A en << = PSST WT NCL EEE EE ee er nee ee erie e ~ Sat Wr wren ear en ee Reap eer Ee Yer re wares pone ran rman . ere irene earner ~ Riri neato tin Ri wheko- Ad Ske eee ee re : am, mph > a a ~~ f> ios av. THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ALVIN J. COX, M. A., PH. D. GENERAL EDITOR SECTION A CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES EDITED WITH THE COOPERATION OF W. D. SMITH, Pu. D.; H. D. GIBBS, Pu. D.; W. C. REIBLING, Cu. E. W. E. PRATT, A. M.; R. R. WILLIAMS, M. S.; D. S. PRATT, Pu. D. RICHARD C. McGREGOR, A. B. VOLUME IX 1914 WITH 41 PLATES, 38 TEXT FIGURES, AND 3 MAPS 1 OMERINTING BUREAU OF PRINTIN fone 1914 Z3B3264 Ah aot h ‘i Tih ie oes Rae a CONTENTS No. 1, February, 1914 Cox, ALVIN J., and ARGUELLES, A. S. The soils of the Island of TEABEAGY EY ee US ARO OA CLE Osu ie lac US BA AAAS Se dN Me Seven plates, 3 text figures, and 1 map. WRIGHT, J. R., and SmitH, O. F. A quantitative determination of the radium emanation in the atmosphere and its variation with altitude and meteorological conditions —.......0............-::se.1ecceeeceeeeeeee= One text figure. West, Aucustus P., and Cox, ALVIN J. Burning tests of Philippine ortland) cement) raw, materials) 2 eee One plate and 3 text figures. No. 2, April, 1914 PRATT, DAvip S., and BRILL, HARvEY C. The absorption spectra of various phthalides and related compounds, II..............0...2...22.00000---- Six text figures. REIBLING, W. C., and REYES, F. D. The efficiency of Portland cement rawamMaterialsi trom Nava. (Ce u ssc eee Two plates. PRATT, WALLACE E. Geology and field relations of Portland cement maw,materials) at Naga,) Cebul ice 80 ee ee ee Cy... riate and 8 text figures. REIBLING, W. C. Natural cement versus brick; Iwahig penal colony PEEING VOMEEM SOLE IS} PVN AR UO AY Pe CSA aU SS a Ae AI GRD One plate. PRATT, DAviD S. The coconut and its products, with special reference Ha): OPER GA Ko) oy ae se Ac Se RU eg Dea Five plates. No. 3, June, 1914 DALBURG, F. A., and PRATT, WALLACE E. The iron ores of Bulacan OWA CO pie MiMi ie UO EURAIL SURE UN 752 NOR EL Be ok Ue ee Six plates, 6 text figures, and 1 map. EDDINGFIELD, F. T. Microscopic study of the Bulacan iron ores........ EDITORIAL: Notes on the geology of Port Arthur and vicinity............. FRUISWASE Wi Siiceeecscceccee tesa n ote ce oust seu tn SL NaN I Cea aes MC a No. 4, July, 1914 Cox, ALVIN J., HEISE, GEORGE W., and GANA, V. Q. Water supplies Anhchneyehilippinelslan ds sie ee we eee ak ea es Na Five plates. Page. 1 51 79 127 161 163 177 201 263 269 271 273 iv Contents No. 5, September, 1914 Page. BROWN, WILLIAM H., and MatHEws, DoNatp M. Philippine diptero- CAPD) LOTCSES oes o.oo icsce cathe Set ashe deed eases case oot ea ee 413 Thirteen plates, 12 text figures, and 1 map. No. 6, November, 1914 BROWN, WILLIAM H., and MATHEWS, DonALD M. Philippine diptero- carp’ forests (concluded): o.oo eer ee 517 PUBLICATIONS: F FOR SALE BY: THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE, | MANILA, PHILIFPINE ISLANDS ETHN oOG™: A VOCABULARY OF THE IGOROT’ LAN:" GUAGE AS SPOKEN BY THE » BONTOC IGOROTS By WaAvter Cayton CLapr “Order No. 408, Paper, 89 pages, $0.75, postpaid. - The YVooabulary is given in lgprot-Enalich a and Poatertoatnr: 4 THE NABALOI DIALECT “By Otto ScHesrer and- 2 THE BATAES OF PALAWAN, ~ By Epwarp ¥. MILLER Order No, 403. roceo, $0.75; postpaid, The Nabaloi Dialect . (65 pages, 29 plates) ‘and ‘the . Bataks of .Palawan (7 pages, 6 Pe ra ‘are bound se one cover. | wy —_—— THE Batax DIALECT AS A MEMBER THE PHILIPPINE GROUP OF NGUAGES - By Orro SCHERRER é fe and “3” AND V" IN PHILIPPINE aed LANGUAGES wind fe By CARLOS Everett CoNANT Order, No. 407. These two. papers are. issued under one” ~ cover, 141 pages, paper, $0.80, postpaid. THE SUBANUNS. OF SINDANGAN BAY By Emerson B. CHRISTIE Order. No. 410. 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Paper, 66. pages, s banuns of this region wére studied by Mr. ~ } important Papers published) by the Bureau “pilation, for the author was In the field and’ harem A waxvAL OF PRILIPPINE ak , CULTURE a orion No. 413. » actual work with silk-producing larve to- S re aan cia wie of one new ated ETHNOLOGY—Continued doves AND RELIGION . By: ‘Naan. M.- ep es Order’ No. 405... Paper; 107 ‘pages, 16° plates, 5 diagrams, $0.25; half. “mo-. Me rocco, $0.75; postpaid, : This volume deals. with “the ed The names of the rulers of Magindanao + are wEGuITOS OF ZAMBALES — ee (By Wuutak Auwan ‘Reap Ri . Paper, 83 “pages a ya Order: No. » A02. plates, $0.25; - half feongden, 7 $0755 ies postpaid. Plates from phatographs, many. of, whiok’ were taken for this publication, show ora) ments, "houses, men making fite with bamboo,’ bows and” arrows, dances, and ane types. INDUSTRIES — F PHILIPPINE HATS ‘By. C. By RoBINSON SM plates, $0.50 postpaid. » ' This: paper is a concise record af history and présent condition of a hen re in the Philippine, islands. ; THE SUGAR. INDUSTRY IN THE ISLAND OF NEGROS) | By Heesrrt S$.) WALKER ey Order. No. fe ‘Paper, 145 ayes, 10.” plates, 1 map, $1.25, postpaid.» Considered from. the viewpoint of piu a a tay utility,’ Mr,.Walker’s Sugar industry” ~ in the island of Negros is one of the most © of Science. | This \volume:is.a real contribu- tion to the subject; it is not a mere com- understands the Des tail cen of Reka ne) + ee pee for ‘By Chants Ss. BANKS. ‘Paper, 53. pages, 20 plates, $0.75, postpaid. © «5 _ In A. Manual of Philippine Silk geutting Re are presented. the results ‘of. several Years’ ~ / LY athe sy Ke ae Te a aA a re s, i ‘ 4) ao «= Cox AND ARGUELLES: Sorts oF LUZON.] [PHIut. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. i. in® FORMOSA 1 | PHILIPPINE ISLANDS SCALE STATUTE MILES HOS. PROVINCES BATANES 1 ILOCOS NORTE aol MOUNTAIN wad a APAYAO 5 KALINGA c BONTOC o LEFANTO SUBFROVINCES © AMEURAYAN ¥ (FUGA & BENGUET @ BONE SABUYANES IS. h AGRA SUBPROVINCE d 4 ISABELA 5 LA UNION 6 NUEVA VIZCAYA 7 TAYABAS MARINQUQUE SUBPROVINCE 8 PANGASINAN 9 NUEVA ECLA 10 ZAMBALES 1 TARLAC 12 PAMPANGA 13 BULATAN 14 BATAAN 15 RIZAL 16 CAVITE 17 LAGUNA /8 BATANGAS 19 AMBOS CAMARINES 20. ALBAY CATANOUANES SUBPROVINCE 2/ SORSOGON . MASEATE SUBPROVINCE MINOORO SAMAR PALAWAN 22 ANTIQUE 23 GAAFIZ ROMBLON SUBPROVINCE 24 /L0/LO LEYTE CEBU 25 OCCIDENTAL NEGROS 26 ORIENTAL NEGROS SIQUIIOR SUBPROVINCE BOHOL 27 SURIGAO 28 M/SAMAS DEPARTMENT OF MINDANAO AND SULU + LANAO J DAVAO & ZAMBOANGA } DISTRICTS 1 COTABATO m SULU AGUSAN n BUTUAN © BUKIONON ] suernovnces BURIAS T is {)ROMBLON t GBuvan \ : \ BUSUANGA I, a % HOMONHEN L CAGAYANES Is. CAMIGUIN J. ‘SIQUIJORI. 2 AD BUGSUS | if Ganaenc 1 i L The organisms causing the liberation of soil nitrate as gaseous nitrogen have been found to be present in fresh horse dung and also on the surface of old straw.1* When the horse dung has become rotted, denitrifying bacteria seem to have disappeared, giving way to nitrifying organisms. Nitrogen fixation.——The processes of ammonification, nitri- fication, and denitrification have simply to do with the existing supply of nitrogen in the soil with reference to its retention or liberation from the soil, while the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by soil microdrganisms is one of vital importance in increasing the nitrogen content of the soil.‘7 For centuries it has been recognized that long-cultivated soils when left to themselves for a number of years partially recover their lost fertility. It was later recognized that such fertility accumula- tion is largely due to increase in the content of nitrogen. Later it was explained by Boussingault?® as being mostly the work of micro6rganisms. The discovery by Hellriegel and Wilfrath of the fixation of nitrogen in the root tubercles of legumes, together with the studies of Berthelot and other investigators, definitely established that increase in nitrogen in the goil is due to fixation by bacteria that may be living within the soil itself (nonsymbiotic) or those living within the root tubercles of legumes (symbiotic). * Centralbl. f. Bakt., etc., 2 Abt. (1902), 8, 657; Fiinfte Internat. Kong. Angew. Chem. (Behn) (1903), 793. * Loc. cit., Hilgard, Soils, 146; Vorhees and Lipman, A Review of Inves- tigations in Soil Bacteriology. Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Exp. Sta. (1907), 194, 71. * Loc. cit., Hilgard, Soils. 148; Bull. Bur. Agr. Intell. (1918), 4, 1528-9. * Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Exp. Sta. (1907), 194, 76. adbid., 16: 1X, A, 1 Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon — 9 About thirty years ago, Berthelot observed that nitrogen fixation takes place in bare and uncultivated soils and attributed such gain to the activity of certain forms of microérganism,’® and Garlach and Vogel, Koch, Vorhees and Lipman, and other investigators have conclusively shown that members of the azotobacter group of aérobic bacilli can fix nitrogen. However, further investigation would be necessary before the certainty of the value”® to practical agriculture of nonsymbiotic bacteria can be definitely established. The fixation of nitrogen by bacteria within root tubercles is of comparatively recent development. Hellriegel”: first dis- covered that legume tubercles are due to bacterial activity and that the root tubercles contain the atmospheric nitrogen stored up by bacteria. Where tubercles develop in the legumes and soil conditions are satisfactory to bacterial growth, experiments have shown the fixation of as much as 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre in the case of crimson clover. This is amply con- firmed by similar experiments in the different experimental stations where proper soil conditions have been established. Some soils do not contain the necessary bacteria for desirable legumes to be grown, and therefore the help of bacteria cannot be utilized to increase the supply of nitrogen. This can be remedied when proper soil conditions are attained by inocu- lating the seed with the desired bacteria. For each class of bacteria there are optimum conditions of temperature, moisture, aération, alkalinity, etc. for the greatest activity.2?, In neutral or acid soils the activity of nitrification bacteria is stopped. A sufficient quantity or an excess of a base must be present to unite with the acids formed by the oxidation of ammonia. The most favorable substances for this purpose are limestone and dolomite, an excess of which does no harm. These principal conditions inducing bacterial activity have had practical application in modern agriculture and have given beneficial returns by increased production of crops. One of the most striking is the common practice of inoculating the * Tbid., 81. ** Hopkins, Soil fertility and Permanent Agriculture. Ginn & Co., N. Y. (1910), 225. *Tagebl. 59. Versamml. deut. Naturf. u. Aerzte. Berlin (1886), No. 7, 290; Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Exp. Sta. (1907), 194, 89. ™R. Warington [Trans. Chem. Soc. (1878), 44; (1879), 429; (1884), 637; (1891), 484] has investigated the conditions affecting the activity of some of the organized ferments. 10 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 soil with certain beneficial bacteria after proper conditions have been found suitable or established. In this paper, we do not give complete data with regard to the soils of Luzon, but we desire to place on record as many facts as possible concerning the fertility of some of the agri- cultural sections of Luzon, based on chemical and physical analyses and to a certain extent on such field observations as we have been able to segregate. In some sections of the island we have been able to carry on our work much more thoroughly than in others. From certain sections we have little data, except an occasional analysis, which shows the general nature of the soil. Where the chemical and physical data are fairly complete, they may be taken together with the meteorological and agricultural data of the district and used not only to develop the district itself, but to interpret the probabilities of success of certain crops in new districts. No analysis is more accurate than the sample which it rep- resents; therefore, the errors of sampling should be reduced to a minimum. All samples were collected according to the directions for taking soil samples,** already published. THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS The chemical analysis aims to give a general idea of the. potential fertility of the soil, and in a way measures the crop- producing power of a given land, provided that the climatic conditions, physical texture, and bacterial activities are satis- factory. Hilgard,?