens es ee oD Sc a Ba 24 ONO5O |e ase sss. uses fin oat | 3 ORT432 [Se - 2s ee sw aa [Ze seewe ue (V5 anaes ON be ae See a Ghul wKONOSS} Pe Gall ee [ete He | ) Reo (Ce | ae ee lc eee ean, | TWEE || (0,022 cee ce |Past laa rk | 5A ty ONO 6) esas EL ec 2 | 17 0.018 | APURON NRG Melet nara ds BEER 203 OXO19 Mosse ee sare Ue aed ee | 203; 0, 018 | 7¢| ESE 8 | i | 0.014 | 33 | Calm 2 | 2 0.012 | 86 | Calm OM} | 3 | 0.033 | 86] Calm | 1 AN) Wrest 88 | Calm Lise} 5 0.091 | 86 | Calm 4 | 6} 0.025 | 92 | Calm Sah 93 0,020 | 79| SSW 34 114 0. 083 | 72| SW 13 0.050 | 68| SE 8 ADH Ni MOLOO Taher eee Carn sehen ee 20 0.088 | 82} Calm Bini 1 0.083 | 39 | Calm a 0.050 | 83 E 6 | 3 0.062 | 91/ NE oh 33 0.100 | 91 NE 4 | i 0.050 | 93 Calm | 3) | 6 0.036 | 93} Calm | 24 9 0.080 68| ESE | 16 12 0. 033 55 | EbyS PD) 16 0. 026 48 | ESE 20 18} 0.009 58| ESE 16 203 RTE P ES RSE ee mes 21 0.013 74| ESE Suc 24 0.030 | 84| Calm 13 | 3 0. 125 77 | Calm 14 YES 0.025 | 80} Calm | Oy 8t| 0.017 62} NE j 12h | 113 0.017 58| NE | 9h | 143 0.014 69 | Calm 5t 163 0.015 | 63| NNE uu 8 0. 008 66 | Calm 3 9 0. 025 55 | EbyS 43 12 0.017 55 Ww 17 14 0.011 46 Ww 10 | 42 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Tas.Le I.—Diurnal variation of active deposit—Continued. Lain. Wind. Time af- radi te Relative I i | i: —— leaf to humidity. Dires! || divisions. | ee ’ | | / bs | ek -——|-_——_} — | 1914. Hrs. | | | Feb, 16_. et --| 16 | 0.008 47| SE 22 peas Se ee a SES $8 rae 203 0.020 | 58; ESE 10 Degen a ee ee antes ee | 4 0.045 79| ESE 8 PO bee 8 ak I eee! 33) 0.076 | 87! NNE 4h FU ite en eo Semen 7 0.083 | 89| NE 43 Of seis ad a aie We aia ee a2 Be 15 | 0.008 | 44| SE 27 py Le ae Sec AW Bek 7 0.009 57| SE 18 13.9, alte Ee eee on ee eee 21 0.011 78| SE 7 De See ee ear ct | za | 0.050 84| ESE 6 1 OE Es deena. 3 0.040 87} Calm 3 ig oe Be eT ee | 3 0.083 94 E 1 ober Os «BGR ahs tied 1h ee 5 0.088 9 | ENE 3 9 Ge EMER! RSC SESS SSS Se ees 6 0.018 91| Calm 4 Nek. eS ee 9h | 0.020 61| Calm 24 I es ee cee esa ese aes aoa aeoeeeceee 1B | 0.0765 |.....-----|--.-----.-|--n==-==~ 2 Mar. 18.___-_-- = nee ae ee 183 | 0.010 58| SSE 4 pCR Vee PR a ese | a7 | 0.008 57| SE 18 Doe eth eee see eee | 20 0.009 67| SE 5 Do ee ee ee kee 224) 0.025 %| = 6 Bin ite Sek See ge hie | a4 | 0.020 s2| Calm 2 Bae 15 Oe re 2) nde aoe | 14| 0.025 9| £ 6 Did 7 ee eee eh eee 2 0.033 83 | Calm 1 Don: sa Rape Ye Bee Ae 3 0.014 80} Calm 2 1 = ee Se Ral RE ee Be | 4 0.025 83 | Calm 1 Dg oe oad” 2 eek ee | F3 0. 026 85| Calm ; Doe stent, Pe) ee eS |; 6h} (0.028 89 Calm rt] Do 2k ne SS ie eS 9 0.024 e| W 9 ieee ee | 114) 0.014 66 | WNW 15 Dae 2 Be ant ows a a Se | 123) 0.010 59| WNW 14d Wixi fee eee eee 20h 0.006 67| SE 8 Do 22 are ae I oe ee es | 24 | 0.017 7%3| NE ll Mas eis, eee: Ode Eee, wh Aa? 3 | 0.050 s0| Calm 2h re ee Sees ae See 4 | 0.062 84| Calm ) Die See Se Sek & eae 8h | 0.022 65| ENE 3 1 ee. SOT Co Ae fe 10h) 0.017 oT |. Wi 5 osieac tel a ieee Viel | ab} 0.020 | Ww uM hea eae ae ee | 15k | 0.005 37| SE 23 1D Fenn pe Se eS US ok oe a | 17 | 0.012 36| ESE 18 ee ae at ee oR Et 10 | 0,022 61| SSW 1 Digital ew aie pe Le 133} 0.012 so! WwW 15 Tho te ee i | 16 | oot 45 | SE 7 red 2 Sede: Saag rE es? | Tie 22}, 0.010 76| SSE 9 Marple cee 8 Ae eh es is Fae 2 | 0,025 | 83 | Calm 0 hy Ne oh eee pe al 5 0.050 83 | Calm 0 eT OR ae Se q 0.012 77| Calm 0 Doe ee ent | 8}, 0.015 69| Calm 1 Wingy 4 2 Oe ee eS ne 214! 0.020 62| ESE 7 EY See ee ae ee | gy) 9,080 | 70! SE 8 Seay ah Blackwood: Radioactivity of Atmosphere 43 TABLE I.—Diurnal variation of active deposit—Continued. { | | | | Recipro- Wind. |'Time af-| ,.c2. & -bsad| ER oe Date | tee mid-| eat to. humidity! pine. | Farge im ere cere? tion. | meters per hour. | ee a, Vio er Ge OLS | 1914 | Hrs. a7 4 ee eee en Nee Nee RRA OS ea 235 0. 033 13 SE 6 LOE N [Sy Sebi SOLS ie SO See a, Se ear a 3 0.029 7 Calm 2 4 TD ca em re ee ge es TF UCL LAE dae ttf } 13 | 0. 040 81 Calm 3 | jDyrill UUM le e UA e R 21! 0.040 80} Calm | | Dg eee Patera ba es at tb Se I 3h 0. 050 80 | Calm 2 TT) gemini mt PN GN Oe 43 0.055 | 83} Calm | 1 TDD Se ew Sao Seale = eee eae 6 0.033 | 30} Calm 2 TBY Seats GUS a A a, ot sO aa 105 0.025 70| WNW 10 Dope eee eds ae Ce ee ee kek 113 0.015 | 2| WNW 16 | pe meshes a | etd a are Ga 15 0.012 | 48| SE | | Dye) a lt Rs es. eR scm CDRA | 19} | 0.008 68| ESE 7 The wind, humidity, and active deposit were plotted as or- dinates with the times after midnight as the abscissz. The collection on windy days did not differ noticeably from those taken in times of calm, and variations of the wind were not accompanied by corresponding fluctuations in the deposit (fig. 5) ; so, apparently, variation of the wind velocity does not affect the amount of active deposit collected. All the active deposit curves show minima in the evening and maxima after midnight. The depression shown in Dike’s curve for early morning is lacking in all of my observations. From the mean curves (figs. 2, 3, 4) it will be seen that there are corresponding variations in the humidity and deposit, but the individual curves show that minor variations of the humidity are not usually accompanied by variations of the deposit, which indicates the existence of other factors (fig. 5). One of these factors is the variation in the emanation content, since Wright and Smith?* have found that the night emanation content at Manila, as measured by the charcoal absorption method, is about twice that of the day. DIURNAL VARIATION AT A HIGH ELEVATION Observations of the active deposit were made on Mount Ma- quiling, 60 kilometers from Manila, at an elevation of about 1,140 meters. The apparatus was similar to that used at Manila except that the guard ring was eliminated. The electroscope “This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 68. 1915 The Philippine Journal of Science 44 “‘MOAAND AIPyUINY pu yeodep eAyoy “Z ‘Old AIpIny eee Of Fil} fo 27001294 y 50 ls 5) S S : wa fo4 LSOCIZD PAU IY AY, 1 NS : x ae) S Ge SRG N = S = S wn : 8 Ww S = G =~ LOU Of lil Jo (PIOSOI2.¢y Blackwood: SUOISIAIP Dp IAOW Of Sm SeSSVs Radioactivity of Atmosphere Fie. 8. Active deposit and humidity curves. x S = = ™S = S Na) S = s ro) = S by SS = ne SS SUOISIAIP Df ADU O fy J0J Ay f0 SISSSSSSs SS une after midnight {OIONUIIY| Fie. 4. Active deposit and humidity curves. 46 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 was charged by means of an ebonite rod. The humidity, as shown by a self-registering hygrometer, remained above 90 per cent even at midday, and at night it was found necessary to heat the ebonite rods in order to maintain the voltage. The number of determinations is hardly sufficient to justify definite conclu- sions, but the night determinations are all smaller than the mean-day collection, and apparently the diurnal variation is the inverse of that at Manila. Five daytime determinations made at Manila with the apparatus as used on the mountain gave a Fic. 5. Humidity, active deposit, and wind carves for February 4, 1914. mean value for the active deposit approximately one-half that of Mount Maquiling. Ratio of the amount of radiwm active deposit to thorium active deposit at Manila.—A wire was exposed as outlined above, and the voltage was kept at 10,000 for ninety minutes. The dis- charge was measured every three minutes after the introduction of the cage into the ionizing chamber and the ionization curve plotted. Thirteen closely agreeing determinations were made, and the mean time required for the rate of discharge to fall to one-half was found to be sixty-two minutes. According to the determination of Harvey,'’® this corresponds to less than 15 per cent thorium active deposit. ” Phys. Rev. (1912), 35, 9123. Ay 1 Blackwood: Radioactivity of Atmosphere AT TABLE I] —Diurnal variation of the active deposit collected on Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. | Beclbre- | 5 calo Date. to eae me Sor | night. move 40 divisions. 1914 Hrs. SEER a Se ee En 84 0.017 OE ee ae 2 a SO i oe ae SoS oo eae tet is coe cheb 10 0.017 Do ee eee ote oe WE eee bee eeceeceehes SES oss ee Soe 12 0.014 TD gee ee ee ot es ae Dee Se oan Ul See poet saben ei deesleacse 14 0. 008 TY ger eae Sarthe eye a ee Me oe 173 0.010 DO eae ceteris oe eee eh See tee beta oe ces 22 0. 008 Eye aerate OR een a ier ee eee een ewe Nee seat Wa od Sales SOE 3 0.008 1) Oemerne tes See ee Ee ete an aS See ee eae Pea ae eh Nae ee eae ee ee q 0. 012 1D 0) A Pee ea SR Ro 94 0.029 ED) ee ee res Ce ee is We me Whoa Sa abe ooo eos tena sas 134 0.017 FL) Ce ee ees ere Ne NA ee Bye See es ea a 163 0. 040 1D). aS te A a ey i ae iy ee ee 19 0.021 AVIA pl Sees ae cs ae eT a eee ee Soe ee ee Gee, oe eek ate bce eck 4 0. 005 PID Pie eee SERA I ee) Sa i as A Pe EI ee Se 64 0. 005 BN i tek SN ore ee ne ee a ee ie oe ea eke ee tens 9 0. 008 BN yee retool a See ae Se Se ee ty! 12 0. 012 TD Ye) chs A ae SHS ES Ba ea re pape cnt ae aS a a eee epee ae 143 0. 022 EIS) ee re ere es eh a Ss A A Sere tat ete hoe A ee os aS 18 0. 014 DO eres a ee ree ne es ee ee eee ee Oe Ro 2 eae 21 0. 004 MAY 9 meee ate eee eee ea Sees a cask pone eroon aces otek ples do teas % 0.008 earn VAv Al UC ee ee so ne See Ot es nara Seven See Se a "0.007 Meaninimhtival uesses aces soon 8» Shes Tee ee ane aoe ee ease es en | See ea eer 0. 09 SUMMARY 1. The mean day-value of the active deposit at Manila is about the same as that of Wolfenbiittel. 2. (a) There is a large and fairly regular diurnal variation of the active deposit at Manila, the mean night-value being about three times that of the day. (b) The mean active deposit seems to vary with the humidity, but in the individual curves there are wide divergences. (c) There is no evident relation between the wind and the amount of deposit collected. 3. (a) The active deposit collected on Mount Maquiling, eleva- tion 1,140 meters, is about twice that of Manila. (b) The diur- nal variation on the mountain is apparently the inverse of that of Manila, the night collection being smaller than the day. 4, The half-period value found at Manila is about sixty-two minutes, which corresponds to less than 15 per cent thorium active deposit. a ' Th Vikki Pee Peary Ser i wi ras | 2. 40) aaa ede ely ae ioijdag iA ole 1:80 eat 44 TONDO Ge tue Ie Apearady 4 wih atk’ fm rugeidy ages , pots 9c od Rive ee Se bled ag wy ihaet hustle emit aft im) bale i i d in Ml igsert y VW tay be ery ni oct! Vilas r" iclomwowda ad) @og Mab. on ny} volar & "ed gotteeltoo Dies ssa i, ta hood} ey Pisiey owt cyl mit) fits ib Birt QL ey res q wu r ye ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Active deposit curve. 2. Active deposit and humidity curves. 8. Active deposit and humidity curves. 4. Active deposit and humidity curves. 5. Humidity, active deposit, and wind curves for February 4, 1914. 181717-—4 49 DIETHYLSUCCINOSUCCINATE (ETHYLDIOXYDIHYDROTERAPHTHALATE) : A STUDY OF ITS CONSTITUTION, SOME DERIVATIVES, AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA + By H. D. Gipps and H. C. Briti (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) THREE TEXT FIGURES Fehling ? first produced dimethylsuccinosuccinate in the course of his studies on the action of alkali metals upon methysuccinate. The work of F. Herrmann * added greatly to the knowledge of the structure of this compound. He gives formulas to show its relation to phthalic acid in the sense of the formula Hl J -COOEt et O and for the sodium salt he ne the formula " Na = (iia Hl /)—COOEt || Na oO in both of which the carboxyl groups are in the ortho position. Diiisberg * pointed out the fact that neither the above formula nor the formula in which the carboxyl groups are in the para position was proven. - The work of Geuther,’ Wedel,® and Ebert’ also contributed * Received for publication August 18, 1914. * Ann. d. chem. (1844), 49, 192. ° Ann. d. chem. (Liebig) (1882), 211, 306. * Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1883), 16, 138. "Ann. d. chem. (1888), 219, 119. ; *Tbid. (1888), 219, 71. “Thid. (1885), 229, 45. 51 52 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 to the knowledge of the structure of the compound. The latter discussed the probability of the carboxyl group being in the para position. Baeyer * showed the relationship to terephthalic acid and that the compound must exist in the two forms H COOEt H COOEt Ret aoe |g | el HOt a H fe) He ow das H COOEt H COOEt Enol. Keto. The latter conclusion was based upon the fact that phenylhy- drazine, ammonia, and hydroxylamine react as if the compound were in the keto form, while the reaction with acetyl chloride (forming a diacetate) and the salt formation with alkalies indi- cated the enol form. He also shows that the three representations H COOEt COOEt NI oe H/ \on HY \OH Hf \oH | | Ho! yt HO. | HOW He COOEt H ~COOEt H ‘COOEt {\i4 {\16 /\2.5 are possible for the enol form.’ He later prepared the derivative CH; COOEt es CH; COOEt by treating the sodium compound of ethylsuccinosuccinate with methyl iodide. This compound yields a mono- and a diphenyl- hydrazone, as would be expected from the above representation, in the same manner as does ethylsuccinosuccinate itself, * Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1886), 19, 428 and 1799. See also Baeyer and Tutein, Ibid. (1889), 22, 2189. *Ann. d. chem. (1888), 245, 190. RGA, 1 Gibbs and Brill: Diethylsuccinosuccinate 53 The existence of mixed crystal forms in ethylsuccinosuccinate and diethylquinonedihydroparacarboxylate was discovered by Lehmann and discussed by Herrmann.'® The possibility of the existence of desmotropic forms and derivatives has been dis- cussed by Hantzsch and Herrmann." Hantzsch * refers to the oxidation of ethylsuccinosuccinate as producing quinonedihydroterephthalic ester of the constitution H COOEt Sh H COOEt which may indicate that the 3,6 hydrogen atoms of ethylsuc- cinosuccinate are the first to be oxidized. From the work described in this paper we believe that ethyl- succinosuccinate can exist in two forms, the enol and keto, cis and trans modifications being also possible; it seems reasonable to assume that one of these in the keto compound will favor the migration to the enol form. Of the three forms which Baeyer shows are possible for the enol modification the /\14 1,4 positions, which from the evidence at hand, seems to be the case. ENOL AND KETO FORMS When the mother liquor from which a considerable quantity of ethylsuccinosuccinate has been obtained is concentrated, a small amount of a yellow crystalline precipitate is thrown out. The purification of this compound was effected by crystallizing many times from absolute alcohol. The specimen thus obtained differs from the first precipitate formed in color, melting point, solubility, and absorption spectra and shows some differences in chemical behavior. ” Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1886), 19, 2235. “Tbid. (1887), 20, 2801. “Tbid. (1886), 19, 26. 54 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The first compound thrown out is very slightly colored greenish yellow, melts at 127°, is less soluble in alcohol, the absorption band in less persistent, and the compound absorbs bromine in alcoholic solution and gives an initial pink color with sodium ethoxide. The second precipitate formed is yellow, melts at 123°, is slightly more soluble, its absorption band is the more persistent, does not absorb bromine, and gives an initial red color with sodium ethoxide. The two specimens were treated in cold alcoholic solution with alcoholic bromine solution by the method of Kurt H. Meyer * to determine the percentage of enol and keto forms. The light- colored samples were shown by the average of a number of titrations to be approximately 90 per cent enol, while the yellow specimen reacted only to a very slight extent with the bromine solution (1 or 2 drops producing a bromine color), showing it to be practically all in the keto form. (The calculation is based upon the addition of 4 atoms of bromine to 1 atom of the ester.) This behavior of the compound was noted by F. Herrmann,** while preparing a bromine addition product of ethylsuccinosuc- cinate. His preparations would not absorb the theoretical amount of bromine and he states that the yellow color obtained at the end of the titration was not necessarily due to free bromine but to decomposition products. In the light of our present knowledge we believe the yellow color of the solution, after complete bromine absorption, to be due to the keto form which has been unacted upon. REDUCTION OF ETHYLSUCCINOSUCCINATE On treating an alcoholic solution of ethylsuccinosuccinate (90 per cent enol form) with a small quantity of concentrated hydro- chloric acid and adding zine dust in small amounts a colorless crystalline substance is thrown out of the solution. This com- pound is practically insoluble in alcohol and water, but is soluble in warm toluene from which it can beagthrown out in beautiful colorless crystals by the addition of alcohol; melting point, 120°. It is soluble in alkalies, forming a solution which quickly turns brown in the air. On treatment with acetyl chloride a derivative is formed which melts at 167°, 2 degrees below the melting point of the diacetyl derivative of ethylsuccinosuccinate. It becomes yellow on heating, while the diacetyl derivative of “Ann. d. chem. (1911), 380, 212. “ Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1886), 19, 2229. Xx, A,1 Gibbs and Brill: Diethylsuccinosuccinate 55 ethylsuccinosuccinate does not. Mixtures of the two compounds melt at 166°. It is possible that this is the reduced ethylsuc- cinosuccinate of the following constitution: H COOEt 7H H.—( )—0H 2D Nn OR H COOEt The absorption spectrum shows some differences from the known diacetyl derivative. It was observed that the crystals of diethylsuccinosuccinate which form on cooling the filtrate obtained after the reduction with zinc dust and hydrochloric acid are more yellow than the original compound employed. This may indicate that the enol form is more readily reduced, the keto form remaining in a greater proportion than was orig- inally present. Absorption spectra.—The absorption spectra of two samples of ethylsuccinosuccinate, one 90 per cent enol melting at 127° and the other practically all keto melting at 123°, in neutral alcohol solution and with 2 equivalents of sodium ethoxide, and the diacetate of ethylsuccinosuccinate are plotted in fig. 1. It is to be noted that the absorption band heading at 1/A=2,660 in neutral solution is more persistant in the keto form, while in alkaline solution the reverse is the case. This points to the conclusion that the color is due to the keto form and that this compound is less affected by alkalies. The curve of the acetyl derivative shows no absorption band and leads to the conclu- sion that the labile hydrogen of the hydroxyl! is necessary to selective absorption. The shift of the band produced by sodium ethoxide is found in all hydroxy benzene derivations examined.*® The absorption curve of the diimide *° of ethylsuccinosuccinate in neutral solution and in the presence of an excess of hydro- chloric acid are plotted in fig. 2. Since this compound is a derivative of the keto form in which the oxygen atoms are replaced by the more active =NH groups, it is to be expected that it will be more highly colored than the keto ethylsuccinosuccinate and show a greater absorption band in the same region of the spectrum. Acids form salts with this “ Gibbs and Pratt, This Journal, Sec A (1913), 8, 33. “ Baeyer, Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1886), 19, 429. 56 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 compound and saturate the free affinities of the nitrogen atom destroying the band. 3000 32 22 26 AIA EEE Wed ould anh ef achat Pe fala ab ey er erat [i rt at Ta ee Se WAV ARN Oscillation frequency. ae peeeielee aie the GHAREFIE FRR eee Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. AM ANE | Peet Wipe Was ode tudy Mclusedicl a ee Fic. 1. Curve I. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol Light yellow modification. Curve II. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. Deep yellow modification. Curve III. Diethylauccino- succinate in alcohol plus 2 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Light yellow modification. Curve IV. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol plus 2 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Deep yellow modification. Curve V. Diacetyldiethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. fae VA WA (| The absorption curves of methylsalicylate in neutral alcohol and in the presence of a great excess of sodium ethoxide and of the acetyl derivative of methylsalicylate are plotted in fig. 3. XA; 1 Gibbs and Brill: Diethylsuccinosuccinate 57 The great difference in the curve of the acetyl derivative from those of the first two compounds, shows that the fixation of the labile hydrogen atom has the same general effect as in ethylsuc- cinosuccinate and its diacetyl derivative. In the latter the spectrum shows only general absorption since the benzene ring Oscillation frequency. 2000__22 2% 26 23 3000 32 J4 36 38 4000 42 44 | ca SI = ad GE Bitar ioe RSAC eon ey ee | Ee a a eS ee Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. N s Fic 2. Curve I. P-diimide of diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. Curve II. P-diimide of diethyl- succinosuccinate in alcohol plus 2 equivalents of hydrochloric acid. is more nearly saturated. The entire disappearance of an ab- sorption band in acetylmethylsalicylate is not to be expected since phthalic acid 1” and phthalic anhydride show a similar ab- sorption band due to the effect of the vibration of the benzene ring. * Pratt, This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 399. 58 Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. Fig. 3. The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Oscillation frequency. 3000 32 34 36 J8 4000 42 44 a CoA 1s ne WAT TN NC Curve I. Methylsalicylate in alcohol. Curve II. Methylsalicylate in alcohol plus 500 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Curve III. Acetylmethylsalicylate in alcohol RA, 1 Gibbs and Brill: Diethylsuccinosuccinate 59 The color of the yellow form of ethylsuccinosuccinate is due not to an absorption band in the visible region of the spectrum, but to a band which lies so close to the visible region, heading at 1/A=2,660, that at the higher concentrations it broadens into the visible. Since the persistence and breadth of this band prob- ably depend upon the relative amounts of enol and keto forms present and since the diacetyl derivative gives no band at all, it is quite possible that the pure enol form will be colorless and that the absorption band heading at 1/A=2,660 may be absent. The equilibrium existing between the two forms in alcohol solu- tion has so far precluded the photographing of the pure enol form without first fixing the labile hydrogen atoms. The band of the keto from is not due solely to the =CO groups in the para position but to the influence exerted upon them by the neighboring carboxyl groups. Tetrahydroquinone and its diox- ime are colorless; i He \—H. He-\ He i it seems probable, however, that these compounds will show. absorption bands near the visible region of the spectrum, due in the case of the former to the mutual influence of the carbonyl groups, in a manner similar to that found in diacetyl. The neighboring carboxyl groups in_ ethylsuccinosuccinate may merely shift this band slightly so that it falls nearer the visible region. . Baeyer and Noyes ** found that tetrahydroquinone reacts with acetyl chloride and forms a white precipitate in ether solution on the addition of sodium alcoholate and that it, therefore, may exist in two forms, the enol and keto. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in addition to the enol and keto, may have stereoisomeric modifications, the cis and the trans forms. Since stereoisomerism is only possible when the carbon atoms to which the carboxyl groups are attached are saturated, wand- ering hydrogen atoms in the 1,4 positions in the keto form preclude the existence of cis and trans modifications. It seems reasonable to assume that in the keto form this change takes * Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1889), 22, 2168. 60 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 place more readily when the 1, 4 hydrogen atoms are in a posi- tion to most influence the =CO groups. The absorption band of ethylsuccinosuccinate heading at 1/A=2,660 is shifted to 1/A=2,400 in the presence of sodium ethoxide. This shift in position is entirely analogous to the shift in the band of methylsalicylate and argues for a similar structure.*® It has been shown that in methylsalicylate *° and some related compounds the influence of the carboxyl upon the hydroxyl group is very marked and that the —CO group of the carboxyl is so affected by the neighboring hydroxy] that, in certain respects, the ester behaves more like an ether. Acetylmethylsalicylate—This compound was produced in a manner analogous to that employed by Freer *' for the produc- tion of the ethyl derivative; namely, by boiling methylsalicylate with an excess of acetyl chloride. The yield seemed to be in- creased by the presence of a small quantity of pyridine. The ethyl ester boils at 272°, while we have found that the methyl derivative boils at about 265° with decomposition. Final puri- fication was effected by distilling. A distillate with a constant boiling point at 7 millimeters pressure of 122° was obtained. This product was colorless, odorless, and produced only the faintest coloration with ferric chloride solution. SUMMARY The absorption spectra of ethylsuccinosuccinate in neutral and alkaline alcohol solutions, the diacetate in neutral solution, the diimide in neutral and acid solutions, and acetylmethylsali- cylate, have been measured. As a result of this work we believe that ethylsuccinosuccinate exists in two forms, the enol and keto, which have different melting points: COCKE H COOEt Ho Mace Bai a. Be COOEt H COOEt Al enol. Keto. “Gibbs and Pratt, This Journal, Sec. A (1918), 8, 44. * Gibbs, Williams, and Galajikian, This Journal, Sec. A (1918), 8, 1; and Gibbs and Pratt, loc. cit. ™ Journ. f. pr. Chemie (1898), 47, 246. AG Gibbs and Brill: Diethylsuccinosuccinate 61 that the pure enol form is colorless, while the keto form is yellow due to general absorption or the extension of an absorption band lying near the visible region. The fixation of the labile hydrogen atom or the saturation of the free affinities of the oxygen atoms in the para position destroys the absorption band. The behavior of this compound in the enol form is quite similar to that of methylsalicylate. ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Fig. 1. Curve JI. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. Light yellow modi- fication. Curve IT, Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. Deep yellow modi- fication. Curve III. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in aleohol plus 2 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Light yellow modification. Curve IV. Diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol plus 2 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Deep yellow modification. Curve V. Diacetyldiethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. 2. Curve I. P-diimide of diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol. Curve II. P-diimide of diethylsuccinosuccinate in alcohol plus equivalents of hydrochloric acid. 3. Curve I. Methylsalicylate in alcohol. Curve IT. Methylsalicylate in alcohol plus 500 equivalents of sodium ethylate. Curve III. Acetylmethylsalicylate in alcohol. is) WATER SUPPLY FOR THE CITY OF ILOILO? By GrorRGE W. HEISE (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemisry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) ONE TEXT FIGURE lloilo, one of the largest and most important cities in the Phil- ippine Islands, is greatly in need of a municipal water supply system, yet the problem of obtaining good water in adequate quantities is rather complex. Most of the surface waters in the vicinity are high in mineral content, and are of objectionable taste, and the artesian waters are almost all brackish, high in iron, and extremely hard. There is no suitable water available for boiler use and no supply for fire-fighting purposes. A num- ber of the residents have accustomed themselves to drinking the water from the artesian wells, without experiencing any notice- able ill effects; many construct large rain-water cisterns; many have their drinking water carried from comparatively great distances, either from surface wells in outlying districts or from springs on Guimaras Island, across the straits from the city; many obtain distilled water from the local ice plant. As might be inferred, the situation is highly unsatisfactory. The artesian waters are so hard and brackish that they are unsatisfactory both for household and boiler use; the cistern supply, question- able at best owing to its susceptibility to contamination, is liable to fail during a long dry season; the waters carried for long distances are subject to pollution, both at the source and during transit; the distilled water is expensive and is available only for drinking purposes. For some years the Bureau of Public Works has been develop- ing projects for supplying the city with water. Iloilo and its environs, including Molo, La Paz, and Mandurriao, have a popu- lation of approximately 55,000 to be provided for, hence they would require, at a rough estimate based on the water consump- tion of Manila, a supply of about 11,350,000 liters (3,000,000 gallons) per day. Thus far three main projects have been pro- posed: (1) To dig enough artesian wells in the outlying dis- tricts to develop a town supply; (2) to throw a dam across Tigon River at Maasin, impounding an adequate amount of water which could be piped to the city; (8) to get water from the springs and upland water courses of Guimaras Island and to bring it to Iloilo by pipes laid beneath the straits separating the island from the mainland. *Received for publication January 29, 1915. 131717—5 65 66 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 I was detailed to make a “sanitary survey” of the available water supplies of Iloilo with a view toward determining the relative merits of the different projects. Accordingly a field P ° sed TRON A er Sit te line ‘ e0 \\ i LEGEND e ources of Proposed Water Supply SCALE ee 35m. Fic. 1. Guimaras Island and a part of Panay. investigation including chemical assays and biological exami- nations was undertaken in November, 1914, the results of which are detailed herewith. >, El Heise: Water Supply for Iloilo 67 The methods of chemical examination employed in this work were, with some modifications, those outlined by Leighton.?, The errors and limits of accuracy involved have been discussed by the same author. In addition bacteria counts on litmus lactose agar and tests for gas-forming organisms in lactose bile agar were made with the aid of a small portable bacteriological outfit. DEEP WELLS Many wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Iloilo by the Bureau of Public Works. Most of them are from 60 to 80 meters deep, and no potable waters have been found at greater depths, although borings have been extended to over 700 meters. The artesian well project involved drilling a battery of wells at Molo, a few kilometers from Iloilo, large enough to furnish sufficient water to supply the city. In some way it had come to be generally believed that the artesian wells already completed in that vicinity were gradually losing their salt content, and that the improvement of the water was sufficient to justify its development for a municipal supply. Just how this idea orig- inated is not quite clear; perhaps it was due to the fact that people quickly accustom themselves to surprisingly large amounts of salt in drinking water and that their ability to detect salt by its taste is correspondingly decreased. That the salt content of the deep wells in Iloilo and its environs is not decreas- ing, is clearly shown by the comparative data in Table I. TABLE I.—Chlorine content of artesian wells in Panay. [Numbers give parts per million.] | Chlorine content by— Well No. Previous y Latest analvees | onelysee (1905-1913).|"" 974)” A en see Eh as SR AR EN ol GE ol 2 ee ie a 792 855 COT Ne eI I RU ee NR a oe ea 695 750 BOQ Raat Morea rete ed Ee Or aa ee cae as eI eet ain he oe erage ee 797 810 (ili LSS Sei eee bie Oy Seer a a ae ee eee ee Ae ee ee Oy ee eee 866 870 BVA a aes Sek Se ees SG a A srs 2 NE 831 870 (7X0 mae pe ee ee eee PET CL a Ue pa OE MUS I clo 1, 520 1, 660 (HOSS EI ee Spt AE ie Aye a Ke tall helene ok See Cw Bibs eit sa oes 1,791 1, 800 ADRS mene Ns 2s os WS of 2 aes ec oe ems ee at Be A Ri Re 726 720 @ostomhouse well Noi Si. 2 0 ee ae ee a 867 925 ASO me sie Sat 02 Sk RA a KS ths WA Bel SM eed 275 318 ARO es ee kT Se alas a RU A EOE a eR Sa a ao 356 3876 ee ae rd DS cig ca eee aa eg ll NL ae ENB ISIE ae tS S| 390 600 » Water Suppl. & Irrig. Papers, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1905), No. 151. 68 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Although no great accuracy is claimed for the most recent analyses, since part of them were made by field methods, the results may be considered conclusive, especially as a number of determinations were checked volumetrically and showed good agreement. The detailed analyses of the artesian well waters of Iloilo and vicinity, as performed during the course of the present investigation, are given in Table II. Color is rated in approximate accordance with the Hazen platinum-cobalt color standard.* As will be seen from the analyses, the waters listed are all brackish. Some of the artesian wells show an appreciable variation in their flow, being influenced by the tides; in fact, some are intermittent and flow only at high tide. The quality, too, of these waters, shows certain variations, but whether the changes noticed are also dependent on the tides has not yet been established. It is clear that seepage from the ocean is not a factor. The absence of sulphates is a marked peculiarity. Bar- ber’ has already pointed out that flowing artesian wells are practically sterile, and this series of tests confirms his conclu- sions. None of the drilled wells examined showed an excessive bacteria count. In view of their high mineral content, their brackishness, their mildly laxative properties, and their excessive hardness, it does not seem advisable to try to develop any of these waters as a source of municipal supply. MAASIN The Maasin proposition involves the installation of the type of system which has already been found successful at Manila and Cebu; namely, the impounding of the water from a river and the reservation of the watershed drained by that river from settlement and trespass. The advantages of the Maasin project are the certainty of an adequate supply of water throughout the year and the possibility of supplying other towns, between Maasin and Iloilo, with much-needed water systems; its disadvantages are the distance (at least 25 kilometers) which the water must be piped, and the cost of the enterprise (more than 2,000,000 pesos). *Am. Chem. Journ. (1892), 14, 300. ‘All the waters in Table II, with the possible exception of Nos. 7, 8, 13, and 15, and perhaps one or two others, were being used for drinking purposes. They are certainly more wholesome than any other natural waters available in the districts they supply. *This Journal, Sec. B (1913), 8, 448. ‘OORT, & 0 |0 10) Sk) 7 OME OE OA (ll Olde) [Poems Reece |pemo soc acos ce smog | pq | 08g [777-777 OfOY ‘Keg avou ‘ensyguy aeo | z% | st | 0 |0 OL O87 aie 2% | 9°68 | 0 G68i| ft On OLE mele Olen | a= en|tesean sees FQ'gsMmo,a | 09 | O8F |777777777~ OOP ‘ensyuy pues BaenN salle | T hs O | 02 |+OOT 0°89 |+0e |9°% | S18) 0 G2. | 8'r8| 8Ie 10 Quah |sss= =a -ser5 OIL sduing | 98 O6F |O@ltanpuey ‘oltequoUIeD pus edeyy "YW Se[ep | ¢ or | glo ianeecenes | 29) omen Biren ei DeObs|0 0°9F 0! os¢‘T] o @°0 [rt sduang | ogt |----77|- (ouetpaaee *f) optory ‘9Z ‘ON ‘o1twsoy af@Q | TZ | aT | | “O|LO1T eC ea Oar OD (0): 74 09 | 8°2r |-0 0'SP 0} 096 |0 GL Qulsaes caer coaes Gg smo | 9, |°-777> ‘eulsapa] o[[@9Q 1eau yoorjs posodoid uQ | pT | FT So” | | “oply Ss ~----|-~----~ a eee OCeiseaace 0°2E | 00S |0 | 0°09 0 082 ‘T! 0 OT | uUsiy ze A[JUO SMO, | QL [777 ee eee ee OTIOT] “OD It7ZO9TH O[LOTT | Gz rae Se ae eee See (= eens 028) OF |009/0 |009} 0} Sz }o Obligescet= sss OMSMOTas ese ene a | eee eee ee O[loyy ‘asnoyuiozsny |.6T | ZI a 0 |0 0 VASA = OF | 0 TE) 0 ors 0} 062 |0 65) 2) Bil fe eee er 6L SMOLT | LL SOP ae eee OTLO]] ‘adeT[oD uodunssy | ZI | IL = OS NO fare en OV 2 09 Gl eens SE) | OAS ON OF834] Ol) CO) 4.) 4) Aide) eee qyss MOTT | 6 | 009 |--7-7777-77> OflO]] ‘feziy pue eulsepey sol[eD | ST | OT QO Vo OFC |teauaeen 07% | 0 TS | 0 0°TS 0; 086 |o Oils |Reeee ee GT SMOLA | 6L 269ns lie oe O[lO]] “aeuzA pus oeuey sojep | IT | 6 BS) he, | ae | Sec OGL) O°OL | OFF | (©) | OFF} 0 |+008‘T| 0 Ohasae Se 50D peas Clk || 890 bl parm seca O[lO]] “eWusepory pue 13105 eze[d | LI | 8 = cages Se yee sa 61) gy | €3e | 0 Ga Wt CREA) Of Bay Pee Ops Sig | OCGE4 | eae oeieeeans (Opnaiez “W) olresoy e129 YO | 06 | 2 3 eo ese eS aryl 1 0% «| OSE | O 0'S8 0! 090‘T! 0 Sc0! |eeassee ae sdung | 18 yg) |RSS O[LO[] ‘SoLpouloy e[jeQ ‘sseut uopueyq | OL | 9 2 0 |0 0. Sci OOTS KOS is 6579) NO me eci O00) 08)e leis | sinca | eee me OJRSAN OT Ts EO al PC een aie ens een een aa OOTY ‘219410 TBD |S | ¢ 5 . op Se eee one|---7-- OF | 4°22 10 | 9:41) ©} 018 10 |----- EERE 403 JFREO) CVNO)ET || ER). OY JIS PS nes OO] “pereqry ez4id 8 | fe ess ie 888)” OWE} CLIO TOO] OF OF 10 | @) Rea ODerras OUy all ROOGE || agee ee ae Olof] “JoyrewMoygng | 6 | § ee ol eeee hae 903)"55 =| 0:7 &F | 0 0°8h 0} os2 |0 QYp Pare oemsesone= Sea baE IL A TLp |-77>-7> oplo[y ‘euny [ery pus tuiqey seT[BD | St | z o 0 \0 Or 686/08 | 0°9 | 9°82 | 0 9°83 O- Sig Pes (©) |e [lu 10 ZY SY MOLT | SL (AS gel Pe eee eet O[Lo[] ‘Surpping yewouraosg | T w "Ub ‘~ Seat = : a a SEN = a SEES, Q ie} i=|}f= (e) lent n ey) 4 poe) see |e | ale eo eo deals o | > aE wu 5 gies 6 3 oo) _ § |& = S g| 5 isl 4 o| 8 Be |e fe yeti) lod ee at Toke § | el 2 lie 2c | &. 5 6 |@s./0 3 WH 1OP [Mr es | 2r) & |Me *(eqnurut sed : oe, OTTESO epee | | 8. 3 o> ab @ | 25 )O%| Ss |8o) @ \oe s19}I]) sduund 10 smog ee EBD Or } ® Bia El aS 5 Pe¢+| Of | Qe uo : ‘Zw | VAS FA 6 bad ® § Og} Q On o| &e¢ > ct oct] Oo a it o |e 5) o o |Oe Qa & o-. ‘ | 0 a [=n ae ~~ CY tap a wm |O ¢ a | ° | i] Gi 8 GS ~ = om 9 Ee * { = 17) | SS) | . a < a nm un D | =) < e [uol[ia ted sjr1ed oats saoquinyy] < yd ‘Aqua pun opo)y ‘syjam daaq— I FI1avy, 70 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 From a chemical point of view, the water is potable, and since it comes from a sparsely settled watershed, which could be closed to settlement and guarded against trespass, it can doubt- less be kept uncontaminated. The chemical analysis of the Tigon River water is as follows: TABLE III.—Chemical analysis of the Tigon River water. Physical characteristics Normal. Turbidity Nil. Color Nil. Total solids 390 Fixed 290 Volatile 100 Organic matter Trace. Alkalinity as CaCO, 50 Iron (Fe) 0.7 Magnesium (Mg) Little. Normal carbonates as Na.CO; Nil. Bicarbonates as CaCO; 50 Sulphates as SO; 54 Chlorides (Cl) 16 Total hardness as CaCO: 140 Estimated encrustants 140 GUIMARAS ISLAND Guimaras Island is well supplied with water. In the coralline limestone formations near the coast there are many springs which have excellent local reputations; farther inland and up- land there are streams which have an apparent abundance of clear soft water. During the Spanish régime, the waters from various springs were brought into great stone baths, some of which still exist. The single attempt to drill an artesian well on Guimaras proved a failure. Although a depth of over 200 meters was attained, no potable water was encountered in any appreciable quantities. Table IV shows the analyses of typical water supplies. The “probable encrustants” were determined in accordance with the formula given by Dole.° The “classification for boiler use” is more or less arbitrary. Chemically these waters appear to be suitable for the Iloilo supply. Guimaras Island is so sparsely populated that it should be very easy to prevent the contamination of any of the sources listed. * Water Suppl. & Irrig. Papers, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1910), No. 254, 232. Heise: Water Supply for Iloilo 71 xX, A, 1 BysIAvUENg "‘punjsy svipwMmmy {0 stazD4A4— A] FIEVL, “20BLL » | Rea quoyteoxg | Te | 97 | 980} OLT| (e) | OT) 0 | 9°99 | 0 | O fmm DAVY StS tes SEE epualoey Jo YING *S19UIIOF 883 IO plov OU :"00 dod suisue310 Ayjig |--->-- 7777 weg | 09t | 912 | 99°0| 0°09 | () | 00S) 0 |s3 | 0 Om Ale scsaae ee GUIERIIG} | Paso sees e saeco epuerey Ian “epusloey Jo ysBeyyNos Bq SsSSere=5 quoyjeoxq | ze Or OT | 0°Sa| (e) | 0°92} O 0°8 0 Q |" aearr ‘[yezzeqeAA | -eSUN Woz sr9j9WIO[IY YYSIQ ie aa a cer ieee x ce ernie sO Ope t==5 88. | 988 0°¢ | 00S | (2) | 0°05; Oo O°s— | 0 (sigs are aren OPSser5 ~BqeseN “Y}eq UMOp-uex0Iq PIO a0Ss05 tood 0} req | O6E | 988 | 0° | T°6P| (e) | T'6F| O | o1L| 0 Qf Ope" BqUsen “YyIVq JUSTE. eZIeT oa ae op----"| gor | 883 | 01 | 009} () 0°09) 0 Jo! O | O |-~-----~-- BuIadg |------ BIsIABUONg 78 JoOAIT JEON ae ee Eo op--~~"| TLT | 008 0% | 297 | (ve) | 297] O 0°6 0 0 Hues TZ) UD 8 Of UO nea “s19UL | -10J SBS IO plow | | ou ‘00 Jed BLIe4 | ~9Bq 09 UBYyy BRETT |--~~--~ ~~ BA | GPL | 9FS | OT | 98h] (e) | 98h | 0 | SOT! oO Osan SUNGGE|S-—5 anos BysiABueng “Weed | Se) S| Sea as rc | g) BB | eles | Bi els | ie © > 9 teh = 8 omseg (EFSF |e Pee |e \oe| F |S “SYIBUIOY Jo} 0 Cheeue 9|f fs z a Q a 3 2 & ie) 8 Lt “ 2010S "U017 800] "@ | #5 Bet ee |e Pe 5 el 2 3 | 8 “Le SP met x = Ps Zz al 8 : g| 8 e (‘uor[iuz ted syed aA1Z siaquinny | && (3 Tg 08 62 82 LG Se) Nn "ON «.T,, 4103340q8'T | Nom www et ‘ON Burov, | 72 The Philippine Journal of Science At the present time weirs have been established to determine how much water is available from the various water sources at different seasons of the year. It is quite possible that enough water may be developed from the upland sources to enable the installation of a direct gravity system for Iloilo. The Guimaras project is an attractive one, because, if feasible, it means a supply of water for Iloilo at comparatively low expense. The distance across the straits is something over 3 kilometers, but in spite of the added difficulty and expense in- volved in piping the water under the sea, the estimated cost of the Guimaras project is only about one-tenth that of the Maasin enterprise. CONCLUSIONS The chemical character of the artesian waters is such that their development as a source of municipal water supply does not seem advisable. The Maasin and the Guimaras Island projects are both feas- ible, so far as the quality of the water is concerned. ILLUSTRATION TEXT FIGURE G. 1. Map of Guimaras Island and a part of Panay Island, P. I. 73 Dt Pity Pew BOILER WATERS OF [LOILO PROVINCE * By GEorGE W. HEISE (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemisiry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) A good illustration of the practical value of, and the necessity for, a systematic study of Philippine water supplies was fur- nished during the course of a recent field investigation of the waters available for the municipal supply of Iloilo, on Panay Island. . Iloilo, now numbering over 50,000 inhabitants, is one of the largest and most important cities in the Philippine Islands; yet it has no water supply system. Its needs are supplied for the most part by a number of brackish artesian wells, by surface wells, and by rain-water cisterns. The users of boiler water seem never to have been able to obtain waters suitable for their needs. Practically without exception, the waters extensively used at the present time are uniformly bad, and there have been developed no sources of good water within a reasonable radius of the city of Iloilo. The artesian wells of Iloilo and vicinity are almost out of the question for boiler use, owing to the excessive amounts of salt and scale-forming ingredients which they contain, and the surface supplies are almost as bad. A representative of one of the larger firms in Iloilo asserted that his company was spending 500 pesos a month for boiler parts and wear and tear on equipment, due to the use of bad boiler water. There was no apparent reason to believe that the figure mentioned was exaggerated, indicating that the waste due to the use of improper water for industrial purposes amounted to several thousand pesos per month for the city of Iloilo alone. Most of the boiler water used is taken from Salog _ River at Jaro, whence it is piped to Iloilo. Although known to be of very poor quality, it was the best water available, and was accordingly much used. No systematic study of the available water supplies had ever been attempted. A preliminary investigation indicated that there must be sources of good water available for use in Iloilo Province either unknown or undeveloped. In the regular course * Received for publication, January 26, 1915. 15 1915 The Philippine Journal of Science 76 oge | OFF oar 099 982 | $98 sis sep SOF sss 0626 | 068 Gee 908 Siz org OLt | 09% Sze vie orl 061 ost O83 OFT | 092 8éT | Be 08 081 98 Sal SOL 061 oor 002 spijos “wprjos pexta aA | 0°0S ‘0 10 ——- = = a a [Je aousaNs OO[] *[OoUdS purl, | kz 8% vos 0 Ge wh eo Ys 2 = TAY O[O[] “eBpiaq eiavg | 9g & oor Ss al 7 a a ee a a Cy) | SS SS oe Se ee a 21dwy ‘z1ded | OF 1% 9'TP 0 [Cane aa ae a qoary uoS ET |----~ Se ee ee ee OPO] “BAB | 99 02 9"P9 10 eu. Ss So ee TOAIY O[JO[T “UB}0Z0g | SP 61 | Ts (*) QC = Byer at Se WEY WOR ye es eS OD “Amy ourddidd “p-LT O3pig | 89 81 | Q"p9 () [090 teenenstensensteeeseeee MOST ABBE Y |" "- Sor" Sr sea“ see os op “AMY oud Yd “¢-68 °3pug | 19 | LI “AUNIUBP puB BAeqaeg / 10°08 0 10 [Pee Sean * ane TANT UHL, | WAU UVdAJoq pLot [eloULAOAd Jo Buissord-19Att yY | 98 | OL 00S (e) | og |-n-na--a2nce< ones 8 Ee eee eee eee ee eee ae ae ea TEE) CO ee ' SI | O°LP 0 9% a ak ar aie ee — te UAMOTT SS | Segre nore sake age eee 2dUp ‘ovrwung Jo yon | 1g FT | | “AOA | "po 0 > SSS AOAIY ANETeL | YALA pBor [BIOULAOId Jo Zuissoi9 ‘uvjoj0g puosog | pg SI | 3°oP | (*) cae me 3 iar nas co ed oo) <= OLN 00 Ul ee aa = a ale eae 9-9F OSpiiq “oD “AMY ourddiyd | 09 ai 1°99 0 0. ee ee cr ee es a ae Alto (3 il nat ne aaa ONO] “BlUqaeg BUBS ‘qNID JOD | 6& | TT 81s Qa Si. os ual eee ee UBeoan | ob b> ae eee Oe 9-89 OSpliq peoapies ‘ojlojy “IssBq | So or | 8°08 (x) eM let ict leas late tele ol JOA Ineer | (AVANT Buvunure’y yA orngounl aaoqe) opiojy “isseg | 69 | 6 0708 0 log Reta ela eaire aad al JOAN OWSNQUIBYY [~~~ “TTT tmnt nnn S-06 9S3pliq peoarjiea ‘oesnquiey | gh g 0°08 0 0 oe ae ae ee ee OBr =a" Rass Gee O[LO]] “pvor jBIouLAoid Soullep-1sseg Suissory | gg L P'S Menpns eM ECe a= 74exr =e | ecg c ee coe rae apr AOA SuBvanuweyq |----------------oployy *“Bueunurey “g-99 o¥piaq pvoajimy | gg 9 | L°T9 | | 0g ats oe ae ae ee ee ca C1 (6 bene cecal 09 “AMY OUlddIIYd ‘OL-ST efod Ydvsselay zy | $9 $ PPE 62 | OOT See Re AIR AOUU ET ager oe a ae ae cane on ee ee eee zidey ‘sojung | 09 r 9°SL (*) G3 |e es a ae ee eee YRS ie mae eas oe on “AMY oulddyiyd ‘8-12 9Bplag | 2 |g vee (®) OOT a ag ee Ra a Sap CRU Se eae ge ee nl ee ziduy ‘oud | 6 sz : “eqesen 0°92 mt) 0 JO JSWOYINOS FAJOWIO[IY g “[[BJAOVBAA : Me So ~~seawuing | Te | T Saale BAB 22 3S se ee 6a ae eee | “ON 8008) se “eOlS 8B : “<1dd “uo1} B00 rer ait auareyry | 4ypiqang, | 1°19 a a agli seo ee Saar | Pe [wow Jad sjivd quaseidet saaquinyy] *DIULLO LT oor] {0 siaqyom fo sashjnuy—y] aTavy, (of * ‘ovince lo Po Boiler Waters of [loi Heise X, A, 1 "O0BAL, & eee o> sare op---~~) 0&1 891 ch | 0 99 0°9% 920 Damir teres ts cas ere has el op---~") SIT 4s g"¥s 0 0 ‘OT 0°62 090 [aes liagee sass (REE Ree ae a een REE ee Opa 96 aa 2°9V 10 0°OL 0°6I 960 ges aero | 06 at epee See ep i fwcoeit ee OpE=es oot | Ter 1°99 | 0 0°8 (°) 0 | 00T (2) eager FILL | "U017 8} | | | -uaulipes Aq A[pldersawayQ | --- op 08 | 00L 8°Te 0 "9 $°ST OLS £8 981 or presses op--~~"| 06 821 b°ST 691 0°8 0°6T 980 96 (z) 08 6 ae ree a NET | 06 00r 0°08 0 g°g haa! 00°% OL oat 8 as op----| 48 O0T | 070s 0 | ob 0°OL 030 18 | 0@T |b esas eee eee opr" ss gL | 16 8s 0 1 0°9 sOL 9¢°0 | 96 (2) | ¥8 | 9 | (OS Sire a ee ae Opera gg | 2g LTS 0 | 0°61 0 00% Po @y 108 | 9 Penerse yao ay op "| Sh 08 | vps 0 | o"g 0°81 08°0 | OF OF 1% Sao > an a ED, | 89 9°SL 0 OIL () 00% | (Oe | 8 *19}} eUuL | | | | | dtUvsIO YONUL SULBUOD | pooy | 0g | 99 arts 10 | 0°8 0 0L% | 6 Oot | @ rie Soe sae quepjeoxm | oe OP 0°9% 10 0°8 (*) 00°T 0 See Cas aD ee series : I- I eee er ——-—_! Sone as é : | -syue | :so9%9 | ‘sopeg | LOOSN | . ; : eae ‘ON ou H sop tonsatiinig geeagua | ARMM, | AURIS Sonate | ello /sotwiarns CHM | unto. we etHe ea | fo simian Paligs 28: pst 0'rF 0 0 Spe eae ae ee 000 [OM ISO RLV a meee see tem ge OTOIT ROlOl LB Ue part: PUBIIO \UZET Tae ye eras ae Np eee ey 0-88 0 OP SEES SO SFR UME fm a HHL EINER SYUTO) |] (DE | te pecans oe sre sr 0708 | 0 og SIE S SOEUR RENE Pomp a OH OL Melo) OEE NEC OHIL || Sh} AE $00 098% Gp ere oes ae leeerne eae ler ergo oe PIG OMS UBISOMLVE | rer gees = tiie es ge ober eee ee OTOL “21340 PTBD | € Te reer cl | Sone o"Lg 0 QLT Coae ce nee eee = ae OGP [lo UBIso] Liver een OO] ‘OBLIAN PUB], ‘OLloyUeWIID pus Bde “UW Sev@o | ¢ 0€ ov0 ‘T Ost ‘T 0°eL 0 IQ CTis peep licens: sae ere ae [EUS SSR SS OLO]] ‘Bauqueg BURG ‘eze[d zy | LE | 62 “OL!O1T Seaton ie ewe sgn ha 7 eI 0 SERRE SSSR SESS SES NL YAEL CRG) BO CREAM QS AM TIN, SETTCCANERER EN tis 11 (Sea eg |e gg 0 | pare ao ene | mane eee nae ST MOOR ELLA | ceoeae cee gOTLOTY. “peyloqi'y Bze[q 38 JUSWINUOW ABeaN{ | F iA pease Fes | eae eee 0°68 0 0 Bee ag merea eae mee OATS DOUG |g eee eee ea a= bape ees ac CUCU OAB ROT 21096 penpiee ses t e sgh 0°9F 0 0G ae Al Se eas ee es [Je soeyang |” O[LOT] ‘UBIOJO Jo OLdIOLUNU OF XO ‘BUusBL A[BD | FP cs SBP O0L Ge 0 Nf) eee ed lene kes” grows ee peers CEPTS) [coeen ay ae ea ee OLOTT ‘IssBq | FS | FZ 2 -_ ° onl “su -puBys uo piqiny seuloveg op 068 aE ge oe paq 10 | OFZ UD ee ee ee Sa op->--~| 06T ee ae Sai Se ee peg | 981 2 ‘od (i) og o ort sae ae Jaj1oq poos soy spj[o# ; + Sunsnsz.ueuow uf yS1y oy, (i) oL ~ SSeS ae 020 ‘t : PaaS puq 419A | ope ee is ees peg | ore S pe ee op--"-- 08% > fosscerngceete—==-h TOOT LOL 2 Sates ei art | OPE [ co oe = ig eaee av RTE sod | og — rai a na op-->-- eat = ‘ee cars at wey | oZr Q ee ge 4tood 03 ALB | OLT A 1 eee, a IR acces = Opes 96 = “aay yeu S DIUBS1O BUIOS SUIBRUOD |~---~=8- === == op at | Soe ABA | 92t ; “sn Ja]{0q | wae | cee | g0y UONwOYISSELO Snneqnat | Nn os Nn ao oO = E | “8O08) | sv ssou ie 12301, 00S [oe 8008) SB 8038 -u0qaBdig aeoeeoevcse “8OOtBN sv $098 -uoqieo [eus0oN Sas . eee a Ses ee. | 0°988 'T “Oot =| Rasen 0090 ‘T DO... NOOR es PAR rn Sea eg 0082 ‘T De rh OOTE) - A Seer aes ee 0°0L8 0 0'STs Oo MOSS So) OS Nee ees 0°ahe 0 00ST ‘8 O08? OUTS ee ae Sa een cae 0°06L O09: > |) QO Ses = Fa Fe ee eee O°pST OPPPT. © O80 eee RS ae nee eee 0°S8 OR! © AOL arse O°LIT 9°89 SBS Riera cores SOL OME oD eosin Sa el cetera 0°9ST O00 © 4AOhet| Ss eee 0°S8 OF9SE: 1) BRIO! <= ees O°LT O'Ok. ~ J O0'G: eae 0°FL 00S Ort (2) 9g 61 0°FL 3° 03 0 Ort Oat 8I 3°20 06 OO} eae Ost ut 0°9T 0"rS 09.0) 5 > tlle rr 0OT ot o'IL G°L3 (yb) | Nese ois 08 gT 4 s * ‘ “ON (19) 80S 88 | -(aq) uoay (89) uous | suy seplojyg | sazeyding UINIDTVD | UO afIVBlOA *‘ponulyuop—aouri01g o0j7 fo suaznm fo sashjnuy—] a1avy, xe eso Heise: Boiler Waters of Iloilo Province 79 of the work a number of water supplies were found which might be used to advantage, and in order to make the results of this work available the most significant data are tabulated herewith. Most of this work was done in the field, for the most part in accordance with the methods outlined by Leighton,? by whom the sources of error and the accuracy of these methods have been discussed. “Color” is rated in terms of the Hazen ‘ platinum-cobalt standard. The “probable encrustants” were calculated in accordance with the formula given by Dole. The “classification for boiler use” is more or less arbitrary. Although these data are only approximate, they give a fairly good idea of the industrial water supply situation in Iloilo, and indicate that there are a number of sources which will yield good boiler water. Some of these waters should be quite suitable for boiler pur- poses without any treatment; most of them could be made into excellent boiler waters by preheating or by inexpensive chemical treatment. It will be noted that the “Jaro” water is one of the worst on the list. The sources listed for the most part are surface supplies; hence, it is possible that change of season might introduce or cause variations in chemical quality. All of the analyses were made in November and December, 1914; that is, after the dry season was well along; hence, another series of analyses should be made, preferably during the rainy season, to determine whether any changes occur great enough to affect the fitness of these waters for boiler purposes. 7 Water Suppl. & Irrig. Papers, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1905), No. 151. *Am. Chem. Journ. (1892), 12, 300. “Water Suppl. & Irrig. Papers, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1910), No. 254, 282. A PRELIMINARY CHECK LIST OF PHILIPPINE MINERALS + By WARREN D. SmituH, F. T. EDDINGFIELD, and PAUL R. FANNING (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) The following 113 mineral species and varieties comprise all those known with certainty to us to occur in the Philippines. There are others whose presence we suspect, but which have not been definitely identified. For instance, tin, native brass, and diamonds are said to exist here, but this laboratory has no author- itative knowledge of them. All the minerals herein mentioned are in the collections of the Bureau of Science, and have been collected for the most part during the American régime. The collections of the old Spanish Mining Bureau were almost worthless when they passed into the hands of the Americans. Whether the best specimens had been transferred elsewhere at the outbreak of hostilities we do not know, but we have reason to suspect such to have been the case. Three other mineral collections in the city of Manila have been consulted; namely, that of the Ateneo de Manila of the Jesuit Order, that of the Santo Tomas University of the Domi- nican Order, and lastly that of the Ateneo de Rizal, but we have found only a very few specimens which were not in our own collection. As there is some doubt also about the localities of some of the minerals in those collections, we have purposely omitted several species. Our acknowledgement of assistance from the curators of these institutes is hereby gratefully made. It will be noted that many of the minerals in the following list have no economic value, but the fact that a substance has no present commercial value is no reason for excluding it from a catalogue. The future will undoubtedly see a number of min- erals now thought to be of little or of no use to man become of great commercial value. For instance, when the large deposits of concentrated iron oxides, like hematite and limonite, become exhausted we shall be forced in all probability to turn to the iron-bearing silicates of too low a grade to be worked economic- ally at the present time. The mineral leucite with its 21 per cent of potash is a valuable prospective source of this important *Reprinted from Min. Resources P. I. for the year 1918, Bur. Sci. (1914). 131717-—6 81 R2 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 ingredient of the soil, but only until recently has any one thought seriously of extracting it. We have before us the list of minerals of Taiwan (Formosa) by Okamoto, of the educational bureau of that island. In this list he gives 50 minerals, less than half the number we have in the following list. Six of these we have not yet found in the Philippines, while there are 3 others which we suspected to be here but have not certainly determined. We take this opportunity to urge all the mining men and students of the various schools and colleges to send specimens of any minerals which they may think new or interesting to the Bureau of Science. It is reasonable to expect that when more persons shall become interested in this line and more ob- servant of natural objects this list will be greatly augmented. We are already greatly indebted to many of our friends of the mining community for valuable specimens. It is to be regretted that up to the present we have not made many studies of a mineralogic nature, as more pressing in- vestigations in the mining fields have prevented us from doing so. The compilation of this preliminary list has suggested several subjects which can be profitably taken up in the future. CHECK LIST OF PHILIPPINE MINERALS Actinolite—Ca (Mg, Fe) ,Si,O.,,. This mineral occurs as acicular green crystals in the crys- talline schists of Ilocos Norte. It is classed as one variety of asbestos in the trade. There is no production in the Philippines. Agate—SiO.. Agate is found in many parts of the Archipelago where silic- ification has occurred. Occasionally some specimens suitable for polishing are found. There is no production in the Philippines. Albite. (See Plagioclase). Altaite—PbTe. This mineral occurs intimately mixed with sylvanite and free gold in specimens from the Tumbaga mine, Ambos Camarimes. It is tin white, sometimes with a bronze tarnish, and occurs as negative crystals or pseudomorphs after quartz crystals or frag- ments. Development work exists only at this mine. Amethyst—Si0.. Some large crystals have been found in Palawan, but this mineral is not common in the Philippine Islands. One large specimen of amethyst crystals from Mount Tumarbon, Palawan, x,4,1 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 83 can be seen in the Santo Tomas Museum. When perfect it is used asagem. There is no production in the Philippine Islands. Analcite—NaAl (SiO,) ,+ H,0. This mineral occurs as an alteration product of leucite in some volcanic rocks of limited distribution in Masbate. Andesine. (See Plagioclase). Anorthite. (See Plagioclase). Anthophyllite— (Mg, Fe) SiO,. This mineral is a variety of amphibole in long dirty white to brownish fibers, and is associated with serpentine and asbes- tos. It occurs in Jlocos Norte. In some cases it could be used as a substitute for asbestos. There is no production in the Philippines. Apatite—Ca, (Cl, F) (PO,),. Apatite occurs as large yellowish crystals in small amounts in metamorphic rocks near Pasuquin, Ilocos Norte, and also in minute crystals in many igneous rocks in the Philippine Islands. It is valuable for fertilizer if found in large enough quantities. There is no production in the Philippines. Aragonite—CaCoO,. The mineral is found so far in one locality, Talim Island, La- guna, in long clear crystals in vugs in basalt. It has no economic value. Arsenic—As (metallic). This mineral is deposited presumably from hot springs in the form of kidneys (reniform). It is found near Buguias, Moun- tain Province. There is no local use for arsenic. Asbestos—H,(Mg, Fe) ,Si,0,. (?) Asbestos is associated with serpentine in Ilocos Norte. No first-grade asbestos has yet been found. It consists practically of longitudinal fibers. One small sample of cross fiber (see Chrysotile) is in our collection. There is no production in the Philippines. Asphaltum—-Complex series of hydrocarbons. One small specimen was brought in from the Eastern Cordil- lera, Luzon, which is of doubtful authenticity. Augite— (Mg, Fe) (Al, Fe) ,SiO,. This mineral is one of the pyroxene group of silicates—common as a rock mineral. Augite has no economic value at present. 84 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Azurite—Cu, (OH) .,(CO,).. Azurite occurs as minute blue crystals in some copper deposits of Pangasinan, Batangas, and Mindanao. Baltimorite—H,Mg,Si,0,. Baltimorite is a white to bluish fibrous mineral associated with serpentine. It is found in Ilocos Norte. It could be used for steam packing and roofing material. There is no production in the Philippines. Barite—BaSO,,. Barite is reported from Mancayan as a vein mineral by A. J. Eveland. Basonite—Si0O.. This mineral is a velvet-black variety of flint known as “touch stone” or lydian stone. It could be used for testing the purity of gold. One sample, No. 176, is in the collection of the Ateneo de Manila. Beryl (emerald) —Be,Al, (SiO,) ,. Small and imperfect specimens are reported from Mindanao, but nothing definite is known regarding the locality. Biotite—(H, K).(Mg, Fe) ,Al,Si,O,,. Biotite occurs in various igneous rocks in the Philippines in small crystals, principally in Paracale granite. No economic deposits are known here. Bituminous coal—Complex composition, principally oxygenated hydrocarbons. Bituminous coal is found in seams from a few centimeters to several meters thick in Cebu and Mindanao. Formerly there was a moderate production in Cebu. There is none in Mindanao. One specimen from Dumanquilas Bay, Mindanao, shows columnar structure. Bornite—Cu,FeS,,. Bornite occurs massive to finely crystalline in quartz veins. It is probably secondary in origin. This mineral is found in several of the copper deposits in the Islands. An excellent sam- ple comes from Quien Sabe claim, Suyoc, Mountain Province. There is development work in the Philippines but no production. Caleite—CaCoO,. Calcite is generally massive without crystalline faces, but some splendidly crystallized samples of “‘dog tooth” spar have x41 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 85 been found. It is frequently associated with primary and sec- ondary manganese minerals, and is also frequently associated with quartz in ore veins, there being a progression from quartz to quartz-calcite, probably the result of lowering of temperature and pressure. Calcite occurs also as a secondary mineral in ig- neous rocks; also, as stalactites, stalagmites, and travertine. Marble is found in Romblon and crystallized limestone at Mon- talban. The mineral is used to manufacture quicklime for sugar refining. Marble is used for monuments and building purposes. Chalcedony—SiO,-+-H,0O. Chalcedony occurs in irregular milky white patches in jaspers and other rocks in various parts of the Islands. Chalcocite—Cu,S. Chalcocite is a massive gray mineral usually secondary in the upper zones. It is found in Misamis, Mindanao, and Mountain Province, Luzon. ‘There is no production in the Philippines. Chalcopyrite—CufeS.,,. Chalcopyrite is the most universally distributed ore of copper. It is found as small crystals in a large number of quartz veins, and is associated mainly with galena and usually crystallizes after galena. It is found in small quantities in all of the mining districts. No commercial deposits are known in the Philippines. ~ Chert—Si0,,. Chert occurs as nodules in various formations in many parts of the Archipelago, also as radiolarian cherts, probably of Juras- sic age. It is well developed in Palawan, Panay, Ilocos Norte, and Balabac, and is probably equivalent to the radiolarian “horn- fels” of central Borneo. It has no economic use. Chlorite—H,Mg,Al1,Si,0,,. Chlorite occurs as fine, green fibrous masses as an alteration product in many igneous rocks. It has no economic use. Chromite—-FeOCr,O,. Chromite occurs associated with serpentine in heavy granular masses with mottled black and green appearance in Antique Prov- ince, Panay. There is some prospecting but no production. Chrysoprase—SiO, (colored by nickel oxide). Chrysoprase occurs as beautiful leek-green pebbles in a river near Butuan, Mindanao. One specimen, No. 180, is in the col- lection of the Ateneo de Manila. This mineral could be used as a gem. 86 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Chrysotile—H, (Mg, Fe) ,Si,O,. Chrysotile occurs as white to greenish silky fibers. Some in- ferior specimens have been found in Ilocos Norte. Short cross fibers of from 2 to 3 centimeters in length have been found. There is no production, but indications are promising. Cinnabar—HgsS. Minute red crystals of cinnabar were found in a few samples from Batwaan Creek, Benguet, Luzon. Cinnabar remains in the pan with the gold. It is reported from Mount Isarog, Am- bos Camarines. This mineral forms under surface conditions, and is connected with volcanic activity. It is not mined in the Philippines. Copper—Cu (metallic). Native copper occurs as irregular, partly crystalline masses and as round shot in alluvium; there are 3 type occurrences: (1) Amygdoloids in extrusives, in Masbate; (2) in alluvials of Mala- guit River, Ambos Camarines; (3) reported in some quartz veins in Masbate. Native copper was probably used formerly by Igorots to make pots. It is not used at present. Corundum—Al,0O.,. Corundum occurs as pebbles in placers in Nueva Ecija, Luzon. Crocoite—PbCr0O,,. Crocoite occurs in characteristic small orange-red monoclinic crystals in Labo, Paracale district, Ambos Camarines, Luzon. It is associated with galena-bearing rocks, and is not abundant. Cuprite—Cu,0. Cuprite occurs as small clear red crystals in the surface ore of a copper deposit in Antique Province, Panay. Diallage—A nonaluminous pyroxene. Diallage is a common constituent of gabbros in the hi pines. It has no economic value. Enargite—Cu,As§,. Enargite is probably secondary in copper deposits. It occurs massive and in small gray crystals with luzonite in the old Santa Barbara mine at Mancayan, Lepanto, Luzon. It is mined and smelted by Igorots. Formerly there was a considerable produc- tion by a Spanish company; at present it is not important. Epidote—HCa, (Al, Fe) ,Si,O,,. Epidote is very rare. It occurs as yellowish grains or in more x,A,1 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 87 or less amorphous masses in a few igneous rocks. It has no economic value. Galena—PDbS. Galena is found in veins only. It is lacking in the walls. Galena was formed generally later than pyrite. As a rule, it is crystallized. It is associated with zinc and pyrite in quartz veins, rarely in calcite veins. It frequently carries silver, but rarely gold. It is nearly always primary. Galena is resistant to decomposition. This mineral is found in veins in Suyoc, Mountain Province; in Batangas; Cebu; Marinduque; Paracale; and Surigao. During the Spanish régime galena was mined to a limited extent in Cebu, but is not mined at the present time. Garnet—Complex silicates with Fe, Mg, Mn, and Ca as inter- changeable bases. The common species, andratite, occurs rarely in the Philippines as minute wine-red granules in a rock from Bulacan, Luzon. It has no economic value. Gilsonite—-Complex hydrocarbon. Gilsonite is found in the northern part of Leyte Province adjacent to petroleum seeps in Miocene shale and sandstone. There is no production in the Philippines, but the Leyte deposit is being explored. Gold—Au (metallic). Gold occurs associated with pyrite and rarely with galena. It usually occurs as metallic gold in quartz and in calcite veins as wires, plates, grains, and crystals; abundantly distributed in placer as perfect crystals, wires, and rounded grains; and is occasionally found as nuggets weighing from 10 to 30 grams. Traces of gold are found in most rocks carrying pyrite. Gold is found in paying quantity in veins in Suyoc and Baguio, Mountain Province; Paracale and Mambulao, Ambos Camarines; and Aro- roy, Masbate. It is found in paying quantity in placer in Suyoc, Mountain Province; Pefaranda district, Nueva Ecija; Umaeri, Tayabas; Paracale, Mambulao, and Malaguit, Ambos Camarines; Cansuran, Surigao; Hibong River, and other localities along the Agusan River, Mindanao; in Misamis Province; and in Mindoro. Graphite—C. Graphite is reported as occurring in “graphite clay” in Bulacan. 88 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Guano—P,0, with impurities. Guano occurs as a coarse brownish earth in limestone caves in many parts of the Archipelago, principally along sea coasts. A small amount is collected, which is sold to Japanese exporters. Gypsum—CaSO,,. Gypsum occurs generally in small tubular crystals as incrusta- tions on voleanic rocks near solfataras; also, in finely granular form in the Loboo Mountains, Batangas, Luzon. There is no production, and the quantity is apparently limited. Hematite—Fe,0O,. Hematite is found in irregular “pockets” with magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and quartz in crystalline rocks of the East- ern Cordillera of Luzon; also, in veins cutting limestone. It occurs from Mambulao Bay, Ambos Camarines, to northern Bulacan, Luzon. The grade of this ore is excellent. It is smelted by Filipinos in crude blast furnaces to make plowshares. Hornblende—RSiO,, R being more than one of the elements Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Na, and K. Hornblende is abundant in many igneous rocks as black crys- tals varying in size from microscopic to 2 or 3 centimeters in length. It is of no economic value. Hypersthene— (FeMg) SiO.,. Hypersthene occurs in certain varieties of andesite in many localities. It is distinguished by its pleochroism (colorless to delicate pink) under the microscope. Hypersthene has no eco- nomic value. Iddingsite—Exact composition not known. Iddingsite occurs as alteration of olivine in rocks from three localities, Mount Mariveles, Bataan; Mindoro; and Batanes. The mineral is red. It has no economic value. Ilmenite— (Mg, Fe) TiO,. Ilmenite is found in black-sand concentrates in many streams throughout the Archipelago, usually in small crystals and more or less rounded grains. It is not utilized. Iridium—Ir (metallic). The occurrence of iridium is the same as osmium. Jasper—SiO,. Jasper occurs in fissile beds and in irregular masses. It con- tains remains of radiolarian tests. The color is brown to deep red. x, 4,1 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 89 Kalinite (alum)—K,SO,. Al, (SO,) ,+24H,0. Kalinite occurs in mealy crusts around solfataras at Taal Vol- cano and elsewhere; apparently in small quantities. Kaolinite—Al,0, .2Si0, .2H,0. ‘Kaolinite occurs in the Philippines usually as a solfataric decomposition product of andesitic rocks; it is rarely pure. In the region around Laguna de Bay, Luzon, it is found in irregular “nockets.” Kaolinite is used to a moderate extent in making pottery and for a local paint, so-called “yeso,’’ which is the Spanish equivalent for gypsum. Labradorite—(See Plagioclase). Leucite—KAl1(SiO,).. Leucite occurs partially altered in certain very limited ex- posures of volcanic rock in the Aroroy district, Masbate. These rocks have from 8 to 10 per cent of potash, which might be made available for fertilizer. Lignite—Various hydrocarbons. Lignite is found in seams from 1 centimeter to 5 centimeters thick in many parts of the Archipelago. It usually crumbles into small cleavage cubes and air slacks. Its woody texture is seen best in weathered specimens. This mineral has been mined in the past, but there are no operations now. Limonite.—2F e,O, .8H,O. Limonite is associated with hematite and is found near the surface; it occurs also in small pisolitic granules. It is dis- tributed in small amounts throughout the Archipelago. Some- times limonite is used in small quantities for paint. Luzonite—Cu,Ass,,. Luzonite! is apparently a secondary ore of copper, and it is a special form of enargite. It forms in vugs and cracks in the vein. Luzonite is found in Mancayan, Mountain Province, and constitutes a large percentage of the enriched portion of the veins. Magnesite—MgCoO.,,. Magnesite occurs associated with serpentine in Ilocos Norte as a white, earthy mineral, which is efflorescent. No use is made of it. 1 Moses, Am. Journ. Sct. (1905), 277. 90 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Magnetite—Fe,O,. Magnetite is widespread in small particles throughout the igneous rocks in the Philippines. It is also associated with the hematites of the Eastern Cordillera, Luzon. Fine octahedral crystals (No. 319) from San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan, Luzon, are in the collection of the Ateneo de Manila. Magnetized iron ore—Lode stone. Apparently iron oxides. This ore is found near Paracale, Camarines, and is also reported near Casiguran, Tayabas. No deposits are worked. Malachite— (Cu. OH) .CO.,. No large crystalline samples of malachite are on record. This mineral is present in most of the copper deposits as a green coating. Manganite—MnO (OH). Manganite occurs possibly with wad or pyrolusite in mineral veins, and often contains high values in gold. It is soft, and is derived from other manganese ores. It is found in several veins in Baguio and Suyoc, Mountain Province, and in Aroroy, Mas- bate. It has no economic value in the manner of its occurrence in the Philippines. Marcasite—F'eS,,. Marcasite is similar to pyrite, but is whiter. It is apparently infrequent. Marcasite has been reported from Mancayan, Luzon. Margarite—H,CaAl,Si,O,,. Margarite is a white mica occurring in certain schistose rocks of Ilocos Norte. No use is made of it, nor is there any production. Mercury—Hg (metallic). Mercury is reported to occur in small crevices and pockets on Mount Isarog, Albay, Luzon. A small phial of it is in the mu- seum of the Ateneo de Manila. Minium—PbO. A large amorphous pink specimen of this mineral is in the museum of Santo Tomas University, marked ‘“Filipinas;” no other data are given. Molybdenite—MoOsS.. Molybdenite is found in characteristic form in steel-blue flakes and leaves in quartz veins, Loboo Mountains, Batangas Province, Luzon. Only a small amount is found. x,A,1 Smith, Eddinfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 9] Muscovite—K,0.3Al1,0,.2H,O. Muscovite occurs rarely in igneous rocks. It occurs more com- monly in schists, particularly in a quartz muscovite schist in Ambos Camarines. There are no economic deposits of this min- eral in the Philippines. Niter—KNO,. Niter is said to be collected from certain caves on a small island near Surigao, Mindanao, and is used by natives for making gunpowder. This laboratory has no definite information re- garding this substance in the Philippines, and its occurrence is to be doubted because of the heavy rainfall here. Oligoclase— (See Plagioclase). Olivine— (Mg, Fe).,Si0O,. Olivine occurs in many rocks in the Islands, particularly in small greenish yellow grains in basalt and in so-called picrites of Panay. It is of no economic value. Opal—SiO,H.O. Opal is found in small fragments, and occasionally in large pieces of jasper. It occurs in Ilocos Norte and various other localities, but is not of any commercial value as found in the Philippines. One pretty specimen showing “fire” is in the museum of Santo Tomas University. Orthoclase—K,O.A1,0,.6Si0,. Orthoclase occurs sparingly in some igneous rocks. It is of no economic use. Osmium—Os (metallic). Osmium occurs with gold, iridium, and traces of platinum in thin metallic plates in decomposed rock. The locality where the mineral is found is said to be Luzon. Petroleum—Complex series of hydrocarbons. Petroleum occurs as a very light, paraffin-base oil in shales in various parts of the Islands, notably in Bondoc Peninsula, Tayabas, Luzon, and in Cebu. Two wells, one shallow and one deep, have yielded a small amount of oil. Philippsite—(K,, Ca) Al,Si,O,,1-44$H,0. Philippsite occurs in characteristic white, radiating or tuffed masses in Masbate. No economic use is made of it. Pickeringite (magnesia alum)—MgSO,.Al, (SO,) ,4-22H,0. Pickeringite is found in long fibrous masses as efflorescence 9? The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 in the old Santa Barbara copper mine, Mancayan (Lepanto), Mountain Province, Luzon; it also occurs on Camaguin Island, north of Luzon. Plagioclase— (NaAISi,O, to CaAl,Si,O,). This series of closely related minerals is one of the commonest of all the constituents of igneous rocks in the Philippines. It embraces the following species: Albite, anorthite, andesine, and labradorite. It has no known economic value as such. Platinum—Pt (metallic). Platinum is found in minute flattened grains in placer-test borings near Penaranda in Nueva Ecija; on the Mariquina River in Rizal Province, Luzon; and in Agusan Valley, Mindanao. There is no production in the Philippines. Prochlorite—H, (Mg, Fe) ,Al,SiO.,. Prochlorite occurs in dirty green leaves which are flexible but not elastic. It is found in the metamorphic area of Ilocos Norte, Luzon. No use is made of it. Psilomelane—H,MnO,. The manganese is commonly replaced in part by barium or potassium. Psilomelane occurs associated with pyrolusite. It is a very impure ore of manganese, often containing only 40 per cent of manganese (see Pyrolusite). Pyrite—FeS.,. Pyrite occurs both massive and crystalline. The mineral appears as disseminated grains and as large crystals. Pyrite is often cupriferous. It is persistent in quartz veins and occa- sionally in calcite veins. Frequently it is one of the early min- erals to crystallize. It is often associated with galena and zinc, but generally precedes them. Pyritization of vein walls occurs by reaction of the magnetite with H,S gas from the fissure. Frequently this mineral is disseminated in volcanic rocks. Spec- imens of large secondary (?) crystals are in the Bureau of Science collection from Malaguit River, Camarines. Pyrite forms under conditions ranging from deep to surface. It is the most widely distributed metallic mineral. It is found in almost all rocks. This mineral is especially abundant in quartz veins, and is frequently associated with gold. There is no com- mercial use of pyrite in the Philippines. Pyrolusite—MnO, with 2% H,0O. Pyrolusite is the principal ore of manganese in the Philippines, x,A,1 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 93 It occurs in botryoidal or massive shapes; also, reniform. It is found as veinlets in andesite and as nodules from erosion of veins and possibly in beds. It is found in Ilocos Norte, Panga- sinan, Bulacan, Tarlac, and Masbate. It is not exploited. Pyroxene—Ca (Meg, Fe) Si,0,. Pyroxene is a common constituent of pyroxene andesite, one of the chief rock types in the Islands. It occurs in small jet-black crystals. It has no economic value. Quartz—SiO,. Quartz is very persistent under conditions from deep seated to surface. It occurs in fine crystals in vugs under proper con- ditions; otherwise, it generally takes the form of jasper, chert, or siliceous sinter at the surface. It occurs in veins and as silicification of wall rocks. Two workable deposits only are known: (1) Siliceous spring deposits, Baguio, and (2) beach sand, Looc, Lubang Island. Quartz is used locally for road ma- terial and concrete in Baguio and at Looc. Realgar—Ass. Realgar occurs as characteristic red crystals on a yellow coat- ing of orpiment on pieces of slag (?) from the old Santa Bar- bara furnace at Mancayan, Luzon. As far as we know it does not occur in a natural state in the Philippines. Specimens, No. 59, of realgar are in the museum of the Ateneo de Manila. Rhodochrosite—MnCoO.,,. Rhodochrosite occurs as a gangue mineral in auriferous cal- cite veins of Benguet. It is a primary mineral; it was probably leached from wall rocks by the ascending solutions and was later deposited with the calcite. Rhodochrosite is of no economic use. Rutile—TiO,. Microscopic crystals occur in some of the metamorphic rocks from Ilocos Norte associated with actinolite, muscovite, etc. Rutile has no economic value. Salt—NacCl. Salt is deposited as incrustation from brackish carbonated springs in Mountain Province, Luzon, notably at Asin. It is used by the Igorots. Sanidine—(K, Na) AISi,0O,. Sanidine occurs in small crystals and grains. This “glassy feldspar” is a dominant constituent of the andesites of many 94 The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 peaks in Zambales Mountains and of Mount Apo, Mindanao. It is of no economic value. Sardonyx—Si0O.,,. A specimen of this, No. 174, from Baganga, Mindanao, is in the collection of the Ateneo de Manila. Sericite—3Al,0.,.6Si0,.2H,0. Sericite is one of the micas occurring in the schists of Ilocos Norte and Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao. It occurs in small gray-blue silky flakes. It is of no economic use. Serpentine—H, (Mg, Fe) ,Si,O.,. Serpentine, associated with pyroxenites and peridotites in more or less structureless masses, is found in Ilocos Norte and other localities. It is a greenish mineral. It occurs usu- ally as asbestiform minerals. There is no production in the Philippines. Silvanite— (AuAg) Te.. Silvanite occurs intimately mixed with the lead telluride al- taite in quartz and calcite stringers in a contact between a slaty formation and a feldspar-porphyry dike. Silver—Ag (metallic). Silver occurs in the Philippines only in natural alloys with gold, and associated with the mineral galena. The gold from both placers and lodes in the Philippines carries silver varying in quantity up to 30 per cent. Silver-bearing galena is found - at Panopoy, Cebu, and near Paracale, Camarines. Sphalerite—ZnS. Sphalerite occurs massive or as small crystals, always asso- ciated with lead and pyrite. Like the other sulphides, it favors the quartz veins; it forms under conditions of moderate depth. It is found in practically all localities where galena is found (see Galena). Sphalerite is not found in economically valuable quantities in the Philippines, although widely found in many veins. It is not utilized. Stibnite—Sb,S.. Stibnite occurs in characteristic fibrous masses. There is only one specimen in the Bureau of Science collection from Ba- tangas Province, Luzon. x,A4,1 Smith, Eddingfield, Fanning: Philippine Minerals 95 Sulphur—sS. Sulphur occurs more or less pure in characteristic yellow crys- tals around solfataras and also in a very impure state mixed with voleanic ash on Camiguin Island north of Luzon; on Taal Vol- cano and in Sorsogon, Luzon; on Mount Apo, Mindanao; and on Biliran Island. No sulphur is mined at present, but some mining was carried on formerly on Biliran. Talce—3Mg0.4Si0,.H,0. There are small amounts of talc associated with mica and actinolite in the metamorphic region of Ilocos Norte, Luzon. No local use is made of this mineral. Tetrahedrite—4Cu,S.Sb,S,. Tetrahedrite occurs as flint-gray to tin-black crystals. It is found at the old Santa Barbara mine, Mancayan, Lepanto, Luzon. Titanite—CaTiSiO, or CaO.TiO,.SiO,. Titanite occurs as characteristic wedge-shaped crystals asso- ciated with the iron-ore deposits of Bulacan. Topaz—(AIF),SiO, or (Al(F, OH),) SiO,. Topaz occurs in small (2-4 millimeters) pink, yellow, and colorless orthorhombic crystals. It is found in placers of Para- cale River, Ambos Camarines. Tremolite—CaMg, (SiO,),. Tremolite occurs in long white to greenish fibers associated with serpentine and asbestos in Ilocos Norte. It could be used commercially. Uralite—Composition same as pyroxene save for slight change in magnesium and calcium content. Uralite is a green alteration product of pyroxene, and is found in certain igneous rocks called metadiorites, which are altered gabbros. Vermiculite—Hydrated mica. Vermiculite is an earthy mica found in the metamorphic area of Ilocos Norte. It has no economic value. Wad—An earthy mixture of manganese oxides. Wad is found in association with psilomelane and pyrolusite. It is of no economic importance now. 96 The Philippine Journal of Science Wernerite—Intermediate between Ca,Al,Si,O,, and Na,Al,Si,O,,Cl. Wernerite is a white fibrous silicate, and occurs in veinlets in greenstone in Aroroy district, Masbate. No economic use is made of it. Wolframite— (FeMn) WO,. Wolframite is a heavy, black, crystalline mineral. Specimens are said to have been found in Antique Province, Panay. There is no economic development. Zeolite—Composition is uncertain. RALI,Si,,0,,. Zeolite occurs as a fibrous secondary product in the decomposi- tion of certain rock minerals, principally feldspars, and in amyg- doloidal cavities throughout the Islands. This mineral has no known use. REVIEWS A Laboratory Guide | to the Study of | Qualitative Analysis | based upon the | application of the theory of | electrolytic dissociation | and the law of mass action | by | E. H. S. Bailey, Ph.D. | professor of chemistry | and | Hamilton P. Cady, Ph.D. | associate professor of chemistry in the University of Kansas | seventh edition | Phila- delphia | P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. | 1012 Walnut Street | 1914 | Cloth, pp. i-x+1-280. Price, $1.25 net. The seventh edition of Professors Bailey and Cady’s book is essentially the same as the sixth edition except that the alter- native method for the treatment of the cations of groups III and IV which was an appendix in the sixth edition is in the present one incorporated in the body of the text. The book contains a brief and accurate discussion of electrolytic dissociation and the mass law as applied to qualitative analysis; experiments and tables for the separation of cations and anions into groups and their identification; while such subjects as, hydrolysis, rules for oxidation and reduction, etc., are treated in their proper places in the book thereby making it easy for the student to comprehend their practical application. A table of solubilities closes the text. It is an excellent work for stu- dents of qualitative analysis in scientific schools of the Philip- pine Islands. T. DAR JUAN. The Source, Chemistry | and | Use of Food Products | by | E. H. S. Bailey, Ph.D. | professor of chemistry and director, Chemical Laboratories, | University of Kansas | author of “A system of quantitative analysis”; “Sanitary and | applied chemistry,” ete. | with 75 illustrations | Philadelphia | P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. | 1012 Walnut Street | No date, copyright, 1914. Price $1.60 net. The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products by E. H. S. Bailey of the University of Kansas is a book well adapted as a supplementary text in a high school or college course in agri- culture or a course in dietetics. It is a simple, readable, elementary text on the source and use of food products, containing numerous tables of the nu- tritive value of the foods described. It does not contain enough data on the chemistry of foods to be a complete text in this subject for college students; however, when supplemented by lectures it would be very valuable as reference reading. 131717? 97 98 The Philippine Journal of Science The headings and subheadings are somewhat confusing be- cause of their arrangement and frequency and we believe the appearance of the book would have been benefited by the adop- tion of a different system and by making fewer subheads. The data on any one particular food are also rather scattered and a closer correlation of this information would have resulted in an improved text. Many source references are given, which is a commendable feature, and while the references are limited in scope, they are the ones that are most apt to be available to the ordinary high school and college. On the whole, the book is written in an interesting fashion, can be easily read by a person without a knowledge of chemistry, and, while it offers no new information on the subject of foods, is valuable because of its availability to the nontechnical person. H. C. B. oo ins t form: deserintion POF all knoWn :* species of \ Philippine \ aia: P usual keys and! diagnoses.’ Of orders, fami ee genera help the novice .in ident ition A CHECK-Lis OF EIS ae “Raited nf Paid BSN, y \ | ARTHUR ees and Bic 2s Cats STRONG Me ‘{nterhal nal Gon: gained, cee to- } islands he” distribution: Wm. ‘Wesley & Son, pany Wie sereety Sbraea Lindon Ww. Gu giao Martinus Nijhott, Lange Voorhout 9,'The Hague) ‘Holland... er, Prinz Louis: ‘Ferdinands: asse 2, Berlin, iN. 2 Rarities, iPlac te Straits Settlements. F: HEISE, GEORGE W, Water Supply for the City of ition. a awe REVIEWS - SESE OS ate Canty See rae een The “Philippine Sanenel of Sulesee”” is gsouwa Bs, iedloweast3 Entire Journal, beginning with Voh ‘s ‘Single pumbers (exceptiof Volume J) - Volume I, 1906 (not divided into sections) 2 “should be addressed: Library, "yh . : many, r - Kelly & ‘Wath, Limited, 32 RaMes Place, 3 _ ALM. & J. Fergason, 19 Baillie Street,’ incr ered? Spink &. nots P. 0. Box a Bre Tee: BE ile x Single numbers: ot Volume. a nal of Science, Bureau of beasties sagen P, 1., or to. any 0 sk paiows. ie | eh had? a ;. - £.