* from practical experience and extensive investigations, found that this is invariably true with virgin soils, while with soils that have been cultivated for centuries under different cultural methods and in different crops other factors not readily differentiated by chemical analysis alone are presented. There are ten elements essential to the proper growth of plants as follows:?5 Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, the sources of which are air and water; phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen, which are sometimes deficient in soils and have commercial value as plant food; sulphur, calcium, iron, and magnesium, which are required by plants in small amounts and are rarely deficient in soils. Silicon, aluminium, sodium, chlorine, and manganese are also commonly found in plants. * Cox, This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 326. * Toc. cit., Soils, 325, 348. * Loc. cit., Hopkins, Soil, ete., 13. IX, A, 1 Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon ll In general, the concern of the chemist with reference to plant food supply is the phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen content, for, if the percentage of any one of these existing in the soil falls below that necessary to yield a nutrient solution of the concentration demanded during the period of most active as- similation, the productive capacity of the soil may be ques- tioned.2>. The quantity of organic matter and calcium present are also of special interest in that they affect the availability of plant nutrients, the bacterial activity, and the physical text- ure of the soil. Two aspects to be determined by chemical soil analysis are clearly distinguishable: First, the permanent productive value, the prevention of undue drain by crops, and the regulation of the necessary elements of plant food by the addition of fertilizers, which is of vital importance in rational agriculture; secondly, the immediate producing capacity, which is chiefly concerned with immediate returns. The determination of these two fac- tors is entirely different, even though the results and their causes may usually be intimately correlated. The soil is the result of the degradation and disintegration of rocks. Some of the inorganic plant food is still in the mineral condition in which it was originally derived from the parent rock. The degree of disintegration usually determines the degree of availability. The inorganic plant food elements may be classified with reference to whether they are (1) soluble in water, (2) in acid, or (8) can be dissolved only by alkali- carbonate fusion. (1) The water-soluble plant food elements constitute the read- ily available portion, but an excess in this form would be dis- advantageous, as the greater part would be lost by being leached out and washed away by heavy rains. An excess of some soluble salts is a great detriment, as shown by the poor growth of plants on saline or alkali lands. * This percentage is usually assumed as 0.1. It is evident that this is influenced by the physical and chemical conditions. The circulation of an abundant supply and subsequent evaporation of water increases the con- centration of the soil solution so that the requisite percentage is probably less when the physical and chemical conditions are favorable. It un- questionably varies with a great many interdependent factors which cannot be determined without the employment of methods based on physical chemistry. When the naturally accumulated concentration of nutrient solution is too low, it can be efficiently increased artificially by the addition of an easily soluble supply. 12 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 (2) It is desirable that the greater portion should be the “reserve” food material; that is, in the form available to plants only by the solvent action of acids in the soil and the action of the roots of the plants.” King ?® found that in some soils enough plant nutriment for a season’s crop may be dissolved by distilled water alone, if the soil be subjected to repeated leachings and drying at 110°C., but there were striking differences in the amount of leachings from samples of known productive capacity and others of low production. Snyder 7° found that soil leachings failed to supply a sufficient amount of plant food to produce normal plants of wheat, oats, and barley and that the plants obtain a large portion of their food from forms which are insoluble in water. (3) Those soil ingredients that cannot be brought into solution except by alkali carbonate fusion or hydrofluoric acid treatment constitute the unchanged minerals, and under ordinary condi- tions are of no practical value as a source of plant food supply, at least, for many years. The water- and acid-soluble ingredients include the supply of plant food which presumably “will become available in a period of time in which we are interested” by the reactions which take place in the soil by the application of scientific management and cultural methods. These have been separated and determined. The methods used were substantially those of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.*° The results are given on the basis of a sample dried to a constant weight at 105°C. All chemical analyses were made on that portion which passed a 1-millimeter screen (‘fine earth’). The sand grains larger than this are considered to be composed of quartz more or less * The equilibria between the solid, liquid, and gaseous components of soils, although they have been extensively studied, are so complicated that much remains to be discovered. Calcium and magnesium carbonates and phosphates are acted upon by the weak acids in the soil and the roots of plants, and are thereby made available as plant food. Tricalcium phosphate is difficultly soluble in the soil moisture, and is generally considered not easily available. Phosphates of aluminium and of iron are extremely slightly acted upon by soil moisture, and are usually not considered as a source of plant food within a reasonable time. These equilibria are im- portant in the fixation of the water-soluble fertilizers applied upon the land, and prevent waste from leaching. * Loc. cit., Hilgard, Soils, 323. * Bull. Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1905), 89, 198-200. * Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. (1908), 107 (Revised). IX, A, 1 Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon 13 pulverized. Quartz is practically inert as a source of plant food, and barrenness is commonly associated with sandy land. This is not necessarily true in arid regions where kaolinization and disintegration take place very slowly. In such cases the larger grains may contain potentially available plant food, but in the case of Philippine soils under tropical conditions there has been rapid decomposition of the particles of sand and gravel and the detritus on a 1-millimeter sieve is usually very small, and we believe the portion passing a sieve of this size contains practically all the constituents from which the plant derives its food and includes all that should be termed “fine earth’ or soil.*? From the following analyses of the chlorhydric soil extracts one can deduce the requirements as to mineral plant food of all the soils we have investigated. Soils that show a very low percentage of any one element necessary to plant nutrition will yield a low crop production, if not at once, at least within a few years after cultivation has begun unless remedied by supplying that element in the form of fertilizer. On the other hand, any essential element shown by analysis to be present in abundant amount, especially in virgin soils, may generally be assumed to be the last to become deficient in the course of crop production. THE PHYSICAL ANALYSIS The physical analyses were made with a Schone apparatus according to a method outlined by one of us.*? The air-dried soils were disintegrated by shaking in water, and special effort was made to secure complete disintegration of the aggregates, without which there is no constant means of comparison, before they were separated into the individual fractions.** Hilgard ** has proposed to determine the mechanical struc- tures of soils by photographing the various fractions in glass tubes of uniform bore, and adds that a series of such tubes would describe a curve of the soil composition. We have carried on analyses to test the accuracy of this method. It is very difficult to photograph glass tubes because they reflect light, and "If there were a large detritus on a 1-millimeter sieve, the results with respect to certain constituents might appear high and would not fairly represent the composition of the soil. * Cox, This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 313. *% Oven-dried soils are apt to form hard aggregates which cannot be disintegrated by shaking, and the percentages of the coarser grains may be greatly increased. * Loc. cit., Soils, 94. 14 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 we have substituted therefor a block of wood having adjacent uniform vertical grooves faced with a glass plate. Any such method assumes that the percentage of voids in the material with the different sizes of the grains is identical, and for this reason cannot be strictly accurate. Furthermore, clay and silt cake in drying, and care has to be exercised that these are broken up. We found a great variation in the sum of linear measurement of the fractions of samples of different soils of the same weight. Comparative determinations by weight and by measurement are as follows: TABLE I.—Mechanical analyses of soils comparing determinations by weight and by measurement. Gosrre Medium Hine venunne Silt, | Fine silt, | Clay less Source. No. 10.5" 0.5-0.25 0.25 0.10 10. 10-0.05 0.05-0.01 | 0.01-0.002)than 0.002 mm. mm. mm. ; mm. as HEE: Ee | = | Percent.| Per cent.| Percent.| Percent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Percent. Batangas. | 95 0.8 3.7 9.8 13.9 | 19.0 | 40.9 11.9 Dolet eee | b5 tt 4.2 8.7 12:1 19.2 | 41.9 12.8 Dow ae eaiees | 210 0.6 2.7 16.9 1.4 | 14.4 | 31.2 22.8 Dota b10 1.3 7.6 16.8 13.2 19.5 31.3 10.3 Dore teen. a5 1.0 2.7 10.9 15.1 19.0 34.7 17.1 Do meee ee | b15 1.3 4.1 12.0 22.1 | 18.1 31.6 10.8 Dawe eee iar | 916 0.5 1.9 20.0 14.8 6.3 29) Siiieemeye2 Dora eect a | b16 1.0 7.6 16.8 14.8 6.6 28.9 24.3 ID eae estan aes | 228 0.7 2.9 9.5 12.6 23.0 32.4 18.9 Doses ees b28 | 0.7 1.9 10.8 12.2 24.1 32.8 17.5 Do meataew hey 2 29 0.1 0.6 16.6 31.7 17.7 26.0 1.3 Dorn ar else b29 | 0.7 4.7 17.5 27.8 15.4 26.4 7.5 Dota 230 | 0.2 0.8 | 18.5 29.4 18.3 24.3 8.5 Doses. oe | b30 | 0.1 1.6 15.0 30.0 18.9 25.6 8.8 1D eee sie es 4 336 21 5.6 | 23.6 18.4 15.5 23.7 11.1 Tossa s Aw b36 3.4 | 11.9 18.2 | 16.3 15.4 24.3 10.5 Dor agus 337 2.9 5.2 13.8 15.5 19.2 31.8 12.1 Dor fee west b37 2.5 5.2 9.2 15.8 20.9 35.8 10.6 Dowie ram ey 23g | 2.1 12.0 | Die | 9.5 15.6 21.0 12.6 Doser tre sen | b3g 2.1 88) 20.1 | 12.4 11.9 28.3 16.4 Dore e = yar sets } a4 2.8 | 5.4 14.6 19.8 15.3 30.6 11.5 DG eee ee bAl 2.8 5.9 10.2 17.3 15.0 37.4 11.4 Mountain Province_| 3 1.2 4.0 8.1 7.9 8.9 42,1 27.8 Nose meses b3 1.1! 4.6 7.3 | 7.7 | 10.8 41.8 26.7 Doe ea ag 4.1 | 7.2 18.7 18.4 13.6 26.4 16.6 Potente ees Dg | 3.4 | 7.9 14.4 13.7 16.5 33.3 11.8 Donen a12 3.5 | 5.4 18.7 19.9 15.3 29.2 8.0 Dowshenecae d12 4.2 | 8.5 10.7 16.1 19.7 32.7 8.1 Dower ass | 220 5.6 | 10.6 25.2 | 18.6 | 12.1 21.8 hal Dowtis renee b20 13.3 | 12.9 | 12.6 | 13.6 | 15.0 22.5 10.1 Dos eee nar, a33 24.6 | 25.1 5.2 15.5, 6.3 9.9 13.4 Doe cree nail ’33 27.9 26.6 | 71.3 16.3 1.2 6.7 8.0 Gapavans ee Ts etek | 1.5 23.6 36.7 12.0 21.0 5.2 Dore ie eet Buys |e een 1.9 20.6 | 35.7 11.2 23.5 veil To. eee ced Pipers} Pca ae 11 1839) ee STae 12.4 23.4 6.0 Dosen aa ep ghee eal 1.2 | 16.01 36.8 12.7 26.0 7.3 ® By weight. > By measurement. ay A, Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon 15 TABLE I.—Mechanical analyses of soils, etc.—Continued. ' core Na rane Very ape Silt, | Fine silt,| Clay less Source. No. | $70.8 | 0:5-0.35 | 0.25-0.10| 0.10-0.05 | 0-05-0.01 | 0.01-0.002/than 0.002 mm. mm. mm. mm. Lilie aaa jaabese | - | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. 0.4 26.8 34.6 12.7 19.7 5.8 0.9 22.2 32.8 12.1 24.6 | 7.4 0.4 18.7 34.0 16.7 23.9 6.3 Rae UA 0.6 14.6 31.6 16.4 28.3 8.5 uy Rscent ee 0.5 8.3 34.0 16.1 33.7 1.4 ee eee 1.2 7.5 32.6 14.9 35.2 8.6 Bitte HES 0.6 7.4 20.7 1.7 59.4 10.2 0.9 7.6 20.1 2.4 55.9 1391 3.1 16.3 23.1 20.2 28.0 | 9.3 3.0 14.7 21.1 20.1 30.7) 10.4 3.9 9.0 11.1 12.2 35.5 27.5 3.3 7.4 | 12.3 12.8 35.3 28.6 Bil 5.3 10.2 14.8 34.1 31.4 3.4 5.38 11.1 14.8 34.0 30.5 1.9 6.6 9.0 9.2 34.0 38.8 1.3 5.4 9.1 10.5 33.5 40.0 4.9 30.5 18.6 10.7 18.7 14.1 j 4.5 25.5 18.6 12.1 21.0 16.9 0.4 2.1 17.5 15.6 11.2 23.5 29.7 0.5 1.5 14.2 14.2 11.5 27.2 30.9 1.3 8.8 BIA 18.38 9.0 17.1 12.8 1.4 7.3 26.4 17.4 10.0 20.1 17.4 3.5 14.8 36.5 14.2 10.3 12.8 7.9 3.4 13.2 29.6 14.1 11.6 16.8 11.3 6.1 10.5 19.5 15.7 14.3 23.4 10.5 , 4.8 7.5 14.3 14.3 15.4 28.8 15.7 6.4 12.8 17.7 11.4 14.6 24.2 12.9 5.6 9.7 13.8 10.6 15.0 29.7 15.6 a10 1.0 2.7 10.4 15.9 24.1 34.5 11.4 b10 1.0 2.2 6.9 13.9 22.1 39.4 14.5 213 1.0 3.9 11.3 10.9 22.1 33.3 17.5 b13 1.4 3.6 9.3 11.9 23. 4 33.9 16.5 216 8.8 28.1 38.1 9.8 4.4 5.7 5.1 b16 8.8 24.4 35.4 11.0 5.8 7.8 1.3 al 0.9 3.9 23.0 21.7 12.8 21.0 16.7 by 0.6 2.8 19.0 25.1 14.2 22.6 15.7 a2 0.4 2.6 aT 17.3 19.1 | 39.7 13.2 be 0.4 2.6 3.8 18.4 19.4 42.8 12.7 a3 0.9 4.6 14.9 18.8 18.1 34.3 16.4 b3 0.6 3.2 11.3 13.7 15.4 38.0 17.8 a4 | 0.6 14.2 51.6 12.7 5.5 9.6 5.8 b4 0.4 13.3 46.7 14.0 6.7 13.3 5.6 a6 0.2 20, 41.6 23.6 11.4 14.2 6.8 D5 0.1 1.8 31.7 22.8 11.4 16.7 8.5 a6 0.9 2.9 8.3 11.4 11.9 37.2 27.7 b6 0.7 2.3 3.3 12.0 11.7 41.0 29.0 at 0.3 1.4 19.1 22.4 17.5 26.5 12.8 bq 0.1 0.9 16.2 22.6 16.5 28.4 15.3 ag 0.4 1.7 8.1 13.5 10.1 40.7 25.5 bg 0.2 16 4.6 13.8 9.2 45.6 25.0 4 By weight. > By measurement. 16 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE I.—Mechanical analyses of soils, etc.—Continued. | So | Cea ae et (vezad| tag Real Seem | s Fi ms = # exy = mm. mm. mm. mm. | mm. mm. mm. —————— j | | Per cent. | Per cent.' Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Miscellaneous --__-_- | a9 0.1 0.7 | 15.5 15.2 13.2 34.6 20.7 1a PN ERGE Big: [Loe pee ety TRH esta aU 15.3 13.9 35.2| 19.9 Do eae Ue 210 | 0.5 | 1.8 22.2 32:71) 1638 18.8| 7.7 | Dore ee D10 | 0.5 1.3 19.1 31.5 16.3 21.4 9.8 Dore eee ell | 0.4 2.8| 30.7 30.2 7.9 20.2 7.8 Dore. ae ee oll 06| 23] 258| sL4| 44) eee Doe eee al2 | 0.4 | 5.1 30.5 20.7 | 4.7 19.1| 19.5 Do. seuaeee a opie 1) 0.6.1") e301] a eoavon ls roe 5.1 21.9] 20.4 Dom erecen cere | 213 8.3 | 19.3 27.8 12.1 Sei 15.5 8.9 Doreen =n | 223 | 7.4| 15.8 25.3 13.9 | 92) 181) 10.8 Doren ret al4} 10.5) 17.9 23.1 11.2 | 8.9} 160} 124 Dose ee | 55)|". est Sots 12.5} 103 18.7] 15.7 Dg ace ee kee a5 | alll) ies Ce IAG 11.2 15.7 |. 785 Dotto ees D165 | 3.2 9.9 28.4) 20.6 13.5 | 19.1 5.3 2 By weight. > By measurement. In the table, the numbers fepresenting the percentages of the coarser and finer fractions are usually, respectively, lower and higher by measurement than by weight. The results by measurement can only approximate those by weight and are satisfactory only for rough work. If it is desired to have a graphic representation of the mechanical structures of the soils, a more accurate and satisfactory way is that suggested by Pratt * by plotting the mechanical composition by weight of a surface soil and its subsoil, so that not only the relative pro- portion of the different grain sizes is shown, but also the physical composition as a whole. Where the data warrant it, we will discuss a region inde- pendently. BATANGAS We have carried on a rather careful survey of this district. This region has been selected for special study because its agricultural fertility is known. We hope that the data here given will help to establish Philippine soil types, and in time, as the work progresses, it may be possible accurately to state what soils are best suited to a given crop and to interpret the results of any soil in its relation to the ideal soil for a given crop. A study of this kind will also aid in the future manuring and fertilizing of the area. A chain of extinct or quiescent and active volcanoes, which * This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 39. eA Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon 17 have contributed material for most of the soils of the southern provinces, stretches from Batangas and Laguna Provinces to the extreme southeastern point of Luzon. The soils of Batangas are mostly the result of disintegration of water-laid tuff, ag- glomerate, etc.,?> which extend widely over Luzon. Volcanic soils are usually very fertile, and those of Batangas are no excep- tion. The soils of this region are mostly loam or clayey loam, but they occasionally contain a conglomerate phase. There are no heavy clay soils in the whole province. Underlying the surface soil in many places is undecomposed pila rock, and the samples: from Taal show a considerable amount of this in the upper layer. The area around Batangas, which contains more types of soil than any other part of this region, is made up of alluvial and littoral deposits. Dorsey *7 has made a soil survey of the Batangas area. He states that— Eleven types of soils of varying agricultural value and differing widely in their origin and method of formation were recognized and mapped. Of the alluvial soils, the Calumpang sandy loam and the Calumpang loam are the most valuable for general farming purposes. Of the residual soils derived in place by the slow decomposition of the underlying rocks, the Lipa loam possesses the greatest natural advantages, while the Ta- lumpoc clay loam is the poorest of all the soils. His work is the basis for fig. 1. The types of soils named and described by Dorsey are rep- resented by our samples as follows: Type of soil. Sample Nos. IB, GS alg, ales, PAD) ail, ae Ibaan clay loam 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 34; 35, 36, 41, 42, 48, 44. Lipa 1, Be, 2h Gy) GW Ey Taysan clay Dy i), slaky I, als, 312 Malabo waxy clay None. Macolod gravelly loam Sil ozs Talumpoc clay loam None. Calumpang loam AY Psd Calumpang sandy loam DY), 8X0) Calumpang silt loam 31, 38. Muck 39. Salt marsh 40. The locations from which samples 45 to 49 were taken are not shown on the map. Fig. 1 shows the superficial differentiation of the soils, and Table II gives their chemical analyses. * These have been mapped by Adams, This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 57. BU ee biineAlgte (19038) Sy ole 1242392 18 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 LEGEND” Ibcanclay Lipaloam Téysan Malabo lo waxycley Ess li Talumpoc Calumpens Calumpang Mit loam clayloam loam — sandy loam Dy Y, rst oribia fi is a Shan et ‘s Celumpsane Muck Silt loam q=)9000000 8020090000 4090000000000) Syatute Miles Kilonpaters SOPETPIROR VEE I Meter deep eal (iaeere Sse Ss Sc lbaan Lipa Taysan Malabo Macolod Talumpoc Calumpang Caiumpang Calumpang Muck claylosm Loam Clay waxyclay Grayellyloam clay loam loam Sandyloam silt loam Fic. 1. Types of soils of the Batangas area. LEGEND SscSandy loam Sc Loam -SccClay loam Ssc | SicSilt loam Clay Gr Gravelly Su Gravei Rock Sait Marsh 19 Soils of Luzon tielles and Arg Coa IX, A, 1 ‘Q0II pUwS ‘ULOD ‘9UBD IBSNS SplalA UOIZaI sy J, “Seull} jz aSsesUq YIM pezZl[ytoy usaq savy ABU 4T “st¥a AYUAY IQBAO OJ A[SNONUIZUOD Ssa] IO BLOW pazeAIy[Nd Usaq sey y[ ‘aU. 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AOAB[O eaoul yeYMoUIOG |--------=------- ORR es i fey 148 | POL 6 OL 9S 9p | 8°2 9% | 08-91 ‘Ip ‘ON Wey} Jeyreq ‘usz0o | | IO ‘9911 ‘090Bq0} Jo sdo1d poos seonpoag |---------------- Op----~| 8'2r lg “Ge | 9°PT 6 ‘LI SST 9°g iepee, 27 | 9T-0 pC NR OT LOSC UG ieee a aer ODS ea PS 3°82 | P&E OLT SEOT £°9 13° HEGEO, | O&-9T *poos 81 | uoljonporg “Uso pu od141 UI payuR[d ore Spey Mou yng *uUAM013 A[AoULIO; SEM OooBqoL, | eso ueg ‘uBsusuRley | ‘TT | 908 | $'OT 8°6I 9°PL | pg 8°2 Lg 9T-0 “e0R]d S14} UL epeu s14;eg “uMOAs dozo ON | sesuejzeg ‘eteldy | og 0°@L Gq‘) 2°21 P08 | 6°22 | O*L VST | s0B8jyins WUao Lad |\"}Wa0 40g [ue 4ad "U9d Lag |yUa9 Lag quan 40d |"YUId ad |*}U99 tag) “wg | “UU “UU : “uu 5 “WU speqeae | | | 00" |eoo'o-otor0) 10°0-40°0 | $0°0-01°0 | oy-preary | 98°0-°0 | so-t | “2aais | ueyy ayes | . pues | pues puts UIW [ e | “BS ABWIOY | *a01n0g 889] ABI jouy Aro A UES, jouy AIO A NASI uInIpeyy | 981809 sur Sane | -ssed jou; - ) j rears 7 = = a ae ao a ~ | 8n4149q | ‘sIseq d01j-10VeA\ ‘YZAIB9 OUILT | H | i 24 ‘penutyuoy—sji0s sobunjog fo sashjvun [/Movimyoopy— TI] ATav I, Pea, Cox and Argtielles: Soils of Luzon 25 PANGASINAN No general investigation of the soils of Pangasinan have been made except of the lands within the municipalities of Asingan, San Manuel, Urdaneta, and Villasis included in the proposed Ambalangan-Dalin irrigation system, although a few samples from other districts have been received and analyzed. As shown by the mechanical analysis of soils of the Ambalangan- Dalin district, the soil varies in texture from heavy tenacious clay loam to fine silt and sand or gravel. Mr. G. A. Graham, irrigation soil inspector of the Bureau of Public Works, de- scribes these soils as follows :** (a) Heavy clay loam.—This type of soil is to be found in the vicinity of Urdaneta and Villasis (see map, fig. 2). The surface and subsoil of this section of land is of the same composition and arrangement; a type of soil which has a maximum water capacity, and is capable of retaining a large percentage of it. These features make the soil especially suitable for rice culture. (b) Clay loam and sand.—This type of soil is similar to that described above, but differs essentially in its water-holding capacity, which is due to the varying quantities of sand intermingled with the clay particles. This type of soil, while suitable to the growth of rice, will require more water than the former type. (c) Clay loam and gravel_—A class of soil found around San Manuel; the proportion of clay and gravel in this soil is not very uniform. The soil between the Binalonon-San Miguel road and the Aborido ditch contains about 40 per cent clay, the remainder grading from cobble stones to fine sand. North of San Manuel and as far east as the barrio of San Antonio the soil is composed of about 30 per cent clay. (d) Fine silt and sand——By referring to the map it will be seen that a large percentage of the land is composed of fine silt and sand. Most of this soil has been formed by the overflow of the Agno River. This type of soil differs very materially from any that has been described. The surface is mainly of light loamy nature underlaid by a stratum of sand of various grades. On account of the porosity of the soil and the topog- raphy of the land, a large quantity of water will be needed for rice culture. These soils were unquestionably all formed in the same way, but natural and artificial means have caused great variations in their physical properties and fertility. With reference to their physical properties as indicated by field observations, Mr. Graham reports with regard to classification and drainage as follows: Class I.—This class includes all the lands within the vicinity of Villasis and Urdaneta. The soil is classified as first class for rice, as it has a large water-holding capacity and is of sufficient depth to give ample room * An unpublished report made in 1910. 26 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 SOIL MAP AMBALANGAN-DALIN, PANGASINAN Surveyed 1909 = Bureau of Public Works Kirkpatrick Ville 7 >: rS CRT SS le Set PR LEGEND Clay Loam Clay Loam Clay Loam and Gravel fey Tey ye) | Tot fet | BSoeo Kilometers Fine Silt and Sand 1 2 3 Cf, WAR emetéry (fel fel / wel fel Y SUT Soil Sample Sf To Rosoles Fic. 2. Soil map of Ambalangan—Dalin, Pangasinan. xp At Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon 27 for root growth. These are two essential factors for proper rice culture. The soils of this class are remarkably uniform in character (see map). From data obtained during the high flood of July last, it is evident that a large percentage of fine silt is deposited on this land annually from the Agno River. The silt is beneficial as it improves the texture and supplies a certain percentage of plant food. The following analysis shows the percentage of fertilizing elements in river sediment. (See Appendix me li2”.) Class IJ.—This class includes all the land within the municipality of Asingan. This soil has been classified as second class for rice, on account of its texture being open, which allows the escape of a certain percentage of free water. This land is similar to that of class I, but, on account of the sand in varying quantities, its water requirements will be greater. Class III.