« A, e bl ey ot a} € - c= "oe « vate es oe) at r 1 4 TS ae \ . we" oe fa ‘ : ‘ ¥ - rad Lm > 5 yo LS ee | LS eh Reh) 4 1 a ’ PA yar, f wi Fo we e r 4 ' £. he » ey ‘ahaa: i i : e er / “5 > 4 3 , 4 wy s eu ud A De ie Ff Ns eer %, e : Ate - “et reg tm pape! Soha “CONTENTS EY 6% \ pw ee et ied PRATT, DAVID. S, Prosi: Its ‘Commercial Preparation and Be F Digestive Properties... hw ope) Es SL ORAS ES RA SG oe | Aa ey, BLACKWOOD, 0H. us Detention of. the Diurnal. Varia- +e : the Active Deposit Method... i Map Viale a Saga kee 9 ee et GIBBS, H. D. and BRILL, H. C. Cphcanpibetosactiaale (Ethyl-" a dioxydihydroteraphthalate):: A Study of its in ag a 5 Derivatives, and Absorption Spectra ete ce was oo 2 aan ; HEISE, GEORGE W. Boiler Waters of lloilo Province... ee iy 75! SMITH, WARREN D., EDDINGFIELD, F. T, and FANNING, © eee PAUL R.; A beapre tat Check List of ee Migersis: nig a ay Section A. Chemical and Geological Sciences and the tndlesirice Section B. Tropical Medicine ER ee a Shige re sthateypncy hate dw aphysht meh +> \Bectlon ©.’ Botany :io2r;-.taso ne ile eon = AST Fare be 00 - Section ‘D. General Biology, ‘Bihnology, and Anthropology (Sec- . tion D began with Volume Ye 2 op hese Se Entire Journal, Volume If, Tit, 1V or Wt: ume hs ‘Each section is separately “Authors receive 100 copies of rah only with a complete file of section. A, | Supplement to’ Volume I (botany). -.---.--.---- ~- Yolume I (without supplement); sold only w Section A,-B, or ©.) 2.5521. } Publications. sent. in excha for the. Philippine: nig for of Science, stirs P Subscriptions may be sent to the-Business MANAGER, Phili, ‘ AGENTS by ie 3 : a The, Macmilian tamed ‘64-268 Pifth 2 - HB aoe : ¥ ee Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, fe sbeed lon uo Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhouwt 9, The Hague, A Mayer & Miller, Prinz Louis Sag cinecets sppe ai: pete tag ae . mite ye ety PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE BUREAU OF SIRO, . WANES awrnernaa te ISLANDS “ETHNOLOGY | ry VUCABULARY OF THE boy LAN. GUAGE AS SPOKEN BY THE. BONTOO IGOROTS. » By WaAurem CLAYTON CuArr Order ‘No. 408. Paper, 89 pages, 90.75, postpaid. The vocabulary is given in igorot-€Englith and English-Igoro THE NABALOI DIALECT _ By Ofto ScHmeRER ; and, ‘ THE BATAKS OF PALAWAN By Epwano. Y. Mais Order No. 403. warts er: half mo~ ' ro0co, $0.75; postpaid, The polar Dialect (65 ges, 29° plates) and Bataks . of Palawan rik Pages, 6 vlaten) ah: bound under one cover. | A aant : pe SATAN | : sa prac as GRovP. : aor LANGUAGES ‘By Orro Scumemer » and~ mee FN, ERO LANGUAGES By CaRLos EVeRerT Conant Order’ No. 407. ‘ These two papers are tsaued under one "gover, 141 pages, paper, $0.80, postpaid. ’ { , Be ak AND oe | SHE SUBANUNS.OF SINDANGAN BAY : Order ‘No. 410, Paper, “map, 29 plates, ‘$21.25, postpaid.’ ' Sindangan. Bay is) situated on the north« “Lern ooast.of Zamboanga Peninsula. “The Su- - banuns of this region were studied by Mr. ~ ; ~ Christie during’ two: periods of of five and. six Baisc’y 3 respectively ' he 29 plates AiGakrata the Subanuns at.’ at pisgs = their industries, ‘houses, nd. implements; and» the. people » themolves., foci Pub ae & os os! ee THE HISTORY OF SULU_ ‘By Nasexs M. ake at Due ah Order No. 406. Paper, 275 p 4 ; » maps, 2 diagrams, $0.75, pastpald, In the preparation of his. manusoript f The History of Sulu, Doctor Saleeby spen much time and. effort in) gaining ‘access. on fo documents In the possession of the Sultan of Sulu, This. book is a ‘history of the | - Moros In the. Philippines from the? earliest » mes to the Gace yite penne ee: a cas ' . " ee. - ‘ By Emesson. B. Cuasstz Yer? aay 121° pages, 1 ; » ETHNOLOGY—Continued BTUDIES ot MORO HISTORY, RAW RELIGION By Nijws M. Sasamey | \ Paper, 107) pages, as Fagg diagrams, $0.25; half mo car ae 0.75; postpaid, eee “This volume deals with the pee written records of the Moros. in Mindanao. The names of the rulers of Magindanao are eowicig in five folding diagrams, rocco, i v so oo Ore Ey: fens Pres ae ae wy 44 Plates from preidetiohe! pay of al a were taken for this publication, show oh J ments, houses, men making’fire. with bamboo, Sh » bows and arrows, dances, and various Pit pol i of the matt ‘themselves. ; iene, i _ INDUSTRIES AVG : “By. B. Rovrvson ~ Order No. 415. Paper, 66 plates, 8 Creat, Py ‘ —_— i TEE Suan i “INDUSTRY LAND OF NEGROS YN, by Henin Wace | ; © Otder i 412. Pape , 145” ; Notes, 1 map, $ ’ postpaid. we - Considered from. the viewpoint of a ‘ F ‘tioal outility, Mr. Walker's Sugar Indus : in the Island of Negros.is one of the f Important papers published by ‘the ess ue of Science. This volume is a real contribu — » tion to the subject; it is not a mere wer ‘pilation, for the author was in the field Saar the bondifions of ectiy wr * 1 > he abil aS Rita ¥ By: Crhesen’ 8. paeae : ; “Order No. 53 ee, 20 Whos Oe oe - ; “postpaid. In. : Maral of Philippine Sik. Culture Dawe ae he results of several years’ | work with ar to- » gether Ne Sua atine of th silk-p aN larye to- e now. Phitip~ pene: poe é - THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VOL. X MARCH, 1915 No. 2 PROPOSED MODIFICATION OF YLANG-YLANG OIL STANDARDS ! By H. D. Gisss (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) The ylang-ylang (Canagium odoratum, Baill.) , a medium-sized to rather large tree, is a native of the Malay Archipelago and has been introduced into many other tropical countries for commercial and ornamental purposes. The essential oil is obtained from the flowers in the Philippine Islands, Indo-China, Java, Siam, New Caledonia, Jamaica, Ger- man East Africa, and a number of islands in the vicinity of the last country: namely, Madagascar, Mayotte, Nassi-Bé, and Réunion. The greatest commercial success has been attained in the Philippines and in Réunion on account of the high quality of the product. France takes the largest part of the oil produced in these two places. The exports for the last five years from the Philippine Islands are given in Table I. Taste I.—Oil exported efrom the Philippine Islands during the years 1909-1913. Value. | Year. Amount. eetare Total. | per kilo- gram. Kilos. Pesos.4 | Pesos. OOO eee eeene cote wee tba e cc Ie es en a RN) ee Ee} 25,812) | 175,872) 62.54 TUONO EAE CS a EE ee | 1,878} 116,668) 62.12 | HUT AS eC eer ee a ce | 1,684] 94,808) 56.30 | TSE See 0S aoe Ae a Een ma Rese SPE 2,785 | 161,758 | 58.08 | STE Ee See pu Dea peeae Bc MR I EY wo ee NI | 2%172| 116,618] 53.70 | * One peso Philippine currency equals 50 cents United States currency. * Received for publication January 28, 1915. 133958 99 100 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The figures for the production prior to 1909 have been tabu- lated by Bacon.* They are considered to be unreliable. Table I indicates that the foreign sale of ylang-ylang has fallen off and that the average price per kilogram has decreased. The decline is undoubtedly due in part to the competition of other countries, resulting in a diminished demand for second- and third-grade oils. The improved quality and the recent low price of ylang-ylang flowers have also largely eliminated the poorer grades of oil from the local market. The chemical constituents and chemical properties of ylang- ylang oil have been the subject of numerous investigations.* Various attempts have been made to prepare an artificial oil which would displace the true ylang-ylang oil; but on account of the decrease in price of genuine ylang-ylang oil and its real superiority, these attempts have met with very little success. ’ Bacon‘ found that an oil with a low refractive index, low optical rotation, and high ester number is almost certain to be good; while high refractive index, high optical rotation, and low ester number indicate a poorer grade oil. He states that the ester number of first-grade oils is usually 100 or more, the refractive index is rarely over 1.4900 at 30°, and the optical rotation varies from —32° to —45°, the latter depending on the proportion of sesquiterpenes present. These constants are given in Table II. TABLE IJ.—Classification of ylang-ylang oil according to Bacon. | Constants. | First grade. Second grade. | } sen nd bee eee ee nee ee ee | 100 and above___-_-_-__- 80 to 100. Index ofmetractions—— 2-2) eee eee Sees 1. 4900 and below-_-_-__- Above 1. 4900. Specific ratation-~ =< = 3.2. es 3 | and below 2 Above —45°. | | . Two years later Bacon reports *® that owing to a reduction in the price of flowers to 7 centavos (3.5 cents United States cur- rency) per kilogram better flowers were obtainable, and because of the adoption of improved methods in distillation, oils having an ester number of from 130 to 150 were common. > This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 65. *Gal, H., Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1873), 76, 1482; Fliickiger, Arch d. Pharm. (1881) (3) 18, 24; Reychler, Bull. Soc. chim. Paris (1894), 11, 407, 576, and 1045; Dareus, Ibid. (1902), 27, 83; Schimmel & Co., Semi- annual report (October, 1901), 53; D. R. P. (September, 1901), 142, 859; Bacon, This Journal, Sec. A (1909), 4, 130; and (1910), 5, 265. ‘This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 65. *Tbid. (1910), 5, 265. XiAy 2 Gibbs: Modification of Ylang-Ylang Oil 101 This improvement in quality has continued as evidenced by the constants compiled from data obtained from the oils examined by this laboratory, and given in Table III. TABLE III.—Yearly average of constants of ylang-ylang oil for 1910-1914. Average for— | Constants. oe anEa| eae, | | 1910 1911 | 1912 | 1918 |; alot —— = = — — — ——— — | ——__— — —_— mall is ne = ia equni| ISTERED UN DET ees ee en ee 4 RAS Re 114.3 111.0 112.6 122.38) 183.2 | indexvofiretraction f=) ee eee 1. 4918 1. 4900 1. 4876 1.4925 | 1.4853 | DECI CIOLATION peat ene degrees__| —27.3 Pa —32. 4 — 2057, | —18.9 | *To July 1, 1914. Measured by Bacon’s standard, the average for each year tabulated in Table III has shown a rise in quality over the aver- ages for the years preceding it. This advance in quality is indicative of the fact, referred to above, of the improvement made by the adoption of better methods in handling and distilling. In the light of the above tabulation I believe the time is opportune for the introduction of a few changes in the standards for the classification of ylang-ylang oil. Therefore I propose the adoption of a table introduced by Doctor Jahrling of the firm of Santos and Jahrling of Manila. Table IV gives these constants as published by Jahrling.® TABLE I1V.—Classification of ylang-ylang oil according to Jahrling. | Index of . Soluble in Grade. pee eee refrac- Specific eleshol 2 tion. 7 of— S oa sds Te Eevee eae (Nese ela [BE | ©) Per cent. PHAGE et ee Sat IMR eye hk nose ny td eee heh tei a >145 | <1.4900 | <—35 80 Tea een esa Rel eee GRE GG oN ere Dy ncele tae eA eC SN >120 | <1.4950 | <—48 90 1 [a 2S Ae Se at Sl eee eee Tae res >100 | <1.4999; <—60 90-96 | Dandie lai beth Ja iae A Me A Oe ae ee hee LMR ae <100 | >1.4990| >—60 96 i i} This table really divides what was formerly classed under Class I into three divisions: namely, Extra, la, and 1b, depending on the constants shown by the oil. I believe this to be a fair extension of the grading proposed by Bacon, since it makes a distinction among the really high-grade oils and gives the man with an extra-quality oil credit for his efforts. Schimmel & Co.’ state that in their experience the best oils have a range of constants as given in Table V. ° Rev. gén. chim. (1918), 16, 43. “Bericht von Schimmel & Co. (October, 1913), 108. 102 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE V.—Constants of Schimmel & Co.'s best oils. Ester number 75 to 120 Index of refraction 1.4910 to 1.5000 Specific rotation —37° to —57° Specific weight 0.930 to 0.945 Schimmel & Co. reject the solubility in alcohol as a test for classification. I have found this test very useful as a confirm- atory test, since it indicates the amount of sesquiterpenes present in the oil; therefore I have adopted it for use as a standard for classification in this laboratory. This test consists in’ deter- mining the lowest strength of aqueous alcohol which can be mixed with the oil without cloudiness in the proportion of 2 of oil to 1 of alcohol. Oils with constants superior to those given by Schimmel & Co. are common in the Philippine Islands. Table VI is a list of constants taken at random from the data collected by the Bureau of Science on the oils examined from January 1, 1913, to July 1, 1914. The table also gives the grade of the oil, classified according to Jahrling’s method. TaBLE VI.—Constants of some samples of ylang-ylang oil examined by the Bureau of Science. | Index of : i | Ester. Specific Specific Grade. number. aida rotation. gravity. | In our classification we have placed the most emphasis on the ester number as the determining factor, but have been influenced by the other constants. Doctor Jahrling, of Santos and Jahrling, has very kindly furnished us with a number of samples of oils from his labo- ratory. The constants of these oils have been determined by the Bureau of Science and are given in Table VII. RAL 2 Gibbs: Modification of Ylang-Ylang Oil 103 TABLE VII.—Constants of oils submitted by Jahrling. | Index of | : ar || Sample, Grade. | beter | refrac: | Porction | gravity {in aleohol E | “| go7p. | 30/D. | 30°/380°. | of— | | | pce eae Ue NE (ee iiewilllvay eee APE | | = Per cent. TO AE actrrea eee en ee em een eee EE ed) | 201.7| 1.4762| —6.70| 0.9478 | 80 OWA REA 5 ag a ae 128.7| 1.4913 | —39.50] 0.9445, 90 Sallectr aeeemiguan yee = Ana Seen yd Sat 153.8 | 1.4900 | —27.50 | 0.9504 | 80 CA ANT Ey CSE A ge 130.3} 1.4919) —40.63 | 0.9452 | 90 Ba Bin trateeeone ed tr las eA ye 22 ey 164.4 | 1.4860 | —20.08 | 0. 9564 | 80 CRM ctramearuliWi a Waa wai Lo. oily 172.7} 1.4850 | —21.76 | 0. 9579 | 80 [Mee ua es outs: area y fn ATI he AN 129.9] 1.4937 | —25.34) 0.9472 | 90 63 | SUR Ae a lees Oe 130.0} 1.4965 | —88.73 | 0.9450 | 90 | | Sa ES ce 124.2 | 1.4944 | —45.95 | 0.9469 | 90 HOMME bras cules lumen e mu toU le 157.38 | 1.4870 | —16.23} 0.9612 | 80 iit | Tice at SUS ea SER eee eR aD 122.0| 1.4988} —41.88| 0.9467; 90 | SB, IE Taba gets 2 ye ues OM aa 148.2 | 1.4842 | — 25.80} 0.9498 | 80 | Selene vere. ee SOLS ete De LT 122.0| 1.4913 | —88.73] 0.9435 | 90 IU Tbsp ta ES A a a 157.3 | 1.4860 | —14.12] 0.9489 | 80 Of the 14 oils reported in Table VI, which are representative of the oils received by the Bureau of Science for examination, 11 have ester numbers higher than 120, Schimmel & Co.’s max- imum; 9 have indices of refraction less than 1.4910, their min- imum index of refraction; while all but two have specific rotation less than the minimum given by this firm. The oils listed in Table VII show a similar superiority and justify an extension of Bacon’s table. All 14 have ester numbers greater than 120, 7 have indices of refraction less than 1.4910, and 8 have specific rotation with a greater negative rotation Bhan —— 3-2 The average of the constants for the year 1914, from January 1 to July 1, shows this same superiority in all the constants tabulated. After due consideration of all the above-mentioned facts I believe Jahrling is justified in announcing an extension of the table of constants, as given in Table IV, and that these constants should be adopted as standard for classification. SUMMARY The exports in ylang-ylang for the last five years are given. An extension of the classification at present in use is proposed. This extension is warranted on account of the large number of superior-grade oils produced. One new test—solubility in aleohol—has been added as a con- firmatory test. ub — _ 5! e ! » ‘ +> Pee / é » PT a j ae 7 : I ive , ’ ie in sa ~~ 2 if mh | ‘4 * i re ry lj * “X ) } wi un ah py « ' ‘ i i ( ee yn ae ws 4 ' Fedih oii £7 4s Tope (EES ® a 2 * Mri lite o fh oe) Sh ok ts 4a Stor ho hl ATT ey ae ee ae PHILIPPINE OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES: II + By HARVEY C. BRILL and FRANCISCO AGCAOILI (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) TWO TEXT FIGURES The vegetable-oil industry is going through a transition period. Manufacturers and consumers are turning their attention to vegetable oils, and the processes of extraction, expression, re- fining, and deodorizing have been so greatly improved that these oils have invaded the domain of the animal fats and in many cases entirely usurped their place. In the warmer climates very strong prejudices are held by the Caucasians against the use of animal fats for edible purposes, because of a belief that they are dele- terious to the health. This belief is spreading to the native peoples, and the holding of this belief, together with the limited available amount of animal fat, will result in a still more in- creased demand for edible vegetable oils. The increased demand will be accompanied by a further rise in price, unless larger quan- tities are available. This gradual rise in cost is illustrated by the table of prices of edible cottonseed oil and edible peanut oil taken from the figures published by a Hamburg importer and quoted by E. W. Thompson.’ TABLE I—Maximum and minimum prices of cottonseed and peanut oils. [Figures sive cents per pound.] 1904 | 1906 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 19123 z bes — | |— | Edible cottonseed oil: | | To west ies aiele Soe ael Dee | 5.06) 5.78) 6.43) 6.27] 6.27) 7.00) 6.98 Highestante tees Cen en Rees | 6.05] 6.60] 7.92] 891] 9.24] 8.03] 8.36 Mean yimninvemeenan en cose uens |) 5.55 |) enol zea] 75a) ||) 7.7 aby 1764 ——— | — Edible peanut oil: | | | Moweats eels ket SP UNG! TVs) ei ies | 8.80! 9.02| 9.79) 9.57] 10.34 . | H | ices tows endl pastb ode a. aati edd ow Wawel’ 9.02} 9.68} 10.50! 10.78 | 10.56 Meant sctial spies Mie ety ears, fae wee 8. 91 | 9.35 | 10.14] 10.17| 10.45 | arama | zi = Meantdifierences s5se sees a a yeas Mee Le 1.74 | 1.76 | 2.39 2.66 | 2.81 ‘Received for publication March 19, 1915. * Dept. of Commerce, Special Agents Series No. 89. Part II. Edible oils (1914), 18. 105 106 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The price of each commodity has generally risen. The mean difference in price has likewise shown a gradual increase. This will result in a greater demand for the less favorably known cottonseed oil. But here the supply is not unlimited. To cite but one instance: Egyptian cotton is suffering severely from the attacks of the pink bollworm that is not only destroying the lint cotton, but is infesting the seed that reaches maturity and goes to the mill as well. The awakened demand for edible vegetable oils has been ac- companied by the withdrawal from the soap industry of such oils as can be made edible by refining, deodorizing, or hydrogenating. Thus many oils formerly used largely or exclusively for the manufacture of soap have now been shifted to this new industry by means of improved treatment in handling, and the soap manufacturers are either unable to obtain them at all or only at greatly inflated prices. To illustrate: Marseilles, which is the most important soap-manufacturing city in Europe, requires annually something like 120,000 tons of fat for this industry. Heretofore 40 per cent of this has been coconut oil. But in recent years, out of the total annual production of 85,000 tons of copra oil in Marseilles, about 50,000 tons are sold direct as an edible fat, and 10,000 tons are exported to the Netherlands and else- where for mixing with cottonseed oil, peanut oil, and other soft fats to make oleomargarin; this leaves but 25,000 tons for the soap trade there, when the normal supply from this source has been 48,000 tons. Linseed oil the last two years has helped somewhat to alleviate this condition. It is easily hardened by hydrogenation, thus mak- ing it available for soap stock. And because of the record crop of 1913, when there were 2,700,000 metric tons, or half a million more than the year before, it has been sold at an extremely low price. The cost in Liverpool in April, 1914, was 5.4 cents per pound, or 2 cents cheaper than average tallow. However, the supply of linseed varies from year to year, and the soap industry dares not be entirely dependent on it for its supply of soap stock; consequently any new oil-bearing seeds are eagerly wel- comed by importers and manufacturers in the hope that by their exploitation the present strain may be relieved and the price ad- justed to the level held before the existing conditions arose. A preliminary paper on Philippine oil-bearing seeds was pub- lished by Richmond and Rosario in 1907.° In this article they discussed the nuts known locally as lumbang bato (Alewrites *This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 439. ee x,A.2 Brill and Agcaowi: Philippine Oil-bearing Seeds 107 moluccana Willd.), lumbang banucalag (Alewrites trisperma Blanco), kapok [Ceiba pentandra (l.) Gaertn.] palo maria de la playa (Calophyllum inophyllum L.), physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.), and the castor-oil seed (Ricinus communis L.). The chemical properties and the principal local uses were given by the authors, along with a discussion of the future possibilities of the nuts. Since the publication of the above article, consider- able data have been collected regarding some of these nuts and several new ones. Chisochiton cumingianus (Harms).—This plant is placed in the natural family Melliaceae, the family to which santol belongs. It is of wide distribution in the Philippines, extending from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao, and has been re- ported by some to be abundant. The native names recorded are as follows: In Benguet-Union, batuakan (Igorot) ; in Laguna, balucanag, kalimotani, salaguin; in Camarines, balucanag; in Cagayan, papalsa, macalsa (Neg- rito), and marambalo (Cagayan) ; in Bataan, cato (Tagalog) ; in Albay, dudos (Bicol) ; in Bukidnon, valita; in Negros, malacalad (Visayan). The use of the name “balucanag” by the natives of Camarines and Laguna would indicate that they recognized the seeds as oil producers, for “balucanag”’ is properly the name of the oil-producing Aleurites trisperma Blanco to which species, however, Chisochiton cumingianus has no other point of re- semblance. We have adopted the Tagalog name ‘“cato” to designate this nut and shall refer to it hereafter as the cato nut. The fresh nut is half ellipsoid in shape, averaging 3 centimeters in length and 2.5 centimeters at the widest portion, with a rather hard shell constituting about 60 per cent of the total weight. This shell is somewhat difficult to separate from the meat. One kilogram of shelled nuts after drying weighed 698 grams and yielded by extraction with petroleum ether 308 grams, or approximately 31 per cent of the whole nut, of a reddish brown oil with a specific gravity of 0.9203 at 15°.5 C. The composition of the dried kernels is given in Table II. TABLE II.—Composition of dry cato kernels. Per cent. Fat (by extraction) 44.12 Protein (Nx 6.25) 9.00 Ash Soll®) By expression the dry kernel gave 35.56 per cent oil. The oil has a rancid odor, is nondrying, and has purgative properties. 108 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 We are indebted to Prof. A. G. DuMez, director of the School of Pharmacy of the University of the Philippines, and Doctor de la Paz, of the University of the Philippines, for the examination of its physiological properties. They report: Administered to cats in doses of 0.34 cubic centimeter per 500 grams body weight the effect was very slight, apparently causing a movement of the bowels within eight hours in 2 cases out of the 5 tried; when given in larger doses, 1.70 cubic centimeters per 500 grams body weight, the 3 cats treated were all affected within twelve hours of the administration of the dose, and the first movement was followed by successive movements within the twenty-four hours; doses of 3.34 cubie centimeters of cato oil for 500 grams body weight caused vomiting in both cases within the three hours following the administration of the dose. The laxative effect of cato is weaker, however, than that of castor oil, 5 parts of cato oil being approximately equivalent to 1 part of castor oil. Its soap-making qualities were tested by the Bureau of Science with gratifying results, and it is now being used by at least one firm in Manila in this industry. The chemical constants are given in Table ITI. TABLE III.—Chemical constants of cato oil. Specific gravity at 15° C. 0.9203 Specific gravity at 30° C. 0.9188 Butyro refractometer (reading at 30° C.) 60-61 Iodine value (Hanus) 80.78 Reichert-Meiss] value 7.34 Saponification number 192.02 Free fatty acids (oleic) per cent 3.98 Acid value cc. N/10 KOH 7.06 Sterculia feetida L.—Sterculia is a genus of the Sterculia- ceae—the cacao or calumpang family—and is represented by many species in the tropics of both hemispheres. Sterculia fa- tida occurs in eastern Africa to India, through Malaya to north- ern Australasia, and throughout the Philippines. It is known locally as calumpang (Tagalog, Pampanga) ; bangar (Ilocano) ; and bobog (Visayan). The follicles are large and woody, about 10 centimeters long, and contain from 10 to 15 seeds. The shells constitute approximately 48 per cent of the whole seed. The name calumpang is used to designate it throughout this paper. The seeds are edible, but are slightly purgative when eaten in quantities. The composition of dried seeds examined by the Bureau of Science is given in Table IV. x,A.2 Brill and Agcaowi: Philippine Oil-bearing Seeds 109 TaBLE 1V.—Calumpang dry shelled seeds. Analysis by— Bureau of} Bolton | Science. andiJes it — — —~ eo ee — ~- — | P Per cent.| Per cent. imiat: (bysextractioniof dryiseeds)) 22829222 22 2s ae ee ee 51.78 52.0 ZO LENTIN CONDO) ere ree ee care ee ees near UT IE ee eel SVT ZI G1) Eee Star cheeses pomeses sur ween me ae ie S seo ie dooce aoe L255] ON | ee meee SLL ee ee ee ee ae ee Terenas Soe et TAN Na ea et a SSL x00} Seen HmCelluloseretes(byidifference)) = 282 be) .2 oe ee a (35 G91) ese LENEPIY mpc Sha GSP SN a AR A Na Ie is gg ee ORGON aeae sees ee Labs uit ate zie ars cae ree | RE SEE | oN E a Analyst (1915), 40, 3. The chemical constants of the oil are as follows: TABLE V.—Chemical constants of calumpang oil. | Analysis by— Bolton Bureau of a and Jes- Science. aon ISbecificigra vitygat.o0c4 Cees ee re Com aera eo dieu eA oe? 0892545 | See eee Butyroretractometer reading) at: 40S) Case el ew LE eee 63-64 59.8 Todine wv aluer(Hanus) eves scree Ne eeene Woe eeenUne Senile Stk ee eee 76. 04 75.8 Relic hert-M cise lnval We pees ee ee ane ee ee ere ee eee eee PX SU) |e Saponificationinum bereese tote at ce eon mem nem eran enti en answer! 212.01) 193.7 | reewratcyzA cia sh (OleiC) ent goatee a oe eee See An per ENE ea N per cent__| 0. 45 | 1.0 ENCORGE STEEP Ee eee LL oS ett ec. N/10 KOH__ 0.380 | CN Seas } The oil is a bland, sweet oil with a comparatively high melting point and is light yellow in color. Prof. A. G. DuMez has examined the oil for its physiological properties. He states: The oil appears to resemble olive oil very much in its physiological action. Administered to dogs in doses of 1.5 to 8 cubic centimeters per kilogram body weight, it acts as a mild laxative. It is nontoxic and has no irritating action. It can be used in the same manner as olive oil and should be especially useful for culinary purposes. Canarium pachyphyllum Perk.—The genus Canarium is widely distributed in the Philippine Islands and is represented by many species. The pili nut of commerce comes from some of these. The Tagalog name is pagsainguin. Two varieties of nuts from Canarium pachyphyllum were examined by us, the long and the short variety. Their description is given in Table VI: 110 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE VI.—Description of two varieties of pili nuts. Cana- | Long. Short. rium lu- | / | zonicum,*® —— ——| emaetn., 325 See re og eae os a ee cm..|'6 - 6.76 4.5 - 5 645-6 | | Greatest width of triangular cross section __._.._________. do...|2.25- 2.65 \2.25- 2.5 2 . |, Average welehntor nute o-oo 62ers grams_. 8. 67 9.44 9.30 | Shel cteses See es tee ne a ataania DON Cant: 81.13 81.7) laces Ls () Pa a a ie Soe! Sap tees re a oe do... 18. 87 18, 29) mean bg et A i ee et ap as ed ee | E do_- 14. 03 13.27 | emo “Bolton and Jesson, loc. cit. "The nuts described here are doubtless from Canarium pachyphyllum and not Canarium luzonicum. The nuts of the latter are much smaller and are not available in any quantity. The composition of the kernels is given in Table VII. TABLE VII.—Composition of the kernels of pili nuts. l | | oa Long. | Short, | Pinon | | cums Per cent.| Per cent.. MMoisturets63.e a. 8a ele Ea ee ee et ee | 2.79 2.90 |). -c. eee : IO) Fae oe Ree ee bret SOM ge es Ea ee A | 74.39} 72.58) 72.20 | | emotein’ (Nes: 6:25) x5 ees oe a ke 12.06 | 1L 88 fee --oees SILCKORG i578 ie ee Se Pe 2 ao ee ees ee 0. 88 0.66 ize - Reducing svigara- 2.2 se ee a oe 0.45 | 18612. es Starch (by, difference) 2) >> SNOOSIAIUIaS 9A OquU UBYy JoyAWG ~~~~~~- > piduny aojjas ysippay |-----> >>> eae 0}UOU [op BIAvW O| eg “AY SYS suayoIy) SUMOAG [~~~ ~~~ >>> =O quyMoulOS SUOHIIY {poy ~~~" ~7 OC EE te: (9) | fone etait = vAuld Ul op vliwU OFeg “plow O1A31U RIA BU OUTEg |~~>~~>>-~ qvyMowos suayoI4} fpr Ys}UMOIG ~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ Pct yyéak oy amd pbs, | "Gosn =a ea oan ven ake nen eee td *piduny ‘pea daaq |----~----"~ PI[Os JSow]e {par YSIMO[[aA HABE | ~*~ >> Pico Meek aT yeaa eee == 9= Gewese nme ee yodeyy *GNOISLA | (@AOGE UBY} JQYIUp) UMOAg [~~ ~~~~-~ ===> SNOOSIAIWIOS SUMOIG-pay [>> ~ 77777 SNOOSIA {UMOIG-MO[[aA |7-~~-~ 77-77 Bujponuuq Suvquin’y MIOtay | aor LIME) ee so pee SNOOSIA {UMOIQ-pey |------------~ "7 "= pidunty {parojoo-AaaayO 7-777 - = =~ > 2 oyeq Suequiny “yey Moulos SUByOIYI SyORIq ysouLy |--~-- ~~~ qByMouios SUdH914} Spar YstuMorg |~~~~ ~~~ ~~=-- 7 PpClanyys AK OAC =-atolyo ae ae Gao = = men nen ena ecer nara 0489 *BUDHOIYI SUMOIG-MO[JaA |-~~--~ ~~~ BUONO Pax MUCE \ee--> ae Piduny :Mo[jok woploy [~~~ ~~~ -7 => Zuvdumysp “Splow oLInydjns pue oLQ1U Jo eangxip “plow oianyding “plow OLIN *OUeU |Z00"] ‘spiop diunydjns pup oApu YPM spo ajqnvjabaa ouddypyg fo suorjovay— X AVL x, 4,2 Brill and Agceaoili: Philippine Oil-bearing Seeds 113 The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales® claims that the press cake is poisonous to cattle. Mr. D.S. K. Pahu, a native of the Hawaiian Islands, employed in the Executive Bureau of the Insular Government here, informed us that the lumbang nut, known in the Hawaiian Islands as the kukui nut, is considered a delicacy when roasted and is eaten without deleterious results in this condition, but that when eaten in the fresh state it has strong physiological properties, causing nausea and dizziness. Guthrie and Ramsay‘ announce: It is a drying oil and is used in the arts for the same purposes as linseed oil, and for burning. * * * It is used medicinally as a plaster and as an article for diet—as olive oil is used. On the other hand, the Chinese, who are the greatest dealers in this commodity in Manila, affirm that the oil cannot be used for culinary purposes on account of its causing dizziness and nausea. We have tested the heated press cake and the extracted press cake by feeding chickens with each for intervals of ten days with no harmful results to the fowls. Most of this oil is expressed by the Chinese by means of crude, wooden hand presses, having a capacity of about 800 grams. One small factory can express about 75 liters of oil per day; but as less than 20 per cent of the total oil is extracted, much is going to waste. At present it sells at approximately 12 centavos (6 cents United States currency) per pound in Manila. In 1911 the United States imported 5,000,000 gallons of Chi- nese wood oil from China. This oil is used extensively for special varnishes and linoleum and for other similar purposes. This oil is so highly appreciated by the United States paint concerns that 40,000 trees have been planted in the Southern States. These are expected to furnish from one fourth to one third of the present supply of tung oil in the United States when they reach maturity. We believe either of the lumbang oils could be substituted for tung oil, as they are quick-drying, giving a clear, transparent, nonsticky film on a surface when exposed to the air for a short time. Thrum ® says: The last use, to our knowledge, made of it in house painting here was at the construction of the Judd building about 1855, by R. Gilliland, who is said to have made the statement that it was good for fifteen to twenty years. “Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. (1906), 17, 859. TIbid., (1906)), 117, 859. * Drugs, Oils and Paints (1914), 30, 207. * Hawaiian Annual (1893), 107. 114 The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 The following statement occurs in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,'’ London: Kukui (Lumbang bato) oil belongs to the drying oils typified by linseed— suitable for soap, oil-varnishes, paints, linoleum, and other similar purposes. Lumbang banucalag oil, allowed to stand at room temperature in an extraction flask exposed to the air for some time, became viscous and later settled to a clear straw-yellow gum, which was insoluble in alcohol and kerosene, but soluble in turpentine and alcoholic potash. The turpentine solution dried to a thin transparent film when exposed on a glass plate in the course of a few hours. Lumbang banucalag, lumbang bato, and cato oils were placed in small flasks on the steam bath, and dry air was passed through them. The flasks were weighed at intervals, and the change in weight was determined. This percentage change, marked — where a loss was found and + where the oil gained in weight, is recorded in Table XI. TABLE XI.—Change in weight of lumbang and cato oils when blown at a temperature of 100° C. Le dnd | Serial No. ‘Lie Tl anna Lumbang Time. banu- eer Cato. ] ealag. | ! Hours. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. 1 1 | 3.80; —4.66| —0.32 2 2 —3.98 —4.8 —0.38 3 | 3 —3.99| —4.98) —0.38 | ° 4| 4 | —4.01| 5.02) —0.35 | 5 | 5 | —3.95| 5.03} —0.32 6 | 6.5) —3.86 —4.81| —0.06 7 | 9.6) —3.79, —4.26| —0.05 8 12.5) —3.62) 3.96! +0.01 9 16.5) —3.51 -3.38 +0.21 10} 21 —2.81| -—2.30 +0. 45 11 22.5; -2.70| -—2.29| +0.47 12 28.5] —1.75| —1.89} +0.48 ; 13} 381 | —1.25| —1.54| +0.50 | 14 $4 | 0.93; —1L30| +0.51 The lumbang oils show a maximum loss in weight at the end of the fourth hour; thereafter the weight increases steadily. ” Bull. Imp. Inst., London (1907), 5, 136. x,A,2 Brill and Agcaoih: Philippine Oil-bearing Seeds 115 At the end of the experiment both had become thick and gummy with none of the original oily appearance, while cato oil, on the other hand, showed very little change in its weight and practically no difference in its physical properties when treated thus. The above oils were heated to 270° C. and held there for fifteen minutes. The sample of lumbang bato used suffered a loss of 1.5 per cent in weight, but showed no deposit of foots on cooling; lumbang banucalag lost 0.8 per cent and showed a slight deposit of foots; cato oil lost 1.6 per cent of its original weight and deposited a small amount of foots when allowed to stand. All three darkened somewhat. Seventy-five hundredths per cent precipitated lead and 0.75 per cent manganese borate were added to each, and they were then heated on the water bath for three hours. Only a part of the dryer went into so- lution, but the effect on the lumbang oils was decidedly marked. When the “boiled” oils were spread evenly on glass plates and placed in a horizontal position in a box protected from dust in subdued light at room temperature, lumbang banucalag oil dried to a clear film in five hours, while lumbang bato oil underwent a like change in six hours. Cato oil did not dry and at the end of twenty days remained wet and. without having undergone any noticeable change in consistency. These experiments de- monstrate that the lumbang oils are drying oils of good quality and capable of taking a dryer; cato oil, on the other hand, shows no improvement when treated thus. Further drying tests were arranged for the native oils under conditions approximating those existing when the oil is used for painting purposes, to determine the rate of drying and the change in weight. These changes are demonstrated in figs. 1 and 2. The oils were spread evenly on glass plates 7.5 by 4 inches in size, previously weighed and again weighed when covered with the oil film. They were then placed in a horizontal position on racks in boxes, the sides of which were made of a good quality of cheese cloth. This prevented the entrance of dust, insects, etc., but allowed a free passage of air. They were weighed each morning. Duplicates were run in all cases, and the average result is plotted. In figs. 1 and 2 the time in days is plotted along the horizontal axis and the per cent increase along the vertical axis. 133958 2 116 The Philippine Journal of Science curves see Table XII. pot =r DSA of Sele? aa tr NA +f {AL ASS i 117 Seeds ing Oil-bear : Philippine a Brill and Agcaoil X, A, 2 *sABp UL OULLT, “TITX PAB, 2eS seatnd oy} JO uojditosep IOq °Z “OLY Tallies Le + a =i! | | See ea eal os —— zs _ Eee =a L A Seer We Se =o ts ee sae b----@ k > 1 a alt aA | ah } nines a f —— is == | it Z/ o/ 4 &/ e/ O/ 6 9 Z 9 S O/ d/ o/ Ne 8/ Oe 22 “qUDIOM UL USS 9SvIUIILE The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE XII.—Description of oils of fig. 1. < | Maxi- Day | ay mum g| oi, Condition, | when, | | mas | aren | Condition of fis | | pest Baa meme | | | | Per ct. 1 | Lumbang bato _...| Bottled 2 years; 4-5 8. 76 9 | 6 | Clear, firm. heated for 3 hours at 100°C. before | use, | | 2) Lumbang _ banv- |----- Ci pee ae eee 6-7/| 8.59 11 | 5 Do. calag. } ec Ae ee mee i: Bottled 2 years -___. | 6-7) 9.18 | 9 5| Do. otee ee Freshly expressed... 16-19 | 13.98 | 19 13 | Clear, slight | | tackiness. 5 Linseed, “‘boiled’'.. Commercial sample. 1-4; 138.96 | 12 | 4 | Clear, firm. 6 Lumbang bato_.... Freshly expressed... 9-12 | 16. 09 | 12 8 Do. 6 le do: ee. eee Bottled 2 years _____ | 6 9); 15.91 9 | 7 Do. 8 |__...do Bottled 2 years;| 7-9/ 10.50! 13| 6| Do. heated for lomin- | | utes at 270° C, | } before use. | | 9} Lumbang banu- -----do -----.-------- 8-10 | 12.90. 10 | 5 Slight cloudi- calag. | ) | | ness, firm. TABLE XIII.—Description of oils of fig. 2. | | Maxi- | Da : ‘ | = | when | mum when | Condition of film at > Oil. | Condition. pony crease mum is end of 20 days. 5 | ee: in | reach-— 5 | | | weight. ed. | | : | Pet. TAG oS Se A ee | Freshly extracted; heated | 10 | 17.22 17 Slightly thick- for3 hours at 100° C. be- © | ened, not dry. fore use. | 2) (SN YS oe soa Freshly extracted ________ 13 | 23.42 13 | Do. Bees do.sc scl ate Freshly extracted; heated 13 | 16.52! 16 Slightly thicker for3 hours at 100° C. be- i | than 2. fore use. | | / 4 Palo maria de la | Bottled 2 years_._________ ' -14«18.66| =16| No appreciable playa. | | change. 5 Palo maria del |----- 0 a= ee eee 11) 12.46 | 18 Do. monte. | | | | 6 Palo maria de la Bottled 2 years; heated for ll 7. 86 | 20 | Do. playa. 3 hours at 100° C. before ' use. | } | 7! Palo maria del |----- ( (ae oe Sree mere 1 2) 249001, is Do. monte. } } : 8 | Calumpang_______- Freshly extracted ___. -__- } 16 10.91 19 | Slightly thick- | | ened. *QiltKanoky- oe - Bottled 2 years; heated for | 8| 8.46 | 20| Considerably 83 hours at 100° C. before | | thickened. use, | | 10'|\\ Gato. <<. <- seen Freshly extracted; heated 7 9.18 12 Do. | at 270° C. for 15 minutes | before use. | | ———————— x, 4,2 Brill and Agcaoiw: Philippine Oil-bearing Seeds 119 Redman, Weight, and Block '' have determined the drying rates of linseed, china wood, fish, and soya bean oils. Raw linseed oil reached a maximum increase in weight of 11.7 per cent at the end of the sixth day; china wood oil shows an in- crease of 10.5 per cent between the eighth and ninth days; the fish oils show an increase of 13 per cent between the third and fourth days; while soya bean oils show an increase of 7.7 per cent between the sixth and seventh. (Compare with the results as recorded in Table XII). Lippert * gives the increase for raw linseed oil as 12.4 per cent on drying. Meister ™ says that china wood oil is slower in absorbing oxygen than linseed oil, and although the film forms in from one to two days it does not become firm until the fifth or sixth. The lumbang oils compare very favorably with china wood oil and linseed oil in rate of drying, quality of film, and the per cent change in weight when drying. The results of these investigators are especially in- teresting in comparison with the results obtained by us as set forth in Tables XII and XIII. SUMMARY The percentage yields, chemical constants, physiological prop- erties, and commercial possibilities of cato, calumpang, and pili nut oils have been given and discussed. An investigation of the drying qualities of the oils from the nuts of calumpang, cato, lumbang bato, lumbang banucalag, kapok, pili, palo maria de la playa, and palo maria del monte is recorded, demonstrating that lumbang bato and lumbang banu- calag are drying oils of high quality, comparing favorably with linseed and china wood oils, and that the others have no appre- ciable drying qualities. “ Journ. Ind. & Eng. Chem. (1918), 5, 630. % Journ. Franklin Inst. (1899), 156. * Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1911), 30, 95. eyorar yee. Prag tTia pt ! : Pe j 9 7 ‘ ' ji a \ Litt? wie ant, yw gat ‘ ¢ ) te¥ | ii , ‘ te é 1 i7 i ie af (aud 14h4 bes ag tir oe ’ , ‘ as elyi ie ‘ P ' adh nt | yi iT ‘uy, af =. in hie oy tly deod ove 1; iti, wiv Cet ‘4 7 _ 4 : B ' y ‘4 1 1 aL yay? t ee ’ pity ptt nl ree , is a] ; v) i 4 + | a ! ay “4 [07 we i ies be | 7. y IMR), bal RP , ran ante aha a Per ihe Ms ? r ‘a7 i ~ th honw eanifig GF s73iai " ea: La Ps | » ‘ » SA, - ay i © icy a) 7 ‘ Fig. 1. Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve 2. Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve Curve 2. 3. Ue 8. 9. ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES . Lumbang bato oil, bottled two years, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. . Lumbang banucalag oil, bottled two years, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. . Lumbang banucalag oil, bottled two years. . Lumbang banucalag oil, freshly expressed. . Linseed oil, “boiled,” commercial sample. . Lumbang bato oil, freshly expressed. . Lumbang bato oil, bottled two years. . Lumbang bato oil, bottled two years, heated for fifteen minutes at 270° C. before use. . Lumbang banucalag oil, bottled two years, heated for fifteen minutes at 270° C. before use. . Pili oil, freshly extracted, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. Cato oil, freshly extracted. Cato oil, freshly extracted, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. . Palo maria de la playa oil, bottled two years. . Palo maria del monte oil, bottled two years. . Palo maria de la playa oil, bottled two years, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. Palo maria del monte oil, bottled two years, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. Calumpang oil, freshly extracted. Kapok oil, bottled two years, heated for three hours at 100° C. before use. 10. Cato oil, freshly extracted, heated at 270° C. for fifteen minutes before use. 121 THE ENZYMES OF CACAO! By Harvey C. BRILL (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. TI.) The necessity for fermenting or sweating cacao is now gen- erally acknowledged. The principal changes brought about by this process are: (1) The removal of the greater portion of the sugary pulp or parenchymatous tissue surrounding the beans, (2) the dissociation of the bean from its testa or seed coat, (3) the promotion of chemical changes within the seeds, (4) the conversion of the bitter astringent taste into a palatable sweet one, and (5) an improvement in color, break, and flavor. Investigators are not agreed as to the cause of these changes and attribute them to the action of various agencies. Hart?” contends that the process of— fermentation or sweating in cacao consists in an alcoholic fermentation of the sugars in the pulp of the fruit accompanied by a loss of some of the albuminoid and indeterminate nitrogenous constituents of the beans. * * * Some parts of the carbohydrates other than sugars undergo hydrolysis and either escape in the runnings from the boxes in the form of glucose, or undergo in turn the alcoholic and acetic fermentations. During this change some of the astringent matters to which the somewhat acrid taste of the raw beans is due are also hydrolised, and thus a marked improvement in flavour is gained. Harrison * holds the same view. A. Schulte im Hofe,* in an investigation carried out at Vic- toria in Cameroon, came to the conclusion that the changes brought about in the cacao bean during fermentation were the result of an oxidation process and were precisely similar to those taking place during the conversion of green tea into black tea. He made no attempt to determine if the oxidation was due to the action of enzymes or arose from other causes. * Received for publication February 26, 1915. *Cacao. Trinidad, 2d ed. (1900), 106-107. * Proc. Agr. Soc. Trinidad (1896-97), 2, 250. * Die Kultur und Fabrication von Tee in Britisch Indien und Ceylon mit Riicksicht auf den wirtschaftlichen Wert der Teekultur fiir die deutschen Kolonien. Tropenpflanzer (1901), 5 (2), 37. 123 124 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 That the fermentation is the result of biological action is the conclusion of J. Sack. Preyer" has isolated a yeast, Saccharomyces theobrome, from fermenting cacao and has recommended the use of the pure cul- ture of this for the initiation of the fermentation. Besides the above he observed S. cerevisix, S. ellipsoidies, and S. membranae- faciens in fermenting cacao. Others have noted the presence of Penicillium and S. apiculatus. However, not much success has been attained with the use of pure cultures of yeasts, and not much development can be looked for along this line, since the use of a pure strain of yeast would necessitate the sterilization of the culture medium, the cacao. Sterilization would destroy the enzymes present. Behrens? has pointed out that the changes desired from fermentation do not occur when the enzymes are destroyed. That the color change in the bean from white or violet to brown is only indirectly produced by fermentation is maintained by Loew.’ He insists that the brown coloration is due to the ac- tion of the oxidases or oxidizing enzymes, since this same brown coloration is produced when the beans are crushed and exposed to the air. These oxidases are stored up in the protoplasm of the bean of the cell and are liberated when the cells are killed, without injury to the enzyme. The enzyme then becomes active. It is a very generally accepted belief that enzymes are an im- portant factor in the changes tobacco undergoes during the curing process. With this in mind Oosthuizen and Shedd * have inves- tigated the enzymes of the tobacco plant. Many plants and plant products*® are being investigated to discover the enzymes present and thus throw some light on the changes they undergo when ripening and germinating and their influence on the system when used for foods. On account of the great interest manifested in enzymology and in the hope that some light may be thrown on the cause of the changes taking place in the fermentation of cacao and on the real nature of the changes themselves, this investigation has been undertaken. °H. H. Smith, The Fermentation of Cacao. John Bale Sons and Danielsson, London (1913), 138-141. * Tropenpflanzer (1901), 5, 151, * Lafar, Handbuch der technischen Mykologie, 1, 655. * Porto Rico Exp. Sta. Rep. (1997). * Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1913), 35, 1289. Chelpin, General Chemistry of the Enzymes. Trans by Pope. John Wiley & Sons (1912). KOA 2 Brill: Enzymes of Cacao 125 EXPERIMENTAL A 10 per cent aqueous solution of the pulp and seed of cacao was made by grinding them in a mortar with clean sand under water, allowing them to stand two hours, and afterwards filtering through cheese cloth. The seed was freed from the pulp and surrounding slime by very careful washing in running water and later removal of the inclosing membrane. Three series of experiments were run: namely, with the surrounding pulp, the fresh clean seed, and the clean fermented seed. The last was prepared by placing the seed in the incubator and allowing the process of fermentation to proceed for four days. It was then removed, very carefully separated from the outer slime and surrounding membrane, and treated as the other two. In all cases toluene was used as the antiseptic. Tests were then carried out with these solutions for the de- tection of enzymes. TABLE I.—Tests for lipase. SERIES 1. eo Ce. N/10 NaOH. | PoIce-nwatere Occ pulplextract,148 hours tise Ome ee ee eee ee ee eS H 0. 40 15 ec. water, 10 cc. pulp extract, 1 cc. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C _______________________- 0.45 | 15 ce. water, 10 ce. pulp extract heated, 1 ce. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C_________________ 0. 42 POICCAWALEL CCMOLY ClO 48 NOULS A bio cy © meee ee ee ee ee ee 0.45 SERIES 2. | IGjces water, 10\cesseediextract. 48hours(atias> Os 2- oe ee 0. 40 | | 15 ce. water, 10 cc. seed extract, 1 cc. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C __________.__--_---_---- ; 0.40 15 cc. water, 10 ce. seed extract heated, 1 cc. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C ______-___-___-- | 0.45 | SERIES 3. | 10 ce. water, 10 cc. fermented seed extract, 48 hours at 88° C____________-_______________ 0. 72 | | 15 cc. water, 10 cc. fermented seed extract, 1 ce. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C_____________ 0.72 | 15 ce. water, 10 cc. fermented seed extract heated, 1 cc. olive oil, 48 hours at 38° C_____ ‘0.78 | No lipase was present that reacted on olive oil, as the control required the same amount of N/10 NaOH for neutralization as the active sample. Duplicates of the above were carried out substituting ethyl butyrate for olive oil with the like negative results. 126 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE II.—Tests for emulsin. SERIES 1, Test for— ) Seatac cyanic acid. Benzal- | dehyde. | | | | Glucose. | | 10 cc. water, 10 cc. pulp extract, 48 hours at 38° C ___. a --| = | | 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. pulp extract, 48 hours at 38° Cc. 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. pulp extract heated, 48° C____ ' | - } - 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. pulp water, 48 hours at 38° C__ 4 _ ; _ SERIES 2. ; | 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. seed extract, 48 hours at 38° C____ — _— 10 ec. water, 10 cc. seed extract, 48 hours at 38° C_____.-__-_.-____. _ _ / _ 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. seed extract heated, 48 hours | } SERIES 3. a : ies _ | 10 cc. water, 10 ce. fermented seed extract, 70 hours at 38° C S — - ‘= | 10 ce. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. fermented seed extract, 70 hours 10 cc. amygdalin solution, 10 cc. fermented pahati extract heated, 70 Hours ab 68oC-- eee eee eee eens ao. REA Be yo SY — — ee Ba ee ———-=- = ae a+ means slight test, + + means fair test, + -+ + means good test, + + + + means strong test, wherever used in this paper. The amygdalin solution was a 10 per cent solution in water. The results of the tests for emulsin with amygdalin were in all cases negative. .% ec deetnnyateh” | ber Fapapmed A a . F . +a on a . ‘ a Tie 2 me eS WATER SUPPLIES IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: II? By GEORGE W. HEISE (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) CONTENTS PRESENT STATUS OF THE WORK ON FIELD WORK—Continued. PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES. Springs. LABORATORY WORK DURING 1914. Water supplies of Mindoro. FIELD WORK. Water supplies of Cebu. Deep wells. Water supplies of Panay. Surface wells. WATER SUPPLIES OF MANILA. Rivers and flowing streams. PRESENT STATUS OF THE WORK ON PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES In spite of great progress made since the American occupation in the matter of providing the people of the Philippines with pure drinking water, the present state of affairs is still far from satisfactory. Whole provinces continue to be dependent on surface waters of doubtful purity, and even in many localities where safe water is obtainable, a large number of people, through ignorance or indifference, utilize more conveniently located and less wholesome sources. In addition, there are certain areas in which both surface and ground waters are not potable, where the people are forced to depend almost entirely on rain water for drinking purposes. As the rain water is often carelessly collected and improperly stored, it is hardly to be considered a safe water supply. However, a marked movement at the present time for better conditions is evident both in the development of new sources of good water and in the gradual elimination of dangerous water supplies. The Insular Government has greatly stimulated the drilling of deep wells by continuing to assume the entire cost of unsuccessful public wells and two thirds of the cost of all successful installations, and has made large sums of money available for water-supply projects. Such progress has been made that it is estimated * that deep-well water is now available to over one sixth of the entire population of the Islands. * Received for publication April 15, 1915. * Vickers, Quar. Bull. P. I. Bur. Pub. Works (1914), 2, 28. 135 136 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 During the year 1914 the Bureau of Public Works alone drilled 120 deep wells, 103 of which were successful, while prov- inces and private individuals drilled perhaps an equal number. The total number of deep wells in the Islands is over 1,000. The progress of the movement for better water supply may be judged from the fact that over 50 water-distribution systems are already in operation, and that many municipalities, some of them very small, are planning to install systems in the near future. Two recently completed installations—at Boac, Marin- duque, and Sariaya, Tayabas—are typical of what can be done in small towns. The former supplies from 3,000 to 4,000 people and derives its water from two deep-pumping wells; the latter supplies about 4,000 people and takes its water from a large spring on Mount Banahao, 6 kilometers from the town. The largest single project being developed at present is that of Iloilo, to which reference has already been made,* where an installation capable of supplying 55,000 people is being planned. LABORATORY WORK The Bureau of Science passes judgment on all newly de- veloped public water supplies before they are made available to the public, and as there is no water laboratory outside of Manila, this central laboratory has been receiving a steady influx of water samples from all parts of the Islands. During the year 1914 about 200 chemical analyses and 2,100 biological examina- tions were made. As many of these samples are not properly taken, are ac- companied by insufficient data concerning the sources from which they come to justify conclusions concerning their pota- bility, and are very old when they reach the laboratory, owing to the poor transportation facilities in some parts of the Islands, their sanitary analysis is of doubtful value. Under such con- ditions the judgment of water, not an easy task at best, often becomes impossible, especially as the insufficiency of the work done on Philippine waters and the diversity in quality of waters to be found even in restricted areas have made it impossible to establish fixed standards. It is being generally recognized * that single “sanitary analy- ses” of waters are often of little value, especially when the analyst does not take the sample. The failure of the “conven- tional grind of nitrogen determinations” is amply demonstrated * This Journal, Sec. A (1915), 10, 65. ‘Cf. Barnard, Hng. Rec. (1913), 68, 297. Keay 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 13376 by the analytical records of the Bureau of Science, where waters known to be uncontaminated range as high as 20 or more parts per million in free ammonia content. Therefore it seems desir- able to eliminate nitrogen determinations in most cases and to limit our efforts to the determination of normal mineral con- stituents, supplemented by biological examinations whenever feasible, until such time as our increased knowledge of Philippine waters and of tropical conditions shall justify other methods. The analytical data obtained in the Bureau of Science labora- tory during 1914 are contained in Tables III to V at the end of this paper. All results are given in terms of parts per million unless otherwise stated. FIELD WORK It soon became evident that a field survey offered the best solution of the problem of obtaining the most information con- cerning Philippine water supplies with the least possible expend- iture of time and money. Accordingly a simple chemical field outfit, based on that described by Leighton,’ was constructed. Field methods leave something to be desired, so far as accuracy is concerned, but it is thought that they have been more than justified by the volume of reasonably accurate work done in a comparatively short time, and by the intimate knowledge of local conditions made possible by the field trips. In addition to the chemical equipment, the field outfit included a small portable bacteriological kit, consisting of Petri dishes, a case of sterile pipettes, and tubes of litmus lactose agar and lactose bile agar. A plate culture on litmus lactose agar gave an approximate bacteria count and showed the presence or absence of acid-forming bacteria; a tube culture in lactose bile agar indicated the presence or absence of lactose-fermenting - organisms. The uniformly high temperature encountered in most parts of the Islands enables fairly concordant results to be obtained without the use of an incubator. Pipettes were separately wrapped with gauze and carried in a tinned cylinder ; hence it was easy to sterilize them even in the field. The Petri dishes were simply wrapped in paper, in packages of six, before being sterilized; they remained uncontaminated for weeks. Bacteria counts were generally made at the end of both twenty-four- and forty-eight-hour intervals. The field investigations were, in the main, confined to three islands: namely, Mindoro, Cebu, and Panay. The analytical °U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1905), 151. 138 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 data are tabulated at the end of this paper: Table VI dealing with deep wells, Table VII with springs, and Table VIII with surface and miscellaneous supplies. DEEP WELLS The following extract from an article by Vickers* gives a good summary of the Philippine deep-well situation: The cost of a sufficient number of machines of the deep-well type was in excess of the funds available at that time [1906] and the Insular Government met this demand for new equipment by designing and con- structing several small hand-power outfits, known as “jet rigs.” It was soon demonstrated that these outfits, owing to their simple design, could be operated to advantage by native workmen in localities where it was not necessary to drill to depths greater than 200 to 300 feet, and where no rock or difficult strata had to be penetrated; * * *. The demand for this class of equipment increased until 1911, when 45 jet rigs had been constructed and equipped for operation and practically every province, wherein they could be successfully operated, had been supplied with from one to five outfits. It was found, however, that in many localities the deep-well or steam-power rigs were necessary for successful operation, and the demand for wells in these localities was so insistent and increased to such an extent that additional equipment of this class was added from time to time, until 25 deep-well machines had been purchased. Funds for the operation of both jet and deep-well rigs were provided entirely by Insular appropriations until 1910; at this time a codperative policy was adopted whereby one-third of the cost of drilling was borne by the proy- inces or municipalities for which the work was done and two-thirds by the Insular Government. The deep-well rigs were operated by the Bureau of Public Works as before, while many of the jet rigs remained under the supervision of provincial officials. This policy proved to be satisfactory and is still being followed. A large number of the wells drilled in the Islands have a natural flow, some of them supplying enormous quantities of water, notably, the famous gusher at Bayambang, Pangasinan, which supplies 1,000,000 gallons daily. The water from the latter is distributed through two main supply pipe lines, one leading to the military post at Camp Gregg, and the other to the town of Bayambang. In many of the provinces it is necessary to drill wells ranging from 600 to 800 feet in depth in order to obtain good water. In the town of Wright, Samar, good water was not encountered until a depth of 1,025 feet was reached, when flowing water of excellent quality was tapped. This well is the deepest in the Islands which supplies good water. A number of wells have been drilled to greater depths, however, but in every case except the one mentioned above salt water was encountered below 1,000 feet. The deepest well ever drilled in the Islands was located on the trade school grounds at Iloilo, and was sunk to a depth of 2,285 feet without encountering fresh water. An interest- ing feature in connection with some of the wells is the effect the ocean tide has upon the fresh-water flow, one remarkable instance being the *Quar. Bull. P. I. Bur. Pub. Works (1914), 2, 26. Re AN 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 139 well at Bauan, Batangas, drilled to a depth of 298 feet, which flows 250 gallons per minute 18 inches above the ground surface at high tide, and 50 gallons per minute at low tide at the same elevation; in other words, the flow at high tide indicates an increase of 400 per cent over the flow at low tide, notwithstanding the fact that analyses of water samples collected at both high and low tide give identical results and show the water to be potable and free from salt-water contamination. In many borings, especially near the coast, brackish water is encountered during the first 30 to 70 meters, even though fresh water may be found at low levels. In some rather excep- tional cases, in which salt water was encountered at great depths, continued drilling developed a supply of fresh water. At Wright, Samar, salt water was found at 180 to 215 meters; this was cased off, and drilling was continued. At 312 meters fresh water was found under sufficient pressure to cause a flow, which, although slight even at ground level, did not cease entirely at 12 meters above the earth’s surface. The deep-well waters are so lacking in uniformity that gen- eralizations regarding them are difficult, if not impossible, at the present time. Very frequently wells drilled within a few meters of each other may encounter entirely different strata, and the water from them may be markedly different. Two wells drilled on the Bureau of Science grounds within 75 meters of each other are very different, both in regard to the water- bearing strata from which their supplies are derived, and the quality and quantity of water encountered. Well 1 runs 725 parts per million total solids and 70 parts chlorine; well 2 runs 500 parts total solids and 12 parts chlorine. Three wells in Iloilo (at the Iloilo Electric Company’s works), located within about 15 meters of each other and drilled to about the same depth, show similar irregularities, two being approximately similar but differing from the third. The minimum temperature of deep wells drilled in the low- lands is about 28° C., but the temperature range is great. The deep-well waters range in total solids content from about 120 (well 129, Nueva Caceres, Ambos Camarines) to 8,200 parts per million (Janiuay, Iloilo), and in chlorine content from 1.5 (San Jacinto and Binalonan, Pangasinan) to 4,471 (Janiuay, Tloilo). The highest free ammonia content recorded is that of a well at Los Banos, Laguna, 70 meters deep, which showed 32.7 parts per million. The reason for this abnormal content is not apparent. 140 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 In general, the deep wells show a high degree of bacteriolog- ical purity. The flowing wells, so far as known, are all sterile or very nearly so, and deep-pumping wells seldom show any marked degree of bacterial pollution except where the equipment is defective or carelessly handled. SURFACE WELLS Ordinary surface wells still furnish a large share of the water utilized in the Philippines and constitute a great menace to public health and an obstacle to sanitation. Numerous causes contribute to make these wells dangerous in the extreme, among which may be mentioned the fact that most of them are un- covered and many are uncurbed; the general method of drawing water from them is with a rope and bucket; they are located in crowded barrios; clothes are washed at the well side, and there is a general neglect of sanitary precautions. The status of the surface well is clearly demonstrated by the results of biological examinations made in the field, as illus- trated by Table I. TABLE I.—Bacteriological field examinations of surface wells, 1914. Bacteria. No. Province and town. Approx-_| | imate Acid Gas number | formers. formers. per cc ; | | | BY} Geli, Balanitent noe ee ee Sees eee eee iE foe Inet + | 1% Genny Geba SS. eel aha ee Fa ae 2,000) - + | Dhik: Adame» cow RE ae tC Ai he ee pf naw 4,000, 4 + Ay (fae meee MIPS pe Se ae ee ee eat gee ell yd a 4,000} + + 27 |---- do, see a) SP 5 ee. aE, See 725 4 -$- ny eee do 1, 300 | + cy eae don Se S353) ede 16 eA a Seg ek eee 5, 000 (b) + AO ee On ee oe ee ee ee 60 _ = Aa}: see do 226. te Sew ere te Seis 2, 000 + + Mo | dot ot eee eee, ae BATES | © | @© | + $89 \|"Noilo, Vallone ee é, Re + MEE DA 1,500 | ““().4) |e Easel ido nhc Ae Bee il) eee eee eerie eee 37000) (()" ae |: 18% loft, loner Mara) 0s) Wukela ee! 2 oe | 2,000 | — fob aie oy aoe OO ie4 acct Sec ctece eee Se ee ee ES ee 1, 500 Ahi | foe ee 6 Wifndore,/P oli 2c. ee a (a) + | ie) Ree Cs (1 ens Ae ae 2 Sea ye ewe SF te A oe othe (a) 4 | = —— ee, = Renees Ss ® Excessive. » Few. The data in Table I were obtained from wells examined in the course of the field trips. Fifteen of the sixteen sources listed gave unmistakable evidence of pollution on a single ex- amination, while the sixteenth was so located that contamination *, A, 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 141 at some time seemed a foregone conclusion. Admitting that the data on which to base conclusions are limited in quantity, the facts that the results obtained by single examinations were so uniform, and that the examinations were made during the dry season when éontamination was least likely to occur, show how unsafe surface wells in the Philippines are. It would prob- ably be conservative to say that the water from over 80 per cent of the wells is unfit to drink, and that very few of the wells are safe throughout the year. Chemically their waters show no marked peculiarities, and they have not been studied sufficiently to justify generalizations. Their quality doubtless varies greatly during different seasons. The surface wells listed, with the exception of a few located so near the ocean that they were obviously contaminated by sea water, range in total solids content from 164 to 1,230 parts per million, and in chlorine content from 5.5 to 486 (average, about 150), while the highest free ammonia content noted is 0.64. RIVERS AND FLOWING STREAMS No systematic study of water courses has yet been attempted. Doubtless as manufacturing industries develop, the question of the quality of the water of streams will increase in importance, but at present comparatively little river water is used. A comparatively small amount is being used for boiler purposes, but aside from this, practically the only water whose quality becomes a matter of consideration is that of the rivers which serve as sources of municipal water supply, as at Manila and Cebu. The stream waters analyzed, with the exception of tidal rivers and water courses known to be contaminated, ranged from 45 to about 550 parts per million in total solids and from 2 to 150 in chlorine, and showed a maximum free ammonia content of 0.125 part per million. SPRINGS The contribution to the study of spring waters during the past year has been meager. There is a marked tendency to utilize spring waters more than formerly, notably in small towns so situated that such waters can readily be conveyed to them. In Cebu Province, where springs are numerous, there are at least sixteen towns which developed projects involving the util- ization of springs for municipal supply. As the country develops, many springs will doubtless become 142 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 popular as health resorts. At present only a few springs are much visited. The Insular Government has erected a bath at Sibul Springs, and this place, as well as Los Bafios and Pagsan- jan, has many patrons. The Los Banos water is carbonated, bottled, and sold. Some of the springs are so saline that the recovery of salt from them is an easy and profitable undertaking. A number of springs in Nueva Vizcaya are now so utilized. The waters vary widely in quality. The total solids content ranges from 24 to 6,025, and chlorine from 0.7 to 3,120, while the maximum free ammonia content is 6.2. WATER SUPPLIES OF MINDORO Mindoro, one of the largest of the islands of the Archipelago, is very sparsely populated. It has between 60,000 and 70,000 inhabitants, who live near the coast. The interior has been little explored and is uninhabited except for from 6,000 to 7,000 uncivilized Mangyans. The surface waters in many districts, in addition to being unsafe, are so brackish that they are unpleasant to the taste, and a great deal of trouble has been experienced in providing the people of Mindoro with water. However, in recent years the water supply has been greatly improved by the installation of jet-rig wells by the provincial authorities. A brief field trip was made to Mindoro for the purpose of investigating the proposed municipal water supply of Calapan, the provincial capital, but the scope of the investigation was later enlarged to include several other towns. Calapan.—Calapan, a town of 9,000 inhabitants, is extremely unfortunate in regard to water supply. The surface wells are brackish, the river is affected by the tides, and good springs are lacking. All attempts to secure a supply of potable water by sinking deep wells have been without success. Limited amounts of brackish water are found at slight depths in drilling opera- tions. Black sand containing sea shells is found underlying the soft coralline formation near the surface, until, at a depth of about 30 meters, a hard rock stratum about 30 centimeters thick is encountered. Penetrating this rock the drill suddenly sinks, and very hot, salty water rises in the drill hole to about ground level. The water from the well at the public market at Calapan showed a temperature of 40° C. Although clear and colorless at first, it became yellow and turbid on standing for a short time, due to the escape of carbon dioxide and the resulting precipitation of calcium and iron salts. X, A, 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 143 A large spring about 4 kilometers from Calapan, having an estimated flow of 55 liters per minute throughout the dry season, has been proposed as a source for the town supply. Although the water is potable, the spring is so located that there might be difficulty in guarding it from future contamination, and its elevation is so slight that a pump would probably have to be installed to make the water available for municipal supply. There were formerly a number of sulphur springs at Calapan which were used as baths. At the time of examination the place pointed out as the site of the springs was a small swamp, which contained a few small springs of clear saline water having no odor of hydrogen sulphide. The temperature of the water was 50° C. Naujan.—Naujan, which has a population of 7,000, has been supplied with water through the efforts of the provincial author- ities. Four flowing wells have been drilled, which give abundant quantities of excellent water; two of these wells are cased with 3-inch pipe and two with 2-inch pipe. Unfortunately some local prejudice seems to persist against their use, and the populace as a whole still depends in a large measure on surface supplies and on rain water; the latter, owing to improper methods of col- lection and the custom of storing it in large uncovered earthen- ware jars, is of questionable purity. The artesian waters, it is claimed, have the odor of hydrogen sulphide at some seasons of the year, which may account for their lack of popularity. ~ Pola.—Pola is a town of less than 3,000 inhabitants, depending for its water supply on open dug wells or shallow bored or “ounched” wells. The supply is very unsatisfactory, as it is somewhat brackish and for the most part subject to contamina- tion at all times. All the wells examined biologically gave evidence of sewage pollution. Tiguihan River, a mountain stream located a short distance from the town, promises to be a satisfactory source of water. It drains an apparently unin- habited area, has a volume large enough to insure an adequate supply, and appears to have sufficient elevation to enable the installation of a direct-gravity system. The water has an excel- lent local reputation and seems to be entirely suitable for domes- tic purposes. Pinamalayan.—Pinamalayan has a population of over 6,000, and is greatly in need of a municipal water supply, as the surface wells are all brackish and unsafe. The attempt to secure deep wells has been unsuccessful, as only salt water was encountered in any quantity, although drilling was continued to a depth of 144 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 about 75 meters, the approximate limit of the well-drilling outfit used. The geologic formation is estuarine and littoral, consist- ing of clay, sand, and shells with intercalated layers of sandy coral. Logs with the bark still adhering were encountered at a depth of 65 meters. There is a small stream about 2.5 kilometers from the town which might be utilized for municipal supply if properly guarded from contamination; at any rate, the chemical character of the water and the location of the stream present no obstacles to the development of the project. A short distance from the old town of Pinamalayan, and far- ther inland, a new town site is being developed. Four wells were recently drilled here. A good fiow of water was obtained at a depth of about 50 meters. The water is of good quality and should prove suitable for most purposes. WATER SUPPLIES OF CEBU Good progress has been made in supplying Cebu Province with potable water. The city of Cebu has recently completed a res- ervoir and water-distribution system which is one of the finest municipal waterworks in the Philippines. Excellent springs are abundant and are much used in spite of the fact that many of these are so located that they are not available to very many people. At the present time nearly twenty towns have well- developed projects for utilizing springs, as shown by Table II, the data in which were supplied (November, 1914) by the pro- vincial district engineer’s office. The money necessary for some of these projects has already been appropriated. TABLE II.—Data for proposed water supplies, Cebu Province, 1914. : Popula- | / Pp ‘ . er Elevation Municipality. Name of spring. ee lor per) capita Pipeline. above / plied ““- | supply. | town. | Liters. | Liters. | Meters. | Meters. { 7, ie oe eee | Kabagohan___-_.---_. 5, 000 | 75 25} 3,600, 110.00 | Li a | Mantayapan______- : 5,000 1, 900 75 | 4,450 131. 68 Garcare2.-..--.-.» |'Guadalupe -_..-.--. | 5,000 100 30 | 3,100} 18.00 | Catmon:, fis ees a fome eee 1,500 9 | 90 1,700! 42.00 Ginatilan ...---------- |----nanne 2 oeeneeeennn eee 2, 000 40 | 55 (2,820 / 201.40 | Malabuyoc.._.--.------ EN Sf SRS a 1,300 | 275 55 | 1,340 | 9. 42 Modlbual.! close eee] ROU 75| 4,040} 82.61 fNamace 28S. [Magan se 2st 2 | 1,981 | 55 | 65 1,430 | 77.00 Mens BE Se rere eee ee REESE ners ae | 1,000 | 35 | 105| 2,814; 58.25 | WuRONO eae nian CANA WAY 2 Bore | 1,000 ! resorts | 1,820} 188,49 | Samboan .....-.------ | Din-ako =<. | 2,000 7 Ted een ic | 4,226 30.09 Sibontahses-3- te Baling; St: p02 ok | 5,000 | 195 | 40| 4,703 | 105.00 | A Dodelas ee ee _| Guinawitan _____-____- | 1,000 Cie oo ae | 1,640 | 95.18 X, A, 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 145 At least one additional town, Asturias, has since started a similar town project. Attention has already been directed ‘ to a special study of typ- ical springs made by Mr. V. Q. Gana in 1908. A rather peculiar spring is situated in the city of Cebu on the beach near the old leper house. The water from this spring— or, more properly, series of springs—is fresh as it issues from the sands of the seashore, although the springs are entirely covered at high tide. Abella mentions* a spring situated on the beach at Oslob, which is submerged at high tide, so that people are obliged to wade out into the ocean to collect the water. At low tide the flow is greatly decreased. Approximately thirty successful deep wells have been drilled in Cebu Province by the Bureau of Public Works alone; however, about one half of these are located in the city of Cebu. Strangely enough, although the Province of Cebu is mountainous, only one flowing well (at Argao) has been developed, and this flows only at high tide. The installation of deep wells has done much toward improving local health conditions. Although unsafe surface waters still constitute a large per- centage of the available water supply, an active campaign against surface wells inaugurated by the district health officer is rapidly lessening the evils which may be traced to the use of impure water. The field trip in Cebu included one journey south from Cebu to Argao and another from Cebu west to Toledo and north from Toledo to Asturias. City of Cebu.—The main source of water supply for the city of Cebu is now the Osmena Waterworks, completed in 1912. This installation, in addition to the distributing system in the city and a concrete distribution tank, comprises a reénforced- concrete dam and spillway located in a narrow gorge at Buhisan, about 6 kilometers from the town. Between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 cubic meters of water are impounded by the dam, rep- resenting a supply, based on the water-consumption data for Manila, of at least one hundred days for the city of Cebu (popu- lation, 60,000). The water is clear to begin with at almost all times of the year, and the great storage capacity of the reservoir, supplemented by that of the distribution tank (over 15,000 cubic meters—that is, almost two days’ supply), gives ample oppor- "This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 273. *Rapida Descripcion ... de la Isla de Cebu. Madrid (1886), 87. 146 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 tunity for sedimentation and purification. The elevation of the distribution tank is such that the water pressure in the Cebu city mains is about 7 atmospheres. The water is neither filtered nor chemically treated at present, and it does not appear likely that it will need treatment, at least for some time to come. As it now leaves the taps in the city, it is clear and colorless and very low in bacterial life. It is high in iron, which may lead to the growth of Crenothriz later on, but so far no trouble from that source has been experienced. The deep wells in the city of Cebu, about fifteen in number, are from 25 to 36 meters deep, at which depth abundant supplies of good water are encountered. In no case under observation did the wells of this type show signs of sewage contamination. The strata encountered in well-drilling are alluvium overlying coral, none of the successful wells, so far as known, having penetrated the latter. There is one artesian well on Cauit Island, near Cebu, which is 90 meters deep and flows only at high tide. Its salt content has almost doubled since 1906, when the well was installed. After the installation of the municipal water system, the health authorities started a vigorous campaign against surface wells, with the result that the majority have already been closed and the others will shortly be filled up and abandoned. Considerable local opposition to the action of the authorities was developed, as people naturally object to the destruction of wells, which rep- resent considerable investment, and whose purity they have never learned to question. Among some classes of people there was even a marked antipathy to the use of the city water. How- ever, that the campaign was necessary was clearly demonstrated by the district health officer, who traced the relationship between the spread of cholera and the use of well water, showing, among other things, that excessive rainfall, and consequent pollution of the surface wells, produced an increase in the number of cholera cases in times of epidemic. As public hydrants have been placed in those parts of the city where the people are too poor to pay for the water installations, and as no wells were ordered closed until the city water supply was made available, no real hardship has been imposed on any one. The marked improvement in local health conditions has more than justified the efforts of the health officials. Although there could be little question of the status of wells in general, it had been hard to get definite and conclusive evidence against suspicious sources, and people had resented having wells X, A, 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 147 closed for no better reason (to them) than an arbitrary order from the authorities. There was no laboratory available for water examination and no persons to do such work, so the arrival of our small portable outfit proved of assistance to the local health authorities. The character of the wells may be inferred from the fact that although the investigation was conducted during the dry season the wells, almost without exception, showed evidence of pollution on a single examination. The west coast of Cebu.—For the most part the inhabitants of the west coast of Cebu are still dependent for their drinking water on rain-water cisterns and on surface wells, many of them brackish. There are a number of excellent springs, but many of them are not conveniently located and have not yet been developed, and many are not cared for at all or are so poorly safeguarded that their water supply is not above suspicion. Doubtless many towns could install small municipal water sys- tems at moderate cost, deriving their supply from springs in the vicinity. The attempt to improve the water supply by means of deep wells has not met with unqualified success. At Barili and Moal- bual drilling was continued to 225 and 300 meters, respectively, but only salt water was encountered. At Toledo the experience has been more fortunate. Boring has been continued to 55 meters, and potable water, under sufficient pressure to rise within 3 meters of ground level, has been developed. However, one of the Toledo wells turned brackish within the last six months. The towns of Asturias and Balamban are dependent in a great measure on surface supplies and rain water, although there are excellent springs in the vicinity which could be developed for municipal supply. The east coast of Cebu.—tIn addition to Cebu itself, the towns visited in the course of the trip along the east coast of Cebu were Talisay, Minglanilla, Naga, Carcar, Sibonga, and Argao. All of these, except Carcar and Argao, are almost entirely dependent on rain water and surface supplies. In Minglanilla, it is true, there is a large spring, which, although unfortunately located with respect to surface drainage and showing a suspiciously high bacteria count, probably yields the best water available in that district. The Argao well furnishes good potable water from a depth of 150 meters, but unfortunately only comparatively few of the town people use it exclusively. There are two deep wells in Carcar, one owned by the railroad, the other by private individuals, both of which furnish water which is chemically satisfactory. 1839534 148 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 WATER SUPPLIES OF PANAY Jloilo.—The general features of the water supply situation of Iloilo have already been referred to,’ so that only some of the more significant details need be discussed here. The water sup- ply problem of Iloilo Province presents the characteristics and difficulties encountered in other parts of the Archipelago, with the added complication that, so far, no really good artesian supply has been developed. In the city of Iloilo the problem has always been exceedingly perplexing, because the surface wells are all brackish, and except for rain water all natural waters used for drinking purposes have to be carried for considerable distances. Many deep wells have been drilled, most of them in the city of Iloilo, with rather interesting results. Those in Iloilo, the majority of them flowing wells, are between 80 and 90 meters deep, no good water having been found at greater depths in this locality. The deepest well on Panay is at Janiuay. It is a flowing well 375 meters deep, which yields an intensely salty water. The deepest well whose water might be considered potable is about 165 meters deep, located at Santa Barbara. Chemically the artesian-well waters show marked peculiarities. They are all brown, charged with gas, and as already pointed out,'? have an abnormally high free ammonia content. All of them are brackish,’ the well at Santa Barbara showing the lowest chlorine content (240 parts per million). A marked peculiarity is the absence of sulphates. Most of the waters are very hard and high in mineral salts, so it is interesting to note that the Santa Barbara well, with a total solids content of over 1,000 parts per million, contains no calcium, and that the Mandurriao and Molo wells are very low in calcium content. With the present unsatisfactory character of the deep-well waters it seems probable that rivers and springs will have to be utilized to a much greater extent than they are now, and that greater care will have to be exercised in safeguarding available sources. Although rain water, often improperly collected and carelessly stored, is hardly a source above suspicion for domestic purposes, *This Journal, Sec. A (1915), 10, 65. “Ibid. (1914), 9, 339. “Jt is interesting to note that in Iloilo many people, among them Americans and Europeans, have accustomed themselves to drinking the deep-well water (total solids content, 2,000+; and chlorine content, 800-900) without experiencing any noticeable ill effects. yA, 2 Heise: Water Supplies in the Philippines 149 it has occasionally been made an excellent water supply, notably in the city of Iloilo, where a number of properly constructed cisterns are giving good results. At Capiz, where the surface supplies are uniformly bad and well drilling has resulted in failure, the construction of a cis- tern large enough to supply the residents of the city with drink- ing water is being contemplated. WATER SUPPLIES OF MANILA The problem of adequately supplying the city of Manila with water is still troublesome, and funds for making improvements are not available. It appears to be extremely difficult to impound sufficient water at Montalban to last throughout the year, due in a great measure at least to leakage, which the decomposed and water-worn character of the limestone formations at the site of the dam makes unavoidable. For the last two years it has been necessary to supplement the Montalban supply with water from Mariquina River, a proceeding which has proved a serious menace to public health. The total storage capacity is too small to allow of much sedimentation, and as no provision for filtration has been made, water which is still carrying vary- ing amounts of suspended matter finds its way into the city mains. Large quantities of foreign substances are thus allowed to accumulate in the pipes, and the attempts to purify the water with chloride of lime are seriously interfered with. During the period in which chlorination has taken place, the water, as examined at various points in the distributing system, has shown, with increasing distance from the chlorination station, first a marked decrease in bacterial count and frequently the absence of amcebze and colon-group bacteria in 2 cubic centimeters of samples of water, then a gradual rise in count, and the reappear- ance of the organisms mentioned. Day after day the bacteria count at the Bureau of Science tap has been in excess of that of the water at the reservoir, although, at intermediate points, the bacterial count has been exceedingly low. Frequent flushing out of the distributing system is undoubtedly of great benefit, but in itself is not enough to cause much improvement. In the absence of reservoirs large enough to ensure adequate sedi- mentation, a rapid sand filter, with proper equipment for pre- vious coagulation whenever the water is turbid, is an imperative present necessity. 