—Here we find a type of soil which closely resembles that of class II, but differing essentially by the presence of a large percentage of gravel instead of sand. The topography of the land together with the openness of the soil admits of a large amount of seepage. Class IV.—This class of soil includes all of the land in the northern part of the system and that adjacent to the river. The soil is very open, and allows the free water to percolate through it very readily. On account of this condition it is recommended that all of this type of soil north of the San Manuel-San Nicolas road, approximately 800 hectares, be not considered further for the irrigation of rice. The land, on the other hand, is best adapted to the cultivation of crops requiring less water and an open well-drained soil. Maguey, sugar cane, and corn are examples of such crops. The rate of seepage through the rest of this soil will not be so great as the land does not have as much slope and the water table is nearer the surface. Drainage.—In the vicinity of San Manuel the topography is such that rice paddies have to be made small in order to distribute the water uniformly over the surface. On the other hand, the land around Urdaneta and Villasis is very low and flat, and the question of drainage is more important than that of irrigation on account of the close texture of the soil. The water from the rainfall percolates through the light open soil around San Manuel and passes through it unobstructed until it gets to within 500 meters of the Asingan-Binalonan road where it is impounded by a heavy stratum of clay loam. Here it is forced to the surface and is carried off in small ditches to be distributed again on the land near the Tonoy-Urdaneta road. The soil east of Asingan is of a light loamy character. Seepage water direct from the Agno River runs through it very readily, and the water finds an outlet on the land around Villasis. In any irrigation project care must be taken to avoid surplus water, or the soil will not only become water-logged, but injurious alkali salts would accumulate. Portions of this district now suffer a great deal from lack of sufficient water, and if a water supply were available crops could be successfully grown during the dry season. The chemical and mechanical analyses of Pangasinan soils are shown in Tables IV and V. 1914 rence Journal of Sci ippine il The Ph | JOLQSIp WaoFLUN aB1e] B JO 10} U99 OY} Ul Wey [[VUIS B Woy USHBT, 4 BNABY, pus fons uBg ueeMy -aq JUSUINUOUI [edro1uNnUL Fo 48Be S10}0UL UAT, (BUY BUR pues ZojUOg UsaMyoq ABEMprlUL por BnABL-uesuisy JO opis qynos ey} uO { AOATY AOGOY, JO 89M S19}0UL OOP Joqe peor uvuoleulg-jonuey, ueg uO y peor onuByy ueg -uBSUISY Jo 4sBe SarezOaY NZ JO Ba1B [eOIdAy, | a pBor UBUO|[BUI_-UBSUISY Oy} UO UBUOTBUIg Woay uesuisy Suyjeredes yueunuow Acepunog [edolunul Jo yANOs s4o}0UL YOT US31Bq O[duIBG 7 peor Jonuepy UBS—uUBSUIBY JO 48¥e B1OJOUL perpuNny OMT, 9 ‘Sa1B}09Y (YOT JO Bore UB FO [BoIdAT, *s.10j0Ul g JO yydop 4B paazey -unooua [9AeIZ puB pUuvy “Eg ‘ON OF [losqng p ‘S1oJOWO]!4 OTeNbs 9 JO Boe Uv SyUOBeI -dai s1yy, “peot Byouepasy—-uvsuisy oy} uO o'T “ON 07 [losqns q ‘8Biq 0} Sujsuunsey, pue vjou -BpAC) 07 ABOVE VUOAT JOLAVSIp OY Jo [Bod Ay, *syLeUIOY, ‘jonuBy Weg ‘sa.10] 7 “BnA4uq, “BUY BIUBG JO YAON “uRBsUISy ‘jonuep ueg “UBSUIBY ‘uBsuisy ‘ojog *jonu -BJ UBS ‘uBNne UBS “Byouep “If, ‘Sojuog aBeNy enna carn weero! gpensn- ‘uBeZ -ulsy “odureureq “BjOUBpAL) ‘Aeoegqy jo YON *901n0g 3°66 0 ‘00 1°66 5 66 0 O0T “yqrea oul 99ST0 “0 09200 “0 061000 | $8600 "0 GZP00 “0 | 09800 “0 91800 °0 00800 °0 09L00 "0 91800 °0 $1800 °0 proeuou *(8008D quoo aod) Appioe 19S TL0 | 12°0 S&°0 | 98°0 bL'0 | 80 88°0 | &8°0 @L'T | 82°70 LL’0 | 92°0 9L°0 | 610 €8°0 | 8h°0 68°0 | 610 090 | 920 290 | 910 90°T | 62°0 49 “d) *9'd *snut | (QZ@N) “0H | epog 0O0T 0 O81 0 222 0 928 0 182 °0 OIL "0 1&3 0 1020 LaT ‘0 681 0 p98 “0 Tor 0 40"d (O23) ysejog 2s 0 880 0S 0 0 | 20 610 980 68 0 680 620 98 °0 99 °0 49" B18 ~usBY ‘(O3W) 29'T 686 GL°% oP TL | OFT (O89) our ysplos wourspbung fo sashjnun jpomayQ— AT AIAV I, 1600 | L80°0 8210 | 880°0 TLIO | 820°0 I6T 0 | 9IT*O | | 6610 | STL "O | | 980°0 | LTO zer 0 | 960°0 PELO | SPL“ 9810 | h0°0 880°0 | aP0°0 260°0 | 990°0 €L2°0 | TST’ 90°d | °30'd *(@0%d) opp | *(@N) -Ayue | ues doy | -OA31ND “bOud rg | 69% | 92-0 | 6I oly | ets |9t-0 | ut pL°S 112 | 02-0 | ST | 82°9 | 80°0OT | 02-0 | 8T ugh | e's [02-0 | IT 69°L | 802 | 02-0 | 6 ya'9 | aby | 03-0 | 2 TOL | 88'S |92-0 19 88°b | LL'h | O9T-09 | ¥ Ly |69'S | 9-0 |8 68°9 | 09°2 | 9zt-02 | z 92°8 | 29° | ST -0 |T 90'd | 90"a | “MD ‘uogtu|"(Q%H)| “1108 | -31uo0| oan | Jo ueul | ‘on sso7y |-ysloyy| -10edg MS de Soils of Luzon lles "gtie Cox and A? Tex CARL ‘JIOS(Ns PUL adBjAns UdsdMjzoq adUaOYIP 4SI19}OBIBYO ON a ‘siajeUl Q°T Jos 7B 19}BM DIBJING *krVUNOD Bap ay} FO [BOIdA, ST [LOS SIG, “[[oAd Spjerd pue siveA ABUT IOF 9d UT peyeaAryao u “staal Z Oe je ai[tepuN [eEAvIs pUB PUBG “ASULIVF oy} Aq paMmojyseqd o.139 [euoijdeoxe Fo UNODDE UO YIAC}SIP SUIPUNOLAINS OY} UI SABE TOYO UBY} eLOUT JUBD Jad Qf SplerA puel ayy, “peotzoerrd useq Sty UOTVBAI][NS poos pue ‘1epun pamo[d uaeq sARY SAABeT PUB SI[21S osuow [TY “peonpord osye st Azypenb poos jJo oooeqoy, -queld33e pue ‘soduour ‘a0lt jo sdo.19 pooS peonpord sey pue ‘MOIBSIII JapUN SI PUL] SIU, “9POT JWSUINUOUT asTeAeTZ UOTJOES SpuBrT Jo nvaing Jo 4sve SloJoUl Y0Z PUB SeLO[Y FO TezUSD oY} JO y}IoU StejeuL puBsnoYy} OMY, 7 “sawek oeUse}[e UO do1d puodas sB poyUP[d used eAvy UIOD puw 0d0Bq0} pure ‘palrey SdoId 9011 OT6T PUe BOGT UL “LeATY ousy oy} Wor UOT}BpUNUT 03 yalqns SI JOLI4SIP SIU, “PUBS AIO SI YOIYM MO[oeq ULO] ST SI9}OUIIJUSD ZZI 0} LE WoOAF Jo pues pues FO Byes B JO S}SISUOD SIa}oUIIGUA 1g 0} GZ WOTF JO YIdep SOUL x “UMOIS Udaq OS[B DAVY SOSUOUL OI} YVY} S9UIG “OUO[Y od]t UT ENGT OF snojAartd {stvak aatyj-AJUOM} TOF Oo UL poyeAary[No Useq SvY AYO, ayerpeuuwat sy, ~“Yy}dep UT S19}OUE G*T 0} OG'O WOAF 1a}VM YITM patoAod ST T WOS¥ES AULBI oY} SULINP pus ‘UOIBeI SuIpuNosans oy} UeY} TOMO] slajoul Z YNoOGe Si 4P “SUOT SAoJOUTOT LY g Jnoqe PUB aPIM SAoJOU HOF OF NOT WorF ‘oluojuY ueg FO 4Sve PISOdep [BIANT[e UV suosees Aulel yove Sulinp poyisodap st zIS Fo JuNoUe asiel & yey} JORF oY} OF ONpP ‘s1ajau GZ'T JO YAdep B 07 soUeTeYIp ejqejoetdde ON .. £a,, asioAesy ATVUIIG spuBy JO NeeIng Jo 4sva STaJOUL 09 “YWMOS Stojour 0), aloy 4Se} JO 1aquUsH f¢ -{aJ@eUI [ JO yWdep 7e joAvAS pues PUBS YPM ULe[Lopul) UMOIS AT[TBUOISBIDO o1eM UO PUB sosuow Ajsnometg “4061 20uIs pezUB[d useq JOU SBY FOITISIP SIU} ‘UOTPVSIIAT TOF 19}BAA FO oe] 0} BUIMO ,,°S ‘“C,, PUSUINTOU osIOABTL Aueuuad spuey Jo nveing Jo yWMos stojew APO 1 “savok AYY Joge Toy soit ul pozuR[d AJoatsnjoxe used sey Pley e4L “sIa}oul1jUad (9 Fo Y}dep B 0} doBJAINSqNs puB sdBFINS Us9M4oq sdDUELEYIP s[qeeo!jou ON ‘o1laeq pue uoleqod suryeredes ,.“q,, pue .,.W,, Poyteut quewnuUoU Fo 4Sea Stojow ALTA y “gal atlUs OY} IOAO PUNOF SI 1oyBM ‘Stozovu1zUSD gy JNoge FO ujdep @ yy ‘adBjJInsqns joM 0} Sumo “od0eqQo} pues soSsuour 0} paquryd Buleq suorjoes [jews ATUO ‘solt UL poyurld ueeq sAvMye sey JOLT4SIp OWL ‘saajoW OTL] eTeNbs gy JO Bore uw YIM UBUOTeUI_ FO 4S¥e YoI4SIp oy} FO [Vo1dAy, 3 ‘WILOT APUBS YIM ULR[TePUL, “PUBS YIM pax{WAOJUT JVYMOUIOS ST wnyerysqns syy, “Setvyoey GT JO vale ue sjuasatder pus ‘pazesiqat ATISey “A[[BUUSTG doio puosas @ se poquR[d useq savy SOZSUOU ZIG GUIS “Siva AYTOF YNOGe AOF Oot UT poqyuerld useq sey 4] x sunjzerjsqns Apueg “IoAly BINA ey} WorZ pouleiqo SI UOYBSIIIL IOF Ta}BM “dotd puoves se UMOIS Udaq dABY SOSUOU ENGI FOUTS yNq ‘odIT UT SABMT ‘suvaA AJLOF JNoOGe IOJ pazBAI{[No useq sey WOIJS SIU, a “dold advisaAer ay} MOEq jus. Jed OP VII Jo Jey} pus ‘QAIN[ley ojeyduioo Bw sem sosuour FO dold TI6I PUL “UMOAS AjOAIsnfoXs SBA VTL polted yey} 0} SNOIADIG “pesiet Used eAvy SOSUOU pUe dd1I SI¥oA 9} 4SBI SY} TOY “MoA[NO YoItq usyorq JO 4Sesr SIajaU QP PUB YJLOU SAajoUr 0g ‘ OIIIeq JodUIeUUB UL SOSNOY 4Sel ay} ysed 4sne p ‘pet deep suing 4] “Sopl} Suryeul TOF posn AJPAISUS}XO ST jenuey, UBS Ivau puNoJ sdURIeodde oUeS SITY} FO Aelo YW ‘“stojyeut g FO YYdop 07 tutOFrunN st zt yey, WUTEIO S}USePIseY ‘“SlojyouUl Gy*T JO YYGap BO} aduUBYD ON oa “100d 318 sdozo ayy, “UMOIS Se ODDBqO} UOYM OTT pues GOGI Ul ydeoxe ‘sugoh AJLOF OF dt ut pojueld useq svy pues ‘S.1a4oOULO[TX atends gt sulejuod Bale SIT, q “spuey Jo nvoing oy} Jo aAtye{Uesetdeat e Aq ‘9 “(TI6L) V 929 “0g “ULnof “Ud ‘x09 JO poyjou oy} Jazze po[dules ex | | | aT “ON 07 [fosqus | oo 2 Sheen ODS | 000T | Z1g00°0 | 88°0 | LS°0 | 2820 | ao'0 =| Sh T | SIT"0 | $800 | 08 F | LE% | OOT-0& | 22 u“pBor ay} FO Opls yINOS oy} UO “UséEZULT “uakes | | | | Jo yeBe BY} OF SLOJOWIOTIH F[EY-euo pus’ uO | —UlTT ‘Buosqiy I@eN | 0°00 | 68 0 | 892 0 | 12°0 | SS°I | 660°0 |-~~--~~ siz | LL°% | 0§ -0 IZ Journal of Se 1914 venice ippine The Phil 30 “SL “ON 0} [tosqns “ADALY AOGOT, JO 489M BIOJOUT OOP JNOGe pBoOI UBUO|BUIg-jenuBy_, UBS UO “IL “ON 09 [fosqns "peod jenusy] uBsg -UBBUISY JO 48Re S9.1B}09Y (NZ JO BOA [BoIdAT, "6 “ON 0} [losqns | “puor | ueUuOC|BUlg-UesUISY oY} Uo UBUO[BUIg Woy uBsUISY Zulyertedes JuouINUuOUL ATepunog | [#djo1unut Jo yynos sAejeuI QOT US>18} ojdureg *L ON 93 [losqns *peod jonueyy ueg-uesulsy jo 4s¥e sioj}eUl potpuny OMY, *g ‘ON 0} [losqns *8918}00Y O0T JO Bo1e UB JO [BOIdAT, 8 “ON 09 [losqns *S1a}9UlO[ (4 B1enbs g JO Ba1e UB SjUeS -D1d91 SIU], “pRO.eJOUepPIP-uBsUISY 94} UM “T ‘ON 0} [losqus “SUL 07 SUsvunsey, pues ejou -BpAf) 0} ABoOe_ WAZ JOLASIP OYA JO [ROIdAT, *SYABWIIY } jonu | ‘ejyousp -1) ‘Boju0g avant ued -ulsy ‘jodueundg “Byouep -1f) ‘Awoeg Jo Yy.AON | *a0a1n0g Sy, 8° £0 £°8 g°3 8°L vet £7er ANZ JOE 9°9 9°9 ST AGt 7) | oq | “UU Z00"0) ueuy §S0] ABIO o'er 1‘ 0°6r 6 "se 80 L% L'% |0 | SL -08| OF je yi ZZ 6°92 9°92 8h ZT L0 |0 |0e-0 | &t 9°22 8°62 L'6r 0°0r 6% 9°0 0 |0 | sat-9u | ar 9°L8 8°22 8 ‘Ht Ltr o'r 8°0 0 |0 |oe-0 |t 6 "62 0°62 q"¥I 2ST % 9°0 0 |0 | 2-02 | or | | | | is |9r%e | 6-2t yvI le 3°0 o |e {02-0 |6 6"lZ 8°92 Fara At 6° "T 90 |0 | 42 -02/8 5°62 602 ysl 6'2r 8") 4 80 10 |02-0 |2 912 lesz | 2-82 6°9T 9" oT 6L | 0 | ooT-92 | 9 | | Lz 00 GL 81 9°¥I 86 ge 0 | 92-0 | 9 LOT 6°02 222 262 q°¢ 8°0 0/0 | ost-09 | » Q°LT 9°02 Sur «| T'Te HP VDRO sho) rom se irapeg ie yO 192 rang LOT Biome eo) | or or eereoen | | | | 292 L's OIL 9°01 ra es im elcaten: ye a Wid | Wd | 9d | Wid | Wa | Od | aa) “MO | | | | eee ee eek oe lie : fhe alee “wut *UIUE “wu | ; 5 *ULUL Bhahed “uur tn_gn | UU G°0-T ‘2AaI8 “OATS, 2000-0100) tor0-goro | Tage? |oro-gc'0 | “Steg? | Pues jwuywuz | euy Aron | US pas 420 Pees CUPS COM PSMi:||e seated al -jadg | ON | | eee el eS oy | —Bupssed *s18Bq OBAj-107BAM ‘YQ1BO OUI, jousnzieq ssjos wnumspbung fo sashjoun jpovunyoapj—' A AAV 31 : Soils of Luzon Cox and Argiielles IX, A, 1 “AT AGB], 0} 8930U400F ay3 3a8 ‘s[IOS aY44 JO UOIZdI1Osap B IOW » TZ ‘ON 0} [losqng *peod 94} JO Opis YZNOsS yy UO ‘uaABSUL'T JO 389 BY} OF SIoJOUIO[IY J/By-sU0 pus suO “6I ‘ON 09 [losqng “4011}81p WdOsIUN 92.1e] @ JO 193Ua9D ayy UI Wey [[eus B WIO’y UAE, “LT ‘ON 03 [Josqus ‘SNABY, PUB [ENSIP UBS U2dMy -9q JUSUINUOW [edioluNUI Jo 4see SAojOUI UAy, “QT ‘ON 03 [losqng “BUY bJUBSG pus SojUOg UseA\joq ABMPpIUI peor, Snkey-uesuisy Jo apis yynos ey, ug -weu -1seZueg ‘uated -ur'y ‘Buosqry teen “Budey, ‘euy wuss yo YON og Ot) Lereye 8°92 LvE 0's L1% id § OL oP as 2°9T 8°S2 0ST 8ST 6ST 9°91 6°9 8 OT TOE € Or L°22 Lvt 9°96 LL Tah PLS 216 TIL aTP 19% 9 OF OTF 0@ 1 | ¢°8 6% 6&T LOT $T £0 00T-08 0 -0 OTT-08 ge -0 gL 38 ST -0 céT 38 02 -0 (44 1% 02 6r 8T 22 The Philippine Journal of Science i914 MOUNTAIN PROVINCE In Mountain Province, the temperatures are relatively lower than for the rest of the island, still rice (a staple diet) and many other cultivated crops of the lowlands grow luxuriantly. Also many varieties of vegetables and berries grown in the temperate zone thrive here. The agriculture is mostly carried on in irrigated mountain terraces. In certain wooded districts the soils are deficient in potash. When clearings are made, a sufficient amount of the ash from the burned products is con- centrated on a given area to increase the potash to the desired Light Colored Clay No 18 9 | About 40 hectares Fic. 3. Legaui Plateau, Ifugao, Mountain Province. quantity. In spite of the great fertility of the soil in general as shown by the analyses, in time of drought there is serious rice shortage. All the available land where the inhabitants could lead water has been utilized. This has induced the Govern- ment to assist in opening new territory. For example, the Ifugaos have repeatedly tried to lead water to the unused Legaui Plateau without success. The difficulties were too great until the Government furnished dynamite with which to blast out the rock. With the building of an irrigation ditch to, and a supply of water available for, the Legaui Plateau, 200 hectares of tillable rice land have been added to the province. A rough diagram of this region is shown in fig. 3. TX AY? Cox and Argiielles: Soils of Luzon 83 The Nos. in fig. 3 refer to those given to the soils in Table VI. Chemical and mechanical analyses of soils from Mountain Province are given in Tables VI and VII. CAGAYAN The soils of the Cagayan Valley are generally considered to be exceedingly fertile, and are used for the cultivation of corn, tobacco, etc. Much of the district is inundated from time to time, and the composition of the soils is continually changing. The general characteristics may be indicated by the chemical and mechanical analyses given in Tables VIII and IX. LAGUNA AND TAYABAS Laguna and Tayabas Provinces have been found especially suited to the production of coconuts, and the soil samples, the analyses of which are given in Tables X and XI, have been taken in an effort to give information with regard to some of the controlling factors of the ideal soil for this crop. PAMPANGA, BATAAN, TARLAC, AND BULACAN Miscellaneous chemical and mechanical analyses of soils from Pampanga, Bataan, Tarlac, and Bulacan Provinces are given in Tables XII and XIII. 1242893 1914 Journal of Science ippine al The Ph 34 “ABlO “‘pueBl UIBALA |-~-~~ ~~~ ~~ >= Opie OCO Ts | eeu Ly 0 | 210 G6T 0 | £0 *[108 OB] Pigs ‘puel ULsaALA |-~~~ ~~~ ~~~ Oper (YOO )E €8°€ | 81°0 802°0 | 090 “WeO] Your ‘puBy uldarA |------~ nveye[q inevay | 3°46 |---- >>> got | 110 480°0 | 92°0 q ‘oneueg WwoOIZ UBsUBINY pxeMmoz, Ao]]eA 4SAly |----~ KajeA peuesury | 1°66 |~--~-~--~ 260 | £20 ILE “0 | 080 YE OA sper nia ae 2 a oneuegd | 7°86 | 69°0 | 98°0 Tos ‘0 | Ih 0 ‘oedeg Worf ONBVUBY PLBMO} SAOZOUIO[IY g yNOqY |-~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ AayeA owdeg | 0°66 | T@T |£61 0 Tsh 0 89 0 ‘890811904 VOI WOAS o[dures oy1sOduloH |-~-Ag|[/e@A UlyY Jemo7y | ggg |----~-- ~~ T§ Tt | 12°0 ¥22 0 | 69°0 *yja0"u 24} 0} Selpped pasdeitey Jo dnoas ysaiq |---~~~-~~ ~~~ ~~~ OD rasa 4°88 | 91800°0 | 28°L | Sh 0 6620 | 60 “solpped oo11 paoviite} Woda |-~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ sueriesey | 1°86 | LST | 0&0 1620 | &1 0 "qeyn'y Jo yQa0Uu Solpped e011 peoeasey Jo dnoxs puodag |--~-~--------- uefkeqeo | 96 |--------- G9‘T | 2L°0 80S'0 | 88°0 “yjaou ayy 0} Selpped e014 podwise, JO Anois yea |--~~~ ~~~ ~~~ >= Opa Sa; TCO yi rcmmee 9 TST | 0S9°0 TSS 0 | 2&0 *Blouopl | | -seid ay} JO YyNOs pu MOlEq Saipped voy |~~~-~-~--------- qeiny | $46 =| 2080070 | 98°2 | 090 2800 | &h 0 w O[CWes 94IBOAUIOD *[108 aaqjOD: |~-~~~---------~ Bunyeg | [SL | 91800°0 | 8° | SPO 696 T | 86°0 [LOS COTOD |e BEPOE yale |e ome 1g 3 | 9h 0 28h 0 | oh 0 “elouep -[801d oY} JO AJIUIDIA OY} Ul Selpped aoly |-~-~-- ~~ >> ~~~ = ~~ OP nce OV GG lees soem 96 °% | 20 €L) 0 | &1 0 “BINUEPISeId JY} 0} JUSDB[pe BAOIS BBYOD [~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~ =~ Optien- (VE L's | P80 2r9 0 | 810 “Blouepiseitd ayy JO YyNOs BAOIZ BBO |--~~~- ~~ ~~~ = uepyed | L°r6 | 00°T | 1&0 8290 | TE “0 “Blouop -18e1d 94} JO APLULDIA OY} UL SoIpped BdIyy |~~~~ >>> ~ > Poxog | T°s6 | $2900°0 | Sh 'T | 88°0 SIT T | L8°0 ‘Pid J “d| °10°d | 99°d | 29'd ‘ *(8O098) , a i -(O3W) “syIeUIEY ‘a0an0g ene “aurppe oa oy) Gey eae "87108 9OWLAOLT wozunop fo sashjpun joomeyO—TA ATAV I, 480°0 | SILO | PL | FEIT | 08 -0 81 2060 | 826°0 | LEST | 86°0OT | OF +) 11 6700 | 2910 | L2°0L | S9°0T | 0& -0 oT 8700 | SLT°O | L8 OT | 09 OL | 08 -0 aT vé&s'0 | 2120 | OL IL | 89°8 | 08 +0 vr 180°0 | S12°0 | $8°GE | 82°8 | Of -0 1 6L0°0 | 802°0 | 9L°0T | 89°9 | 08 -0 ar POLO | $960 | PZT | 0S°9 | 08 -0 II GIT‘O | L820 | O& TT | 98°9 | 08 -0 or 990°0 | 682°0 | 00°0T | 89°9 | OF -0 6 180°0 | LLT0 | S9°6 | 06°9 | 08 -0 i} $800 | LEGO | SS°IT | L672 | 08 -0 L 982°0 | L120 | LS ‘OT | 662 | 08 -0 9 662°0 | O81°0 | Sh6 | 6L°L | 08 9 T&Z°0 | 882°0 | 66°ST | €9°6 | 08 -0 ¥ 8L0°0 | €81 0 | LLC | 88°8 | 08 -0 € 1600 | &61°0 | 2L'IL | 19°9 | Of -0 4 Ser‘O | L620 | 29°6 | £02 | OF +0 qT Wd | 99'd | ‘29d | 79d K70) pera (2N) |"uorqLU)" (Oz) ep 4 “word (O2H)) . -Ayue | ues | -31u0| o1ng u Ute ‘ON o1m0Yd |-013{N | 8807 | -S10,y . s “80ud 35 Soils of Luzon Cox and Argiielles IX, A, 1 ay} SI [fos youl “yon3ueg JO sjsatof snotaytuodUOU dy} FO sAT}ejUeSeldey yg “sdajau Z 4Sea| 7 TOF [LOS SIy} OJUL PIVMUMOP eq B YSNIYZ P[NOD aUO s “AUWOMXOT “M “A Aq ‘Q06T ‘ArenuepP paqoazjoD ; 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T vLOO | &L0°0 0°OOT | L8°0 £80 £120 | 0270 26 T S9T‘0 | 98L°0 0°00T | 8L°0 810 6120 | Th0 ves 6810 | asl 0 0°00T | 96°0 £60 9280 | F6'0 86 °T | 6910 | 8810 0°00T | 280 | OT‘0 98270 | LEO 6F 0 | 9010 | LITO OO0L | PES 9T 0 0920 | L2°0 49°0 S020 | ab&0 O°OOL | 8I'T s0 0 8610 | 98°0 89°0 9010 | 89T 0 | | OO0OL | P&S 80°0 9220 | bh 0 99°0 9910 | 062°0 A ese Ree eA to ue ry elses | 03 ee lee Sea | SE Gee | foe | Gen | Awe | us ha H POS | 48810d| _Seny VT | s1a0ua | -or10 | -soud ‘sjios uphnbng fo sashynun jnomeyO—TIIA ATaVL “u014 ~1uzt uo sso'y 39 Soils of Luzon Cox and Argiielles IX, A, 1 ¢ “UOIVBATIa YSiy B uO payenyis puw ‘Arp A139 A "100d Ai9A 8] 099BQ0} 94} PUB ‘MOT[VYS ALBA SI UOLPBAT}NO oyT, “slBak UB2LINOF LOZ 099BqO} UL PazBAIND p “UOI]BpUNUI [enuUe o4 yoafqns > “SpoyjeUl [eIn}[N yooaytodut 07 anp A[quqortd ‘100d AIBA St UMOIZ 090BqO} SUT, q “UOT}BpUNUI [BNUUe 0} JoLqNs PUB UIZIIO [IANS JO x BETO NICO} LO SC Go| aeeanea eee Qa LOI OTF 3°91 8°6 0°81 €°é 0 [ya [ra | OOL 38 | FT p UOlWBpuUNUL OF Joefqns Jou Play ODdBqOY, |~-JOIISIP NJIS ‘[oqus] Bjueg | ¢6 0°82 202 18% § 91 Us (Wisen| tween fae Sys 0g -0 | &I gD O NIKO} [LOSO CS 9 | pes cre cree nine is OD Sas 201 ¥ 6S LT L0G PL 9°0 0 tia [ta OOL 38 | ar > PlPy 099eq0} [BIANITW |-ST ‘ON 391g8Iq ‘OLluojUY UBS | FL NTS Lor 0°rS €°8 30 0 [iu [ia 0s -0 IL 5 Yc NEO aT LOC LG aaa ODigaas e°9 6 8&2 L‘9T 0'FS LST a) 0 ta [iu OOT 38 | OT “8061 UL aou0 “OABTN 391} | jdeoxe pejepunu! 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BIGanl: 2 Fie. 1. Fig. 1. Fig. 1. Fig. 1. 2. 124289——4 PLATE I The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of a sandy soil (Moun- tain Province No. 33). The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of fine sandy loam; an excellent coconut soil (Tayabas No. 16). PLATE II The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of loam coconut soil (Laguna No. 6). . The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of Philippine soil ap- proximating an ideal loam. PLATE III The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of clay loam (Batangas No. 15). . The various fractions of a 20-gram sample of a clay coconut soil. Unsuited to the cultivation of coconuts (Tayabas No. 13). PLATE IV (Photographs by Beyer) Looking across the Agno River Valley from Updas to the presidencia at Lutab, Benguet, Mountain Province. Bakung in the distance to the right. Cf. Nos. 5 and 7, Tables VI and VII. . Looking across the Agno River Valley from the presidencia at Lutab to the coffee groves and towns of Bakung on the right and Updas on the left. Cf. Nos. 5 and 7, Tables VI and VII. . Looking up the Agno River. The first group of terraces north of Cabayan presidencia at Lutab in the foreground and coffee trees in the background. Cf. No. 8, Tables VI and VII. PLATE V (Photographs by Beyer) Looking up the Agno River, showing the second group of terraces north of Lutab. Cf. No. 9, Tables VI and VII. The large group of terraces at Cusarang, Benguet. Cf. No. 10, Tables VI and VII. " 49 lo te Fie. 1. The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 PLATE VI The first group of terraces north of Cusarang. Cf. No. 11, Tables VI and VII. (Photograph by Beyer.) . Camote field. Arrival of the party of the Secretary of the Interior, Bagnin, Lepanto, 1909. (Photograph by Martin.) PLATE VII Coconuts in fruit, San Ramon farm, Mindanao. Note the large number of nuts. (Photograph by Martin.) . Hemp (Musa textilis Née). La Carlota, Occidental Negros. (Pho- tograph by Bureau of Agriculture.) TEXT FIGURES Fic. 1. Types of soils of the Batangas area. 2. 3. Soil map, Ambalangan-Dalin, Pangasinan. Legaui Plateau, Ifugao, Mountain Province. (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 1. Sorts or Luzon. ] ELLES Cox anp Arat Fractions of a sandy soi Pies ale Fractions of a fine sandy loam. Fig. 2. PLATE I. Cox AND ARGUELLES: SOILS or Luzon. ] [PHiu. Journ. Sct., IX, A, No. 1. ; Fig. 2. Fractions of a soil approximating an ideal loam. PLATE Il. (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 1. Sorts or Luzon.] Cox AND ARGUELLES f aclay loam. fons 0 Fract ne Fig. Fractions of a clay coconut soil. Fig. 2. PLATE III. Cox AND ARGUELLES: SOILS or Luzon. ] (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 1. Fig. 1. View from Updas toward Lutab. Fig. 3. Coffee trees and rice terraces near Cabayan. PLATE IV. THE AGNO RIVER VALLEY, Cox AND ARGUELLES: SoILs or Luzon. ] [Prins JOURN: Sci, xs, Ay No: 1. Fig. 1. Looking up the Agno River. Fig. 2. Terraces at Cusarang. PLATE V. Cox AND ARGUELLES: SoILS or LuzoN.] (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 1. Fig. 1. Terraces at Cusarang. Fig. 2. Camote field at Bagnin, PLATE VI. "SOIBAN Je}UaP!N0Q ‘ezyOJIeD eT ‘duiay -g ‘Hl4 ‘V ‘XI “I0S -Nuno0Pe "llHg] ‘HA ALW1d “oeuepUlIA) ‘UOWPY UBS *yINJJ UI S}NU0D0D ="T “BI4 [°'Noza'y ao STIOS :saTTaQNDUy UNV x09g | ‘A QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUM EMANA- TION IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE AND METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS By J. R. WricHT and O. F. SmitH (From the Department of Physics, University of the Philippines) One text figure PART I. A QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUM EMANA- TION IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT MANILA * During the last few years the attention of physicists has been directed more and more to a study of atmospheric electricity. A complete study of the problem involves a thorough investiga- tion of several more or less closely related factors, one of the most important being the determination of the amount of radio- active substances in’ the atmosphere of the earth. The presence of radioactive substances in the atmosphere was first conclusively shown by the work of Elster and Geitel'! in 1900. Making use of the discovery that an active deposit was collected on a negatively charged wire exposed in the presence of the emanation from thorium or radium, they stretched a negatively charged wire in the open air for several hours. Tests made by the electrical method gave convincing evidence that an active deposit had been collected on the wire from an emana- tion in the atmosphere. The active deposit thus collected was later shown by Bumstead,? Blanc, Dadourian,‘ and others to be a mixture of the active deposits of both radium and thorium, the relative proportions depending on the length of the exposure of the wire. The first attempt to determine the actual amount of radium emanation in the atmosphere was made by Eve* by comparing the active deposit collected on a negatively charged wire from a definite volume of air with that collected from air containing a known quantity of radium emanation. However, the uncertainty of this method due to changes in meteorological conditions is so great that it does not afford an accurate means of determining the actual amount of radium emanation in the atmosphere. Eve® and Satterly,’ making use of the discovery by Rutherford * that charcoal made from the shells of coconuts possesses the property of absorbing radium emanation, obtained * Much of the equipment for this work was furnished by the Bureau of Science, and the work was done in a laboratory of that Bureau. *Phys. Zeitschr. (1901), 11, 560. ‘Phil. Mag. (1905), 10, 98. 7 Am. Journ. Sci. (1904), IV, 18, 1. “Ibid. (1907), 14, 724; (1908), 16, 622. * Phil. Mag. (1907), 13, 378. "Tbid. (1908), 16, 584. “Le Radium (1908). "Nature (1906), 74, 634. 