1915 vence Journal of Se lippine i The Ph 150 0d *[RULION “piqam) Ap qais od ‘od | *;BULION “piqany, | “piqang 4294 "]BULIONT “UMOIg “WueUrpas 3431S *sBULIoNn j “SONSLIe}OBIBYD [RoIsSkU oF eae ~ wequiaoaq, = ggt. fn sesunjeg ‘sesunjeg pge | ‘SON | a ar | (ete 89d So ape See ee Ee at ee tale ee NO OR) UF OkOL CURG- RanlTEnES) EOcUnEn | ep a api Pe OR a ieee teers Opts ee aire C19 pb nag dees a po op" Ls9 09 — 89 d io waa? ae es SUGARS UNE Ts see ool mars Opgerets “LO an sae oro ec re fae OD ek 8h9 “pues ou0js \ 99% aoe 8d —»- -@W] PUY puE oUOJSoUTIT ~~~~~~~-|----- Oars ealGke liar ae Ee aBItA ‘ABQTY | S19 SoC art eee Wits. eo ee § ON SB aULEg |--~---~*]--=--- ABW es GOD |o eee a ape are ee (ee 109 tue) | Fe 2 | Kee pai Lo q | puw sjuewsuay opuBoJoA ~-----~-|-Aawnaqag Oc) thon bp le = eh cir a ooeqey, ‘ABqLyY | 109 a Bia 08d => «-BUSapuB ‘yng ‘feavay ~------- ~ 49qo990 | 08 ~(owanqED o14aeq) oreg ‘AeqrY | 089 See ae Ree ee a ee oe Seananneeieieeenamaened eaieeieaaee aati aeieaaeed cemeieeeeeeeeeemteeet eee toe eee [See cad bere eek ec meee a So eg eee a ig ae ean ale oop aeat ey se DUTBQ PUTT EET yr eee |"s4a7ayy| *s4ojapy | “s4azV7 *sayouy sua7ayy ‘aonyans pe ea eg tel : “1940 ‘ON t 4a “S/ Bio Blu t i . Al aited | en Ayuda | 5 sag Oe ee surely ides ghee pi cage = | 12M 3094319H [‘smoy= gq :sdund=q] ‘TIGL ‘syjam daep moat wazpm fo sashjpupy—|]] alavy, | *aTELT 61 | B006TT | ST /POSSTT LT | ISS6IT | OT | OZvGIT ot g6z6ll eT TIZ6tT | Br | | | TLI6IT ra | Te06TT | U1 QhOSTT OT ZUI6II | 6 Z0261L 8 PISSIT L | | “ gg9gIT | 9 | S898IT | 2 hfe _ T9@8IT | F | 6IV6IT 8 j SS16T rd | LOLSIT | 1 | | | | | ‘ON | “ON | Aroq | But -B10qu'] -OBAY, 151 ippines iL v the Ph Water Supplies in Heise XK, A, 2 SRE ORT | Cpqi PS | Lee d-Fead |) 05, ae DOT DUES AGO) | ceceean | paaaas cunt yy at | AVY “UBABVUIG “OU1ABD | 9F9 | ST8BIT 36 leer | SLES | pues pue yng, | ---[oo >= ACW | Cele eae ae WAY UAC) TE9 | 9B98IT lperanes \Sueeerncn 20S’ 09). | Sreeeirnaain oD sie aes ~ YoreW | «GIT «0 FMB ‘Joqesy equeg ‘oy1AeG | 119 |: S9ESTT ‘yuoul | | | | | Epes 7YSYys ‘[euION | 192 | 12 ces | ears 279 UNL | Sy | ae SLG eee peter emer eee ey OP | 789 | S0S6IT | | ‘od | Lb evi feral e SOST cle: OC iH | sist cence commis HOY “pues | Gp Be ISU ATV teem Geel ase ect yee ca snul] ‘PHAR | g19 | ZLIGIT | TEULION | get [77 PE SLS as sarge Ago ‘pues “ymy, |--------|----~- ATO Sea1'9 Ueay cee snwy ‘ededyey uae | 6¢9 | 8S06TT | \Seeecs lip eanes eae tee eee ee eee eee URC 5s eer eee eee sc uenqng | Z €6S811 | 5O Gem ait nana: 525 Siem oars Rea rae = Ree Sein mene me nearer ager ae Seed aes Oe aes “UOLIO ‘ZoWOy) “J a[[eQ ‘ueByeg |-------- TO96IT | ‘og | ee [pRy =e ote 5 |p cee ees Penge Senate ae ee (eae alee (2) Dees Panis “UOLIQ “ZaUl0r “q a[[eD ‘ueeyeg |-------- LO96IT | 10, > -jlssse==a5 | Spon caa leeemeaaroag | ee > Seam tae 2 phar aa |b a lee a Cress aoe lige ene UOMO [ROY IVD “ueeyeg [-------- TO96IT | | | “UO0lIO OGisaftlarco | ae | pes eae tee [eeosossss seecocccccceanamne pees bay | AeQuIeDeq |--~- | ‘ueqiuesusg af[@Q ‘uevjeg |-------- TO96IT z | | | *(JoVURSey ‘od send aca Sesrareninc see eateeetcctmemnet te ire \eeseartal eres: Ol Paseeee | A118) ewsoy eyueg ‘ueeyeg |-------- SZZSIT ° | : * (O}0qe WW | steed eet leases aes Fer oar ee (seme kisser Seed Set ee ecard Fear te fare op--+| aie | a[t@D) wsoy ezueg ‘ueryeg |-------- 8ZZ8TT | | | * (@80L °S eT1BD) | ‘og | ices lessee Sn eset: aap | cies aeaaeeananea meres aera leagee lace O Deseo ae ouenbeg uBeyeg ‘ueeyeg |-------- | 8¢z8IT 0g pesseses (ieeeecciece ieaooesapeaape) dee eee were ere ee yee a eae a ~ (0xpad *S A[18D) IBq ‘ueeyegq ~---~-—- | 8ZZ8IT ‘od eee laure \ Serene as al leeds cae ina cee gos age aor Ses pee Basis sates | @S0f *S eT1eD) weg ‘uveqeg Fess | SZe8II TAREOINE [Pos [sees fae oe ea [ar pena eg os ae ae | ee oe | Atenatqeayy |--~-~ = |-- (SBsUueY a[[WD) Ie ‘uevzeg ie 2 es | 88e8TT Neh Tee select) SAS EIS |r AEE EYN ERE SING) lene ne dy 2a | Bueqes ‘semiyeg ‘uvoring | 919 =|: 96S8TT og 98T passe S555 | On Pause AreqUeUIIpEs “AID /Gp |-Atenaqegq | yet |--- weneuey, ‘semieg ‘uvoetng | gog GOS8TT “TeUMION | pgp | CSCS ie 2 ee a O42 “JOABIS ‘ABIQ ~Arenue f° SLT | stoquieD ‘seaieg ‘uvoving | 9g¢ LPO8TT eae =a eae |= ee mene dices Sree Ne eee pee oBllavy ‘uvovng |------ ~~ OLT8IT “queUlIpes | | | | awuos ‘StH JO OPO | gz Fier caee lee CLerde 4p saWientoa aes SRR ERCTO) If fe RESO SAD GCL | eet eerste Opa 619 9g¢8IT | poesae a lesen ro LO Cie asctaeie oeas ea es LS PS RRRENC || Uys Sessa uBreliqsey, ‘louog | Z6L 8OFSIE “MOTIAA | OST | pureak ees eee: (el eeaeerr gear OD imate 57 | SARE || GC |e aea wsurqeuy ‘jouog | 11¢ SZZ8IT “piqany | | | | ABYSS pue pato[op | (2) Ue ne [i alG Us tafass eemer amar [eAvid pus pues | op Taquisdeq | FST | (091g O}41eq) yoqjog ‘sesuezeg | ggg POSEIT | | “ “‘syUdUIZeIF | yeUMION | 6et | GL + BPEL |) CCACEMEG (SEVERE) Crit iy Pe 794 W199. ho Suet 68 lial Geran tcne ieee ra or OD aa @L9 SSZ6IT | ‘umorq MOT]eR | gpE — --77 7 Sta = | SOYSAU YZIMeuOjsouNIT | g*p |------ 7ST CE | Sb ees yoqlog ‘sesuvzeg | 079 SLOGIT 1916 rece Journal of Sei ippine il The Ph 152 *;BULION ‘od “queur -Ipes yonw fuMorg — od oq *;BULION yueur -}pes 14ays fuMosg “UMOIg UMOAG MOTTO A “prqam 4p yas “uMorg ABYSS *[RULION “pIqany ‘od “SONSI9}0BIBYO [ROISAY Fo Sahai Sones ae) =. 2 Math Ae eh ae lee | CORES ei. tks AES =e ee a ae Oe ame 5] ae beat ku = eines! SPO a tacks! PR Sea cea nics an aaa > Re esas ea C1) ed pa rae: | [B4euery aurddyiyq “BpruByy oS” imran 1 sae eae | Bee a aie ed! [ime atotN |g PE Wii i ie “e[juByy j----- ~~ a othe eae Pp Sh Soke a 2 ee Cee ae PX COOLIO er mF Bun] UBne aT[BO Reel “ByluByy [~~ |: aia Reine es } gd re 5 2) ime IG ata Jequiaydes B00 io a op-""~ 829 696 . | Led |" (2) 218Y8 “ouojsourty ‘AB_D |--- ~~~ ie Ayo SO GOs | cat eee Steed “Uoluf) BT | $29 | “OTUBOTOA | 18% | ee) mn ore d | ‘ojuoyn{d ‘Jaaurs “puss j---~-~~~ hae Youn Sh | eee e ~oo=" aesuug ‘uolus) BT | 9Lg 06 pee a= On (See 099 ‘ng ‘ABID |---- >>> > 4aqo20 TQ reese te ss uenfuvs#eg ‘vunse’y | ag9 LSI o's + 9 euojseully ‘QUeULABIS ABQ | - | qaquiey dag fe i inte ira BiB BURBS ‘BuNnSVy] | PLg | 86 kn “| 99aek GLE Woo: ncen > ae YN} “ABQ [| AT 66 — = oETIqEA ‘Bunsey | 119 | PIL 3 + } 89 ame See Same hat | 8 Lagenwer LIt | eae ESE ‘eunsey | 189 08 esacsceore | [CGS SB | Gains Ser Ne aamae coma pues 9 |" gsngny Lh: a eo > BLBQABE "BIS ‘OTLO]] | SIT eee Chane ae | PENN SR aoe Ley ee pote a pone 8 | at eee Eq WSoe Cy DS. ea: Seats Shae > L6S 08 pe eee | MR) b= | eae es SCR a ee a eee |" Aavnuee 08 i > oo ener e OOTT “OTOL | 009 | } “S[[ays | ap ts 09 d ; Sulurwjuoo puws youlg_ 8 Pettis Loans Toe |e a na ODS a 689 a se) oie dat oe ee eg 1aquia}dag A ane as a eam ~Ope[oy, ‘Nq2D | 489 PSE Ree od] Sabo GSooe Peng ten one [ron Saba > pee ee ~ ATBNAQA ST 02 «=| ngaD ‘uBcsequinseg ‘nqaD | ~-- = FE aa ell d kaccaiadeamnica cas aes asl Pe taqulaAoNny (11 ol taal ate oviesensny, ‘UBABBVD | Y-PLE \Siihe Sa | — | Sd ee ee ear Le ooae” eae ABN | 908 [rr TTT" 21dBD “Z1dBD | OFT | FS Pram aainan (yh 00) 801 aera a puss pus yny eae [dy | G0T |--~> BIAJBAON ‘asor uBg ‘Aq!ABD | LTO ae | Bee ae | SLE d ‘hb Raa ee ome cary 11 8 9 ~ALBNAG9 90T [~~~ "BIA[PAON “uUBNL UBS ‘Bz1ABD | F09 | 86 aes ONO Palisa pues ‘Avjo ‘yng | oF ~~ Arenues 11) Can iba Sarees ek BIOPPAON “@IABD | 669 “Sa Oy | “84aqoyy “B49QUT | aYouy igo H Payne aie | )mojaq) . aad ee et “S[BIIO} BU AULIBAG-19pB AA wae “yquOyW ; wade “uol]B00'] an yideq q9qeM Ajiordeg 5 | pe WSIOH | H | F ‘ponuluoj—fFTG7 ‘syja0. daap wouf sajom fo sashjoupy— I] AlAV possi 89 ‘ | yoostt 19 ZSL8TT | 99 9eE6IT 89 992611 ¥9 OSO6IT , £9 GOPRIT | ao -B10Q BY |-OBAT, e861 | 19 96161T | 09 SYOBIT | 6S 6II8IT | 8 | SST6IT | Le LSO8IT | 99 LOTSIT | Sg EZEGIT | FS LEZ6IT | &9 LLZBIL | GS TLP6IT | 19 T998TT | 0S QSoRTT | 6F G9GSTT | BF Q9TSTT | LY ‘on | ‘on A104 But. 153 ippines al the Ph tes mn Water Suppl Heise XK, A, 2 "]BULION “PIqanyz ‘Moja X *[BUIIO NT “UMOIg *[BULION “MOTIAA ‘piqany, ‘oq oq od *]RUION, “piqang, ety beet rae ere IST (Siw gee r6d 89 ee — 99 d ie acd eee Gd Cen ease ah di [14 eae Se wd OGR 2s Gases &Il d [ep oe Ree ad Paes 5 |easee an | 99% d go ae ee Gavel 79 aa eens | Ist d Gre Te = ell d de pe Se ee C0 ess Baew nae as rd CRT ae pea oF (A Gia | TSl d ‘Lal Tt 980+ | Ista Co) ae geass | 6a ar 6} Se + Ira TG) ao ae | led | | ee ee | | | "a1 -sapue pus ‘o}JOIp ‘pueg ee es ee Speer omerneay 1}; Beer eae [eAe1s pue pueg | woos oo ------------ [eAeayy Poses eoSS [eABI3 pue pugs | a ee oe at pues ‘Ae[Q Sera ae Joaetsd ‘elo ‘ny, | ~- >> -eorumd pure jearay > Gorey 9€T eae OD aaa OOT ~—“ysnsny 6¢ aquieydesg 9g yee ODE 9€ PSE eune | ge res ABN 9§ [sete O Dies i =: PY. oes Indy | ge 77> yore = or jtoquieydesg | LFS | ye | 818 | 981 Jequis.eq OLT aquiezdesg Ill aaa OD ais ee es Ayo | 6ST Ags el ABW 69T TaquUIeAON |---- ~~~ SARC MGR |RSS = ===> Qp----|---=---- daquisdeq | ~~~--~- |TequUIeAON |-------- [== 18q0}9Q |-----~-- ea Ang |-------- Bears EXE Pee zeae key |-------- “ ajenseung ‘so1deyy [e1uelO *pojooeg ‘soung ‘solganN [ejUepIo0O ~~" popooeg ‘so.1seN-[e]Uepl909g Sse Seager ee sea oest Geese op----- “(Buo[epsey oli1eq) pojooeg ‘soigeN [e{uepIo0g “([@z1y pue uooey) pojooeg ‘soIseN [eJUeplI09g aswel ee ee op----- IESE SS SSR SS oem OD meas | [x aSee seco shear at es geass op-----| Rees eee as eso OD amas lees po[ooeg ‘soiden [e1UeplIo0g | ety carte oy ees ee ae ODsaees -sopreg uBgy ‘SOIBAIN [BLUEPIDIO “""> BIOAN YT ‘SOIBAN [eWUEpIDIQ er aie uenjzeueqey ‘eflog BAaonn Rene A= aa Seep a Sa stase OPasaes| ee OD eaaas | j77 77777 > odesng ‘ellog BAaenyy | fae Soe Bsely “eliog vaony | peta Pa ae Se ea S hn OD ies “A lene gare ueAEBED ‘SIWESIPT “(09 drysuresayzg 09 | -suBx) odioung o[eO ‘epiueyy 883 OLFSIT SSI6IT LST6IT 98T6IT LO68IT 906811 OG8IT L898TT PSOSIT LOS8IT 62S81T SgI6II 9806IT FE08IT TeS6TT S6e611 LEZ6LT PLOGIT 8o68IT PPOSTT LOFGLT 8ZI8TT SLOSIT LOGIT PESGIT 9Zr6I1 SPE6IT | 1915 cvence Journal of S ippine il The Ph 154 | i eae ah ia eB ta es a Sted AP ace a ea PP ae aap TE ee ne AVY | 0 et Se ee een ee ee ee ee re Aavnuee ‘od Si - - re \ to YNI pus “ABO ‘puBg |e ~~~ ~ AaquIaAOoN “od MY a | DN pacer anise | ray : — De Bree ON [ages cts [@avay puv pueg | o*p ee op---"| en aaa a A aaa mo POR og. [RESEA aune or 99% A DIUBI[OA ‘puBE AB[O [~~~ >= ABW Tos ha Se a OE A ok. | Passe an | 8 | en [dy | | | | ecnreas Spee ODS ae | 9 “"* Yoel “od isc 1 Sees ee ops "Pp ~ ATBN.AQaT ig) 2S faba tt fleet My Pemey FC [Pavis pus pursg g ~- Arenues od hig ll I> cabelas weak teirte >| ieee ie aioe) Snes mines ay Gl bol! ia qsnany pte. STAM ig: ep | eunr 0d piethecinisiaatatt oe L[eaway | gp = [77-7 ops- “JBULION | 86 ae 8Lé d eas SOL DS SE ae = a CM [pe Sen 2h SOONG CL MOR ees Saar oo PO ae eens ec) "[BULION | ZF oe ee Std Pessoa AG TADINYS [2° HS" "oS “pian, | 90 fea tao77 | Ld =" BNA pu ‘petoo ‘aqysopuy |---- === =|-- === Aung "yeuoN | GRE : ted fe oS ee es Oe aaa “qsnany | | *[PAwss ) “VUaLLIIpos poy nC oe dqsSsé|:«éPuw puBs SsNnoddsIMNg ~~"~~-~--)----- ounr ; ) ' | eee aes SA [See o}199pUuB *puBs pipet ews me) jStopoyy | “S4999Jy | “84997 /“soyouy aS et a vied ae —E_ EEE — _ —| = | “@owyANs | a © eh ‘ognuru | | «3930 “sos Le10NLRYo (eoIs.6Y I) jo | @aoqe aod “S[BLIaVBUI Bulsvaq-10j,8 A | -weid “yqQUuoW uideg | oyun | Ayrovdeg | \J° 14S10H | u i i | oeeaenseenssasee=a22-<9p=>on- age aes oe “oj. UOW [ep une uBg "yBZI1QY 68S > seckiee = ovsunjeg ‘usuisesueg Pag) beeing en he ahs a (1) 1S 1 Mae | SISRI[L[A ‘UBUISEsuBT “(SI URS Ie Ollleq) SISBIIIA ‘Ueaisusung ng Perrier ao ore ete as ft) * eladehota Mm: Seo SISE[[LA “UBUlsEsuBq “By]eUu eb “Bpig, ‘uiqey ‘UBUIsBsUuBg DAB. | beara oa eae (1) alan GIA > ltepwene BjeuBepls) ‘UBUIsesuBy 1 Fa (aa a oa Op sts Tees Poon ee 1) Sas SSL || pe pene tess Sa[Bsoy ‘uBUIsesuRT Th lisse eee uvsuisy ‘uBuisesung hake beeen) le ovqn’y] ‘etunduvg _ Byns a -UBOqUIBZ ‘SO1ZONY [BPUGLIO g9 | > uIneg ‘soadoNy [eqUeIGO ORL. Uae eres a eee ops OST |" >> Suoovg ‘soasoN jezusuI¢9 *(2IN4HsuUl weUIT[IS) SI ojyonseun(] “sorsaNy [ByueAG |S.opoyy | } “yadoq “uo1yBI0"77 ‘ponuljzu0j—/7 ET ‘sjjam doap woaf sajynm fo sashjpuy—|{] aATavy, S69RTT | SIL OOTSTT | LIT LEFEIT | 9IT LSO6GIT | SIT | S688TL | PIT @1S8IT | tt QPL8IT | ZIT LIQSIT | IIT TIPSIT | OIT OOSSIT | 60T PLISIT | SOT 6LOBIT | LOT OS68IT | 90T SPOSTT | SOT PPOSTI | POT LEe6IT | 80 | 60P6IL | ZOL O606TT | TOL “zorett | Oot | | | | ozsstt | 66 | SLPSTIT | 86 | | | | | | 2 ea |e j | | ‘ON | "ON 410} | But “BIO GUT -OUAY, | ee | 155 ippines a the Ph tes in Water Suppl Heise X, A, 2 ‘od | 9L | {f= G LiLins ail wag ee aia Sa ie ag eames Toquis09q yee [-22222-222-o- uelojog ‘Selequiez | 669 GLS6IT | LPT | "u0390q | "prqany, | 901 [77-77 6d «4B euoyseurT YIM. “YN, | - [HequIBAONY | PEE [9a ug[ng ‘uos0si0g | S6F6II | OPT “9U0JSOULI] | | | ‘od | 22L FS SS eae i. tb I | pug ‘spugs o1uBd[OA “NT, |i aes |Taquieydeag cma lee ee SouBl[esey, “UODOSIOG | S$OZ6IT SPT [ore oleae | 08d aes PRO LEETERT OELPYIOM || ATCA Chill sge ea 1 eae ee Operas Z668IT | FFL | 6S gees Chide als eee ee pues snosusy | 9 | Wome | 09 fe ueqne ‘uo30s10g 92981 | SFT estes cers eck |S ETS epee gee po egy ee “= UOXU Nah pliee| = a ee uooeg ‘uososi0$ QL¥8IT | ZPT LOGS Sell eee ]iaee gis leek PGR diel |r = ee aes tae Opa ails tae spquesa@a|= 060 |stats ODieaes SPSEIT | TPT “od WOOe pts seas OW, Ging? Rig =e -4puussi (Gch em tod Ot OM AGO lan ge Cee es key al Opsaear See6IT | OPT lesaear lee y ass Goalie |e eee pues pue pny || [diva 1c reas gr Weta eee a ops GEPSIT | GST od [poses eae ea oe a a oe |S een ae ee ean ga esa PASC TLUG Ph ace ra aie Ses eee uevooo[eg ‘Tez |------>- GGO8TT | Ser | | | “(BA | SIBUIAO NaI ZG pa aseze a= ee ieee ame sas ee nes ogee neem seen --gsn8ny | por | -nsuey, o1treq) uoqeyeyy ‘fezry | ou9 ZZIGIL | LET ; | | *(Buod | 1 ae eal ap cae USES CL DAcIri | geese gee QU0}# DUES use ore saa [pnso ss sine | gg | -U¥L olaeq) uoqereW ‘Tezry | 99 | 8Z06TT | 98T | ! | “(ueqaeg | (Rey iapasleaaaese 5 Sid ale ee ee aes ES | eunr | spt | oMaeq) = uoquiey = ‘TeZ1Y | GPO =| -E9BBIT SET eA c pae oe ee TUG ET GEE a ne ABI! ea (seep ieee CCP Ti4|-<" ara memes uoqeieN ‘Tez1y | 129 | 9998TT | FET [RO aise Siceeaeaceri [can Techies Gs ae accaeae Jeaers pue sep OE es | Erenes ACT &§ fy ee a pe Se OD eae | 689 LOLSTIT | S&T Se a eae aaa aps i. os [eaeis puw pues | g = op Sass as ees ae ea op-----| 2e9 | OT98TT | zet CLS a ae eae * @8ld | ng ‘ABlo ‘feawrs ‘pug |-------- [Paso OSM Minesmeeeee 2 eee os op 929 | -PPSBTT | TET Pog ares (45 ia ia eee ee ga eS ODER See anaes | eee = Dil i emeet Seearwe as AVABY, ‘TVZIY | ZO LLYBIL | OST Tear 4 2) ae ae 126 d Reo rapa ae rere O Dae pea ra a 3 O Digeiae PUG aol eee rie a tee Sec ee O Deen | 609 QSP8IT | 62L User | Sees G TST heath emer ieeeet aera fae oyo Ny |---~ yore yl Solin ges tees SBJOARN ‘sosuvy, ‘[eziy | 609 T8ESII | Sat Sete ecs | Seeclinzclowne:|pogsce eases puss ‘seo "yng | g | Arenuee | 6gt SC}OABN ‘[ezIY | Gee | TPTSTT | LET |KOG tae pees Gait ak P= pues “aavas ‘Ae[Q |------—- aes CBee Me cole eee vuoprey ‘ez | 9pg | PIQBIT | 921 Tal Ee ok ca | |e ace See eae ae ear ce ae aire 9 | Tequis.eq Oe ear a a eae me owas ODE | TOL SLE6IT | Sal TREC, | BE LIEN ec Hag he mr Sea are cog) Dear en TaqOIOO ye aGRLE ES Sao Sse egere ae op") 02g PEEELT | PZT “UMOIG, | SPT WE) ial = Pee OD =sSSaiisaeaae= KERIO EIS | Gat Pesan sess op----") 028 OSZOGTE| ZT SDIGana Axe yRNG WIS als esate se eC) die = “| ence centeacmaar oqo YN, |------=- eA AN 21 IO een vpereyer [ez | 0zs SIT6IT | 22r 1G 6& ie | BOTS He | Pe nea ga apart LOTS IAC) Fee Ninn ao Aine LIT | ee he eo ee Aeseg ‘[eziy | SéP PSO6IT | Tar ADE | ena CVE GEM GE Gh ee Aejo pue yn, j-------- eae Cay || ae |e QwoRy Oped UES ‘Tez1y | Baz TLSSTL | O8T cape eee [esa pa age eer g aso gacerl meeps wees -~==="=-fo=neannn= | A ar PN 2a ese fy | 2't (Pp) | 9200 GIO; ve O12 OS 268 | -5 PRT: Liven cep SLAGD pecs ae ieee £08l 0°70) (p) | 6t0°0 | F000 98) A aa OP a fa ll Al i TOR aha esa T 160) 0%0)" 0%} at0"0 | 'BrOr0) | == race! jana [posers [nani natn fee emer eaten eam aw te we CG)y | EO" OAPONG pdt Op eee eal eae alae (ies | Ajo y Booe | Le | 0 | ‘en | ee ss-=t'9 | 070! (p) cea pee AE ek Gapacnm ml) iat Pel) eae va BF Lg): nese | Rei Wat 02720 ag 0) SLURS EO 1 ain bal ae 6'0l) 89° | b°98a| (pe) |---- | 0°08 | O'6IT | Q'erw Z'opT | 0'0 | OT | ie sedis Waka ee peat es beat | Let | beat] 2°8h \--"--""| 9°0 ca dae! 6T | 80 (p) eae 09 vIT sacar] Lor | B78 |-----"] au ute || 8°8 ee 070, 660°0 290°0 | ato"0 cea ba Ss —| | =| —| cal - — =| | i — = = 4 fo) = | el | wn 1 a Sg) FE Fld 2] ee] Sele! le a) Ela s | & So e8 | bol Roath Ge lve (el Sabem fg 8 jee [op 1 oe ee Boies | ot © Ue ehor geek. (Bo heck kan | M | Ba ae : 8 Seve: se ee Sera tee Pee aa Bg “3 c 2 Ssp Limeahee | oe S 2 | » | oF 2 3 | Spa fetta cr @ = 3 | ‘ponuryu0oj—f7 G7 ‘syjam daap wouf sajyom fo sashijpup— {{] aay, RTF Ove 0°08 8 "828 162 z99 019 0eP | 808 90% $°999'T vu 822 “SPIOS [RIOL, “ON Buroesy | maNaOwTe Or AAS ee ne Fr 157 ippines LL i) the Ph ves in Water Suppl Heise *BO0BLL, p “SIA, JO Suite} Uy y "R) JO suLte} UT y OS jo Sulla} Ul » | UGH Et aad OW? jo BAG ART Ee ideas eee ae ee Trg OQ) | OOD O00 | 8°FSc | 89 “PUPIAIBN | WOO SIE ss == Da eee an mea [fevG ag] eects |pebees yo | 0°0| () | ash°0 | z6L's| BF 780‘T | 28—‘T | ue | BOC a i|PSeeea ETS | Be LEW (BTR) Oy Re lana F918 OW), OO) BOA ATS PS 00rE"% | 99 | “BuBy [-----—- ees 6 a ies BUM Das | (CB) el ea aa DIES |) OVO) |W || BEB 9°88%'% | gs SOC. Gasca Viste Giad | CLeUP Ta lanes DS | usey ecseman O68 |Pseeaa| go velar | (p) | () | s0°0 | 980°0) ab 79 “PEPIAIEN IROSSZim PST OG seer BE BG |p Ves Si2O alas ais lfeme: 0619 | €0°0, 9 T| 980°0 | F200 | 22% i) SGD) | g-2e | 6°98 |---- S| Dh? OjpliTel Scie ines poss | (P) | 070} 691°0 | 0100 | -----— 2s “Bued | 8°8s | HBL | 9 TLa | (p) | 0°83 | O°S6T | 3'9e| LEZ) 00 | BEE || fee 38 5 ae | 1g ET SS a £8 a DEN eS a GL qlseeo sl teene T°S9T‘Z 100) (e) | 98h°0 | s90°0 | -- 0s SOG 2a a5 NOI? Bs as LAO ll Wn O8a lee | OER Perea nalrcen BBE | WW) — OW) COW |) WO 6P “PEPIAHEN ape ASE US Pee ON 2G} Pas P58 Ts eee | Canes 66 IL 00} 0°0) ¥10"0 | O8L0 | | gy TEED) re eae ae | AS ah (oes ligeee= ¥S°0T | (©) | 070, 800 | 960°0 | ~~~ ae a Ly 60 Cligette sd |2aaz ae Ca | 2 Pe Dale |) 289 is ieee BUS Baal 8220) 2 |) 0s0|) 040) 72010) 190109) ses ec ae agemacs | oF iO (eee ees GME WIAs p= a8 ta | Ds en pees rete PE | OW OW! 0 W|| AND | oy IPEPISUEN seis TESe anaes |F= ALAS || CALS; == 9:98! a= Semen p8 OL OO} ONO IN (@) $9910) | sets | oF “Bued | g°0L | 3°32 | 9°F2a| (v) | 079 | 0°90z | 9°9Te| 109} 00 | 0°63 | ~ Beale etn econ | ee & SC Fase |e Ws Is) BP) Ah Pe ISTO 1 eee nen 26 | 00 0°) Zt00| S800] 2 oF "OGs—_- sersa5=> Pe a iP FS |) SS CS: pe ese yer | (e) | () | ¥00°0 | sor-0 |------— | TP | ASE AINE Rasa 8-211 | L°sg |------ PIS WAGE) pees J) ) (et anette T 829 0°0, (Pp) v0 Savalas OF ~°d SSS Oa | Wied (ye 0°06 | O°zeL | (pe) | OTST} 00 | 29 | ieee ines eee i ses | 6g od 9°08 | 8°OL> | O°@a} (py [ OWS | OA || GS) | GUA POW |) BO as ingepees | 88 od 2°68 | 8010 | O'92a} (p) | OI OIL |} (59) Eee | ON) |) a ees pore aaa | ene (ies ai 1g “eued | 2°68 | 8°0To | 0°Sza | (Pp) | | OWS OSE Ca) | OTIC OW [Ow aes Vea eee jeeeeeses | 98 | SOC Si ee -saecme sean anaes lees Peaseas perce poser ae ar 0°0| 00; 80°0 | 8r0'0 |---------| | 96 BOC wey seca |e = = aa ge afemesonoaee {gs as | ooeses| meee ol Saar ee as (vp) | (e) | 890°0 | ¥80°0 |------- re gO est ec | ete > 0 easel een |S lage al SS yee alee eee 8°2E | (e) | (pe) | O&t "0 | P9E0 | £8 1G (arterial neeeegeaa Ieeutrans (eee eis one fsa loos g| mane ate FL 0°0| 00} SIT “0 | 88T"0 | | 28 | ‘od Coe a eg ol ee oe | eee | gras a|pse ee |Faseeau| pare rosn | acme | 8st () CO) LO) | WOVE AOD) SACO | 07062 | TE : PUG 0) seer [o aan | ane | soca |e lene eee eeeres aa essen eras SOT | (ep) | 0°] OFL“0 | T98"0 | Pane 97862 | 08 sDEDESIOE Na saa 9°0 2a Pie | aang A | TYE 91720 ,1'| eee Seeman 8 'P8g (OSXO} = = (OVO) LOO) SO) | eens, | 9°680'T | 64 Sh Gime ae Pao (7G Ce lene Lili Gig | Seema Oss |e nae b2PS | 070} 070! 890°0 | 082°0 | 0°896 | 82 200 Res eere sy ©) | Be ses SECU TSS Talre Sees Palta|aecrss in 4 8812 OO) OH) OW) |f ee) 9768s | Le Like Fem MAN Meal ASpeullione ra Wa) GS wor | LTO 1 9°8 | BLT wall Gy} eat am. a dak | 92 1915 ciernce Journal of S ippine il The Ph 158 ‘od 6B Oe /O'M [0 "| OME) OFT] TBs) OL | 0° | “wued | 9°08 = 99> | BRA! Cp) O'sP | 08} OTe F893) 00 | te POSS ae ee ee ee ee eo i: ell aaa OF eae gt ee ee a Oe le Cepia [rere a a) No a eae A Cae Tt ame ae a Pe ‘pepianen [== Rast ee We ee 00 |---| eet ‘Budd | 9'°06h | 8B | 9°96Ta OT | O'OT 0°@F | O'9¥ 9899} 0°0 | ec a (Oe ea ate a Ce as Og aagees ales ‘od gb | (pa) Leta | (e) [------ 0°08 0°99 | QIg* 9708 070 | ‘oq | a'P | Cm) | 8a | (e) ("| 0°98) 0'99 | 9¥a% BEL | 0-0 | "Bued | 9% | 0'02 | BTA | (Py 0°92 | 0°89 | 9'99¥\ 6°28 | 0° | od aie eerie Re eo ak 3 Se phat Makes! “eketas ar v Se eee ee ih conor Of as i) Gees go Fea ane ap ‘od | SS ae a eee fae, a ey cE Oe it ca eg a it | ‘cies -77-"- r6l Ese ee a 2 a | gears st -| SS ae (°) Pep Oa Wis «0 eames a raeaaa ae | ss A ace ig aa Go a Seas ee Ge space Ba gd wanes carrer (OCP ois fe ah eee ee | rel lene ie ae | + aaa ee Pe res rg pea Bt, ae oe Es geared od ESSE Leah Vig Meh aaa MG.) a oe ‘uae “pEPLABEN A ag | a as Pe) PR Eses PIE ase ‘eyed pur BuwD +Pewe, barge po gM A eases Sia A eeaay ean “eure |----*| poe [OW | | (e) | Ovab po Ce a a lear aaa | ‘og | a a a a er ‘PEPIABUN ge BLE 90} B18 [ar ay et gone meen | | pre er Sao aoe Ee eRe ie oe OIL, S tes a. Be) 6g = | ea) 6 es | S| oe] gol @ asl acl oe | eel melo 8 re) | Bs 3 ce iS"; B "he g my 65 eas Qe (Sal ai > heel oa) G54 & | Ss) Fs SF | Se 2 bool 2 |en | = les pe ah |= | 6 et atid) Cee a ed facet en ee at = Opp) & + oO | g | ie 3 Shih os o | & | a apo Sa |e | < | i Be 9°st 0°08 28 | feshigs sr eae 01 — 0°0, 0°0| 200°0 | 1800 | ¥% pee | 998 OES f OO) - COROT paPOrO arrsnn syn o"pLe ou 070, 0°0 200°0 | FN Ne a aaa 861 8°08 | 29°0) 69°0) 910°0 | 200°0 |---|] BBP Ce Ml ag ea eS a ha eas | 0°9La' over | 00 pares o'apa Cite boas aati 0192 a fee -~-7"""""] o"0R@ Seg oe se | | roseeans 9 "292 vl 00, 0° 100 | #900) 2 | >» 9 9°28 | 0°0; 070, 2t0'0 | 0L0°0 ~~~" eae | 09% 9°88 0'0 (P) | 880°0 | e90°0 |J>~---- ‘memes | 062 b°808: | 0°0) (e) | 980° | 10¢°0 [=~ | 268'T p08 — (P) | _-0°0, 90°0 | 680°0 ------- Paes gg 688 OE OTe Coys 1000) |LGO) 0! sateen ene | 299 Ler | 0°0 (P) | ¥00"0 | 610°0 |-------7~ ee | 069 rust 00 «00 (Pp) | EEO} 08 909 = 929 L'6he | 070 (v) | 8oP'0 | 8269) 89 882'T | 998° 6°28 | 0°0 (p) | 919°0) BOr"----- eee | 989'T v'9 (pP) — (e) | 0t0"0 ececd Oak Al ao oe [pai ees | OFZ L'sLT | (P) | 070) 870°0 | 992°0 | 99 919 | 0°abL 8'z8z | 00 0°0 ZL0°0 | 920'T| 89r sett | 908'T 169 00 (ep) 210° ligt a bs Neen oe a | sig a ———— po ee ———— Qa | 1 ei a plgig| #)2/2 | 21? Bo li |g lwenlaes| & || 3 ® id & |! o5 3 ir (eu 3 Be | ee | ISS |B. ipo a da | | ) gt ee | I ee laa | | } | ‘ponunuoj—f7T6T ‘syjam daap woul .ajom fo sashjpuy—|{] aTavy, ‘ON Bulovay, 159 Ss ippine 2 the Phil v) ves Water Suppl > > C1se x, A, 2 “PEPIAQeN 00 ai “peplAneN “PRBPIAMNTN puew euey ei “Buey ai “pUeplalen oa “BUvY “peplAleEN “euddg “Oar Gi “pePIAeN OG “pEPIABN pur euey “peplanen “euey SUIIe1 UT 5 pL “SOT LTé 1°66 L°S01 L°18 Z 12 | aonnmen | OsSZic| 0 Tea 9°&T & VI 16 PL 6 20 8 9T 8°91 &°ST gL 69 ge TL Lg TL a) a Z OF 89 19°F 68°9 ¥€0 ‘T £66 8°E bg Ls 0'F GY) 166 veo) 6 79 96 8 LT& 6 &P €& IL SULIO} UT q 1 80°0| (Pp) | 600°0"| 0°0;} 00) TF0"0 0-0} 070] ¥z0°0 | 960°0| (p) | F200, 0°0| 0°70) 20°0 0°0| 070, 8F0°0 | (p) 00! T0°0 0°0| 070) £900 ST °0} (p) | F10‘0 | 2I‘0| (p) | FIO‘0 0'0| 070) FIO"0 0°0| 070, 6100 0°0| (Pp) | S6r°0 (QD) 4) (QQ) PS 0'0| (pv) | F000 S100) (p) 00 00 00 00 080 00 00 00 100) 800 (p) 00 (p) 0°0) TOS jo sulla} UT ); 280 0 §S0 0 8F0 0 600 0 G10 0 SIT SIT PIT ell raat IIL Ort 60T 801 LOL 901 SOT POL 801 201 TOT 001 1915 cience Journal of S ippine il The Ph 160 ‘eyed (OL | Te [9a [OO [7 OOS | O'SRT | Sete OOLT | OO | O'EI ese cag irom OE [Peri ere gli ames Bs Wong Cm A) a a ‘pepanen [| 9 BT P| TO] bee mm) OLE "| gBTE | 00, 0°0} B20"0 | 990° seuey |---| @) | ee a 9°8 | 8°68 """"~")| 6°Ee | BLHG | O'BT| PB'OT | 0°) 00) B90°0 | ¥90°0 a ee $0. ee ee ee J baie ae P19 | 00 a imate es 5) ie ‘aes ese elas Maca) ee ek a ain 9'sp | 070) 00) £80°0 as Cem tmaiaeen] © 7 mee ew Me ae a al piss = sh aera ace 6st} 070 0°, L00°0 ‘od see Vesc= ant COSTE WERE PCZASE, PATS Cea OO Sab ee ee tps | (e) | (e) | 160°0 1 a ae ae [ae beet Pa hs a TMs age Wed (v) | ¥10"0 od See Ps ole Fae tas eran ae ce Eth |---| geh | 0°0) 26°88" ‘pUplApEN jets | 81s gn eh ga ea rae 8701 | 070, 00 920°0 ye lie | gs a ae 2 aS a 3a greats Min) Si eae [| a9 | 00 (p) | 870"0 ‘oq = ja" | ae8 | Le =| gee | acta o-oo] (LT ee paar 9'aes] 070) (P) | 680°0 ‘pupifyen pue wavy ear 4 ne Cie ieee Lt | 0°89) 620°0) (P) jz6r0°0 ‘wuey =o" ea 6 NI fees LT | | Let v) | Wry) s90"0 od | 0818 | Ga | Tha | OT | 0°08 | 0°92 | 6'99v O'PLS | 00 | O'ROT "~~ me eae "wued | 9°9EP | 9°8e> | BBLTa O'OT |'"""""| 9°26 | O'98e | wO'ZHE) O'80Y | 00 | 0 OT Pak ae coe Nis a 1 B08 | L999 |-"""-"} 2°62) L°9u% 6'6F 00, (p) ‘| 6IZ0 1 a Gagan | 9°92 | Q°PLR oo-= 6°9 | L“8tr 8°38 | (p) | (p) | 1000 its ee jo°s9 | 27e9¢ ~~~ | 2°62) 2°68 L°8% | 0°0) (p) | 490°0 | GO > == -- = 7 = ——— | gar jo £08 | 8°03 80 0 mt) Breda see [PM UBISAzZIB “gd ~aqu0 Tep urne ung ‘Tez | ORFs OOTSIL | 8 | 3°Le Lars § 68% 8°68 } 9'8 10 0 : TOM UBIsayTW =o UBdI00[BO ‘[ezIy |-----" AawnuBe geORT | L 916 | I'88 6 "89 L°6L 0 aoe oa precioteaes cer a a ea see Seen Bulads JOR] ~~~" BAa[VH Jog ‘oropuly | Uady | OLggTT | 9 | T6st | 0 8°8I ue | Et (~) | 808° Uc) mea Bigg SLOAN STOP ATG) ooo Bue Aawnaqed — POesTT | 9 12 0 9°S96 8 °Lal 9°8T }9°9 mt) O° STL o || ae eT Burids JOH | su[sunq ‘Ing sooojy | ~~~ AtenuBe FEGLIT | F Se ee ae eel EPs a A eesceetants ecmecnne ai ear are ar pag at ee Ft eee SS SOMGH UOULAUI Sel |> cco atten nian a mek) ace ACW | I9LRIL | g LT9t 9°8 | ’°ST 9°63 | $L°0 0 | (») 2S or send ae [Jom UBISAzTY | ORB ‘uBoR[ng |” Avenuepe | OTISIT | a preg | aes 7 "| 0°98 ES oe Le aes he ae EE Fee GREE SPARC CHUNG orcs UNAS SNL LPAI IE = ae | _ oe oe ea a | aire (09) | “¢ | | Soon) | | | | | on | 8 |“(800H) | “WOO “OS) | -~zoigy [EXOD | -(ON) | (GON) | “SPHOS | | ey a saqBu sae | saquyd (01S) BuruIn[® ON) I *a0an0g | “AVI BOO'T | “yqu0oW 4109 | stg. | -uoqreg | mg | MUS pow uot BREN | S201N | [E10], | | -eioneT | & | L | ° | | Pl, | ‘Ter ‘ssaypm auiddywyg {0 sashjpun )v.awipy— AT ATEV L 165 appines LL tes in the Phi Water Suppl Heise X, A, 2 5 ‘QOBAT, a “UOIPIUS! UO SULUAYIVL| v 720 0 | cto 0 | BOGS cre Sain 4 eee gee ge ee | eaten ai CEYN GS CEIAL EAD, [PIS SSSR a ABTA i aoe neat aie se BsuBoqwMezZ | GCORTT lPesgetamern| ("erage = 7 FEE fae oe ee Be oe ma er [BOLO NG sages ace SulIdSg ulIMepney, |--- 7-7 CEL LEY MONE [PO re uBsueABUINy ‘seqeAey, | SOPEIT 821 0 9800 BAe Asoo herer eats femurs cera sar oy oe ore EaeS TOA SBBOVIT | o) aa eacse seer ee a vuoony ‘sequdey, | 6LISTT cg0 0 010°0 eee 9G Geog leas oR tna ie [CULO Sgr 6 aeetes aie [19M 9oeFANG | ATeNUBE | - aJUOW [ep ueNL UBS “[BZIY | S908TT TF0 0 9800 Pgs ine ae ae ae So ot aS er a ene gerd ioe cena ar era LOONEY EG | IDS SS OS Sas AVG Gas 2 Se BsadUullg OJloNg ‘UBMP[B | SLOBTT est ‘0 682 0 889 ‘8 |ssssessessnessese= [jeus AYsiy |----- 7 JaAlA puNoIsIopuy) |------ Det ee ARENA RCSA ARTE F100 2100 ae al] Nimes ae oa gn ae gees LE UELONG | oa set oa ie ie atc SOUL TL CL C0 ees AS OOTY | a =o ee erase make uedv[ey ‘o1opulm | 9906TT G20 TGP ee See ee Se PS EEO OLUS S SAGE CAS QO) Bf PS [LECh 4 Pee SS Bdlo[ex) JLOg “OLOpUITL | OLSSTT 9IT 0 820 °0 OF ARES Sacer nag ake eee noe ALE OR Sa Ajddns 1078 oIqnd |------ AAC NAO ONS soo ee eee ee eens ae age Bluey, | FOSSIL L900 960 °0 ONG SS yore mem atc, Se So een | em TAY 9nd AB[Gesg |-—---- OY UR aS har ne one ea ee OR OD eae 60L8TT 680 0 0s0 “0 (ORS) ae Tce Space eee © Gee et aaa es TOAIY UBSBYBlBey, |---- AG TNC ae aplne ie eciie Ron ee a ee fof | OL8IT | 6 6L0 0 L10°0 Otc) anna cece ©) eS igea ert cone cae a Denese ames Ga seve rt OD REE: (linia Earn SCUB TNL OL | Gara ane Sa ates a a ae ee (2) 9 Felted pen | O9Z8IT | 8 8S0°0 F200 Sr); Tien | is pekeenciacie acinar illo RETO Nii | eat ac Bulidg neAueyD |7>--->- 77-7 AICNUCL [>> --~ suleg olleq ‘Aevjueg ‘Ing sooojy | FLISTT |b 919 0 LaF B)FSE Ca: | 1O[O9 UMOIG YSIPPey | Butads oH | Sie eh ee ie OD aise ines kacs oes ee SBlsued ‘Ing sod0]] | FEGLIT | 9 Re Se | eS CT Cunyon| en cen ennn euuemn lemme DIC COIs egies ente een nnn |[OMNOOCTAN G0 | eee ee een LOC ULO00 (i (panne eon aren ILE S Tae I Ou MIEN CO@ nl TOFGGLEN EG 600 °0 (a) b9G PER eee ee (ORS sE S| (ae ae ee Bulidg vejepny | ---- | Uae, | | Eoin eee SECS Ty ei OD isa | 6€66IL | F 910°0 (a) Tdi ahaa > oie iat aoc TBUILO Nie Eoae ser Saas Sees oa Buladg O10 |----- 190090. Ol pene pe ata aay Rone arenes ba nqeD | Sss6IT | & FLO 0 610°0 SUC eat |idpetce ate teh ee nie eo cio aig ns "7 SULIdG , OBISeD op ayueNy,, |-->- CATING Beceees Zonan ae eer Bike] ‘epuy “[OUOR | ZZO6IT | Z 661 0 620 0 SeRCes S|: ao se ee nena SSHeg 0/10 PO alin Sagas gon aa ts Sulids JOH |--7 7 ATCO UG feel |peaes: Cas se eee = TALY, ‘ABQTY | PIOSTT | T “BIUOWWIe s ‘oN A “ piou ene tear “soMsitaqoeaeyp [woishyg | ‘aoan0g “yuo | £103 aa “TUN Ty |-"B10q eT B 133958 ‘spunjsy amddryiygq ay} UL saounos snoaunjjaosnu wouf suaqnm fo sashjnup— A AIAVL 1915 crence ne Journal of S ilippi The Ph “BI JO Suioy UT p “9OULL, o “pUprayeN | 8'L Lop “BUuad | 293 ell 6 S80 oq. frrerreet ereecetesfeseeeeeees pL haa bgt L‘L2 ot a Gerace 8°82 L'6LI oA a a= Stas | 2 66r “od toric plates | ber L’Ter eROOES fo gees 9°LT@p | L691 “‘PUPIAQUN puw wuBy | $"9p @ Tee aig eee weer ee "PUPIANUN vale sizeaes ‘oq 6 FS ‘oq S| | "gh rare |r-8nar=- sop | W'I9Te ‘wed | 609‘T 6YIp | Z"eseo “oq. lettre rT | Lat “od me | or | &T&t “pepiayen |---------- ch: | Zest i | () Lu _—EE—EEe — —! = | | 4ssjuuy eetaaeyt Mee horas (oy, «use “WO JO SuLte} UT 4s Ivo Seana | eT Te: ese 5 jovet | | Buat pon YG rel Sashes oor Osta | == | LT (eu poe [oeeseon nse £0 Ags Dom Ses Age se L'st PapReses ease same Ma: ac | see ae ovese's 0 | (e) peeceeas Phe am Bae (e) | osIs |) ewe b | () | 9r0-0 ep qe it: treet 1g Oe a eye 4 | Ngoc cee ae ven ae 6S febreret (foes Pista fi 21: | 0 | ©& 9°9964 | FIZ 0 9°92 Lh ol au o'toza ~—-O'z9z 0 Rr a ee ee Tt) lel eae i alate 6 ‘II ae) ary 19 Peed fe oe 0'8I (0) (e) | 0 [oo ae | eee Ian 0 0 AN ERS She 0% Oo dear = — - at = = =| 5 ae ! xan] (80S) |*(fOOH)| “(809) | . : : sons | vonwuod | 8Y | outtoldo | SOUISHIN | SowWSHEN U ‘ponunuog—spunjsy auiddyryg oY} Ut sadunos snoaunjjaosuul Worf s1ayom fo sashjnuy— A aATAV “ON Suiovry, | mANoOowrneer an 165 ippines al the Ph 1es mM Water Suppl Heise XK, A, 2 “MOT[EA aLB S1O}VAM JfoM-doop OTIOT][ [TV p “USI o "O0BLY, gq ‘aply YSIY Je MOY 4YSIIS ev eet wes | oor | 0 | OW | —— 7, OW: 0‘OFF OF Ee Sea Se fp orqnd ye ‘uedyjey ‘o1opuryy ; & 13 0°LT G°LT | 9°09 0°GhS 0 (0) 0°SL 62 | S40}11 83 SOTA | BST ager SP ace ee eze| 1 UO eleqivg BUBS ‘O]OT] | ZOT 02 | | | | | “Olle}y uaa Oes |r | 8 re | O-BtE O- 19% Gilg | L°8e | saaqt] SIT sduimg | 1g 06 | pue edeg “y sale ‘ovsampueyy ‘o[ory | 01 | éL 0"9P fF -@ Se) 0“08P ‘T 0 (2) OSS oT OSS Pel panes acs op \epeeote eee res eg ae ezeld ye torep ‘oplojy | TL | 8T om | LTS 0 | orsst‘at] 0 | G) [21s | oe jar-cusssaese SMO[y ---~> > eae lesa e oe oreo ured ye iceniuep ‘ool, | COT | LT 0°00F | GL 0 | 0009 (a) | OT [SSaGh ries le oe sera [aes SHOP] LE SMO] GG | 08S see oeegcia anon ee cane Oo 19 | OT 008% | 668 0 | o-9Le 0 rand 9°68 aS Coe (ama SIO}T E SMOTT | 16 | Gj, Peeeesseessecesescosee O[OW sOTLOT] *O[LOT] | 99 | ST | | | | | *S.1948IC | o7eZ | OTe 0 | 0°06L = 1) OF? oe 6% | SAOTUT ST SOT | BL Sar UOIZdUINSS YW JUAAUOD ‘Oo[] ‘O[LOTT | Ly tL 0-0re | OTS 0 | 0086 Q® 1 Or 0'TS 6Z SHOUT OT SMOTT | 08 26Gp | 4avUuZ_ pur ovueyT soyped ‘oplojy ‘oployy | gt | 8I dag OE | @ LOW | OO JEOESG= sail OFS aes can=eae sduing | ¢9 G61 Dia erent oe SSOUL UOPUR’T ‘O[LO[] ‘OTLOTT j 92 | rae 0"OLE Sd | | 0-08 0 |0F [SCL S ye tence tig ioe [resort gee esMold | £9 LEG. lease cnn peyroqiry eze[d :O[tojy ‘Oplory | EL IL OFF $39 | 0 Omvae 0°81 | oP GEOG Sse ee | come ag en O Daa | gg (i]t an Peepers ate eee agi opafoy, ‘ngag | 6z | OF 0°29% Ow) | @ | p-6r epetuca ary Feaace ates 20809; lasses el reese oe Opes a5 [s=S2=5==7 iceeegetores eun'y uvne pT] 0} yxou ‘nga ‘nqeg | PP | 6 | | yeu | 0°89 € es ese |068 | 0°28 | 0° | 9°99 Gi6Ce malar pa eee sduing |------7-- aerecre, -ByW puv nde[ndey sajeg ‘nqay ‘nqep | ¢z | 8 roopeoor |e eee ect (G) | eee ven GG eat eeb eee eee (cia aoe ons one ean een ngoaendeail ce L 0°2eI 0°OFT 0 | G71 (Gee ioe os [Ok Oy (ean emia leis Decnos BOUIN TH ge Sao slam a5 = =A ine joysreur oqnd uoq.eo ye inqayg ‘ngag | 6T 9 0°99 0"LS 0 age (Wars [See (OPES a qltesen sean Wee TSA UTC iS CUNT a seer eos ci |e cee peg asnoywoysnd ‘nqay “nqeD | gT g 0002 0-18 0 0°0F OS9CiHer [Bananas OF SS Sa es OD ier aa eae talline ceca eee Bullezey eyuRg aworeD ‘nqeD. | ¢g |% 0 °9L2 0°OP 0 | 06% (G) Sl | Seeieeeees 0°OF ese | coe aero ie ODE Stalnae =: all eee ale 0D peorpey ourddipyd ‘1wo1eD ‘nqep | 9 ié 0°02 0°0L 0 WOES = eseaieate: jeOHOL eet na vara Wepmenoae ees SOD aaeaaa Corea a) | waa eis |e ao ca eae gene pur[s] ymep ‘nqay | op | z | | “old1o1u | 0 “02T OB || | LoL | S"@F 0% | 0°02 GEOGi eel |ast tac omce WS CUD Gi pow eee roam aeaa -NUI JO UOAF Ul BzEI[d uo ‘ORB ‘nqaD | PS [eT | | - "S070 | Pence ee eee ee ee cae “(8 | fC 5 | : lies ees eee 4 esoupied| 4°), | SEN) G0) | emeaa (On) COfun? | seme | coders | undead | es | s10148007] aio | 28, [820.L -oqaeaig, -oqieg y -[ng -eExILy | sduind 10 sMo[y jUBISOIIy reer F eB | : I I { ‘spunjsy ouddrypyd oy} m syam doap mouf svaynm fo shvssp pjai.q— TA AAV, 1915 % x oO - 2 Led ss ti 3 La . LY = po OpLT oor | O satis aes n 009 . 9 “oo aLoueplseid Igo ‘Blog ‘odopury | 8 = | 009 | 0°08 0 cipaiels aa a PE Gi ml beat at sigma’) aotng rg Pe ss ~-eqeuMo) Mau ‘uBAETBUIBUT ‘oOpUIW | OT A, pars snanaa | 0°08 oz i ee) i Patent On atheists rates 8 vo chai - Lo "ooo eee eeee=== gJOUsBes ABOU SuBINEN ‘osopul | ET » | “BlQUapIseid = ao | $'8% | 0-08 ge roomie i oi "| 0°L9 Ne ene in S eiiceies RAO G0. 0 Tene JO [50M s1OjOW HOT ‘UBlNBN ‘oropul | Zt seers" MOL | 0°U Or ee ol ae eae OPP o£ hearer ST SMOLT | $9 eee es lee ee BOUapIsesd 4B DER SN ‘or0pul | TT is | } ‘S100 a .| S ! | | (8 : “09 “09 | eg ANY | 5 . | « | £O0%C : 3 itr £08) , 8008 F eynuru | “ON ON ecient uw) tUN) | (10) aeierd (91) een | rhe Jad 82104) i"yydeqd , [fon | “HOIyRoOTT | A404 sayeu ‘soyeu epmoyyg “e uod] ast AIBOMG I! . squmelixo aac | luwisoqa ‘ -w10qv']| OL |oqawaig -oqaug | Ins “BYIV SOT S| } Vv a Te) et | i EN Ba - See : = = = it on ea re ‘ponulyuoj—spunjsy auddyryg ay}, w syjam daap wouf ssayom fo shnssn PIAQA— TA ATav 167 ippines ab the Ph 1es mn Water Suppl Heise x, A, 2 ‘OOVAL, v l 7 se 0'O¢h =| 0°S0F 0 O89 9 Sis looses 20 0 “SOP |e OG sees erat saaees cme aera O Daas “UMOF} JO YOR SAozOUO[ IY P ‘uBdE[BD ‘OLOpULL | T | If OTsE | 2°99 0 08 (8) Serpe se | D299 Sain rex roa Pe ae ae (0) oF eae rss Ts qnio Jjos ye -ereqieg eyUeg “Of!oj] | FOT or 0 “22a pss 0 0"LE (e) (ceases Seas | aes mniiae bs BUNA Oi aay oe Se eee eee aaa eBBUOgIS ‘ngeD | 8g 6 0°C83 =| «0 6P 0 raas 0°%é £70 0°6F | 68 Pee cee SUNS WEST [pe So See ee wen sae exen ‘ngep 8% 8 ! | ‘asnoyjooyos Jo4svo y 0°00 =| «08S 0 O°FT (e) ¢0 @iSSe se PSs ses | en Op | -4}AOU BLOJOUI YNZ Jnoge ‘eI [IURSu, ‘nqeD | LY L fs ae eee, 0 G81 (®) | 072 lem 0g po SBUIIdg |--“" ">> [ezIdsoy soda] Aveu yaeeq ‘nqep ‘nqeD | 12 9 OVI | 8°08 0 OIL () g0 8°08 | 9°92 | eels SUNdG OOn[epens)) secs) Soar tite aaa Pee qeoreg ‘nqeg 19 g 0 “0&@ 8 0E 0 O°LL (8) ¢0(z) | 8°08 Ifesek =a Gee Pare re ay BUIIOG) poems anefoquizy o1treq ‘uequereg ‘ngeg | Pg F | | ‘oldjorunur WorZ Toyout 0°08 | 0708 10 OT | (x) | PT COO)! [aoe PT Ne a em (Ee - ec a re Sultdg | -O[!¥ T ‘UMo}z Fo Jsvoyynos ‘suunjgsy ‘nqeD GE € 0°8TE yee (0 q‘¢ (e) ss) aa aes Veh Gs mee Rake en rns | ages SUlIdG UBYOReq By |e Ss a eas ee ee tayeeet oesry ‘ngap 9g é 0 °90T 8 "9OP 0 0"s8 0°S2r ge "0 8 OF hl games Pe aca eae one Jood puw suladg |------- ~~ [eululto} peorpyet Ieou :z1deO ‘zided | TIT T | | | Wo. || | | | Sars | | eros ~ a | } j | | “(€O0®D) |“ (FODBD) |(COO2BN)) (1D) =| *(fOS) * (27) (O00) | ‘ane eee i | sseupley soyeuoq sojye | sop _ sazeyd ton | AL | EGO “90.1n0g “UOIJBI0'T | 440} | St (S10, -AWIg§ © -uoqaeg | -o["Q ~—s--INg Po Sey | uF rexodert} 3) | l J ‘spunjsy ouddyrygq ay} mW s4ojnm Bursds fo shossy pj2t.J— TIA ATA, 1915 cience Journal of S ippine il The Ph 168 Pe ee a oan sk ohne ae ear) ee Pe oneal ape ome Lk Me Sareea nee ' " . lo‘ caine) Te cools BH [Sy « Pa ene al Beep Bhai haps ac ae a ar “-" Opt >>" sosAN [BD T ‘ON ‘Bsuogg ‘nqay Lg | 12 peed omen ‘ | pee 7a. eceaefesaeewes a tae ~~ inneae== pi aa ar eta | QZ |eesaannesewenenne Op---> > -7 >>" prod peroulaoid uo teary ‘nqay 1g | 0% ood Pele ee i eee “0c — lea ic 2 ia acetal behets SSO DSc eh ae ~~ QU@AUOD WU EARN ‘nqeag 0g o°998 | 0°09 0 | O°*9S | ODL 0°08 { | atta | | | janceee's race : ao or y ) ‘BsuN ‘nqog 6P | 8T * . aaa cae | g*pae 0 0 Z } op ueng PUL [WZIQT BAT]eH te o'8s8 9's 0 O'NsG =068L % mM al Saving ; | RE FE as poe =< aga caater ti Ree ty ex o’sse OTS 0 ol (s+) | FS ots | O 0 | | ears | | | | | | + a | i an | ese ee eee eorte ltne URW SaT1/BH Inqeg ‘nqw% | ap K mr, we raed fit A GG op | N pus tiiB | ree tied . aes “<-- foe “= ac tine errata = sates 5 me mo i 2 lees rita cite Op >" co BuNTy UBNe PTL ‘ON *NQ9D ‘NqaD | Th hie } Ae : bio van *+--2-- bins age a | bint ola [n=------ pr Jen nn nnnennen nnn Op>- "77 MOOD SET “ON Inqeg ‘nqeaD > OP O89 | OLE 0 g'Ig OLY | | | Hi ORE | AP = ace a ee KS (aM ass en Rica ed . “2 ‘ ‘ O'99s «(00S 0 bs i | (®) | oT os =| 0°96 0 | 64. Sone eee ae op 8] UIBYINOG 947 ABeU enqay ‘nqay | 06 5 : ! 9: | ( 0 9'1Z (: id Cob petcte— — 1]9M ooByang | - UO[OD AIIBD LE “ON ‘nga ‘nqeag | LI ao 2a a lg 4 ai es ~ .e | <-=-=-<=|= “8 JOMIOTE MA BUSUIS(—) on aed wea, hae ae cae UBSIUN snqep “nqe9 | OT ome 0°09 0 j09 jou | 9% jo | oO 0 8 | | 1 | eies Y | pee "92 (1 0" —- PSE Reeerene a ag epee curuesiated bed Ys ts pandge ke lool ly ope") “LA “S PUBO 2% “ON ‘a¥oaBD ‘nqeD Pg ae coe vee wis ca ----| oA |e i Janna a2nn|-~-= === Sa Sw ae Napa ps ae Op > oo e8OL UBG A[[BH ‘ABOARD ‘nqaD | vat) id | fs ' i kes / . os | (w) 0 Set eas gitassa sere g [[OA\ aOBFANG | - ~--- eze[d uo fuuquieeg ‘nqeQ LE 028% | OTS 0 9°88 (ey) OT o'1s ‘aujanjay 0} p¥or ‘uequiv[eg WoIy | att OS ald al fit 7 | : wueg ‘nqayn of be * »* “Pe 0 | LIAL OpUquoy | FAOJAWO[I Z INOGN tuBq rR eal F ee -- a: : is be os nies aot Yo ba el he Colbert Gb} bhi Sala | ot tlh op “Supping jedimrunuw ye forsay ‘nqap . 4g al be pie |----- anal nee 0 | 0 82 [ocsenesatenn Pae= Op ae se a pee gah Nap ~* qudAUod 4B foBsay ‘Ngan | Es paca eh ! - ' ie | * iS easel : Ms | 0 Qe rs Se4 |---n-----~- [[9M soBjang | aou[d JoyABU 4B foRsry ‘ngay | Zo Teale : yi ae | . hs ba siesta a Aten pieces es [te nonencenenncnnn- Couns eoceoe uAMo7 JO YQNOS foRrBUING ‘Z1d"D | LIT O°@8T | 00S 0 pe ©) Go Dh 2 Ma 00S («) 9% joe ns See Pee Meee BRE ep eee eaaoculern | . | "oo * | ' . . | oO an ie | | c 1 cabo ish . ee | : oe | ba | ae 2 Jan-= =< -| z s elocetrs ies tae []2 vowing > yoanyo so Juory ul izidey *zideg | Zp 00ST | 9°89 0 0°96 O°9P | &L ‘0 98S 0 } 0 | | | | "Do | S497 ay | | ' | 2 A = £ c (09 (O09 | “(809 | einge “ON | Be od Oe "(10) *(@OS) | - “(@OIS) | : I. : : ; 20° | £10) | coprie Fe?) feet it uae Vea | Bn | ae | *LO[OD | aoe \*yjdeq | 904n0g | UuoLBoO'T exanelt : : ; - -jog eet =piqa } = [MOL -aRo1g | -oqaED Ol" 19g “ELV pig | | | | | | ‘spunpsy aurddryiyd 24} UL s4azynar aovfins fo shvssy p]erJ—TILA ATaV 1, 169 ippines al the Ph ves Water Suppl . Heise a X, A, "YBIY £18 A q 0 69& O°PLE 0°82 0008 0 °@8T 0 “C61 0 P65 0°@s 0°CIS | 0028 | 0 OPP OPPS 0 °89& S°OsE 0026 | 0008 0 002 0 "008 L°8S 09F 070 0 | 0062 0°¢8 | 0°22 | 0°@r | ong | 0-08P | 0°608 O°IL 0°0ST ‘8 | 0-062 | 0°89 0°TIT ¢-4g | "81 08h 09ST eso TaOba ud |ssees oe. 0 (Cen er ae Boe areas eo arses 0 "008 OF» | pho L°8¢ Ore ver 0°9F 0°96 | 8% 0°0¢ | OFS — ji 4891 erg i | O38: Ses | o"FS (CO) ees eae | ¢°29 | 0°00¢ |} OT | g'aeG Om | © |ows 0°009 (a) | 93°F 00S | OT * | ope SSSSeS=5 Has ee See | | ab) |e ee | 0°0S @) | 35% | 0:09 | OSE | 0S 00S ©) | © | 0-6r 0 eae ep g GELGRE |ESa4e ces aS eee "6 Ret ooes ST Pagies meses € | eee ee “Soe es z Pears | @ | 5 (Pesan IT oe g Lee 9 co oe 9 Siwae d | (Lge a es Sea ior ae a 9 |S oees | T Sees T | ae id [[ew voBpang sesbsecq JOAIY UBYINSL, | unde[eg ‘o10pulyy Blog ‘O10pulyy *“UMO} PUOdAS 8.1039 ‘UBAB[VUILUIgG ‘OLOpUIT, "yovoq UlO1J S19J9UI G) 09 (0G ‘Blog ‘orOpul;y “BUO[eSByL seqeqieg “21S ‘OjTLO[] “OIdIdIUNUI 07 JUaD SOT 956 8) 9T “ON -e(pe ‘eueer oa[[@Q ‘uejoJOg ‘OTIOT] “U0IZRIS PBOI[LeI 931S0d -do Bpuel puryeq ‘uvjzoJ0g ‘OpLo[] *poys a[Iqouroyne sys10OM IqQug jo nvaing pulyesaq ‘uejoJ0g ‘OTLoTy “eseg Wf Pus 21419 seT[VD -O[fo]] “oplory 6 ON BNSYUY BLVD ‘O[OW ‘O[loly ‘opLojy “939 -[99 uondunssy avau ‘o[lojy ‘oTLoTy ~~~ [ooydg apeay, ey} 4e oe. a 480d AUILY 48 eee peyloqry] ezeld SO[LOT] “O[LOT] SOTLOT] “O[LOT] SO[LO[T “O[LO]T |" -OoUe Tg OUBLIPY a]BO ‘opajoy, ‘nqag “£00 -BAB[Od ULUIIay O[[W@D ‘opealoy, ‘nqeo Se ee ee evyojedsq ‘opejoy, ‘nqag oe aie age a Seas Ce ae opeloy, ‘nqeag ‘ordiolunut fopejoy, ‘nqeg Sesuo0qis ‘nqep ayisoddo wzejd uo gon a5 oldrorunul 1vou 60T 801 LOT 901 SOT GP TP OF 6§ 8& L& 9& cé FE €& la ee eit, dh acd ano lage on eo i. «a oo a ER URS * CTR daa eh IO Tig ——- oo ae Ps a) cue varie eae wn at a ia RS, i Fos i , _“ Ff”, REVIEWS Cocoa | by | Dr. C. J. J. van Hall | director of the Institute for Plant- Diseases and Cultures, | Buitenzorg, Java | with illustrations and map | Macmillan and Co., Limited | St. Martin’s Street, London | 1914 | Cloth, pp. i-xvi+1-515. The Coco-nut | by | Edwin Bingham Copeland | professor of plant phys- iology and dean of the | College of Agriculture, University of | the Philippines | Macmillan and Co., Limited | St. Martin’s Street, London | 1914 | Cloth, pp. i-xiv-+1-212. The literature of tropical agriculture has been notably en- riched by the appearance of these two new works. The devel- opment of tropical agriculture during the past twenty-five years has presented many interesting and noteworthy features. It has differed markedly from the development of temperate-region agriculture, and it has been able to borrow comparatively little from the latter. Many of its crops are entirely peculiar to the tropics, and tropical conditions furnish a series of wholly unique problems. ‘Tropical planters have had to feel their way by pain- ful steps, gradually gaining the local experience necessary for successful, practical operations. Even this kind of develop- ment has been far more rapid than in the case of temperate region agriculture, largely due to the fact that tropical agri- culture has been characterized by the investment of large capital. The capital invested gradually drew to its service well-trained technical men from the temperate countries. In late years the establishment in colonial possessions of active agricultural ex- perimental stations has given a great impetus to the development of the technical side of tropical agriculture. Much of the early literature of tropical agriculture consisted of accounts of the personal experiences in tropical planting of untrained men, some of whom, however, in the school of hard experience finally became very successful planters. Until within the last decade really high-grade technical works on tropical agriculture were very few, and even yet works like Semler’s Tropische Agrikultur and War- burg’s Die Muskatnuss remain very rare. _ There is the same difference between the mass of the earlier literature and these later works as exists between a farm school and a college of agriculture. The methods of the farm school Wel 172 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 are those of formula and precept, largely of only local applica- tion. The students of the farm school cannot receive the basic scientific training which would enable them either to coérdinate or to generalize their results safely, or to understand clearly the reasons back of their practical operations. As Doctor van Hall clearly shows, many of the cacao ‘experts’ of former years commonly failed in this. On the other hand, the college of agriculture requires a thorough preparation in the sciences basic to agriculture, in order that its students may be able to apply more or less sound reasoning to all agricultural phe- nomena and problems that may present themselves, and also enable them to adapt their practice and learning, on the basis of intelligent ratiocination, to a wide range of natural con- ditions. The unexpected is the daily diet of the tropical planter. The two books under consideration well represent the college grade of tropical agricultural science. They are exceedingly rich in the application of modern science to the growing of two very important tropical crops. They probably represent the highest development yet attained in the agronomy of any trop- ical crop. In a number of otherwise great special works on tropical agriculture this aspect—the art and science of produc- ing the crop—has been seriously neglected, due largely, of course, ‘to the lack of the exact data that can only be obtained by comprehensive and long-continued experimentation. This is characteristic of works on cane, for example, in which the manufacturing side has received the major attention; although, with the highly important results of the past few years, a good preliminary text on the agronomy of cane is now for the first time possible. In a recent very extensive work on cacao only 20 pages are devoted to the entire agronomy-side of the subject. While the two present works represent the latest and most com- plete results in the agronomy of these crops, still, all through their pages there are encountered references to points and problems yet unsolved. Doctor van Hall’s work is particularly valuable in that it includes a critical review, characterized by clear thinking and technical treatment, of all important previous works on cacao. Such an attempt to codrdinate and explain the great diversity of former opinion is of the highest possible importance in the development of tropical agriculture. Formerly the planter or student was quite lost in the maze of diverse local opinion, unless, perchance, there happened to exist works relat- ing to operations in his own locality. Doctor van Hall makes available to the student and to the planter the well-digested results from all regions, although he says nothing calculated X, A, 2 Reviews 173 to minimize the great importance of local experience. On the contrary, in his preface he remarks: “This does not mean that the intention of the book is to teach the reader cocoa-planting, and it is not expected that anyone unacquainted with cocoa- culture will become a cocoa-planter by reading the book from beginning to end.” Again, he remarks very aptly that “often the practical man knows how he has to treat his trees or his soil in order to get his best result, but not why.’ He further explains that there are many things which “cannot be learned in the field,” and this is a point sometimes lost sight of by some too obstinately “practical” men—men who still harbor the an- tiquated falsity that any line can be drawn between “science” and “practice.” In Doctor van Hall’s full account of the development of cacao culture in many countries one finds of very live interest the description of the peculiar methods of culture in Surinam, and the story of the growth of the industry in the Gold Coast. In the latter country we probably have one of the most remarkable examples in existence of the possible influence of foreigners upon the agricultural development of an essentially primitive people. In 1901, 80 kilograms of cacao were exported from the Gold Coast. In 1911 the country produced more than 40,000,000 kilograms; however, this does not mean the result of investment of large capital, but development of the common people. This evidence of real results in practical colonial agri- cultural development is one to which we can unfortunately offer no remote parallel in the Philippines, where the people possess a country naturally adapted to cacao, but where they do not yet produce enough to supply their own local needs, and this nearly two hundred fifty years after its successful introduction! A thousand copies, at least, of Doctor van Hall’s book should find readers in the Philippines. Doctor Copeland’s book is a splendid example of scholarly and scientific treatment. It is, perhaps, the best case extant in a work on any single major tropical crop of the application of modern biological methods to all the details of the agro- nomical side of the subject. An innovation in this work, of the highest possible importance, consists of a thorough considera- tion of the physiology of the coconut tree. There is no doubt but that this will prove an epoch-marking event for the agron- omy of all crops and of all countries. We would have little re- spect for a system of medicine, or confidence in its methods, in which there was no provision for thorough technical study of the 174 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 physiology of the human body, yet the agronomy of most trop- ical and many temperate crops is exactly in this condition— the details of the life operations of the plants in question, as to their foraging ability, food elaboration, water requirements, transpiration habits, organic reaction to surrounding conditions, and specific reaction to disease, being unknown. The experience of the practical planter is one continuous struggle with serious problems, many of which might easily be solved through fuller knowledge of the detailed physiological operations and needs of the plant he is attempting to grow. It seems that if anything is to be expected from real colleges of agriculture as distin- guished from farm schools, and more particularly expected from colleges of agriculture in universities, it is a thorough grounding in these basic lines of work that shall enable students to approach the practical problems of agronomy with broad intelligence and really adequate equipment. In this connection Doctor Cope- land’s book furnishes the best example of what a textbook for a college of tropical agriculture should be. His work is, of course, not final in any respect, and he clearly recognizes, as does Doctor van Hall, that the science of tropical agronomy is an extremely undeveloped one. In the face of this fact some temperate- region agronomists do not seem to be able to understand why things should not be done thus and so in the tropics—along lines well-established in temperate regions. The light will not dawn upon such, or rather the knowledge of the lack of light, until they join the ranks of pioneers in a new tropical country and undertake the practical establishment of well-ordered cacao or coconut plantations. It is evident, for instance, in Doctor Cope- land’s discussion of fertilizers, that the subject is still an open one, no comprehensive experiments having yet been carried through a sufficiently long term of years. The subject of the seed selection of the coconut still requires thorough investigation and experimentation. Doctor Copeland does not mention the interesting case of the small island of Rotumah in the South Seas, which is said to produce coconuts of unusual size and value. These coconuts, in years past, are said to have been used extensively for the establishment of plantations in other islands, some being reputed to have brought as much as a shilling apiece as seed. It would be a matter of the highest interest and importance to trace the results obtained from these seeds in other islands and under other conditions. The immediate effect of Doctor Copeland’s book will be the stimulation of students, planters, and investigators to more acute Sei Reviews 175 attention to scientific methods in the solving of the very num- erous problems in coconut culture. It should be a matter of pride to the University of the Philippines that it has furnished to the world so notable a work of this character. Many will disagree with Doctor van Hall on the use of the word “cocoa.” The original Mexican name of the plant is variously given as ‘“‘cacahuatl,” “cacaguata,” or “caquahuitl,” and the original Spanish derivative was “cacao.” The last form seems to be in very wide use, especially in the Spanish-speaking countries. ‘‘Cocoa’”’ is the name commonly applied to the fat- free breakfast powder, and might well be restricted to that application. Nor will everyone agree as to the need of a hyphen in the word “coconut.” In both of these books the treatment of fungous diseases and insect pests is especially complete and practical, and this feature alone would make the appearance of the two works exceedingly opportune. Doctor van Hall’s treatment of the subject of cacao varieties is unquestionably far in advance of any yet presented. The typographical work in both books is admirable, the type being large and clear, and the illustrations—with which both works are replete—being on the whole of exceptionally good quality. The paper used in Doctor van Hall’s book is of a much better grade than that in Doctor Copeland’s. Both works seem to be remarkably free from typographical errors, the few which do occur rarely confusing the sense, and these few will be corrected in succeeding impressions. C. F. BAKER. a) ‘ Wy f n } ¥ 5} a ‘ Ps ps ae 4 rT A . 7 — ' wi oO at ba. a ears i; «ag afd heal va f Ps 7. a \ yy me 4 P ‘ i ‘ Oe a Ary car | ele ‘ a Shy { j PRA WA ai 5 Ve ou ' < Pet od eh ie cee We os e. i on der ide bat 7 r SiC’ * ~~ re - a x¢ 4 . .* SP > »* a, x7 4 j ars * * J rs § ma, of : tc : ? . ' % 5 Ra, < nf x s' 7 : ats eee 4 z ate ‘nul “7 . 7 " 1%, % ‘ ~ ee , 4 : ; Wate oa" : 7 <<) r . . vide ‘ i ro ae SS ) : } - ‘ , . : . arn't, GOERS Sat Fila Ny ot PER AT. ert eed ote. fet Ran, 2 “CONTENTS - Sehr Ss ‘ » im 7 A, > 7 . » a | a ay ees GIBBS, H. D. ‘Proposed ‘Modification of Ylang ylang Oil, Stand. 4% BES! a2snsccrtoby teanteneiesravanetnl hvenehanig nian cnasnsbord dons eeabdbe senna stale dh 9 | ah BRILL, HARVEY CC: and AGCAOILI, FRANCISCO. Philippine. Oil-bearing Seeds and their Properties: Wij... 0...4 00 Th 5 BRILL, HARVEY C. The Enzymes of Cacao. csccnann i: ae HEISE, GEORGE W. Water Supplies in the Philippine Islands: Il. vam Petrino econ ohatiag moTk fr ae.ak, naa Se REVIEWS “oe Hiel: Sik ale Ae a Ta A la ee sos eee Oe rit ed ee ’ it pe o* , ry : ps Bees The “Philippine. Soares of Science” is fssued as fulowy:: 8 ' Section A. Chemical and Geological Sciences and the Eotbasibie.: ’ Section B, Tropical Medicine coruigrnedaoras steadier ret: BS SRS “ 2% ‘Section OF Botany. eR Re eR ee enw newer e Pb Se Sepa Sak Ca oare u Ns \s< %3 Section ‘D. General Biology, Ethnology, and “Bra x? “tlon D. began with Volume. V) ----: Bel AIO et, I _Entire Journal, Volume II, U1, V, 0 wanannanceensneene= . Entire Journal, beginning with Volume VI tensions ; Single numbers (except of Volume I Cee igre Each section is separately paged and opie Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free. 7) ee i a Volame I, 1906 (not divided into sections soy Ma and pre: ‘sold — -_ only with a complete file of section A, B, or © aon sae. ‘Supplement to Volume I (botany) --..--.-.4.---- in SP Hie DAES 7 Volume I (without supplement), sold only ith a complete file o section A, B; or Onsen ne sense “Single numbers of Volume I = Publications sent in exchange’ for. fine Philippine ; should be addressed: Library, Bureau of Science, a - \~ Subscriptions may be sent to the Business Manact nal of Science, Bureau of se ie Magie®. 4 listed below; A Es The Macmillan Company, eaes Fites, Abandeat . Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Cae Fi page _ Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, The Hague, Ho a Mayer & Miiller, Prinz Louis ‘Ferdinandstrasse: as alana N. W. 5 SL ARRNY © AM Beef spe “Kelly & Walsh, Limited, 32 Raflles Place / A.M. & J. Ferguson, 19 Baillie Street, Ficercige engine & 3 Pp. o. Box 54, D ti oy hate we PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE, “ ETHNOLOGY ~ ETHNOLOGY—Continaed | Re A VOCABULARY OF THE IGOROT The STUDIES ™ MORO HISTORY, Law, et S GUAGE AS SPOKEN BY THE AND RELIGION o.. BONTOC IGOROTS By Wacten Ciayron Ohare) ¥ “By Nase M. Satzne Sree 408 : Order’ No. 405. Paper, 107 pages, 16 Order eal, Paper, 89 pages, $0.75, | plates, ene) .25; half cu “rocco, postp 2" The vocabulary is ven In Igorot-English - and Endlleb-igorot: by ee . This Volume deals with the » earliest f ' written records of the Moros In Mindanac. , —-~ , A tecorded five folding 6 lass capngs, | ore ae a _ reco fn rams. : THE NABALOI DIALECT : Det P: ‘ai! ; By Orto Scuseam: ; . PE BIH, Brokat RS Sell r _ | WEGRITOS OF ZAMBALES THE BATAKS OF PALAWAN —=—“—~“CSCS*‘«SB:s Weta AN Emm 7} 4 . ¥ ~ _ By Evwanro Y. Mivume Oe No es Order’ No. 403. Paper, $0.25; half mo- 9.291 “hall * roceo, $0.75; postpaid. eS Rat oe One, ‘@ The Nabaloi Dialect (65 pages, 29 - a tom photograp many ° which | aoe cape ne Palawan (7 Motta hten for ae ee ies of shew OFT _ pages, 6 pla ed ha od under one cover, © ouses, bamboo, bows and arrows, danoes, and various types. Pr (2) he ——— Ay of the people themssives. re Ee or ‘si zi our 7 NF ite OX / a GuaGEs 4 » INDUSTRIES + ‘By Orto Scummum | OS OO) ero gars 6) oN and” bo hs horas a Ae eG A ER athe: By S.& Roermeaw =e END LANGUAGES: Order No. 415. Paber, 66 pages, & + te plates, $0.50 postpal et aA ett By Car.os Eyenert Conant: ‘ ; : j ey. This. paper. isa concise 4: of Order No. .407. ‘ _hlttory ie Bresent condition oS aes “.” These. two papers are. lesued ane one > Femeriveemee Sraby tingt mace cover, 141 pages, paper, an besipane By HEnsext S. WALKm © Order No. 410. Papar, 121 pages, 2! . Order No. 412 Paper, 145 pages, map, 29 plates, $1.25, postpaid. “ ~- plates, 2 map, $1.25, postpaid. oe Sindangan Bay is situated on tho narth- . “Considered from the viewpoint of 5 ern coast of Si ee Peninsula.. The Su- * tical utility, Mr. Walker's Sugar. Industry banuns of this region were studied by Mr, ~ in the Island of) Negros Is one of the Christie during two periods of five and six ~~ Important papers - published by the Bureau weeks, respectively. \, of Science. . This volume is & real contribu- he 29 plates “iulustrate the ‘Subanuns at _ © ‘tion to the subleats itis not a woere core. work and, at ‘play; their industries, houses, pilation, for the author was ip the. and altars, - and implements; and the people understands the Same wh. : . th themselves. - » i. : ‘HE HISTORY OF suLU | By Nasess M. Satrepy Me ge Ue a 2 di Sti Keen Hirt by Ss. Be é ~maps;’ agrams, sake: = + ‘ * In the preparation ‘ef his, manusoript for Ne No. ee Paper, 53 ried 20” The History of Su are Ooctor Saleeby spent ri ‘ee: . much time and effort in gaining oo _ oP . = — c Cagayan: Valley Extrusive Mt Amuyao 2700 m THE PLUTONIC ROCKS The plutonic rocks consist of granite and diorite. The granite—This formation was found at two points, a short distance east of Bontoc and in the Saltan Valley. It appears to be a long intrusive mass, whose axis runs from northwest to southeast. It is a typical quartz-feldspar-bio- tite granite and has a grayish to glaring white appearance in the Fic. 2. Generalized geologic section across northern Luzon, from Tagudin to the eastern coast. Sandstone and Shale Malaya Pass XA, 18 Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 193 field. The feldspars are milky white. No microscopic examina- tion of the feldspar has been made. The joining in this forma- tion is particularly marked. The diorite-—The diorite is a quartz-plagioclase-hornblende variety with some orthoclase and lies on both sides of the granite. Bordering the granite, and apparently in the diorite, are several large quartz bodies, which will be referred to again. These plutonic rocks are undoubtedly very much more extensive than they appear to be, but are concealed by the overlying extrusives. ' The diorite I consider to be the basal formation, although it may subsequently be found to be intrusive as well. I regard the granite as an intrusion of rather recent date, equivalent to the late intrusion in the Paracale district farther south. THE EXTRUSIVES Von Drasche has already described the typical extrusives found in this region, and I have little to add to his list. However, he does not make any mention, I believe, of the occurrence of dacite, a glaring white rock with small phenocrysts of clear quartz in a dense, creamy white aphanitic groundmass. I found this well developed near the junction of the main Cervantes trail and the Sagada trail at kilometer 6, south of Bontoc. Its relation to the rest of the extrusive mass, which is andesitic, is difficult to make out even in the fresh cliffs along the trail. It may be an in- trusive. It is not essentially different from the Corregidor rock. There were undoubtedly several vents from which these ex- trusives issued, and one of these seems to be clearly indicated in a sort of broken-down craterlike topographic feature west and north of the town of Bontoc. The presence of tuff beds near the town dipping away from this center seems to bear out this supposition. Fig. 3 is a sketch of Bontoc and vicinity, showing the relationships obtaining there. The list of extrusives, compiled both from von Drasche’s and my own observations, includes: basalt, pyroxene-andesite, horn- blende-andesite, andesitic agglomerate, dacite, and tuff. A description ° of the extrusives in the Benguet region applies essentially to the extrusive rocks farther north. THE SEDIMENTARIES The sedimentary rocks in this region include the following: Limestone, marl, tuff, tuffaceous sandstone, sandstone, shale, conglomerate, calcareous and siliceous sinter, and travertine. ° Smith, W. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 235. 134370—2 194 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Limestone.—Limestone in the high mountain region of Luzon is widespread though not necessarily extensive. It is manifested by remnants here and there, generally on the high mountain tops, and by “float” in the streams. One is led to believe that it for- merly extended over practically the entire country. The most extensive development of it is probably at Sagada, where we find it projecting from the soil and talus in great masses as shown in the photograph (Plate IV). The bedding planes, which can be distinctly made out even in the picture, dip about 20° southeast. On the weathered surfaces the stone \Crater- like depression IR WNC SER eae Ls SY /, 0 = ‘ 4 b AIAN //{ a va i hr Lolita / J | Hi es if if / My | 1 ' \ a Andesite Mess ; a Rute Fic. 3. Sketch of the vicinity of Bontoc. is bluish gray, but on fresh fracture it is cream white to reddish. Plate IV, fig. 2, shows the characteristic spirelike forms pro- duced by the dissolving action of the heavy rainfall of this region. A thin section of the rock shows innumerable fragments of the well-known Mio-Pliocene marine alga, Lithothamnium ra- mosissimum Reuss. This formation, therefore, is equivalent to the upper limestone in Cebu and many other parts of the Archipelago. In this limestone at Sagada are numerous sinks and some caves. In the entrance chambers of the caves the Igorots place their dead. One cave has a chamber as large as the auditorium of a x, A, 3 Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 195 small theater and is said to have passages several kilometers in length. I made no extensive exploration of these, as I felt that this was purely a side issue, having no fundamental bearing on the more general field studies then in hand. Cave exploration in this region would probably not yield any paleontological results as the amount of water carried through these passages at certain seasons would undoubtedly remove any such remains. In another way their exploration is of practical value. For instance, near Baguio just the same sort of cavernous limestone, in places concealed by the tuff and talus, has been responsible for some very serious slides along the Benguet road. And, also, at Sagada I think the limestone must be held responsible for some rather extensive landslides. In traversing the hills about Sagada (just south of the mission), I found a conglomerate of apparently purely local de- velopment above the limestone. It consists of a sandy and reddish matrix with limestone pebbles in it. This conglomerate is not to be correlated with the “Agno beds,” which are far below both topographically and stratigraphically. Marl.—Von Drasche has already called attention to the marly layers intercalated in the upper limestone near Sagada. These can be seen in several places in the road south of the Mission, but they are only thin layers and are not of any economic im- portance. The mar] is buff-colored. Tuff—As would be expected in a region of formerly great vulcanism, tuff beds are a dominant feature of the sedimentaries. At Sagada, where Father Staunton, of the Sagada Mission, has opened a quarry to secure material for his new church, is per- haps the best section of the tuff beds to be seen anywhere in the province. The face of the quarry is about 15 meters high and reveals the following beds: 1. Soil and loose material. . Tuff in heavy beds, 1.5 to 3 meters. . Yellow-stained shale, 0.5 meter. . Tuff in solid bed with varying texture, 18 meters. 5. Bluish black shaly-looking rock which is very fine-grained, 1 meter. m co bo In this section the strata appear to be nearly horizontal, as the face is approximately along the strike. The dip is about 20° to the southeast. In the shaly portions are great numbers of leaf impressions, some fine specimens of which I secured through the assistance of Mr. McBrust, the engineer of the Sagada Mission. These leaf impressions are so perfect and so much _ like some of the living lowland plants that I submitted them to 196 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Mr. E. D. Merrill, botanist of the Bureau of Science, for identi- fication. His illuminating notes are inserted here: The fossil remains, mostly remarkably clear leaf impressions, all, or nearly all, represent species still living in the Philippines at low and medium altitudes, and an examination of the material shows that the forest in the Bontoc locality was a typical mixed dipterocarp forest such as is found to-day in all parts of the Philippines, where primeval vegetation persists, from sea level to an altitude of about 800 meters. None of the species is found to-day within the limits of Bontoc subprovince, and very few of them are to be found in any part of Mountain Province. None of them is found above an altitude of approximately 800 meters, while the present altitude of the fossil-bearing strata is 1,500 meters. DIPTEROCARPACEAE SHOREA POLYSPERMA Merr. (Tanguile). Impressions match leaves from living trees beautifully. Throughout the greater part of the Philippines at low and medium altitudes, ascending to about 700 meters. Common. Endemic. SHOREA GUISO Bl. (Guiso). Throughout the greater part of the Philippines at low altitudes, abundant. Ascends to at least 500 meters. Endemic. SHOREA sp. (may be S. eximia Miq.). Like the preceding, but less common. Malaya. ANISOPTERA THURIFERA Bl. ? Widely distributed at low altitudes. Endemic. The identification must be considered doubtful, but it is certainly a dipterocarp. LAURACEAE BEILSCHMIEDIA CAIROCAN Vid. (Cairocan). Widely distributed in the northern and central Philippines at low and medium altitudes. Ascends to perhaps 500 meters. Endemic. PHOEBE STERCULIOIDES Mess. Like the preceding, but in all or most parts of the Philippines at low altitudes. Ascends to 500 meters. GUTTIFERAE CALOPHYLLUM BLANCOI Pl. & Tr. (Palo maria del monte). Widely distributed in the northern and central Philippines at low and medium altitudes. Ascends to 600 meters. Endemic, unless the same is a Malayan species. TILIACEAE DIPLODISCUS PANICULATUS Turez. (Bolobo). Throughout the Philippines at low altitudes, ascending to 500 meters. Common and abundant. A monotypic, endemic genus. X, A, 3 Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 197 MENISPERMACEAE ANAMIRTA COCCULUS W. & A. (Suma). Widely distributed in the Philippines at low and medium altitudes, India to Malaya. : CYPERACEAE MAPANIA HUMILIS F.-Vill. The identification is not certain. The species is found throughout the Philippines in mixed forests from sea level to 600 meters and is abundant locally. The impression may be that of a leaflet of Calamus sp. (Palmae). INDETERMINABLE Cast of a fruit that conceivably may be that of a more or less distorted Pterospermum (Sterculiaceae). Faint impression of a crushed stem or a monocotyledonous leaf. Quite indeterminable. Imperfect remains of several other kinds of leaves, the material quite indeterminable. These tuff beds are in all likelihood equivalent to the great series of tuff beds in Java in which Pithecanthropus erectus Du Bois was found, and which were once thought to be Pliocene, but have recently been shown by Schuster’ to be Pleistocene. Schuster bases his conclusions upon the plant remains inclosed in the strata. Special attention is invited to Plate XXVII of Schuster’s work, where a graphic section of the tuff strata exposed at Trinil is given. The conclusion to be drawn from the presence of these fossil leaves is clearly that there has been very recent and very pronounced elevation in this part of Luzon. It does not argue a change in climate in the Philippine region other than that at- tendant upon a change of elevation. All the evidence we now have points to the fact that there probably has been little or no regional change in climate throughout the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary in this part of the world. The fact that the nipa palm, now growing in the Philippines, is found fossilized in the London clay (Miocene) indicates that essentially Tertiary conditions still prevail in this part of the world. In 1911 there was a landslide of considerable extent in this region, due probably in part to the tuff and in part to the lime- stone as indicated in the diagram in fig. 4. The subsidence amounted to as much as 15 meters in places and carried the entire village of Ambasing with it. The line of the fault can still be seen on the hillside. The area affected is about 2.5 square kilometers. ‘Schuster, Julius, Monographie der Fossilen der Pithecanthropus Schich- ten, Abh. d. k. bayr. Akad. Wiss. (1911), 25, Abh. 6. 198 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Tuffaceous sandstone.—Throughout this region, but partic- ularly near the volcanic area, are beds which can with difficulty be differentiated from tuff on the one hand and true sandstones on the other. This material is found in its most puzzling aspect at Lubuagan, the capital of Kalinga. The truth of the matter is that the constituents of both the tuff and the sandstone came from the disintegration of volcanic rocks. Whether they were derived from material blown out by explosion or by subsequent erosion can only be told by examination of the shape and condition of the component grains. The point is that the constituents in both cases may be much the same. As one goes eastward it becomes easier to make these distinctions. Fic. 4. Sketch showing slide near Sagada. Sandstone.—A typical exposure of what might be termed the Kalinga sandstone is found on the banks of Chico River near the Nipon resthouse. At this place the sandstone and alternating shale beds are exposed for almost a kilometer on the west bank of the river. The dip of these beds is 65° and a trifle to the north of west. The sandstone is a coarse, grayish to buff material, which shows plainly its derivation from andesitic rocks. Along the bedding planes ripple and wave marks are very plain and abundant. There also was seen an impression apparently made by a long-stemmed reedlike plant. Unfortunately this specimen is too imperfect for identification. It is possibly the remains of a gigantic sea weed, or a reed which grew in brackish water or in the swamps near the sea. No animal remains were found in this exposure, but at a road camp along the trail between GIGS Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 199 Lubuagan and Sician, in the sandy shale portions of what must be the same series, I found the following forms: Turbo borneénsis Bttgr. (?). Cassidaria sp. Pecten senatorius K. Mart. Tapes sp. Pecten leopardus K. Mart. Dosinia sp. Cardium sp. Turbinella tyidamarensis K. Mart. Conus sp. Fragments of Alcyonaria. Cycloseris decipiens K. Mart. The presence of these fossils stamp this formation as Mio- Pliocene. Shales.—The shales which are found intercalated in the sand- stones of this region grade imperceptibly into them. Mineral- ogically they are the same and differ merely in grain size. Plate V, fig. 1, gives an excellent idea of their field occurrence. The thickness of these beds would in the aggregate amount to from 300 to 600 meters. The repeated alternation of sandy and shaly layers in practically all of the sections, but particularly in this one, indicates that these beds were laid down in shallow water. The cliff shown in the photograph is one of the most dangerous on the trail between Bontoc and Lubuagan, due to the crumbling nature of the beds, together with the inclination, which is approx- imately 45°. No fossils have been found here. The conglomerate.—I have alluded already to a local conglom- erate associated with the limestone at Sagada, but the one I shall refer to now is the basal conglomerate equivalent to the “Agno beds” of von Drasche. It does not appear to be developed to the extent of the beds in the type locality on Agno River or along Bued River. This formation is mineralogically the same as the sandstone and the shale, the difference again being one of grain size. Naturally we find andesitic and dioritic material predominating, as these rocks predominated in the ancient head- lands of the Tertiary seas. It is very easy to confuse some of the conglomerates with the volcanic agglomerates. Also the sandstones, in places, through concentric weathering, simulate the conglomerates. I have no idea at present of the thickness or extent of these conglomerates. Sinter.—In this region hot springs are occasionally found where great quantities of siliceous and calcareous sinter are to be seen. At Salinas, in Asin Valley, one finds the best and most beautiful deposits (Plate V, fig. 2). At Mainit, near Bontoc, there are terraces, but the Balotoc hot spring deposits practically no sinter. Travertine.—We cannot omit from a complete list of sedimen- taries the ubiquitous deposits of travertine here and there in the 200 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 streams, attesting the presence of a limestone remnant some- where farther upstream. As pointed out in discussing other parts of the Archipelago this deposit is found most abundantly on shale, and wherever it occurs it completely obliterates the rocks beneath. STRUCTURE The generalized cross section will give a clearer idea of the structure in the province than any amount of description. Considering northern Luzon broadly, we note on the extreme east an anticline (presumably—l have no specific information concerning the structure of the eastern cordillera) with the Cagayan syncline, or trough, immediately to the west. From this trough the sedimentaries rise gradually, with minor folds, in a long monocline until they abut on the igneous complex of the Cordillera Central. To the west of the cordillera is the long tectonic trough occupied by Abra River. It is not yet proved whether this is a rift valley or not, but certainly it has a strong resemblance to one. As much of the country has been covered with volcanic ejecta, it is difficult without more field work to discuss the structure in many parts of the region. It is not unlikely that there was a broad, gentle arch of younger sediments, chiefly limestone, over the Cordillera Central, judging from remnants of this formation on the crests of some of the highest ranges, but even here the evidence is not sufficient. Eve- land § has already suggested this. In conclusion, we may say that the grain (to use a word em- ployed by Professor Gregory, of Glasgow) of northern Luzon is north and south, as we would expect from a glance at the align- ment of its topographic features alone. Many irregularities in strike and dip with faults complicate the study of the region. GEOLOGIC HISTORY It is a question whether any one has done enough geologic work in this part of Luzon to give other than suggestions of the geologic history. Von Drasche does not say enough about the sediments in this region, undoubtedly because he did not get far enough eastward to encounter them. Not only was there a long period of subsidence, but this was interrupted by minor oscillations of level as indicated by the rapid change in the character of the sediments. He says nothing about the great * This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 207. x, A, 3 Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 201 earth movements as indicated by the present folded condition of these sediments. One would get the impression from von Drasche that con- siderable quantities of plant remains are to be found in the marl beds. I found none in the marl, but all were in the tuff beds. I saw no schist in that part of the area I explored. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY The economic portion of this report will of necessity be brief. The semiwild state of most of the territory and the comparatively untutored condition of the people, of course, precludes any but the most rudimentary utilization of the mineral resources. In the following discussion I shall consider not only the useful minerals known to exist but some possibilities as well. NONMETALS Clay products.—There are undoubtedly many localities within this territory where both residual and transported clays can be obtained. Pottery making is here, as throughout the Philippines, a household industry. The chief locality for its manufacture is at the town of Samoqui, just across the river from Bontoc. The clay is very poor and sandy and burns red. There is some attempt at decoration, and there is a slight glaze given to the pots by the use of resin, if I am correctly informed. This indus- try has been described by Jenks.°® On the Bontoc side a fair grade of red brick is made by Igorots under the superintendence of Americans. All of the public build- ings of the capital of the province have been constructed of this brick. The industry was started by John Early, formerly a school-teacher stationed at Bontoc. The effect of these brick structures is a very pleasing one. Apparently there have been no earthquakes of sufficient importance to cause any damage, and with the exception of this danger this type of construction seems to be excellently adapted to the country. Sand-lime brick could easily be made in many localities in this section. The principal cost would lie in the generation of steam, and the manufacture might not be economical on that score. Coal.—Thin streaks of coal have been reported from various places in Mountain Province, but I have not seen any that promise to be of commercial value. I believe that the changes ° Op. cit. 902 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 in sedimentation were so rapid as to preclude the formation of workable thicknesses of coal. Farther east in the syncline occupied by Cagayan Valley, where quieter conditions prevailed and gradual subsidence took place, coal deposits could and did form.*® Lime.—As limestone is found at many points in the province, if not always in place, in stream bowlders in great numbers, an abundance of lime could be made. At present practically the only limestone burned is at the Sagada Mission, where Father Staunton has installed two iron kilns of foreign make. As al- ready mentioned, there is an abundance of pure white (and some reddish) limestone belonging to the Pliocene epoch, which makes a very good lime. According to Mr. McBrust a very good hydraulic lime is secured by burning the red variety. The supply is practically all used locally. Oil.—As yet no oil seeps have been reported from this part of Luzon, but it is not improbable that such may be found in the sedimentary area in the eastern part of this region where the structure is not unfavorable. Salt.—The three best-known salt springs in this region are, beginning at the south: 1. Salinas, located in the Asin Valley. This has been described by Cox.! 2. Mainit, located about 12 kilometers northwest of Bontoc, which has been described by Jenks.” 3. Balotoc, located about 10 kilometers east from Lubuagan. The trail to Balotoc is about 20 kilometers long, and the traveling is pretty rough in places. This spring differs very materially from the other two in that in the first two there is a consider- able deposit of calcareous and siliceous sinter with a small amount of salt, whereas in the latter there is no appreciable deposition of sinter, but the water as it issues from the spring seems to be saturated with salt. The process of concentrating the salt for use is, therefore, a very simple one, as the natives simply run the water through bamboo tubes into caldrons, where the water is evaporated by boiling. At Mainit and Salinas the opera- tion requires as much as three months, while at Balotoc only a day or so is necessary. The headman at this place told us that he recovered seven packages, of about 5 kilograms each, per week in one caldron. ” Cf. Ferguson, H. G., This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 535. 4 Min. Res. P. I. for 1911 (1912), 63. ™ Op: cit. x%A,3 Smith: Reconnaissance of Mountain Province 203 The country rock at both Mainit and Balotoc is andesite. The water bubbles up at boiling temperature from very small fissures. At the former locality the spring is located in the bottom of a gully and gives rise to a small stream, but at Balotoc the water issues from the bank of Tabia River. In the rainy season the water in the river rises above the vents, and all operations have to cease. Following are analyses of the two waters made after both had stood sealed for several weeks: TABLE I.—Analyses of waters from hot springs, northern Luzon.* [Figures give parts per million.] Constituent. Mainit. | Balotoc. Sil can (SiO 2) perce ae Memes cee eae ihe ts ee tne ate ee Cpe et Hues eae 195.0 817.5 Herricjoxide ands aluminay (2s) yee serait alee eee rayne es Sua Tee 88.0 85.0 Calciumvoxides(Ca@) Seale See ane Ae i AE INS EE WS Ek ee a 127.5 867.5 Malonesiumioxidey (Me @) |. 225s wee iee dhe Ls doe ee ere a a Me ad ie al al Sodiumyroxid ef (Nao) eae Ne eee es Sha finle = MY lea Nee cy Whaad 457.0 | 8,688.0 IPOtassiumMLOxiden(Kie@) Mea nis eee ere eae Sala in es We Ou ale isa tie eet 23.1] 1,579.6 Carbonic acid radical: (COs) ____.---__...---------------- pee AEN Oe UAV EG) [ei See a Sulphuricjacidiradicall(SO4) aa eae en ee eae eee eke a 295.4 236.1 BIOTIN eK Cl) see ee es ae Ee Se ae ae seer eh EEE el 752.6 | 11,590.0 ADO EN a ee A ene IN EO ee a ne 2,147.9 | 23, 370.8 ® Samples collected by W. D. Smith. Analyses by Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science, Manila. Sp. gr. at 33° C., 1.010. From these we note particularly two things: namely, the great difference in the sodium chloride content of the two waters and the apparent discrepancy in the case of the silica. This is explained by the fact that the silica of the Mainit water is deposited at once and almost before it can be bottled. It might be asked whether the existence of buried deposits in beds is indicated by these waters. I do not think so, but believe that the action of subterranean waters of some kind on the igneous rocks will account for the presence of these springs. There are, at least, no surface indications of sediments of any kind in the vicinity. Sulphur.—About 2 kilometers southeast and perhaps 300 meters above and across the river from the Balotoc springs are eight large steam vents from which copious sulphur fumes issue, and deposited about these are several hundred tons of sulphur. It is said that the insurgents had planned a powder factory here during the late insurrection, but it is evident that they did nothing more than talk about it. This sulphur in its present location has no commercial value. There are likewise 204 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 some small vents near the river 30 meters or so upstream from the salt springs. The whole countryside shows evidence of dying vulcanism. Road metal.—For the most part the only highways in this country are horse trails; consequently there is at present little demand for road metal, but we can assert with entire assurance that there will never be any dearth of suitable material when it is needed. There is no lack of “trap rock,” which term the road engineer employs to designate several varieties of igneous rock. A very good stone for the traffic utilizing it is now used on the streets of Bontoc. It is a whitish rock, some phases of which resemble dacite, and affords a firm, hard, quickly drying surface. It is abundant just south of the town. Building stone.—Stone for construction purposes is quarried in two localities. One of these is a gray, impure sandstone, derived from the débris of andesitic rocks, which occurs at Kian- gan; the other is a tuffaceous sandstone at Sagada. The two are superficially much alike. At Lubuagan the school authorities are planning to use a similar stone for building a schoolhouse. My opinion, which has been asked for by local authorities, is that this stone, while superficially much like the stone in the other localities mentioned, is really of very inferior quality. It is a grayish, tuffaceous sandstone, fairly fine-grained, in places coarse, and composed of andesitic detritus. The chief mineral fragments are lime- soda feldspars and hornblende with little or no quartz. ¢ ‘iow (yy aid sank aR ht 38 Yew SLE See ieelit't Oh) 1 erat, Brick. i, ijewtens »oinotgieee ore, Bae fa eyo. ofaAhees tits AY) Lee uty ‘oe wei roe Nd, 50 oy On Lint Any! Si aise h ‘f ak bdshed tale elie Sania. i proliant a iit LD, 18 Malden tod i oY din fOn fii ee Dt if sii hice, Wi a A hat! and tr Aa SFT fii) ad vias « 14 “18 ates ao bagged iar {2 tepoh wave ety posted y niet fs. Ano AL ue RAT pod wie iat 3 et tt : Phrazq.a aif Soli aig a PU; 4a Sl To te oe fil yung . ‘Siri t jes ‘) hii Gil Aaa: aged aL, j ve . bah ‘ awe) one " bare" y Le a4 Lo ora th Oey aes Rae wal? as ® uf fot eee wy tees Ww i > Peers (200) = ae ies di bie a re tom the Ceeecal : = wiG (fa) Gee crave, 2h. Ta tag =: & FAY cere FA Oe : 7 ' eo a ee aa ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Panorama from Mount Amuyao to the southwest. (Photograph by Smith.) Fic Fic. HUG: Fig. FIG. > db. De PLATE II Malaya Range across Abra Valley from near Cervantes. (Photo- graph by Martin.) Abra River between Tinglayan and Lubuagan. (Photograph by Smith.) PLATE III . Rice terraces at Lubuagan; three crops are obtained each year here. (Photograph by Smith.) . Topography in the region of extrusive rocks; looking southeast from near Tadian. In the middle distance is an old volcanic plug. (Photograph by Smith.) PLATE IV . Limestone at Sagada. (Photograph by Smith.) . Nearer view of Sagada limestone, showing weathered forms. (Pho- tograph by Martin.) PLATE V . Shale beds in trail to Lubuagan. (Photograph by Smith.) . Terraces at Salinas salt spring. (Photograph by Martin.) TEXT FIGURES . Outline map of northern Luzon, showing region traversed. . Generalized geologic section across northern Luzon, from Tagudin to the eastern coast. . Sketch of the vicinity of Bontoc. . Sketch showing slide near Sagada. . Profile of box canon at kilometer 6, south of Bontoc. 