51 52 ae The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 direct determinations of the radium-emanation content. In order to attain this end, air was passed at a known rate for a given time through tubes containing the coconut charcoal, which ab- sorbed the emanation from the air. At the same time air was bubbled through a solution of radium bromide containing a known amount of radium, and the emanation from the solution and the air was collected in another charcoal tube. The emana- tion absorbed in the charcoal was then driven off by heating to a dull red heat, collected over water in aspirators, and finally measured by passing into an ionization chamber connected either with an electroscope or an electrometer. The emanation in a given volume of air can then be calculated from the ratio emanation generated in the standard solution in a known time , emanation in a known volume of air provided the charcoal tubes absorb the same fraction of the total amount of emanation passing through them. Since the method is a comparative one, the determination should be independent of variation of meteorological conditions. Ashman ® and Satterly *° determined the amountof emanation in the atmosphere by another method. Air was passed through coils immersed in liquid air, and the amount of emanation condensed in the tube then measured. Rutherford and Soddy had previously shown that radium emanation is condensed at a temperature of about —150°. It is hard to decide from the data at our command which is the better method. Satterly, in his paper published in 1908, makes the statement that “both methods gave about the same results for the emanation in the air, but the method of the con- denser is quicker and more accurate than the charcoal method,” but in a later article on the subject makes a diametrically oppo- site statement without giving any reason for his change of opinion. The following average results have been obtained for the radium-emanation content of the atmosphere by Eve in Mon- treal, Satterly in Cambridge, and Ashman in Chicago: Eve, 6010-12 gram Ra per cubic meter. Satterly, 100 10-12 gram Ra per cubic meter. Ashman, 96 x 10-12 gram Ra per cubic meter. When the present series of observations was started, liquid air was unobtainable in Manila. Consequently, we were limited in our choice to the charcoal-absorption method. During the "Am. Journ. Sci. (1908), 119. * Loc. ctt. 1K, At Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 53 past year a liquid-air plant has been received, and we expect in the near future to be able to check our results obtained with the charcoal method by observations with the liquid-air condenser. Since the general method of procedure which we finally adopted is not radically different from that of Eve and Satterly, our results ought to be directly comparable. A portion of a standard solution of radium bromide prepared by Rutherford, Boltwood, and Eve was kindly furnished us by Professor Eve. This solution contains 6.28 10° gram of radium per cubic centi- meter, being of the same strength as that used by both Eve and Satterly. At first we used 0.5 cubic centimeter of the standard, diluting it with distilled water to 50 cubic centi- meters, but we found that the emanation given off from the solution in the time of a test was considerably greater than that collected from the volume of air with which we were dealing. For a comparative method it is desirable to deal with approxi- mately equal amounts of emanation in the two branches of the experiment. Consequently, in our later tests we used 0.1 cubic Fic. 1. Collecting apparatus. a, Inlet; b, cotton-wool tube; ¢, distributing bottle; d, standard solution ; e, condensers ; f, sulphuric acid bottles ; g, caleium chloride tubes ; h, charcoal tubes ; 7, manometers. centimeter of the standard solution, diluting it as before to 50 cubic centimeters. This gave us for our standard a solution containing 6.28 « 107° gram of radium. The arrangement of apparatus for the determination of the amount of radium emanation in the atmosphere is shown in fig. 1. The air to be tested was drawn through a tube projecting from a second-story window of the Bureau of Science at an elevation of about 10 meters. In order to extract all the dust from the air, a tube containing cotton wool was placed between the intake and the distributing bottle. From the distributing bottle the current of air was divided into two exactly equal parts, one-half passing through the branch containing the radium- bromide solution, the other half passing along what we have been pleased to call the “air-emanation” branch. The bottle containing the radium-bromide solution was so arranged that it could be heated by immersing in a solution of sodium chloride. Both a spherical and a cylindrical condenser were attached in series to the bottle to prevent loss of the solution during the process of heating. 54 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Although it has been fairly well established that the humidity of the air does not affect the efficiency of the charcoal as an absorber of the emanation, still we deemed it advisable to dry the air thoroughly before it reached the charcoal. The air during the greater part of the year in Manila has an extremely high absolute humidity, and the presence of a great amount of moisture in the charcoal is very annoying when it comes to heating the tubes. Since neither sulphuric acid nor calcium chloride seem to absorb the emanation, we first passed the air through a bottle containing sulphuric acid and then through tubes filled with calcium chloride. Most of the water was ex- tracted from the air by the acid which was renewed about once a month. The charcoal tubes.—The first tubes tried were of fused quartz, 1 meter long, having diameters of about 1.2 and 1.6 centimeters, respectively. The inequality in the diameters made it very dif- ficult to regulate the amount of charcoal in the tubes so that the absorption in the two branches was exactly equal. Conse- quently, after a few preliminary experiments, these tubes were replaced by electrosilica tubes, 60 centimeters long and having a uniform bore of 1.5 centimeters. These tubes were filled to within about 6 centimeters of the ends with granulated coconut charcoal, each tube holding 70 grams. Two of these tubes were placed in series in each branch of the experiment, so that the air had to pass through 140 grams of charcoal. After collecting the emanation, the tubes which had been connected in series were heated in parallel in a tubular electric furnace to a bright red heat. Tests were made on the relative absorption of the two sets of tubes, no difference being detected. } The manometers.—The rate of flow of the air through the tubes was measured by means of water manometers across glass capillary tubes. The manometers were carefully graduated for different rates of flow, and the corresponding curve plotted. The combined error of graduation and reading was not over 2 per cent. The suction pump.—At first a filter pump attached to the city water system was tried, but the water pressure was subject to frequent and rather large variations, and we were compelled to substitute for the filter pump a motor-driven oil pump. By placing in the system a large equilibrating bottle and a mercury regulator, we were able to obtain an almost absolutely steady flow of air for any desired length of time. The rate of flow was regulated by means of pinch cocks placed on the rubber tubing between the pump and manometers. BXaAG Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 55 The electroscope.—The testing apparatus used was a Spindler and Hoyer aluminum-leaf electroscope with an ionization cham- ber attached. The aluminum leaf in these electroscopes has a fine quartz fiber attached to one edge which makes it possible to obtain very accurate readings with the aid of the reading microscope. The ionization chamber was 38 centimeters high and 7.8 centimeters in diameter, giving a volume of 1,820 cubic centimeters, and was provided with both an inlet and an outlet tube so that the chamber could easily be exhausted and refilled with the air containing the emanation. The electroscope with the attached ionization chamber had an electrical capacity of 8.7 e. s. units, the range of the scale of 100 divisions being approximately from 368 to 302 volts. Therefore, the voltage on the leaf was sufficient to produce saturation currents in a chamber of the size used. The natural leak was almost abso- lutely constant at 0.022 division per minute. The ionization chamber was permanently attached through one opening to a mercury manometer and through the other opening to a Geryk oil pump and to 2 aspirator bottles, all connected in parallel, so that any one could be put in direct connection with the chamber. Between the pump, aspirators, and chamber were placed two tubes, one containing calcium chloride and the other phosphorus pentoxide, permitting all the air passing into the chamber to be thoroughly dried. Method of taking readings.—For comparative measurements it is essential that a definite course of procedure be adopted and adhered to throughout the entire investigation. After a few preliminary experiments, we adopted the following method of taking measurements on the emanation collected. The air- emanation tubes were connected in parallel to one aspirator and heated to a bright red heat, the temperature for the different determinations being practically the same, equal currents being always passed through the electrical furnace for the same length of time. The tubes were then rapidly but thoroughly flushed until the aspirator was filled down to a definite mark. The air containing the emanation was then passed into the ionization chamber through the calcium chloride and phosphorus pentoxide tubes, care being taken finally to flush the tubes with air so that all the emanation would be carried into the ionization chamber. The chamber had been made with the necessary volume to accomodate all the gas driven off from 140 grams of charcoal with a liberal margin for flushing. The electroscope readings were always taken over practically the same region of the scale, the reading being started as nearly as possible 56 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 thirty minutes after introducing the emanation into the chamber. The deflection of the aluminum leaf for the following thirty minutes was then recorded. By this method we always obtained the reading over approximately the same part of the decay curve for radium emanation, thereby making the electroscope readings directly comparable. The air-solution tubes were then heated and the radioactivity of the gas measured in exactly the same way, correction in every case being made for the decay of the emanation in the period of time intervening between the collecting and testing of the gas. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS The accuracy of the determination of the radium-emanation content of the atmosphere by the charcoal method depends to a large extent on the efficiency of the charcoal as an absorber of the emanation under the conditions of the experiment. Satterly,” in the course of his work on the amount of emanation in the atmosphere, made a careful investigation of the following: (a) Is the amount of emanation absorbed from the air always the same fraction of the total amount in the air whatever that amount may be, other experimental conditions remaining the same? (6b) In the case when the air flowing to the charcoal contains a constant percentage of emanation, is the amount absorbed by the charcoal propor- tional to the time the air current is flowing, or does the charcoal show signs of saturation? (c) Does the amount of emanation absorbed from the air depend on the humidity of the air? (d) What is the percentage of emanation absorbed in any particular case? From his results he drew the following conclusions: (a) That with weak solutions the amount of emanation absorbed in short exposures of the same time for the same strength of air stream is proportional to the strength of the solution. (b) That with the same solution and strength of air stream the amount absorbed for exposures of different times does not increase in proportion to the time of exposure but falls off, showing that the charcoal is getting saturated. (c) That under the condition of the experiments the amount of emanation absorbed does not depend on the humidity of the air. (d) That with tubes 8 sq. cm. in cross section containing a column 30 cms. long of coarsely powdered coconut charcoal the amount of emanation absorbed when the air stream is 0.5 liter per minute and the exposure in 21 hours is only 62 per cent of the total amount of emanation carried to the tube. * Phil. Mag. (1910), 20, 778. a IX, A, 1 Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 57 Although Satterly’s results seemed fairly conclusive, we thought it desirable, since we were working under different “climatic conditions, to repeat some of the experiments before starting a long series of observations on the variation of the emanation content with meteorological conditions. Several other points also demanded consideration. These preliminary experi- ments occupied a period of about eight months. . In the preliminary experiments the points of especial investi- gation were the following: (1) Is the standard solution put into the so-called ‘steady state” by bubbling air through the cold solution for a period of from two to three hours or is it necessary to boil the solution? If the bubbling of air through the cold solution does not take out the emanation as fast as it is formed, what per cent is taken out by the process? (2) Does the charcoal become saturated with emanation for the small amounts dealt with in the experiment? (3) Does the charcoal itself contain radium; that is, is there an accumulation of emanation in the charcoal itself with time? TESTS ON THE FIRST POINT Since a solution of radium bromide which had been allowed to stand for some time would have accumulated radium emana- tion, it is necessary before starting a test to put the solution into what has generally been called the “‘steady state;” that is, extract from the solution all accumulated emanation. Boltwood has shown experimentally that the radium emanation is completely removed from a solution of radium bromide by rapid boiling for several minutes. But since a test on the emanation in the air occupies a period of several hours, it is inconvenient to boil the solution for that length of time, even if by the use of con- densers the possibility of bodily carrying over some of the radium bromide could be entirely eliminated. Both Satterly and Eve were content with bubbling air through the cold solution, assum- ing that not only was the solution first put into the steady state, but that during a test the emanation would be removed as rapidly as it was formed. However, no account is given of any effort to prove the correctness of their assumption. For an accurate determination of the emanation content of the atmosphere, it is not sufficient to show that bubbling air through the cold solution does not extract all the emanation, but it is also necessary to determine accurately what fraction of the whole amount is removed from the solution under the conditions 58 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of the experiment. In order to accomplish this end, it was necessary to take a large number of observations. The results are summarized in Table I. 5 TABLE I.—Radium emanation obtained from a given solution of radium bromide by bubbling air through the solution under different conditions. Electroscope read- | i ing in divisions | per minute. a Radium Deduced ura- in on basis | Date. tion of |standard| p.. io of Saree Method used to put solution | expo- | solution. Samnivine 20-hour SSennive in “steady state.’’ | sure. | Grams | tion col- | CXPosure I | 10% | jected in| LF solu- | time of | on con- . lexposure.| ining | > "| 0.628% | /10-9 gram) | of Ra. == Series I. Hrs. | Oct. 25,1912 3 | 3.14 0. 528 0.720 | Room tem-/} Air bubbled through cold | Nov. 8, 1912 | 3; 8.14 0.580 0.791 perature. solution for 3 hours. Mean = 3522 0El > tan eee 0. 755 Series II. | Nov. 25, 1912 5 0. 628 0.240 | 0.960 | Room tem- | Air bubbled through boiling | | Dec. 4, 1912 | 5 | 0. 628 0.314 | 1. 256 perature. solution for 1 hour and | Dec. 6,1912 5| 0.628 0.332, 1328 then through cold solution | Dec. 11,1912 5| 0.628} 0.811; 1.244 | for 2 hours. Dec. 19, 1912 5 0. 628 0.320 1. 280 | Dec. 26, 1912 5 0. 628 0.346 1.384 | Jan. 10,1913 5 0. 628 0.306 — 1.224 | Mar. 3,1913 5 0. 628 0.333 1. 332 Mean __|_____- {Stee ss ee | 1.251 | Series IIT. | | Oct. 30,1912 | 3{ 3.14 | 0.751 1,023 | Boiling -___- Air bubbled through boiling Oct. 31,1912 | 3) 3.14 0.880 | 1.201 | solution for 1 hour. Nov. 4,1912 | 3 3.14 0. 688 0.938 | Nov. 6,1912 | 31/9 puta | 0.797 | 1.089 | Meare ose bene I eal. 1,063 Seriesivenl| irene | Oct. 28,1912 3 | 3.14 1.063 | 1.448 | Boiling _____| Air bubbled through cold Nov. 11,1912 8| 8.14 1.070 1. 459 solution for 4 hours. Mean'2:}-)2-22-08 | ae eas Pee eee 1. 453 Series V. is | Nov. 26, 1912 5 0. 628 0. 388 1.552 | Boiling -_--- Air bubbled through boiling Dec. 5, 1912 5| 0.628 0.378 1.512 } solution from 1 to 1.5 Dec. 10,1912 5 0. 628 0.396 | 1.584 hours. Dec. 20, 1912 5 | 0. 628 0. 412 1.648 | Dee. 29,1912 5| 0,628} 0.388, 1.532 | Jan. 1,1918 | 5! 0.628 0.410 | 1.640 Mean -_|..------ | Be weu ee 1S ex Be | 1.578 | ire Ayal Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 59 Table I shows that in every case the emanation obtained from bubbling air through the cold solution is considerably less than that obtained from the boiling solution. The table is divided into 5 series according to the conditions existing during the tests. Series I, IIJ, and IV were made on a solution contain- ing 3.14 « 10° gram of radium, series II and V on a solution containing 6.28 « 107° gram. The conditions of the tests in series II and V were identical with those existing throughout the greater part of the work on the radium-emanation content of the air; therefore, the ratio of the mean of series II to that of series V will be used as a reduction factor in our final calcu- lations of the radium emanation in the atmosphere. This ratio is equal to 0.792. TESTS ON THE SECOND POINT Since Satterly found that charcoal showed signs of saturation especially for tests extending over several hours, it was deemed advisable to determine whether under the conditions of our experiments evidence of saturation existed. Tests were first made by putting several of the electrosilica tubes which we were using in series. The results are shown in Table II. TABLE II.—E ficiency of coconut charcoal as an absorber of radium emanation. | [S@ene th | aca | | Electroscope reading less natural leak. of solu- | Number neal Date. fond Moe faba) Oe ee estar ay 7 ae | Grams in series. "| Tube | Tube Tube | Tube | X109, | | No.1. | No.2. | No.3. | No.4. | es al ca aEeaae a ara | Hrs. | Oct. 14,1912 3.14 4 | 4 0. 831 0. 003 0. 002 | 0. 003 Oct. 17,1912) 3.14 3 | 4) 0.985} 0.048] 0.002)|_-------=- The emanation in this case is apparently all absorbed in the first two tubes, the electroscope reading for the third and fourth being so small as to be easily within the limits of observational error, the natural leak having a mean value of 0.022. In Table III are given the results of a series of observations in which 2 tubes were placed in series and the duration of the tests varied from five to twenty hours. Although not so conclusive as the results of Table II, all evidence of saturation is lacking. 60 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE III.—Relative absorption of radium emanation by coconut charcoal for exposures of different lengths. | Electroscope read- | ing indivisions | per minute. | pera | Radiom Dire i re Method usedter: tion o educe: putting standar | Date. aaa standard| emana- | Snibacisilenolnicontininetesdts Remarks. = solution | tion col- | os sure. |; of emana- state. in grams} lected lpeneeerar X 109. | from 80- | “ooluti lution in | °° udion | | ti in20 | ime of hours. | exposure. | or — | ————— = —— Hrs. | | | Dee. 19, 1912 5 0. 628 0.320, 1.280) Air was bubbled | For collecting, 2 Dec. 26,1912 5 0. 628 0. 346 | 1.384 through boiling electrosilica tubes Jan. 10,1913 5 0. 628 0.306 | 1.224 solutionforlhour each containing 70 Mar. 3,1913 5 0. 628 0.333 | 1.332 | and then through grams charcoal Mean isis 22s [hates ares ho ee 1.305 solution at room were placed in | ee temperature for 2 series. The tubes | Mar. 4, 1913 10 0. 628 0. 698 1.396 ores aera heatedunin Feb. 26, 1913 15 0. 628 1. 098 1. 464 | parallel to drive off Feb. 24,1918 20 0. 628 1.278 1.273 | Phelemanahian | In the course of some experiments carried out on Mount Pauai, we had occasion to use some electrosilica tubes of much larger bore. The tubes which we had been using contained 70 grams of charcoal closely packed in a length of about 48 centimeters of the tube, 2 tubes always being used in series. In the larger tubes, 140 grams of charcoal occupied a length of about 40 centimeters, and, since the total weight of charcoal was the same, we assumed at first that the amounts of emanation absorbed would be at least approximately equal. But we soon found that for the same strength of solution and the same time of exposure the larger tubes were absorbing only about 50 per cent as much as the other tubes. The results are given in Table IV. ; —y eee XGVAY 1 Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 61 TABLE IV.—H ffect of the distribution of a given weight of charcoal on the amount of radiwm emanation absorbed. Electroscope read- ing in divisions per | minute. | .| Radium ar ere Ca pe er a Deduced |Method used for putting Date. expo- |Standard| Due to | on basis standard solution in Remarks. sure, | Solution} emana- | of ema- | steady state. in grams |tion from] nation | 109. solution | from in time of| solution | exposure. in | | 20 hours. fs Abo sks ms eect 220s ees Nee Hrs. | | May 6,1913 10 0, 628 | 0.343 | 0.686 | Air was bubbled | For collecting, 1 through boiling so- | electrosilica 20 0. 628 | 0. 449 a0.449 _— lution for 830 minutes | tube contain- aA | and then through so- | ing 140 grams May 4,1913|: 40 | 0. 628 | 0.642 | 0.321 Jlutionatatmospheric | charcoal was | | temperature for 2.5 | used. é | | hours. | jee | | Pe eae iat, ee Pe rae Lee ® Mean of 7 determinations. It is evident from a study of the results given in the last three tables that a phenomenon analogous to saturation does exist under certain conditions. The conditions under which the experiments, the results of which are given in Tables III and IV, were made were identical except for the distribution of the charcoal. In both experiments the same weight of charcoal was used, the charcoal being made at the same time and as nearly as possible of the same-sized granules, the only difference being that in the one case the emanation passed over 140 grams of charcoal closely packed in a length of 96 centimeters while in the other case it passed over the same amount of charcoal packed in a column about 40 centimeters long. The apparent conclusion is that the effect is not a case of saturation in the ordinary sense of the word, but rather due to a continual carrying forward of the emanation by the air current. The shorter the column of charcoal through which the emanation must pass, the greater the fraction of the total amount carried out. This probably explains why Satterly obtained evidence of saturation by lengthening the time of exposure, while at the same time varying the strength of the solution within fairly wide limits gave little evidence of the same effect. Assuming complete absorption for exposures of three hours or less, Satterly found that for a 21-hour exposure only about 62 per cent of the total amount is absorbed. As an explanation of this, it is sug- 62 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 gested that the absorption is twofold: a quick effect, a surface condensation, being followed by a slower effect, a diffusion into the interior. If this is the true explanation, then it is to be expected that for equal amounts of emanation passing over the charcoal in different periods of time the amount absorbed will be a direct rather than an inverse function of the time, since the longer the time the greater the effect of the slow diffusion into the interior. Taking Satterly’s recorded results, we see that this is not the case. For instance, no saturation was found to be evident when the emanation from a solution containing 610° gram of radium was passed over charcoal for two hours and fifteen minutes, while an exposure of twenty-one hours to the emanation from a solution containing 6.28 10-9 gram showed saturation to the extent mentioned above, although in the first case a slightly greater’ amount of emanation passed over the charcoal. It seems that the simple explanation that we have advanced explains the whole phenom- enon. For a long exposure, a part of the emanation absorbed in the earlier hours of the experiment is caught up by the air current and gradually carried onward and finally entirely out of the tube. This will noticeably be the case when the charcoal is packed in a short length of the tube, the best distribution of a given weight of charcoal, as is also shown by our experi- ments, being that obtained in a long tube of small bore. TESTS ON THE THIRD POINT Investigation of the third point was suggested by the state- ment made by Satterly * that “charcoal itself contains radium, and if left to itself gradually accumulates radium emanation.” Several tests were made to determine whether the charcoal which we were using gave any evidence of containing a trace of radium. It seems to be contrary to one’s expectation that an organic substance like charcoal would contain radium unless it was contaminated with radium salts during the process of making. The results of our tests on this point are given in Table V. ‘Phil. Mag. (1910), 20, 4. IX, A,1 Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 63 TABLE V.