134370——3 209 ee) ia Sp _ xe q a. wh “ti wh i * ~ 7 _ ‘ . é LAL 7 ; j . i ied awaits : ’ 1 bevent " tA A tot je* 7) Avil, iveetenn , ‘ iit woes ‘ 4) ote ege4s meee) stitee id! fe exer (AM «dl dao -ewrt evibgegity) Se wither af? oi wide y elit.ioy ett. piiea ¥ {Ariat ©4 Mmetgrin® Ti ava (4) oe) @ dvevgnindt) a\eage%, iy-oQe % vile wtpteted) qlagge% to wel? , ( Alre®, ef fi V wept ivcAaaiwilew?T) ,nepe@itianl @& Cae of eel Hsing hl) galres Les epee Ae eee Sees Toa sive. E- pesdedlibs uty OGhheek etylioey Gein JyeS]. er abe a raed y9"3 ghdle a Pmteteady dna ta lito pedal ta nollae beh Tae - - “LSAMHLNOS AHL OL OVANWY LNNOW WOYS YNVYONVd ‘1 3LW1d ‘eg ON ‘VW ‘xX “IOS “"NunNOf -THg] [‘AONIAOUG NIVINAOJ JO TONVSSIVNNOOGY : HLING SmiItH: RECONNAISSANCE OF MOUNTAIN PROVINCE. | [Pum. Journ. Scr, X, A, No. 3. Fig. 1. Malaya Range across Abra Valley from near Cervantes. Fig. 2. Abra River between Tinglayan and Lubuagan. PLATE Il. ‘SMITH: RECONNAISSANCE OF MoUNTAIN PROVINCE. ] [Pum. Journ. Scr, X, A, No. 3. Fig. 1. Rice terraces at Lubuagan; three crops are obtained each year here. Fig. 2. Topography in the region of extrusive rocks; looking southeast from near Tadian. In the middle distance is an old volcanic plug. PLATE Ill. SMITH: RECONNAISSANCE OF MouUNTAIN PROVINCE. ] [Pum. Journ. Scr, X, A, No. 3. Fig. 1. Limestone at Sagada. Fig. 2. Nearer view of Sagada limestone, showing weathered forms. PLATE IV. SMITH: RECONNAISSANCE OF MOUNTAIN PROVINCE. ] (Pum. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 3. Fig. 1. Shale beds in trail to Lubuagan. Fig. 2. Terraces at Salinas salt spring. PLATE V. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF PANAY? By WARREN D. SMITH (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) ONE PLATE AND 3 TEXT FIGURES CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. GEOLOGY, GENERAL—Continued. GENERAL STATEMENT. Pre-Tertiary formations. PHYSIOGRAPHY. Igneous rocks. Distribution of people. GEOLOGY, ECONOMIC. Vegetation. Ground-water resources. GEOLOGY, GENERAL. GEOLOGY, SEISMIC. Structure. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. INTRODUCTION Between the years 1886 and 1890 Enrique Abella y Casariego ” carried on geologic investigations in the Island of Panay as- sisted by d’Almonte. The report of his work embraces detailed descriptions of the general geologic features of the country, including orography, hydrography, with the altitude of all the principal points, followed by chapters dealing with the volcanic formations and their ‘“‘tufas.” There are also chapters dealing with the sedimentary formations, particularly the Tertiary series, and the work closes with a part devoted to the economic geology. It is very complete as far as it goes, but omits many important points, which is to be expected when the geology of an unknown country is treated for the first time. Mr. Maurice Goodman, formerly of the Bureau of Science, touched at a few places on Panay in the latter part of 1905, about fifteen years after Abella. The purpose of his trip was to dis- cover workable deposits of sulphur, gypsum, limestone, building stone, and placer gold. His stay in Panay was less than ten days. He found no deposits of either sulphur or gypsum, but the time was all too short properly to pass upon the mineral resources of any district. Mr. Goodman obtained several specimens of limestone from various points in the eastern part of Panay, the * Received for publication November 27, 1914. * Descripcion fisica, geol. y min. de la Isla de Panay. Chofré, Manila (1890). Pla 212 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 analyses of which are given in his manuscript report. These show fairly pure limestone, usually with less than 1 per cent of magnesium oxide. In the summer of 1912 Mr. Wallace E. Pratt, a geologist of the Bureau of Science, was detailed to make a rapid reconnais- sance of the region about the town of Janiuay at the edge of the foothills on the eastern side of the cordillera in order to ascertain the possibilities of finding petroleum in the sedimentary for- mations. During his work on Suague River, which flows past the town of Janiuay, it occurred to him that there were artesian- water possibilities in that region, and he reported this to the Director of the Bureau of Science. In the latter part of December, 1912, I was detailed to follow up the suggestions made by Mr. Pratt in regard to artesian- water possibilities, in an effort to aid the Director of Public Works in the important project of providing the city of Lloilo with an adequate supply of pure water. During the course of this work, which was confined rather closely to that section of the country immediately northwest of the city of Iloilo, the following notes regarding the general and economic geology of that part of the island were made. I was assisted in the field by Mr. Percy Kincaid, formerly of the Bureau of Science, and was furnished survey notes by Mr. R. L. Moore, of the Bureau of Lands. GENERAL STATEMENT A description of the general geographic features of the Island of Panay based on Abella’s work® follows. Panay, which be- cause of its size, richness, and population is the most important island of the Philippines after Luzon, is situated among the Visayans precisely in the center of the Archipelago and is found comprehended between the latitudes 10° 24’ 37’’ and 11° 55’ 57” north and between the longitudes 125° 30’ 16’”’ and 126° 50’ 24’’ east of Madrid (121° 50’ and 123° 20’ east of Greenwich). Panay has roughly a triangular shape. The greatest lengths which can be taken from north to south and from east to west, respectively, are 168 and 119 kilometers. The total area of the island is 11,580 square kilometers, of which 4,547 apply to the district of Capiz, 2,472 to that of Antique, and 4,561 to that of Iloilo. The population of Panay consists almost entirely of Visa- * An unpublished translation of this important Spanish document was made by Mr. McCaskey, formerly chief of the division of mines of the Bureau of Science. This translation is on file in the library of the Bureau of Science, Manila. X, A, 3 Smith: Geology of Panay 213 yans, and ‘their number amounted to 775,202 according to the census of 1903. The temperature, rainfall, and vegetation con- ditions of Panay are very much like those of the Island of Cebu. One cordillera runs almost from north to south separating the Province of Antique from the Provinces of Capiz and Iloilo. This cordillera lies much nearer to the western coast than to the east- ern and follows a sinuous course starting in the extreme north- west corner of the island, winding eastward, and then swinging back to the southwest corner. In the northeastern part of the island there is a mountainous cluster, but no true cordillera exists. Between these two is considerable flat country, but a little north of the center of the island is a highland tract connecting the western cordillera and the eastern mountains. Owing to the necessary vertical exaggeration in the relief map (Plate I), the true physiography of the central plain does not appear in the photograph. North and south of this divide there is low country. The largest tract of plain country is comprised of what is called the Iloilo plain, the lower part of which is chiefly a delta. The largest streams of the island start on the eastern slope of the cordillera and run east or north of this and then turn to the south and meander across the Iloilo plain. The slopes on the western side of the cordillera are much more precipitous, and the streams there are short and swift. Abella’s report gives detailed descriptions of the various mountain passes, the drainage in Panay, and profiles showing the general character of the skyline in various parts of the island. PHYSIOGRAPHY In Abella’s report there is little mention made of the physio- graphic and geologic factors underlying the principal charac- teristics of the country. The relation of topography to geology and the human response to these material factors have been shown in many parts of the world, but very little has been written on this subject in its relation to the Philippine Islands. First, I wish to draw attention to the effect of the geology upon the topography. The dominant rocks in Panay—that is, in the habitable portion—are Tertiary sedimentaries—clays, sand- stones, shales, limestones, and conglomerates. We find these lying blanketlike over parts of the Iloilo plain and extending up the sides of the cordillera. In the lower part of the streams rising in the cordillera we find the course of the streams at right angles to the strike of the formation—that is, in the direc- tion of the dip. As we go up these streams, we find tributaries 214 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 coming in on both sides or joining the main stream along lines corresponding to the strike of the formation. For some distances the main streams themselves follow the strike, but as a rule they cut nearly at right angles to it. The geologic structure is reflected in the topographic aspect of the country and is charac- teristic of block mountains. As we look upstream from the lower courses, we see long gentle slopes; but when we ascend and look back- ward, we are confronted by abrupt slopes due to the upturned edges of the formation. The conditions may be represented by the diagram as seen in fig. 1. Where the rocks are hard, the streams cut through in narrow gorges, but where the formations are soft, as in the shales and some of the soft limestone, the country is open and the streams run in wide valleys. There are many places in Panay where one encounters box canons, which at the time of high water are very difficult to pass through. These are usually in the hard resistant conglomerate. Many of these would afford excel- lent dam sites. Where the streams have cut back into the harder rock, such as voleanic agglomerates and diorite, there is no system to their course. They seem to follow no particular lines, save possibly here and there the jointing has exerted a local influence. When the low : country is reached, the streams take their own courses again and meander irregularly over the broad plains. Fia. 1. Character of topography in tilted sedimentaries. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PEOPLE In the report of the Philippine Census of 1903 there is a general map showing the distribution of the various tribes of the Islands, and the map of Panay, as shown in fig. 2, is reproduced from this. Following the cordillera and the tongue of highland, cut- x, A,3 Smith: Geology of Panay 915 ting across the north-central part of the island, and thence into the mountain cluster to the northeast, there is an area occupied by Bukidnons (people of the mountains). They occupy the same relative position to the people of the low country as do the mountaineers of eastern Tennessee and North Carolina to the people of the Piedmont Plateau. They comprise, for the most part, Visayans who have been pushed back into the mountains for YY), Bukidnons ee Negritos Fic. 2. Distribution of tribes in Panay. one cause or another, their language becoming somewhat modi- fied. At two points along the crest of the cordillera, the one in the extreme south and the other in the center of the cordillera, in the almost inaccessible region of Mount Baloy, there are two small areas said to be occupied by Negritos, the original in- habitants of the Philippines. We have here then an excellent example of the influence of topography and geology upon the distribution of the peoples. These three groups, Negritos, Bukidnons, and Visayans, are 216 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 sharply defined, and their distribution is controlled strictly by geologic and topographical factors. Where the rocks are hard- est and most denuded of soil, where the topography is the most rugged, where existence is the most difficult, there one finds the most primitive peoples. Now that there is a railroad running from north to south connecting the cities of the Provinces of Ca- piz and Iloilo, we shall see the territory of the Bukidnon people penetrated, and gradually their range will be more and more restricted. Even among the lowland peoples of Panay there is a consider- able variation in the dialects. The Filipino is, as a rule, a home-loving individual, who does not care to travel far from his friends. It is always difficult to get packers to go with one into the high mountains and into territory that is unknown to them, and all this tends to retard the dispersion of isolated groups and the free interchange of ideas and commodities. VEGETATION There is remarkably little forest anywhere on this island with the exception of a small area in the central portion of the cor- dillera. In this respect Panay resembles Cebu. The extreme deforestation is due to the caizgin system, which consists in clearing and burning the forest on a small tract of land, the raising of one crop on the hilly soil, then the abandonment of this tract for a new location. The inhabitants of the high country, in Panay, at least, very rarely raise two crops in suc- cession on the same piece of ground. The encroachment of cogon grass on the deforested area prevents the growth of a new forest and makes the land unsuitable for tillage. It is easier to clear a new spot than to prepare and open the field for crops on the old ground. This ruthless system is now having its effects on the country. Without the retaining powers of the forest and undergrowth the rainfall rapidly runs off, eroding the country and carrying enormous volumes of gravel and silt into the bottom land. This is the chief cause of the great de- vastation wrought by the streams in this and other parts of the Philippines. The sudden rising of these mountain streams and their pouring out onto the plain cause great floods, ruin crops, and destroy bridges, resulting in the rapid silting up of river beds and filling up of navigable streams, and the formations of bars where once existed open channels. China to-day pays a terrible annual toll in lives and money as a result of the practice of the same system in the past. There is scarcely a stick of X, A, 3 Smith: Geology of Panay P17 wood left on her mountains, and the Philippines would soon be in the same plight but for the Government’s timely forest conservation policy. GENERAL GEOLOGY As already pointed out by Abella, the general classes of rocks found on Panay are: The recent formations of the plains; the Tertiary limestone, shales, and sandstone in the foothills; the core of igneous rocks in the cordillera; and some doubt- ful rocks, approaching slates, which come between the igneous formations and the Tertiary series. The best development of sedimentaries I have yet seen in the Philippines exists on Panay, and the best sections for studying them are perhaps to be found there. On Suague River Mr. Pratt estimated that the total thickness of the Tertiary series amounts to more than 9,000 meters, and if we include the older series of “slaty” rocks at the headwaters of Ulion River the total will be about 10,000 meters. I found very much the same series on Tigum River, the two streams being roughly parallel and only a few miles apart. A short distance above the barrio of Tinayoc Tigum River has cut into the hillside, affording an excellent section, which is typical, as follows: Meters. Thin-bedded sandy shale 15-20 Heavy-bedded sandstone 5 Sandstone 3 Carbonaceous shale 2 Sandstone 4 Carbonaceous shale, less than 4 Heavy-bedded sandstone 5 Thin-bedded sandstone and shale 16 Heavy-bedded sandstone at base The dip at this point is 30° to the southeast, and the strike is north 10° east. Descriptions of three different samples of the sandstone follow: Sample 2312.—Buff to gray, very coarse, and apparently made up of triturated particles from various kinds of igneous rocks occurring in the cordillera. There is little quartz in the speci- men, but fragments of ferromagnesian minerals predominate. The buff color is largely due to fragments of olivine washed out of the decomposing picrites known to occur in the cordillera. This rock has a porosity of only 5.5 per cent, the voids being filled largely with iron oxide and calcium carbonate as a cement- ing material. 218 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Sample 2313.—This sample is a much finer and more even- grained grayish rock with much the same mineral composition as sample 2312. The porosity of this specimen is greater. Sample 2314.—This sample is a still finer grained rock with more of the characters of a shale than of a sandstone. In the same series of sediments with these sandstone beds are several layers of conglomerate, conformable and of vary- ing thickness. These conglomerates consist of many kinds of pebbles in a firmly cemented, sandy matrix. At one place I noted pebbles and fragments of the following kinds of rocks: . Limestone with coral remains. . Andesite—3 or 4 varieties. . Amygdaloid. . Shale. . Rock resembling jasper, but which is probably rhyolite, as it appears to have quartz phenocrysts. . Diorite—coarse-grained. . Diorite—fine-grained. . Picrite—a rock rich in olivine. . Quartz. or CN oOo o-1 Occasionally fossil shells are found, one of which is pre- sumably Vicarya callosa Jenk. Hence the age of these beds is that of the Lower Miocene, or the same age as the Cebu coal measures. Fuller descriptions of these sedimentaries are given by Abella. The shales——The shales exposed in the lower reaches of the streams flowing from the cordillera are thin-bedded and gray- ish to bluish, and resemble other Tertiary shales in many parts of the Philippines, the type example of which is the Vigo series on Bondoc Peninsula, Tayabas, Luzon.* These shales have prac- tically the same mineral composition as the sandstone, the chief difference being in grain size. In the upper part of Tigum River the shales are yellowish, but lower down, where we first discovered them, they are bluish. In the survey of Tigum River we found that there are at least 5,000 meters of these shales exposed from the point where the survey began to the first considerable thickness of sandstone. Of course, there are oc- casional thin beds of sandstone in this series, but they are negligible. Several wells have been drilled by the Bureau of Public Works in these shales in the hope of obtaining artesian water, but they have been generally unsuccessful. “Cf. Pratt, W. E., and Smith, W. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 331. X, A,3 Smith: Geology of Panay 219 Log of Well No. 161, Iloilo, Ilozlo. Strata. Drillers’ classification. Remarks. 0- 80) Shale with numerous shale fragments and small gravel. 80- 90 | Finer shale, slightly calcareous ________------ 90- 100 | Dark shale, not calcareous _---___------------ Fine quartz fragments; resembles loam. 100- 110 | Adobe—heavy clay material_______-__-------- Result of disintegration of basic rock. 110- 180)|(Gray, calcareous shale 2222-22-22) 222 | 130-150) Sameias) 90) toul00Meet soe eee ne ee eens Finer grained. WO TE | Gey ae eee Re BRNO NS TER hie Ramee ee Do. 10-01 907 WA dobe sesso a se aioe eee ee IL ee 190- 210 | Gray shale, not calcareous ___---_------------ 210- 300 | Shale, slightly caleareous ________--__------_- 800- 400 | Shale, strongly calcareous --_____--_--..------ 400- 500 ; Fine-grained shale ____--2_- 2-__-__-___-______ Similar to previous strata. ROO GOW) ST ee eee eee ea ea 600- 650 | Shale, strongly calcareous _______-_-_-____-_____ 650- 675 | Sand, very fine but fairly clean ______________ G75 (LON Adobe) === 222 tonne tee en ene earn 710- 800 | Sand, but not so good as from 650 to 675 feet _ 80019 OM PA dobe esses sae oo aia are eet teeeeermL soe a 910- 920 | Shale, slightly calcareous -___-__--_-_-______- O20 =O (Di paar Oye Ses Sees Run ene Ss TOM eee Are De Much the same as from 910 to 920 feet. O75 ae 1 OO cur lees Se 5 lah er I teen eB Se i100 2528p eeine-crainedsmarl sees anes eae eo i} A discussion of the ground-water resources wil! be found on page 226. A noteworthy point in connection with the wells sunk in these shales is that the water obtained was salty. Mr. Pratt in his manuscript report has given the following satisfactory explanation of the brackishness of the water: If one accepts the most probable explanation of the presence of salt and other minerals in the upper clay and shale, i. e., that they came from the sea water in which the beds formed and are, consequently, original con- stituents of the series, it is clear that the effect of ground waters, active since the elevation of the land above sea level, would be a leaching out of the soluble salts. I see no reason for thinking that the salt water has come from the sea. Any flow of water depends upon head, and the flow normally is from the land into the sea rather than vice versa. Rapidly changing conditions of sedimentation must have existed throughout the formation of these beds. The thinness of certain beds, the repeated alternation in character of the 220 Depth in meters. 35- 37 387- 41 41- 43 48- 55 55-124 124-147 147-169 | 169-175 | 175-187 187-199 199-207 207-247 | 247-266 | 266-273 | 273-315 | 315-320 320-348 348-360 360-428 428-468 468-490 490-493 493-506 | 506-527 527-531 531-537 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Well No. 808, Janiuay, Iloilo. Strata. Drillers’ classification. Remarks. ihe’ Se 25. a is = 1) ) ee ae 2b Gravel'and clay <.<....<5<-..2cc. ee Bowlders/and clay. —. eco eneee eset Grn bo Clay. sok ore eens! Gumbo clay is probably a stiff dark-colored clay. Black sticky clay<.oce sie sesame aeeeee OLN ts Ce eee | Joint clay is applied to the blue clay of the | upper clay and shale series of this record. Blueisticky clay e.-- 3 see | Blue sandy clay and gravel-___------_- Clay:and' gravel! 22-2. ----~ 2 ease eee | Blue sandy clay and joint clay --.__-- Alluvial to 43 meters. Upper clay and shale | below 55 meters. Be LCL. ened Sa ee NE a ee eel Clay and loose stone-__.-._....----_-- *“Loose stone” is probably applied to calcareous | concretions which are known to occur in the blue clay. Jointiclay: 28525 jose.) parece eae cee | Joint clay and loose stone -__________- | UN te ON nan ee Voltanie: 393.3) a eee eee “*Voleanic’’—possibly a silt which was mistaken for voleanic tuff. The drill penetrated it 12 meters in 9 hours. Quick clayi: 23. See Joint clay and loose stone -________-_- | JONG Clay oo. pee eee eee Joint clay and loose stone ____________ MOINTICIAY. snes oc a- eon eee Joint clay and loose stone -__-_-_-- —— Fine sand and gravel___.__..-..._--_- Joint clay and loose stone --_-___-___- Joint clay n35' 32556 a ee Brown sand and clay-_---.---.-.-----_- Joint clay .22scsscee te eee ees Shale z=: ce. Sa9s5 2-05) - eke Roclkt:.< ses.0 8 se Sek et ee Rock, calcareous shale. Clay bowlders and quicksand ________ Clay bowlders. Shale mixed with fine black sand ____| Sand from strata above mixed with a Sand, gas, and salt water --_____--___ sediments, cross-bedding, and other factors all indicate that there were either repeated oscillations of level or rapidly succeeding freshets, or both. It is important to note that the conditions are unfavorable for the formation of coal deposits of economic size. The only coal seams seen by me were not over 5 centi- meters thick. STRUCTURE The Tertiary series of shales and sandstones described above overlap the igneous core of the cordillera and constitute a great monocline dipping eastward toward the Iloilo plain. Near the Smith: Geology of Panay 221 S2/OYS ABUOS PPP PITY After Abella, Sao Ys Apuo 3) PYP?G YL Uy SYOYS Pappeg MUIYL Wp, ~Ye Qu07S UO Hy LEGEND Soandstones ==) Shales W/2Vvoss puos ff Y F279 AAooYy Scale |:40.000 etl Cong/omerates tf te =a = S272Y9 P9229 MLiYy £2 2 LOS Yop Geologie section across Iloilo Provinee, Panay. Fia. 3. $2/D (D DUOJS PUOS Li EGA op Wy 2vOsS PUBS P2Pf29 M1224 by LYE 2U0]$ pUuoe y P2YPP?9 YiA2a4 999 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 cordillera the dip of the beds is as high as 70°, but gradually this inclination decreases till the beds assume an almost hori- zontal position. The inclination of the beds is much greater on the Antique (west) side of the cordillera. In the foothills local undulations with reverse dips attended by some faulting are to be noted (fig. 3). As pointed out in the discussion of the control of topography, these strata assume the attitude of tilted blocks with the abrupt slope up- and the gentler slope downstream, this slope in most cases corresponding exactly to the bedding planes. Abella’s profiles are very good representations of the general conditions. A somewhat modified section, using Abella as a basis, is shown in fig. 3. The survey of Tigum River has revealed the existence of a small anticline just east of Maasin, and perhaps many others exist which would be revealed by a detailed survey of the region. These anticlines are all important in the matter of the accumulation of oil. Complete folds in the strata are, however, the exception, and the dominating structure is monoclinal. Of course, where there are anticlines the reverse type of fold, the syncline, must exist. There is one of these shown in fig. 3 just west of the Maasin anticline. As anticlines usually afford the most favorable places for the accumulation of oil, artesian waters are most favorably tapped in the synclines. The reason for this marked difference between two mobile substances is due to their difference in specific gravity. For further discussion of the petroleum possibilities in this region see page 225. PRE-TERTIARY FORMATIONS At an elevation of about 400 meters near the headwaters of Ulion River there is an excellent exposure of indurated sedi- ments closely resembling slate. Intercalated with these are sills of diorite from 3 to 5 meters thick. The sills follow the bedding planes. The strike of these slaty sediments is northwest, and the dip is 30° to the northeast. No marked difference was noted between that part of the sedimentary beds nearest the sills and the interior; so it is improbable that the hard slaty character of these beds can be due entirely to the heat or pressure result- ing from the intrusion of the sills. Specimen 2322.—The rock is blue-black, very dense, exceed- ingly fine-grained, and has a hackly to conchoidal fracture. It shows on certain surfaces a very fine banding which is distinctly that of sedimentation. The cleavage in these beds is not typical of slates, and hence they might more properly be termed pseudo- slates. X, A, 3 Smith: Geology of Panay 223 Microscopic.—The thin section of this rock is difficult to study owing to the flakes of iron oxide and numerous dark fragments which cannot be easily identified because of their amorphous condition. Fragments of quartz, feldspar, and ferromagnesian minerals are abundant. The whole aspect of the section is that of a clastic rock. Numerous fragments of globigerines and of radiolarian tests are to be seen, but neither the species nor the genera can be distinguished. This rock probably corresponds to the “clay slates” mentioned by Molengraaff ° in his descriptions of certain rocks collected in central Borneo. He gives the fol- lowing description of certain rocks encountered on Poelau Lolong River: The country at this point and higher upstream consists of a system of highly folded strata. The strike may be averaged at about E.-W. and E. N. E., but both strike and dip vary considerably. The strata as a rule are highly inclined and not seldom stand vertical. The oldest group in this com- plex is composed of clay-slate, chert, hornstone, sandstone, diabase, diabase- tuff, and diabase-tuff-breccia, also gabbro and serpentine, the latter being derived partly from a variety of olivine-norite * * * partly from picrite or from hartzburgite. * * * Some of the diabases * * * form intru- sive masses, sheets, or dikes in the sedimentary formations and are there- fore younger than these. * * * The cherts are sometimes full of biotite and then resemble silicified micaceous clay-slate, at other times they turn to pure jasper and hornstone. The hornstone is sometimes of a milky white colour, often marbled and alternating with bright red jasper. The chert, and particularly the jasper and pure hornstone, contain Radiolaria and are often almost entirely composed of the tests of these organisms. In the jasper, the Radiolaria can be detected with an ordinary pocket lens, and they look like so many round specks, or little grease spots the size of a pin’s head. This greasy lustre is caused by the tests of the Radiolaria being filled with an aggregate of quartz which is coarser than the crypto- crystalline composition of the jasper itself. As mentioned before (page 92) these cherts with Radiolaria are of pre-Cretaceous age. This also describes fairly accurately what we found on the headwaters of Ulion River. Just what the exact relationships are in this rather confused group of rocks has not yet been determined, but the fact that we have rocks practically identical with those of central Borneo and that they are considered to be older than the Tertiary is very important.°® Near the source of Ulion River I found an outcrop of jasper, the position of which was not very clear. In thin sections this proved to be similar to the rock I had described from Ilocos Norte in 1906." * Geolog. Explorations in Central Borneo. Amsterdam (1902), 174. ° Molengraaff, op. cit., 174. "This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 145. 294 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Sample 2323, macroscopic.—The rock is pinkish with occa- sional fine black streaks in it, rather fine-grained, and fissile, so that it breaks into more or less thin slabs. Microscopic.—The groundmass consists of cryptocrystalline silica, dotted with small roundish and oval areas filled with small irregular grains of silica but little larger than those constituting the groundmass. These roundish areas undoubtedly represent tests of Radiolaria, but nothing now remains save the cast. In another sample tests of Radiolaria belonging to the follow- ing three genera were identified: Stylosphera, Dictyomitra, and Cenosphera. The species of the first-named could not be told, but under the second, the species affinis was distinguished without difficulty, and of the third genus, which is by far the commonest, the species minuta and disseminata were recognized. We have now found this radiolarian chert in Ilocos Norte and Bulacan, Luzon, in Panay Island, and in Balabac Island— from the northernmost to the southernmost part of the Ar- chipelago. Outside the Philippines the same rocks are known to occur in the Moluccas,* in the Federated Malay States,® and in California,’*® and everywhere they are referred to the Jurassic. We have every reason then to believe that this formation, or group of strata, in the Philippines is distinctly older than the Tertiary. Associated with these red rocks are some greén rocks, which in a thin section are shown to be serpentine, and these, we have seen, accompany the cherts of central Borneo. IGNEOUS ROCKS As Abella has devoted no little space to the igneous rocks which he found in the cordillera, I shall not discuss them at length. His list includes the following: 1. Andesite. 6. Gabbro. 2. Basalt. 7. Picrite. 3. Diabase. 8. Serpentine. 4. Diorite. 9. Tonalite. 5. Diorite (quartz). 10. Trachyte. Of these the different varieties of andesite constitute the dominant rocks of the cordillera, and similar rocks have been described in Philippine literature. Of the rest we need call attention only to the tonalite and the picrite. We have found * Martin, R., Reisen in den Molukken. Geolog. Theil. 2te Lief., 171. * Serivenor, J. B., Geol. Mag. (1912), 9, 241-48. ” Fairbanks, H. W., Journ. Geol. (1895), 3, 418. X, A, 3 Smith: Geology of Panay 235 these quartz-mica-hornblende-diorites in various parts of the Philippines, but they are not common. As the picrites are still more uncommon, I shall give Abella’s own description of them: The picrites have a beautiful emerald green color with bronze metallic reflections of a crystalline texture, and in them is seen olivine, augite, and bronze hypersthene, a white mass being distinguished among these crystals, semigranular, almost pulverulent, which at some time might have originated from a preéxisting feldspar or nepheline, which cannot now be classified as such, nor give, therefore, character to the rock. Under the microscope this white mass resolves itself into a whitish magma, amorphous and decomposed, which in the polarized light emits, notwithstanding, certain pale gray bluish and yellowish colorizations, all of which confirms the supposi- tion attributing to it the feldspathic and nephelinic origin, * * *. Based on these characters and on the almost holocrystalline bosinie which the three elements of this rock display, we shall classify it as peridotic, and designate it as picrite. The western cordillera certainly affords an interesting field for the petrographer, and its thorough exploration may some day reveal deposits of great commercial value. For instance, the “picrites” which Abella mentions are about the most basic rocks known, and in their vicinity it is reasonable to expect that valuable deposits of metals will be found. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY In the third part of his report Abella discusses the occurrences of various nonmetals and metals. Since Abella’s time a slight amount of prospecting has been carried on in Antique Province by Americans, with the result that promising deposits of chro- mic iron and copper have been reported, but nothing of value has been found on the eastern side of the cordillera. The pres- ence of petroleum and coal has also been reported. Specimens of wolframite have been sent to the Bureau of Science by two persons from Antique Province, who, however, gave no definite information with regard to them. If there is any considerable quantity, it will be valuable. Serpentine containing asbestiform minerals has also been noted in the same province. The presence of petroleum at Janiuay, Iloilo Province, was reported many years ago, but during a recent reconnaissance of the province, I failed to see any oil. However, at Janiuay I visited a well 537 meters in depth, which was bored nearly two years before by the Bureau of Public Works for artesian water, and which was emitting gas and salt water intermittently. This may be an indication of the presence of petroleum at a lower 184370——4 296 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 horizon. That this is not simply marsh gas is, I believe, shown by the analysis. Analysis of the gas collected by Wallace E. Pratt* from the Janiuay well in 1912.” Per cent. Hydrogen 5.2 Methane 89.4 Ethane 0.0 Carbon dioxide 0.6 Nitrogen 4.3 Oxygen 0.0 Carbon monoxide 0.5 * Mineral Resources P. 1. for 1912 (1913), 47. > Analysis by Forrest B. Beyer, chemist, Bureau of Science. It is known, of course, that methane is the chief constituent of natural gas and that ethane is usually found in it, but examples are known where the latter is absent. The presence of hydrogen and of nitrogen particularly seems to argue in favor of the supposition that this gas is not merely a product of vegetable decay. It is not impossible, of course, to have a marsh deposit at almost any depth in sedimentary formations. The facts, how- ever, that we have some considerable depth, presence of salt water, and these extra constituents seem to make it highly probable that this is natural gas and is associated with a deposit of petroleum. As to the amount of oil likely to be pres- ent in these formations we can only conjecture. As traverses were made along the streams in this part of the island, close watch was kept for any oil seeps, but nothing was seen even suggestive of the presence of oil. It is possible, of course, that the oil is of so light a grade that on evaporation it leaves no residue easily detected on the rocks and thus would easily be overlooked. The sedimentary formations are so folded that what oil may be present would be collected into natural reservoirs. There are indications also that sandy beds exist which would afford sufficient pore space for the retention of any oil that may be present. For these reasons we can say that it is not at all unlikely that petroleum does exist in this island. GROUND-WATER RESOURCES The importance of an adequate supply of pure water in trop- ical countries no longer needs any argument. The need for a supply of uncontaminated water for the growing city of Iloilo has become pressing. Several unsuccessful deep wells have been X, A,3 Smith: Geology of Panay 2o7 bored at Iloilo and in the neighboring towns. One well at Iloilo penetrated to a depth of about 800 meters in clays, sands, and shales and struck no potable water. The well at Janiuay al- ready mentioned did not get through the thin-bedded shales and resulted only in striking salt water and gas. A number of com- paratively shallow wells near Iloilo which did not go below the alluvium obtained water which in some cases proved to be brackish and in others to have a taste of iron. After these unsuccessful attempts were made, a scheme for diverting water from Tigum River into a reservoir from which it was to be piped a long distance to Iloilo was projected. This, however, would entail the expenditure of at least a million pesos, and naturally there was some hesitation about undertaking it. Finally I was detailed to visit the region with instructions to look into the artesian-well possibilities. After three weeks on the ground I submitted a report giving the following conclusions: 1. The artesian conditions of the sandstones and conglomer- ates are not sufficiently favorable for us to recommend any further expenditure of money in this direction. 2. It is deemed probable that an adequate water supply can be obtained from the deep gravels in the alluvial deposits in the lower end of the Iloilo plain. 3. More detailed study of this region should be made along the lines adopted by the hydrographic branch of the United States Geological Survey. 4. Geologic investigation should precede all artesian-well projects. The first conclusion was arrived at after due consideration of the depth, inclination, thickness, and porosity of the possible water-bearing strata, all of which appeared as pointing to very unfavorable conditions, and in view of the past experience in this district in well-boring, other and simpler means of getting water should be tried first. Since this investigation was made, reports from that locality state that in some of the wells near Iloilo, particularly the one at Molo, the water has improved and is losing some of its brackish taste. In one of these wells I noted a slight taste of iron, which would not be harmful and even might be beneficial. It is my expectation that the water from these wells will in time become entirely potable, and that sufficient water for the supply of the city of Iloilo will be obtained from numerous comparatively shallow (75 to 300 meters) wells in the ancient gravels of this plain. 298 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 SEISMIC GEOLOGY The seismic disturbances in this island have been discussed already.‘ It seems reasonably certain that the majority of the disturbances which have occurred there are local and are of the rockfall type. I have seen some landslips which have resulted from the slipping of the sediments, particularly the shales, over one another along bedding planes. If these are large enough, they can easily set up vibrations which would be recorded by seismographs. Other disturbances have been of greater intensity and were due to displacements along the line of contact between the sediments on the western side of Guimaras Island and the ig- neous formation on the east. It is possible, also, that other differential movements have taken place between the valley alluvium and the mountain mass, which would give rise to seismic disturbances. There is no evidence as far as I know of vulcanism on the island since the Pleistocene, at least, to which we could attribute any of these disturbances. Whatever their origin, they have been of minor importance, and Panay is now one of the most stable parts of the Archipelago. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The relation of geology to the topography and indirectly the bearing it has upon the distribution and activities of the people has been shown. The vegetation of the country shows the devastating effects of the caingin system, and the effect of this upon the economic welfare of the people has been indicated. The existence of a hitherto suspected but unverified new-old formation, almost certainly Jurassic in age, has been proved. Attention has been called to new prospects in mining and the favorable geologic features connected therewith. Deeper drill- ing for oil in the vicinity of Janiuay is recommended. The ground-water resources of a portion of the island have been touched upon, and the possibility of utilizing the water contained in the ancient buried gravels of the Iloilo plain has been pointed out. Attention has been called to the seismic geology. Panay is one of the most stable parts of the Archipelago, and the majority of the few earthquakes occurring on the island are due to rockfall and hence are local. “ Saderra Maso, Miguel, and Smith, W. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1918), 8, 199. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I. Photograph of a relief map of Panay. TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Character of topography in tilted sedimentaries. 2. Distribution of tribes in Panay. 3. Geologic section across Iloilo Province, Panay. After Abella. 229 f BMGT aT Teth Lats, (nati Y phed tli ier ante VIAy cots einomites bovtt! nf tqavgeqet to welont ‘ tana “ gediu Vo pals wd ind uiR ela” thet? anton ollott aed vation qt well ore = ae | 5 ) a} aa ‘@ Piel “iM ce fr. * ee ’ Vrs tee Coe ar ah riy ii : y i eel. Leet 4, Ss eee A, ie an ‘ at ern 5 j r 4 > 7 7 ! ng t t as y*EvVe 7 is be Lied uel? Bade, Uh A nr ie Cla wa ee 0 ’ te i a | pe Ue oe mt 4 1 1 os [Pum. Journ. Scr, X, A, No. 3. GEOLOGY OF PANAY.] SMITH PHOTOGRAPH OF A RELIEF MAP OF PANAY. PLATE | " ZOOLOGY—Continnea_ By ‘RrowAmD e ‘MeGaacor | Pages, $4, postpaid. ete flo ; ‘> tivated areas in- thee "Philippine lin compact ‘form. descriptions of all” tions, with keys,.of over’ 1,000. species, 59) » genera, and: 136. families, with, native: oan ve piney fF Sespotest) ‘terms, eto.) usual keys. and. diagnoses of otders, families, on mae | ‘cocoxus PALM: IN THE ‘EET es A ouEcK1Ien. oF PRILIPPENE i “MIPPINE ISLANDS” HES © ‘cles: On. the, Water’ Relations of the Cocanut: Palm (Cocos. ‘fucifera),, The Coconut ‘and, its ; Relation’ ito Coconut. Oil, The Keeping Quali- “ies of Coconut Ojf and the Causes of its ge y, “to the synonymy: of Philippine) ichthyology. é ‘Rancidity,. ‘and The: a teers aCe Q The nomenclature ‘is thoroughly revised, ‘and ges Bly ponent ea ay: ‘ ca “the distribution of “each species “hin. the” Bre eats te praeess is: anaes Hee postpaid. i te Se cctv NDO- MALAYAN woons Non ce “MEDICINE i ce be We Foxwontay ee me icant Pe tas "REPORT OF THE INTERN L Paper, 182. ‘pages, 2. a : exbeus ee. , "30. 50, postpaid. k tn ‘IndosMalayan.. ‘Woods, : Northy ‘has’ brought together yy taraé amount Hee auspices” of the’ Chinese. Government. of aovurate:: ‘information.’ concerning — trees tones; 12 charts and ‘maps).! OF THE MAMMATS OF THE - -¥ SLIPPINE ISLANDS, EXCLU-. ; SIVE oF THE CETACEA © $3.90;. ‘postpaid. als. eects 64) pages $0. 50, k ostpaid. ee > ent report. elie? ZA S: Ags the bry. Sissel aiteat ko enu- SE The ‘Bureau of Scignee 28 Ravern-. a » mere the. ‘mammals... of the’ Philippine “miele: of (che Philippine t (has. beet The..distribution: of each’) species ad and; the eae descriptions are ORES: Biscue, 5 cane aie : PRICES ARE in UNITED STATES CURRENCY, cae Dre te hog these publications may be. ‘gent be the ausriuss ‘MANAGER, bow to BBY of ‘the: agents. listed below. Please give order number. se ¥ be The ‘Macinilian Contpaayi 6 64-66 Fitth ARenae New York; U. 3. jae ) Wim. Wesley & Son, 28 Besex Street, Strand, London, W. ae England. -. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Woorhout,S, The Hague; Motland. > ° ay Mayer & Muller; Pring Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin; Ni. W.) Geamany, a2). (ec Akelly & Walsh, Litd,,.32 Raffles Place, Singapore, Straits: Settlements: OS AM. & J. Kerzuson, 49: Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon, ee pian ext & neat Ry. Or Box b4, eu india, “A MANU i OF ‘PHUIPPINE BIRDS. P a "No. 103.” Paper, 2. parts, 169 jee 204 Manual ‘of Philippine. Birds contains oe eae “known species. of Philippine: birds.” the Ys “and genera, hele ‘the novice in identifidation: ee thgees 37. Paper, 149. ages, 30 lates, a ‘Byl Daw Stam TORBAN ue Rowént Ean. We ape dj postpaid. age. Fy t, PRC HAE OS ONG ‘ fy “The ‘reprint contains ‘the tailowing’ agli er Order Na” cs Mi Paver, 18 pages, 9075, i This list will’ be ee a SAH VenHnE guide. - ‘Doctor. Foxes: ee Hela ‘at Mukden, ‘April; °1913, under ‘the a se selsing | woods of ecaemiey value. d 2 o Edited by ‘Epren oes mobi v4 Petrie, I S wes ; : Peer ARTHUR) STANLEY, and: euep ue P.. cy : ‘ aan @ : STRONG” : “ZOOLOGY ae ee ie 483 ‘pages, 1s. ete: (2 Se wt 4 half oe i Order No. 426. “Paper, $2.50; etath, : iG ees “The: prooeedings of ‘this. Inter’ dice Can. . By Nep Hottister (pe. t eneeuce and: information Gained Aterete ony to ke ‘with the: results: “of certain baote- ae _<~riological: Investigations, constituis the’ 'pres- ose we: “appointed: sole: agent. for. Aisterbution- “sof the printed proséedings che: aniternas! |. PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, BUREAU OF SCIENCE, MANILA, P. Ly rod y ~ Kenly & Walsh, Dinfted, 32. Place, Singapore, pert Beutement ht a “CONTENTS Rap PY ek SMITH, WARREN D. Notes 008 Gedlabie ‘Beceunelanhies pat Mountain Province, Luzon, Pc}: seestnrnnetetieeectnatiee SMITH, WARREN D.. _ Notes. on the Geology of den nese es Te j 3 id Ree a ak wei A. Chemical and aroha Sciences and the pall $2.06 ‘Section B, Tropical Medicine esecptetapeecenencapeneartonpnetnatedemeretnnemnane ‘Section C. Botany mpd Chg 2 SE Po iE Romy ams PPh x Section D. General Biology, Ethnology, and mmen Satshee tu (Sec- ‘~~ tion D began with Volome WY nocrnafatcherscspen PP eg Teg lt i ep _ Entire Journal, Volume TI, 111, AV, or Vv Be fut AD) Sarre AME M Entire Journal, beginning. with Volume VI er ee Single numbers (except of Volume 1) neering, 12 hey ae san ; cyeeks teen maton free. Se 8 Authors’ receive 100 o, papers yt "Volume I, 1906 (not divided into sections) and exppleni@nt, @old » 24 only witha complete file of section A, B, or OC Lpacsevevannsinn gocaeaael : 10.4 ‘Supplement to Volume I (botany) 2a Geir oni b annpieee ee: Ais Volume I (without, pnbptenept) » Sold only with a omer meee section A; B; Or O22 wey pias ; aa “Single numbers ot Volume. T panei ts Publications sent in exchange for the Philippine ey of § » should be addressed: Library, Bureau of Science, Manila, P/ 1. Subscriptions may be sent to'the Business ee ak Phili ‘nal ot bel ses Bureau of pees ee a am ears sas \ listed belows < - Jes me = } a . The ‘Mabdmitiat tee poise 64-66 Pith Nt ete! City Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, o New ¥ Ww. Pt Martinus: Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, The Hague, Holland. + Mayer & Miiller, Prinz: ee hg hh ss at e,. ‘Berlin many. aS. pi aad JA, MM. &. I. Ferguson, 19 Baill € Street, ‘Colom Pha Be 8 Tiueker, Rpies & Fons P, te Box. on gsi Ho SS ey PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE, MORILG,: PHILIPPINE ISLANDS is ; ETHNOLOGY. A VOCABULARY OF THE IGOROT LAN. GUAGE AS SPOKEN BY THE. BONTOC IGOROTS By Waren Clayton CLarp . Order No. 408. Paper, 89° pages, $0.75, postpaid, The vocabulary is given in Igorot-English and ay itt oe } THE NABALOI DIALECT By Orro ScHEERER . and rm : THE BATAKS OF PALAWAN “By EpwAarp Y¥. MILime “Order No. 403. — Paper, $0.25; half ro rocco, $0.75; postpaid. The Nabalo! Dialect (65. pages, 29 plates) and the Bataks of Palawan (7 _ Pages, 6 plates) are bound under one cover. THE BATAN DIALECT AS A MEMBER OF THE PHILIPPINE GROUP | OF LANGUAGES By Otto ScuEErer | pies ap bedi hd AND beh fad IN 2B LANGUAGES By CaRLos Everett Conant -Order No, 407. " These two papers are issued under one. cover, 141 ‘pages, paper, $0.80, vetoes, é THE SUBANUNS OF SINDANGAN ‘BAY. By Emerson B. Cunistis ; Order No, 410. ‘Paper, 121 pages, 1 - map, 29 plates, $1.25, postpaid. — _ Sindangan Bay is. situated on the north- ern coast of Zamboanga Peninsula. The Su- ~ banuns: of this region were studied by Mr. Christie during two periods of five and six ~ weeks, respectively § The 29 plates Yinlustrate the Subanuns at work and at: play; their industries, houses, - altars, and geet de 2! and. the people themselves, THE HISTORY OF. SUL By NaJEEB ™M. Bea oe < Order No. 406. Paper, - ages, 4 maps, 2 diagrams, S075 postal Inthe preparation ef his manuscript for The History of Sulu,’ Doctor Saleeby spent — much. time. and effort in. gaining access to documents in the possession of the Sultan. of Sulu. This. book is a history of the Moros in the Philippines from. the earliest {times to the American occupation. - Order No. 415. ae history. and present condition of hat mation. a ¢ Order No. 413. Paper, 53 aes, 20 BTHNOLOGY—Continuea STUDIES IN MORO HISTORY, LAW, = | AND RELIGION : us . eh, ae By Naseen M. SALeeey hea eae A . Gye S Order No. 405. Paper, plates, 5-diagrams, rocco, $0.75; postpaid. This volume deals with ‘dhe earliest ‘ written records of the Moros in Mindanao, fe The names of the rulers of Magindanao are” recorded in five np fr. nas iat Pe Baar ree ale NEGRITOS OF ZAMBALES By WILLIAM ALLAN etl Order alas, were taken for this publication, show orna ments, houses, men making fire with patrbou! bows and arrows, dances, and various eal of ‘the people themselves. : - INDUSTRIES _ PHILIPPINE HATS By C., B. Roarvsox ’ Paper, 66 s Rat plates, $0.50 postpaid. aes, oe This paper is a conclse record of the. <2 in the Philfppine Islands, ; THE AR INDUSTRY THE oman? OF gray Ds +. By Hexen S, WALKER Order No. 422, | Paper, 145. pages, ~ plates, 2. map, $125, postpaid. y Considered ete weap of a f: cal utility, Mr. Walker's Sugar Indu in the Island of Negros Is one of the most : pilation, for the’ mathor was in the field pro the conditions of hich b4 : - » ; - J 7 ea A MANUAL OF PHILIPPINE sux By Cuanza, S. Banks ys - “+ plates, $0.75, pos ; ‘ in A Manual of Philippine Sik Cul es “are presented the results of oe Pu ey actual work with sitk-producing toe) 2 ee ~ gether with a Seaton of the ae Phiibe % pine tace. ; = ~ THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND. THE INDUSTRIES VoL. X JULY, 1915 No. Acs THE LOCATION OF ARTESIAN WELLS IN THE PHILIPPINE \. Vay “7Onal Wuse , ISLANDS FROM A GEOLOGIC VIEWPOINT ' By WALLACE EF. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) It will be assumed that the reader is conversant with the principles governing the phenomena of artesian wells, and in the following discussion no attempt will be made to consider the numerous factors which control the subsurface accumu- lation of water under hydrostatic conditions. The conditions under which water-bearing rocks, like inter- calated sandstones and shales, were laid down in the Philip- pines, where the distribution of land masses is irregular and the interruption of sedimentary processes by vulcanism was fre- quent, were so variable that no single bed nor any series of beds extends uniformly over great distances. Thus it is not possible here, as it is, for instance, in Australia, to map closely the outcrop of the “ intake beds” nor to calculate the depths at which such beds will be encountered over large areas. It is probable that very often wells will be drilled at towns which need most urgently a supply of potable water, irrespective of the chances of obtaining water. Frequently there will be little choice between different possible locations in a small town, and it may be found expedient to locate the well on the plaza or at some other central point without taking into consideration any other controlling factors. However, where towns are so situated as to include within their area parts of different geo- logic formations, there may be opportunity to exercise some discretion in choosing a drilling site. ‘Received for publication May 28, 1915. 134764 231 939 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 A large proportion of the flowing wells in the Philippines will cease to flow if the casing is continued even a few meters above the ground surface; that is to say, if such wells had been drilled from a slightly higher elevation, it would have been necessary to pump them. It follows that, other things being equal, the lower of two possible sites is preferable. However, the possi- bility of surface contamination should be kept in mind in this connection. A well on low ground is more often contaminated by surface waters than one on higher ground. It is true also that a well should not be located too near the seashore in an attempt to get it on low ground. Too often in such a location the well encounters brackish water. Through the codperation of the Bureau of Public Works the Bureau of Science has had access to drillers’ logs for about 700 artesian wells. Samples of the drill cuttings have been sub- mitted for examination in the cases of about half of these wells. These data, and a knowledge of the general geology of the Phil- ippines, are made the basis of the following discussion. For their consideration in relation to artesian waters the geo- logic formations of the Philippines may be classed and sum- marized as shown in Table I. LITTORAL AND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS A large proportion of the population of the Philippines lives in regions in which the land is made up of littoral and alluvial deposits. The important areas of alluvium are found in great structural valleys like the Central Plain of Luzon, the Cagayan Valley in northern Luzon, the Bicol Valley in southeastern Luzon, the Iloilo Plain in Panay, and the Cotabato and Agusan Valleys in Mindanao. The littoral deposits make up the coastal plains which fringe many of the islands, like the plain upon which the town of Cebu is located. The structural valleys have been filled up by loose clays, sands, and gravels carried down from the adjacent highlands by shifting streams and deposited along an ever-advancing shore line. The coastal plains have been built up in the same way; in many cases they rest upon a base of coral reefs, which have grown up offshore from the various land masses. Both the filled structural valleys and the coastal plains combine alluvial and littoral deposits in their structure, since the alluvium carried by streams was deposited largely at the seashore where part of it was worked over again by wave action. In either situation the. littoral and alluvial deposits are surprisingly thick; in very few cases have wells passed through them into the underlying formations. 233 Wells tan Location of Artes . . Pratt X, A, 4 “Peg “‘paq Alo, “y[ 88 JO [[NF UoNeursoy Ap ‘peg “UOIJBUIAOF S14} WIOAF 10}eM UIey -QO S[[aM 4S89q 94} Jo eulos {poos A190 ;\ “Bul1eeq-1eyeM A[UOUTUIOD aie sed} oulos ‘[eieueZs ur AjUO meg “Aq 8s euios ‘Aip o1e s[jam Aueur fAjuo Ie 7 “41 UL Pel[iap Usoq sABY S[[aM [NJssedonsun Ausui yng ‘peulezqo Mou J3}eM UeIS94 -4te@ JO {SOU JO 9d1NO0s ‘[Nzsse0ons orE FE UL S[[foM AMOT[eYs Jo Aylaofeur ve ‘poor so-23e=- SUOIZad SNOULE}UNOW pus JOI1O}UT *Al[BI2 -Ua3 SuoIZeI SNOUIeJUNOW pu JOIIOZUT “IBWIBS SA[[BA0 -ueZ suolZei Bulaveq-wmnoejoijed pue -[@00 ‘suOLZe1 snNoUIe}UNOUI pUe JOIde}U] ge Soe See yee ae a uozn’y uteysaMyynoG “spue[sy 04} NOYsNo1yy stele nevozeid YysIy pue snourejunoyy "230 ‘S013 ‘nqag :18809teG ‘038 ‘oBuBpUI, ‘sAo[[@A 038q8}0D pue uvsnsy ‘Aeusg ‘ule[q O[loj] ‘uozny uo ‘AaT[eA joo1g ‘AVA UBLBTED ‘urelg [erjuag :suieyd [238800 [[@ ‘sure[d Burs[-AMo] pu ysvooeeg -ON ‘foyog ‘1euIeg | “que 10duiun $peyejndod Ajesaeds pue 4Ua}x9 pez *peze[n -dod Ajesuep Aj[ensn jou 4nq ‘eaAisueyxm ~---A[UO pazejndod [[aM A[aeyz ‘oAisuayxG eos peye[ndod Ajasuep ‘aAisuo}xe A[te,T *peyejndod [12 Ajaiez A[UO ynq ‘eAisua}xe Ape g “yuByiodul A[arey ‘suekesi A 24} UL pazye[ndod Ajesuop put oAisuazxq “queyiodult ‘a1oz -9.194} ‘payez[ndod Ajasuep pue aaisue}xq ae ee ee eS 8001 DIY dAOUIBOY Spe Naps Gee ee SYIOI ANOSUTI oAlsseyY Yq o1ueojoa peppag ~-So}B1OUIO[ ZIV pue Blvd0e1q d1UeDjO A. a oe SQUOZSSUIL] CUL[[B1OD meee szIsodoep [elAn][e pus [2109917 “197@M UBISO}1B FO 001N0S B se JoezoRVIVyO “UO1ZBUIAOF JO UOINGII48IG *poyerndod si 41 yoy 0} da1Zap PUB UOIVEUILOF Jo JUSRXT “UOI}BULIO,T ‘sayddns 12jDM-UWnIS2}4N 03 UO1VDIA4 104) pun sawiddyryg 241 Wi suoyMUWLOf 0160]/005—y] aAIAaV I, 234 The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 A majority of the wells drilled by the Bureau of Public Works have penetrated these classes of material. A majority also of the successful wells have obtained their water from sands and gravels of littoral or alluvial or combined littoral and alluvial origin. It cannot be said, however, that littoral and alluvial deposits are uniformly productive of artesian water. Such deposits are irregular, and individual beds do not extend over large areas. On the contrary, the formation is characterized by narrow lenses of sand or gravel or clay, such as would be ex- pected in the beds of modern streams or along beaches. It is due to this feature of littoral and alluvial deposits that so often a flowing well will be secured adjacent to a drilled hole which has obtained no water or only pumping water. A striking ex- ample is the case. of two wells drilled within 50 meters of each other between the Philippine General Hospital and the Bureau of Science in Manila. The first well reached a depth of 178 meters and obtained only 113 liters of water per minute. The second well obtained 322 liters per minute at a depth of only 137 meters. On the completion of the second well work was resumed on the first well in an attempt to get water at the 137-meter horizon, but all efforts to this end failed. Neither of these wells flowed, but numerous experiments have demonstrated that in this class of deposits flowing wells, nonflowing wells, and dry wells may be situated side by side. As has been said, littoral and alluvial deposits are made up of loosely consolidated sands, clays, and gravels. The loose character of the formation is responsible for the commonly noted phenomenon that in wells situated near the coast line the level of the water in the well varies with the stage of the tide in the adjacent sea. The fresh water in the upper part of the land mass is always percolating through porous beds toward the sea, and in the region of the seashore it is in some measure in a condi- tion of hydrostatic equilibrium with the sea water, which satu- rates the porous beds outcropping on the sea floor. The rising tide actually increases the hydrostatic pressure on the ground water in the adjacent porous beds. This effect is especially marked where an old coral reef has been included between the deeper beds of the formation, because the loose structure of the coral reef affords unusually free passage for water. Another factor which must be considered in connection with littoral and alluvial formations is the possibility of obtaining salt water in wells adjacent to the coast. Littoral deposits are contaminated by the salt water in which they were formed. Close to the coast line percolation of the fresh ground water OFA, 4 Pratt: Location of Artesian Wells 935 may not have been extensive enough to have removed all the original salt, particularly where the formation contains clay, which is not easily permeable. Salt water is almost inevitably encountered at depth in wells near the coast line. The ground- water circulation appears to be most vigorous at depths generally less than 180 meters. Consequently, if potable water is encoun- tered in littoral or alluvial deposits at depths of from 60 to 150 meters, it is usually advisable to make arrangements to use this water even though it be of limited quantity and require pumping, rather than to continue drilling in the hope of obtain- ing flowing water or water in greater quantity at extreme depths. Occasionally, where it has been possible to case out salt water, wells have been deepened and have obtained fresh water at lower levels, but as a rule, fresh water has not been found below salt water. The discussion of alluvial and littoral deposits and combina- tions of these two classes of deposits may be extended and ap- plied to intermingled alluvial, littoral, and fragmental volcanic material as well. Volcanic tuffs are often and extensively interbedded with alluvium and with littoral deposits in the Philippines; less frequently volcanic breccias and agglomerates alternate with alluvial or littoral material. Volcanic tuffs, as a matter of fact, usually contain interbedded alluvium, and similarly alluvium usually includes some volcanic tuff. The com- binations of these several classes of material yield water about as commonly and under about the same conditions as littoral and alluvial deposits themselves. CORALLINE LIMESTONE Coralline limestone is generally dry where it occurs over extensive areas and in thickness. It is so porous and so thor- oughly jointed and cavernous that water percolates through it with little hindrance. Only in coralline limestone that is interbedded with impervious beds of clay, marl, or other material is water confined so as to be available under hydrostatic pres- sure. Fortunately a great deal of the recent coralline limestone in the Philippines is interbedded with impervious material and, therefore, can often be made to yield water. Coral reefs have been found in buried littoral deposits, and in this position were saturated with water under pressure. More commonly coral reefs have been found in deposits of water-laid volcanic tuffs in relations which made the coral reef a natural reservoir for ground water. But the commonest condition under which water has been obtained from coralline limestone is that of interbedded 236 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 coralline limestone and clayey marl. The thick marl beds are impervious and confine the water in the intervening porous coral-reef members of the series. Coralline limestone is most abundant in the Visayan Islands, especially in Cebu and Bohol. On both these islands it includes mar] beds. Good wells have been obtained in this formation in only about 50 per cent of the trials made. The chance of encountering salt water is great if the well is drilled to a depth which carries it much below sea level. In drilling through coral, the hole should not advance far beyond the casing, even though the wells may stand up well, and especial watch should be maintained for impervious layers which may act as confining agents. VOLCANIC BRECCIAS AND AGGLOMERATES Volcanic breccias and agglomerates, made up of varyingly coarse and fine fragmental material embedded in tuff, are very common in the Philippines. These rocks have usually been deposited on the sea floor and, therefore, have been worked over and roughly stratified by water, but heterogeneous breccias and agglomerates of subaérial deposition are also known. These rocks are found in the immediate vicinities of old volcanoes and along lines of former volcanic activity. Much of the material is indurated and impervious, but an equal proportion, perhaps, is loose and porous. In massive breccias or agglomerates there is only slight chance of obtaining artesian water, but where the fragmental material has been deposited on a sea floor, and is, therefore, somewhat bedded, artesian water may be obtained. Wells on the south- eastern and eastern shores of Laguna de Bay have yielded good flows from this class of rock. There is a considerable area of bedded volcanic agglomerate around the base of Mount Isarog in Camarines which ought to yield water, and likewise in northern Camarines and in Sorsogon there are places at which it is suspected rocks of this nature are water-bearing. On the whole, however, voleanic breccias and agglomerates are rather uncertain territory for the artesian-well driller. Mineralized water is often encountered in massive volcanic agglomerate. Hot springs and other evidences of solfataric action are associated with these rocks, so that in addition to the possibility of encountering no water there is the further chance that if water is encountered it may be too thoroughly mineralized to be potable. XK, A, 4 Pratt: Location of Artesian Wells 237 BEDDED VOLCANIC TUFF Bedded volcanic tuff is found extensively in southwestern Luzon and has proved to be particularly reliable as a source of artesian water. This tuff has not been indurated nor con- solidated through folding processes; it is distinctly bedded and generally porous, but the successive beds are varyingly fine- grained, so that conditions for confining water under some pres- sure are very good. Many of the wells in the bedded tuff have yielded flows, and a great majority have yielded either pumping or flowing water. The bedded tuff formation is, perhaps, more uniformly water-bearing than any other of the Philippine rock series. TERTIARY SEDIMENTARIES The Tertiary (Miocene) sedimentaries consist of shales, sand- stones, conglomerates, and limestones. The formation is en- countered in various parts of Luzon; it makes up nearly the whole of the area of Samar; and it is important in Leyte, Cebu, Panay, and in parts of Mindanao. Coal and petroleum are found only in the Tertiary sedimentaries in the Philippines, and the distribution of these minerals may be used as a guide in this connection. The shales and sandstones are made up in large proportion of volcanic material. The series as a whole is in- durated and close-grained; consequently it carries but little water. Moreover the fine-grained beds retain a great deal of their original salt content, and this contaminates any water which is obtained from them. Only a small number of wells have penetrated the sedimentary series, and only a small pro- portion of these have been successful. Where this series of beds constitutes the underlying formation, a serious effort should be made to obtain potable waters in the surface alluvium if it is available. Deep wells are to be undertaken only as a last resort. It must be admitted that some artesian water has been obtained from the sedimentary rocks, but the flows are invariably small, and no eminently satisfactory wells have been drilled into the formation. The sandstones and the conglomerates yield water under favorable conditions, but even these rocks are too dense to be of great promise. The limestone members of the series are very cavernous and jointed, and water percolates through them readily. The lower limestone, which is very close to the base of the sedimentary series, is undoubtedly the most im- portant possible source of artesian water in this formation. 932 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 At its outcrop this limestone is corroded and jointed until it is a very porous rock. The sedimentary series is usually found flanking the cordilleras and dipping away from them, so that very often this basal limestone is exposed in a region of heavy rainfall and lies at an angle which accelerates the percolation of water along it. If the limestone in this relation were pene- trated by a well, it ought to yield water copiously. The diffi- culties are that the basal limestone is thin, discontinuous, and broken by faulting; that inasmuch as its porosity in surface exposures is due largely to solution, the limestone may not be porous below the permanent level of ground water; and finally, that its stratigraphic position is such that it is commonly too deeply buried, except in mountainous and consequently unin- habited regions, to be accessible by drilling. The conditions afford a chance, however, which should be tested when oppor- tunity presents. MASSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS Massive igneous rocks abound in all of the truly mountainous portions of the Philippine Islands. Igneous rocks, wherever present to the exclusion of other rocks, constitute the formation least favorable to the accumulation of potable artesian water. They are impermeable to water because of their dense nonporous texture and the absence of bedding planes. It is generally im- material in this connection whether the igneous rock is of the deep-seated, holocrystalline type, such as the diorites, gabbros, peridotites, and occasional granites, or is one of the surface lava flows, such as the widely distributed andesites and less common basalts, rhyolites, and dacites, although infrequently solidified lava flows are so vesicular and porous as to be per- meable to water. Very rarely do common igneous rocks yield water in quantity. No Philippine wells have encountered water in massive igneous rocks, although a dozen, perhaps, have been drilled into them. Minute quantities of water are contained along fractures and joints in igneous rocks, and often mineral- ized water is encountered in the occasional veins and shear zones; otherwise the rocks are almost invariably dry. Obviously, there- fore, igneous rocks are to be avoided in choosing sites for artesian wells. METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic types of rocks are represented in the Philip- pines principally by schists, with subordinate gneisses and mar- bles. Because of their dense nature metamorphic rocks are not AW 4 Pratt: Location of Artesian Wells 239 common sources of artesian water. In the Philippines they are of limited distribution and consequently unimportant; as yet no wells have been drilled into them. Water might be obtained from buried marble, which is often cavernous, but schist and gneiss would probably be found to be dry. Schists and gneisses, together with massive igneous rocks, are the basal formations in the Philippine rock series and will, therefore, be encountered ultimately in practically any locality in the Islands if the drilling proceeds to a sufficient depth. Since they are devoid of water, no attempt should be made to continue drilling once these formations are encountered. Gyr Tie AP aliheat wal. Nie: waren JS irl ai: adie cei! Galiaieetie condi eet ees neg. a6 opal e Mpa: Neo nekhedieiin hh crelbef hee och 7 pti iit al Bo cache eee saueeh, Able ; oy the, tet aM i alrite eens 6 eto ete i bnwind ot hiro sh erect Sige wow Winey tee ward eget La/ nied aie aed | Haub er 2a ee podieanerten it et ale notieeiaoad siden ven lle ead mbar boiétende ae PTO HOMER tes eH oul earned Biter’) 9 Time Aina Srteslin eh asta ea hineets fy ONS ve 7 rhage Sem ne: kta Die 4 ] 2 q i . Me ey Lee: ae : ; x Ati heb, {Use . \a@ ra i List ty 4 ft p ! f rit hd i v 2 f ” I Ney s* Ww é ‘itn é i ‘ t Pay vii ‘ 5 , aoay 5 ‘ im vii : a hi . ’ paar . i si ein \ $ yoaP a y ts’ uu a es 02%. yr é | dian’? mane ia WIC). \ by ‘eet® Ganas Marte a oan : ; Fae PETROLEUM AND RESIDUAL BITUMENS IN LEYTE? By WALLACE E. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) ONE PLATE AND 2 TEXT FIGURES CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. OCCURRENCE OF THE PETROLEUM AND SITUATION. RESIDUAL BITUMENS. PHYSIOGRAPHY. CHARACTER OF THE PETROLEUM AND GENERAL GEOLOGY. RESIDUAL BITUMENS. STRATIGRAPHY. SOURCES AND PROBABLE QUANTITIES Alluvial and littoral deposits. OF PETROLEUM AND RESIDUAL Malumbang series. BITUMENS. Canguinsa clay-tuff. THe UTILIZATION OF THE RESIDUAL Vigo shale. BITUMENS. Intrusive rocks. SUGGESTIONS FoR EXPLORATION. STRUCTURE. : SUMMARY. INTRODUCTION The existence of petroleum in Leyte became known about the year 1890. In 1892, according to old Spanish records, an Englishman, named White, sought exclusive permission to exploit petroleum deposits in the Philippines and to refine the petroleum obtained therefrom. In his petition the applicant specified the northwestern part of Leyte and the Islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros, and Panay as‘territory to be explored. Becker,’ quoting various Spanish authorities, states that petroleum had been found in the jurisdiction of the town of San Isidro, Leyte. Sir Boverton Redwood * was informed by a Mr. Warren that pe- troleum was known to occur near the town of Villaba, Leyte. The people of the town of Villaba remember an attempt at exploitation about the year 1896 on a well-known seep near the barrio of Jinagnatan. Apparently this work, the men in charge of which are said to have been Belgians, was without result; certainly no wells of any depth were drilled. Adams‘ mentions * Received for publication June 16, 1915. “Report on the geology of the Philippine Islands, 21st Annual Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. (1901), pt. 3, 107, reprint. * Petroleum and its Products. Charles Griffn & Co. Ltd., London. 2d ed. (1906), 56. ‘This Journal, Sec. A (1909), 4, 355. 241 242, The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 the reported occurrence of petroleum at Villaba, but had no opportunity to verify the reports. Attention was recalled to the Villaba region by the reported discovery of asphalt there in 19138. The original discovery was made by a Filipino ranger in the forest service in mountainous country about 10 kilometers northeast of Villaba. The material found by the forest ranger is a brittle, solid bitumen, brownish black in color, schistose or irregular in fracture, and high in its content of paraffin. This discovery was followed immediately by a period of active prospecting and claim location. A number of other outcrops of material similar in character to the forest ranger’s outcrop have been located, and other outcrops and seepages of hydrocarbons, ranging in character from petroleum itself, through viscous liquids and semisolids, to hard, coallike bitumens, are now known. Bitumen-impregnated limestone and sandstone have also been found. A majority of the later dis- coveries are nearer to the seacoast and in less mountainous country than the first find, a feature which has stimulated prospecting. At the present time there are about 30 claims in the district. Approximately one half of these are individual claims, 8 hec- tares in area; the remainder are association claims, 64 hectares in area. A majority of the claim holders have pooled their interests and have incorporated under the name of The Leyte Asphalt and Mineral Oil Company, Limited. The notes upon which the present paper is based were made during a visit of a week’s duration in May, 1915. SITUATION Villaba is situated on the western coast of northern Leyte. The petroleum seep whose existence is noted by Becker and by Redwood lies near the seacoast about 4 kilometers north of Villaba; it is just inland from Burabod Point between the barrios of Jinagnatan and Campocpoc. The solid bitumens first dis- covered occur at the western base of the ridge surmounted by Mount Benao and to the south of that mountain in the valley of one of the streams at the head of Butason River. Other seepages of petroleum, which were evidently not known to the Spaniards, have recently been found at the head of the valley east of Villaba at a distance of about 4 kilometers from that town. Other outcrops of solid bitumens have been found around the western base of Mount Benao, and viscous bitumens seep from the banks of a creek which flows into Butason River farther west than the outcrop first discovered. A mixture of solid X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 2438 bitumen and fragments of clay-tuff has been discovered in the edge of the town of Villaba itself. This deposit appears to be of considerable extent laterally. .To the south of Villaba at a distance of about 3 kilometers there is a large outcrop of bitumen-impregnated limestone, and east of this occurrence there is another small outcrop of solid or semisolid bitumen. Finally, viscous black bitumen has been found just inland from the barrio of Tabubunga, 10 kilometers south of Villaba. Both petroleum and solid bitumen are reported from other places in northwestern Leyte, but these reports were not verified. Some of them appear upon examination to be unreliable, but in view of the geology of the region it will be surprising if other occurrences of petroleum and bitumens derived from petroleum are not discovered. The principal known occurrences of petroleum and related bitumens, therefore, are distributed over an area 8 kilometers wide and 13 kilometers long. The peninsular portion of north- western Leyte as far south as the barrio of Baliti is a geologic unit and should be included in the area which may contain petroleum, although surface indications of petroleum will prob- ably not be encountered in the northern part of the peninsula, because there erosion has not removed the cover of rocks over- lying the petroleum-bearing formation as it has farther south. The vicinity of Villaba is shown on the accompanying map, fig. 2, together with all of the known bitumen outcrops and petroleum seepages. In fig. 1 northwestern Leyte is shown in outline. Both these maps are based on Coast and Geodetic Survey charts. The situations of the outcrops as shown on the detailed map were obtained by compass surveys. PHYSIOGRAPHY Northwestern Leyte is of only moderate relief—rarely do the elevations exceed 350 meters—but the valleys are deeply incised, and the slopes are usually steep. The topography reflects strongly the geologic structure—nearly flat-topped ridges and hills in the extreme north where the strata are level or only slightly inclined, and sharp points and knife-edged divides in the steeply dipping shales farther south. A resistant limestone near the top of the rock series withstands erosion, so that in places it becomes a base upon which remain little groups or rows of regular conical hills carved out of the softer overlying sandstone. The rainfall is carried off by a number of small drainage systems, so that within the petroleum region there are no large streams. The headwaters of the river which reaches the sea 944 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 y 124° 30' an le | Caibiran Ne Naval € ron « \ylae _ ee Villaba 5 Q Palompon 2 \ os Fic. 1. Outline of northwestern Leyte. x, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 245 at Ormoc are just south of Villaba, but the river does not attain a great volume within the confines of the petroleum-bearing ter- ritory. Likewise Butason River leaves the petroleum region behind before it attains any great size. 25 PUTINGBATO Hi \ () yy /y j f | ( (Ghee Wii \ Devajon.t O Cec. A Joy | oe ‘« eons —~—Or a os (rm cHnaRo MAP e OF THE 3) \ VICINITY OF VILLABA, LEYTE | Cea LEGEND (@ Asphalt outcrop (6) Petroleum see GMT. BUGABUGA scans P \ e a Stream to Scale UC Ormoc Bay hhh 0 LANG Ania Fic. 2. Vicinity of Villaba, Leyte, showing the situations of outcrops of natural bitumens and seepages of petroleum. The coast line of northwestern Leyte is generally regular and unbroken by indentations. The land mass rises abruptly from the seashore, and the streams are tidal for a comparatively short distance inland. In the vicinity of the petroleum-bearing area, however, the generally straight coast line is modified by a series 246 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 of sharp reéntrants, including San Isidro Bay, Arevalo Bay, and Campocpoc Bay. Evidently these conspicuous indentations have resulted from local folding. GENERAL GEOLOGY The geologic formation in northwestern Leyte is predominantly sedimentary and belongs to the late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary series of rocks. The several divisions can be correlated directly with the stratigraphic column as worked out by Pratt and Smith® in the Bondoc Peninsula petroleum region in Tayabas Province. Thin-bedded shales and subordinate thin beds of sandstone of lower Miocene or Oligocene age make up the base of the series. These beds appear to have been laid down unconformably over a complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks of undetermined age. The name Vigo shale was applied to the thin-bedded shale and sandstone series because of typical occurrences along Vigo River in Tayabas. Petroleum is found in the Vigo both in Tayabas and Leyte. Overlying the Vigo with some degree of unconformity is a massive or imperfectly bedded formation of clay-tuff and tuff- sandstone, which was designated as the Canguinsa sandstone in Tayabas. This formation yields petroleum and derived bitumens in Leyte, although it is barren or only faintly petroliferous in Tayabas. Limestone and calcareous sandstone are encountered with apparent conformity, above the Canguinsa, in both Leyte and Tayabas. These rocks are known as the Malumbang series, and they mark the top of the stratigraphic column except for recently elevated coral reefs, littoral deposits, and modern alluvium. The Malumbang series contains no petroleum in Tayabas, but in Leyte it has been impregnated with petroleum in at least one place with the formation of bituminous limestone and bituminous sandstone as a result. The total thickness of the sedimentary formations in Tayabas was estimated at from 1,700 to 1,800 meters, and the sections which can be measured in Leyte show corresponding thicknesses. The presence of several small intrusions of andesite and ande- site-agglomerate was recorded in the report on the Tayabas region. In the Leyte field intrusions of this class are much more prominent and numerous. One of the most conspicuous hills in the vicinity of Villaba, namely, Mount Tabeyta, consists of ande- site and andesite-agglomerate, and a half-dozen smaller intru- °*This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 301 et seq. KA, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens QAT sions, distributed throughout the petroleum-bearing region, were observed. The sedimentaries in northwestern Leyte are generally tilted so as to have a strike of north 60° west with dips of from 10° to 20° at right angles to this line in either direction; locally the strata have been thrown into sharper folds in which, however, the general west-northwest strike is maintained. At places along the coasts even the general strike is lost, and the attitude of the beds is widely different over short distances. The more intense folds are in the intruded areas and are probably accom- panied by faulting. STRATIGRAPHY Table I shows the stratigraphy of the Tayabas petroleum region as worked out by Pratt and Smith.’ As modified in the following discussion, the table serves admirably for the Leyte petroleum region, the correlation of the principal divisions being perfect. ALLUVIAL AND LITTORAL DEPOSITS Alluvium is of minor occurrence in northwestern Leyte and demands little attention. Sand and clay derived from the sed- imentary rocks, with pebbles from the intrusives and coralline limestones, border the lower courses of the streams. Raised coral reefs are encountered along the coasts and indicate an elevation of the land mass continuing into recent time. Frag- mental coral and other littoral débris have been elevated with the reefs, and the deposits have a roughly bedded structure in which the dividing planes are frequently inclined at considerable angles. MALUMBANG SERIES The Malumbang series has not been studied as closely in Leyte as it has in Tayabas; in the last-named region it was found to be nonuniform both in thickness and in character. An upper and lower limestone with an intervening sandstone were found at some places in Tayabas, but at other places the lower lime- stone appeared to be missing, and the sections rarely included all three divisions. In Leyte the series is similarly inconstant in character. It can hardly be described more definitely than as an irregular succession of calcareous beds, ranging from chalky limestone through calcareous sandstone to coralline lime- stone. The chalky beds are more prominent in Leyte than in “Op cit, all2: 134764——2 1915 Journal of Science ippine al The Ph 248 -qns [enpBas ‘sBas MO] -[eyS ‘“uoIsnayxe [Boor] “UOISNAYXE [BOO] {pe} eoIpul svos MoTleYys pue joInb 10 deep y40q {suOlzIpuod WAOF;UNUONT “BOUND ye agalo ‘sees Mol[eys ‘UOIZBAV[O MO|S But -INp s}Isodep s10yseeg “OTVBIANL HT “uolz1sodep JO UOL}IPUOd d1BO[OOr) “ps0und sadDJ, “Udaqqaqsyooy snuog ‘puriab1g07) ue Sita = etn ta ds nyning “ds vA "STUNUMOD snadfja0j0hp ‘seuljoAv0pide| o3.1e'7T "WNUWASSISOWDL WNWU ~UDYJOYIVT ‘snitoyDUes UAIAT ‘pyndiup vying “pypj8s09 DuYyno -4adQ ‘sypitadur snjipuods ‘svp -UDAB 8n21n—a)05 “ds WNLYILaD ‘sisuanpopng DUNT ‘spi pnynihy ‘snpiny snuog “ds wnidoosajay “awnsojnpow UNVY UID § “SnID.LsaUaf snNYyI047, *S[ISSOF D14SIIoJOBLeYO ‘Sn}]0IDLA4E SNuOD ‘1810107 snwop | O9T-0S (2) “41 UL [JO JO sSurmoys ey pourey -qO aABy S][OM Mol[eys pue ‘azes neoeg oy} YIIM pozeloosse o18 sdoos flO [edioursd oyy, ‘souoz Apues s0u “TUL FIM 8[Bys YoBlq Yysin[q ‘peppeq A[QVeJAOdult 10 DAIsSBLY *spaq 0} BU403/8 UL ‘97 B19 U10/ 5U09 ApuBS BUY PUB OUOFSPUBG/ *90U0T.1N990 [e1eues Jo you ‘oseq ul 9JeI0WIO[Z5e DUBd[OA Jo doaojno [[ews o[suis y *A[[BI0] OUOJSOUNI] Jo Spoq JouLu pus 9U0}SpUes SNOdAeO[e0 ABAS YIM OU04S -puus AAR ‘aAIsseul ‘ABIZ 04 ONn[_ “"q41ed UI OUl[[B109 ‘MOT[eA OF OFIYM “uMOIq 0} MOTI ‘sno -a1v0[e0 ‘pappeg ~~ APUBS 04 BUTT] BAOD aera 970 ‘seyoRoq ‘sjoor [e100 posieyy BESET aUIZAOABAY pus ‘[aABIZ ‘pues ‘AB[D ‘spqnhny, ‘nynsumuag “ssou PUL 20puog *10}0BABYO PUB SUOIBIAIPGNS ‘93818 neoeg ‘QU0}BOUII] ABMO'T ‘auojspues ideipno *auojsounly toddy) “auojspues esuInsuED “> -geltes SuBquinyeyy ‘9}180dep [107 -HI] puke syoor [e109 Saar pen Sch wnan[[y “UOISO.19 a[qissod pues soUeprooSIpP [Bor -ueyoop, “Ajiuaopzuoouy) “euad0I[ IAMO| .10 apply *QUdD0IW O[ ppl do daddn pue susd0l[g AYWAOJ UODU ~- quadoy pue eus004s10[g age capone ce ie quesey *UO1PBULLOT ‘hydoswbypys fo auvayos jpuorsia0.1g—y] ATA J, “‘soLlag 249 Petrolewm and Residual Bitumens Pratt &, A, 4 "posodxe jou osey y *aSO[D 42 MO] -[eys £19 ourBoeq 4ngG ‘polted ou} Ul 872] peue -deep 103@4. “eduepis DyjawMmojyshjog “pwr4a61go)) 00F ‘Te BUIYIe] 10 poyeadu0H *90U2aIINDI0 [etaues JO jou {oyeroulo[zZe Diued[OA Fo vinsod -xo [[e@UIs o[3uis y ‘eseq pesodxeun UL UOZIIOY [10 B[qIssog ‘Ses pu¥ [lo jo saoBiy, ‘“SsieAe[ UlYZ UL Ppoppoed-ezU! auojspues pue ‘ajeys Apues UMOAG pue MoTeA ‘ayeys youlq ‘opeys ABIH ‘agoudIIndo0 [e19Ues jo you 4nq ‘uoZIIOY sIYyy 3e@ 2}eIO -W10/ 338 D1UBd[OA Jo dor9zNO a[suls V | | | ) | eee eyeys OSLA “10 <0 5 See (é) (4) ‘2ua003 aUuSsoI, TeAo'T 250 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Tayabas. They form smooth white faces, which are numerous along the western coast. They are encountered both above and below the calcareous sandstone, while the coralline limestones are usually above the sandstone. The chalky limestone appears to contain very fine tuff in some exposures. South of Villaba and east of Baliti the Malumbang series has been impregnated with bitumen. The bituminous limestone and bituminous sandstone so formed outcrop at the head of a canon near the summit of the hills. It is probable that the canon marks a fault, since Vigo shale is exposed in the wall opposite the bitumen-impregnated face. Here the Malumbang series is at least 50 meters thick and is clearly conformable over the Canguinsa, both formations dipping at low angles to the south. The lower beds are calcareous sandstone (lower lime- stone missing), while the upper part of the series is fragmental, coralline limestone. Elsewhere in Leyte, especially on the northern part of the peninsula, the Malumbang series is much thicker and may attain a maximum of 200 meters. In distribution the Malumbang may be said to be confined to the tops of the hills along the coast in the southern part of the region, extending inland farther north until it is intact across the north end of the peninsula. It is especially heavy on the northeastern coast of the peninsula. CANGUINSA CLAY-TUFF The Canguinsa as it occurs in Tayabas is a light gray, light brown, or light blue, massive clay-tuff, or clayey tuff-sandstone, both of which, although soft, are dense and tough as a result of their close, fine-grained texture. The rock is imperfectly bedded at places; elsewhere it is massive. It is usually slightly calcareous and contains numerous small fossils (Table I). It breaks with a subconchoidal fracture and weathers into frag- ments with concave faces, which are smooth and greasy to the touch and emit a faint odor of bitumen. At places toward its base the Canguinsa becomes fissile and takes on something of the character of the Vigo shale. This description applies perfectly to the Canguinsa in Leyte, where it is in every respect similar to the Tayabas occurrences. A fact which escaped mention in the report on the Tayabas field, however, is that the Canguinsa contains a large proportion of voleanic tuff of varying fineness. In places it is a clay-tuil; at other places, a tuff-sandstone. The individual grains of tuff are sharp fragments of glass, calcic feldspar, and subordinate quartz. x, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 251 The commonest fossil in the Canguinsa in Leyte is a species of Globigerina, a low form of animal life which builds a very small, spherical shell of calcium carbonate. These fossils were noted in the upper part of the Vigo shale in Tayabas, and the study of that field brought forth the suggestion that the petroleum, which undoubtedly comes from the Vigo, might have originated through the decomposition of the organic matter which the shells once contained. The Canguinsa in Leyte appears to contain even more examples of Globigerina than the Vigo; possibly 5 per cent of the area on an average surface of a fragment of Can- guinsa clay-tuff from Leyte is covered by these small spheres. No petroleum was detected in the Canguinsa in Tayabas, but in Leyte a majority of the outcrops of bituminous residues from petroleum occur in the Canguinsa, and at one place petroleum itself seeps from a tuff-sandstone phase of the Canguinsa. The Canguinsa is the surface rock over the larger part of the Leyte petroleum field. It outcrops in the lower parts of the hills which are capped by the Malumbang series and is intact above the Vigo shale, except to the east and south of Jinabuyan and Villaba. The ridge which culminates in Mount Benao con- sists principally of Canguinsa rocks—clay-tuffs and clayey, tuff- sandstones. The western face of Mount Benao affords the best section of the Canguinsa observed in Leyte. In this region its thickness is at least 300 meters, a figure which is comparable with the estimated thickness of the same division of the Tayabas sedimentary column. VIGO SHALE The Vigo shale consists of alternating, thin, perfect beds of shale, sandy shale, and sandstone. The strata are differently colored—dark gray, brown, and yellow—and outcrops often pre- sent a variegated appearance. ‘Toward the top of the formation, dark-colored fine-grained shale, in thicker and less perfectly de- fined beds, is predominant. This upper shale was referred to as the Bacau stage of the Vigo in the report on the Tayabas field, having been differentiated there because it appears to be more petroliferous than the underlying beds. The Vigo is like the Canguinsa in that its beds, both shale and sandstone, appear to contain considerable tuffaceous material. The sandstone beds, for instance, are made up of sharp or slightly rounded fragments of feldspar, ferromagnesian minerals, glass, and quartz. Un- like the Canguinsa, on the other hand, the Vigo rocks are some- what indurated and usually fissile, so that they split into thin lamine on disintegration. The fine-grained shale at the top of 252 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 the Vigo, however, is not fissile and except for its darker color resembles the overlying Canguinsa. It weathers into ellipsoids, the forms of which stand out along the exposed edges of the beds, with their major axes in the plane of the stratum. The Vigo shale is probably about 1,000 meters in maximum thickness in Leyte, although complete sections were not observed. Undoubtedly the thickness varies, because it is known to overlap, unconformably, the formation upon which it rests. The most extensive exposures lie to the east and south of Villaba, while smaller outcrops are encountered at various places in the sur- rounding country. Petroleum seeps from the Vigo at half a dozen places in Taya- bas. Apparently it always comes from the upper part of the formation. In Leyte two petroleum seeps were found in the Vigo shale, and a very heavy, black, oil-liquid bitumen was encountered in sandstone, closely above the basal complex upon which the Vigo lies. The solid bitumens which occur in the overlying Canguinsa were nowhere observed in the Vigo. INTRUSIVE ROCKS The intrusive rocks in Leyte are principally andesites and andesite-breccias. Similar intrusions were observed in Taya- bas, and the rocks of which they consist were described in the report on that region. In Leyte the andesites are usually porphyritic with phenocrysts of ferromagnesian minerals and occasional calcic feldspars in a light-colored groundmass. Other specimens are dark-colored, fine-grained, homogeneous rocks. A single outcrop of an igneous rock, which appears to be dio- rite, is encountered at petroleum seepage I. This rock is some- what decomposed, is holocrystalline in texture; and consists essentially of calcic feldspars and hornblende or pyroxene. The outcrop is at a low horizon in the Vigo shale and may represent a part of the basal igneous complex instead of an intrusion. The intrusive nature of the andesites is indicated by their relation to the strata in the surrounding sedimentaries; by the presence in at least two places of adjacent springs of warm mineralized water which emits an odor of hydrogen sulphide; by rare fragments of quartz, chert, and partly baked shale in the rocks surrounding the intrusion; and in the case of the Mount Tabeyta intrusion, by remnants of a calcite- and quartz- cemented shale-breccia surmounting the andesite. The intrusions penetrate the Vigo shale and the Canguinsa clay-tuff. Mount Tabeyta and the isolated conical hill at the mouth of Campocpoc River are the largest and most conspicuous X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 253 of the intrusions, but there are numerous smaller outcrops east and south of Villaba. It is believed that the intrusions have been instrumental in driving the petroleum upward through the surrounding rocks. One of the observed petroleum seeps is on the contact of an apparently intrusive holocrystalline rock in the Vigo shale. All the petroleum and solid bitumen occurrences are near intrusions, and viscous or semiliquid bitumen is found in concretions and brecciated concretionlike bodies, the origin of which may reason- ably be attributed to solutions given off by buried intrusions. More detailed descriptions of each of the formations repre- sented in Leyte will be found in the report cited on the Tayabas field, and other observations are recorded in the descriptions of the occurrences of the hydrocarbons in the present paper. The age of the various divisions was determined by Smith from his study of the included fossil remains as follows: Alluvium and littoral deposits, Recent; raised coral reefs, Recent to Pleistocene; Malumbang series, Pliocene and upper or middle Miocene; Can- guinsa clay-tuff, middle or lower Miocene; Vigo shale, lower Miocene or Oligocene. The intrusive rocks are younger than the Canguinsa and are evidently younger than the Malumbang series if they are responsible for the dispersion of the bituminous mat- ter which is observed to impregnate part of the Malumbang series south of Villaba. STRUCTURE The structure of the Leyte petroleum region has been com- plicated by the intrusions which have penetrated the bedded rocks. The predominant strike is west-northwest. The dips are usually not greater than 30°, but locally they exceed this angle, especially in the Vigo shale, which commonly shows a greater inclination than the overlying beds. There are lines of local folding with dips in opposite directions on either side. Most of these folds trend west-northwest in the direction of the general strike, but this is not universally true. Along the coasts there is a tendency at several places for the strata to dip seaward, the strike corresponding to the general direction of the coast line. The bitumens and the intrusive rocks alike appear in or near arches or domes in the structure. Nowhere are they found in clearly defined synclines. There is an anticline with west-northwest axis near the head of Butason River. Outcrop D lies on the southern limb, and out- crops A and B lie on the northern limb of this fold. At outcrops KH, F, and G, however, the dip is uniformly north-northeast, showing that the fold does not persist far eastward. Between 954 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 seepages I and J, again, there is a west-northwest-trending anticline in the Vigo shale, with Mount Camaro lying on its crest. The seepage at I on the northern limb of this fold is marked by igneous rocks which may be either intrusive or a part of the basal complex which underlies the Vigo shale. The outcrop N is on a fault trending west-northwest, along which there is also a small intrusion and from which the strata dip away on either side. The southern part of the petroleum region, therefore, appears to contain a number of small folds, the majority of which have not yet been delineated. There are probably also more faults than have been detected. The intrusions, to judge from their distribution, are related to the folds in origin. In the northern part of the peninsula the folding processes have been less intense, and low broad folds would be expected in this territory. Both in Tayabas and in Leyte there is a discordance between the Vigo shale and the overlying Canguinsa. This discordance is evidenced by an abrupt flattening in the angle of dip on passing from the Vigo to the Canguinsa in sharply folded areas. The dip is constantly in the same direction, but is less pronounced in the upper rocks than it is in the Vigo. Where the folding processes have not been intense, and the dips are consequently not steep, there is apparent conformity between the two forma- tions. The possibility of an unconformity between the Vigo and the Canguinsa was discussed at length in the report on the Tayabas region. The question is important if, as is suggested, the Vigo shale is the petroleum-bearing formation. No con- clusive evidence of an erosional unconformity was discovered, and it is, therefore, suggested that the observed difference in the angles of dip in the two formations might be explained as a mechanical discordance. It is conceived that the perfectly and closely laminated character of the Vigo shale would tend to cause it to respond more readily and more completely to processes of folding than would the heavily bedded or massive Canguinsa. The result might be a crumpling or wrinkling of the Vigo shale, which would be less plainly manifested in the more competent arch of the overlying Canguinsa. Whether the unconformity between the Vigo and the Can- guinsa is erosional or only a mechanical discordance is not con- clusively determined. If it is erosional, there may, of course, be structures in the Vigo shale where it is covered by the upper rocks which are not reflected on the surface. Likewise there would be an overlap of the upper rocks on the upturned edges of the Vigo. If the discordance is only mechanical, there may X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens — 255 still be a slight overlap on the limbs of steep folds, but the structure as determined by the attitude of the upper beds must be practically the same in the underlying, petroleum-bearing Vigo shale. . OCCURRENCE OF THE PETROLEUM AND RESIDUAL BITUMENS In Leyte petroleum is encountered at two places: namely, seep- ing from the upturned edges of the Vigo shale and oozing from the base of a hill which consists of a clayey tuff-sandstone belong- ing to the Canguinsa. Residual bitumens occur in the Canguinsa and in the Malumbang series; one questionable outcrop of solid bitumen was observed in loose débris which appears to overlie the Vigo shale, and a heavy, black oil or viscous bitumen was found in sandstone near the base of the Vigo. The bitumens in the Canguinsa are encountered in five types of deposits: (1) solid bitumens in lenses or pockets which tend to follow bedding planes, but which also cross the bedding irreg- ularly along fractures and cavities; (2) solid bitumens in reg- ular fissures which penetrate the clay-tuff independently of bedding planes; (8) in nonuniform mixtures of bitumen-impreg- nated, clay-tuff fragments and subordinate solid bitumen; (4) viscous or semiliquid bitumen-cementing breccias of flintlike lime- stone, small domes of which protrude from the surface of the clay-tuff formation; and (5) viscous or semisolid bitumen filling the centers of hollow, cylindrical concretions which occur in the clay tuff, with their longer axes nearly vertical and at right angles to bedding planes. The bitumen in the Malumbang series has impregnated porous limestone and sandstone, forming what is known commercially as rock asphalt. The various occurrences both of petroleum and of residual bitumen, which are indicated on the map (fig. 2) by letter, will be described separately. Chemical data on the petroleum and the bitumens will be found in the discussion on the character of the bitumens. Outcrops A and B are jet black, lustrous bitumens with con- choidal fracture, which have been mistaken by the Filipinos who live in the vicinity for coal. The bitumen has a specific gravity of 1.05, a black streak, and a hardness, at ordinary tem- perature, of not more than 2. It melts readily, intumesces, and flows imperfectly. Upon distillation it yields a delicate coke. The outcrops have been on fire at various times, either through spontaneous combustion or, more probably, through kindling from the grass fires which sweep the region nearly every year, and the clay surrounding them is baked to a red sinter at places. Both deposits are found in Canguinsa clay-tuff at the base of 256 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Mount Benao, with at least 250 meters’ thickness of this forma- tion stratigraphically above them. Outcrop A is in a creek which flows into Campocpoc River. Several exposures have been found at the surface, but attempts to follow them with excavations have failed. Evidently only loose débris or surface float from the true deposit, whatever its nature may be, has as yet been discovered. In all, perhaps one ton of bitumen has been recovered. At B a small vertical fissure filled with solid bitumen has been exposed by a shaft about 3 meters deep. There are other out- crops of similar bitumen near by, but only the one has been opened enough to reveal its form. This fissure has sharp, reg- ular walls and widens downward from 30 centimeters at the surface to 60 centimeters at the bottom of the opening. The bitumen is closely jointed at right angles to the walls, so that it is removed in roughly columnar fragments. A small lens of the clay wall was observed in the fissure surrounded by bitumen, and small seams of bitumen extend out from the fissure along joint planes in the clay, although there is no general impregna- tion of the surrounding walls. The fissure trends a little north of east across the beds of the Canguinsa, which strike west- northwest and dip about 20° north-northeast. Outcrop C is identical in character with outcrop A. Nothing in place has been discovered, but pieces of black, shiny bitumen are scattered over the surface on the side of a hill of Canguinsa clay-tuff. Probably both at A and C fissures similar to the one at B will be found. At D there are several outcrops of viscous, black bitumen along the bed of a small stream. The material varies from a semi- liquid, through a sticky, viscous stage, to a rubbery semisolid. The largest outcrop is a dome of bitumen-cemented breccia about 1 meter in diameter, which protrudes nearly a meter from the surface of the Canguinsa clay-tuff in the creek floor. The bitu- men binds together the rock fragments in the breccia and also occupies pores and vesicles in the fragments themselves. There are at least two other outcrops of the same character. A shallow excavation around the base of the larger dome shows that it continues downward through the clay-tuff beds. Apparently these breccia domes or chimneys penetrate the strata, although there is no evidence of disturbance in the clay-tuff surrounding them. The outcrops are in the basal part of the Canguinsa, very closely above the Vigo shale. The dip in the surrounding rocks is about 30° to the south-southwest. A few hundred meters to X, A, 4 Pratt: Petrolewm and Residual Bitumens 257 the north the dip changes in direction to the north-northeast and continues unchanged to the region of Mount Benao. Thus an anticline is indicated, the axis of which trends west-north- west and lies close to the north of D outcrop. The southern limb of this fold is not persistent, north-northeast dips being again encountered at a distance of 1 kilometer south of the axis. The fragments in the breccia are compact, flintlike rocks, which can best be described, perhaps, by likening them to portions of the clay-tuff hardened through impregnation by mineralizing solutions. That the hard rock may, indeed, have originated by some such process is suggested by the presence in the same neighborhood of peculiar concretions of the same flint- like material in the clay-tuff. These concretions, which have been spoken of as tubelike, are hollow, thick-walled, nearly ver- tical cylinders, piercing the strata. The hollow centers of these concretions, also, are filled with bitumen, and vesicles in the concretion walls contain bitumen. Thin sections of specimens of the breccia and of the concretions show small annular casts which might be taken to represent Globigerina. Globigerina is found both in the Canguinsa and in the Vigo, so that the breccia might be portions of either of these formations so far as this evidence is concerned. Photographs of both the breccia domes and the concretions appear in Plate I. The following analyses show in part the composition of a fragment from the breccia and of a piece of clay-tuff from the surrounding beds: TABLE I].—Analyses of breccia and of clay-tuff from Canguinsa clay-tuf: outcrop D, Butason River, Villaba, Leyte.* Constituent. Clay-tuff.| Breccia. SHU EES CSI OPD ach hs et agi aT a i sag Mare ey 37. 98 5.73 | Atbuminias (Al2@3) oe eb 9) Sate bs SUES hs Ea Ee See ed eve 8.93 5.98 | erricioxide|(HezOs) oo yee 5 ks ee es aie es eh ale Ate EL ae Se 6.24 0.38 | IRErrousoxide)\ (MeO) se a tees A Mane lemetae HUN LMG SMR ey ln UML Y 4 ZUR nite al 3.77 1.96 Calciumioxiden(CaQ) eee cmse meen arse tees oe en mente oy REE SE ae yy Ae wet) 17.56 28. 80 Marnesiumoxidei(Mg@))-0!. sa; ehiie yee ig eee ea TE ee eee te 3.80 13.80 : Wossionhionition =e eo. Au ka a ale a Sake oR 21.56 43. 22 Motalitee a kyu de ee ek oN ee ee Ae 99.84 | 99.87 a Analyses by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. If the breccia rocks have been formed by the action of solu- tions on clay-tuff, the change has consisted principally in the addition of magnesium and calcium carbonates (especially mag- nesium carbonate) and the subtraction of silica. These results could be accomplished apparently by an alkaline solution, but it is not clear how the decrease in ferric iron could have been 258 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 brought about by the same solution. The question of the origin of the breccias will require further study. Several mineral springs occur in northwestern Leyte, and analyses by the Bureau of Science of the waters from one of them, situated at Villa- hermosa, north of San Isidro, show an extremely high car- bonic acid content with fair quantities of calcium, sodium, and magnesium. The analysis of the clay-tuff at first sight does not bear out the conclusion that tuff is an important part of the rock. The silica-alumina ratio, however, is approximately the same as that of tuff in Cebu, which can be correlated stratigraphically with the Leyte clay-tuff, and the calcium, magnesium, and iron salts can be accounted for as additions from the sea water into which the tuff fell. The total quantity of bitumen in sight at D is insignificant, but exploration might reveal a greater quantity and at the same time yield valuable information as to the origin of the bitumen deposits. Outcrop D is in the general vicinity of the Mount Tabeyta intrusion, although at some distance (3 kilometers) from the peak itself. A clay-shale-breccia cemented by calcite and quartz, as has already been noted, was found on the summit of Mount Tabeyta. The suggestion may be put forward that the breccias and concretions at outcrop D are related to buried intrusions in their origin. The solutions which have impregnated the breccias and concretions might conceivably have been given off by an intrusion, but the manner in which the brecciation was accomplished without disturbing the surrounding clay-tuff beds is not clear. Although the Canguinsa clay-tuff is slightly petro- liferous, there is certainly not enough bitumen in it to account for the concentration represented by the bitumen-cement in the breccias. Bitumen must, therefore, have been introduced into these broken rocks and solution channels, and the most reason- able assumption is that it ascended from a source in the under- lying rocks—that is, from the Vigo shale. Outcrops E, F, and G are pockets and irregular deposits of a solid, brownish black bitumen in Canguinsa clay-tuff. There are several other unmarked outcrops in the same region. The pockets follow bedding planes in the clay-tuff in a rough way, but also cross the beds irregularly and fill vertical openings in the formation. Several outcrops have been explored by short tunnels and by shafts, and a total quantity of perhaps 100 tons of bitumen has been recovered. The thickness of the deposits is rarely more than 1 meter, and some of them have X, A, 4 Pratt: Petrolewm and Residual Bitumens 259 failed laterally within distances of 10 meters. The openings are all filled with either débris or water, so that they afford little opportunity for the detailed examination of the deposits. The bitumen has a schistose appearance and an irregular schistose fracture. Its specific gravity varies from 1.02 to 1.05, depending, perhaps, on the degree of freedom from inorganic impurities. The streak is brownish, somewhat lighter than the color of the bitumen itself. The deposits are at a higher horizon in the Canguinsa clay-tuff than the outcrops at D, and the atti- tude of the beds is again that at outcrops A and B: namely, strike, west-northwest; dip, 20° north-northeast. At the point marked H on the map there is a petroleum seep in the Canguinsa tuff-sandstone. Except for the Mount Tabeyta intrusives only Canguinsa rocks are exposed in the neighborhood. The petroleum escapes in very small quantity from cracks and joints, but does not impregnate the rock itself. The strata appear to be about horizontal, but bedding planes are not clearly defined. The seepage is at the base of a hill barely above sea level. On the beach near by is a spring of mineralized water, which emits an odor of hydrogen sulphide. The attempt made during the Spanish régime to exploit the Leyte petroleum deposits centered at the seepage H. There is no evidence now that anything whatever was accomplished in these attempts. The petroleum seep at I is in a stream bed which is deeply cut into the Vigo shale. The oil drips from the wall of the creek along the contact between the Vigo shale and diorite. The igneous rock appears to be a lens between beds of steeply dipping shale and from its position might be an intrusion. No evidence of disturbance or metamorphism is to be observed in the shale, however, and the igneous rock may be part of the base upon which the Vigo shale lies instead of an intrusion. On both sides of the diorite exposure, the width of which is a few meters only, the shale is very regular and dips to the north-northeast at an angle of 50°. To the north the Vigo shale is exposed continuously for a distance of at least 800 meters, maintaining always the same attitude. About 300 meters south of the seep the dip changes in direction to the south-southwest and decreases to about 30°, the strike remain- ing constant. Thus an anticline is indicated in the Vigo shale. Mount Camaro, in which the strata appear to be nearly hori- zontal, marks the crest of this fold, and the petroleum seeps I and J lie on the opposite limbs very near the axis. The petroleum at the point marked J comes directly from the 260 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 upturned edges of the Vigo shale. A pit about 2 meters deep was dug at J, and enough petroleum was encountered to make possible the collection of a 1-liter sample. Gas escaped from the floor of the pit with a slight rushing sound and moved small pieces of débris around which it flowed. The shale in the pit walls is dark in color and is impregnated with petroleum, although the flow of petroleum came from bedding planes and joints. Dark gray sandstone occurs in the shale, but while it has a strong petroliferous odor, it is not impregnated with petroleum. About 500 meters to the east of the seepage at J the Canguinsa rocks are encountered overlying the Vigo, but directly south of the seep the Vigo is exposed over a greater distance. The seepages at both I and J, therefore, come from beds which are well below the top of the Vigo shale. If the igneous rock at I is not intrusive, then the one seepage must be in the very base of the Vigo. The petroleum at J is very fluid and has an odor of light oils. It is olive-green by reflected light and reddish brown by transmitted light. The results of fractional distillation appear in Table V under the discussion of the character of the petro- leum and bitumens. Apparently the petroleum at H and I is of the same character as that at J. At the point marked K there is a small outcrop of semisolid, black bitumen filling a pocket in loose limestone and clay. There are no good outcrops in the immediate vicinity, but it is prob- able that Vigo shale is the underlying rock. The outcrop is too small to afford any idea of the character of the bitumen or of the manner of its occurrence. At L and M, near the town of Villaba, there is an apparently extensive deposit of solid bitumen mixed with fragments of Canguinsa clay-tuff. This material is encountered just beneath the surface and has been opened by shallow pits at two places about 300 meters apart. About 100 tons of the mixture have been mined from these openings, one of which reached a depth of 5 meters continuously in the bituminous material. The bitu- men in this deposit is like that in the region of the E, F, and G outcrops in character, but within a few meters of the openings there are also domes or chimneys of brecciated, hardened clay- tuff cemented with viscous bitumen like the material in the out- crops at D. Outcrops L and M appear to be in the upper part of the Canguinsa clay-tuff, which in this vicinity dips at low angles to the south. At the point marked N on the map in fig. 2 is the deposit of bituminous limestone already mentioned. At this place porous X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 261 limestone and porous sandstone belonging to the Malumbang series have been saturated with a viscous, black bitumen. The Malumbang series is at least 50 meters thick here, and the beds dip gently to the south. The outcrop is a cliff 12 to 20 meters high, forming one wall of a cafon. The impregnation extends over a distance of at least 50 meters along the canon floor. No exploration has been performed, and there is no evidence as to how far at right angles to the exposed face the impregnation may continue. The lower bituminous beds are sandstone made up of fine fragments of limestone, feldspar, glass, and quartz. The up- per beds consist of a granular limestone which does not disinte- grate upon the removal of the bituminous impregnation. Blocks of the bituminous material of many tons’ weight have been broken off and carried down the cafion. Across the cafion from the bituminous beds in the Malumbang series, exposures of Vigo shale were observed dipping at a high angle in a direction opposite to that in which the Malumbang dips. The relations suggest the presence of a fault in the vicin- ity, on one side of which the Vigo shale has been thrust up until it is in contact with the Malumbang on the opposite side. On going down the cafion westward, Canguinsa clay-tuff is encountered beneath the Malumbang series, and in the floor of the canon near the base of the Canguinsa one of the bitumen- filled cylindrical concretions, like those noted at outcrop D, was observed. At a distance of about 1 kilometer from the deposit, and at an elevation about 100 meters lower, Vigo shale appears beneath the Canguinsa. The Vigo in this position dips to the south at an angle of about 30° and is thus in conformity with the overlying rocks. A small outcrop of andesite occurs a few meters farther down the cafon toward Baliti; it is evidently an intrusion in the Vigo shale. Near the barrio of Tabubunga, 10 kilometers south of Villaba and outside the area included in fig. 2, I saw a small quantity of a viscous, black oil seeping from joints in a thin bed of sand- stone near the base of the Vigo shale. This seepage is somewhat more than 1 kilometer inland from Tabubunga along Tabubunga River, at an elevation of about 30 meters. In going to the seepage from Tabubunga, I crossed successively the Malumbang series, the Canguinsa clay-shale, and practically all of the Vigo shale almost to the contact of the latter with the basal complex upon which the sedimentaries lie. The dip is constantly seaward (west) at an angle of about 30° throughout each of the forma- tions. Thus the sedimentary formations are much thinner at Tabubunga than they are at Villaba. The thickness of the Vigo 2962 The Philippine Journal of "Science 1915 shale especially has diminished in the section at Tabubunga, a condition which is due probably to the varying overlap of its beds on the basal rocks. CHARACTER OF THE PETROLEUM AND RESIDUAL BITUMENS Natural bitumens are generally conceded to have their origin in petroleum and to consist of various hydrocarbon residuals, left upon the evaporation or dissipation of the more volatile constituents of petroleum. Definite mineral names have been applied to a number of natural bitumens of different character, and this mineral classification is assumed to be complete. But in attempting to classify the various bitumens in Leyte as one or another ‘of the recognized bitumen minerals, I find that the de- scriptions of none of the several types apply exactly. If the facts that petroleums vary widely in character and that the residuums from each petroleum form a continuous series from petroleum at one end to a metamorphic product similar to coal at the other end are considered, the difficulty of placing all the possible residual bitumens in a half-dozen classes will be ap- parent. Yet it is obviously not desirable to consider each natural bitumen as a distinct mineral species and to give it a separate name. Consequently I have applied only the broad term natural bitumen to the petroleum residuals in Leyte. The following table contains data ‘as to the physical properties of the three principal types of natural bitumens found in Leyte: namely, (1) the material from outcrops A and B; (2) material from outcrop D; and (3) material from outcrops E, F, and G. The bitumen in the mixture at L and M resembles that from E, F, and G, while the bituminous cement in the limestone and at N is similar to the material in outcrop D. TABLE III.—Physical properties of natural bitumens from Villaba, Leyte. — ‘ EP ee a Wie) (ie | Outcrop. | | Property. - | | A and B. D. = E, F, and G. £ weet llpas jet foe | peiest Specific gravity 2.) 0b eee |"qVO1G se emeres ee | 0.98-1. 02. | Hardness__________ - 200 ARISE «AN 28 {4/2 OE Em | 1.6. ie Color <=" Se See Jetiblack#=-4* +>. & - al Black}. -52:45s09 5 Brownish black. | Streak eta ronsee [pick eee cl a a ee ene nee ['anater eee igeitent ee eee eS ae | Dull. | Structure __________. ’ Golummnar \ 222002252223 Viscous =} | Schistose. Kracture:-3-3 => |. Gonchoidal eich" ths. 3/20 yo daca « eee | Irregular schistose, l) URlows =.=. -=-s== Intumesces, softens, and AT S50 GC... sees At 75° C. | flows imperfectly at | | | 150°C. X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 263 The Leyte natural bitumens are derived from a paraffin-base petroleum. This fact at once distinguishes them from asphalt, as most commonly defined, which is derived either naturally or artificially from petroleum with an asphaltic base. The natural bitumen from outcrops E, F, and G was classified at the time of its discovery as gilsonite (or uintahite, another name for the same mineral). But gilsonite is black and lustrous and breaks with a perfect conchoidal fracture. The material from this group of outcrops is dull brownish black and breaks with a schistose fracture. Its specific gravity and its hardness are both less than the corresponding figures for gilsonite. Moreover, gil- sonite, according to Richardson,’ who has devoted a great deal of study to this subject, is derived from a nonparaffin oil and is not soluble in paraffin residues. All the Leyte bitumens are paraffin-bearing and are, therefore, not gilsonite according to Richardson. The bitumen from outcrop B is more nearly like gilsonite in physical appearance, being brilliant black in color and conchoidal in fracture. Its streak, however, is black, while the streak of gilsonite is reddish brown, and it contains a large proportion of paraffin. Grahamite, another natural bitumen, has something of the physical appearance of the bitumen from outcrops E, F, and G; Richardson states that it may be derived from paraffin petro- leums. But grahamite is heavier than any of the Leyte bitumens and has a higher proportion of fixed carbon. Ozocerite is defined as a native paraffin, the physical appear- ance of which varies. Its color may be the same as that of some of the Leyte bitumens, its specific gravity is somewhat less, and it probably contains a higher average proportion of paraffin. The petroleum from Leyte is a light, fluid oil, olive-green by reflected light and reddish brown by transmitted light. Its character is shown by the fractionations recorded in the follow- ing tables. Table IV contains the analysis of a sample which was secured by Mr. William Anderson, of Tacloban, Leyte, from the seepage at I and had probably deteriorated by exposure. TABLE IV.—Distillation products of petroleum from seepage I, Villaba, Leyte.* i Percentage Constituent. Donaciohts Gasolined(ilOSitoyl 70S{C3) a2 ae ee a en Se eae ce ote oa bee Oe 0. 88 | mKerosene (LOS oz 001s): fein li ec Me nea hse es oe Le 52 Ue 17.51 Heavy yzollsnto Oc; tO; oI bo Gs) een Nee en en LD es Oe We Ue ee ote Some ee ed 19. 91 Residuespitchn (abovess1bo. Cs) hes seamen as Eee n Fe AONE DS. Uahip oie sed SS TOE eek CEE 61.70 4a Analysis by A. S. Arguelles, chemist, Bureau of Science. "Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1910), 2, 1082. 134764——3 264 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 A sample which I collected from a shallow pit at seepage J, about fifteen hours after the pit was completed, yielded the following results upon distillation: TABLE V.—UDistillation products from seepage J, Villaba, Leyte.* Constituent. by weight. Gasoline i(OStonl 50S Cs) eee neat ae eye mur ee alps sae Kerosene! (150citos002/C)) ena eee ene eee eee | emacs Cue Soca) Residue ypitchi (above Adc Gs) eee Sener eee See tener eeeneanereacete 5.6 8 Analysis by A. H. Wells, chemist, Bureau of Science. This petroleum contains 8.14 per cent of paraffin. The specific gravity of the crude oil is 0.8597. Unfortunately the sample was too small to permit of specific gravity determinations on the individual fractions. For purposes of comparison the following analyses of petro- leums from Tayabas and from Cebu are quoted from the report on the Tayabas field. Sample 1 was taken from a shallow well at Bahay, Tayabas, twenty-four hours after the well had been pumped dry. Sample 2 was taken from a well drilled at Toledo, Cebu, in 1896. TABLE VI.—Products of distillation of petroleum from Tayabas and Cebu. | Sample 1.4 Sample 2,b Constituent. Specific Specific gravity | Volume.|} gravity | Volume. at 29° C. at 15° C. Per. ct. Per. ct (Ori @)n sis ee rn a ete eo ek ce ae nee Eee eee 0:'88235|-=s2- eee O7885))-aeseenee Gasoline (belowslb0S'@)) ete aen ate a eee ee aes 0. 7692 30.4 0. 762 6.2 Kerosene (150ito'S002'C!) 2s. Pe oe ee ee Ee 0. 8333 50.9 0. 832 42.32 | Heavy oils (300° to 400° C.)¢_..-.--- 2220-200 -22sesecebeeee 0.9061 15.1| 0.901| 38.3 | Residue (aboye 4000 C:) din sees eee ee | eee 326 ||:258 =e 13.17 8 Analysis by E. R. Dovey, chemist, Bureau of Science. sample of Tayabas petroleum yielded 8.1 per cent of paraffin. » Analysis by H. C. Brill, chemist, Bureau of Science. © Temperatures 300° to 375° C. for sample 2, heavy oils. 4 Temperature above 375° C. for sample 2, residue. A determination on a separate It will be seen from the foregoing analyses that the Leyte petroleum is intermediate between the petroleum from Cebu *This Journal, Sec. A (1918), 8, 358. Percentage eras Sot bote bs noee Se teee tect 5.4 Pe emthe cease nema! 33.7 oe afyska ba eye ees 55.3 ! x, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 2965 and Tayabas in specific gravity and that all three petroleums contain high percentages of burning oils; all three oils, likewise, are high in paraffin. Determinations by Mr. Arguelles show that the lustrous black, solid material from the outcrop at B contains 94.53 per cent of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide, 3.89 per cent of paraffin scale, and 26.62 per cent of fixed carbon. The specific grav- ity of the sample tested was 1.068. The material cokes upon distillation. Determinations by Mr. Arguelles on a sample of the sticky bit- umen from the outcrop at D showed: Specific gravity, 1.016; total bitumen, 81.84 per cent; paraffin scale, 0.30 per cent; fixed carbon, 6.59 per cent. The penetration (test with No. 2 cambric needle for five seconds with 100 grams’ weight) is 1.3 millimeters at 30° C. and 2.6 millimeters at 50° C. The softening point of this material is 35° C. Determinations by Mr. Arguelles on the brownish black, solid bitumen from outcrops E, F, and G showed: Specific gravity, 1.026; penetration at 25° C., 0.6 millimeter; loss at 163° C. for five hours, 3.28 per cent; total bitumen, 93.79 per cent; organic insoluble constituents, 1.00 per cent; mineral matter, 5.21 per cent; paraffin, 11.05 per cent; fixed carbon, 7.68 per cent. The following table contains analyses of different samples of material from outcrops at E, F, and G. Sample 1 represents pure bi- tumen; sample 2, bitumen of poorer quality. TABLE VII.—Analyses of bitumens from outcrops E, F, and G, Villaba, Leyte.* Constituent. ‘Sample 1.\Sample 2. | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Mfoisturerand|lossjaty] 000) Cisse custo Aisi Aiea Le NB | 0.56] 2.80 IEG Gr OLE Ge a a ma sea 2 aa i Sa Up Oe NE ere at Pot oe aia 63. 45 26. 26 PAIR Dal ten e tee eee eae ee eye ee ee 3 SO Tarn DEN ene See ee ened 28. 59 22.53 Organicmonbitumen =. 42-2 so) 2 ae Do SA ee ne At Ms PE tn EE 4.68 11. 64 Mineralimatters + 24 es ooo ht a ts Sd ee i A | 2.88 36.78 Perish he ee | otal je 2 sense ee oe oa Sa he eet eo Bae | 100.16 | 100.01 | | “ Analyses by A. H. Wells, chemist, Bureau of Science. In the mixture of bitumen and clay-tuff from outcrops L and M Mr. Arguelles found 25.12 per cent of total bitumen, 21.6 per cent of which is paraffin scale. Mr. Wells distilled from another sample of the mixture from these outcrops 17.46 per cent (material as received) of heavy oil, which he fractionated as follows: 266 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE VIII.—Distillation products from heavy oil obtained from bituminous mixture at outcrops L and M, Villaba, Leyte. Constituent. Per cent. Fpeeests ki | Gasolinel(below,1502/G3) ee Pa fe Oe te See a aL SS Oe | 10.0 Kerosene (150° to s00 2G 3) mane ce ere ne eet re ae ae a ame oars eee eee es 36.0 | \areany oftal(so0ete 0081) .. See ee lo tno. edly BR OE fel | 52.0 | Piteh:residtes (over 4002. G) ss re oa naa eee 2.0 . | The rock asphalt at N varies considerably in its content of bitumen. Mr. Arguelles found in a sample from the lower beds 61.85 per cent of total bitumen, while two samples from the upper part of the deposit, examined by Mr. Wells, yielded 6.30 per cent and 8.84 per cent of the total bitumen, respectively. The sample richest in bitumen contained only 0.13 per cent of paraffin scale. The strikingly lower paraffin content of the bi- tumens from outcrops D and N as compared with the bitumens from the other outcrops may be due to the fact that the bitumens at D and N have migrated through porous or broken rocks, while elsewhere the bitumens have simply occupied open spaces in the rocks. That is to say, the paraffin might have been removed by the filtering effect of the diffusion of the original petroleum through porous rocks. SOURCES AND PROBABLE QUANTITIES OF PETROLEUM AND RESIDUAL BITUMENS The source of the residual bitumens in Leyte is undoubtedly the petroleum with which they are associated. Natural bitumens are universally conceded to have their origin in petroleum, being formed through the elimination of the more volatile constituents and the concentration and metamorphism of the heavier hydro- carbons. The bitumens in Leyte form so nearly a continuous series from petroleum to solid coallike bitumen and are so like the base of the Leyte petroleum in their constitution that. the relation of one to the other would be clear without the necessity of drawing analogies from what has been learned concerning other natural bitumens. The source of the petroleum in Leyte is probably the Vigo shale, just as the Vigo shale appears to be the source of the petroleum in the Tayabas field, where the essential conditions are similar to conditions in Leyte. Possibly some of the Leyte petroleum originates in the Canguinsa, although the fact that petroleum and residual bitumens are found in the Canguinsa at present may be explained otherwise. In all the observed occurrences of petro- X, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 267 leum and residual bitumens in Leyte there is none which could not have originated through the infiltration of petroleum from the Vigo shale. Samples of Globigerina, which were found in the Vigo shale in Tayabas and were rather doubtfully credited with the origin of the Tayabas petroleum in the previously cited report on that field, occur abundantly in the Canguinsa as well as in the Vigo in Leyte. If these little animals are really the ul- timate source of the petroleum, then the Canguinsa must have yielded more petroleum than the Vigo. But the truth of this theory is not established. Nowhere, as a matter of fact, has Glo- bigerina been observed in numbers sufficient to justify the idea that it is the source of more than a very limited quantity of petroleum. That petroleum is present in the Vigo shale in Leyte as well as in Tayabas and in Cebu is a matter of common observation. Evidence has been cited in the descriptions of several of the occurrences in Leyte which indicates that the petroleum moved through the Canguinsa clay-tuff along fractures, bedding planes, faults, brecciated zones, and open fissures, but nowhere is there evidence that the petroleum permeates the clay-tuff itself. It is certain that the Vigo shale is petroleum-bearing, and while the Canguinsa sandstone may also be a source of petroleum, it is not unreasonable to assume that most of the petroleum and residual bitumens now found in the Canguinsa migrated into that formation from the underlying Vigo shale. The possible relation of the intrusive rocks to the accumu- lations of petroleum which gave rise to the deposits of natural bitumen should be taken into consideration. Outcrops L and M consist of breccias very like the breccia produced by the Mount Tabeyta intrusion. At outcrop D there are breccias and concre- tions which appear to be related to hidden intrusions. Intrusive rocks are found below the outcrops at N in the neighborhood of a probable fault plane. It is true that in the immediate vicinities of the largest intrusions no petroleum nor bitumen is encountered at the surface, but at distances of from 2 to 3 kilometers from the center of Mount Tabeyta, which is itself something like 1 kilometer in diameter at its base and over 200 meters high, are several important outcrops. The larger number of the intrusions found are in the Vigo shale and do not reach the overlying rocks, a fact which makes it probable that in territory covered by the upper rocks, like the vicinities of most of the bitumen outcrops, other intrusions exist beneath the surface. The suggestion may be made, therefore, that the intrusions have driven petroleum from the beds penetrated—Vigo shale and pos- 268 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 sibly also Canguinsa clay-tuff—into the fractured and brecciated zones resulting from the intrusions. There is no way of ascertaining what quantity of petroleum may be obtained from a petroleum field except by the actual drilling of wells, and speculation in advance of all exploration can have little value as an estimate. In the study of the Tayabas field it was observed that petroleum reached the surface near the top of the Vigo shale only, in a series of close-grained beds from 50 to 100 meters in thickness, and the inference was clear that if the petroleum were confined to these beds in which it appeared at the surface there could be little hope of a quantity of petroleum comparable with the yields of the larger fields in America. In other words, the porous beds necessary to serve as reservoirs for large petroleum accumulations are not extensive or, at any rate, not prominent, in Tayabas. In Leyte the situation is similar, although peerolearl appears to be present at horizons lower in the Vigo shale than are the seepages in Tayabas, and the quantity of petroleum represented by the various deposits of residual bitumens is much greater than there is direct evidence of in the surface indications in Tayabas. But the petroleum from which the bitumen deposits in Leyte are derived may have been driven from the petroleum- bearing rocks by the action of heat from intrusions, a process which would have removed petroleum from the Vigo shale or the Canguinsa clay-tuff very efficiently. Similar intrusions in the Vigo shale in Tayabas might have caused equally extensive surface showings. If the possible agency of intrusions in the concentration in Leyte of quantities of residual bitumens great enough to demonstrate the former presence of large volumes of petroleum be admitted, the presence of these bitumens does not prove that drilling would result in the recovery of equally large volumes of petroleum, even though the major part of the original supply is still held in the rocks. Drill holes simply permit the flow of petroleum and are most effective when they penetrate saturated, porous beds, while intrusions would have forced the petroleum out of the adjacent beds—porous or close-grained, saturated or only partly saturated. It is improbable that wells drilled into the close-grained Vigo shale either in Leyte or in Tayabas will yield the large flows obtained in other fields from extensive lenses of porous sandstone. There is in Leyte, however, the chance that pockets of petroleum in the broken zone surrounding an intrusion (assuming that the intrusions have in reality been effective in concentrating the pe- troleum) may have been preserved by the sealing up of passages Sap Ay, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 269 through the overlying beds, and wells penetrating such zones might obtain larger flows than the undisturbed shale would yield. The deposits of solid bitumens indicate the former presence of a large quantity of petroleum in the Leyte formations. But they indicate also the escape and consequent loss of much of the original supply. Just what proportion may remain is undeter- mined. When all is said and done, definite evidence as to the quantity of petroleum present in Leyte and in Tayabas will be obtained only by drilling test wells. The evidence as to the quantity of solid bitumens present in Leyte is somewhat more definite, but here again lack of explora- tion makes impossible the exact estimates that are desirable. The tonnage of deposits like those outcropping at A and B cannot be estimated in advance of exploration. The width of the fissure or vein at B as revealed in the floor of the shallow pit opened there is about 60 centimeters. The gilsonite veins in Utah, according to George H. Eldridge,’ range in width from 45 centimeters to over 5 meters and contain a total quantity of more than 30,000,000 tons. While the vein at outcrop A in Leyte is thin, its width is of the same order of magnitude as the width of the veins in Utah. In Utah, however, the outcrops even of the small veins can be traced for several kilometers, while the vein at outcrop A can be followed a few meters only on the surface. Yet the vein at A may be found to be persistent underground, for it is well known that outcrops are usually obscure in the Philippines. The outcrop of the coal bed mined at East Batan, Albay, for instance, could be traced on the surface only a comparatively short distance, yet the workings in the mine ultimately proved an area of 50 or more hectares with the coal always regular and continuous. Only by exploration can the extent of the vein at B be ascertained. Without exploration there is in sight at the present time only a few tons of bitumen. At C and D the quantity of bitumen in sight is insignificant, but no prospecting of the outcrops has been attempted. Limited exploration on several outcrops in the region of EK, F, and G has recovered only 100 tons or so of bitumen and has indicated that some of the deposits contain not much more than this quantity of material. The work has been only super- ficial, however, and it may be possible to follow the irregular bodies beneath the surface into deposits of larger proportions. The outcrop at K has not been explored, but the surface in- dications promise little in the way of tonnage. ° 22d Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1900-1901), pt. 1, 342 et seq. 270 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The work on the outcrops at M and N has been too limited to prove the extent of the deposit. About 100 tons of the mix- ture of bitumen and clay-tuff has been mined. The surface conditions indicate a considerably larger deposit in this vicinity than in any of the foregoing. The thickness is greater, and outcrops are found over an area of fair dimensions. It is claimed by interested prospectors that exploration by drilling has proved a thickness of about 15 meters over an area 300 meters square. It is stated also that the same bituminous mixture is encountered beneath the surface in the town of Villaba at a distance of 800 meters north of the outcrop at L. The exploration of the de- posits at L and M would be a simple and inexpensive undertak- ing, since the breccia of bitumen and clay-tuff appears to lie near the surface. The quantity of rock asphalt at N undoubtedly is to be meas- ured in thousands of tons. Although no exploration has been undertaken, the dimensions of the exposed face make it certain that there are present at least several thousand tons. If the vertical dimensions of the deposit and its dimensions at right angles to the exposed face are of the same order of magnitude as the revealed length of the face—suppositions which are by no means unreasonable—the total quantity of rock asphalt at N must amount to hundreds of thousands of tons. THE UTILIZATION OF THE RESIDUAL BITUMENS If petroleum is obtained commercially in Leyte, no problem arises as to its disposal. The Philippine market for petroleum products amounted to 3,641,078 pesos '° in 1914, according to the import records of the Collector of Customs as shown in the following table: TABLE [X.—IJmports of petroleum products into the Philippine Islands in 1914, Tine Fl mi fy al | | Petroleum product. Quantity. | Value. fs a Liters. Pesos. | Crude oil, including all natural oils without regard to specific gravity ___| 1,689,108 48,360 | | Refined or manufactured oil, naphtha, including all lighter products of | distillation) 2252-62" &2-.< 20a: Se eee ee hie ae ache So eseee ya aceus | 5,508,189 | 563, 408 | BNuminatingvoil2) see. See ee ee EE Ne | 48, 517, 689 | 2,562,040 | Lubricating and heavy iparafiin oil 25425222 Seen eed 8s eee Ps eee | 8,048,610 426, 258 | Residuum, including tar, and all others, from which the light bodies have | |’ been distilled! 2.025202 © eo ee ee Sic vere hd aso a eee | 765,182} 41,012 Total... 22s 22228 2 ceo oe eee a te ree eee MBE ee Sue Js eee 59, 528, 778 | 3, 641, 078 | Leese eeeere * One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos, equals 50 cents United States currency. XK, A, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens Oral If petroleum were available in quantity at a cost which would make it a competitor with imported coal as fuel, the present Philippine petroleum consumption would be multiplied. Inter- island steamships and the railroads would undoubtedly adopt oil fuel, and these factors alone would greatly increase the market for petroleum. f With the residual bitumens, however, the case is different. The rock asphalt from the deposit at N may prove valuable as a paving material. Two representative samples of the rock as- phalt yielded 6.30 and 8.84 per cent of bitumen, respectively. A sample from the rich lower portion of the deposit contained 61.85 per cent of bitumen. Probably the average grade of material carries from 6 to 10 per cent of bitumen. The rock asphalt most widely used in Europe carries from 6 to 8 per cent of bitumen. Other rock asphalts carry from 10 to 12 per cent of bitumen, but are mixed with poorer materials for use. It is stated that a rock-asphalt pavement should contain from 7 to 10 per cent of bitumen. One of the principal objections to rock asphalts has been the contention that the bitumen is usually insufficiently asphaltic in character to make a good binder in pavements. In the follow- ing table are analyses of the rock asphalt from the outcrop at N compared with analyses of sheet-asphalt pavement and with analyses of rock asphalts from Oklahoma, which have been proved to be of superior quality for paving: TABLE X.—Analyses of rock asphalts and sheet asphalts.* Total bi- | Petro- | Asphal- | Source. tumen. leum. tene,. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | OutcroprNenvillabambeyteesns= sean ee ee See ane ee ne j 8.84 | 56.0 44.0 | tl 6.30) 58.0 | 42.0 Sheet-asphalt pavement: 13.5 90.1 9.9 | INTUSK OSE eae meee So Ie ate eld cares a2 we doe ac athe | 9.1 67.1 32.9 | Gator i). Sc Mae ete ET ERT PVN Lis cre tuk Vy jl 11.0 78.1 | 21.9 | Rock-asphalt pavements in Oklahoma-_-____-___.-__._--_--_-_--_--_-- 10.10 72.65 27.35 9. 80 70. 61 29.39 | 7.85 78.81 21.19 aVirst analyses by A. H. Wells, chemist, Bureau of Science. Other analyses are from Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular 5 (1913), 18. The Leyte rock asphalt has more asphaltic constituents than the rock asphalt from Oklahoma, which is a superior paving material. Consequently no insufficiency of asphaltic compounds can be charged against the Leyte rock asphalt. It is even possible that it is too high in asphaltic constituents and will de- 272 The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 mand fluxing with petroleum residuum as do the true asphalts. Paraffin, an ingredient which must be low in paving asphalts, and is objectionably high in some of the Leyte bitumens, is remark- ably low in the Leyte rock asphalt, amounting to less than 0.5 per cent of the bitumen present. Thus the laboratory investi- gation of samples of the Leyte rock asphalt indicate that it could be used for paving. But the question is one which cannot be definitely answered except by actually laying an experimental pavement and observing its behavior under traffic. If the rock asphalt proves to be a good paving material, there would be a market for it in the paving of city streets and important roads in the Philippines. The cost of quarrying the rock asphalt and bringing it to deep water should be small. The scarcity of really superior stone for macadam and the cost of the asphalt pavements which have already been laid in the Philippines make it appear that a suitable rock asphalt could be transported from Leyte to Manila and elsewhere at a profit to the quarry enterprise and with a saving in the cost of asphalt pavements. Consul-General George E. Anderson, at Hongkong, believes 1+ that there is a possible market for asphaltic paving materials in oriental cities outside the Philippines. Such a de- mand might mean the profitable exportation of the Leyte rock asphalt. Rock-asphalt pavements have been employed extensively in Europe, especially in France and Italy. In the latter country the production from 1904 to 1912 ranged between 108,000 and 191,000 metric tons, valued at an average of about 6 pesos per ton. In the United States rock-asphalt pavements have found less favor than in Europe, partly, at least, because of the cheapness of artificial asphalt from petroleum. Oklahoma rock asphalt is coming into use, however, and even in California, where artificial asphalt obtained from petroleum is abundant, 27,600 metric tons of rock asphalt, valued at 6.18 pesos per ton, were mined in 1913." Rock asphalt in pavements is laid like sheet asphalt. A con- crete foundation is generally employed, and the rock asphalt, pulverized to maximum diameters of 1 centimeter, is heated to about 150° C. (considerably less than the temperature required for sheet asphalt), spread on the foundation with rakes, and rolled while hot. The wearing coat is about 5 centimeters thick - after rolling. “ Daily Consular and Trade Report, June 9 (1914). “Data taken from Min. Resources U. S. Geol. Surv. (1913), pt. 2, 539. SeAG 2 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitwmens PRs Both the physical characters and the chemical compositions of the other residual bitumens make them unfit for use in pave- ments. Materials of similar character are widely used in Amer- ica and Europe for other purposes, however, and are more valuable than paving asphalt. The utilization of these bitumens in the Philippines is complicated by the restricted local market for the products made from them elsewhere. Their exploit- ation, therefore, if they are developed in quantity, must be pre- ceded by the establishment of a market either locally or through exportation. The purposes for which they can best be utilized is a subject for chemical investigation, but the following list of possible uses for gilsonite and related asphaltic substances may be quoted :' The manufacture of black, low-grade brush and dipping varnishes, such, for instance, as are used on the various kinds of ironwork, and as baking japans; * * * for preventing electrolytic action on iron plates of ship bottoms; for coating barbed-wire. fencing, etc.; for coating sea walls of brick or masonry; for covering paving brick; for acid-proof lining for chemical tanks; for roofing pitch; for insulating electric wires; for smoke- stack paint; for lubricants for heavy machinery; for preserving iron pipes from corrosion and acids; for coating poles, posts, and ties; for toredo-proof pile coating; for covering wood-block paving; as a substitute for rubber in the manufacture of cotton garden hose; as a binder pitch for culm in making brickette and eggette coal. Some of these possible products would find no market locally, and chemical investigation may prove the Leyte bitumens un- suited for the manufacture of many of them, but it would also undoubtedly reveal other uses to which they might be put. The analyses already performed show that some of the bitumens are high in paraffin, a substance which is used locally in the manufacture of matches and candles and which could probably be exported at a profit, since it is worth in the crude state about 34 centavos per kilogram. Another possible use for the Leyte bitumens and bituminous mixtures is suggested by the exploitation of the so-called kero- sene shales in Scotland and in New South Wales. The Scotch shales yield upon distillation about 96 liters of crude oil per metric ton. The crude oil, upon fractionation, yields in turn 6 per cent of gasoline, 32 per cent of kerosene, 24 per cent of heavy oils, and 12 per cent of paraffin scale. According to the distillation tests quoted on another page, 1 ton of the *% Hidridge, G. H., op. cit., 356. “Lewes, Vivian B., Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. Archibald Constable & Co., Ltd., London (1907), 97. 274 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 mixture of bitumen and clay-tuff from outcrops L and M yields about 175 liters of crude oil containing 10 per cent of gasoline, 36 per cent of kerosene, and 52 per cent of heavy oils. The heavy oils and residue contain about 20 per cent of paraffin. Therefore the mixture from outcrops L and M yields nearly twice the volume of oil that the Scotch shales yield, and the oil obtained contains a higher proportion of the lighter, more valu- able constituents. From the best shale in New South Wales more than 600 liters of crude oil per ton are obtained, but the average yield is much less than this figure. It might be found practicable to enrich the bitumen mixture from outcrops L and M in Leyte by additions of the pure bitumens from the other outcrops and so obtain more crude oil upon distillation. The distillation products from the rock asphalt at N are similar in character to those from the mixture at L and M, and although most of the rock asphalt contains too little bitumen to justify distillation, parts of it are much richer than the mixture from Land M. One sample from N, for instance, yielded almost 62 per cent of bitumen. Gasoline, kerosene, and heavy oils, what- ever their source, would find a ready market in the Philippines. It is concluded, then, that the natural bitumens in Leyte can be profitably utilized if they are developed in quantity. SUGGESTIONS FOR EXPLORATION The possibility of obtaining petroleum commercially in Leyte should be investigated further. My observations do not enable me to indicate the most favorable drilling sites nor even to state that the chances of success are great enough to warrant drilling. The venture might not prove attractive to private capital, but considering the immense industrial importance of petroleum to the Philippines, the Government might be justified in an attempt at development. This recommendation that the Government undertake to ex- plore petroleum deposits has already been made in the case of the Tayabas field. In view of the later investigation of the Leyte region a question arises as to which territory offers the better chance of success, which should be explored first, and whether or not both fields should be tested. The answers to these questions must await further geologic study. It may be explained that petroleum is commonly found in porous beds, where it is retained by cover and floor of close- grained impervious beds after having been driven to the highest points to which it has access by the buoying-up effect of the KIA, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 275 heavier, associated water. Differences in the elevation of a given bed are usually due to folding, and thus it is that petroleum has so often been encountered in the arches or anticlines of folds as to give rise to the term “anticlinal theory” to designate this interpretation of the principles of petroleum accumulation. Many other causes, of course, may result in the entrapping of petroleum in the higher portions of porous beds: for example, a dike of impervious rock may cut through beds tilted in one direction and confine petroleum migrating through the porous bed from below; or the same thing may be accomplished by the sealing of the pores at the surface of tilted beds by the residuum left from escaping petroleum so that the rest of the petroleum is retained. In its widest sense the anticlinal theory accounts for the petroleum accumulations in a majority of the productive petroleum fields. Petroleum seepages occur along the anticlines both in Taya- bas and in Leyte, indicating that the anticlines are points of accumulation in these fields as they are in Sumatra and Japan, in which countries large commercial productions are obtained from formations of the same age and general character as the Philippine petroleum-bearing rocks. Intrusive rocks are generally considered as an unfavorable indication in connection with prospective petroleum fields, for the reason that by their intrusion these rocks break up and shatter the strata which they penetrate, destroying the original structure and permitting the escape of any accumulated petro- leum. However, the history of the development of parts of the Mexican petroleum field, which has recently attained an enor- mous production, shows that in this one instance intrusive rocks have not been injurious, but have actually accomplished the concentration of the petroleum, displacing it from buried strata and providing a reservoir for its accumulation in the openings of the shattered zone surrounding the intrusion. Intrusions have become centers of accumulations, seepages occur near in- trusions, and wells drilled in the vicinity of an intrusion have repeatedly been successful. In determining whether drilling in Leyte is warranted and, if so, where test wells should be located, data should be sought which will tend to show whether the igneous intrusions have merely dissipated the petroleum or have also promoted the ac- cumulation of petroleum under favorable circumstances ; whether there are accumulations of petroleum in structurally favorable areas independent of the intrusions; or whether both these fac- 276 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 tors are effective in controlling the accumulation. To determine these points, a detailed geologic study should be made both in the vicinities of anticlinal structures and in AE vicinities of intrusions in Leyte. It appears from the preliminary study that anticlines across the crest of which the rocks above the Vigo shale remain in place—that is, have not been eroded—are more promising than the anticlines upon the limbs of which the Vigo shale is ex- posed. The anticline at outcrop D, for instance, has afforded less chance for the escape of accumulated petroleum because of the presence of a cover of Canguinsa clay-tuff across its crest than the anticline at I and J, where the upturned edges of the Vigo are exposed at the surface. The anticline between I and J must be considered with still less promise, if the igneous ex- posure at I proves to be a part of the base upon which the Vigo lies. Nevertheless the large exposure of Vigo shale lying to the east and south of Villaba should be gone over in detail, particular search being made for seepages, intrusions, porous beds, and faults. The region between outcrop N and the barrio of Baliti, where both intrusions and anticlinal structure are indicated, should be studied. The regions inland from the several coastal in- dentations between Villaba and San Isidro should be prospected. Seepages of petroleum and outcrops of solid bitumen other than those already discovered probably exist, and fixing the position of such occurrences will facilitate geologic interpretation. If petroleum has accumulated in anticlines independently of intrusions, the northern part of the peninsula of northwestern Leyte, where folds undoubtedly exist in which the petroleum- bearing rocks are protected by a splendid cover of Canguinsa and Malumbang strata, should include promising territory. This area, therefore, should receive careful attention. If the petroleum accumulations prove to be related invariably to intrusive rocks, the territory surrounding the intrusions will be most valuable. The known intrusions should be examined in the light of this suggestion, and search should be made for other intrusions. In prospecting for other deposits of solid bitumens, the area south of Campocpoc is most promising, including territory as yet unexplored between Villaba and Tabubunga. No solid bitu- mens have been found in the Vigo shale; accordingly search for these materials should be directed especially to the upper rocks, although with only the data in hand at present it would be unwise to disregard the Vigo shale entirely. The solid bitu- XGA, 4 Pratt: Petroleum and Residual Bitumens 277. mens, if not the petroleum, appear to be confined to regions where dynamic action has been comparatively severe, resulting in sharp folding, faulting, or intrusion. On the basis of this observation the foregoing recommendation of the southern part of the field is made. Where petroleum-bearing rocks are exposed at the surface, as they are at I and J, shallow dug wells might be made to yield a small quantity of petroleum. Initial production in Japan and in Formosa came from dug wells. At any rate claim hold- ers who lack capital for drilling might dig wells in this manner to answer the requirements for assessment work. Similar ex- cavations on outcrops of semiliquid bitumen like those at D might also develop small flows of petroleum. In exploring the deposits of solid bitumens, hand drilling should prove serviceable as supplementary to pits and tunnels. Drilling alone would be unreliable in deposits of bitumen mixed with clay-tuff like those at L and M. In tracing float bitumen to the original vein or deposit in place, open trenching might well be resorted to. Outcrops are obscure, and once a vein is found, it should be followed closely by excavation. The presence of faults may complicate the work of exploration. SUMMARY Several seepages of petroleum and a number of outcrops of residual bitumens derived from petroleum occur in the region of Villaba, Leyte, in easily accessible country. The containing rocks are of Tertiary and Quarternary age. The principal known occurrences are confined to an area 8 kilometers wide and 13 kilometers long. The petroleum appears to come from the Vigo shale, which belongs to the lower Miocene or Oligocene, while most of the residual bitumens are encountered in the Can- guinsa clay-tuff, immediately overlying the Vigo. The various formations can be correlated perfectly with the rocks in which petroleum is found in Tayabas Province, and the two fields are very similar. Petroleum is obtained commercially from the same geologic horizon and from the same class of rocks in Sumatra, Formosa, and Japan. The total thickness of the bedded rocks is probably about 2,000 meters, and the petro- leum comes to the surface at a horizon above the middle of the rock series. The region of the outcrops and seepages in Leyte is sharply folded, and the lower strata, including those which are petro- leum-bearing, are intruded by small bodies of andesite, some of which are domelike in shape. The distribution of the accumu- 278 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 lations of petroleum and of bitumens derived from petroleum appears to be governed partly by anticlinal structure and partly by the intrusions. The petroleum has a paraffin base and a large proportion of burning oils. The different bitumens are semiliquid, viscous, and solid and cannot readily be classed according to the recognized mineral types. They all contain paraffin and are clearly derived from the associated petroleum. They are found filling fissures along bedding planes and in pockets, impregnating porous limestone and sandstones, in mix- ture with fragments of unchanged clay-tuff near the present surface, as cements in breccias of mineral-impregnated clay-tuff or shale, and in cavities in concretions in the clay-tuff. The pure bitumens cannot be used for paving purposes, but would be valuable in the manufacture of other products. One large deposit of bituminous limestone, or rock asphalt, has been found which can probably be used as a paving material. Some of the deposits of bitumens appear to be of limited size, but others are very probably large enough to be of commercial importance. No exploration has been carried on in Leyte, but there is enough chance of obtaining petroleum to justify a thorough geologic study and probably enough chance to justify drilling at favorable sites. The least-promising feature of the field from this point of view is the apparent lack of porous beds adequate in extent to serve as reservoirs for large accumulations of pe- troleum, but there are many thin beds of sandstones intercalated with the Vigo shale, and further study may prove the aggregate volume of pore space in these beds to be large enough to afford abundant storage capacity. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I (Photographs by Pratt.) Fic. 1. Cylindrical concretion with bitumen-filled central opening protruding from Canguinsa clay-tuff. Campocpoc, Villaba, Leyte. 2. Bitumen-cemented breccia dome protruding from Canguinsa clay- tuff. Campocpoc, Villaba, Leyte. 3. Outcrop M, Villaba, Leyte. Mixture of bitumen and clay-tuff in Canguinsa clay-tuff. 4. Outcrop of petroliferous Vigo shale near Baliti, Villaba, Leyte; fissile beds dipping at an angle of about 30°. TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Outline map of northwestern Leyte. 2. Map of the vicinity of Villaba, Leyte, showing the situations of outcrops of bitumen and seepages of petroleum. 134764——4 279 rey Lael oe Dee iPad filw saltwiogey re adi 1; itr Ydivota Tent sdafiit ta inisie aay ae { i Aa aay, ra Te Aue \ iY +) é ais a 4: : MOTE AT SU: nd OLA dio RAR at Aa dee TE 1d bap a ay ae ier a tiee mye oe ;. ih Mh wigtetley A rae bei Arh) Ltn AT adetilé conf yee eee) ae +48 do vhas im sate e lt Vaal vy q : vu i avatars Sb F NO AtL path WW fds ay Felis Tlrdaeg Tues % deta, Yee ol optia yee: io anil OU & MEG ¢ a ce Mee eo 37h ciate diner tin ‘pant mrcy | mma le evant joe enaae fe ador 2 + . a ae i ‘| aLW1d ‘ajeys OBIA 4O do49}nQ ‘hp ‘Bly ‘uawinzig JO do1d}ng ‘¢ “HI4 ‘awOp e19091q pazuawad-ueWINnzIg ‘zg ‘Hl4 *uo!}a19UN9 JeolIpUI|AD “TL “Bl4 ‘y ‘ON ‘WV ‘X “IOS ‘N¥AOL “TIHG] [‘aLAG] ‘SNAWALIG TvadIsay GNVv WagIONLagd :LLvad ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM IN THE PROVINCE OF CEBU * By WALLACE E. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) TWO TEXT FIGURES HISTORICAL The occurrence of petroleum in Cebu appears to have been first noted by the Spaniards about the year 1888. La Isla de Cebu,? a detailed geologic study by Abella, published in 1886, contains no reference to petroleum, but the same writer in La Isla de Panay,* published in 1890, in discussing a natural flow of inflammable gas which he encountered in Iloilo Province, states that shales which yield small quantities of petroleum had recently been discovered in Cebu. The records of the Spanish inspectorate of mines show that application for the exclusive right to recover crude petroleum and to refine the same in the Philippines was made in 1893 by an Englishman, named Alfred White, who stated that he had discovered petroleum at Toledo, in Cebu, and that he wished to exploit other petroleum deposits on Negros and Leyte. Becker * notes that petroleum is found at Asturias, Toledo, and at Alegria, on the west coast of Cebu, and refers to the Guia Oficial for 1898. Smith* visited Toledo and Alegria in 1906 and examined the petroleum prospects at these places. The observations which are embodied in the following notes were made recently during a number of short visits to Cebu for the examination of other mineral resources. PETROLIFEROUS SHALE A fine-grained, bluish gray shale, or clay-shale, which emits a Slight odor of light oils and appears to be slightly petroliferous, is to be observed at widely separated places in Cebu and is probably of general distribution. This shale is exposed usually * Received for publication April 23, 1915. *D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Rapida Descripcion de la Isla de Cebu. Madrid (1886). * Descripcion de la Isla de Panay. Manila (1890), 125. “Geology of the Philippine Islands, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1901), 107. * Far Eastern Rev. (1907), 3, 9. 281 2239. The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 along streams, in steep walls to 10 meters high, with a massive or imperfectly bedded appearance. It is compact and fairly hard, breaking with a distinct conchoidal fracture and rarely parting along bedding planes. It occurs near the top of the coal-bearing rocks (Miocene) above the coal beds and the sandy shales and clastic rocks which constitute the greater part of the series, but below the uppermost limestone. This shale, which is conspicuous at Uling in central Cebu, and is found on Inayangan River in east-central Cebu and on Argao River in southeastern Cebu, may have been noted by Abella. From the results of distillation tests on similar shales from Tayabas Province it may be inferred that the petroleum content of this shale is too small to be of economic importance. It is more probable that the petroleum originated from organic matter in the shale itself than that it migrated to this shale from elsewhere. PETROLEUM AT ASTURIAS During a visit to Asturias in 1912 I was unable to obtain any information as to the existence of petroleum in that vicin- ity. No concession for petroleum at Asturias has been recorded. The only statement to be found in the literature is the reference by Becker to the Guia Oficial, which simply affirms that petro- leum is found at Asturias. PETROLEUM AT TOLEDO On Calamanpao River near Iligan, a barrio of Toledo, are two oil wells, over one of which a steel derrick stands. Near by are a number of lengths of steel casings, parts of a horizontal engine, and a badly rusted boiler. The elevation at the wells is about 40 meters. A concession of 30 hectares was recorded for this locality in 1897 in the name of Cornelio Roberto Blair Pickford. This claim later came into the possession of Smith, Bell & Co., Limited, of Manila, who drilled the wells and control the property at present. Near the wells are pools of water, the surface of which is covered with oil. This film of oil suggests the presence of oil springs, but may be no more than seepage from the wells. According to Smith ° the wells were drilled in the year 1896 and reached a depth of 244 and 344 meters, respectively, opera- tions having been interrupted by an insurrection. The wells have been partly filled with bamboo poles, and at present the casings are open for a few meters only below the surface. The * Loc. cit. OPAL sd Pratt: Petrolewm in the Province of Cebu 233 well over which the derrick stands is evidently the deeper of the two. Three strings of casing, 12 inches (30 centimeters), 8 inches (20 centimeters), and 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, respectively, are visible at the collar. Petroleum stands in the well at a level but little lower than that of the ground surface. The petroleum is buoyed up by a column of water below it, and probably fills only a short length of the casing, but enough is present to permit the collection of a dozen or more liters at any time. The other well, 50 meters distant, is cased with 8-inch (20-centimeter) pipe and yields oil in a similar manner and quantity. A sample of petroleum was collected from one of these wells in 1913 and brought to Manila for testing. Mr. F. R. Ycasiano, assistant engineer of the Bureau of Science, conducted 4-hour test runs with a Diesel motor, using the Toledo, Cebu, and Borneo crude oils in alternate tests. The Cebu oil proved to be a highly desirable fuel and somewhat superior to the Borneo oil. Table I shows the specific gravities and percentage yields of the distillation products from Toledo, Cebu, crude petroleum. . TABLE I.—Distillation products from Toledo, Cebu, crude petrolewm.* : 3 a | Specific | Distilla- Product. gravity | Volume. |tion tem- at 15°C. perature.| | | COATS Seeds A pls iets Nee aI a ly shah sea 8 ae Ll Ss pe pe OF S853 Beaten (bane alee | (GC anoling Pema cee oe oO RSet ame eM! Seca eae AL 0. 762 6.2 | to 150 | IKCnOSEN Gees aaa ae ER EAC ORTON DMT Eh aM On i ACE IE nt ve ene oe 0.832 | 42.32 | 150-300 | Leavy yioil sper ek Sane Me TOO: tie tt SER O REL PES ELSIE | 0,901 38.3 | 300-375 esi Te eis = SEG oy Fi SRO OEY LEU aly te ee, tu Dee oes eats Rae 13.17 375 « Analysis by H. C. Brill, chemist, Bureau of Science. The foregoing analysis shows a much heavier oil than the product obtained from the Bondoc Peninsula field in Tayabas Province, which yields more than 40 per cent of gasoline. The geologic structure at the site of the Toledo wells is mono- clinal as shown in fig. 1. The beds lie upon the flank of the older igneous complex, which forms the core of the island. The rocks which outcrop at the wells are sandy shales, fine- grained clastics, and sandstones overlying sandy conglomerates, with a general dip to the northwest at an angle of from 50° to 60°. A voleanic tuff outcrops just north of the wells on Calaman- pao River and lies stratigraphically above the position of the 984 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 wells in apparent conformity with the lower strata. It is a fine-grained, spongy, white rock, which breaks with a conchoidal or porcelanic fracture and is composed largely of minute frag- ments of volcanic glass. In its extension to the southwest the lower beds of the tuff grade into an increasingly coarse-grained volcanic agglomerate or breccia. A prominent hill, about 1.5 kilometers west-southwest of the oil wells and stratigraphically above (?) the beds which the wells pierce, consists of this agglomerate, the fragments in which are porphyritic andesite. Overlying the tuff is the coralline limestone which fringes the entire Island of Cebu. In this locality it is 100 meters or more thick, consists principally of unconsolidated, imperfectly bedded coralline material, and dips about 35° northwest. Abella con- sidered this limestone to be of Post-Pliocene age. Below the horizon at which the wells are located the strata = = = Ss Sea leve/ Fic. 1. Geologie section across strike of beds at Toledo, Cebu; partly diagrammatic. a, coralline limestone; b, tuff and agglomerate; c, Miocene shales, sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones ; d, basal igneous complex. include coarse sandstones, sandy shales, clastics, and limestone, in the order named from the position of the wells to the igneous basement. These beds have the same strikes but dip somewhat more steeply than those at the well site. The whole thickness of sedimentary strata on this flank of the cordillera appears to be at least 2,000 meters, the oil wells occupying a position near the middle of the series. There are no beds in this series which are conspicuously petroliferous, but some of the sand- stones near the oil wells emit an odor of petroleum. The oil wells must have pierced the petroliferous sandstones close to their outcrop. A well drilled to the northwest of the old site would encounter these sandstones under cover and should prove whether or not petroleum can be obtained from them in large quantities. It would be expected that any but a viscous oil would be dissipated from the open edges of the strata in a monocline dipping as steeply as do the beds at this point. All the rocks in the vicinity of Toledo which appear to offer any KAN Pratt: Petroleum in the Province of Cebu I35 chance of yielding petroleum could be tested by drilling a series of, say, three 600-meter wells along a northwest-southeast line across the strike of the beds. PETROLEUM AT ALEGRIA A fairly strong petroleum seep exists at the head of Malbog Creek near the town of Alegria. As early as 1897 a concession was recorded in the name of Smith, Bell & Co., Limited, for a petroleum claim of 150,000 square meters at Talayong, Alegria, and it appears that this claim covers the petroleum seep on Mal- bog Creek. Alegria is on the western coast of southern Cebu, and the mouth of Malbog Creek is about 2 kilometers north of the town. The seep is at an elevation of about 365 meters and is about 2.5 kilometers from the coast. Southern Cebu generally is covered with the recent coralline limestone beds; only in Fig. 2. Geologie section across strike of beds along Malbog Creek, Alegria, Cebu. a, coralline limestone; b, voleanie tuff; c, Miocene shales and sandstones over limestone. small areas are the underlying rocks exposed. Fig. 2 repre- sents a section across the strike of the beds and shows the rock succession and structure at the head of Malbog Creek. The petroleum reaches the surface through beds of blue clay or shale and is identical in appearance with the Toledo oil. The oil seeps directly from blue clayey shale in the wall of a ravine, and there is usually a small pool of oil and water at the seep. Blue shale, brown sandy shales, sandstones, and soft light-colored tuff are exposed near the seep with a thickness of about 100 meters beneath a capping of perhaps 150 meters of coralline limestone. The tuff is less conspicuous than at Toledo. The general strike is north 20° east; and an anticlinal fold is indi- cated by the dips. In the crest and eastern limb of this fold the beds are standing on edge and appear to be considerably broken up. The first limestone outcrop to the west of the oil seep appears to dip to the east, and must, therefore, pass beneath the shale from which the oil seeps. The presence of a P86 The Philippine Journal of Science similar limestone at this horizon was not detected at Toledo. Placing this limestone in the eastern limb of the fold implies faulting in the plane of the anticlinal axis with an accompanying elevation of the eastern limb. The petroleum seep at Malbog appears to be at a higher stratigraphic position than the oil encountered by the wells at Toledo; possibly, therefore, petroleum-bearing rocks at Malbog exist, a horizon lower than the seep, and petroleum migrates upward through the broken strata in the crest of the anticline. The possibility of obtaining petroleum in quantity at Malbog could best be tested by drilling a series of wells along a west- northwest line across the crest of the fold. The structure ap- pears to be favorable except that the anticline is rather sharp, and the presence of petroleum is demonstrated by the seepage, although there is no data as to the probable quantity. The vicinity of the Malbog seep is difficult of access; the narrow valley and the steep gradient of the creek, together with the elevation to be attained, would make transportation difficult and expensive. ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Geologic section across strike of beds at Toledo, Cebu; partly diagrammatic. a, coralline limestone; 6, tuff and agglomerate; c, Miocene shales, sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones; d, basal igneous complex. 2. Geologic section across strike of beds along Malbog Creek, Alegria, a, coralline limestone; 6, volcanic tuff; c, Miocene shales Cebu. and sandstones over limestone. 287 Paes ‘FLORA OF ‘MANILA =) By Eumer ‘Dy Maram postpaid. tivated” ‘areas in the -Philippines.. Descrip- “tions, with Keys, of over 1,000 Species, 590 “glossary” of technical terms, eto, 9 So IPPINE ISLANDS 1 Sl, postpaid. “The reprint “contains - ihe Malone: aati © oles:'On the Water Relations, of the:, Coconut cans. the. Povey pa : “ INDO-MATAYAN Woops. “By. FRED We ‘Foxwontny | Order: Nae? 4ll.. ‘Paper, 182 pages; 9 ‘plates, $0. 50, postpald. 2 Sots has brought together .a large “amount Belatng 8 woods of: economic value. © ZOOLOGY Det lees OF, THE. CETACEA BY. ae Bouusrar “Ortier No. ais. vend postpaid. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, EXCLU- ~Aslands, The distribution of each species ae 8 given, and the penne, HESeme One: are “ited. PW Older “Nec 49- Paper, 490 ‘pages, , $2. 50, | ’ Practioally a aeriplstes flora of the culs” genera, and’136 families, with native beter g pe THE coconur PALM IN’ THE PHIL ‘ 3 of) 5 der No. 37. Paper, 149, ‘Pages,, 30 plates, a : Pore No. 102) ‘Palm: (Cocos nucifera), The Coconut and its: .. + Relation to Coconut. Oil, The. Keeping Quali- - ties of Coconut. Oil and ‘they Causes of, its “ Rancidity, and The Principal Taseoks: Attack~" “{ndo-Malayan Woods, Doctor | Fox-' of «accurate. information concerning — trees ) A List oF ‘THE MAMMALS OF THE Par, 64 pages, $0.50, Bf This is the a avert atten to =e oat _merate - the: “mammals of. the — Philippine i PRICES ARE IN UNITED STATES CURRENCY "PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE ‘BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE, eae MANILA, (PHILIPPINE a EATS Can Gnes “ZOOLOGY Continued A MANUAL. OF PHILIPPINE BIRDS By Ricsand ©. “MoGrecor i Order No: 103, Paper, 2. ‘parts, 762 : pages, $4, postpaid. SNS. Manual of) Philippine Birds eontatns “in ‘compact’ form’ descriptions of all the Known~ species” of = Philippine birds. The! usual keys and diagnoses) of orders,: families, oh Moa? eens help the novice in Wentincasion: ms ee ry omsceg ge, OF es i ne ‘By Davip STARE J cupan"and ROBERT Ban es RICHARDSON. © Paper, 18 pages; $0.75, postpaid. “This Hist will be found a anserient guide ‘to. the. synonymy of Philippine ichthyology. The nomenctature is thoroughly revised, and '. the distribution. of each. spec. the: ; Saat islands’ ds givens. “MEDICINE ‘ BEFORE OF THE INTERNATIONAT, yg PLAGUE con, FERENCE Held at Mukden, April, 1911, under ‘the ; auspices of ‘the Chinese “Government. "Edited by Ericu Manrins, G. , “PEDRTE, : ARTHUR STANLEY, and Ricw: VP. = ‘ STRONG 5 " 483. paves) "1 plates 2 colore.. 4 half- ‘tones, 12 charts and maps). Order No. 416. 9 Paner, $2.50; Cam $3.50;° postpaid. The: proceedings of this International Con-° i fercnes: ‘and information: gained therefrom, to- ogether with the results of certain bacte- riological investigations, eonstifuter aS pres- ent) report. “ : % ee Ata SAN ena ‘THE SUBANUNS ‘OF : SENDANGAN BAY Ot Oe a5 Brac By Emsnson B. Chettiar es sey te eee eae No. 410, Paper, 121 payes, 2. € Ag No: 12. ~ Paper, 1 map, 29 plates, $1.25, posteald, ce plates, 2 map, TEA postp xz Sindangan ‘Bay Is situated on the north- <. Gonsidered from the viewpoint. of ‘\ ern coast. of Zambo. anga Peninsula. The Su- © « > float neidered ‘Mr. Walker s Sugar “Ine » >) sbanuns. of this region were studied: by’ Mr. é -in the Island of Negros is ons 0 f $ A abet ‘during two: periods. of “five and six — ureau “weeks, respectively. 5 “ef Science. “real contribue = ) © The, 29 plates mintastra bet the Subanuns BEES: to’ the subject;. it. = mere comes work and at play; their industries; houses, { : “was in the fi and : altars; and Jonulemen tes Seb pe eae. ue _> Sunderstands ~ the conditions ‘of - = thomachyss. ¥ f ie 2. ah : ; writes. ~" f Si ies ss s E : - B is, ; Betty : : : eG 5 oe ER Sete Bs os ver HISTORY. OF Sut ee rere Bie Sytars sees . By Nasess M. Sanesey, Wratten Were "hie No. 406, Paper, 275 pages, 4 ysis ete sfc sg Smaps, 2} aiarernes $0.15, postpaid.» . 413. eer Ta ee a JS inn the’ préparation: of his manusoript: ‘for per, ee ee “The History of Sulu, Doctor Selesby spent “plates, $0.75, powtpald. ‘much -time)and. effort’ in gaining ,ac f n A Manual Philippine) Si teh *» +8 to documents in the possession of the ae 5 re presented as esults ne os 5 °<| Sof Sulu. ‘Thi§ “book is a history’ of. : swith: 9 5 903) 6) Moros in-the Philippines ‘from the. sities dps ak BSD ea ele Himes), f the iberaee “occupation. : THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VoL. X SEPTEMBER, 1915 No. 5 THE PERSISTENCE OF PHILIPPINE COAL BEDS? By WALLACE E. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) THREE TEXT FIGURES Coal was discovered in Cebu as early as the year 1827, and within the next thirty years practically all the more important Philippine coal fields had become known. The Spanish Govern- ment made repeated attempts to develop an industry in coal mining both by fostering private enterprises and by undertaking to exploit some of the deposits in the name of the state itself. Similarly the American Government has sought to establish coal mining. Coal is one of two mineral products which may be exported from the Philippines free of duty; a tax must be paid on imported coals; coal-mining companies have received special favors at the hands of the Government even to the extent of financial assistance; and the United States Army opened a coal mine on its own account. Yet in spite of the long lapse of time since coal was discovered in the Philippines, and in spite of the many attempts at coal mining, no coal is produced in the Phil- ippines to-day. There are several good reasons for this state of affairs. Perhaps the greatest difficulty is that the coal is not of superior quality. Black lignites and subbituminous coals make up the greater part of the Philippine coal resources. Some of the coal fields are inaccessible. The roof and floor of the beds are soft and require close timbering. The coal is liable to spontaneous combustion, both in the mine and in storage. But the obstacle which has stood most directly in the way of developing coal mines is the discontinuity of the beds. * Received for publication June 25, 1915. 135518 289 > 29() The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Practically every attempt at prospecting has had to contend with the difficulty that the tunnels ran out of coal sooner or later under circumstances which made it difficult to decide whether the coal bed had been faulted or had failed by pinching out. It will readily be understood that a nearly vertical fault, more or less parallel to the strike of an inclined coal bed, might so displace the coal on either side of the fault plane that the bed would appear to pinch out gradually. The true nature of the discontinuities in Philippine coal beds cannot be determined by geologic study alone. Outcrops are . notoriously unreliable where the surface relations are so obscured by slides, by talus, and by the growth and decay of heavy vegetation, as they are in the Philippines. In certain individual cases it is clear that beds have been faulted, and less commonly unmistakable evidence that the original bed was of restricted lateral dimensions is to be found in gradually decreasing thick- nesses along outcrops. But to decide which is the common cause of nonpersistence and usually to decide which factor is respon- sible in a particular case, underground exploration is necessary. The exploration which has been carried out in the past throws some light on this problem, and it seems desirable to bring the results together for comparison and study. The work of ex- ploration having been restricted to a few localities, the study cannot be made exhaustive, but an attempt to interpret the data which are available should be useful as a guide to future exploration. The Spaniards performed and recorded the results of a great deal of exploration in coal beds, and their works should be reviewed briefly in this connection. About the year 1874 an association called “La Paz’ was or- ganized to exploit certain deposits of coal which outcrop in the vicinity of San Esteban, a barrio of Bacon, Sorsogon. The out- crops appear to represent several beds, but the principal work was confined to a single bed, which, according to José Centeno, an engineer in the Spanish mining inspectorate, varied in width from 4 to 8 meters. All of the beds are nearly vertical and strike about north 20° west. The coal lies near the base of the Tertiary sedimentaries, and at the western edge of the sedi- mentary area—below the coal—there are outcrops of holocrys- talline rocks which probably are part of the base upon which the beds were laid down. The workings executed by the La Paz association, according to Centeno, included 6 shafts varying in depth from 22 to 34 meters and 5 galleries and crosscuts aggregating 66 meters in X, A, 6 Pratt: Persistence of Philippine Coal Beds 291 length. Ramon Marty, an engineer employed by the company, states that 130 meters of gallery were driven at a level 11 meters below the surface and 188 meters of gallery at a level of 24 meters below the surface, beside the 6 shafts mentioned by Centeno. No faults were encountered, but the width of the coal varied from 4 to 8 meters, and there were zones near the surface in which the coal was broken and contaminated with fragments from the walls. Marty observed that the deepest workings were in good, solid coal and concluded that the broken condition of the coal was superficial only. The coal was considered to be of excellent quality, 200 tons of it having been used for steaming tests by the Spanish navy. It was admitted, however, that the fuel tended to disintegrate, or slack, upon exposure. Both Centeno and Marty thought that mining could be carried on successfully and expressed no doubt as to the adequacy of the tonnage probably available. Never- theless, very little was accomplished subsequent to the date of the reports quoted above. The company, La Paz, failed, ap- parently because of a lack of capital, and the mines were abandoned. I visited the old mines in 1910, and while nothing remained of the former workings I found several outcrops, upon one of which a short tunnel had recently been driven. This bed is vertical and strikes north 20° west; its full width was not revealed but must exceed 2 meters. The tunnel was about 10 meters long and entirely in coal, neither wall being exposed. The coal appeared to be much contaminated with clay along fractures and in inclosed blocks or horses. It may be concluded that the coal at San Esteban (designated variously as the Gatbo coal, the Sugud coal, and the Bacon coal) shows evidence of faulting in the broken condition of parts of the beds. The variation in width, also, may be due to the movements which caused the faults or it may be due to irregular- ities in deposition. The testimony of the Spanish engineers that conditions improved with depth suggests that faulting, not irregular deposition, is really the cause of the nonuniformity encountered, and the exploration so far as it goes indicates per- sistent coal beds. Spanish engineers, also, directed important explorations of coal beds at Danao, Compostela, Guilaguila, and Uling in the Province of Cebu. The workings at Danao (barrio of Camansi) aggregated several thousand lineal meters and perhaps 10,000 square meters of rooms. Three or four different beds appear to have been explored, the thickness of which is from 0.5 to 1.5 292 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 meters on an average. A number of faults were encountered, and with few exceptions the coal was not recovered beyond the faults. On the other hand, the beds are fairly constant in thickness, and no evidence of irregularities due to the character of the original deposition is recorded. At Compostela, also, numerous tunnels were driven and rooms were opened, the work done being about equal in the aggregate to that at Camansi, Danao. Two beds were exploited, both of which were regular and in the neighborhood of 1 meter in thickness. Two faults were encountered, one of which was of minor importance and caused little trouble, while the other cut off the coal so effectually that it was not again located. The sketches in fig. 1, taken from annual reports of Enrique Abella y Casariego, chief inspector of mines at that time, illustrate the effect of the smaller fault. The coal is of the same character at Camansi and Compostela and ranks as a superior subbituminous coal. It was used satis- factorily as a steaming coal. The attempts at mining en- countered difficulties on account of faults, but did not reveal any evidence of the pinching out of the beds, even though they were not of great thickness. Spanish mining at Guilaguila, on the other hand, demonstrated that a bed of coal from 1 to 2 meters in thickness changed its character within a short distance to a series of thin layers intercalated with rock. However, the deposits at Guilaguila are known to overlie very closely the basement upon which the coal-bearing rocks were deposited, and it is not surprising that the conditions for deposition were rapidly changing and in- constant. The work at Guilaguila was carried on by the Spanish Government about the year 1853. At Uling, Cebu, the Spaniards executed their most valuable work of exploration. There are several (probably five) beds of coal outcropping on the eastern slope of Mount Uling and dipping at an angle of from 30° to 40° west-northwest into the mountain. One of these beds, the outcrop of which is about 100 meters vertically above the level of the base of the mountain, is 5 meters thick at the surface. Dona Margarita Roxas, a most energetic woman, undertook the exploitation of this coal bed about 1860. She built 15 kilometers of mountain road extending from Tinaan on the coast to Alpaco, where she was carrying on other ex- ploratory work, and thence north to Mount Uling. Having dis- covered by openings on the outcrop that the large bed was faulted near the surface, but that the faulted coal was intact and continuous for some distance beyond the fault, she determined X, A, 5 Pratt: Persistence of Philippine Coal Beds 293 upon the excavation of a transverse drainage tunnel from the lowest practicable point to the extension of the large vein at depth. This tunnel was driven through shale and sandstone a total distance of 647 meters and actually reached the large bed. But shortly after its completion the lady whose enterprise was re- Fic. 1. Plan of Esperanza gallery at Compostela coal mine, Cebu, showing its passage through a fault, with sections across gallery at a, b, c, and d. sponsible for the successful termination of the undertaking, which in that time must have been very difficult, died, and her work was allowed to fall to ruin. The tunnel encountered three other smaller beds of coal before it finally reached the large bed, and these results were carefully recorded by the engineers of the Spanish inspectorate. Abella estimated that a minimum quantity of 600,000 tons of coal was developed with reasonable certainty by this work, and the persistence of the large bed was 294 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 proved for a distance of approximately 200 meters down the dip and 150 meters along the strike. Nevertheless the fact that the enterprise was abandoned just when its success seemed assured and was never resumed made the records appear questionable to American interests which came into control of the Uling field recently, and exploration was renewed to verify their correctness. The recent exploration at Uling, which was conducted under my supervision, began with a slope entry on the 5-meter outcrop. This slope followed the floor of the bed for a distance of about 20 meters from the intersection of the bed with the surface, where a fault was encountered. This fault is parallel to the strike of the coal, but dips in the opposite direction—that is to say, the coal dips about 35° westward, while the fault dips about 30° eastward. The coal is truncated sharply along the fault, pte? J5.6 meters thick 4.6 meters good coal Bed 3.5 meters thick 1.95 metersgood coal fe x LEM dda Houth YY LY TEU Yr Shaleand SOdstane { Bed 27 meters thick 1.91 meters good cool Fic. 2. Sketch, showing in section exploration work on a 5-meter coal bed at Uling, Cebu. and there is little evidence of drag or movement along the fault plane. It was fairly clear, however, assuming that a normal fault had caused the displacement, that the continuation of the coal beyond the fault would be encountered by following the fault upward; in other words, the outcrop coal dropped along the fault. It was decided to do no more work on the slope because of the inconvenience entailed in changing the grade from the fault plane forward, but instead to drive a new tunnel from a point about 50 meters farther north along the outcrop. This tunnel was driven so as to drain itself, and its portal was located about 10 meters lower than the outcrop. The fault plane was inter- sected at 48 meters from the portal, and at 121 meters the tunnel reached the coal bed beyond the fault. The last 20 meters of the tunnel were in sandstone and shale which showed no KOWAG. 5 Pratt: Persistence of Philippine Coal Beds 295 evidence of fracture or displacement, but nearer the mouth, and especially in the vicinity of the main fault, the rocks were disturbed, slickensided, and broken. It is estimated that the coal had been displaced by this fault through a distance of about 40 meters measured along the fault plane. Once having reached the coal beyond the fault, the tunnel was advanced as a stope (driven in parallel) on the full dip of the bed and carried 98.4 meters farther when old workings were encountered (fig. 2). It was concluded that the old workings probably had been driven up the dip from the face of the long Spanish transversal tunnel which, therefore, must have reached the bed as the records show. Unfortunately it became necessary to suspend the exploration at this point, although the results of the work so far completed had been fairly satisfactory. At the outcrop of the faulted block the bed has a thickness of 5.60 meters between roof and floor, both of which are sandy shale and sandstone. About 4.75 meters of this is coal, of which 4.6 meters could be removed economically in mining. There are several parting planes, and there is one narrow parting of carbonaceous shale. About 0.2 meter of carbonaceous shale near the middle of the bed, and 0.6 meter of carbonaceous shale and thin coal at the bottom, would have to be removed as waste. In the driving of the tunnels the middle coal was mined by re- moving the central layer of carbonaceous shale. This permitted the upper coal as high as the parting to fall, after which the lower coal was taken up down to the lower parting. The changes which the bed manifested as the work advanced are shown clearly in the accompanying sections (fig. 3). The bed where first encountered beyond the fault is only 3.5 meters thick between floor and roof and contains only 1.95 meters of coal. At the face of the slope, farther down the dip, the bed is still thinner—2.7 meters between floor and roof—but the thick- ness of the coal is maintained fairly well at 1.91 meters. Thus, while the general tendency is toward a gradually reduced thick- ness of the bed, the coal itself suffers little diminution below the position of the fault and becomes freer from intermixed shale. The only evidence of disturbance beyond the first fault was a slight roll, undoubtedly the result of a movement too restricted in extension to cause a true fault. However, the conditions of deposition appear to have varied alarmingly within a short dis- tance, and the desired constancy is not proved. The outcrop of this bed of coal can be traced but a few meters. Yet a kilometer away along the strike exploration was started on two other outcrops adjacent to each other, each of 296 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 which revealed 2.75 meters of coal. The work at this point en- countered a fault after an advance of 13 meters in the coal. All work was suspended before the ground beyond the fault could be explored, and the true relation of these outcrops to the out- crops farther south remains undetermined. The Uling coal appears from the foregoing to have undergone faulting which, however, is not serious enough to prevent mining. Evidence of inconstant conditions of deposition is brought out Meters LEGEND Coa/.................... JB Carbonacéous shale [== | Sandy shale Hesess Fic. 3. Sections across 5-meter coal bed at Uling, Cebu. 1, cut section of outcrop of faulted coal; 2, section 10 meters beyond fault; 3, section 58 meters beyond fault; 4, section 84 meters beyond fault. by the exploration, and the persistence of the coal beds over large areas is questionable. Yet it is not established that the bed has actually pinched out anywhere, and it is entirely possible that further exploration will prove tonnages adequate for com- mercial exploitation. The Uling coal is slightly inferior to the Danao and Com- postela coal, but is a valuable fuel, especially if it could be used for purposes such as cement burning, where it would be dried and pulverized before combustion. The most thorough exploration of Philippine coal fields by X, A, 5 Pratt: Persistence of Philippine Coal Beds 297 Americans was carried out on Batan Island, Albay Province. The western half of this island was reserved by the United States Army for the purposes of coal mining. On the eastern end of the island the East Batan Coal Mining Company developed a mine which yielded from 20,000 to 30,000 metric tons of coal annually for several years. The work of the United States Army demonstrated that faulting was a serious factor in the nonpersistence of the coal beds on the reservation, while the commercial mine at the other end of the island proved the existence of a bed of considerable dimensions with no evi- dence of faulting and but little indication of inconstant conditions of deposition. Part of the exploration at the Army mine consisted of diamond- drill work. The results of the drilling are very confusing and difficult of interpretation. A large proportion of the different holes drilled yielded no core because of the softness of the rocks penetrated, and it is probable that the records of strata en- countered are faulty on this account. One drill hole, according to its record, penetrated 11 distinct beds of coal, yet it is im- possible to correlate these beds with the results obtained in adjacent holes. The mine workings yielded more definite information. An opening on the Big Tree bed in the upper part of the coal-bearing rocks advanced 14 meters in coal which lay about horizontal and was 2.8 meters thick. For 10 meters the bed was perfectly regular, but within the next 4 meters it decreased in thickness, the floor rising abruptly in steps to about 30 centimeters. The work was abandoned without any attempt to proceed beyond the evidently faulted zone. Other openings of limited extent encountered faults in much the same way. More important work was performed at New Number 5 mine, in the base of the coal measures. A slope was driven through rock to intersect two beds the presence of which was indicated in adjacent drill holes. The beds appeared to be parallel to each other and to dip at an angle of about 35°. The upper bed was first encountered, and the slope was continued as a drift along the strike of the bed for a distance of 60 meters. Throughout this distance the bed was irregular and showed considerable evidence of squeezing; at the end of the drift the coal was lost along a fault. A horizontal crosscut was driven to the lower bed through the intervening rock strata, a distance of about 10 meters. A drift on the strike of the lower bed from the end of this crosscut, parallel to the drift on the upper bed and at approximately the same level, advanced 50 meters to a fault, 298 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 probably the same one which had been reached in the upper bed. From the face of the drift on the lower bed an opening was now driven up the dip, which gradually flattened, until the bed became horizontal at a distance of 20 meters and then gradually reversed its dip, thus defining an anticline. Along the crest of this anticline another drift was started parallel to the original strike-drifts. This drift progressed a distance of about 100 meters in regular coal and encountered no fault, although it advanced far beyond the line of the fault which had displaced the same bed on the limb of the fold. Moreover cross entries were driven down the dip to the right and left, and the persistence of the coal was proved to a point directly in the line of advance of the faulted drift on the limb of the fold. At this stage of the work exploration was suspended and has never been resumed. All the advancing faces were in coal varying in thickness from about 2 meters on the crest of the anticline to 1 meter at a distance of 30 meters down the dip on either side. The coal is of superior quality, although some- what crushed by the folding pressures. It appears that a fault had been avoided in this case with no great difficulty, and the exploration, although incomplete, is encouraging. However, the quantity of coal actually proved by this work cannot be placed at more than 10,000 metric tons. The mine of the East Batan Coal Mining Company, situated on the eastern end of Batan Island, constitutes the most exten- Sive coal exploration performed by Americans in the Philippines. This mine developed a 1.5-meter bed of coal over an area 1,100 meters long and 400 meters wide. The main entry was 500 meters in length, and one of the butt entries was 800 meters in length. All faces were in coal, and the bed was absolutely regular. A 7-centimeter parting, 45 centimeters from the roof, was maintained everywhere without variation. The only change in the character of the coal was noted in the workings farthest advanced to the west. At this point balls or lenses of hardened mud, containing pyrite, made their appearance in the coal. The company suspended operations for financial reasons and not be- cause of any lack of coal in the mine. The East Batan coal is objectionable as a steaming fuel, because of its low calorific value and its tendency to slack, or disintegrate, in storage. In summary, the exploration of Philippine coal beds may be said to show that the continuity of the coal is frequently broken by faulting; that by careful work the coal can usually be re- located beyond the faults without much difficulty or expense; x, A, 5 Pratt: Persistence of Philippine Coal Beds 299 and that evidence of nonuniform conditions has been obtained in some cases, but that nowhere have large beds been shown to pinch out entirely by reason of the limited area of the original deposition. It is to be noted that the coals of higher quality are mostly faulted and that the lower grade coals are most reg- ular. This is a condition which would be anticipated, since all the coals are of approximately the same age and only by more or less violent dynamism have the removal of water and the increase in the proportion of fixed carbon necessary to improve the quality been accomplished. Judging from past experience, then, the development of Phil- ippine coal fields must contend with minor faulting and the possibility of varying thicknesses of coal due to irregular original deposition. PRS. CEs a seis hp: sons | shares hoatiatio cheasvenrth snevokite gist yet Hie. Petey! Grants Fries st, one Sed An) Sa eS Opeivittart: danny Bite : laraPyheeaty ihe Henig: Git meth thir We Litas eran sey ee ba tek yeh tenes: | Nariwneeh: Gas 1 eR aN At LP ited pam taie pone ate Ratt A aC M ake Sp eepe ozs Lh Pe ean Sasiek 4 Add dates » Sart ce ey ‘eit sy Satie dy a): bie aar ad baler oa itera tat sir De feo’ hue oe) asi A ein danas kas i hee teehee nine “SHEN Sas LOT ‘aah Ro gant) pnerceil ch Tahoe werk chet ae ania eerie baz. bo. celts aqua wh qr . / er Ch Pedy herrea: ey bhp, Sua Divdeandeanbedbols ‘iinet f Shishi trl bit te RAL Ate Horm etary. caatiies. nibine baka lari sitet | Ye Vy ne fe cial calehe ug nis faadh ee eo ee) Ree if oh Lary vu \ i ’ hts e ee i way ‘ ts me r] : \ pi xvas ON Bld if ; } o Woks ' z ' | 4 } i tat ied iy ADA aoe BB itt rit, Tpit ees , ¥. i PACT iM 1 GER tel Ve ri i : ae | AV) ey ert) Tau Sy i . ai Lie s de Bs a ) Parag as ui Phe EV t . Pes? eee eae tiv AL “Tan | ‘ hae , Ce Use ’ miei 4 it , As i : ; { * ‘1 i" oa i A : ‘I i 1 it BA : a } y Do oy hah arial ib yas re ae wh ONE od ae wit A NEC SL, LD, FE eats Ses i ee RAL ag vo} oy ati aaa aa ee sa ‘ Be ee RL ORT nh 4” Pe a Fe bite re Tt Linea a ¥ on Veh: I US Mae ae ANDY ow? Se SAP ee ee nt ay ete e a capital Cubs i aA Vi ean ; ert ai be aioe te! OW h ‘a cyeyieerrtyy Ry Mee Beh vice!) ee ‘news a wade , - ial BA vee 4 he ih YAS ChE hl ee 5 ales ais) ch a la Vink Coe a Mietiald* 8.8 ebay Nyaa iv nel eter eye) aCe a ee re, ‘gek ‘we VT aad a ay pi out ta Brora erie, Cae ht CRIVEDS wee ie ae ‘pall vee Sats Mae ee |, ict i my ripen td ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Plan of Esperanza gallery at the Compostela coal mine, Cebu, show- ing its passage through a fault, with sections across gallery at a, 6, c, and d. 2. Sketch, showing in section exploration work on a 5-meter coal bed at Uling, Cebu. 8. Sections across 5-meter coal bed at Uling, Cebu. 1, section of outcrop of faulted coal; 2, section 10 meters beyond fault; 3, section 58 meters beyond fault; 4, section 84 meters beyond fault. 301 is i 7 ioe fy “i i a Cay is Pi ¥: t aks OY ry Pras va) Buy Wed i] ae g eye ) aril a © Ais im Cea Gees im oh ES Bas ae war - ¥ , i tx ‘4 4 Citeeh fd "| ‘ ’ “TW POteiohtes aetoak cr uniweda Pest Ta | iy / \ \ , . oALe Dear ie weirs it Wo. Vetewti-T' Aaa a Pre as Baa 4 - Ls , *% : . thee Toes { di oases Sf sik Deitel Keb pending Fmt fyeis f 194 Dea 2 O¢ae! praeonr BA, qeited Eyeiy t ‘ . *) ae) wn , ve ; a1 GEOLOGIC RECONNAISSANCE IN CARAMOAN PENINSULA, CAMARINES PROVINCE 1 By WALLACE E. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) ONE PLATE AND 2 TEXT FIGURES CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. GENERAL GEOLOGY—Continued. GEOGRAPHY. Geologic history. GENERAL GEOLOGY. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. Alluvial and littoral deposits. General, Isarog tuffs and agglomerates. Gold. Pliocene tuffs, flows, and ag- Copper. glomerates. Mercury. Tertiary sedimentaries. Coal. Metamorphic sedimentary rocks. Clay. Basal igneous complex. Stone and gravel. Correlation. : Artesian water. INTRODUCTION At the time the field work was performed for a geologic reconnaissance of southeastern Luzon,’ it proved to be almost impossible to study the inaccessible region of Caramoan Penin- sula except from a distance. In March, 1914, I had an oppor- tunity to accompany a party from the Bureau of Forestry into this little-known area and to obtain general data as to its geologic constitution, thus extending proportionately the geologic reconnaissance map of Luzon Island. The accompanying topo- graphic map (fig. 1) of Caramoan Peninsula was made by Arthur F. Fischer and Raphael Medina, foresters, Bureau of Forestry, in company with whom I worked, and is based upon Coast and Geodetic Survey charts. GEOGRAPHY Caramoan Peninsula, jutting toward the northeast from the southeastern peninsular portion of Luzon, forms a distinct phys- iographic province. The region is mountainous and of extreme relief. Roth*® and von Drasche* quote Hochstetter’s opinion "Received for publication June 21, 1915. * Adams, G. I., and Pratt, W. H., This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 449 et seq. * Roth, Justus, Ueber die geologische Beschaffenheit der Philippinen (1878), 333-854. “Drasche, R. von, Fragmente zu einer Geologie der Insel Luzon (Philip- pinen). Wien (1878), 39. 303 304 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 PENINSULA Contour Interval 60 meters Based on Coast ond Geodetic Survey Supplemented by Bureau of forestry Surveys F, ucsuhin Is. 4 & 4 CARAMOAN 9 a ° ee Quinabugan I. % Cones @ i at Ow “Goa SanJosé Fic. 1. Topographic map of Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines. puirin € 4 San Miguel Bay KA, 5 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 305 that Caramoan Peninsula was formerly an island and had been joined to the mainland of Luzon by deposits built up through eruptions of Isarog Volcano. The correctness of this conclusion is supported by the evidence of my reconnaissance work. Geo- logically Caramoan Peninsula is related to Catanduanes Island farther to the east rather than to the mainland, and the neck which connects the mass of the peninsula with the mainland consists of volcanic ejecta from Mount Isarog, younger in age than the rocks of the peninsula proper. The area is elongated in a west-northwest direction parallel to the main structural lines and contains approximately 600 square kilometers. The higher elevations, culminating in Saddle Peak (elevation 1,031 meters) in the Calinigan group of mountains, lie in the southern part of the peninsula, but extend west through the central portion. Mount Putianay, one of the prominent westernmost peaks, displays a white scar near its summit, which makes it conspicuous from the direction of the town of San Jose. The eastern end of the peninsula is rugged, but the hills attain only moderate elevations. The northern coast and the outlying islands are low and are fringed at places with swamps. The principal drainage systems discharge on the northern coast; no large river has developed so as to control the topography, but a series of short streams with tidal lower courses serve to carry away the run-off from an exceedingly heavy rainfall. The peninsula is very sparsely inhabited, and a splendid forest covers its western half. The town of Caramoan near the eastern end of the peninsula was formerly larger than it is at present, and the forest has been cleared from much of the sur- rounding country. The forest yields a great deal of bejuco, a rattan used for binding hemp; the bejuco industry together with hemp planting and fishing are the principal industries. Some of the small islands to the north of Caramoan have been planted to coconuts, and the young groves are beginning to yield returns. The southern coast of Caramoan Peninsula is regular and is bounded by straight lines; within a short distance from the shore the sea attains depths of 900 meters. The northern coast, in contrast, is sinuous, with numerous indentations, and the adjacent sea is shallow. Adams® has already pointed out the existence of a submarine shelf in this vicinity dotted with emi- nences which rise above sea level as small islands. ° Op. cit., 456. 135518 —2 806 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 GENERAL GEOLOGY The greater part of Caramoan Peninsula consists of meta- morphic rocks. Sedimentaries form the low-lying eastern end, and volcanics occur along the northern coast, but the conclusion that the central part of the peninsula is probably andesite, re- corded in the reconnaissance already referred to, is in error. The rocks have been grouped as follows in the probable order of increasing age: . Alluvial and littoral deposits. . Isarog volcanic agglomerate and tuff. . Pliocene tuffs, flows, and agglomerates. . Tertiary sedimentaries . Metamorphic sedimentary rocks . Basal igneous complex. t contemporaneous. oor wd The distribution of these formations is indicated on the ac- companying geologic map (fig. 2). ALLUVIAL AND LITTORAL DEPOSITS Alluvial plains are developed over limited areas along the rivers at the town of Caramoan and the barrio of Parubcan. A larger area of mixed alluvial and littoral deposits is encoun- tered in the vicinity of Lagonoy. These deposits are composed of surface detritus from the rocks of the various formations. The alluvium at Caramoan is largely clay and sand from the sedimentary series, while at Parubcan, where metamorphic rocks have been degraded, there is a larger proportion of gravel. At Lagonoy sand, clay, and gravel have been derived from the voleanic tuffs and agglomerates flanking Mount Isarog. Pos- sibly some of the fragmental volcanic ejecta was thrown out late enough to have been interbedded with the recent alluvium. In the northeastern and northern parts of the peninsula there are mud flats largely covered at high tide, but there is little alluvium above sea level. ISAROG TUFFS AND AGGLOMERATES Mount Isarog is clearly an extinct voleano from which both flows and fragmental ejecta, uniformly andesitic in character, have been extruded in the past. The flows and the fragments in the agglomerates are porphyritic rocks with phenocrysts of calcic feldspar in a brownish, pumiceous groundmass. Many of the fragments in the agglomerate are partly rounded, so that the rock is in part a conglomerate of volcanic materials rather than a true volcanic agglomerate. The tuff, consisting of fine fragments of the same character as the flows, forms a cement KUPAGD Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 307 SS MQ Sy N Metamorphic sedimentories (Tertiary 2)principolly schists \ Alluvial and Littoral (TEE) /sarog volconic agglomerate and tuff Tertiary Sedimentories =) Toffs, flows ond agglomerotes A bz SEf/ ORGS YY: Ly CU Wyn Ut yee ty CME Wi Wes By Ye Geologic reconnaissance map of Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines. Fic. 2. 308 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 between the pieces in the agglomerate, but apparently does not occur as beds of exclusively fine-grained material. Part, at least, of the ejecta from Isarog is water-laid, but the formation is not bedded at any of the observed exposures. The series extends to the north as a veneer of gradually diminishing thick- ness over the metamorphic rocks. Isarog Volcano belongs to a period older than the volcanic peaks to the south of it in Albay, one of which, Mount Mayon, is still active. It is probably younger than the tuffs and flows on the north coast of Caramoan, inasmuch as the latter are interbedded in part with the upper beds of the Tertiary sedi- mentaries, while the original distribution of the material from Isarog appears to have been influenced somewhat by the existing topography. PLIOCENE TUFFS, FLOWS, AND AGGLOMERATES The tuffs, flows, and agglomerates in the northern part of the peninsula are distinguished from the Isarog formation because of their probably greater age, their different character, and the complete segregation of the two formations in distri- bution. The northern series of volcanics consists of compact, perfectly bedded tuffs, tuff-sandstones, and intercalated, sheet- like flows, all of which are andesitic in character. In the region of the contact between this formation and the sedimentaries at the eastern end of the peninsula there are beds of limestone containing fragments of tuff in a series of strata which have also been pierced by domelike or pluglike intrusions of andesite and andesite-agglomerate. The series of tuffs, flows, and agglom- erates is at least 100 meters thick. It lies nearly horizontal and forms low, grass-covered hills along the coast, but extends inland only to the base of the mountains. TERTIARY SEDIMENTARIES The sedimentary rocks in eastern Caramoan are a succession of limestones, shales, conglomerates, and fragmental or clastic sandstones. A single thin bed of coal is intercalated with the shales and sandstones. The thickness of the sedimentary series is undoubtedly not uniform, because the beds overlap progres- sively on the basal formation. However, the maximum thick- ness must be more than 500 meters. Intrusions of andesite and andesite-agglomerate have pierced the sedimentaries north of the town of Caramoan and again at Palag (or Apatag, as the name is rendered locally) Bay. The strike of the strata varies from north-northeast in the northern and western parts of the sedimentary area to west-northwest farther southeast; x,a,6 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 809 the dips vary in steepness up to the vertical and in direction throughout the southern quadrants. There are at least three limestone horizons in the sedimentary column, but because of the complexity of the geologic structure, their exact position and thickness are undetermined. The succession of beds as indi- cated by the outcrops is contradictory in different localities, and therefore the presence of faults as well as frequent reversals of dip are suspected. At the base of the series is a compact limestone, usually red, but also mottled gray at places. This limestone is very pure in some exposures, but elsewhere contains considerable clay and may even grade into calcareous shale. The lower limestone member is lacking in some sections, and conglomerates, clastics, and shale rest unconformably upon a basal formation of peri- dotitic rocks and fragmental derivatives, thoroughly jointed and metamorphosed. The shale-sandstone-conglomerate member of the sedimen- tary column is not uniform in character. Exposures of black calcareous shale in thin, perfectly defined beds were observed in the river north of the town of Caramoan. Sandy yellow to brown shales and massive tuff-sandstone outcrop on the upper part of the same river southwest of Caramoan. It is here, also, that the bed of coal occurs. The horizon is higher than that of the thin-bedded shales to judge by the prevailing southwesterly dip. At Guijalo on the southern coast, and evidently in the base of the series, are fine conglomerates with rounded pebbles of various rocks, including some quartz, shale with calcite lenses between beds, and clastic or fragmental sandstones. The dip is westward, and farther east, on the opposite side of Guijalo Bay, a peridotitic basal complex is exposed, together with blocks of the lower limestone. A gray, sandy limestone or calcareous sandstone, made up of perfectly defined, thin, hard beds alternating with thicker and softer layers, is included in the upper part of the sedimen- tary series. The most extensive exposure of this limestone is in the extreme southeastern part of the peninsula, where the beds dip to the south-southwest at angles of from 30° to 40°. The rock has been impregnated with silica, and the thin beds contain numerous concretions of black and gray chert. The intervening softer beds contain a considerable proportion of sharp frag- ments of tuff. On the surface in this vicinity are numerous pieces of iron-stained quartz, chalcedony, and silicified tuff. Small lenses of tarnished pyrite occur in the softer, thicker beds; these were apparently mistaken for copper minerals during the 310 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Spanish régime. The limestone beds are so crumpled or cor- rugated at places as to take on an appearance of schistosity (Plate I, fig. 1). Shale or sandstone, or both shale and sandstone, evidently intervene between the limestone just described and a heavy, upper limestone, to judge from the topography, but my ob- servations were too limited to determine this point with cer- tainty. At the apparent top of the sedimentary series, in any event, there is an extensive limestone member, coralline in origin, but now perfectly massive and partly crystalline. Splen- did exposures are encountered in the high ridge trending east- southeastward to Palag Bay. Along the coast in this vicinity the limestone forms magnificent white cliffs, reaching an eleva- tion of 200 meters and rising almost perpendicularly from deep water. On the north coast and also east of the town of Cara- moan are hills of the same limestone. Everywhere this limestone is fissured, and caverns have been formed through solution along the resulting joint planes. In one of the hills near Paniman there is a remarkable limestone cave or underground chamber, which is very aptly designated as “‘the cathedral” locally. The chamber is circular and has an area of approximately 2,500 square meters. The floor slopes rather steeply from south to north, and at the lower side is a large mass of rock fallen from the roof to precisely the position the altar would occupy in a real cathedral. Appropriately enough, the people of Paniman have surmounted it with a small crucifix. Three openings lead into the chamber, one at the back and one on either side of the altar, forming well-proportioned doors. In the domed roof, fully 30 meters above the highest part of the floor, there is an opening which serves admirably as a skylight. Numerous stalactites, each terminating in a point from which a glistening drop of water is suspended, hang from the arched walls, imparting a suggestion of Gothic architecture to the room. It is reported that there are several small lakes in the limestone southeast of Paniman near the coast. The water in these lakes is said to be salty and to abound with sea fish. Evidently these lakes must communicate with the sea through subterranean passages. ' METAMORPHIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The mass of Caramoan Peninsula consists of metamorphic rocks—tale and mica-schist; schistose, massive rocks; and marble. The schists are evidently of sedimentary origin; in- deed the original bedding planes are unmistakable, the planes X, A, 5 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 311 of schistosity being parallel to the bedding. The beds are much crumpled and distorted, but nowhere is the original stratification obliterated. I obtained an incomplete section of the metamor- phic sedimentaries in the vicinity of Sabang, along a stream which flows into Lagonoy River from the north. The following succession of beds was encountered traveling inland from the coast; since the general strike is west-northwest and the dip is to the south-southwest, the first beds encountered are the youngest and represent the upper part of the series: TABLE I.—Geologic section north of Sabang. Approx- Stratum. aie ness. Meters. Green schists, imperfectly bedded; compact, hard rocks ______________-__-----_--------_- 200 Fine-grained, homogeneous marble; gray to white -____--_--_-_-------------------------- 20 Thin fissile beds of talc-schist, schistose shale, and micaceous schists; green, yellow, and brown; quartz lenses along bedding planes ______.__-_-----------_--_------------- 500 Wihiteyandtbluetmarb]lenete S - w-vacme Raenee 5 Bae ee ae ee ee ee 2 Fissile beds of schist like above, but gradually passing into schistose, massive, light igreeniorblueiclasticirocks)2. 55 os. os hese ew Senne enn See eee ok 800 AWihitermarnb lei nus swe om _ 2 Skier Se NERS Nota: Moe Kae! S Rie ER ORAS A Be. 5 Massive schistose fragmental rocks, light green to blue______________________-_--_______- (a) 8 Undetermined. I was unable to carry this section farther to the north because of the difficulty of penetrating the mountainous country; con- sequently I did not arrive at the base of the series. In crossing the peninsula from Lagonoy to Sipaco, I passed to the west of the line of the section just recorded and traversed, throughout nearly the entire width of the peninsula, bedded schists with quartz along the bedding planes. However, near the center of the peninsula, the strike of the beds changes from west-north- west to north-northeast, the dip swinging to the west, so that the width of the peninsula is greater than the length of a section across the schist formation. The westward-dipping rocks are less thoroughly metamorphosed than the schists and are clearly thin-bedded shale. On the north coast, also, there is an outcrop of metamorphic rocks, identical in appearance with the thin- bedded shale of the Tertiary sedimentaries, except for the metamorphism. These particular beds retain their original appearance unusually well, because of the fact that they have neither been distorted nor rendered schistose, but have been changed through induration and silicification only. The quartz lenses along the bedding and schistosity planes in the schist 312 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 conform to the wrinkling in the beds without any evidence of having been shattered; hence they must have been introduced after the crumpling had been accomplished. Lenses of pyrite are found in the upper part of the green schists much like the lenses of the same mineral in the sandy limestone or calcareous sandstone member of the sedimentary series. BASAL IGNEOUS COMPLEX Altered black rocks which appear to be of the subsiliceous igneous type, prebably peridotites, are exposed on the southern coast of the peninsula at the base of the sedimentaries. They are closely jointed in several directions and are thoroughly in- durated. Hand specimens reveal little except the presence of serpentine. A mantle of closely derived fragmental rock, which is also metamorphosed, obscures the true character and relations of these basal rocks. In the outlying islands north of Caramoan, also, the basal rocks are exposed, and there gneissic diorite is prominent in the igneous complex. There is a limited area of fresh diorite on the south coast near the point between Guijalo and Parubcan. Likewise there is diorite in the vicinity of Mapid and around Tambang Bay on the north coast. These rocks are holocrystalline, of medium grain, and consist essentially of hornblende and calcic feldspars. At both places the exposures form part of the basal complex into which the diorite is probably intrusive. In the outcrop at Mapid there are a number of veinlets containing chalcopyrite and pyrite, together with quartz and some calcite. Along the eastern coast of the region northwest of Tambang Bay there is a continuous exposure of a black, igneous-appearing rock which, from its general appearance, I believe to be peri- dotic in character. Both my trips along this coast were made in rough weather in a small boat; consequently I had little chance to examine the outcrops. Specimens which I secured were lost subsequently when my boat capsized. If the rock is peridotite, it is undoubtedly to be correlated with the peridotite farther west in the Paracale mining district, and the Paracale peri- dotite is probably the equivalent of the metamorphosed peridotic rocks in the basal complex upon which the Caramoan sedimen- taries were deposited. Upon this basis the region northwest of Tambang Bay is mapped as part of the basal igneous complex. It may be, however, that the rock in question is a massive flow related to the tuff-agglomerate-flow series. Certainly it has less appearance of metamorphism than the average basal-complex outcrop. XK, A, 6 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 313 On the western end of the peninsula, bordering San Miguel Bay, there is an area of light-colored schistose porphyry, which was identified as schistose andesite by Smith. This rock is grouped with the basal igneous complex in this preliminary study, but there is no certainty that it is as old as the basal rocks. CORRELATION Mount Isarog is one of the older of the extinct volcanoes in the Philippines. Mount Mariveles, near Manila, is usually taken as the type of these older volcanoes, the lavas of which were more siliceous than the ejecta from the subsequently active volcanic centers. The activity of Mount Mariveles, according to Smith,’ began in Pliocene time and continued into the Pleistocene; a corresponding age may be assigned to the Isarog ejecta. The tuffs, flows, and agglomerates on the northern coast appear to be in some degree contemporaneous with the upper part of the Tertiary sedimentaries, assuming that the tuff observed in the limestone beds near the top of that series is related in origin to the tuff of the volcanic formation. In Cebu there are tuffs and flows immediately beneath the limestone, which Abella® fixed as Post-Pliocene. Tuffs, flows, and ag- glomerates similar in appearance to those in Caramoan and probably of corresponding age are found in the Laguna de Bay region east of Manila. Without much question these various occurrences may be correlated and placed in the Pliocene or upper Miocene. The upper part of the sedimentary series corresponds roughly with the limestone, sandy limestone, and clay-tuff at the top of the sedimentary rocks in the petroleum fields of Tayabas and Leyte. The work in Tayabas fixed this general horizon as upper Miocene and Pliocene. The shales and associated rocks in the lower part of the sedimentaries may be correlated directly with similar rocks elsewhere. The coal horizon and the underlying thin-bedded shale are recognized characteristics of the Philippine Tertiary. In the basal limestone of the Cebu series I found fossils which Smith’ identified as Heterostegina margarita °Dr. Warren D. Smith made a petrographic study of the rocks collected during the field work for the reconnaissance of southeastern Luzon, which included this rock. ‘This Journal, Sec. A (1918), 8, 235 et seq. * Abella y Casariego, Enrique. La Isla de Cebu. Imprenta y Fundicién de Manuel Tello, Madrid (1886), 120. ° This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 301 et seq. Ibid. (1915), 10, 241. *Tbid. (1914), 9, 157. 814 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Schlumberger (Oligocene?). Therefore the sedimentaries are not older than the Oligocene. The metamorphic sedimentaries exhibit a succession of beds identical in its main features with the Philippine column of Tertiary sedimentaries. The observed sections in the metamor- phosed sedimentaries and in the unchanged sedimentaries farther east are similar, although the lower part of the meta- morphosed section is developed in greater thickness than the corresponding division of the unchanged rocks. Moreover, in ascending Caramoan River, one passes gradually from unchanged sedimentaries to metamorphosed sedimentaries: that is to say, there is an evident transition from one formation to the other with no definite line of contact. In short, the schists and marbles appear to be no older than the shales and limestones. Indeed these rocks appear to be different sections of continuous beds which have been metamorphosed in their westward extension but have escaped metamorphism farther east. Thus the schists and marbles are likewise not older than the Oligocene, and the antiquity which has been ascribed to the metamorphic rocks generally in the Philippines is opened to question. Paleozoic schists are found in Japan and in Formosa, and they may exist in the Philippines, but the extensive area of more or less typical schists on Caramoan Peninsula belongs to a later period. The basal igneous complex upon which the Tertiary beds were laid down obviously antedates these beds, but its age cannot be more definitely fixed. The age of the schistose andesites, grouped for convenience with the basal igneous complex, is like- wise undetermined. GEOLOGIC HISTORY The geologic history of Caramoan Peninsula, so far as it may be deduced from the data in hand, begins with an eroded pre- Oligocene basal formation, principally a complex of igneous rocks. From Oligocene time through to the Pliocene this basal formation was submerged, and sedimentary rocks were laid down over it. Whether each division of the sedimentaries is strictly conformable over the preceding deposits is not certain, but no unconformities were observed. The metamorphic andesite in the western part of Caramoan was introduced, presumably as a flow, during or preceding the deposition of the sedimentary rocks. Dynamism, severe enough to change the sediments into true EWA 5 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 315 schists, succeeded the period of sedimentation. This dynamism affected most strongly the central and western parts of the peninsula and left the sedimentaries at the eastern end unmeta-_ morphosed. The rocks converted into schist have not lost their original bedded structure. The igneous basement upon which the sediments lie has not been rendered thoroughly schistose, but this is probably because the igneous rocks were less re- sponsive to dynamic action than the bedded rocks. Just what form the dynamism assumed is undetermined. Adams?! con- cluded that Caramoan Peninsula had suffered a severe thrust from the Pacific (northern) side and perhaps this is the true explanation. Certainly the strata have been forced into folds along a predominatingly west-northwest line, and over compara- tively extensive areas the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are inclined at steep angles southward. Subsequent to the period of metamorphism quartz was intro- duced along bedding planes and fractures, forming quartz lenses in the schists and concretions of chert locally in the unmetamor- phosed limestones. Perhaps the observed pyrite lenses and the veinlets of pyrite and chalcopyrite are related to this activity also. The volcanism which produced the tuffs, flows, and ag- glomerates of andesite along the northern coast began toward the end of the period of sedimentation, but belongs essentially to a later time. Finally came the extrusion, which built up Mount Isarog and joined Caramoan to the mainland of southeastern Luzon. During recent times erosion and the submergence evidenced by the drowned appearance of the north coast have been the principal factors in modifying the contour of Caramoan Penin- sula. The recent submergence has permitted the Pacific to advance on the land, drowning the rivers and submerging, except for the highest points which remain as islands, a considerable area that formerly extended to the north from Caramoan Penin- sula. At present the submergence is no longer in progress, but to judge from slightly raised beaches along the north coast, elevation has once more begun. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY GENERAL Caramoan Peninsula is important principally on account of its forest resources. Neither agriculture nor mineral industries have become prominent on the peninsula proper, although hemp "This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 469. 316 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 and sugar planting are remunerative in the vicinity of Mount Isarog. The alluvial and littoral deposits support the larger part of the population. These formations and the Isarog tuff and agglomerate yield rich soils and lend themselves to agricultural development. The volcanics on the north coast, on the contrary, appear to support little vegetation. No attempt has been made to cultivate this part of the peninsula, but in place of the heavy forests which abound in some other parts of the area the natural vegetation on the tuffs and flows consists principally of hardy cogon grass. There is no evidence that this region ever was forested. The sedimentary rocks are also comparatively barren of vegetation. However, the original forest has been cut away over the sedimentaries, permitting the cogon grass to replace it. Except for the crystalline limestone this formation should disintegrate rapidly enough and form a fairly good soil. The metamorphic rocks appear to yield good soils in spite of their induration; at any rate, they support a splendid forest growth. The Caramoan forest concession, which is considered to be par- ticularly valuable, covers principally metamorphic rocks and the Isarog tuff-agglomerate formation. The unaltered igneous rocks, again, are comparatively barren; cogon grass and a small evergreen tree, said to be a variety of “iron wood,” mark the igneous exposures. GOLD The quartz lenses in the schists carry a trace of gold; so, also, do the pyrite lenses. But there is no evidence of valuable gold deposits on Caramoan Peninsula. Becker’? was led to the conclusion that “in all cases in the Philippines of which the details are known, crystalline schists accompany gold-quartz veins, copper ores, iron ores, and galena.” If this condition really existed, it might be assumed, conversely, that an area of crystalline schists would be likely territory for the gold pros- pector, but the case of Caramoan Peninsula does not bear out this conclusion. As a matter of fact, subsequent work has shown that some of the more important gold deposits in the Philippines are not related to the crystalline schists. Moreover Becker believed most of the Philippine crystalline schists to be of com- paratively great age and had in mind such older crystalline schists. Therefore the Caramoan schists, being geologically young rocks, would not be expected by Becker to contain gold. ” Becker, George F., 21st Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1901), 237, reprint. X, A, 5 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 317 COPPER Enrique D’Almonte’s map of Luzon (1883) indicates copper at two places near the eastern end of Caramoan Peninsula. Jagor ® states that he saw metallic copper which came from a place north of Patag (Palag) Bay, in the vicinity, apparently, of the mines indicated by D’Almonte. The people of Lagonoy remember a Frenchman who mined for copper north of that town about thirty years ago. Becker quotes Roth to the effect that Caramoan Peninsula is probably composed of crystalline schists, judging by the reported occurrence of copper there. I found no copper at the points indicated by D’Almonte, al- though I was conducted to the supposed mines twice, each time by a different guide. But I did find on each occasion the tar- nished pyrite lenses to which I have already referred. These are found not in schists in eastern Caramoan, but in calcareous sandstone. They are apparently the only basis for the reported copper discoveries. Jagor would not have mistaken this mineral for copper, but it is very doubtful if the copper shown to him came from Caramoan Peninsula. At the place north of Lagonoy, where the Frenchman is supposed to have worked, similar pyrite lenses abound, and in this case they really occur in schist, as Roth supposed of the copper, but no copper minerals accompany them. The only copper I saw on Caramoan Peninsula occurs as the mineral chalcopyrite in veinlets in diorite near the barrio of Mapid. The deposit at this place is of no economic importance. MERCURY The presence of metallic mercury on Mount Isarog has re- peatedly been affirmed by the people near that mountain and has been reported to both the Spanish and American mining offices. The reports are persistent, and it is beyond question that the primitive people (Negritos) living on the upper slopes of Mount Isarog are acquainted with the physical properties of mercury. I found that they could describe it accurately, even though they considered it to be a valuable medicinal charm. But Iwas unable to find any mercury or even cinnabar myself. My guide, a Negrito, assured me that it was very scarce, and recommended that I would do better to come again at a more favorable time. All Saints Day, he thought, would be best, and then if I were very lucky and followed a certain stream from mouth to source, I might find a little mercury which would shine, he said, from * Jagor, F., Reisen in den Philippinen. Wiedmann’sche Buchhandlung, Berlin (1873), 145. 318 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 the bottom of some pool. Solfatarism is common on Isarog, and the presence of mercury in the vicinities of some of the solfa- taras is not impossible. COAL There is an outcrop of coal in the sedimentary rocks along Caramoan River about 2 kilometers upstream from the Guijalo- Caramoan road. The outcrop has been known for at least seventy years. The bed is about 50 centimeters thick, and the coal is a dirty black lignite. The strike is nearly north, and the dip is westward at a high angle. Isidro Sainz de Baranda, the first inspector of mines under the Spanish régime, and a capable man, believed the coal from this outcrop to be of good quality. No tests have been made of it, but its appearance is not promising, and the outcrop indicates too thin a bed to be commercially important. Several concessions for this coal were sought in Spanish times, and in 1898 a concession was finally granted, but title was never perfected under the American laws. The vicinity of Guijalo was formerly known as Puerto de Minas in anticipation of its importance as a shipping point for this coal. I was informed that coal had been found in the hills near the barrio of Parubcan and was shown a specimen of good coal which was alleged to represent the outcrop. I was unable to find the coal in place, however, even with the assistance of several guides. If the beds of schist at Parubcan inclose coal, it should be a coal of good quality because of the metamorphism it must have undergone. CLAY The light-colored talc-schists in the vicinity of Lagonoy are used as paint clay in the neighboring towns. The paint is grayish white and adheres tenaciously to wood. A good white clay is obtained at a place called Sulpa on Looc River, between Tinambac and Siruma, in the northeastern part of the peninsula. This clay appears to result from the decomposition of quartz- feldspar rocks which occur as dikes in the schistose andesite. The clay is plastic, although in the crude state it contains frag- ments of quartz, and should make a fair grade of pottery or refractory ware. STONE AND GRAVEL Possibly some of the marbles and limestone on Caramoan Pen- insula could be exploited for construction purposes. The marble in the vicinity of Sabang is most conveniently located, and if there were a demand for it, could be quarried advantageously. A heavy, dense, dark-colored schist from northwest of Lago- X, A, 5 Pratt: Reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula 319 noy is used by the Filipinos to manufacture whetstones for sharpening bolos. The stone appears to serve this purpose very well, but the demand for whetstones is not great enough to make the manufacture steady or profitable. At several places along the southern coast, between Sabang and Parubcan, there are extensive beaches of perfectly rounded gravel of sizes suitable for use without reduction in road build- ing. The pebbles are of hard metamorphic rocks, and while they tend to assume flat rather than spherical forms, they should make a superior road metal. ARTESIAN WATER Only a few wells have been drilled on Caramoan Peninsula, but the drilling campaign which the Bureau of Public Works is carrying on will ultimately extend to this region, and the possibilities of obtaining artesian water should be considered. The metamorphic and igneous rocks on Caramoan Peninsula will probably be found to be comparatively dry. If no water is obtained from the first or second test-well in these formations, no more wells should be drilled into them. The tertiary sedi- mentaries have been shown by experience elsewhere to be usually barren of artesian water. Therefore they will probably also be dry in Caramoan Peninsula. The volcanic tuffs and flows on the north coast may possibly yield artesian water, but they offer little promise; in general, they are too close-grained to yield strong flows. There remain the alluvial deposits and the Isarog tuffs and agglomerates. Both these formations are undoubtedly water- bearing and with proper care should be made to yield potable water from comparatively shallow wells. The Isarog formation may contain mineralized water at places and may require deeper wells than the alluvium. The alluvium on which Caramoan lies should receive attention when wells are drilled for that town. It should be saturated above the sedimentary floor on which it rests, and a series of shallow wells should meet the requirements of this town. If they do not, there is little hope of obtaining water, because the underlying sedimentaries are almost certainly not water-bearing. Likewise the areas of alluvium overlying the metamorphic rocks should be tested in advance of the meta- morphics themselves. The prospects for artesian water are fairly good, then, at the towns of Caramoan, San Jose, Sabang, Lagonoy, Goa, and Ti- nambac; but elsewhere, except within alluvial areas or the Isarog volcanic formation, artesian water will probably not be obtained. OLE yin usta gael snail th Ae Ousinnaat are | ee! re). wontoiaindtrs ga i eb aonb adie Ase aly NOM, eter wit) eve oie Riel, bats ay) Sah ae wore Jaery, beet a ealedereiet yo) boadiab oer tee) Tew eae ‘gion Wr wes! ot ISR ee ern a ‘bel 1G twas RBic's ME, ta a BE afc +) ie ica er Ae on Uiaaly eg Ye See eins ls ond oe tm: ¥h} ae peated Lire Me ees > hilt rit) My at, nee) oltagts eats £ ¥ 4 i Yr’ ye “9F + 2) bY a tad ST eae: Ge junds Goll aterol, Lastest: p dig gall ere a itor Fr Cue. SS AOTT AA iw OO Ee A We eal) al el aia ae eE abpehee “olay Fam alte Gade datltve den ingen AY hid ete SPAY VE Anatio cheatin HM Ure nt ae ia haw THU", mat ALBA, Wahi fel end ie alah pee slildeiet sai eee la ooo Wad? Sa isfkn on it Mah Voert Pee oe ‘es! Bree? Al Ne ANd? elds tt He Pea Wheto te eal Oe ated Vins i4s ait radi eint PARR ad Diy utt a Tpit ts et of seNb re vida sdk Re et awihibir ade inate wl Odbie Heder Ni» eoetd Putebiet Sys ce. cd veo fred wh stave? GT te iit indie it cals tnd (aktow ofteahar bialy ahah; “Cui | yeti of fa teGes cpt ctw) Shel eee iie a - ata Sie fe CERT oe ea hire RRO Qetaat 10 bos elppaeb tdivulia od) Aleem swine. iWhgilwdbim stn stocteiiyt, enol! Ajotl> Aaa aici isha hLlare of abaotew! ities onan i it evegitineg upd hediarame) qaieuate® tf") oolhown sroblnaliaglqy ¢ Lanepnro sii atenk ent pet zard beapeegon ty dnote ly bas ified st ry audt quae et) thintos: (ioral 447 Der at netting eds TA nok. Rati tepat Marry 1 eieber. tah fotheae te TA we: eo) welt vats iene ones Boje) an hen kiana chowtnbstiged sé i feere bbemele Bh meiwe! vile e aprieae " pitas vo acec olit]), voip) “Monools eee a TRE Desa DAD hs de. chico a dyeting eine etl ay iayes Aine 0) (Qe ot surwadil aeaihre oj >. wild Yeh waka at apy eet Tree 01 ‘sidetér ee oid: dae ane eth bora; “is seks ae ee SRI ccaciny -f7', Ans ahold aieeinds get We nity {tice ora ot 90 teal setts: signa datrete Raley Qyraes Ae bagtanie of men deep rgeliia ther elaetia ILLUSTRATIONS (Photographs by Pratt.) PLATE I Fig. 1. Crumpled thin-bedded limestone near Palag Bay. 2. Sinuous quartz vein in schist near Sabang. 3. Weathered outcrop of marble in schist near Sabang. TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Topographic map of Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines. 2. Geologic reconnaissance map of Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines. 135518 —3 321 “|, BUOIPAATEU LAE fibignt? wd wipe tl'T} i #tAsF oll yale tesa soo leunit bobbsdhnisit hel itadeS teed tisha ci niev Streop -yawia® a0en deidse ai atittact to Gomdes he aa tOrt TARY 2. ltamte”) .foxsive) seemata) ly gam 3 wonitenue) gigcotoe'l daakuete) hy dene sineeingamed S PRATT: RECONNAISSANCE OF CARAMOAN PENINSULA. ] PRHIne JOURN. SCI, 2X) Al No: 5. Fig. 1. Crumpled thin-bedded limestone near Palag Bay. Fig. 3. Weathered outcrop of marble in schist near Sabang. PLATE lI. Sa IRON ORE ON CALAMBAYANGA ISLAND, MAMBULAO, CAMARINES + By WALLACE FE. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) TWO TEXT FIGURES SITUATION The Calambayanga iron-ore deposit is situated on the western part of Calambayanga Island and on the adjacent mainland over an undetermined distance. Calambayanga is the name by which the Coast and Geodetic Survey designates a small island in Mambulao Bay on the north coast of Camarines Province, south- eastern Luzon (fig. 1). The name is more commonly rendered saombayengs Dime saoMambulaa D fa, Kb, ¢ Gp Yj WE OG a.) && Yin Ly, GY Ne Z We OUTLINE MA 8 Dr. SHOWING SITUATION OF <2, WN fe G CALAMBAYANGA IRON ORE DEPOSITS ZF; Re/ative to Mani/a RY —Y SCALE = 10 0 50 100 150 200 Km. 2 0 m.. © 9 Y, ect = 123° A Pe 124° Z Fic. 1. Showing situation of Calambayanga Island, Camarines Province. Calambayunga by the local inhabitants. Mambulao Bay is 185 kilometers (115 miles) in a straight line directly east of Manila. The usual sailing route for steamers encircles southeastern Luzon and is about 900 kilometers (560 miles) long. By com- bined railroad and steamship routes the distance is not much longer than a straight line from Manila to Mambulao. Calambayanga Island is a little more than 1,100 meters (0.7 mile) in length with a maximum width somewhat greater * Received for publication April 23, 1915. 323 324 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 than half its length. It is elongated in a north-south direction, and attains an elevation of 70 meters (230 feet). The island is separated from the mainland to the south of it by a stretch of shallow water about 500 meters (1,600 feet) wide. Text figure SCALE 1 2 km. > LEGEND 3 /ron Ore Deposit of = 14 Gumaus Bay Calambayanga Ie 225 2, 29 8 ; a? | | 7 \ \ \ ’ \ \ Barrio of Batobelani 4 Fic. 2. Showing the location of the Calambayanga iron-ore deposits, Camarines Province. 2 shows the general situation of Calambayanga Island. Off the northwest point of the island the sea has a depth of 10 meters (33 feet) within 100 meters of the shore line, and a depth of 7 meters (23 feet) persists to within 50 meters of the western shore line. By utilizing small outlying reefs to the X, A, 6 Pratt: Iron Ore on Calambayanga Island 895 north, in the construction of a short breakwater, it would be possible to make a small secure harbor at this point with no great expenditure. Dahikan Bay, 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) to the east of Calambayanga Island, is charted as a safe anchorage by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Fresh water is to be had only in limited quantity on the island itself, but could be obtained in abundance on the adjacent mainland. There are several small springs on the island, and in the rainy season these give rise to a small stream. HISTORY Concessions for iron mines on Calambayanga Island were sought repeatedly during the Spanish control of the Philippine Islands, but there is no record that any was granted. The iron ores in the Eastern Cordillera of Luzon were known and ex- ploited in the seventeenth century, and probably the deposit on ~ Calambayanga Island was discovered at a similarly early date. It is probable that Filipino iron smelters were operated at the Calambayanga deposit, as they have been in Bulacan Province, since pieces of slag and inclosed charcoal much like the Bulacan slags have been found near Mambulao by Mr. A. C. Cavender, the present owner of the Calambayanga ores. GENERAL GEOLOGY The Calambayanga iron ore lies at the western border of the Paracale gold field, which has been productive for three cen- turies and at present yields nearly 50 per cent of the total gold production of the Philippines. The gold appears to be associated with granite, which is intruded into more basic rocks—diorite and peridotite; the gold is found in veins which formed in the granite and the surrounding rocks after the solidification of the intrusion. To the west and southwest of and overlying the granite and diorite area is a series of sedimentary rocks younger than the granite and probably of Miocene age. The iron ore is found in the base of these sedimentaries, which include sand- stones, conglomerates, shales, tuffs, and minor limestones. All the rocks in the district have been metamorphosed by re- gional dynamic action, and the sedimentary rocks have been pierced by dikes and overspread by flows and agglomerates. Probably the dynamism which rendered the granite gneissic and the diorite schistose over the whole district and indurated, folded, and faulted the sedimentary beds was accompanied or followed by the extrusions, which are andesite. The fractures 326 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 which were formed in the granite during metamorphism were filled by gold-bearing quartz. One of the products of the min- eralization associated with the intrusion of the dike rocks into the sedimentaries is the iron ore in question. CHARACTER OF THE IRON-ORE DEPOSITS The ore body on Calambayanga Island appears to be irregular in shape, but to conform more or less closely to the strike and dip of the sedimentary beds in which it occurs. It outcrops on the western part of the island and is roughly oval or lens-shaped in plan. Ore of exactly the same character is encountered on the mainland to the south, where exposures are seen at intervals for a distance of at least 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) inland. .A small island south-southwest of Calambayanga Island and con- _ siderably to the west of a line between it and the outcrops on the mainland is composed wholly of iron ore of the same character. Again, at Bato-bolani, 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) southeast of Calambayanga Island and still near the line of contact between the sedimentaries and the older igneous rocks, iron ore similar in character to the Calambayanga ore is found. At each of these places the outcrops are marked by great blocks of black ore, angular in form and with pitted, irregular surfaces. These blocks have been designated as bowlders by several observers, but the term bowlder conveys a wrong im- pression, inasmuch as the masses of ore at the outcrops show no evidence of having been transported, but have the appearance of disintegration products in place. They vary in size up to masses of many tons’ weight. At the prominent outcrops they occur to the exclusion of all other rocks, but elsewhere they are isolated from each other and are embedded in yellow, residual clay. Only the Calambayanga ore body has been examined closely by me. The western half of the island is strewn with blocks of ore. The northeastern part is made up of sedimentary rocks, principally sandstones, or fine-grained clastics, shales, and con- glomerates. At the northern extremity of the island the beds strike north 20° east and dip 45° to the west, but toward the south, along the east coast, the strike changes gradually until it is north 60° west with the dip to the south. A bed of crystalline limestone outcrops in the sedimentaries halfway along the eastern coast, and some of the other sedimentary beds are calcareous. Minor outcrops of stratified rocks are found on the eastern coast, but here the strike is north 60° west, and tuffs, agglomerates, A, 5 Pratt: Iron Ore on Calambayanga Island 327 and fragmental rocks predominate over other types. These voleanic rocks are less indurated than the sedimentaries on the eastern shore of the island, and there is a consequent suggestion that they belong to a separate younger formation. Extending north-northwest into the mass of the island from the southeastern point is a great outstanding body of quartz, a lode or vein, with a width of possibly 100 meters. This quartz is mineralized and contains numerous veinlets of iron ore. A shallow pit has been sunk in the quartz near the center of the island, and a sample taken from the wall of this pit showed upon assay a trace of gold. The sedimentary rocks to the east are highly silicified near the contact with the quartz. The outcrop of the quartz becomes concealed toward the north- northwest by a mantle of clay, but on the northwest shore, ap- proximately at the point where the quartz should reappear, if it continued so far, there is encountered a dike of dark-colored gabbro between agglomeratic tuff and sedimentaries. This dike is vertical and strikes north 60° west. A small vein of quartz carrying unaltered fresh pyrite was observed in it. Under the microscope the dike rock is seen to be holocrystalline and to consist principally of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. The feldspar predominates and occurs in large lath-shaped crystals with a parallel arrangement. The pyroxene appears to be much decomposed, and associated with it throughout the section is magnetite in considerable abundance. Along the western and northern shore line of the island the blocks of iron ore are present in great abundance and lie one upon another with no intervening foreign material. Farther up the slopes, however, and at the summit of the island the blocks are scattered over the surface, embedded in residual clay. Fanning ? studied the ore on the mainland; he traced the out- crop of the ore for a total distance of 3 kilometers (including the outcrop on the island?). The width as revealed to him by occasional outcrops in place varied up to 15 meters. Sedi- mentary rocks are found on the mainland, as on the island, and similarly are indurated, tilted at various angles, and pierced by dikes. Volcanic tuffs, agglomerates, and flows are prominent on the mainland and on the neighboring small islands. At Bato-bolani the iron ore occurs in large blocks scattered over the side of a hill. The ore is magnetite with some hematite and carries also fresh quartz and pyrite. F. Rinne,*? a German * Smith, W. D., and Fanning, P. R., Min. Res. P. I. 1910 (1911), 58. * Zeitschr. f. prak. Geol. (1902), 10, 117. 823 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 geologist has published a description of the Bato-bolani ore de- posit from which the following extract is quoted: It might be thought that the magnetite masses here are a segregation from an igneous rock, probably from the diorite found between the masses of ore. It is surprising, however, in explaining the magnetite as a magmatic segregation that nowhere was the contact between the diorite and the ore to be seen. The ore masses were encountered everywhere without any adhering or inclosed pieces of diorite. This circumstance indicates strongly that the once existing rock with which the present blocks were associated was comparatively easily destroyed, so that the ore, freed through weather- ing, is now nowhere in continuity with it. In this connection the occurrence of a dark-colored limestone, of which several pieces were found at a place on the same slope, is interesting. It is possible that the ore masses were enveloped in this easily soluble limestone. It appears to me very plausible that the magnetite blocks at Bato-bolani were formed by contact phenomena between diorite and the limestone, which is still found in traces over the former surface of the igneous rocks. * * * One could suppose that the ore formed in the limestone under the influence of the solutions and gases coming from the cooling diorite magma. I did not observe other contact minerals such as garnet, at the place, but in complete accordance with this theory is the occurrence of nests of yellowish white, needlelike quartz which are found sparingly in the magnetite. In places the ore particles build a sort of frame or skeleton, the spaces of which are filled with quartz. ; CHARACTER OF THE ORE The iron ore on Calambayanga Island and on the adjacent mainland is almost pure hematite with only traces of magnetite. The hematite is massive or granular, and the ore is moderately soft and very porous, or vesicular. At places over the exposure a small proportion of pyrite in fresh crystals may be detected in the hematite, and likewise quartz is found sparingly in scattered grains or in veinlets. Copper stains were found in the slightly pyritiferous ore at two places, indicating that some chalcopyrite occurs with the pyrite. The Bato-bolani ore contains much more magnetite than the ore on Calambayanga Island; it is also harder and shows more pyrite and quartz, but otherwise the ores are similar. The composition of the ore is shown in Table I. Analysis 1 is to be given greater weight than any of the others because of the larger quantity of ore which it represents. Apparently the average ore carries about 60 per cent of iron and is reasonably free from objectionable constituents. In only one analysis is the phosphorus above the Bessemer limit. GENESIS OF ORE DEPOSIT * The observations set forth in this report have led to the con- clusion that the ore on Calambayanga Island is related in origin X, A, 5 Pratt: Iron Ore on Calambayanga Island 329 TABLE I.—A nalyses of iron ores from Calambayanga Island. [Figures give per cent.]! Sample. Constituent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Silicay(Si@2) esses ee eee 1.02 aS AL eases 8 ee ge eee ays ee 8.71 Alumina (Ale @3) essen eee 1.31 Ce TY tare ened ep eg Yan ee | (es Ferric oxide (Fe203) ___-__-----_---- 97.35 CESS ASHES ee gn | RY SE ae | ee Herrousioxides (He@)) ssa saan a eee CECT AN Recenter meee aly CLE EL SNE OTe Mime) (Ca@) ieee Be eye NU Ae VASCAUC Wee eye bes GL eg ee ene etter oe a IMaenesiay (Vic ©) eee ae eae as | eee QE ZONK tela eB a Rees Sy Na ane! Manganese (MnOQz)-____----_-_------ 0.11 CWDS) Le aes ch Se Tae fc laamaead ev Meth Mb Spt IPhosphorust (PE) pases eee ee 0.001 0.10 0. 001 0. 005 0. 008 0. 035 Sil phurk (G)) Sash ee Bee ee eee ell eye eee 0. 12 0.188 0. 07 0.067 | trace Motalvinony (ie) ee ae ee ee 64. 14 54. 96 57. 11 63.69 46.06 65. 76 1. Calambayanga ore: Average composition of a sample of 200 kilograms (440 pounds) of representative ore from Calambayanga Island. Analysis by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. 2. Calambayanga ore: Hand specimen; analysis by Forrest B. Beyer, formerly chemist, Bureau of Science. 3. Calambayanga ore: Sample taken by P. R. Fanning, formerly assistant, division of mines, Bureau of Science, representative of many blocks of ore along entire outcrop on Calambayanga Island. Analysis by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. 4. Calambayanga ore: Sample taken by P. R. Fanning, formerly assistant, division of mines, Bureau of Science, from many blocks of ore over a distance of 500 meters on main- land near Calambayanga Island. Analysis by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. 5. Calambayanga ore: Sample taken by P. R. Fanning, formerly assistant, division of mines, Bureau of Science, on Calambayanga Island from a single lump specimen. Analysis by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. 6. Bato-bolani ore: Hand specimen taken by H. M. Ickis, formerly assistant, division of mines, Bureau of Science; analysis by H. S. Walker, formerly chemist, Bureau of Science. to the quartz vein or lode with which it is associated. Veinlets of ore are found in the quartz, and quartz occurs sparingly in the ore. The processes which produced the body of quartz probably yielded under different local conditions the adjacent body of iron ore. Both types of mineralization probably resulted directly or indirectly from the intrusion of dikes into the sedi- mentary rocks near the contact with the older igneous base. Apparently there was some replacement of the wall rocks as well as the filling of cavities and fractures. Probably the lime- stone and the calcareous sediments were most susceptible of replacement in this manner. The dike of gabbro on the north- western shore of the island with its notable proportion of mag- netite may be taken to represent a part of the intrusive rocks. The tuff and agglomerate on the shore of the island and on the neighboring islands and mainland are surface extrusions which may be related genetically to the dike rocks. Rinne concluded that the Bato-bolani ore had resulted from 330 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 contact mineralization, probably at the contact of intrusive diorite and limestone. The Bato-bolani and Calambayanga ore deposits prove upon examination to be very much alike, except that mag- netite is the predominant ore mineral at Bato-bolani, whereas hematite predominates at Calambayanga. Probably the two deposits are related in origin, and certainly the observations recorded herewith on the Calambayanga deposit are evidence of a genesis similar to that suggested by Rinne for the ore at Bato-bolani. Certain general characteristics are common to the iron ore at Calambayanga, at Bato-bolani, and in Bulacan Province:‘ for example, the association of the ore with intrusive rocks in sedi- mentaries, especially limestones; the nature of the ore minerals; and the presence of quartz in the ore. In some of the Bulacan deposits the replacement of limestone by ore is clearly evident. QUANTITY OF ORE AVAILABLE No development work which throws any light on the dimen- sions of the deposit nor the persistence of the ore with depth has been done on the Calambayanga ore. ‘The only direct evidence which can be brought to bear in a discussion of quantity is the extent of the outcrops. But even the dimensions of the outcrop cannot be determined accurately because of the fact that the ore is encountered only in blocks which afford no precise data as to the width of the ore in place. The size and abundance of these blocks and the length of the line along which they occur have led several observers to the conclusion that they represent an ore body, or ore bodies, of great size. Fanning,‘ for instance, concluded: The quantity of hematite cannot be estimated at the present time because experience in other fields where enormous quantities were indicated on the surface shows that they may not be realized at depth. Whether or not this will be true for this formation is a matter for future development to determine. * * * The surface indications are excellent, yet the amount and quality of the ore are unknown. It is unquestionable, however, that the property is worthy of extensive development. Adams, also, examined the Calambayanga deposit and com- mented on it as follows :° A deposit of iron ore in the form of a dike cutting sedimentaries is found on a small island in Mambulao Bay. It continues on the mainland *Dalburg, F. A., and Pratt, Wallace E., This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 201. ° See footnote 2. * This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 463. 2G Ny B Pratt: Iron Ore on Calambayanga Island 8381 where there are conspicuous outcrops. The strike is about north 5° west. This ore body has a width of as much as 13 meters at several places. Smaller outcrops occur near by. The ore is high grade hematite and is a workable deposit containing an immense tonnage. Rinne, previously quoted, found that the blocks of ore at Bato-bolani were distributed over an area 200 meters (650 feet) wide by 400 meters (1,300 feet) long. He questioned the popular belief that the whole mountain was iron ore, however. The area on Calambayanga Island over which blocks of iron ore are distributed is roughly 500 meters (1,650 feet) long and 200 meters (650 feet) wide, and blocks of the largest size are found all the way from sea level up to an elevation of 70 meters. There is every evidence that these great masses of ore have not been transported far; they must be practically in place. But from the nature of the ore deposit, it is obviously not safe to assume that beneath the surface there is a solid body of ore with dimensions equal to that of the area over which the surface blocks are scattered. The shape of the ore body may be very irregular, and without more data than is at present available no definite estimate of the quantity of ore can be made. If the ore deposit originated as suggested in this paper, the ore should persist with depth—that is, it should not be confined to the present surface. However, its vertical dimensions, like its horizontal dimensions, are probably irregular and cannot be estimated. The ore on the island appears to be sufficient in quantity to be commercially important. It is probable that there is even a greater quantity of ore on the adjacent mainland, and the smaller island of ore to the west of a line from Calambayanga Island to the ore on the mainland is evidence of even wider ramifications of the mineralization. The ore in sight is un- doubtedly to be estimated in hundreds of thousands of tons, but the total quantity of ore available is undetermined. It is impos- sible to escape the conviction, however, that the surface indica- tions warrant capital in making the exploration requisite to determine the extent of the ore body. Preliminary exploration could probably be accomplished best by diamond drilling, and the expense of drilling at this site should be close to the minimum for this class of exploration. Brit Livi, oumneaanna lis), a9).2°40 ‘ ai gifs Homies Hi ’ ag i GOP a grade : Tans: i ee Ne oy at 7 3 . r er k ; owt We oe hee eon ad hep a it: a sgt he ine + Veen a tab idheouiriie' PS ei) nh ; be aie rant hi ‘ Le, LN kop ia me t ts SMS Han jas ary sf ; Ura 5rd inti i ie Pei bis! * hii! CTs: a f Pe eee a a uk Te eile ditty EN Rs ae an Caen ; 19 atte : yi eat I 'Cheek Gehl Ar Otek oi fHooge at bs tucdlidalb | 14 uh sts Tian BL ld Me ata toe * ee Sty ‘a satire OV 14 otal we ote ve Loe “BUMS Sule Sah atin 408 Tier ets Bef d cs. Sieg, a oath ty ‘i >t Ae Ws 3G aly lite Att f VIS BUT Wo ee i ae ie gu or a We eR OD. Dey Hepes: yicitiny Sibel Te RE cee ati a eID E byt iti ts vs As ie ee A ni ish? se" ru iy ath} TE Pte ous aE : ay he THA Re Pheer HS Us el Wh ey ne Pte ae AYE AMEE Uudolatevintis ji nantes nat ua Sh ude e Wa yas fille Were: Viger ae ron ona OF VA a teeny ae Sif y? t ihe Yo itt wits in ages Ey oubte ied) a litiheen Naa bite ) ty Tiss” iternase Joatuti aa iy vat ed ae oa flan Oa eS ee Oe ee to Te of ort To ial ’ We pe eG of etal, oe ne) ety att Wm Bae TORS OR era Ae ok: ee : «POS ROR NS eat ic tei PRP SSD: Nie iti pos silty" lt ew peaLibh ak JK neediness Bre MAGLI BRO I SSeS HES ues TuR Ait ceaphi 2:8, eo any 07, gel kata 4 Ody tee or ites siy nib a a idecr al dwbicgen: Late Hae ERS 0 NIRV 05 ED aro wrth ban tie ele, et 7 : ) Wit@e <2) ibe Macaca fem (rel aoiet pe : Lis rnd fe aa | mit. OPP E Re ies i Tee. tte pre i " ae bes: Dye tlaae aia mantener Da ate * Mahe ML ie al Oe a ee ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Map, showing situation of Calambayanga Island, Camarines Prov- ince. 2. Map, showing the location of the Calambayanga iron-ore deposits, Camarines Province. 333 anit A oti? s Basin} syneyadenaial) to raptiene) andaqaneale!) att 3 ala r bi Camda tecid Poe ey — a iwoult qa racial? IRON ORE IN SURIGAO PROVINCE 1 By WALLACE E. PRATT and VicTor E. LEDNICKY (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) ONE PLATE AND 1 TEXT FIGURE CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. GEOLOGY. GEOGRAPHY. CHARACTER OF THE IRON ORE. Situation. QUANTITY OF ORE. Physiography. COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES OF THE Vegetation. DEPOSIT. INTRODUCTION Between the towns of Gigaquit and Cantilan on the eastern coast of Surigao Province, Mindanao, the country is conspicuously barren of vegetation, and the hills are covered with a mantle of red soil. The barrenness of these hills, so strongly in contrast with the heavy forests commonly observed in uninhabited ‘country, has often attracted attention and comment. The Coast and Geodetic Survey charts of this coast, for instance, bear the notation ‘Red Hills” across the central part of the barren region. Mr. H. F. Cameron, chief engineer for the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, first recognized the true character of the red earth which makes this section of the coast so conspicuous. Mr. Cameron was struck with the similarity between the Surigao red earth and the clayey iron ores of the Nipe Bay region in Cuba. He procured samples, which were analyzed by official request in the Bureau of Science, and were proved to be in reality high-grade iron ore. Mr. Cameron believed his samples to be representative and that the deposit of iron ore was enormously large. Following this report, which was made officially, the area covered by the ore was reserved by executive order from mineral location, pending a further examination to determine the char- acter of the ore and the extent of the deposit. This paper con- tains the results of the official examination which was made during the latter part of February and the first part of March, 1915. * Received for publication June 29, 1915. 335 336 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 GEOGRAPHY SITUATION The reservation which was made to cover the Surigao iron ores includes all territory lying east of a north-south line through the town of Gigaquit and north of an east-west line through the town of Cantilan. These lines, together with the sea coast, define a triangular area in the eastern part of northern Surigao. Gigaquit, the northern point of the reservation, is about three hours’ journey by small coasting steamer southeast of Surigao, OUTLINE MAP OF NORTHERN SURIGAO Showing the location of the /ron Ore Reservation Fic. 1. Outline of northern Surigao, showing situation of iron-ore deposit. the provincial capital and port of call for boats from Manila (see Plate I and fig. 1). The territory actually covered by the iron- ore formation is considerably smaller than the reservation, but occupies a strip along the coast within the boundary lines. The sea off the eastern coast of Mindanao is exceedingly rough during six months of the year, and good harbors are scarce. Practically the only natural harbor in the iron-ore region is Dahikan Bay. The waters inside this bay are thoroughly pro- tected at all times and are abundantly deep (18 to 28 fathoms). However, the entrance to the bay is narrow and might be difficult of passage in rough weather. X, A, 5 Pratt and Lednicky: Iron Ore in Surigao 337 PHYSIOGRAPHY The iron-ore deposit covers a region which attains only moderate elevations, but is of sharp relief. Mount Legaspi, elevation 1,170 meters, is the highest point included within the boundaries of the iron-covered territory. Other peaks near the western edge of the deposit are as high as from 500 to 700 meters. The region slopes from Mount Legaspi eastward and northward to the coast, but the slope is by no means regular or continuous. The country is deeply incised; even the smaller streams flow through deep and precipitous valleys. This is a result of the exceedingly heavy rainfall between the months of October and March. The weather-recording station at the town of Surigao shows an average annual rainfall of over 3,000 milli- meters, most of which occurs during the above-stated months. The hills rise abruptly from the coast, and much of the coast line is marked by sea cliffs. The outline of the coast is fairly regular, but is broken by several prominent points and bays. Only two rivers of any size flow across the iron-ore deposits. One of them, flowing north, discharges its waters into the sea at the barrio of Taganito; the other drains the eastern flank of Mount Legaspi and flows to the south, reaching the sea at Carrascal. Either of these rivers could probably be made to yield a fair amount of water power, but no data are available on their volumes. VEGETATION One of the most remarkable features of the ore deposit is the unusual character of the vegetation covering it. Near the coast and over most of the area of the deposit the ground is largely bare, with scattered clumps of brush or shrubs and occasional patches of weedlike ferns. Everywhere, however, there is evi- dence of a former forest growth in the decaying trunks of fallen or even standing trees. These dead trees were as large on the average as those one finds growing in the normal forests at present. The trunks are almost invariably charred by fire, and charred resins are found very commonly over the ground surface. We suspect that the deposit was originally covered by a heavy forest which has been removed by fire within comparatively recent time. Toward the interior the vegetation gradually as- sumes the character of the surrounding forested region. In the western part of the deposit, where the forest is heavy, we thought at first that the ore was of lower grade. It had gradually changed in color from a deep red at the coast to a yellowish brown at the western limit of the deposit, the change correspond- 135518 ——4 838 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 ing closely with the increase in vegetation. Analyses, however, proved the iron content to be just as high in the earth which supported the heavy forest as in the more highly colored mantle on the bare hills. Specimens of a half dozen of the plants which are most abun- dant over the barren portions of the ore deposit were submitted to Mr. E. D. Merrill, botanist of the Bureau of Science, who stated that they belong without exception to the flora of high al- titudes in the Philippines.2 The best-known types had not previously been found below an elevation of from 500 to 600 meters and were commoner at elevations of 1,500 meters, where- as the specimens submitted were all secured at elevations rang- ing from sea level up to possibly 200 meters. Two of the specimens were evergreens belonging to the pine family, another was an edible blueberry which is common in the highlands of northern Luzon, while the commonest plant observed is the weedlike fern already mentioned. Pitcher plants, some of which produce pitchers of extraordinary size, abound in the region of the iron-ore deposit, but these, also, are found in other parts of Surigao. GEOLOGY The iron ores are clayey residual products from the surface decomposition of igneous rocks. They are similar to the later- ites in origin found commonly in tropical countries. The parent rock in Surigao is subsiliceous in character and is prob- ably a peridotite, but wherever exposed it is so completely altered as to make the determination of its original character difficult. The outcrops which are most widely distributed consist essen- tially of serpentine. On the beach, throughout the length of the deposit, rocks of other types are found locally and probably occur as dikes cutting the main rock mass. The dike rocks include diorites, gabbros, and felsitic to porphyritic andesites. Schist has also developed locally, probably in shear zones, and occurs in rare fragments along the beach. Sedimentary rocks, principally tuff-sandstone and crystalline limestone, overlie the igneous basement, the alteration of which has given rise to the iron ore, and the line of contact between the basement rocks and the overlapping sedimentaries marks the limit of the ore deposit toward the interior. The sedimen- taries outcrop on the coast at Capandan southeast of Claver ? Unfortunately Mr. Merrill’s memorandum containing the classification of these plants was misplaced and because of his absence on leave cannot be replaced in time for publication in this paper. X, A, 5 Pratt and Lednicky: Iron Ore in Surigao 339 Point, and the line of contact between them and the ore deposit runs south-southest. Blocks of limestone are found resting on the ore formation on the hill southwest of Capandan. Judging from the character of this limestone, the sedimentaries are prob- ably of Miocene age. An escarpment marks the edge of the sedimentaries and forms a prominent line of hills trending south-southeast back of Capandan. The sedimentary rocks ap- pear on the coast on the southern edge of the ore deposit in the ridge at Carrascal, the line dividing them from the ore deposit passing westward beyond Mount Legaspi. Thus the heavy, broken line which delimits the ore deposit in Plate I marks, also, the line of contact between sedimentary and igneous rocks throughout most of its course. The line approaches more closely to the summit of Mount Legaspi, however, than do the sedimen- taries to the west, because the upper slopes of this peak show very little ore. It recurves, also, at its southern extremity to separate the area of alluvium around Carrascal Bay from the iron-ore formation. The numerous small’islands which lie off the coast between Capandan and Carrascal are all composed of sedimentary rocks, except Ludguron Island in Carrascal Bay, which is partly covered with iron ore. CHARACTER OF THE IRON ORE The ore is principally ferruginous clay, but contains also an abundance of small, round pellets of hydrous iron oxides, as well as fragments or crusts of the parent rock, much altered, porous, and iron-stained, but maintaining their original form. Mineralogically the ore is probably a series of hydrous iron oxides related to limonite. The surface of the deposit is a deep reddish brown, almost crimson at places, but beneath the surface the color is lighter—a yellowish brown—while the transition stage between the ore and the underlying rock is pale green. The thickness of the mantle of ore varies irregularly up to a maximum of about 20 meters. The ore in place is soft and very spongy or mealy. In walking over it one often breaks through the crust into small openings or cavities beneath the surface. The iron ores of the Nipe Bay region in Cuba appear to be similar in every respect to the iron ore in Surigao, and the reader who desires more detailed information will find elaborate descriptions of the Cuban ores with studies of the various steps in the alteration processes from serpentine to hydrous iron oxides.® “The Mayari Iron-Ore Deposits, Cuba, by James F. Kemp, is especially good. Bull. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. (1915), 98, 129. 340 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The chemical composition of the Surigao ore is shown in the following tables. Table I contains the analysis of a sample taken by Mr. Cameron and an analysis of similar ore from Mayari, Cuba, quoted from Kemp.+ TABLE I.—Analysis of iron ore from Surigao Province.* 3 Surigao | Cuban Constituent. ore. ore. Per cent.| Per cent. ‘Hy groscopic water 5282220 ae Sis Per en Woe ho See eee ee 13:50)|2=eaeerees Combined twater 3.2246 [0 Feet CARS See 5 SA ee ee aes. SOE RES 6.60 11.15 Sili¢a!(Si@p) cee 8 oat See ee Ro 2 ee eee ea ae 2 1.04 2.26 Alumina (Als @3) eae sees See a ee ee RS | bas Se ee ce 10.56 14. 90 Ferric:oxide: (e208) estas a te eee ee ee a ee ee ee 66. 80 68. 75 errous Oxide. UheO))- eres see Rees. OE NE EP EL ES ee ee 0.36 0.77 iGbhromiumvoxid el Gre Os) hes aoa es es esc Bad Fo se ee 1.15 1.89 Sulphur 222. 2s Sense’ eC UE) ee pee ats eee ae Ake Se ee eee eae tracejo. eee Phosphorus: 2s aoe soe ee ee es ee ee ee ee ee SRS ee Oe ee ee trace}|=--=-==—= Nickel‘oxide (NiO). 44-2226 ees. Fee! 5 Po Se a ee none 0.74 otal’ £2 2-fe 6552 See res Seem eee ee he S aeee eo ee ee 100. 01 100. 46 Metallicdton, :ArysOre 22 sa ao aan ae re ee a oI ee a ee 54,29 48. 65 Metallicironsirhited orek at eee ED ee RE 58. 20 54.20 8 Analysis by Francisco Pena, chemist, Bureau of Science. Two other samples submitted by Mr. Cameron contained 51.92 and 54.15 per cent, respectively, of metallic iron in the dried ore. The determinations appearing in Table II were made upon drill-hole samples taken by us. The figures show the percentage of metallic iron in the dried ore and in the sintered ore. The latter figure is employed for the purpose of making possible a direct comparison of the Surigao ore with the Cuban ore, which is sintered or nodulized before it is smelted. Sintering is a necessary preliminary to the smelting of clayey ores, and the column containing the figures for the iron content of the sintered ore also shows the proportion of iron which a smelter could expect in ore from Surigao. It is assumed that the Surigao ore will reabsorb about the same quantity of moisture after sinter- ing that the Cuban ores do. Kemp ® states that the nodulized or sintered Cuban ore contains from 8 to 3.5 per cent of water; therefore the column of percentage of iron in the sintered ore is based on the weight of the ignited ore plus 3.5 per cent for reabsorbed water. “Op. cit., 147. 5 Op. cit., 131. XK, A, 5 Pratt and Lednicky: Iron Ore in Surigao 341 TABLE II.—Iron content of Surigao iron ore.* ll Drill hole. Loss on . | Metallic SS SS] Description of sample. jenition, ‘iron in deen im No. | Depth. at 110°C.| CTY ore- ore.b Meters. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Western edge of deposit south of Taganito: Surface ON es cane eee eee ener a eee te tome eee 14. 76 53. 40 60.5 Central portion of deposit inland from Hinadkaban Bay: Depth— 1 9 0-3 meters 12.50 47.30 52.2 3-6 meters 12.70 42.56 47.0 6-9 meters 12.20 29.59 82.5 Southern portion of deposit; mainland near Dahikan Bay: Depth— 10 4 O-3imetersri sos. ae ee og ge a 12.20 31.00 33.0 12 el 2 O-Simeters) 22s 5222 sna Ss ee 12.50 47.30 52.2 Seo meters) o2— sees ee ed ee HS a ee 11.08 55. 75 60.5 6-Simeters -coeuses Se eS eek See 11.80 42.56 46.6 16 12 O-Simetersy ose eee es ae ae 13. 34 49.81 55.7 S-O/MCLELS = seer aera ear e een aS 13. 49 50. 89 56.8 6-9 Meters == Soe eeee sora ee se ee TE 12.02 54.36 59.7 95 12ameters: fs hs eee eg soe ke fee 12.13 51.96 57.2 20 8 O-3imeters! -Seseeat ie alee oo eo So 11.50 54. 50 59.5 S=Oimetersoss se eno se as see oe eee eee 10.00 49.95 53.6 36 OnleSurface eet. ores couse oe wees SEO ome eon 14. 10 46.79 52.5 Southern portion of deposit; peninsula near Dahikan Bay: Depth— 17 12 O-3imeters)=2 22 o62 Reo eee = ea ea ee 13.05 45.64 50.7 SsGimeters 02. - ee Ea ae 11.04 37.16 40.4 6-9} meters} s25=s2 econo 2 ee ete oe, De 10. 57 48.01 51.9 S12 Mees re er See ee See ee a 11. 93 54. 86 60. 2 29 3 UTasimetersrsece es Sees ee ee ee ee ee 13.30 44, 45 49.7 33 9 O-simeters a2 2022 See oe Bod SER 14.25 48.30 54.4 BzONME LENS tessa ee ee ee ee dee 14, 45 49. 10 55.4 G- Simeters!- et eee een wees ee 13.15 51.40 57.3 Northern part of ore deposit; inland from Taganito: Depth— 0-3 meters 14. 16 45. 64 51.4 3-6 meters 12.41 45. 63 50.3 6-9 meters 13. 60 42.28 47.3 0-3 meters 13.60 52.20 58.3 0-3 meters 15. 34 47.39 54.0 3-6 meters 14. 00 48.16 54.0 6-9 meters 138.57 61.39 57.5 3-6 meters 14. 40 49. 98 55.8 "Average fot 2 Serer = aes esa ete sek 12. 87 47.40 52.5 a Analyses by T. Dar Juan, A. S. Arguelles, and Francisco Pefia, chemists, Bureau of Science, b Calculated on a basis of 3.5 per cent reabsorbed moisture, 3842 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The material from each 3 meters of drill hole constitutes a separate sample. Occasional samples were taken from the sur- face, also. The analyses tabulated are on samples selected as representative of a total of 183 samples, taken from 89 different drill holes. The drill holes were located at regular intervals, usually at the corners of 300-meter squares, and groups of drill holes were distributed over different parts of the ore deposit. From the foregoing analyses it appears that the average ore from Surigao would contain 52.5 per cent of iron after being sintered or nodulized in preparation for smelting. If two con- spicuously poor samples, both of which probably are contami- nated with the underlying parent rock, be excluded, the average iron content of the sintered ore becomes 53.9 per cent. Even this figure is somewhat lower than the average iron content of the ore mined at Mayari, Cuba, by the Spanish-American Iron Company. The yearly output of this company averages 48 to 49 per cent iron in the dry ore and 55 to 56 per cent iron in the nodulized ore. Another important difference between the Cuban ore and the ore from Surigao Province is in their re- spective nickel contents. The average Cuban ore carries about 1 per cent of nickel, while no nickel has been detected in the Surigao ore. The observation has been made in the Cuban deposits that the iron content of the ore increases for a certain distance below the surface and then declines. The samples from Surigao show a similar change generally, but not in all cases; some holes reveal a progressive decrease from the surface downward. It is notable that the very shallow holes encountered relatively poor ore, while the deepest holes show the best ore. This may be due in part, however, to a tendency to drive the shallow holes farther into the parent rock, proportionally, than in the cases of the deeper holes. QUANTITY OF ORE The quantity of ore is estimated upon a basis of the total area of the iron-ore deposit as determined by our reconnaissance surveys and the average depth of the ore as determined by drill- ing. The Coast and Geodetic Survey base map upon which our surveys are plotted is accurate, but the position of the line which marks the interior limit of the deposit is determined only approximately. The figure for the average depth of the ore is *Kemp, James F., loc. cit., 131. XePANS Pratt and Lednicky: Iron Ore in Surigao 8438 obtained by dividing the whole deposit into two classes—good areas and poor areas—the boundaries of which were determined by our observations in the field. This classification applies to the nature of the deposit, not to the character of the ore. The average depth of ore in each area is estimated from the results of groups of drill holes in that area. The various areas over which the ore is of good depth (indicated in Plate I) are again divided into two groups, one of which includes two areas which are accessible from Dahikan Bay and the other includes five areas which must be exploited from another base—probably from Taganito. The total area of the ore deposit is about 100 square kilo- meters. This figure is less than the area of the deposit as outlined in Plate I by reason of the exclusion of several patches of alluvium and some of the steeper slopes which are not covered by ore. Probably 30 per cent of the deposit, exclusive of the good areas, is so inaccessible and so covered with forest that the ore upon it would have no commercial importance. The areas classed as good aggregate 30 square kilometers. They include flat-lying portions of the deposit over which the ore is known to be of good depth. The two areas which are accessible from Dahikan Bay, the most feasible base of oper- ations, contain 15 square kilometers. ' Four groups of drill holes were located in the areas classed as good: One group of 56 holes placed regularly (some 150 meters, some 300 meters, and some 500 meters apart) in the vicinity of Dahikan Bay; one group of 2 holes in the vicinity of Hinadkaban Bay; and one group of 23 holes, 300 meters apart, in the vicinity of Taganito. One group of 17 holes, spaced at 150-meter intervals, was located in a poor area near Dahikan Bay. It may be objected with some reason that the number of holes and the area over which they are distributed are both limited and are hardly a sufficient basis for judging the whole ore deposit. The result which we obtained, however, both on the chemical character and the thickness of the ore, from widely separated groups of holes, are uniform enough to make us confident of the approximate correctness of our results considered as preliminary estimates. At any rate, the reader, knowing the basis upon which the estimates are made, will -draw his own conclusions as to their accuracy. Of the drill holes located in good areas, 6.8 per cent fell on bare rock, thus encountering no ore; 28.8 per cent encountered from 0.5 to 3 meters of ore; 34.3 per cent encountered from 344 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 3 to 6 meters of ore; 21.9 per cent encountered from 6 to 9 meters of ore; 6.8 per cent encountered from 9 to 12 meters of ore; and 1.4 per cent encountered from 12 to 15 meters of ore. The analyses indicate that a few of the holes did not penetrate to the underlying parent rock. On the other hand, some of them went into the parent rock farther than mining operations would extend. Hence, these two possible sources of error in the determination of the average depth tend to balance each other. The holes were always continued until they struck hard rock, and usually represent the actual thickness of the surrounding ore. Of the drill holes located in poor areas, 29.4 per cent encoun- tered no ore; 58.8 per cent encountered from 0.5 to 3 meters of ore; 5.9 per cent encountered from 3 to 6 meters of ore; and 5.9 per cent encountered from 6 to 9 meters of ore. Specific gravity determinations on small pieces of the ore in- dicate that its dry weight in place must be from 1.7 to 2.5 metric tons per cubic meter. This estimated unit weight may appear to be low for an iron ore, but as a matter of fact the Surigao ore is very porous. In the following estimates it will be assumed that 1 cubic meter of dry ore weighs 2 metric tons. According to these figures the areas of good ore contain 275,400,000 metric tons of ore as follows: TABLE III.—Quantity of ore in good areas. Quantity. Average depth (meters). CES Metric tons. NBs secre ca oe ee Se eee ee Re eS ee Cee ee 15, 100,000 | 30, 200, 000 AS BDZEECE = SES eRe EEE RE Ee Pe eke SS SE 46,300,000 | 92, 600, 000 DO ook Reno he eee ee ee 2 cee ee oe i een 49,200,000 | 98, 400, 000 TOSBO 3 ois a wey ee eee ee ee net ea rt er ee ee a 21, 400,000 | 42,800, 000 ASSB 0S De ASE SE OE So rene See a ee 5, 700,000 | 11, 400, 000 Total 22 2255 State 222 ee es Se A ee 187, 700, 000 | 275, 400, 000 If it be assumed that only areas over which the average depth is 38 meters or more can be exploited economically, the total available tonnage becomes 260,300,000. One half of this quan- tity, or 130,150,000, is fairly accessible from Dahikan Bay as a base. The quantity of ore included in the area classed as poor is 222,400,000 tons, as follows: X, A, 5 Pratt and Lednicky: Iron Ore in Surigao 845 Quantity. | Cubic me- ters. TABLE IV.—Quantity of ore in poor area. | Average depth (meters). Metric tons. I by ios ee I SS ar ra a 61, 800, 000 | 123, 600, 000 55 heh a a RE ae Ha nS 18, 500,000 | 37,000, 000 In ee ec a nee tm ag ee ere ee 30, 900, 000 | 61, 800, 000 PR @ tet hy cess eee ek dh ee ts ce tk eek 111, 200, 000 | 222, 400, 000 | If it be assumed that only areas over which the average depth is 3 meters or more will prove valuable, the available tonnage in the poor area becomes 160,600,000. Again, if our belief that 30 per cent of the poor area is too remote and too heavily forested to repay exploitation is correct, the total available tonnage over the poor area is 155,680,000, of which 112,420,000 tons form a layer of 3 meters or more in thickness. In summary, the total iron-ore reserves in the Surigao de- posit amount to approximately 500,000,000 metric tons. Of this total quantity about 430,000,000 tons are fairly accessible for mining, although by no means conveniently situated, and 373,000,000 tons are contained in that portion of the ore mantle which is 3 meters or more in thickness. On the flat-topped barren hills which border the coast there are 275,000,000 tons of ore. This ore is comparatively accessible, but is divided into a number of separate areas. That portion of it which is 3 meters or more in thickness amounts to 260,000,000 tons. Fi- nally, from Dahikan Bay, which offers natural harbor facilities, two blocks of ore could be exploited containing an aggregate tonnage of 138,000,000, with 130,000,000 tons forming a deposit 3 meters or more in thickness. However, even from this most favorable base the bulk of the ore must be brought down to sea level from the tops of hills, ranging in elevation from 200 to 400 meters. COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES OF THE DEPOSIT The Surigao iron ores constitute a natural resource which will probably be more valuable in the future than it is to-day. At present the demand for iron and steel in the Philippines is not sufficient to justify the large-scale operations which would be necessary for the proper exploitation of the Surigao deposits. An ore which is richer in iron is available at Mambulao, Cama- rines, in adequate quantity and under conditions just as favor- able as the conditions which obtain in Surigao. Yet no success 846 The Philippine Journal of Science has attended the efforts so far made to exploit the Camarines ore. The Surigao ore possesses an advantage in its freedom from objectionable impurities, such as sulphur and phosphorus, although neither of these elements is injuriously high in the Camarines ore. The best authorities believe that the Cuban ore, with which the Surigao ore has been compared, will ultimately be exported to Europe as well as to the United States. But one of the fea- tures which make the Cuban ore valuable is its nickel content. This metal, so desirable in certain classes of steel alloys, is not present in the Surigao ore. Then, too, the Surigao ore is poorer in iron than the Cuban ore, and while the difference in the iron content is small, it is sufficient to make a difference in the smelt- ing values of the two ores. If the Surigao deposit is exploited in the near future it will probably be for the purpose of exporting the ore to be smelted elsewhere. The present export tax of 2 pesos per metric ton on ores would make difficult the profitable mining of the ore, even for export. The lack of coke for reduction, as well as the limited market for the product, militate against the development of a local iron- and steel-smelting industry. On the other hand, when in time the Philippine market becomes large enough to justify manufacturing iron and steel from these ores, the prob- lem can probably be solved by utilizing one of the larger streams for hydroelectric power and accomplishing the reduction in the electric furnace with charcoal burned in the surrounding forests. Dahikan Bay, which is protected from the rough seas common to the eastern coast of Mindanao throughout one half the year, offers the best situation for a base of mining operations. Not only does it afford the only natural harbor facilities in the region, but it is adjacent to the largest area of ore. Power will have to be transmitted from a distance, but this is true, also, of any other possible location. Taganito is another possible base of operations. It has no natural harbor facilities, although there are outlying islands which might prove of value in making a harbor. But it is the logical point from which to mine a large quantity of ore, as it affords a larger area for the plant site than is available at Dahikan Bay and has more water for general purposes, and water for power could be obtained on the upper parts of several rivers which discharge at Taganito. Wherever mining is attempted in the Surigao deposit, it will be necessary to mine the greater part of the ore on the tops of the hills varying from 150 to 400 meters in elevation and to transport the mined ore down steep slopes to sea level. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE J. Topographic map of iron-ore deposit in Surigao, showing (red cross-hatched areas) best parts of deposit. TEXT FIGURE Fig. 1. Outline map of northern Surigao, showing situation of iron-ore deposit. 347 “5° k BON 6 vip Lad, shale * BRL " : be). oi piliactin vail ata-tis) | TO. qasip ab va basic siisstiel ined. (andy ho dyna Pamute xsrt eho nn : ye ‘gous cst aaiprolt Saplsie prod mn Re) tena [Reet Pee trees carol | Mae wilh Chea hae Le F cunt +.” { iw i Ab FE ne dif i al Pie j j y ‘ at 1 ry Cae Ne the ts (vier tate . “ee ay oti ake Se, i «® We, i a ree i . p Wy / pais . Se ‘ wi lites i at ae ove elena ie aA Ne ile: na fo rebei RING Sevipade ; ij iy Pa rity . ; ‘ PRATT AND LEDNICKY: IRON ORE IN SuRIGAO.] [Puiu. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 5. Aling 1 » —@ Telegraph |. i “Lang Is. Buce> MAP OF SURIGAO IRON ORE DEPOSIT SURIGAQ, MINDANAO. Bosed on Coat € Geodehc Survey Charts. Puyo Carrascal Ba Ly PE gen I, | PLATE |. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF IRON-ORE DEPOSIT IN SURIGAO, SHOWING (RED CROSS-HATCHED AREAS) BEST PARTS OF DEPOSIT. oF so Nuho : genet Bure the ‘sole'4 arintes progeedings® « wlague Conferences ay ‘3 mber, Section D. General Bio logy, ‘Btho. logy and tion D began with Volume V)-..: Entire Journal, Volume II, It, TV, or j i Entire Aa ad patie ‘with abr T a sire 3 to Coie I ¢ rai: ‘Volume 1° 2 eae neg nee aa: ; oe Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Bssex 8 i: 3 Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, | “Mayer & ‘Miller, Prinz Lo Ss Ferdi oe AMY, E . } é aman &: aioe R ler $2 Rafiles Place, A VOCABULARY. de Order No. 403. Paver, 99. pages, $0.75, 5 ‘and Fpulleb-tnerotey 5 Order No, 403... Paper, $025; halt me pe lates and the -Bataks » of Es terre 6 Riaree? are Boon. syd one pee aa * . THE BATAN DIALECT As A. ie sae ann” egh IN PHILIP cata oi dover 141 ia eaten, nthe peered : Order No. 410. Par 421 pages, ay map, fe bf ana at play; their industries, houses, sf themselves. ‘ Order” No. 406. Paner, S pages, 4 ‘ ~~ In the preparation ef his’ manuscript for” g. br Pas ue roe eu ath s-in ed ossession of the Sult “Sultan ~) Sof “Sulu. <,-Moros* in the. Spnilippines” from: the earliest 4 Mies ta. a Eel cash gig ema: Je ‘Order Ne. 407.” ae -ern coast of Zamboanga Peninsula. The Su-. *banuns of this region were: studied. by, Mr. Christie. oe two: periods of five and six: ‘ Lane ee respectiv FE TRE 1G0ROT tas GUAGE AS” OKEN BY areas BONTOG IGOROTS . sage By Warr Cuayrox Cusbe postpaid. > The Vocabulary is uiven in’ W goratEnlih . wnt ‘records Or The names of the ae 0 ail ae ; “THE ‘BATAES OF ‘PALAWAN | < oBy ‘Epwanp: ¥ ‘porns teat 8 BEI °30.25; ra PONS . /FO0co, » "0.75; postpaid: ‘ “The | Nabaloi. Dialect (65. panes, “29 © Pal awan (7. ¥ » “‘bows~and. arrows, dances, « = Ae the peole Be oi ae tt OF THE PHILIPPINE GROUV. : “OF LANGUAGES | “By Orto Scnpene “and nade ‘LANGUAGES NK ARES By. Chaos Evener Cowan. hes te ‘ bisory an These. two ‘ohare’ are. Witfeananiat ane; ve the, © Ehilipoine sland eke era de ae tae ae _iupustax IN THE SUBANUNS oF ‘SINDANGAN BAT ips ny aa OF NEG ‘By Enmson B. ‘Camere Ne “Order No. a2, 29 plates, 55, postpaid... - *. 7...) plates, L _ Sindangan Bay is situated on the north- ee Bonsidered : fro ie ee utility. Mee” roe cn » in. the Island ‘of. ‘Negros . ds one © i “important papers’ published- by th ‘of Science. This volume “ton: to. he su ie uiare itt ely. 2 ates illustrate the Subanuns at rs, and’ Implements; sand oe people weteos eee F THE HISTORY. ‘oF suuy By Nasees M,. SauuEBy ae “a2 maps, 2 diagrams, $0.75, postpalt The ‘History of Sulu, Doctor Saleeby. Bilao much~ ae and. effort, Hi gaini “i, a, history: of thee: THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VoL. X NOVEMBER, 1915 No. 6 THE LEATHER INDUSTRY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS * By VICENTE Q. GANA (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) TWO PLATES There exists in the Philippine Islands a considerable, but very primitive, tanning industry. The methods now in use have not undergone substantial modification since they were introduced by the Chinese, probably several centuries ago. Consequently the leather produced is inferior in quality, especially so since tanning in a tropical country involves difficulties not encoun- tered elsewhere. There is no obstacle to a great expansion of this industry. The leather market is good, and additional sup- plies of the necessary materials can be had in considerable quan- tities and at fairly reasonable prices. Therefore, in order to stimulate the industry, an extensive study of the existing in- dustry and some practical experiments using improved methods have been carried on. Data regarding the leather industry furnished by the provin- cial treasurers are given in Table I. TABLE I.—Number and output of tanneries of the Philippine Islands. 5 | Zanned | | Tanned . an- ides : Tan- hides Locality. meriges DrO- Locality. marisa eS | duced. duced. — i] | -| } Manilavee itso some eniy ek 8 BOKODON| lebaya ba sia 2 | 250 pilacaner seas eee ees 11 SO,000K |PBatan eases ss=sa==seenmn nee 19 220 Mollovee soo oa eee eee | 3 D3929)|| Lamboaneasesass. = seas nese i 216 ens hee neat eee oee 4 4,401 |) Nueva Ecija _-_---_-__-____ 4 164 Pangasinan sees e as eee 11 23600) || Sorsogoniesss 2) oe saee eee 1 120 PA DAY) = lee ce ees ee ee 4 IL BPD: Iii A ctatoney ie ek 2 10 Wocosi stresses nee 37 p13 0) | Cavite as eee n eee en ee 4 65 Ilocos Norte ---_-_--------- 13 TL We) ||| Chagas 17 54 Ambos Camarines--------- 3 210) NCapizeee ses ee eee ee use 22 22 i | —— oe Rizal ---------------------- 1 2B) | Totaljaii er emetic 167 | 938,245 1 Received for publication May 10, 1915. This paper is being issued in Spanish. 136791 3849 350 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 Although doubtless lacking great accuracy, the statistics show that the tanning industry produces leather to the value of from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000 pesos? per annum. On the whole, the figures regarding production are believed to be too low. THE LOCAL LEATHER MARKET There is a large and increasing local demand for leather and leather goods which is met almost entirely by importation. Table II shows the Philippine customs invoice value of imports of leather and manufactures thereof for several years. TABLE II.—ZInvoice value of imports of leather. Year. Pesos. Year. Pesos. 1903 1,373,572 1909 988,276 1904 985,070 1910 1,520,926 1905 986,334 1911 1,988,382 1906 922,440 1912 2,051,614 1907 958,268 19138 2,380,246 1908 1,343,924 The actual value of these goods is unquestionably several times larger than the invoice value given in the table. A gradual increase has occurred in almost every item included in these figures. Most notable, however, is the increase in the impor- tation of boots and shoes. The introduction of European cus- toms of dress may safely be expected to maintain or accelerate this rate of increase for several years. Table III gives the clas- sification of the leather and manufactures thereof imported during the years 1912 and 1913, as shown by the annual reports of the Collector of Customs. It will be noted that the item boots and shoes constitutes nearly 60 per cent of the total. TABLE III.—Classification and value of Philippine imports of leather and manufactures thereof for the fiscal years 1912 and 1918. 1912 1913 | Pesos. Pesos. Boots/and: shoes\-: <3 ca-— 2-9 oo as ee a ewe oe ned eee eee 1,173, 904 | 1,390, 864 Soletleather a: oboe oe ee a Sees, ee a ee ge 102, 524 200, 016 Upperleather 3) 2-2 6.2 2-2 8 ee = geese hon an a ee 109, 886 256, 534 Alliother 220 2@)_ 0372. 525-522 sce b eee tase ne Seas seit eee eee 519, 920 253, 758 Belting 2 2<-23 23. 32 sect o ace Ae ee se ese see ce te ee ee eee 65, 662 59, 862 Harness arnd'isaddles».<27 55 “0225 2c25- os see a hehe ees ee eee 79, 718 163, 594 Pockethookes: purses, ;wallets,;and hand bags -22- ae eae re eee | ee 55, 618 otal a2 ase ee ae ee are ee ee ne as a ee eee 2,051, 614 | 2,380, 246 7One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos, equals 50 cents United States currency. X, A, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 851 In recent years a number of boot and shoe factories have begun to operate in Manila and they are still expanding. As they consume imported sole and upper leather exclusively, the demand for satisfactory grades of these goods is likely to increase very markedly. It is to these classes of leather that the prospective tanner in the Philippines should devote his first and main attention. In addition to the industry just mentioned, which uses im- ported leather and which is conducted by Europeans and Amer- icans, there is an even larger leather-working business among the Filipinos and Chinese. It is carried on in small shops or as a household industry. Its products include cheap shoes, san- dals, harness, saddles, bags, etc., made almost exclusively of leather tanned in the Islands. The improvement of domestic leather would, of course, be of great advantage to these in- dustries. The present prices of staple leathers on the local market are approximately as follows: TABLE IV.—Prices of staple leathers on the Manila market. Per | Article. Per piece. | \ijo¢ram Pesos. Pesos. Momesticstanned) nativeicattle hides=—_ = see ane aa ee eee 13-20 81.40-1.80 Domestic, tanned, Australian cattle hides _____________-___-___-_-_-__-____ 16-24 a1,60-1.90 | tmvortea soleleathey 4. es eS EE aa RS ee ee Re oe Se ee | a 40-50 2.00 4 Calculated from actual market prices and the average weight of hides. Quality considered, native leather commands a much better price per kilogram than imported. This arises from the Fili- pino custom of buying leather by area rather than weight. The loss to the Filipino tanner in producing undertanned leather is very apparent in the prices per piece. There is no exportation of leather or leather goods from the Philippines. RAW HIDE SUPPLY In spite of the inroads which rinderpest has made upon the cattle-raising industry of the Philippines and of the strict limitations placed in recent years on the importation of animals from abroad, with the consequent shortage on the local market, very many hides and skins go to waste each year. There has been difficulty in getting reliable information about the supply of hides and skins from domestically slaughtered animals, but from figures of the Bureau of Agriculture it ap- pears that 11,133 sheep, 69,851 goats, 1,019 horses, 36,935 3852 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 cattle, and 17,890 carabaos were slaughtered in the Philippines during the calendar year 1913. These animals would furnish roughly 90,000 skins and 56,000 heavy hides. The number of available raw hides, according to the reports of the treasurers of the several provinces mentioned in Table I, is 54,057. Hides and skins are bought and sold by the piece. At market centers salted hides of Australian cattle average about 16 pesos and of native or Chinese cattle about 10 pesos. This amounts to about 65 centavos per kilogram for the former and 60 cen- tavos per kilogram for the latter. However, in many provinces cattle hides can be bought as low as 1 peso per piece and average less than 5 pesos. They are frequently not removed from the animals. There is a small production of dried hides which are exported to Hongkong and British East Indies for the manu- facture of glue. Table V gives the value of such exports. TABLE V.—Exports of dried hides from the Philippine Islands to Hongkong and British East Indies. Year. Pesos. Year. Pesos. 1907 30,336 1911 22,626 1908 25,710 1912 22,626 1909 27,920 1913 29,492 1910 46,074 Very little care is exercised in the method of preserving hides for the market. Systematic salting is not in general use, and many hides reach the tanner in a semiputrid condition. The process of salting hides is a very simple one and consists in the even distribution of salt, about 25 kilograms for every hundred kilograms of hides, over the flesh side of the hides in a layer so thick that solid salt always remains. The hides should be stacked in such a way that the draining away of any resulting brine will be prevented. Hides which are salted with reason- able care keep very well, even in this climate. In addition to the domestic product, there has been a consider- able importation of raw hides and skins into the Philippines during the last four or five years. The imported hides come almost exclusively from China. Table VI gives the figures of the importation of raw hides and skins. TABLE VI.—Value of imports of raw hides into the Philippine Islands. Year. Pesos. Year. Pesos. 1907 9,056 1911 36,210 1908 19,906 1912 151,222 1909 "39,826 19138 62,428 1910 °16,772 8 From China. > Mostly from China. MIRA, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 353 The weights and prices of these imported hides are given in Table VII. TABLE VII.—Weights and market prices of raw salted hides in Manila. | Variety. Weight. Price ner Kilo- grams. Pesos. Atustralianicattleihidess2 =p. 2 ae Se ee oP eee eS 20-25 13-16 Chinesercattlonhides = 2ee- ace ot sen a eee eee eae She Sun ie eo ee de Ue 15-21 7-12 Carabaovlni cd eye ree ae eee ee ai ieee eee ueee a a ee teed 18-35 6- 8 Native cattleihides 212221545. 2a 55 eae es eS ee aL eat 15-30 5-15 TANNING MATERIALS The only tanning materials used in the Philippines are the barks of the various species of mangrove (Rhizophoraceae or mangrove family) and the camanchile tree (Pithecolobiwm dulce Benth.). The former are very plentiful and cheap, selling for about 25 pesos per metric ton. In spite of this fact and in spite of their high tannin content, mangrove barks are not extensively used in the Philippines outside of the city of Manila. This is primarily because of the resulting harshness and dark red color of leather tanned with mangrove alone. However, good light-colored leathers can be produced by combining caman- chile and mangrove, as I have demonstrated by experiments which will be discussed later. The mangrove barks have been considerably studied® and are widely used in Europe and America. Their use may well be extended in the Philippines. Camanchile bark is used almost exclusively by Filipino tanners, who prefer it on account of the light-colored leather it produces. Because of this demand the price of air-dried camanchile bark has risen as high as 10 pesos per 100 kilograms. The tree is widely scattered throughout the Islands, although nowhere systematically or extensively grown. The present annual con- sumption of bark amounts to about 1,500 tons. Exhaustion of the supply is threatened, as the trees are commonly killed by too extensive stripping of the bark. The bark is brownish gray and rough outside and reddish brown inside. It produces dull but light-colored leather, which reddens on exposure to light. An infusion of it contains a tannin of the catechol class, which * Bacon and Gana, This Journal, Sec. A (1909), 4, 205; Williams, R. R., ibid. (1911), 6, 45. The waste wood can be utilized for firewood [Cox, Alvin J., ibid. (1911), 6, 1], or for destructive distillation, as shown by experiments now under way. 354 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 gives a green-black precipitate with iron salts, a light brown precipitate with bromine water, and crimson line when in con- tact with one drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. Upon analysis a representative sample of the bark gave the follow- ing results, calculated on water-free material: Total extract, 34.77 per cent; nontannin, 9.41 per cent; tannin, 25.36 per cent. Camanchile bark infusion soon ferments and decomposes in this climate, resulting in the destruction of tannins, the develop- ment of a disagreeable odor, and a thickening of the liquid due to a viscous gelatinous formation which accumulates and grows on the surface. A few experiments with phenol as a preservy- ative showed that a concentration of 0.01 per cent does not check the fermentation appreciably, as in a control infusion the tannins were destroyed, the color became a deep wine red—at least three times as intense as the original red orange—a somewhat pene- trating smell was given off, and a gelatinous formation and a slimy sediment developed, which made the infusion viscous. After four months the loss of tannin amounted to 15 per cent of the total tannin content. An infusion containing 0.1 per cent phenol at the end of the same period showed a practically unal- tered tannin content and an acidity equal to 0.0714 gram acetic acid per 100 cubic centimeters. A little fermentation which soon ceased had produced some slimy sedimentation, but had not altered the appearance or odor of the clear supernatant infusion. Camanchile bark contains irritating principles, which are believed by laborers in the tanneries to indicate roughly the strength of infusions. Infection of the eyes, producing weaken- ing of the sight, and irritation and swelling of the lids are attributed to them. Through the codperation of Dr. Fred W. Foxworthy, of the College of Forestry at Los Banos, who collected and sent me the material, I was enabled to examine several barks and fruits which have not as yet been used as tanning materials. The results are presented in Table VIII. Of these tanning materials none seems particularly promising, either on account of the insufficient supply or on account of the low tannin content. THE FILIPINO PROCESS OF TANNING As has been stated previously, the Filipino process of tanning is very primitive and produces a very inferior grade of leather. It was desired to make a study of this process in order to point out its prime defects and to suggest improvements which might be put into effect without materially increasing the investment 355 appines al Leather Industry of the Ph Gana K, A, 6 — SUle@Id YJOOUIS “10[Oo Yrep ‘UlUL “WAOIG YSIPPEt ‘HOI L, "pel yaep AIOA ‘SUIY I, “UMOIG eyed ‘4Jos pue uly, "uMoIq YSsIppei yep fyssey yeyMoulos pues pilezy ‘uMOIG JNUlEzZeYy feanjx0} AIOJeISIVeG “uMoIq qnuyjezey ‘prey s90yjey *peonpoid 19Y}B9] JO JoyoeIVYyO € 91 &v 9°L SES 9°L 6's oP 40 “iq “suey 8°6I | 68 2% |0°8 g°9 | 8°8 8% |0°8 Z'8 | L'8 O'IT | aor 6 ‘OI | 2°01 “92 “dq )"99 “he UIYS VY} UO S19}SI[q Seonpord det} S14} Jo des oy, x “Ulu -UON | -UzY, |-SIof ~ UMOIg YSIppey |~--"“uMOoAQ JYBIT |~--- >>> ODseeas beeen ts aes OD ies “"SUapU DYDUMWMLIAT, ~~~ ~~~ JINIF PBIVS |p “UMOIG “‘DULISSYDUIU — | ! Se aS we yulg | YS | MOT] AX |-~---~ >>> Op--- >| -AT[Vr9UET pa.ze}}eVIG | -N20D = sndupIIWAg |-~~~-~~~- vw yAVq svsry | 9 Be Ss Sean uMOIg |~~7>7"77--UMOTg |~>---">- >> OpP->--"|--~S] [IY UL pese9qyVdg |---nNU29A2VI DajonvyyT | YABq AeuesuBUE[eD § ¢ uMoiq *S}OLI}SIp ag Sea, yurg | ysStMoTL[a xX |------ >>> op-----| ATLy ur - uouTWIOD |-wnso)awmn4oUnD | yrIeq Suisuryesseg | F "SUaasat | ---- uMoaiq deeq |--~~~~--7> op----> “-~= yoR[q-ueedy) |" A[[V19Ues paie}4Vdg | -0g.lp DiuDUDYONG |-~ Y1eq ABsSBy sulle | Saag aa (OP Setes | sacra s aa O Dini s| cates weed O Daa one | het ae a OD mre | pao ee one OP vor ar| a SAU UBACT Ym Oe *SPOIA4SIp reer uModiq-pey |--~---"7--uMOIg |-----"yORIG-en[g | A[[LY UL petezyBdg |-------~- ds snauan(~y |--~~~- -yrVq uUBqe}zBHD | T : n “ple E *2in4 | DANYG[Ns po}e1z | “10}BM sUIUIOIG "83/88 Otay i i I -U9sdU0D YIM Yds 94BIIdIDeIg | YIM 97BzIdIDe1g VES LRT SHOES EMRE Telo3 2 | o> 408}U0d UO I0[0D | Zz ° ‘sypIlaqpu Buruunz snoeunzyaosw fo sashjpupy— IIA AIEVL 856 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 in equipment or supplies. For this purpose the tanning industry as conducted at Meycauayan, Bulacan, was chosen for study. Meycauayan is one of the largest leather-manufacturing centers in the Philippines, and its methods are fairly representative of those of the Islands as a whole. Eleven tanneries are located there, with an aggregate output of 36,000 pieces per year, con- sisting almost wholly of cattle hides. These include practically the entire product of the Government slaughterhouse at Sisiman and an almost equal number of imported hides from Hongkong. A few carabao hides are tanned, but the Filipino tanners are not willing to attempt the tanning of these hides except under excep- tional circumstances. On account of their thickness they are very hard to tan and they are liable to putrefaction. Therefore they are usually split, and very commonly only the grain side is tanned, the remainder being discarded or used for glue. The leather produced by the Filipino process is soft and pliable and, in general, is very much undertanned. It is characterized by an unpleasant odor, especially when wet. This leather lacks the firmness and durability desirable in sole leather and, at the same time, is too thick for first-class upper leather. The salted hides, as received at Meycauayan, are usually in good condition, not showing evidences of decay or having partic- ularly offensive odors. They are laid in packs of from 17 to 20 and are soaked for about eight hours in water in the bed of a river. They are then removed to lime pits of masonry con- struction, which are usually placed, in a series of from 10 to 20, in the open air without protection from sun or rain. The usual dimensions of a pit are 1.7 meters by 0.9 meter, with a depth of 0.8 meter. A pack of 20 hides is laid in the pit, 25 liters of lime and sufficient water nearly to fill the pit being used for the liming process. The water used is taken either from the river or from shallow surface wells near by. The method of preparing the lime liquors and laying the hides in the liming pits is as follows: The lime is mixed with water, and the gravel and the coarser particles are removed with a bamboo sieve. A hide is laid in this liquor, folded lengthwise with the hair outside. Other hides are placed on top in the same manner, until the pack is complete. The hides are left in the lime pits for from ten to fifteen days, during which time they are overhauled three or four times. At each overhauling the order of laying is reversed, so that the upper hide in the pack is laid at the bottom, and so on. The exact duration of the liming process is determined by the loosening of the hair and the degree of plumping of the skin. Frequently after the KIVA, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 357 hides have been removed from the lime pits and have been fleshed and dehaired, they are again returned to the lime liquors if the tanner believes more plumping is desirable. The lime liquors are used only once. The limed hides are taken to the river and depilated, fleshed, and cleaned by scraping the hide with a blunt knife to take out as much lime as possible (Plate II, fig 1). They are left in the river under water for a few hours to be freed from lime and are then ready for the tan pits. Except the hair, all the flesh- ings and scrapings and even parts of the pelt itself go to the refuse basket. All this waste is mixed with the lime and pressed into cakes, dried in the sun, and sold for 9 pesos a picul * to glue makers. This return is customarily divided into one half for the tanner and the other half for the laborers. The tan pits, partly above the surface of the ground, under cover of a large, open shed, are walled up with adobe stone°® and ordinary mortar. Each pit measures 1.9 meters by 1 meter with a depth of 1.2 meters and holds 20 native or Chinese cattle hides or 17 Australian hides. For each such pack a tan bark infusion is prepared by placing from 500 to 600 kilograms of chopped camanchile bark in the tan pit and macerating it for three days with about 1,200 liters of a liquid consisting of two thirds fresh water from a surface well and one third old, used tan liquor. A date for making the infusion is so chosen that the dressed hides will be ready for the tan pits on the fourth day. The bark is then removed and used for laying between the hides. In laying away the pack, the workman places a hide smoothly grain side up, so that about half its surface rests on a layer of bark in the bottom of the pit. Another layer of bark is spread over this surface, and the other half of the hide, which has in the meantime been supported in the hands, is folded along the middle of the back down upon the bark. After another layer of bark has been placed over this hide, the remainder of the pack follows in the same manner, and the whole of the bark infusion. is added. The pack is handled and the hides are kneaded with bare feet four times during tannage, usually once on each of the first four days. After each handling the hides are returned to the pit as before. Sometimes a fifth handling and kneading or even a sixth is resorted to when necessary to prevent putrefaction. The object of kneading is to compress and distort the hide “One picul is equivalent to 63.25 kilograms. "Porous volcanic tuff. 358 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 fiber and to hasten the absorption of the tannin. Such is the effect of kneading that the hides are almost half “struck” by the fourth day. They are then laid away in the tan pits for six weeks to complete the tannage. After this, if they are not to be sent to market immediately, they are laid in pits, called tingalan, with old, exhausted tan liquor. Sometimes they are left here for years. When required, they are taken to the river, thoroughly washed and cleaned, stretched on sticks, and exposed to direct sunlight. When dry, they are sent directly to the market without further treatment. DEFECTS OF THE FILIPINO PROCESS The process outlined above is very inefficient in many respects. In a study of the process the following defects proved to be among the most significant: 1. The putrefaction of the hides during the process with consequent loss of hide substance. . Waste in tanning materials. . Undertannage of the product. . Imperfect drying and finishing. i) He OO Of these defects by far the most important is that of putre- faction. During the rainy season this is especially difficult for the tanner to prevent, and it is commonly the custom to shut down the tanneries almost completely during that period. The decay is evidenced by a very disagreeable odor which not only develops in the leather itself, but which also pervades the entire tannery and becomes almost suffocating. Skins in which putrefaction occurs tan on both exterior surfaces, while the interior of the hide liquefies. The pelt commonly splits into grain and fiesh sheets. The Filipino tanners attribute the putrefaction to dilute tan liquors, which they believe are caused by the use of barks collected during the rainy season. Usually the putrefaction occurs most markedly during the first days of tannage, and at this stage soft, gray spots, which frequently suppurate, may develop. Such spots do not tan at all, and, of course, the entire skin is ruined thereby. Aside from this ruin- ing of the skins by putrefaction, a less extensive decay prevents proper plumping and swelling of the hides and consequent proper absorption of tannin. For this reason it is almost impossible for Filipino tanners to tan thick hides. The Filipino tanners endeavor to control this putrefaction by adding large quantities of fresh bark to the tan pits and by more frequent kneading of the hides. This procedure, however, is 309 very ineffective, especially so since the tanner often fails to detect decay until it has proceeded beyond remedy. The obvious measures to be taken to prevent this difficulty con- sist simply in greater cleanliness during the entire process. Tan pits, handling floors, and the like should be frequently cleaned and disinfected. Water free from pollution or unusual amounts of mineral matter is also a necessity. The river, on which the tanneries of Meycauayan are located, flows into Manila Bay and is subject to tidal variation. It is, therefore, decidedly brackish and falls far short of what is to be desired in a water for this purpose. Table IX presents an analysis of this water. X, A, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines TABLE IX.— Analysis of Meycauayan River water. [Numbers represent parts per million.] Physical characters Reaction Total solids Appearance on ignition Free or saline ammonia Organic or alouminoid ammonia Oxygen consumed Chlorine Equivalent to common salt Nitrogen as nitrates Nitrogen as nitrites Silica (SiO2) Oxides of iron and aluminium (prac- tically all Al). Oxide of calcium (CaO) Oxide of magnesium (MgO) Sulphuric anhydride (SO;) Total hardness: Permanent Temporary Bicarbonic acid radical (HCO;) Carbonic acid radical (COs) Free carbon dioxide (CO.) brownish yellow with salt taste alkaline 52,672.0 blackening and evolu- tion of hydrochloric acid 0.37 0.68 50.00 26,284.4 43,313.7 | trace nil 25.6 21.0 809.0 2,909.3 2,706.7 8,663.7 8,571.2 92.5 142.1 nil 4.4 Aside from the large amount of mineral matter present, this water is also objectionable on account of the large quantities of putrefying organic matter ordinarily found in it. A loop of water invariably produced liquefaction in serum and gelatin tubes within forty-eight hours’ incubation at ordinary temper- ature. Table X gives the analysis of a typical sample of water from 360 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 surface wells in this locality such as are used for making up tan liquors. TABLE X.—Analysis of water from a surface well at Meycauayan. [Numbers represent parts per million.] Physical character normal Reaction neutral Total solids 946.0 Appearance on ignition evolution of hydro- ehloric acid Free or saline ammonia 0.048 Organic or albuminoid ammonia 0.068 Clorine 203.6 Nitrogen as nitrates trace Nitrogen as nitrites 0.016 Silica (SiO.) 39u0 Oxides of iron and aluminium 48.0 (largely Al). Oxides of calcium (CaO) 165.0 Oxides of magnesium (MgO) 20.6 Sulphuric anhydride (SOs) 41.1 Bicarbonie acid radical (HCOs;) 179.2 Free carbon dioxide (CO-) See Total hardness: 486.6 Permanent : 351.0 Temporary 135.6 Analyses of the liquors used at various stages of the process show very clearly the progress of putrefaction and loss of hide substance. The lime used is made by burning sea shells; it has a total alkalinity equivalent to about 70 per cent calcium hydroxide. An analysis of a typical lime liquor, after removal of the hides, is shown in Table XI. TABLE XI.—Lime liquor from a Filipino tannery after removal of the hides. Grams per 100 cubic centimeters. Nitrogen as ammonia - 0.0457 Equivalent hide substance 0.266 Total hide substance 0.987 Unchanged hide substance 0.721 These figures show that nearly 8 kilograms of dissolved hide substance are lost from each pack of twenty hides weighing ap- proximately 230 kilograms, which is equivalent to about 3.5 per cent of the weight of the hides. Fresh lime liquors about 2 days old are almost sterile, but easily become contaminated by the surface drainage. When 1 week old a loopful of lime liquor will liquefy gelatin within six =o AWG Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 861 days’ incubation at ordinary temperature. The lime liquors invariably have a strong ammoniacal odor after two days in contact with hides. A piece of green pelt from a tannery, weighing about 2 kilo- grams after dehairing and fleshing, was kept in 2 per cent aqueous solution of phenol. On the fourth day the hide substance dissolved in the liquid was found to be 2.66 grams, or 0.133 per cent of the wet pelt. The phenol solution was changed for a fresh one which, after nineteen days, gave but a faint preci- pitation ring with a tan infusion. This same phenol solution, after four and a half months in contact with the hide, gave a much stronger precipitation ring, which must be due, not to any further decomposition, but probably to the outward diffusion of dissolved hide substance previously developed inside of the pelt. There cannot have been any putrefaction in the phenol solution, as demonstrated by pieces of the same pelts which remained unaltered in acid and alkaline bouillon tubes for nearly six months. This soluble hide substance is the product of bacterial activity in the pelt.° Pelt which had been limed, fleshed, and dehaired by the usual process of the Filipino tanner, after being kept for one month in 2 per cent phenol solution, gave on analysis the results included in Table XII. TABLE XII.—Analysis of limed, fleshed, and dehaired pelt. lated on | lated to Substance. the basis | a water- | of green free | Calcu- Calcu- pelt. basis. Per cent.| Per cent. PV 't Cree ee pe wate rer a va ee ye tn Gn oN en a eS Mee yeh Se HLS) | ee BSRISTCED GOYA SY 9 Wee aa a i ha a oe et sete Vat oll Pa EE 4,23 17.3 Hquivalenthideisubstancet! 2222) f eee 2 ae eee a SO ee aia eae ee 27.70 97.2 Warm e eters ae tat es ete he ee Ee i 9 et A 0.80 2.8 The liquefying bacterial conditions of the tannery liquors have been determined by means of serum and gelatin media tubes. These tubes were inoculated with one loopful of the tannery liquor and incubated at ordinary temperature—about 30° C. The time period required for the liquefaction of the media is noted in Table XITI. *Brunton and MacFadyen, Proc. Roy. Soc. London (1890), 46, 542-53. 362 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE XIII.—Liquefaction of the media due to liquefying bacteria at a Filipino tannery. Days to liquefy with one loopful of sample. Description of sample. Serum. | Gelatin. Limeiliquor ls weekiold:- «222 = se se 8 i oe i I ee ee 6 Native tan liquor 1 month old _________________.____ Se eR ee | } 2" |. See Nativetantliquor2 9) 26 oie EEE EL ee ECE ee SE EE ee Native tan liquor, strong from covered pit _____.-__-_--_--_-_------_-_-.-_---- eet reahitan liquor 222822222 no. at tone eee Ben en oe non Seon nan pen eee | eee Artesian-well water as delivered at tannery ____________-----___------------_-|---------- 15 Suspender liquor (my experiment) mixed with 10 per cent native tan liquor __|__________ 3 | Dore ee ttc: Be ee ok he ee eS aE ee | Liquor from layer No. 1 (my experiment), from covered pit Fresh tan liquor made with artesian water __________-_--__-_-_-_---_--------_--- 48 In this case the workmen were allowed to contaminate the liquor by wading in it with bare feet still wet with liquors from poluted vats, according to the usual practice. Contrast the three days required to liquefy the serum with the following experiment where thirteen days were required, The only difference is that in the second case I insisted that the workmen first wash their feet in clean water before entering the vats. The data demonstrate that the tan liquors of the Filipino pro- cess generally contain abundant putrefying or liquefying bac- teria. Even in the case of pelts that had been washed in 0.5 per cent phenol baths, liquefaction ensued within forty-eight hours when immersed in such liquors. The smell of the leather and tan liquors is due to this putrefaction. Infusions of fresh camanchile tan bark in pure water are gen- erally practically devoid of liquefying bacteria, as liquefaction of inoculated serum and gelatin media occurs only after from forty-two to seventy-five days of incubation. However, the in- fusion of this tan bark is quite neutral in its action toward liquefying bacteria. It does not kill them. On the other hand, bacteria do not grow in it except when there is enough proper nourishment present in the form of other suitable substances. In the latter case the multiplication and activity are great in a warm climate. The tannins, like common salt, do not destroy bacteria, but check the putrefaction of hide substance. Common salt prevents X, A, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 363 the putrefaction by extracting water from the hide, while the tannins convert the hide into imputrescible leather. The work of the salt is transient, while that of the tannins is permanent. An experiment was performed to determine the resistance to, and growth of, liquefying bacteria in camanchile bark infusion at a temperature between 27° and 32° C. Tan infusions were inoculated with tannery liquors, and subsequently a loopful of each was transferred to serum and gelatin media tubes. The periods of time required for liquefaction are given in Table XIV. TABLE XIV.—Effect of tan infusions on liquefying bacteria. | Days to liquefy. | Titnor testaal Serum. | Gelatin. Encipient! Gom- | >CBIeS4 Com. tion. plete: tion. plete KreshicontroliinfLusion 2- sete se) = eee eee ee | Bee ee AD oS sen Ree a Control infusion 1 day old ______------_-_----------- pee Ee cenit eo aec eee 23 26 Controllinfusiom\sida ys Old ese ere eee | ee |e it Ee (a) (a) Infusion 1 day after inoculation with river water________ | 5 1A eee es 5 Baal ae he BO Doss. ee ee eee ee eee ey eo eens ao eae ears 1 8 Infusion 3 days after inoculation with river water _____- 4 BCA TRS ee et | ale Shae Be 1D) ee eer en LS Me NL 2. SLA Se SES AR | Rea ne Ae ee 10 14 Infusion 6 days after inoculation with river water ______ 5) Do eee ees |seoeect 38 [Do See Ee oe ec ahh ok aE ee es ee DOW ter2 ss ko |Loss Infusion 1 day after inoculation with native tan liquor__ 4 7 eS les 1D) eee Se Sa SESS Oe eee ee Oe 5 Greve Lemeaes ee iy Infusion 8 days after inoculation with native tan liquor__ 3 Ages heal he pes 1D) 0 ee re ES oe ee et ee ee AS ee 10 12 Infusion 3 daysafter inoculation with native tan liquor__ 4 10} | Pease. 4) Cece eens Infusion 6 days after inoculation with native tan liquor__|___._.____]_-___-____- 4 10 MaveriliquoriNo la mypexperiment) pees eee eee eel ee ee as | eee rao va |e tps oa 3 )D YS Ss ee ee eS 4 Ch Pee es et [eee see 4 No liquefaction in seventy-five days. In this experiment the gelatin tubes were more resistant to the action of the liquefying bacteria than the serum tubes, thus illustrating the fact which must always be borne in mind by a tanner that blood remaining in the hides and skins is one of the causes of speedy putrefaction. Even with fresh and strong tan infusion liquefying and other bacteria will thrive and are sure to do mischief provided there is enough proper food for them. The waste of tanning material is due almost solely to the Filipino practice of chopping rather than grinding the bark. As the price of camanchile bark is steadily rising and constitutes an item of very large expense to the tanner, any methods for 364 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 more effective utilization of the material would be very practical. Tan bark is never ground, but chopped with a heavy, curved knife into pieces about 3 by 4 centimeters in size, which are much too large to permit complete extraction of the tannin. This practice results in a large waste of material, as may be seen from determinations included in Table XY. TABLE XV.—Analyses of fresh and “spent” camanchile bark. On dry basis. ot ae | patie 5 ‘Tannin | ! | | | | Condition of bark. |Moisture. nins. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. 25. 36 | oat IY ne EE ae ek, eI Bed ALLY | 10.34! 34.77 2.41 | GIS CES (eer eetiels Pe = Soe a SI ans ba ee ee ele) 12. 64 23. 63 pee 15.32 In this case only 39.6 per cent of the total tannins contained in the bark was used by the tanners, while the remaining 60.4 per cent was thrown away in the “spent” bark. Undertannage of leather is one of the chief causes of an un- satisfactory product. This is produced in part by insufficient plumping of the hides, in part by the use of coarse bark in making infusions, but principally because of false economy in the use of the bark. In examining the tan liquors in any Filipino tannery, it will be noted that they are uniformly much too weak, except at the very beginning of the process. In fact, the first tan liquors, corresponding to suspender liquors, are the strongest which are used in the process. This, of course, produces rapid tanning of the surface and, to a great extent, prevents thorough tanning of the interior of the hide. In determining the percentage of tannin in the tan liquors, specific gravity tests were found to be very unreliable, espe- cially in the case of the older liquors. Large quantities of mineral matter are introduced from the brackish river water and from the hides themselves which are insufficiently delimed. Deliming is rarely effective, as is clearly indicated by the red coloration produced when a drop of a phenolphthalein solution is placed on the surface of the hide. A piece of delimed hide just ready for the tan pits, after being placed in river water with sufficient formaldehyde to preserve it, was found to be still well impregnated with lime after forty-eight hours. The specific gravity of the river water itself is 1.029. Table XVI shows the specific gravities of tan liquors at various stages of the process. Xt, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 8365 TABLE XVI.—Specific gravities of Filipino tan liquors. Contact . 3 Specific | Sample No. Age. wae gravity. Days. Days. Wesetie chasse sae ad conc ase eso oe senna eas s sos eeeoccotouac cuss 5 1 1.022 i ee re ete Re CY ea eee 1.022 B snetecmnes contami StOSiE Se SSO SESE HSS ntasmbaonESaSsaetosadassoss Gii|zaeeeeneee 1.022 BAER Sag 2 tas a a bua Sate aaa ea oan t as Seb on ones Sates ee 8 5 1.021 Bette a fo tee woe e nok ee fvene lo seeees Soabe nu cease abalaeee el eo se ceeuee Oe | eee eee ae eet O! yl Sao 1.016 Analyses of tan liquors are given in Table XVII. TABLE XVII.—Analyses of Filipino tan liquors. S iNeidity, Grams per 100 ce. of the liquor. < as grams 2 Stage of process. Specific acetic £ gravity. | cid per 1b Oreanic Sues <5 a ende ontans.| Tannin. a 100 ce. § matter. Lira Wy pRurstidaye------ ee 1.010 0.15 0.79 1.59 0.38 1.39 0.61 2 | Fourteenth day--_-_-_- 1.018 0.09 2.22 1.64 0.47 3.30 (a) 3 | Sixth week ___----_---- 1.018 0.17 1.64 2.41 1.41 2.59 (a) 4 | Third day, 20 per cent 1. 022 0. 06 2.08 1. 86 (b) 3. 22 0. 67 extra strength. 5 | Half completed --_-__-_- BAC 2) ea eg | Ley ee | Pee ee 3.20 0.34 a Trace. > Undetermined. The tannin in these liquors is strikingly low, and the nontans, especially the mineral matter, are very high, as is to be expected when brackish water is used. The analyses of the ash of Fili- pino tan liquors is given in Table XVIII. TABLE XVIII.—Analyses of the ash of Filipino tan liquors. {Grams per 100 ce. of liquor.] Chloride Oxides ee “5 aay end cate iron an : q agne- | Sulphu- |bonate o. Sample No.+ | sitiea | sium |O%%909f/ Calcium | "ett [rte anny. sodtum (SiOz). | Axum | (Fe2O3).| (CaO). | (oxice eS paus (Fe203 (MgO). | (SOs). | phospho- AlzOs3). ric anhy- dride. Wecewics Seco ss asbebstecece 0. 006 O5026))|2eaeeaenee 0. 061 0. 034 0.0389 0. 62 op Ne Ie SSE Ua Iss Wes cu ae (OX0098 Peete aha 0.181 0. 093 0. 145 0. 064 1.77 C) eee ee as oe aes 0. 030 (OH089) |S noeeee 0. 138 0. 102 0. 074 1.21 Cp Se i ns ee 0.008 WORE) Woe oe 0. 135 0. 167 0. 078 1.60 a The samples correspond to the tan liquors in the previous table. 136791——2 366 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 In addition to the mineral matter the organic nontans are in considerable part nitrogenous materials. The quantity of ni- trogenous materials in representative tan liquors is shown in Table XIX. TABLE XIX.—WNitrogen content of Filipino tan liquors. [Grams per 100 cc. of the liquors.] Equiva- Equiva- Nitrogen = : Sample No. as saline lent hide piles lent Rigs ammonia. stance. stance. | 5 beset ee lil tek Se RA eee Af Ss a a Boe ee | 0.0430 0. 234 0. 062 0.343 RF eee ee eo ee Sn ee ee 0.0405 0. 223 0.077 0.422 | Busse id ee ee: OO AE SE 0. 0980 0.540 0.137} 0.754 aa Tests show that extract of camanchile bark contains consider- able quantities of nitrogenous material, and a correction must, therefore, be made. Table XX gives the nitrogen contents of the samples in the preceding table and of a fresh camanchile bark infusion calculated as hide substance in per cent of total solids. TABLE XX.—WNitrogen contents of Filipino tan liquors calculated as percentage of total solids. | Saline olaiae ammonia cour al nitrogen | Sample No. | as Aue lhide sub 28 ue | sub- | stance. | SERIGE. Bees | fee > oe D pie ee a taee eas cessacoe su seeese teach = eA eat spss aces aan ee ee See 11.70 17.17 5. 47 bs ence ape Se eS Oe eee os het 8. 45 15.99 7.54 | B bo3. = $25 ESS. ee ees ee oe eee eee 15. 20 21.38 6.18 |!" Biresih). Sous S03 90. 8 0s 2088 2 ee ee 1.74 6. 60 4.86 | i i DEMONSTRATION OF SIMPLE, EFFICIENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE FILIPINO TANNING PROCESS Bearing in mind the facts that Filipino tanners do not possess sufficient capital to purchase expensive equipment and that they are indisposed to abandon completely the methods they have used for generations and the cheap labor which they can obtain, an endeavor was made to find simple, inexpensive methods of improvement. In the main this was accomplished without se- rious difficulty. The improvements in the process are very strik- ing, although no doubt they could be still further increased, especially by additional modification of equipment. The follow- Oe eG Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 367 ing method was put into effect in a Filipino tannery which was then operating under the old methods. This was done as an object lesson, in spite of the unfavorable circumstances which it was anticipated would be encountered. A leather resulted which was odorless, firm, and entirely satisfactory as a sole leather. For this purpose nine hides were chosen as indicated in Table XXI. TABLE XXI.—Hides used in tanning experiment. Australian cattle hide: Kilos. No. 1 16.5 No. 2 23.5 No. 3 24.0 Chinese cattle hide: No. 1 19.0 No. 2 16.0 No. 3 19.0 No. 4 21.5 No. 5 18.5 No. 6° 2525) 4 Carabao. The hides were washed in fresh, clean water supplied from a near-by artesian well. The washing was repeated five times and, together with soaking, required seven hours. TABLE XXII.—Analysis of the artesian-well water. [Numbers represent parts per million.] Physical characters normal Reaction alkaline Total solids 274.0 Appearance on ignition 15 6 1b black- ening Free or saline ammonia 0.074 Organic or albuminoid ammonia 0.026 Chlorine 4.8 Nitrogen as nitrates nil Nitrogen as nitrites nil Silica (SiO:) 45.0 Oxides of iron and aluminium trace Oxide of calcium (CaO) 6.0 Oxide of magnesium (MgO) little Sulphuric anhydride (SO:;) trace Total hardness: 10.7 Permanent 10.7 Bicarbonic acid radical (HCOs) 183.0 Carbonic acid radical (COs) 15.0 368 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 This water is almost sterile as it comes from the well and was very little contamined in carrying to the tannery. The hides were next placed in a pit with 40 liters of lime and 400 liters of artesian water, and were left for eight days, during which time they were handled five times.’ They were then fleshed and dehaired and placed in a 1 per cent phenol solution for twenty-four hours. A bath in a 0.2 per cent solution of sul- phuric acid for fifteen minutes followed, for the purpose of neutralizing the surface lime of the pelts. They were placed in a suspender containing very weak, fresh tan liquor, with a specific gravity of about 1.000 at ordinary temperature, and whose strength and acidity were increased every day during ten days up to 1.004 specific gravity and 0.2 per cent acetic acid. After ten days in the suspender liquor the hides were removed and laid in another clean pit with 50 kilograms of half-used tan bark and sufficient tan liquor of specific gravity 1.006 to cover the hides. On the fourth day they were handled, and 50 kilograms of fresh bark were added. On the ninth day they were again handled, with an addition of 100 kilograms of fresh tan bark. On the twenty-fifth day they were again handled, with an addition of 130 kilograms of fresh bark; on the forty- fifth day with 210 kilograms, and on the sixty-fourth day with 162 kilograms. The specific gravity of the liquors was taken after each handling. TABLE XXIII.—Specifice gravity of handled liquors. Handling No. Specific gravity of tan liquor. 1 1.006 Zs 1.006 3 1.007 4 1.012 5 1.017 6 1.020 qf 1.022 While in the suspenders and during the first forty-five days in the laying pit the rate of tannage was rapid. Thereafter it decreased markedly, as is shown in Table XXIV. The rate of tannage of the carabao hide is noticeably slower than that of the cattle hides on account of its thickness. Such thick hides should consequently always be tanned separately. "The only advisable changes in the Filipino method of liming would be to use from one to three changes of lime liquor and to keep the lime pit clean. X, A, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 369 TABLE XXIV.—Analysis of leather samples taken at different times during tannage, after the twenty-fifth day in the laying pit. Parts per 100 of H20 free material. Kind of Mos) ———— en Day. hide. ture. ee . anning Hide) sub; matters * | and ash. Per cent. STW EN LY qfiGthyesena oa eon soe ae Oe eek nee Nm es ee Et Cattle ____ 17.3 68.7 41.3 orbyotibthyenc sas ones tae ER Sl ae A ee oe peers (a) Sema 16.9 51.0 49.0 Sixty t OUND Ee ees ae ae PLN DI AUS Fa USL umudoeuus 14.5 50.8 2049.2 Seventy-second te ssstete st nee Lae ae ce eae Seaske = posses (o\ Sees 14.1 50.1 49.9 1D Ye) sl saa Sa i epee ae aa op AUR eae ce tg ar Carabao -_- 14.2 53.1 46.9 28 The owner of the tannery at this point unfortunately added 5 fresh pelts to the pit, thereby reducing the strength of the tan liquor and the degree of tannage. The increase in strength of the tan liquors, as indicated in Table XXIV, was by no means as rapid as was to be desired. However, aS no means were available for grinding the bark, it was not feasible to avoid this objectionable feature. In ad- dition, the process was considerably disturbed by the real or fancied necessities of the owner, who used tan liquor from the layer pit for other hides. On the seventy-second day the goods were taken from the pit, piled upon a beam to drain, brushed, wiped, and lightly oiled on the grain. When half-dried under the shed, where they hang from one to five days according to weather conditions, they were laid in a pile to temper. This allows the moisture to dis- tribute itself equally throughout the hides. They were then struck out with a striking pin to smooth and flatten the grain and were hung under the shed further to dry. A second strik- ing followed. They were then rolled with a smooth, hardwood roller provided with a suitable carriage and properly weighted, first with a light weight and a slightly moist grain, and then with a heavy weight and a nearly dry grain. After being rolled, the goods were dried rapidly with free circulation of air and finally polished with a brush by hand. The hides so obtained were free from all of the principal defects of the native leather. They displayed no odor nor evidence of putrefaction at any point. The loss of hide sub- stance was much smaller and the degree of tannage much higher, as indicated by Table XXV, which shows the weight of the native leather and that produced by the improved process. 370 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE XXV.—Weights of tanned hides. | - -:: | Weights of leather eh of Ftpin from hides tanned * jin this experiment.9| Austra: | Chinese | Avatra | Chinese | | eattle lige: | cattle jwcertle | leather. s leather. | nore | Kilo. | Kilo. | Rilo |) (Rilo. | 1.5 9.0| d1.5| 13.0 | 10.0 10.0 17301]| eet 12.5 9.0 | 16.5] 13.0 | PaeeattkO Tf | et 14.0 | 10.5 YO) | et beans 12.0 12.0 10K0)]| enone 20.0 | 10.5 TN [een seal ac al 13.0 AOKO | Sbo2 8 2e2 | os ee ad Lore an * These hides are arranged in the same order as in the list of raw hides above in Table XXI. The average weight of hides tanned by the improved process is approximately 32 per cent greater than that of those ordi- narily produced. In other words, the Filipino tanner obtains about 3 kilograms of leather from 6 kilograms of green pelt, while by the improved process this yield of leather is increased to about 4 kilograms of higher grade product. Table XXVI shows the degree of tannage in native leathers as compared with those produced by the improved process. TABLE XXVI.—Cheinical analysis of leather. Parts per 100 of | water-free ma- } terial. | Mois- | | ture. | pee | Tanning Hide mobs matters * | and ash. | = — = = — — —7 — ai | i | Per cent. | | “proved iproduct:._. £135." St See oe ee | 14.1 | 50.1 49.9 | Filipino product#.2-vpt". 148. fas eS 8 16.5} 614] 38.6 | D0 Sass ons aes tenet aw ee ee eee See See 16.3 62.9 37.1 The color and grain of the hides produced by the improved process, while not perfect, were entirely satisfactory for local market conditions, and the actual increase in the value of the goods by these improvements far exceeded the small increased cost of putting them into effect. Local tanners were alarmed by the large quantities of tan bark which were added to the laying pit. It was difficult for them to realize that no tannin is wasted, X, A, 6 Gana: Leather Industry of the Philippines 871 but that the use of old tan liquor, suitably diluted, is to be preferred for fresh hides, so that the entire excess of tannin is eventually utilized. The only actual increase in cost lies in the added labor in finishing the leather. For this expenditure the tanner will be amply repaid. Finally, the practice of chopping bark by hand cannot be too severely condemned as wasteful of tanning material and labor alike. A mill for grinding the bark would repay its entire cost in a few weeks of operation. An experiment with ten hides was carried out substantially as above outlined, except that mangrove bark was used ex- clusively in the layer pits after lying in suspender liquor of camanchile. The resulting leather was orange brown, which is not objectionable. The texture was firmer than that of ecamanchile leather. The partial substitution of mangrove for camanchile is to be recommended as rapidly as the local leather buyers can be induced to accept slightly darker colored goods. SUMMARY 1. The tanning industry in the Philippine Islands amounts to about 1,800,000 pesos per annum and can be greatly extended. 2. It has been shown that improvements can be put into effect in a Filipino tannery without modification of the equipment and with little increase in expense, which will yield about 32 per cent more leather of a higher grade than that now produced. Leather produced by the improved process is firm, of a satisfactory color and grain, and free from the disagreeable odor or evidence of putrefaction and other principal defects of native leather. 3. A great economy in both labor and material can be effected in the Filipino process by grinding the tan bark in a mill instead of chopping it by hand. The tanning materials never become satisfactorily extracted from chopped bark, and the resulting waste is very great. 4, Good, moderately colored leathers can be produced by com- bining camanchile and mangrove at a considerably decreased cost. UU 7 Se rere malted ides cake ot ) bone ot wt? Ai sed Dee at @ b fanaa! 77 A0. Dia deoel it rar oat a4 ob a ene aidy sey atest ety wiittelat ii fodal & Ratepuls Te wasn a anit SNE, is 40 iba. wer or ap. Hyss Wot eons brisd yo ae Mri why galbabes vale yo thay: 4 elt Pitan laPetene We ; others The Wes «i 09 Siitns sli qaqa lav hetediie ¢0o- betas Law his. at fits TOLER %» heay es shunt overiind «ded: ipso Dealing iv TCupil ‘ishisqagy af RAPA thy Wet add ats il avon! sguo Baw soettesl ioihuset aT a ' jor) was sear) Gta oftdeet. oft neifanotieelne 0 sari to ppt iedoy tetrsca ofl peel ontgael lao anf ae iliied th botuemdloeet sd-ot Me ifdivy besvhecisahiah ite iy tawonseor feud eis ryaliner . sme Ee ee os a st Ne n> h y, Ha 4 ity eal has asi bia atg9 ; (ate sah we oe mae ; bit ¥, dhe ght fies hy oe ‘ it 7 fila Wi me SN ole tattle! hd rh Yo - jal ris vid x eae é ¥d af eae ' ; to sonigbive ga tebe (it qaempaal peti ¥ cas? fine Aedteok alta Yo eiaetab city bofoslia ad @ey falreloca bon vodel died ul yeomase & heats fin « Hi towel ned odd Ratiiniiy yt seaperng 9 sinoset dover ealietant yatta all. baad vid piitliest od! han ind beygods mit! bats rede +e vd bevoliow eet nas epeiigaot tiv sh lta Juey Howas tosh Warohlanna & tx every riata bra @ ¥! me tNee atl seal ot Ue bidés nroeoek by. ey ' yes, 1 Sb Gol pep) et, were eptivay ty HeineLorysd “ete (vies Be ee aetleds ingest MM, Slee Wie (mila tor thea 7 Ve een PAY ef /veacil Thee Ge oo) Ce Oe g ane Biter adect Lint Manno LF Pie vee pie. eae i aes Cia wile CY seed stills mt ee rn SE ee eet ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Liming pits. . Chopping tan bark. . Tanning vats. PLATE II Dehairing and fleshing at the river. . Drying finished leather. 373 ts qaitead Goa pettlede Lat” SAOLT ART COU ALS f WTA 54 eter yuiewl 12d tun! and yaiqnad? © ating asinuat .2 iL. arar't wiltet bahia gafee) 4 GANA: LEATHER INDUSTRY. ] (Pur. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 3. Tanning vats. PLATE |. GANA: LEATHER INDUSTRY. ] (Pur. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Dehairing and fleshing at the river. Fig. 2. Drying finished leather. PLATE Il. SALT INDUSTRY AND RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ! By ALVIN J. Cox and T. Dar JUAN (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) SEVENTEEN PLATES AND 5 TEXT FIGURES The beginning of the salt industry in the Philippines is ob- scure. As long as the Islands have been inhabited it is probable that every family along the sea border was its own salt maker. The salt was probably largely obtained by boiling and was an inferior article, as no method was adopted to separate the lime, the salts of the mother liquor, and other impurities. It is im- possible to determine just when the first attempt at commercial salt making was made in the Archipelago. Reference is made to it as an ocupation as early as 1583. Miguel de Loarca in that year wrote of Macagua Island as follows: The people are poor and wretched possessing nothing but salt and fish, Of Lutuya Islets he said, “The chief occupation in all of these islets is making salt and mats,” and of Similara Island and the small islands toward Mindoro, “All the people of these islets gather a very scanty harvest; they make salt and are traders.” * In 1637, in connection with the commerce of the Orient, which the Dutch carried on with Batan, mention is made of the profit to the island from salt.* In accounts of the successful attack of the Spaniards against the Moro pirates and on Jolo in 1731 we read that the conquerors also ravaged Talobo and Capual Islands and destroyed the salt works there from which the Moros derived much wealth.* In 1687, in a narrative of the Augustinians in the Philippines, Diaz * writes of the unprecedented rains which ruined the crops and caused a great scarcity of provisions. He said: it was impossible to work the salt-beds, the price of salt rose so high 1 Received for publication February 10, 1915. ? Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands. The Arthur H. Clark Company, Cleveland (1903), 5, 53. * Ibid. (1908), 5, 73. “Tbid. (1905), 27, 93. Ibid. (1907), 46, 39. *Tbid. (1906), 42, 258. (Jt) < Or 376 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 that it came to be worth twelve pesos‘ for half a fanega [4 (55.501 liters) ], although its ordinary price was two or three reals [25 to 87.5 centavos]— and some years even less, depending on the (height of the) water and on the heat of the sun, on which conditions this so necessary industry depends. These and other letters tell of the production of salt at an early date in many parts of the Islands. During the following years mention is made by many writers of the barter of salt and other articles of food on the one hand, and gold on the other, between those who lived along the coast and the inhabitants of the mountains. All processes for salt making fall into three groups, depending on the character of the heat employed and the manner of its application: (1) Use of solar heat, or solar salt manufacture; (2) direct artificial heat, or kettle and pan processes; (3) steam heat, or grainer methods. The majority of the plants in the Philippine Islands belong to the first group; there are a few in the second, and none in the last group. USE OF SOLAR HEAT IN DIFFERENT PROCESSES In warm climates, as upon the shores of the Mediterranean, the coast of California and Mexico, the entire Pacific coast of South America, the islands of the West Indies, Southern Aus- tralia, and the whole coast line of tropical Asia, including China and Japan, sodium chloride is obtained by the evaporation of sea water in the shallow lagoons or in shallow basins or pools, constructed upon the seashore and exposed to the sun’s rays. France is one of the most important sea-salt-producing countries of Europe. The total area covered by the salt works is about 19,000 hectares, in 12 departments—7 on the Mediter- ranean and 5 on the Atlantic coast. In this industry some 8,000 laborers are employed for several months every year.® Portugal, Spain, and Italy are also among the chief sea-salt- producing countries of Europe. Italy is the cradle of the saltern industry. Pliny relates that Ancus Martius, the fourth of the early kings of Rome, who reigned from 640 to 616 before Christ, was the first who had sea water led into closed basins to evaporate for salt. Later many such salterns were established, so that even in very early times the manufacture of sea salt was an important industry. An interesting relic of this is the Via Salaria—the salt road—one 7One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos, equals 50 cents United States currency. *>th Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey (1886), 505. ®Furer, Salzbergbau (1900), 269; Bull. La. Geol. Surv. (1907), 7, 158. x,A,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 317 of the oldest of Roman roads, which was built to accommodate the salt trade.*° China is one of the oldest salt-producing countries of the Orient. In former times the salt trade in China was so highly esteemed that at the annual opening of the salt works princes were present in person and took an active interest in the first salt boiling."! In many of these countries the production of salt is a state monopoly, or is under government control. The salterns, or salt farms, are either leased to private companies, or are administered directly by the officials of the government. A good example of this is China, where taxation of salt commenced as far back as the seventh century before Christ. It is said that the great Emperor Yu, 2205 to 2197 before Christ, ordered Chingchou Province to supply the court, among other things, with salt. During the Chow dynasty, 1122 to 249 before Christ, officers were appointed for the administration of salt matters. At the present time the revenue derived from salt is the Chinese Government security for the reorganization loan of 25,000,000 pounds sterling.’? Since American occupation all restrictions on the manufacture of salt in the Philippines have been withdrawn. Solar evaporation must be carried on in general where it is hot and where evaporation greatly exceeds the rainfall—that is, where there is a pronounced dry season. Fig. 1 shows that there are two definite and different types of rainfall in the Philippines. The eastern half of the Archipelago has a rainfall more or less equitably distributed throughout the year; hence the principal salt works are confined to the western portion of the Islands, where there is a definite dry season.*® The degree of difference in the two types is shown in figs. 2 and 3, where the mean of the values “ for the two groups is graphically represented. The normal evaporation from 1885 to 1907 for Manila is also shown in fig. 4. * Bull. La. Geol. Surv. (1907), 7, 168. “Far Hast. Rev. (1912), 9, 295. “Tbid. (1912), 9, 295. “The differentiation of rainfall into the eastern and western types may not be complete; for example, there is but one weather station in Mindoro, and while it and probably the remainder of the low portions of the island fall in with the western type, it is believed that the rainfall in the high mountains is very heavy, due to the fact that the narrow neck of Luzon in Tayabas allows the rain clouds to pass over and precipitation to take place in the high altitudes of Mindoro. * Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 288-91. 878 . The Philippine Journal of Science 1916 122° G {Batanes ts. siSanto Domingo Balintang|Ckanne/ . Q | @ Babuyanes ts. r | UD eluguegarao *Bayombong Nw ryos Ist 4 IVvGos: Yer. Jose. 1A E,SStargao | Kagayanes Is.¢ gao Klavilli Jee Fainboanga bela . K e ei 2 S? Sarangani Is o. § cS “ CELEBES SEGA 125 Fic. 1. Map showing two definite types of rainfall in the Philippines. x,A,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 3879 w& N is} 4 & & Ps fy = ~~ a) ~ 280 = K 3 ~ ~ Ds = < & PERCENT OF ANNUAL RAINFALL JAN. FEB MAR, APR, MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NQY. OFC. Fic. 2. Mean rainfall in the western portion of the Philippine Archipelago. ny > is} ae] = is} oS) bs) Ss RAINFALL IN MILLIMETERS S 8 8 T ee eS Sean Sa) See eee) | Se eee Ss) a ee ee ee ae ee ee ee ESS Be ee ee an PERCENT OF ANNUAL RAINFALL JAN. FEB, MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY. AUG, SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. Fic. 3. Mean rainfall in the eastern portion of the Philippine Archipelago. 880 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUG. SEPT. OCT. Woy. Fic. 4. Normal evaporation 1885-1907, Manila. In view of the diminution in the rainfall and the high evapora- tion one would anticipate salt works using solar heat in the western half of the Archipelago to operate from December or January to April or May, which accords with the actual case. DIFFERENT METHODS USED FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT A method commonly known in the Provinces of Batangas, Bula- can, Cavite, and Rizal by the name of iras Tagalog (native method) has been used in the Philippines as long as any of those now employed in the industry can remember and is probably the original method used in these Islands. The process is as follows: Large areas of sandy land along _ the coast, approximately at the level of high tide, are cleared of vegetation and cleaned. The surface of the prepared land (abuhan) is loosened, and water from canals (angkaw), through which it is led in from the sea or from the estero, is sprinkled over the area where it rapidly evaporates. This process is repeated about four times a day for three consecutive days, until x,4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 881 a quantity of salt has accumulated on the surface. On the fourth or the fifth day the loose earth, together with the salt, is scraped into heaps and collected into leaching vats, called hornohan (from the Spanish “horno,” which literally means ‘‘oven), where it is leached with sea water or weak brine until most of the salt has been extracted and a concentration of about 10 per cent of salt by weight is obtained. In many plants using the Filipino method the leaching vats are located at a point intermediate between the canals, where sea water is available. In this case the sea water is conveyed to the vats by means of an inclined bamboo pipe, the lower end of which rests upon an open-work bamboo basket, or other device, to prevent violent impact of the water, and the upper and larger end of which carries an earthenware jar (pilon) or galvanized-iron funnel to receive the water. TABLE I.—Mechanical analyses of soil used for evaporating salt water. {Numbers give percentages. ] Sample from— | Classification. nee Bacoor. eee gas. Detritus 2 topimm = see a ee ae eee, RAL De teat OE LL EE ES Beal 26.3 15.6 Fine earth, water-free basis: (Coarseisand, lito) 0s5imm Sse ee ae re ee eee eee eeee 1.8 11.1 7.0 IMedinmisand 0 5)\tolO42bim ripen e ee ae eel 5.2 17.4 22.9 ineisands10525)t0) OS Orrin ee ee 9.5 12.6 30.4 Very fine sand, 0.10 to 0.05 mm_-_______-_-__----_--------------- 16.7 10.6 12.2 SiIEFOLOG CoLOS OL mimes ae a a Ee ee ae 19.8 3.4 7.6 Mineisilt710x010t0)0!002immbaae ane ea ee eee ee nena eee eee 29.6 35.8 12.0 Glayd(and{ealt)l<<0%002 mime ee eee eee 17.4 9.1 8.0 In the Philippines there are many salt-water shrubs and trees which when green have a specific gravity greater than that of water. In Rizal, Cavite, and Bulacan Provinces it is a common practice among Filipinos to pluck twigs of the plant known by the name of culase (Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.), which grows in the marshes near salt farms and along the levees of the evaporation reservoirs, strip them of their leaves, and throw them in the brine to test its strength. If they sink, the brine is not yet strong enough, but when they float, the brine is suffi- ciently concentrated to be transferred to the crystallizing ponds, called banigan. The specific gravity of the culase twigs of the size used has been determined by one of us to be about 1.085, or equivalent to 11.5 per cent by weight of salt. The culase varies from 1.070 to 1.096, depending on whether it is smaller 136791——3 382 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 or larger than the size used by the Filipinos in determining the strength of the brine. There are very few Filipinos who use a specific gravity spindle or a salometer to determine the strength of the brine. The leaching vat commonly used in Rizal and Cavite Provinces consists of a circular dike about 50 centimeters high and 4 meters in diameter, which is built on the ground. The bottom is covered with a layer of palm leaves, usually nipa, and rice husks, which filter the mud from the brine. By means of bamboo piping the filtered brine is drawn off through the dike into a shallow cement, earthenware (pilon), or clay-lined well. Dilute brine is dipped back into a leach, and the operation is repeated, until it becomes strong, when it is transferred to shallow crystallizing ponds. After the leached mud has hardened slightly, it is marked off into squares. While the leaching is in progress, another layer of loose earth is being impregnated. This is scraped into heaps about the leach, while the squares of leached mud are drying. When the blocks have sufficiently hardened, they are thrown from the leach back on to the field. After the second crop of salty earth has been scraped into the leach, the clods are pulverized and carefully spread out again to be impregnated. The crystallizing ponds are floored with smooth, broken pottery (tinajas or pilones) set in lime mortar to retard seepage and to prevent the admixture of sand with salt. The ponds are surrounded with bamboo fences covered with nipa or cogon grass in order to prevent the prevailing wind from blowing dust into them and the floating crystals from congregating on the leeward side. As the crystallizing ponds require more liquid, more and more of the strongest brine is added. It is poured through a straw-filled, open-work basket filter to remove rice husks, which may have gotten in from the leach, and especially to prevent disturbance of the bottom of the pond. When the brine is sufficiently concentrated to deposit salt, every day after sundown, when the temperature has fallen, to give the maximum crystallization, the crystals are raked into heaps at the side of the vats, gathered into baskets to drain, and finally conveyed into warehouses. MODIFICATIONS OF IRAS TAGALOG METHOD The iras Tagalog method is more or less modified in other parts of the Archipelago, but the principle of the process remains the same. In Antique, Cebu, Iloilo, Negros, and Palawan Prov- inces beds of bamboo split in half serve as crystallizing ponds. x,a,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 883 In certain localities as, for example, Pangasinan Province low land below the tide level is used for evaporating salt water. In this case the depression is leveled, inclosed by dikes, and filled with tide water, which is evaporated by the sun’s heat; when the water has disappeared, the surface crust is gathered up and leached as described previously. In this locality the leaching apparatus is frequently a small banca, in which a hole has been made at the bottom and covered with layers of straw and rice husk. The concentration of the brine is determined by throw- ing in it twigs of the guava tree. If they float, the brine con- tains the required amount of salt to be boiled, but if they sink, it is not yet sufficiently concentrated to be transferred to cauas (kettles). It is saved for leaching fresh amounts of salt-im- pregnated earth. The specific gravity of the first leachings, or concentrated brine, called irna, as determined by means of guava twigs, varies from 1.185 to 1.196. People from Ambos Camarines, Albay, Bohol, Batanes, Capiz, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Leyte, Misamis, Nueva Viz- caya, Pangasinan, Surigao, Sorsogon, Samar, Union, Zambales, and Mountain Provinces vary the process by evaporating to dryness the brine of the final leachings in cauas, or huge, thick, iron pans or kettles, mounted on rude clay furnaces. Sometimes the process is much less refined. A fire is built on the beach, and sea water is continually sprinkled on it, though not in such quantity as to put out the fire. Finally the fire is allowed to burn out, the ashes are leached, and the evaporation is made by artificial heat as above outlined. The crystals produced by boiling are formed rapidly and are, therefore, not so large, so hard, nor so desirable for packing purposes as those produced by slow evaporation. In Japan a plan somewhat different from the method just described is employed.'® The floor of the salt farm is made perfectly level and is covered with an even layer of clay, which is packed down and covered with a thick bed of coarse sand, which is kept loose by frequent raking. The sand is irrigated with sea water, led in through narrow ditches, which is allowed to evaporate. The process is repeated until the sand has be- come thoroughly impregnated with salt. The sand is then put in filters, sea water is poured on, and the brine which filters through is evaporated in pans over charcoal fires. It is of interest to note the great similarity of the processes used in the Philippines for the manufacture of salt to the * Bull. La. Geol. Sur. (1907), 7, 195. 884 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 processes used in China, where they either boil the brine or else evaporate it in the sun, according to a recent article,'* from which we quote the following: on the very first day of opening operations in the salt-works the seashore is cleared of weeds, and a beginning is made by digging out the upper layer of earth and breaking it up; this earth when broken up is turned over and over with bamboo poles until it is fine and smooth. Then sea- water is brought from ingenious receptacles, which are filled with water at high tide, and the earth is moistened with it, as with light rain, equally and thoroughly. Towards evening the earth is shovelled to one side, and a long line of mounds is formed of it, in order to protect it from rain during the night. On the following day the procedure is the same as on the previous day, except that the earth is carried to some particular spot for safety. In fine weather it is taken out again from time to time, and dried on the salt-grounds. As soon as the earth has been thoroughly prepared, i. e., is completely impregnated with salt particles, the workers take it to the ovens. These ovens [not a real oven but a leaching vat], which are shaped like chests, 9 ft. long, 2 ft. broad, and 3 ft. deep, are called Lu; near each a well 8 ft. deep is dug. The floor of the oven is strewn with rotten wood; above this are fine bamboos; on them is a layer of brushwood, and above all is a layer of ashes of plants. The prepared earth is shot upon this, beaten hard and covered with rice straw. On this is poured sea-water, which finds its way through all the inner layers, and flows into the well as brine. Each oven in 24 hours gives more than 20 tan (60 pud) of pure brine, which is drawn out of the well and taken to the boiling oven to be boiled * * *. Each boiling begins at 11 p. m. and continues until 10 o’clock on the following morning * * *. It appears in three qualities and colours: white, dark and yellow: the white is the best, the dark not so good, and the yellow much inferior and of a bitter taste. The second method * * * is distinct from the first, in that the brine is not boiled, but poured into peculiar paved tanks, and left there to the sun and wind. For complete evaporation two days in summer, and 38-4 at other times are sufficient, and indeed the N. W. wind is quite as favorable to this operation as are the sun’s rays; on the other hand, with unfavorable winds, and in rainy weather, no salt is taken. Another method in use in the Philippines, introduced in re- cent years by the Chinese, utilizes most of the lower areas— that is, the vast stretches of overflowed tide lands, or salt marshes, at the head of the bays or along the coast line. The land best suited is that flush with an ordinary tide, so that it may be covered from 30 to 50 centimeters deep by a high tide. The land, having been cleared of vegetation and débris, is first leveled and then diked with levees a meter or more high. It is then partitioned off into reservoirs, shallow evaporation lakes, or stock ponds of different sizes, depending on the size of the plant itself, for receiving, settling, and evaporating the sea * Far East. Rev. (1912), 9, 303. x, 4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 385 water and precipitating the silica, oxide of iron, calcium carbo- nate, and calcium sulphate. The reservoir in which the first evaporation takes place is usually a fish pond; in addition to this, there are in most salt plants three rows of shallow concentration reservoirs, seldom less than four in a series, and often six or seven. The brine is drawn from one reservoir to another as it strengthens and de- creases in volume by evaporation, and new water is in turn admitted from the bay. Beyond the reservoirs crystallizing ponds are constructed in the manner already described. See- page from the crystallizing ponds is collected in ditches, which carry it to a well, from which it is baled out with a bamboo sweep into another ditch, which returns it to the evaporation reservoirs containing the strongest brine. When the crystalliz- ing ponds are higher than the evaporation reservoirs the brine is dipped up by hand; sometimes it is poured into an apparatus similar to that used in filling the leaching vats, allowed to run through a straw filter, and thus transferred to the crystallizing ponds. When land above tide level is employed for the greater part of the manufacturing plant, the water is elevated with a bamboo sweep. In the ideal plant the whole process is by gravity. Water transportation connects most or all of the salt works with deep water, from where connection can be made via navi- gable streams with many of the inlands provinces. The working season for the plants along Manila Bay varies somewhat from year to year, but usually begins in December and continues until about May—a period of approximately one hundred fifty days. The product obtained by the process above described is coarse and not usually of the best quality, as it contains magnesium salts and other impurities. The brine thus treated will not give a product containing much over 93 to 94 per cent sodium chloride. If, however, the mother liquor containing the bulk of impu- rities—that is, most of the magnesium and sodium sulphates and practically all the magnesium and calcium chlorides—is removed from time to time, a much higher grade of salt may be produced. The magnesia and lime content of Philippine salt are shown in Table II. The first concentration or evaporation reservoirs are preceded by a fish pond, not shown in figure 5, specific gravity 1.025, which is supplied at its intake with water having a specific gravity of 1.024. In all of the Philippine plants the brine was transferred from the evaporation reservoirs to the crystallizing 386 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 TABLE II.— Showing the magnesia and lime content of Philippine salt. [Numbers give percentages. ] Calcium | Magnesi- ill Source. oxide | um oxide Remarks. (CaO). | (MgO). Paranaque (1) (1911) ______________ 0. 96 0.85 | Prepared from estero water. Filipino method. Parafiaque (2) (1911) ___-__________ 1.24 0.84 | Prepared from estero water. Chinese method. Malabon (1913) 2 seen 1.66 1.93 Do. Obandoi@9il) =. eee 0.79 1.81 Do. Obando! (4) i@913))25_ 222 — eee 0.33 0.33 Do. QObandol())(G@913) = 0. 70 0.45 Do. Obandol(@)20913) = ee 0.78 0.39 Do. | Obando (5) (912) === === 0.34 0.73 Do. | Obando (6) (1912) _. --_-_---_---__- 0. 47 0. 67 Do. Ath inang sess. See se Sea eae 6.14 trace | Salt spring. Ann 2 o5../2 se hae eet 4.03 1.43 Do. Bayombone (5) hse eee trace 0.25 Do. iBayombong (6) essa es eet 0.55 trace Do. [me Bayomboney (1) — eee eee 1.74 0.50 Do. cae pond at a density never greatly exceeding 1.13, the concentration at which gypsum begins to deposit, which is too soon. Fig. 5 gives the concentrations of the brine of a plant in actual opera- tion. The effect is readily noticeable on the composition of the product, which contains a high percentage of lime. The bitter salts are not removed from many of the crystallizing ponds, _and the effect is evident in the high magnesia content of the salt. The lower magnesia content of the Paranaque sample given in Table II is due to its being an early crop before the bitterns had become greatly concentrated. The salt produced by the old Filipino method has acquired a reputation for its superior qualities for curing fish. Many a Filipino will say that it takes more of the salt produced by the new, or Chinese method, to preserve a given weight of fish. In the old process the water is evaporated to dryness, and gypsum, which is not readily soluble, is largely eliminated, for only a small amount of it is redissolved in the leaches. In this way the separation is more complete than is now common prac- tice in the new method, where the brine is transferred to crys- tallizing ponds too soon. By the old method, particularly, the salt was usually retained in warehouses for some time. With the new method salt is produced in large quantity and is frequently sold directly after draining and before the pile has weathered and the hygroscopic salts have been washed out by the absorption of moisture from the air. These differences x,A,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 387 Scale 1 5 oO 10 20m eS See he Mee MRT pee Fe mae GGL i = EL DEERE L WAT MR PARA ADE DIN APR ETS LAE EGRET LTS 3 PRED ATE TAPP PRE EORTC NANA | EEL eS SATE ESN SS ESTEE Soe SEE 1028-9 ERS RI ES BORNE TE DLA PID SEES TENSE PLEA AY | 71S SHANE OEE ET: 1029-3) 1029-31 ROS ERA BASIE ASO EN RPL UNTER VERON CLI ERI RAV 8 WEA RAPCO TE FORTE IC 1039-40 ty 1049-74 | 1049-74 1049-74 i | i iz 1081 - 1/10 1081 -£110 108/-1/10 L081-10 BE NCAA WW RATIO 8 CR SEAT ETE RATT DOU SNOT 6. SICA RE FERNS TET 8 BRL XAT ASEY GAS /4 crystallization vats i i i : i i] i 1 : i: fieerestestorereenrcereee SS SR W00I e e eey dh iesrens canna RAS NES LAA AL Fic. 5. A general diagram showing specific gravity of brine in the different concentration reservoirs of plants in actual operation. 888 The Philippine Journal of Science 19165 are the only ones which exist. With proper manipulation the salt produced by the Chinese method will have as high a per- centage of purity and a whiter color than that produced by the Filipino method. So far as we have been able to determine, the area devoted to crystallizing ponds in plants using the process introduced by the Chinese is one sixth to one fifth (excluding the fish pond), or even more, of the area covered by the evaporation reservoir. However, taking into consideration the fact that for the more complete separation of the less soluble salts the volume of the brine should be reduced more than is done in common practice, the above ratio is much larger than is necessary. In order to carry on the process of evaporation in the most efficient way, the following facts should be given due consid- eration: 1. The rate of evaporation for any solution decreases as the con- centration is increased. Accordingly, in order to counteract retarded evaporation in the various steps of the process a slightly greater than proportional surface area is needed in succeeding concentration reservoirs. This fact is almost negligible except in fairly concentrated solutions and is probably more than compensated by seepage. The latter varies, depending on the nature of the soil, and the average should be determined and taken into consideration in the construction of a plant. 2. The capacity and surface area of the evaporation reservoirs of any row should be proportional to the quantity of brine delivered from the reservoirs of the preceding row. 3. The specific gravity of the brine should be controlled in such a way that each row of evaporation reservoirs should receive and deliver a brine of definite specific gravity. 4. The area occupied by the crystallization vats should be as small as possible to accommodate the brine concentrated in the evaporation reser- voirs, for in that way as much salt can be obtained with less labor. If we neglect the effect of the precipitation of the less soluble salts (calcium sulphate, calcium and magnesium carbonates, oxides of iron and alumina, etc.) on the density of the brine during the process of concentration, we can establish for prac- tical purposes the principle that the density of the brine varies inversely proportional to its volume and for a given depth in- versely proportional to the superficial area.’ The salt supply of Mountain Province for the greater part comes from Cervantes and is sold to the people at exorbibant prices. The people of Mountain Province also produce a very * On this basis the approximate volume of the brine at any given den- sity may be determined and the corresponding size of the concentration reservoir to contain it may be calculated. x,A4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 389 small amount of a poor grade of salt by evaporating water from the carbonated brackish springs at Mayinit, Bontoc; Tukukan, Ahin, and Bungubungna, Ifugao; and Salinas, Nueva Vizcaya. TABLE III.—Chemical analysis of some waters used for the preparation of salt. [Numbers give parts per thousand. ] ; 5 Fete ron an sium cal- alumi- | Calcium Mane: Potasium| culated | Sodium Source. nium oxide aide oxide |aspotas-| oxide oxide | (CaO). (MeO) (K20). sium (Na20). (R203). Se chloride (KCl). Ahinan Spring, west flow of Gua- dalupelcrater.-- = = 2 ee trace 4. 022 0.049 0. 085 0. 185 5. 488 Proliant SDrin geese eee ee rn nn 0. 003 0. 333 0. 066 0. 919 1.454 2.334 PAhin! Spring 222) 2e-) Yee ee es 0. 027 0. 618 0. 255 1,242 1.965 6.021 Mayinit hot spring _-_-______._____-_- 0. 088 0. 128 0. 001 0. 023 0. 086 0. 457 alatoki/Spring =.=) 2) ee eee 0. 085 0. 868 0. 007 1. 580 2. 500 8.688 WMalabonestero)/---- 22-2 2---2555 eee 0. 036 0. 854 2.078 0.717 1.134 | 14.15 Parafiaque estero-_ ._.._-_--..-------- 0. 028 0. 654 1. 025 0. 764 1.209 | 138.18 Sodium caleu- Sulphu- lated as Silica | Chlorine| ric acid Carbonic} Bro- Source. * . A acid radi-| mine Bee eee eM ia ances cal (COs)! |) (Br); (NaCl). Ahinan Spring, west flow of Gua- Galupeicrate rms eee 10. 340 0. 023 11.09 BFAGS hee ee PRU KANIS DIT ee eee 4.397 0. 103 BOB OF 0857 |e serene acm [lee Eater! Ain Springy ese sae. eek lees RA 9. 461 0. 106 6. 89 C0 Fo US) te fee oe Mayinit hot spring -------------_---- 0. 861 0,195 0.75 0. 295 05208) Saeeeeeas Balatoc Spring eee 16.370 0.317 11.59 OF 286 pee a see a eae Malabon'esteroe-s=- se see nee ee ae 26. 660 0. 024 20. 96 PANCRAS | 0. 185 24. 830 0. 008 18. 84 PAY (10) eee = a alte 0. 243 It is not known just when the salt springs were discovered. The supply of brine varies in quantity and in strength. In some places it is not large and of little or no present economic value, but it could probably be developed. The result of the abnormal price is that in certain places at certain times of the year the entire supply of brine is used by operators who take turns at the spring. Most of the plants now used are very much like those described in ancient history. They consist of a few cauas, obtained from the Ilocanos, mounted on crude furnaces built of stone and clay. There are no furnaces with a large number of kettles, and often there is only one kettle to a furnace. At present there is little attention paid to the economy of heat, although eventually the 390 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 success or failure of the process will depend on whether or not there is economical application and thorough utilization. The salt obtained in this way is very inferior, as no method is adopted to separate the salt from the mother liquor or other impurities, either organic or inorganic. In this crude way about 12 kilo- grams per day per kettle are manufactured. By the old solar method the average daily production per laborer varies from 14 to 85 kilograms of salt, depending on the locality and the refinement of the process, while the average production for the new process is about 200 kilograms of salt per laborer per day. At Mayinit the salt water is hot, contains 0.3 per cent by weight of salt, and flows from the spring in several shallow streams. Salt houses are built over carefully leveled plots of clayey soil, upon which water from the stream is led. There are more than 100 such houses, usually about 4 meters wide and from 4 to 8 meters long, with grass-covered roofs extending to the earth. The ground space of the salt house is paved with stones from 10 to 15 centimeters in diameter. The hot water is allowed to spread out and pass among the bases of these stones; thence it is carried up on the stones by capillarity and evaporates fairly rapidly from the exposed hot surfaces, leav- ing a thin crust of salt. About once each month the salt is gathered by washing the encrustation from the stones into a large wooden trough, called a ko-long-ko. Each stone is thoroughly washed and then re- placed in the pavement. The saturated brine is preserved until sufficient is gathered for evaporation, when it is boiled as above described. The product is pressed into cakes and placed upon bits of broken earthenware and is baked either in the fire or in the sun. The dried salt contains only about 87 per cent sodium chloride.*® The flow of the springs at Tukukan and at Ahin is probably about 500 liters per hour each and contains 0.6 and 1.2 per cent of salt, respectively. The Tukukan spring is rather inac- cessible, but that at Ahin is on the bank of the river down which is floated the necessary wood for the furnaces, from the pine forests above. The Ahin spring comes from a crevice in the solid rock and could probably be developed. In July, 1910, there were a dozen kettles in operation, which consumed the entire output of the spring at Bungubungna. At Salinas the sight of the two springs is wonderful aside from the salt-making operations. The brine comes from the springs * Jenks, A. E., Pub. P. I. Eth. Sur. (1905), 1, 145-7. x,A,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 891 in the side of the mountain highly charged with carbon dioxide, under which condition it carries, besides 3.2 per cent of salt, large quantities of lime and some iron in solution. On reaching the surface, where the pressure is released, the carbonate of calcium is deposited, and in this way the springs have built up huge mounts of mineral deposits. A portion of the water is collected and carried nearly 2 kilo- meters through troughs made of split bamboo. These are very rapidly coated with sulphate and carbonate of calcium in that portion of the line nearest the spring, the amount of coating decreasing fairly rapidly with distance. In fact, the objects of carrying the water so far through open troughs are to get rid of the undesirable substances which precipitate before the salt and also in order that firewood may be closer at hand for the boiling. Hardwood logs are used for fuel and are shoved in from both sides of the furnace, so that the points meet at the center. As the points burn off, the logs are shoved in farther. Practically the only cost of producing salt here is the cost of getting out the wood. About 70 pans were in operation in June, 1911. Only a small part of the water which is at present flowing from these springs is utilized, yet it furnishes 125,000 kilograms of salt annually for a population of about 50,000 people. Thus there ought to be an opportunity for doing away with kettles and open pans and starting a modern concentration plant with steam heat. There is some coal in Nueva Ecija, and coal is as good as fuel and is even better for salt vacuum pan or grainer units than wood. In general, when kettles and open pans are used, they are placed over a long combustion chamber in direct contact with the flames from the furnace. Steam heat is more frequently used when vacuum pans are employed. The grainer process requires steam heat exclusively. The steam is carried through pipes submerged in the brine. The temperature is varied by varying the pressure, so as to obtain salt having the desired grain. This process is now much more generally used in the United States than any other. The removal of the gypsum depends upon a quiet, regular boil of the liquid, which cannot be uniformly obtained in all the kettles of a block, and therefore the quality of the salt is variable. Furthermore the heat causes the calcium sulphate to form a scale, which clings to the kettle and thus reduces the efficiency. The general result is that a better quality of salt is produced, and about 50 per cent more evaporation is 392 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 effected by a given quantity of fuel when it is fired under a prop- erly constructed boiler to produce steam for heating purposes than in any other way. The history of the development of brine in the United States is that the brine is stronger and more plentiful with depth. At East Saginaw, Michigan, brine of 1° was struck at 90 feet (27 meters) and increased until at 636 feet (193 meters) 90° brine was reached.*® It may be possible that the rock from which the brine springs emanate lies deep, and a mass of rock and earthy matter will have to be penetrated before the source can be reached. Again the brine of the Mountain Province springs is probably diluted by surface seepage and a stronger brine may perhaps be obtained by developing the springs and bringing the brine to the surface undiluted. On the other hand, the salt may have its origin in sands, silts, clays, or shales saturated with salt from sea water during deposition and in which the impregnated salt has been preserved by the overlying strata. Formerly the Philippines produced practically enough salt for domestic consumption. This is no longer true. The imports of salt into the Philippines have exhibited an almost constant increase since American occupation. The exports of domestic salt have had no influence on the trade, amounting to nothing ex- cept in 1907, when there were 4,280 dollars worth exported, of which 3,196 dollars came from the port of Zamboanga and 330 dollars from Manila, presumably the product of Malabon. Salt pays an import of 20 cents per 100 kilograms when crude and 50 cents per 100 kilograms when ground, powdered, or otherwise manufactured, and the fact that in the only year in which the local supply has equaled the demand Zamboanga was able to supply its local needs and to furnish a surplus for exportation seems to argue that the rates imposed are sufficient for the protection of the local industry. In recent years there have been no exporta- tions. It is interesting to note the sources and value of our imported salt. The principal source of our importations is China, which sends only coarse salt brought in shipments of from 1- to 300-bag lots. This indicates that the local production of salt does not keep pace with the growth of the packing industry. Prior to 1907 there was not so great a demand for salt for packing purposes. By actual count in 1907 there were but five Chinese engaged in the packing of sardines in Tondo, but before the great Tondo * 18th Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1897), 5, 1304. x,4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 393 TABLE I1V.—Showing source of imported salt." [Value in dollars, United States currency. ] Source. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1906 1907 WnitediStates\is222 42-22 oes eS |--~-------|~--~-~----|-~--------|-----~----]----------|---------- WnitedtKanedomis eee [pee se Bares i bat el Fe | SER AE SA en Ee | ae Dae LEH) Leah hh og hy ee eaeiae Nl Ble LE Sy a Pee el fea eb I a |----------|-------2--)---------- | peepee ue Se Denmar kissd s eee eee a Sele | Mee cee SEE eee ee Ye | a a te OTA CO ree ee sare ee 2 eh la | a ce ae) ew I IY SEIS SES a al | he es We ek er ee per Germany 722s eee ea. J eae eee | PAH cro i oe IS SE eu I ie see Sd ens PO ER as a a fl ace i Le [EA ee (a CO) SD a a aN I as a aE ge | af Uh Ft a | Se ay ae RSHU OVER EN SOD HE) IN ee aa | a pk SR ca YE Sy All other British East Indies-_-_-_--___- esearch Fe AEN OYA Ss ee Se es 5 A se ea a | See ee ia) Pe ed ee BritisneAustralasiaits sci csc ees | Uae (eae Bee 6 Ey ee eae eee eal We mena ae ee otallo>. 2 ae ee ee 3, 693 8, 583 20, 985 5,176 1, 852 2,321 Source. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Wnited!States 22202. = eel ees 216 137 114 2,030 6, 026 5, 069 United Kingdom 22223 aa 2,322 2, 504 4, 508 3,061 4, 938 3, 244 Belgium) ose: 20s see se. 2k e seek be _ Smet eee et fe ce es Be a | eee ey Denmark! <2 2 ee, ee Pe ae [Rese Poss |b ta 68) | ae as eee rance see ie SEE ie Wea eee Lid | ae 22S a eta a | aa Germanyjas—2 ose se eee ee 24 29 51 BGs eos oslo i er LS Dain ees csek Suet ot ee ee aa eeu ote eee 11 9 (it a Re aes Chinae lee rn ee BOA s ea la neu ete ns 396 67, 557 51, 498 54, 102 49, 187 47 SHAE IEORO see Se ees 3g | 206 171 1,204 182 216 All other British Hast Indies-__--__- i 405 95 ASR Bea a eee oA ALG SS a 2 ie ON a I ee ate (eed 171 816 1 British Australasia .---__________--- 39 238 299 366 142 324 Total oars seer eee ieee 38 3, 035 71, 092 56, 775 61, 105 61, 291 8, =| 8 No figures obtainable for 1905. The Philippine Customs reports are issued in dollars U. S. currency. fire of 1911 there were thirty-six in that section of the city, each using large amounts of coarse salt for the purpose of curing fish. Considering the increased importation and the import tax of 25 per cent ad valorem, the manufacturers should find a great deal of encouragement and there should be a good margin. If the producer here had to compete with the salt of the United States at an average price of 44 centavos per kilogram, which includes not only the cheap grades of salt, such as the coarse salt made here by solar evaporation, but also the very finest grades of table and dairy salt, which are prepared with great care and expense and which constitute a considerable percentage of the total, it would be more difficult. However, the manufacturer in the Philippines has to compete only with salt produced by the same methods as he himself employs and is protected by the 394 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 tariff regulation. As yet the only product in the Philippines has been coarse salt, for there has been sufficient demand from tiendas and packers to consume it entirely as such. SALT MILLING So far as we have been able to determine, there have been no attempts at salt milling in the Islands. A short description of this process may not be out of place. Each mill is constructed with one or more sections containing a drier, several sets of rolls, fans, shaking sieves, etc. The modern plants use rotary driers consisting of two concentric cylinders clamped together and rotating on bearings which support the outer cylinder. The inner cy- linder, or steam drum, is about 1 meter in diameter and is fed with live steam. The outer cylinder is about 2 meters in diameter and 15 meters long, through which hot air is blown. The dryer is set at an inclination of about 3 or 4 degrees. The salt is fed into the space between the two cylinders at the upper end, and as the drier revolves the salt slowly travels toward its lower end where it is discharged. It is then carried to the first set of rolls. After passing through these, the crushed material is sent over a shaking sieve, which acts as a separator, allowing the fine stuff to go to the bagging room, while the coarser material is conveyed to a second set of rolls, which are set closer than the first and, therefore, give a finer product. This is again sieved, separated, and crushed in still finer rolls, the process continuing until the material has passed through several sets of rolls of increasing closeness, passing over sieves after each crushing. Salt of various coarseness is produced by the use of sieves of varying mesh which feed into different bins. Fans are placed over the top of each sieve and also in the rolls and driers. These fans take off the very lightest and finest material, and their product is conveyed into a room where it is pressed for cattle feed. As the mag- nesium and sodium sulphates are considerably lighter than the sodium chloride, the use of these fans takes out much of the sulphates and purifies the salt very appreciably, as demonstrated by analysis. Few statistics of the salt produced in the Philippines have been kept, and it has been necessary for us to gather ours partly by letter. Some manufacturers returned replies very complete, others very lacking in essential features, though we believe all are fairly satisfactory with regard to output. We have carefully studied the plants in Obando, Malabon, Las Pifias, Paranaque, Bacoor, Kawit, and the principal producing towns of Pangasinan. In many places a suspicion that we were gathering data as a basis for taxation kept the men engaged in the industry from giving information freely. Since there is no basis of compar- ison, it is impossible to prove a large increase in the local pro- duction. Information from municipal presidentes shows that there were 105 municipalities representing 30 provinces where salt is manufactured and that in round numbers 19,000,000 x,4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 395 kilograms were produced in 1911, all of which was coarse salt.*° In reporting the production some operators used the cavan as a unit of measurement, others the simat, and others the curibot or babaco. For the sake of convenience the product has been reduced to kilograms on the basis of 1 cavan equals 49.5 kilo- grams. Some of the data obtained from municipal presidentes give the results expressed in Tables V and VI. TABLE V.—Annual production of salt in the Philippine Islands by solar evaporation. ie Province. Process used. Produetion.| Kilos. | PANT CIC UC ee ena rs eee es OES LE Mite Sie TI IN Ose Ee ee es Se 110, 254 Batad nese ee ene rks ee eles eeu OR ee a ee 142, 560 Batancastan cess sete ee cee se eee ene tees aeene (18) ee | 1,299, 870 [Boho] Ss ee eens eee ene eee anos Cam eee (6 Va) ee a i a soa ae tha 27, 353 IB laca nyse ae a ee a ee See Filipino and Chinese -_____ emecenaosaee 71, 280 Catv ee ee ee ce a ou eles Se seh ote | ae eae (6 (Ge RTE oe me Es Ce PO ea ee ee 2, 005, 312 Cebu er Bees so ROA fee ol AEA on Milipinoss 2] Mase Jarier gue Dey ee 482, 660 loi] o ese eee 2k Se ee ee a ee GO ae eases Loe ees a 943, 357 Mind oropee £22 seco eas tes See ea OGoyissteae Sa seces se eee eee 49, 500 IMOrOy Province eae tee tn ore et ear el @hinese tases sane seetreh oe eee es 991, 200 ‘OccidentaliNerrosp see ee ees Leen. Sa. ee Te ea ee ee 95, 056 OrientaliNesros! == 2. --3.2c2s4 2252 eat Ste al Boe (6 (0S ee Se ae ee 33, 896 ala wanewarecs = oo soo aa ae ok See eon SN NR Ofer cern Veen Sonne Wa ober 34, 650 he ER ee etek Sec ee Le ee eek oy Filipino and Chinese _________--_____- 7, 055, 0 | TABLE VI.—Annual production of salt in the Philippine Islands by artificial heat evaporation. Kilos. Albay small amount Ambos Camarines 27,000 Batangas (*) Bohol (*) Cagayan 40,830 Capiz 491,280 Ilocos Norte 783,051 Ilocos Sur 1,983,233 Leyte 2,640 Misamis 40,800 Mountain Province 11,400 Nueva Vizcaya 125,000 Pangasinan 1,026,835 Samar 2,817 Sorsogon 9,900 Surigao 4,000 Union 445,585 Zambales : 356,181 "See Table V. * The total production of salt in the United States in 1909 was 3,825,000,000 kilograms, worth 16,688,000 pesos. The production in the Philippine Islands looks somewhat small; however, it is not so small from the standpoint of the other industries. 396 The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 The importance of salt production as a Philippine industry, where its rank, with reference to a number of items, is given, is well shown in Table VII.74 TABLE VII.—Comparative table of industries. [Numbers indicate rank in comparison with all other Philippine industries. ] Salt. Black- smithing. Number/of establishment 2223s Ee en oe ee all b13 Capitallinvested '2 20232 oo 2:82 Se ae ah ae oe Une aye ke Senin eee Eee eee ee e15 33 Number) ofiemploy ees 225 toh eee aa ge SU A Tae ee eg eee eed 410 25 Average monthly wares! ooo se ee ses 9 22 Cost.of materials'purchased) 20. © 22 ee eee 52 29 |, eaiae of prodtict=:_=!5 20 e_ ho. es ge ee a ee 30 £26 | ® Forty-nine establishments distributed as follows: Cavite, 14; Cebu, 5; Iloilo, 4; Rizal, 16; Zamboanga, 6; Batangas, 1; Bohol, 1; Nueva Vizcaya, 1; Sorsogon, 1. > Forty-three establishments in 7 provinces. © Capital, 245,952 pesos. 4 Total number of wage earners, 841. * Value, 91,284 pesos. tf Value, 119,470 pesos. The various elements which make up the cost of an article of commerce are found exemplified in the simplest and clearest manner in the salt industry of the Philippines. The raw ma- terial, sea water, has no value other than that given it for the most part by unskilled labor expended in reducing it to salt and the cost of the tideland involved. In the comparative table of industries taken from the Census of the Philippine Islands, above referred to,” the cost of materials purchased is less than that for any other industry. The introduction of the use of reservoirs for evaporating the sea water is in the nature of a labor-saving machine, and here we have to consider the interest on the invest- ment as part of the cost. In the Philippines no effort is made to derive profit from the by-products. In certain localities in the United States the entire profit of the salt industry has been from by-products. In fact, in some plants the salt alone is made at a financial loss, but the bromide and calcium chloride have yielded sufficient returns to keep the furnaces active. During the period from December 1, 1910, to May 31, 1911, more than half of the water evaporated from the ponds was re- turned to them by rain, so that operations on the salt farms were much interfered with and at times suspended. Out of the season ** Census of the Philippine Islands (1903), 4, 476-7, 486, 496, and 524. ™ Loe. Cit: x, 4,6 Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 397 of six months it rained on thirty-two days; on eighteen of these days more water fell into the ponds than was evaporated from them. Even in the most favorable four months of this season more than one fifth of the water evaporated from the ponds was returned by rain and therefore the effective evaporation was only four fifths of the apparent. If the ponds had been covered during the whole period, four fifths as much water would have been evaporated as was evaporated in free exposure; in other words, if the ponds had been covered during the whole season, the evaporation would have been at the rate of the ef- fective evaporation during the most favorable month, but with the proper system it would have been unnecessary to cover them except on the days when there was precipitation. Solar salt is manufactured at Syracuse, New York, and other places by evaporating brine on so-called covers—shallow wooden vats provided with light, movable roofs arranged in such a way that they can be easily shoved over the vats when it rains. The improved process consists in the use of “aprons,” or very wide, shallow troughs, in complete exposure to the sun, air, and wind, which convey the brine from the wells to the salt fields; these are 5 to 6 meters wide by 6 or 7 centimeters deep. Upon this the brine, kept at a depth of from 1 to 2 centimeters, flows slowly, depositing the gypsum and being delivered in a saturated con- dition to the covers. The grade is usually from 1 centimeter to 10 meters. Under the aprons are deep rooms or tanks so placed that, in case of rain, the brine on the apron can be discharged into the deep room, where it is protected from dilution, remain- ing there until the return of fair weather, when it is pumped back into the apron, from which all rain water has been drained. With this improvement the efficiency of a cover has been in- creased over 80 per cent in many instances.?*? Natural brines, which are sometimes very dilute, are often concentrated by drip- ping over extensive ricks composed of twigs. In the Philippines, where nipa and grass roofs are so cheap and comparatively durable, we believe a great deal might be done in the adaptation and utilization of these ideas. The following illustration will serve to show the saving to be effected by the use of covered vats. A crystallizing pond one meter square originally costs about 1 peso; the annual upkeep is * Annual Rept. Supt. Onondaga Salt Springs, N. Y. (1851), 27; ibid. (1869) ; Goessmann, C. A., Rept. on the manufacture of solar salt, Syracuse (1864); Carrignes, S. S., Statistics relating to the silica interests of Michigan, Lansing (1881), 23; Chatard, T. M., 7th Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1886), 506. 136791——4 398 The Philippine Journal of Science about 5 centavos, and the annual yield is about 100 kilograms of salt. By the use of covers the average annual yield could be increased to 118.7 kilograms and in exceptional seasons to 153 kilograms with very little additional labor. The original cost of arranging movable roofs in such a way that they can be slid easily over the vats when it rains would not exceed 50 centavos per square meter, and the life of the roofs would be at least five years. The increased output of an average season would return 50 per cent of the additional outlay, and in exceptionally favorable seasons this would be increased three-fold. Further- more the season could be considerably prolonged, thereby still further increasing the yield. No strong brine would ever be lost at the end of the season, as the evaporation could be finished entirely under cover, if necessary. The fact must be recognized that the producers, in general, are not obtaining the best practical results. Many of them are un- willing to change their methods, while others cannot without previous study, for which they have neither time nor opportu- nity. The foundation for such a study is the collection of man- ufacturing statistics from the native works and their careful comparison with each other and with the best results of foreign practice. The results of our study thus far lead to the following conclusions. CONCLUSIONS The brine should not be transferred to the crystallizing ponds until the salt is ready to crystallize out (specific gravity, 1.205; 25°C.), for in the evaporation reservoirs large quantities of gyp- sum and other matter had precipitated before the salt settled out. If there is a proper balance in the plant, in at least the last two reservoirs large quantities of undesirable substances will be re- moved and a purer grade of salt will result. The area occupied by the crystallizing ponds should be as small as possible to accommodate the brine concentrated in the evapo- ration reservoirs, for in that way as much salt is obtained with less labor. When the strength of the brine in the crystallizing ponds has attained 1.275 specific gravity (29°C.), it should be drawn off and worked over for the by-products or should be dis- carded. Experiments show that salt with a purity of 99.63 per cent sodium chloride may be obtained with these precau- tions.2* Effort should be made to improve the quality of the output and to develop a larger industry in the Philippines. * 18th Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1897), 5, 1811. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I. Diagram indicating deposition of salt from sea water, showing the impurities precipitated before, with, and after the salt. PLATE II Fig. 1. Instrument used in sprinkling water over an area from the canals. 2. Another type of instrument used in sprinkling water over an area. This process is repeated until a quantity of salt has accumulated on the surface whereupon the loose earth, together with the salt, is scraped into heaps. PLATE III Fig. 1. A view of heaps of the salt-impregnated earth ready to be trans- ferred to the leaching vats. In the background are to be seen crystallizing’ ponds protected from the wind by a bamboo fence. 2. A leaching vat built on the ground, but high enough so that the mud may be removed by gravity after the leaching is completed. PLATE IV Fig. 1. A view of another leaching vat, showing the cement-lined receptacle into which the brine drains; also the implements for scraping the loose earth into heaps, in transferring the salt water from the canals to the leaching vats; a basket filter to break the force of the sea water or brine so it will not displace the loose earth; also how the mud flows are stopped during the leaching process. 2. A leaching vat from which the leached mud has been removed preparatory to refilling. PLATE V Fic. 1. An apparatus used for transferring salt water from a canal to a leaching vat. It is simply an earthenware receptacle (pilon) into which the water is poured and from which it is carried to the leaching vat by means of a bamboo trough. 2. A view of the leaching process. PLATE VI Fic. 1. Marking off the leached mud into squares after it has hardened slightly. 2. A more developed and more progressive type of leach. A kind of cultivator used in loosening the soil is also shown. PLATE VII Fic. 1. Throwing the hardened blocks from the leach back on to the field. After the second crop of salt-impregnated earth has been scraped into the leach, the clods are pulverized and carefully spread out to be again impregnated. 2. Refilling a leach. 399 400 Fig. Fig. FIG. Fic. FIG. The Philippine Journal of Science 1915 PuaTE VIII . A view of the Filipino process, showing the loosened soil and the instruments with which the loosening is done, the canal from which the sea water is obtained, leaches in various stages of rotation, and crystallizing ponds protected from the wind. 2. A filter through which the brine is poured when it is transferred to the crystallizing vats. PLATE IX . A row of caua sheds on a dike in Binmaley, Pangasinan. In the background is an arm of the sea from which salt water. is led into the depression in the foreground, where it has been evapo- rated and from which the impregnated earth is scraped up and leached out. . A crude furnace for evaporating the strong brine obtained from an improvised banca leaching vat. . Basket measures filled with salt for the retail trade. PLATE X . The evaporation reservoirs of a salt farm, where the salt is pro- duced by the Chinese method. . The crystallizing ponds of a salt farm, where salt is produced by the Chinese method. These are built on sandy soil, and as the brine seeps through, ditches carry it to a well from which it is returned to the evaporation reservoir containing the strongest brine. PLATE XI . The salt pile and the warehouse are being built simultaneously. . A salt warehouse, and a day’s crop from a farm, in Malabon, Rizal, where salt is produced by the Chinese method. The salt is allowed to drain in baskets for twenty-four hours before it is dumped into the warehouse. PLATE XII . The crystallizing ponds of a farm at Obando, Bulacan, using the Chinese method for making salt. . An apparatus used for transferring brine from evaporating re- servoirs to crystallizing ponds which are on a higher level. PLATE XIII. Salt houses at Mayinit, Bontoc. PLATE XIV Fig. 1. Stones incrusted with salt, Mayinit, Bontoc. 2. Washing the crust of salt from the stones, Mayinit, Bontoc. PLATE XV Fic. 1. Gourd used in Bontoc for storing salt meats. 2. Packages prepared for transportation. Reduction x 5. Bie. 1. . The lower end of the bamboo trough from the Salinas salt springs, Fig. me CNM Re Cox and Dar Juan: Salt Industry and Resources 401 XVI. An interior view of the salt furnace at Ahin, Ifugao sub- province, Mountain Province. The type of salt package is shown by comparison with the canteen. (Photograph taken and loaned by courtesy of Mr. H. Otley Beyer.) PLATE XVII A near view of the Salinas salt springs, Mountain Province. showing the well from which the brine is carried to the evaporat- ing pans. TEXT FIGURES . Map showing two definite types of rainfall in the Philippines. . Mean rainfall in the western portion of the Philippine Archipelago. . Mean rainfall in the eastern portion of the Philippine Archipelago. . Normal evaporation 1885-1907, Manila. 5. Diagram showing specific gravity of brine in the different concen- tration reservoirs of plants in actual operation. Om OE ea ee ae nN Oe 1 ota RONEN oh ce Ve a : any a nae ‘ t Tay 7 eri FS j Sah Deen wee ely tie eid LAN, CF! tages rehi 2 ri ry 1. hs ah E ie t i } ‘ i, wv s = 5 oi ws ef rie A 4 | ’ 9 a peddTear aad ark tare ode ane Pt) yoy Bora wh RE aes dd; 6 ' Wir ody tay bri amd 1s i iyhwell venti ay Sots t PN AS, tee Dale vi 4 ieee Yeh nt ie 6 "wea, i y ue id 9 Poi dts bi Ree hei Tete s ate : “ ee’ +4 ff Nie Ty arrange 4 ie te rw teg a" Ly feiied i tae Fe ‘ ee TO a : 7 : 7 ¥ . . ; ao . } 4 ‘ah h fh ‘ ; 4 Poifils p-4 4 i? Lad Pains y Lae ‘ i ‘ r are Uae Fs Se! t j 7 j Oe i ; i i A Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] (Puiu. Journ. Sct., X, A, No. 6. e UX [e} = Ss LEGEND & Calcium carbonate. e Calcium sulphate. < Potassium sulphate. & Magnesium sulphate. : Sodium chloride i ‘ 1) Potassium chloride. te Magnesium chloride. Ww Ss Magnesium. bromide. © ly Q yn on la Gr = | iy it hn ar) WES PLATE |. DIAGRAM INDICATING DEPOSITION OF SALT FROM SEA WATER. € a r Ch . h < . 44 = i} My, Pe Z : < v « a SAS : , 4 « it 3 . - ; > , =f + 4 s i = = > te 4 ‘ ; s i sia4 Kone xm. & ? >= th ¥ v . ee ae a z ve +e i ri 2 ¢ woe . . 4.5 ¢ “3 4 = * r ire Poy ee a” : =e - + a co Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [PuHIL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. PLATE Il, INSTRUMENTS USED IN SPRINKLING WATER OVER AN AREA FROM THE CANALS. ; om : ww ; : : T d i dL 4 ; Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | [Purn. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Heaps of salt-impregnated earth ready for transfer to leaching vats. Fig. 2. A leaching vat built on the ground, but high enough so that the mud may be removed by gravity after the leaching is completed. PLATE Ill. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | [Puin. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 2. Leaching vat from which leached mud has been removed. PLATE IV. Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [PuHin. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Apparatus for transferring salt water from canal to leaching vat. ate waRe ghee ea Oe eben Fig. 2. The leaching process. PLATE V. Cox AND Dar JuAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | [Puiv. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Marking off the leached mud into squares. Fig. 2. A more developed and more progressive type of jeach. A kind of cultivator used in loosening the soil is also shown. PLATE VI. Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [ PHIL. Journ. Sct., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Throwing the hardened blocks from the leach back on to the field. . Fig. 2. Refilling a leach. PLATE VII. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | [PHIL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. rerseld Sai Fig. 1. Filipino process, showing instruments with which soil is loosened. Fig. 2. Filter through which brine is poured to crystallizing ponds, PLATE VIII. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | [PHIn. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. A row of caua sheds on a dike. Fig. 3. Basket measures filled with salt. PLATE IX. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | {| PHIL. JourN. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Evaporation reservoirs of a salt farm, where the salt is produced by the Chinese method. Fig. 2. Crystallizing ponds of asalt farm. Chinese method. PLATE X. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] (PHIL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Salt pile and warehouse are being built simultaneously. Fig. 2. Salt warehouse and a day’s crop, PLATE XI. Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [PuHIL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. The Chinese method of salt-making at Obando. Fig. 2. Showing the apparatus for transferring brine from evaporating reservoirs to crystallizing ponds which are on a higher level. PLATE XIil. = eh f eer ne he ae Marrs tee 9 ON ‘V ‘X “IOS “Nuno “‘TIHg] [(AYLSQGN] LIVS :NVAL UV GNV xoD Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [PuIL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Stones incrusted with salt. Fig. 2. Washing the crust of salt from the stones. PLATE XIV. Cox AND DAR JUAN: SALT INDuSTRY. ] [PHIL. JouRN. Sct., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Gourd for storing salt meats. Fig. 2. Packages prepared for transportation. PLATE XV. Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. ] [PuHiL. Journ. Scr., X, A, No. 6. PLATE XVI. SALT FURNACE AT AHIN. ie ; < i I a i ’ 3 7 ' i} 1 * e' y . ’ y : y eth 4 1s “ fo. 1 A : 4 : 5 ui % t . 1 1 me a ' ‘ : , , ; , ‘ - i] =: ve f bs . Fs 7 te. ‘ : : R ‘ u ” C " % . " u . \ ' 4, w ‘ i { ’ » C , i *h 4 2 . vt f if ; ' . : y Q fe ‘ J . ' Cox AND Dar JUAN: SALT INDUSTRY. | i PHIL. JouRN. Sctr., X, A, No. 6. Fig. 1. Near view of the Salinas salt springs. Fig. 2. The lower end of the bamboo trough from the Salinas salt springs, showing the well from which the brine is carried to the evaporating pans. PLATE XVII. INDEX A Ababai, 1, Abuhan, 380. Acetylmethylsalicylate, 60. Actinolite, 82. Active deposit method, a determination of the diurnal variation of the radioactivity of the atmosphere by the, 37. Agate, 82. AGCAOILI, FRANCISCO, see BRILL, HAR- VEY C., 105. Agglomerates and tuffs, Isarog, in Caramoan Peninsula, 306. Agglomerates and volcanic breccias, bility of, for wells, 236. Agglomerates, flows, and tuffs, Pliocene, in Caramoan Peninsula, 308. Albay, coal on Batan Island, 297. Albite, 82. Albuminase (cacao), tests for, 127. Aleyonaria, fragments of, found shale, 199. Alegria, Cebu, petroleum at, 285. Aleurites moluccana Willd., 107. trisperma Blanco, 107. Alluvial and littoral deposits in Caramoan Peninsula, 306. Alluvial and littoral deposits of Leyte, 247. Alluvial and littoral deposits, suitability of, for wells, 232. Altaite, 82. Amethyst, 82. Analcite, 83. Anamirta cocculus W. & A., 197. Andesine, 83. Angkaw, 380. Anisoptera thurifera Bl. (7), 196. Anorthite, 83. Anthophyllite, 83. Apatite, 83. Aragonite, 83. Arsenic, 83. Artesian water in Caramoan Peninsula, 319. Artesian wells, location of, in the P. I. from a geologic viewpoint, 231. Asbestos, 83. Asphalts, rock, and sheet, analyses of, from Leyte, 271. Asphaltum, 83. Asturias, Cebu, petroleum at, 282. Atmosphere at Manila, a determination of the diurnal variation of the radioactivity of the, by the active deposit method, 37. Augite, 83. Azurite, 84. suita- in sandy B Babaco, 395. Bailey, E. H. S., see Reviews (book). BAKER, C. F., review of Copeland’s The coco- nut, 171; review of Van Hall’s Cocoa, 171. Balinghasay bark, 355. Baltimorite, 84. Balucanag, 107. Bangar, 108. Banigan, 381. Barite, 84. Basal igneous complex in Caramoan Penin- sula, 312. Basonite, 84. Batan Island, Albay, coal on, 297. Batuakan, 107. Beilschmiedia cairocan Vid., 196. Beryl (emerald), 84. Biotite, 84. Bitumens, residual, and petroleum in Leyte, 241. 5 Bituminous coal, 84. BLACKWOOD, O. H., A determination of the diurnal variation of the radioactivity of the atmosphere at Manila by the active deposit method, 37. Bobog, 108. Boiler waters of Iloilo Province, 75. Bolobo, 196. Bontoe and Lepanto, the military districts of, 178. Bornite, 84, Breccias, volcanic, and agglomerates, bility of, for wells, 236. BRILL, HARVEY C., review of Bailey’s The source, chemistry and use of food products, 97; The enzymes of cacao, 123; see also GIBBS, H. D., 51. BRILL, HARVEY C., and AGCAOILI, FRAN- CISCO, Philippine oil-bearing seeds and their properties, 105. Buchanania arborescens, 355. Building stone in Mountain Province, 204. Bukidnons of Panay, 215. Bulla ampulla, 248. suita- Cc Cacao, enzymes of, 123. Caingin system of deforestation, 216. Cairocan, 196. Calamansanay bark, 355. Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, Camarines, iron ore on, 323. Calcite, 84. 403 404 Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr., 196. inophyllum L., 107. wallichianum, 111. Calumpang, 108. Camanchile bark used for tanning material, 353. Camansi, Cebu, coal at, 292. Camarines, iron ore on Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, 323. Camarines Province, geologic reconnaissance in Caramoan Peninsula, 303. Canagium odoratum Baill., 99. Canarium pachyphyllum Perk., 109. villosum, 355. Canguinsa clay-tuff in Leyte, 250. Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines Province, geo- logic reconnaissance in, 303. Cardium sp., 199. Carica papaya L., 1. Casease (cacao), test for, 126. Cassidaria sp., 199. Castor-oil seed, 107. Cateban bark, 355. Cato, 107. Cebu, coal in, 291. petroleum in, 281. water supplies of, 144. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn., 107. Cenosphera, 224. disseminata, 224. minuta, 224. Cerithium nodulosum, 248. Chalcedony, 85. Chalcocite, 85. Chalcopyrite, 85. Check list, preliminary, of Philippine minerals, 81. Chert, 85. Chisochiton cumingianus (Harms), 107. Chlorite, 85. Chromite, 85. Chrysoprase, 85. Chrysotile, 86. Cinnabar, 86. Clay in Caramoan Peninsula, 318. Clay products in Mountain Province, 201. Clay-tuff, Canguinsa, in Leyte, 250. Coal at Camansi, Cebu, 292. Coal at Compostela, Cebu, 292. Coal at Guilaguila, Cebu, 292. Coal at Uling, Cebu, 292. Coal beds, the persistence of Philippine, 289. Coal in Caramoan Peninsula, 318. Coal in Mountain Province, 201. Coal in the vicinity of San Esteban, Sorsogon, 290. Coal on Batan Island, Albay, 297. Compostela, Cebu, coal at, 292. Conglomerate in Mountain Province, 199. Conus, 199. flavidus, 248. hochstetteri, 248. loroisii, 248. striatellus, 248. Copeland, Edwin (book). Bingham, see Reviews Index Copper, 86. Copper in Caramoan Peninsula, 317. Coralline limestone, suitability of, for wells, 235. Corundum, 86. Cottonseed oil, maximum and minimum prices of, 105. COX, ALVIN J., and DAR JUAN, T., Salt in- dustry and resources of the Philippine Islands, 375. Crenothrix, 146. Crocoite, 86. Culase, 381. Cuprite, 86. Curibot, 395. Cycloclypeus communis, 248. Cycloseris decipiens K. Mart., 199. Cyperaceae, 197. D DAR JUAN, T., review of Bailey’s A labor- atory guide to the study of quantitative analysis, 97; see also COX, ALVIN J., 375. Diallage, 86. Diatase (cacao), tests for, 130. Dictyomitra, 224. affinis, 224. Diethylsuccinosuccinate (ethyldioxydihydroter- aphthalate): A study of its constitution, some derivatives, and absorption spectra, 51. Diorite in Mountain Province, 193. Diplodiscus paniculatus Turez., 196. Dipterocarpaceae, 196. Diurnal variation, a determination of the, of the radioactivity of the atmosphere at Ma- nila by the active deposit method, 37. Dosinia sp., 199. Dudos, 107. E EDDINGFIELD, F. T., see SMITH, WARREN Ds si Emulsin (cacao), tests for, 126. Enargite, 86. Eno] and keto forms of diethylsuccinosuccinate, 53. Enzymes of cacao, 123. Epidote, 86. Ethyldioxydihydroteraphthalate, 51. Ethylsuccinosuccinate, reduction of, 54. EF FANNING, PAUL R., see SMITH, W. D., 81. Flows, tuffs, and agglomerates, Pliocene, in Caramoan Peninsula, 308. G Galena, 87. GANA, VICENTE Q., The leather industry of the Philippine Islands, 349. Garnet, 87. Geologic reconnaissance in Caramoan Penin- sula, Camarines Province, 303. Geologic reconnaissance of Mountain Prov- ince, Luzon, P. I., 177. Geology of Panay, notes on the, 211. Index GIBBS, H. D., Proposed modification of ylang- ylang oil standards, 99. GIBBS, H. D., and BRILL, H. C., Diethylsuc- cinosuccinate (Ethyldioxydihydroteraphtha- late): A study of its constitution, some derivatives, and absorption spectra, 51. Gilsonite, 87. Globigerina, 248. Gold, 87. Gold in Caramoan Peninsula, 316. Gold in Mountain Province, 206. Granite in Mountain Province, 192. Graphite, 87. Gravel and stone in Caramoan Peninsula, 318. Ground-water resources in Panay, 226. Guano, 88. Guilaguila, Cebu, coal at, 292. Guimaras Island, water supply at, 70. Guiso, 196. Guttiferae, 196. Gypsum, 88. H HEISE, GEORGE W., Boiler waters of Iloilo Province, 75; Water supplies in the Philip- pine Islands: II, 185; Water supply for the city of Iloilo, 65. Hematite, 88. Hide, raw, supply, 351. Hornblende, 88. Hornohan, 381. Hydrocyanic acid, the effect of, on the diges- tion of milk protein by pure papain, 22. Hypersthene, 88. I Iddingsite, 88. Igneous complex, basal, in Caramoan Penin- sula, 312. Igneous rocks, wells, 2388. Ilmenite, 88. Tloilo Province, boiler waters of, 75. Iloilo, water supply for the city of, 65. Intrusive rocks in Leyte, 252. Inulase (cacao), tests for, 128. Invertase (cacao), tests for, 131. Iras Tagalog method used for the manufac- ture of salt, 380. Iridium, 88. Irna, 383. Iron in Mountain Province, 207. Iron ore in Surigao Province, 335. Tron ore on Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, Camarines, 323. massive, suitability of, for Isarog tuffs and agglomerates, Caramoan Peninsula, 306. J Jasper, 88. Jatropha curcas L., 107. K Kalimotani, 107. Kalinite (alum), 89. Kaolinite, 89. Kapok, 107. Ko-long-ko, 390. 405 Labradorite, 89. Lauraceae, 196. Leather industry of the Philippine Islands, 349. LEDNICKY, VICTOR E., see PRATT, W. E., 335. Lepanto and Bontoc, military districts of, 178. Leucite, 89. Leyte, petroleum and residual bitumens in, 241. Ligas bark, 355. Lignite, 89. Lime in Mountain Province, 202. Limestone, coralline, suitability of, for wells, 235. Limestone in Mountain Province, 194. Limonite, 89. Linseed oil, 118. Lipase (cacao), tests for, 125. Lithothamnium ramosissimum Reuss, 194, 248. Littoral and alluvial deposits in Caramoan Peninsula, 306. Littoral and alluvial deposits in Leyte, 247. Littoral and alluvial deposits, suitability of, for wells, 232. Lucina bacauensis, 248. Lumbang banucalag, 107. Lumbang bato, 106. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd., 381. Luzonite, 89. M Maasin, Panay, water supply at, 68. Macalsa, 107. Magnesite, 89. Magnetite, 90. Magnetized iron ore, 90. Malacalad, 107. Malachite, 90. Maltase (cacao), tests for, 132. Malumbang series in Leyte, 247. Mambulao, Camarines, iron ore on Calamba- yanga Island, 323. Manganite, 90. Mangrove bark used for tanning material, 353. Manila, a determination of the diurnal varia- tion of the radioactivity of the atmosphere at, by the active deposit method, 37. Manila, water supplies of, 149. Mapania humilis F.-Vill., 197. Marambalo, 107. Marcasite, 90. Margarite, 90. Marl in Mountain Province, 195. Melliaceae, 107. Menispermaceae, 197. Mercury, 90. Mercury in Caramoan Peninsula, 317. Metal, road, in Mountain Province, 204. Metamorphic rocks, suitability of, for wells, 238. Metamorphic sedimentary rocks in Caramoan Peninsula, 310. Meycauayan River water, analysis of, 359. Mindoro, water supplies of, 142. Minerals, preliminary check list of Philippine, 81. 406 Minium, 90. Mitra sp., 248. Molybdenite, 90. Mount Maquiling, active deposit on, 43. Mountain Province, notes on a geologie recon- naissance of, 177. Muscovite, 91. N Nauclea calycina, 355. Niter, 91. Oo Oil, cottonseed, maximum and minimum prices of, 105. Oil in Mountain Province, 202. Oil, peanut, maximum and minimum prices of, 105. Oil-bearing seeds, Philippine, and their prop- erties, 105. Oligoclase, 91. Olivine, 91. Opal, 91. Operculina costata, 248. Ore, iron, in Surigao Province, 335. Ore, iron, on Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, Camarines, 323. Orthoclase, 91. Osmium, 91. Oxidases (cacao), tests for, 129. P Pagsahinging bark, 355. Pagsainguin, 109. Palo maria de la playa, 107. Palo maria del monte, 111, 196. Panay, notes on the geology of, 211. Panay, water supplies of, 148. Papain, Ceylon, 8. Papain: Its commercial digestive properties, 1. Papain, Mexican, 11. Papain, Philippine, 12. Papain, West Indian, 12. Papalsa, 107. Papaya, preparation of, 32. Peanut oil, maximum and minimum prices of, 105. Pecten leopardus K. Mart., 199. senatorius K. Mart., 199, 248. Penicillium, 124. Petroleum, 91. Petroleum and residual bitumens in Leyte, 241. Petroleum in the Province of Cebu, 281. Petroleum products imported in the P. I. in 1914, table of, 270. Philippsite, 91. Phoebe sterculioides Mess., 196. Physic nut, 107. Pickeringite (magnesia alum), 91. Pili nut, 109. Pilon, 381. Pithecanthropus erectus Du Bois, 197. Pithecolobium dulce Benth., 353. Plagioclase, 92. Platinum, 92. preparation and Index Pliocene tufis, flows, and agglomerates in Caramoan Peninsula, 308. Polystomella, 249. PRATT, DAVID S., Papain: Its commercial preparation and digestive properties, 1. PRATT, WALLACE E., Geologie reconnais- sance in Caramoan Peninsula, Camarines Province, 303; Iron ore on Calambayanga Island, Mambulao, Camarines, 323; On the occurrence. of petroleum in the Province of Cebu, 281; Petroleum and residual bitumens in Leyte, 241; The location of artesian wells in the Philippine Islands from a geologic viewpoint, 231; The persistence of Philippine coal beds, 289. PRATT, WALLACE E., and LEDNICKY, VICTOR E., Iron ore in Surigao Province, 335. Prochlorite, 92. Protease (cacao), tests for, 128. Psilomelane, 92. Pterospermum (?), 197. Pyrite, 92. Pyrolusite, 92. Pyroxene, 93. Pyrula, 248. gigas, 248. Q Quartz, 93. Quercus, 355. R Radioactivity of the atmosphere at Manila, a determination of the diurnal variation of the, by the active deposit method, 37. Raffinase (cacao), tests for, 132. Realgar, 93. Reductase (cacao), tests for, 129. Residual bitumens and petroleum in Leyte, 241. Reviews (book) : Bailey, E. H. S., A laboratory guide to the study of quantitative analysis, 97. Bailey, E. H. S., The source, chemistry and use of food products, 97. Copeland, Edwin Bingham, The coco-nut, 171. 171. Van Hall, C. J. J., Cocoa, 171. Rhodochrosite, 93. Ricinus communis L., 107. Rivers and flowing streams, 141. Road metal in Mountain Province, 204. Rock asphalts and sheet asphalts, analyses of, from Leyte, 271. Rocks, instrusive, in Leyte, 252. Rocks, massive, igneous, suitability of, for wells, 238. Rocks, metamorphic sedimentary, in Cara- moan Peninsula, 310. Rocks, metamorphic, suitability of, for wells, 238. Rutile, 93. Ss Sacat fruit, 355. Saccharomyces apiculatus, 124. cerevisiz, 124. Index Saccharomyces ellipsoidies, 124. membranaefaciens, 124. theobrome, 124. Salaguin, 107. Salt, 98. Salt, annual production of, in the Philippine Islands by artificial heat evaporation, 395. Salt, annual production of, in the Philippine Islands by solar evaporation, 395. Salt, import and export of, in the Philippine Islands, 392. Salt in Mountain Province, 202. Salt, its rank compared with other Philippine industries, 396. Salt milling, 394. San Esteban, Sorsogon, 290. Sandstone in Mountain Province, 198. Sanidine, 93. Sardonyx, 94. Sedimentaries, Tertiary, in Caramoan Penin- sula, 308. Sedimentaries, wells, 237. Sedimentary rocks, metamorphic, in Caramoan Peninsula, 310. Seeds, Philippine properties, 105. : Semicarpus accuminatissima, 355. Sericite, 94. Serpentine, 94. Shale, petroliferous, 281. Shale, Vigo, in Leyte, 251. Shales in Mountain Province, 199. Shales of Panay, 218. Sheet asphalts and rock asphalts, of, from Leyte, 271. Shorea eximia Miq. (7), 196. guiso Bl., 196. polysperma Merr., 196. Silvanite, 94. Silver, 94. Simat, 395. Sinter in Mountain Province, 199. SMITH, WARREN D., Notes on a geologic reconnaissance of Mountain Province, Luzon, P. I., 177; Notes on the geology of Panay, 211. SMITH, WARREN D., EDDINGFIELD, F. T., and FANNING, PAUL R., A preliminary check list of Philippine minerals, 81. Solecurtus grandis, 248. Sorsogon, coal in vicinity of San Esteban, 290. Sphalerite, 94. Spondylus imperialis, 248. Springs, 141. Sterculia foetida L., 108. Sterculiaceae, 108, 197. Stibnite, 94. Stone and gravel in Caramoan Peninsula, 318. Stone, building, in Mountain Province, 204. Stylosphera, 224. Sulphur, 95. Sulphur in Mountain Province, 203. Suma, 197. Surigao Province, iron ore in, 335. coal in vicinity of, Tertiary, suitability of, for oil-bearing, and_ their analyses | Turbo broneénsis Bttgr. 407 Tv Tale, 95. Tanguile, 196. Tanning materials, 353. Tanning process, Filipino, 354. Tapes, 199. rimosa, 248. Telescopium sp., 248. Terminalia nitens, 355. Tertiary sedimentaries sula, 308. Tertiary sedimentaries, wells, 2387. Tetrahedrite, 95. Tiliaceae, 196. Tinajas, 382. Tingalan, 358. Titanite, 95. Toledo, Cebu, petroleum at, 282. Topaz, 95. Travertine in Mountain Province, 199. Tremolite, 95. Trochus fenestratus, 248. Tryptophane, formation of, peptone, 23. Tufi, bedded voleanic, suitability of, for wells, 237. Tuff in Mountain Province, 195. Tuffaceous sandstone in Mountain Province, 198. Tuffs and agglomerates, Isarog, in Caramoan Peninsula, 306. Tuffs, flows, and agglomerates, Caramoan Peninsula, 308. Turbinella tjidamarensis K. Mart., 199. (2), 199. in Caramoan Penin- suitability of, for from Witte’s Pliocene, in U Ulayan bark, 355. Uling, Cebu, coal at, 292. Uralite, 95. Vv Valita, 107. Van Hall, C. J. J., see Reviews (book). Vermiculite, 95. Viearya callosa Jenk., 218. Vigo shale in Leyte, 251. Voleanic breccias and agglomerates, bility of, for wells, 236. Voleanic tuff, bedded, suitability of, for wells, 237. suita- WwW Wad, 95. Water, artesian, in Caramoan Peninsula, 319. Water in Mountain Province, 205. Water supplies in the P. I., 135. Water supplies of Cebu, 144. Water supplies of Manila, 149. Water supplies of Mindoro, 142. Water supplies of Panay, 148. Water supply for the city of Iloilo, 65. Waters, boiler, of Iloilo Province, 75. Wells, artesian, in the P. I. from a geologic viewpoint, 231. 408 Index Wells, deep, 138. WA + Pati ard ws * Wells, deep, at Iloilo, 67, 219, 226. Ylang-ylang oil standards, proposed sarah Wells, surface, 140. cation of, 99. ie Des) Wernerite, 96. Z ye alent . Wolframite, 96. Zeolite, 96. ; © e bow 4 ace is "? tank} pl weld ) 5s vet on i “BOTANY - i A FLORA OF MANILA = postpaid. as. , Praotically ay ssomplote dork ae ‘hie aie tivated’ areas inthe Philippines. ane sx sigeyary of Mca al ede Cute i: om ooo, ‘pau a THE 2 aE cs pei ISLANDS Ae order No. 37. Paper, 149 pages, 30 plates iB $i, postpaid, © he. reprint contains: Fes following - ‘ae Relation to Coconut Oil,+The. Keeping Quali- 5 AO the apa ci aR “po KMALAYAN ‘woons By Beno W. Foxwosray Order. SNe All, Paper, Berea plates, $0, 50): ‘postpaid. ; tndo-Malayan. Woods, of “accurate visting: pypodss of peser nis walues: fa oe " 200L0GY a ist OF THE, MAMMALS. PHILIPPINE: ISLANDS, | EXCLU-. SIVE OF THE CETACEA © : igs Nep Hortaster. ; 7 order No. 428:. Vie eon? Bostpaid en q fleiater the mammals “Yslands. The Mistribution of» each species ; “vited, oe By. ‘Ean, Dd, Manan - eke , ee 5 a rate ‘No: 419. Paper, 490 Pages, 92.50, es Descrip= |) ~oetions, with, keys; ‘of over’ 1,000 Palm (Cocas nucifera), The Coconut andvits ~~ S ties. of: Coconut Oil. ‘and the ‘Causes of: its ~-\ + Rancidity, and The: Pern eah Misaotay ede ak “1g2 ‘pages. Ss. a Doctor “Foxe: > = ey has brought together: a large amount information conserning = trees” OF THE Paper, 64 pages, $0.50, This iaothe only ‘regent attempt sn enu-) the’ Philippine’ is) diven, and the original: Boron nian are “rae No. » known: ; Order ‘No! “102. appointed) sole agent. for: t! ; ‘of the printed proceedings «4 the para é tional. Tlagie Conferences i _FosLications FOR SALE BY THE ; BUREAU OF SOHENCE, TANS ‘PHILIPPINE ISLANDS —Continued “-200L0GY—Continaed A MANUAL. OF PHILIPPINE ‘BIRDS. : By) RICHARD G. ‘MeGrecor feb Meese 103... a parts, 769 gi Panes: “1 pages, $4, postpaid. “A Manual of Philippine» Birds. Vedotatigel i vin= compact’ form descriptions of all ao as ea meu ‘usual keys and. diagnoses of; orders, families, © - and genera’ help the novice in ian tiiines att ‘species of. Philippine birds. penne Ca “CHECK. LIST oF. PHILIPPINE ar “By Divip Srane soy and ROwERD Bart Nee RICHARDSON \- Paper, 78 pages, , 80-75, eo ‘ postpaid... ‘ “This. Listswith be found ‘a.conventent guide. “40 the synonymy of Philippine lenthwatogy Ne The nomenclature. is theroughly revised, and -the distribution. of ‘each Species” ‘within the ‘ istorii islands is given. MEDICINE. ‘REPORE. oF THE INTERNATIONAL x “PLAGUE CONFERENCE ey Held at Mukden; April, 1917 seadend tha ; “auspices of the Chinese Gc yernment.- Fidited ‘by ERICH: Naar &. F, Patri, 7 crue STANLEY, and’ RICHARD: Bee : “STRONG 983. “pages, 18 plates’ (2c: *d— + half ; tones; 512 tharts and : Order No. 416. Paper, th, 13.903) poatiaid i ee - ‘The proceedings of this Int sane + “ference and information gsinea : >to © “gether, with the results - of ox. inter ; riological investigations, constitute, pres’ sent: report: : ‘ oUThe Bureau. ofisciencé:c the»: ds “hase been distribution ment ofthe Philippine. ‘et: | PRICES ARE. IN UNITED STATES CURRENCY wgriers for ‘these publications may be sent to the BUSINESS areca PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF: SCIENCE, BUREAU OF SCIENCE, MANILA, 3 Bs we or to a of the agents listed below... Please ‘ive order number, The Maomitlan Pinna: 64—66 Fifth Avenue, New York, ‘U.S. Bs. Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand; London, W.-C., England: ’ Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9,'The Hague, Holland: - /Mayer & Miller, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N--W.,;Germany. Kelly & Walsh, Litd., 32 Rafiles Place; Singapore, Straits Denieen ct he, So BM. & Ie Ferguson, '19 Baillie Street,’ Colombo;, Geylon.’ Sea aN ae ee as Spink & Co., FB. 0. Box a4, paleuiind i es 4; t Verne nd ‘The “philippine ‘Soneuet ot - Science” is joceiee a follows: Section A. Chemical and Geological Sciences and the Industri Section: B Tropical Medicine Nagase ‘Section. oO. Botany Sance Souennds Volum Ii, U1, TV, or 1 : Entire Journal, beginning wah Votan . Dablicdliousicent a ‘cleats for the’ Philippine vee Id dese addressed: Library, aye of Sci mpany 6466 Tinh: Ataauek New Yor Son,” 28 Essex Street, Stran » London, heirs nge Voorhou : ‘Mayer ‘& Muller, Prinz ‘Louis. elves ees A. M. & J. Ferguson, 19 5 @ is f > aa» y aN ay y —— ! N ! J ! ‘AANA: ~_— - lf | q PY \anan a lo -— y V y ) AaGAEeaeaasé —— rN me fam an an an an an an an ane a RS pm a anameas A AAR RA vo | Va v | \ aaa - nnn ‘>| _— | y —v— ¥— !— —_ z ys ae ale\lalalalnlanlamaa’. A ae ARARAAR atte AAA ARAR BE ee ee mm a | ] iP wy . 1 \Y am (dm le\ (a TW iy i f i AARARAAA —~ as \ Pe pee) eee) Be) i) a) aR BN A a ee) ‘2 ARARRAR AAW SARA e aan eRay PARR RAAR AH AAP eae ee 8 em ‘an A | a | SRE Apes ie RAC ARARARn nn an AAA DANA iy ' yy 4 rf FAL NAR a IA yay aN \ \ " aca ma E \ = t o~ AAAB i PARA Aaa eee \ AARAAAAA ARID | ARAR aaam | ; y VON oe 5 RAnAAAARaaaa> HERE a eae | ‘anal an\ ania ; a ~~ i an - P lanl \ re ( PY \aaanananan a = an an) | an a) a an a oe | | = ~ of 5 on Lae en y i [V1 Veale AAA { ala | | NAR alalaaaaam alan en, i i a ey ay zs { [ [ i i a Sy a | | PN VV YF { ¢ 1 i ans gin lpn = eS) aa YW rs a ca VN AAA — ae Ga aaa an ao' ~ ~ ~~ aaa aaaan NN ont YS YY \ \ en ’ —_~ —~ -—~ ms - aa aa am am a a j A ’ ya AED nae ae SYA A ( waae an \ es ek, ee cr OM A J SS. CCCUCE CC a U ©& CECE CC CECE ( Sac GE CC @ CC «CC CCE CCC VE _ EE CEO CCOCE (COCO CE €@€ CE CCE [G&G : * C Ce (C _© «ff Cc Ch @ (GE EREE ET CC CECE COU EG (COC C€ Can COG Git ar (@ CC CCE ca WCC a ae (CC SE CG MC C@ CE 1C OUR CC COE GE eC CACO OO Oe COG CCG COCE OE CCC COG. Wee (ce ELEC Cel COMe GC (C COCO CCC CCC CE age (CO CWE. Ce. CC COC CK COC ae (el EGCG C@ CCC ey, Fe AAAAAnaA pacnanns A =~ raat S jaa Ae - = ( = al| ee ( an nie AR A ARBA _—\ . “A an = PA — Ne ARIA As eS \ ARAAR eee eat coe N co N eV aN f AVA alee alan =\-); An [ AACA AANA =| one 1 y a ee A [~ = AAR f A annnn AAA A PARP AAAARA AVA aw = ala! ame mV i (Ca @ CC_UG (C_ (GC (CSG (A I Ge ae (an an Bal AeA eX | jae aA. “) ) lan AA 5 AAA PAPA a AA) a oN mn gam om am eae a goa A AA A AAAAAAAS AARARARAR = = - ple \e\e\e NY Aaaaannnnn aA an > a f >») » Yan lam as AA (\ C ¢ ME (| oc We ol Cue weed Ce QC qa a ae at (Gare Ga &a ‘aro GC Ge age an an AEX pam Ann” ae Aan AR A —> — a eA naa aA 5 ‘ \ [ i) ry “A if aiainian Saye A lan Anns AB aM axles a : A ~~ \ Penh) dl | Gn} aa | at alale’. NAA MARR Agaan, YY fA RAARL SAA RARAARAAAZAAA A > AA | A | rey amie A —~ sae =~ an SRS aaa ~\ aman lan en \ \ gn lam an lanan| im a re an AA A SQA AAS lan ARBRE > Aaa f en = a | y f } —~ aa —<~ SJE f eo ame’ \ / ~ aa sana ae ana AamaRe Y | ’ | INSTIT| Hv UE