—Tests for radium in the coconut charcoal. | eeu | Deflection | Emanation| : Natural reading in | due) Medeor a veteaas | Date. Period| leak of | divisions Weenerated||imentday of rest.| electro- | per minute Bock 1 As scope. | due to gas |PY Charcoal express: from char- i" Period of|in divisions} | j coal { rest. |per minute. { ea a | | aw ¥ F a mat Days Oct. 12,1912 4.0 0.032 | 0.019 | —0. 018 —0. 004 Jan. 2,1913 5.75 0. 023 0.031 | 0.008 | 0. 002 Jan. 2,1913 932 0. 024 0. 024 0. 000 0. 000 June 9,1913 | 74.0 80.077 0. 067 | 0.010 | 0. 002 | June 16,1913 | 81.0 0.016 0. 036 0.020 0. 003 June 17,1913 | 36.0 0. 016 0.031 | 0. 015 0.002 | June 19,1913 | 38.0 0. 016 0. 031 0.015 0.002 =| Meares | in) = 2228 |Rerey eo sft Eee Bee 8 0. 0004 a The electroscope had just been set up, and the insulation leak was still large. Table V shows that if there is any radium in the charcoal the amount is too minute to be detected by a sensitive electroscope. Since the deflection of the aluminium leaf was extremely slow, the readings were confined to one or two divisions, which increases the probability of a comparatively large observational error. The natural leak recorded was generally taken immediately before the observation on the gas driven off from the charcoal and as far as possible over the same part of the scale. RADIUM-EMANATION CONTENT OF THE ATMOSPHERE The theory upon which the calculations of the radium-emana- tion content of the atmosphere are based has been given at length by several writers on the subject. It can, however, be very simply deduced in the following manner: If \ represents the radioactive constant of radium and T the duration of exposure, then » T will be the emanation produced by 1 gram of the radium in the time T. Now, if we assume that the emanation is removed from the solution of radium bromide as rapidly as it is formed, the decay factor will not enter into the calculations since the rate of decay of the emanation collected from the solution of radium is the same as that for the emanation from the air. Therefore, if M is the amount of radium in radioactive equi- librium with the emanation in 1 cubic meter of free air and M’ the number of grams of radium in the solution, then _MV _d MAT” dh where V is the total volume of air tested, d is the electroscope reading due to the emanation from V cubic meters of air, and 64 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 d, the electroscope reading corresponding to the emanation from M’ gram of radium. Solving the equation for M, we get MNT. d V qd Eve arrives at the same result by a method somewhat more mathematical. Satterly neglected the decay of the emanation from the air during the time of the exposure, which introduces a slight error in his calculations, the error being almost negligible for short runs, but considerable for exposures of twenty hours or longer. The results of observations on the radium-emanation content of the atmosphere extending over a period of about eight months are given in Table VI. M= TABLE VI.—Radium-emanation content of the atmosphere of Manila. | Blectro- | | | | RASH generate Duration divisions | emanation [scope read- "ete! Of au Date. tion in |stream in of expo- a minute from Ewen ane due to | inits grams X liters per sure. peo | volume of | emanation | radium | 109. minute. emanation | air and _ | from solu- | equivalent. | in given fromstand-} tion alone. Grams | volume of | ard solu- 1012 air. tion. 3 oe Me ae Ie 1912. | | Hrs. | sly 26 Soo na 3.140 0. 33 | 20.0 | 0.139 | 2. 258 fA CE Ge ae ae 3.140 0.33 | 21.0 | 0.110 | 1. 650 jp eD ty LZ eee wees 3.140 0.33 20.0 0. 450 3. 668 | Sep eitst Acree es: 3. 140 0.33} 20.0 0. 226 3.334 | Sept:,28 225-2262 3. 140 0.33 | 20.0 | 0.326 | 4, 932 | beck 216. eee ees 0. 628 0.50 | 20.0 0.531 1. 285 } Dec! 28-22 2-2 ee- 0. 628 | 0.50 20.0 | 0.774 | 1. 658 | 1913 | [Mids 532) eee eee 0. 628 0.50 | 20.0 | 0. 526 1. 267 |, danse Re nn oe 0. 628 0.50 | 20.0 0. 706 | 1. 487 eae Peas Cee ee. 8 0.628! 0.50, 10.0 0.136} 0.583 HAR FA [eerste 0.628| 0.50} 15.0 0. 864 | 1.521 Bans 22k ee 0. 628 0.50 | 5.0 0.096 | 0.314 [eens 24= eee | 0,628 0.50 5.0 | 0.096 0.319 | [SeJan. j26)se reel E0628 0.50 20.5 0.282 0.982 Vans B0es eee } 0. 628 0.50 20.0 0. 285 0. 593 | Bebx 4). 2. oe 0. 628 0.50 5.0 | 0.053 | 0.173 | feeb: 102 -ens 0. 628 0.50 20.0 | 0. 676 1. 062 Rebs 12/2 35ers 0. 628 0.50 20.0 0.472 1.354 Heb. Wo. 2 2-25 | 0. 628 | 0.50 20.0 0.581 1, 541 Mar. ies. oe eo| 0. 628 0.50 20.0 0.491 | 1,495 Mar. 18)-- see 0. 628 0.50 15.0 0.352 1.089 | Mean»: 222-= |e See (sige dieu Seee eae 2 eee i Palen | eerie || { The mean of all the results obtained during the period from July to February inclusive is 104.2310? gram. This value PKA, 1 Wright and Smith: Radium Emanation 65 is approximately the same as that found by Satterly for Cam- bridge by the same method and by Ashman at Chicago by the condensation method, but is considerably greater than that found by Eve for Montreal. If we take into account the fact that only a fractional part of the emanation is removed from the solution by bubbling air through the cold solution, then we must multiply the above result by the reduction factor, equal, according to our tests made under identical conditions, to 79.2 per cent. This would give us 82.5 x 10°” (104.28 ~« 10-2 x 0.792) gram as the average amount of radium which would be necessary to maintain in radioactive equilibrium the radium emanation in 1 cubic meter of the atmosphere for Manila. In our determinations the variation in the radium-emanation content of the atmosphere is somewhat less than that obtained by other observers, the ratio of the maximum to the minimum being approximately 4 to 1, while Eve gets a ratio of 7 to 1, Satterly 10 to 1, and Ashman 5 to 1. Since in most respects the annual variation of climatic conditions is much less for Manila than at any of the other places where similar observations have been taken, it is probably to be expected that the variation in the amount of radium emanation in the atmosphere would be less. The one meteorological factor subject to the greatest variation in Manila is the rainfall, which during several months of the year is extremely heavy, while for part of the year the precipitation may be almost negligible. The mean of the obser- vations taken during the rainy season in July, August, and Sep- tember is 103.2 « 10-2 gram as compared with 104.5 « 10-1? gram for observations in the months of December, January, and February, when the precipitation is very light. It is evident from these values that no reliable conclusion can be drawn from the average value of observations extending over a definite season of the year as to the variation with meteorological conditions. A comparison of the observed values of the radium-emanation content with the corresponding meteorological data from the Manila Observatory shows, however, an interesting and a fairly definite correlation. The Manila Observatory is located at a distance of about 400 meters from the Bureau of Science, so that the two sets of data practically coincide as to location. In Table VII are given the meteorological data which seem to have the most direct bearing on the variation of the emanation content. The only determinations which are omitted from the table are those for day exposures which, for reasons explained later, we have included in a separate table. 124289——_5 bad 3 SDE ClO0iLT | secu Mae |e = al as kee a og | oe « a en aoe oe | | 0°88 MSM “AN | L°98 20 09 — st ag, SORE OOH { paameecemcee SOMO OOS |taa= sass eeee ae eae Sees: SsSorasecae Sag Analyzed by Forrest B. Beyer, Bureau of Science. © Analyzed by T. Dar Juan, Bureau of Science. 4 Analyzed by Bureau of Government Laboratories. Sample contains 0.06 per cent FeO not included in Fe,0; column. ° Min. Res. P. I. for 1911, Bur. Sci. (1912), 90. se IX, A,1i 10. ale 12. 13. 14. Alluvial clay from Pandan River, Naga, Cebu. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES 1. Shale from Batan Island. } 2-5. Shale from Batan Island. Samples from drilled test holes. 6. Shale from near Camansi Coal Mine, Danao, Cebu. 7. Shale from near Camansi Coal Mine, Danao, Cebu. 8. Shale from Tigbauan, Iloilo. 9. Shale from Cantaingan, Masbate. Alluvial clay from Malinta, Bulacan. Clay from Binangonan, Rizal. Alluvial clay from Pasig River near Manila. Clay from near Camansi Coal Mine, Danao, Cebu. drilled test-hole samples. 15. Alluvial clay from mangrove swamp, Loay, Bohol. drilled hole. 16. Volcanic tuff. From vicinity of Manila. 17. Schist from Romblon. West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 85 Representative of Sample from 18-20. Graywacke, Naga, Cebu. Typical of a series of samples from drilled test holes over an area of 16 hectares. 21. Rhyolite from Cebu. TABLE III.—Analysis of argillaceous raw material for Portland cement. a eS = i SiOz. Sample| Silica | fina | oxide | Lime | sta. |(NaeO-+ | E99 0 | AlaOat Fer b * |(Al2Oa).|(Fe203).| (CaO). | (MgO).| K20). |2™U0”- Os. Cy al 35. 02 13. 98 | 6.01 17.44 2.84 1.97 17. 50 1.8 b 2 52. 84 28. 50 1.98 1.82 S810) | Poa se aoe 1.9 b 3 46.31 PART} 5 SN Vee ee aaa eg be re 1.6 b 4| 51.88 DEGIBie mast eee aR SPE Seniesa 2.0 bo5 55. 97 30, 09 pa cal | 2 A 2 2 a Se 2 | ea 1.9 a 6 63.25 24.11 9.03 0. 80 PAV TX Beene ae 8.72 1.6 Gla 33. 74 GSAS a ep eg rene ee eR eee ll 2.0 4 g| 387.84 DANO Tee me nn | ens eek eRe Re ek 1.8 d 9 49. 08 PATER) 0 IE pW teen ee eae pel Pe SIE 1.8 e110} 49.77) ¢ 18.73 7.19 | 1.78 2.06 1. 86 13. 84 1.8 e il 56. 81 20. 54 7.37 0.91 1.05 Jnoea--- ne 8.14 1.8 e 12 52.83 je 21.01 8. 40 4,04 | 2.58 | 2.68 9.08 1.8 a 13 60. 17 22.65 | 4. 66 0.31 Heth) eae 6.35 2.2 14 60. 50 26. 50 2500) jee eee alee eo 3 8.45 2.38 4d 16 BY5 183 AQROA SS te (Ninn scene en eel eee A es oe 1.9 116 59.27 17. 06 5. 06 3.37 1.52 6.12 6. 42 Zul! a 17 80. 12 12.56 1, 15 0.12 0.48 3.69 1.94 5.8 b 18 68. 10 14. 50 2.70 3. 07 ORO AN ee ee oe ee 4.0 b 49 66. 14 12.75 | 0. 96 3.43 (05153 a eee oe ae 4.8 b 20 69. 16 LAROG eee «ee tees Se a |e 4.9 & 21 76. 15 14. 93 | 0.27 1. 40 | 1.24 SOD i= eee, 5.0 4 Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, See. A (1909) 4, 211. b Analyzed by T. Dar Juan. ¢ Includes titanium oxide (TiOz2). “ Analyzed by Beyer. © Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 413. 1 Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 404. * Ferguson, Henry G., This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 407. 86 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 The analyses show that materials which are more or less suited to the manufacture of Portland cement are widely distributed. Pratt? gives the following list of localities, each of which present in some degree the characteristics essential to a cement manu- facturing site. 1. Island of Cebu. . Vicinity of Manila. . Island of Batan, Albay Province. . Island of Masbate, Sorsogon Province. . Island of Polillo, Tayabas Province. . Vicinity of Bani, Pangasinan Province: . Island of Romblon, Capiz Province. . Vicinity of Balayan, Batangas Province. . Vicinity of Iloilo, Iloilo Province. 10. Vicinity of Loay, Bohol Province. oon D a Ww Ww A complete investigation of the Cebu materials is now being made by Messrs. Reibling and Reyes. We have burned a few mixtures of pure limestone combined with clays obtained from the Mount Licos region, Cebu, but since Manila is the metropolis and principal distributing point in the Islands we have confined our attention principally to the investigation of volcanic tuff and Binangonan limestone which are the cement raw materials available in the vicinity. EXPERIMENTAL In our experiments the materials were thoroughly mixed. Each mixture was moistened with water, made up into a dough- like mass, rolled out with a rolling pin to a thickness of 10 millimeters, and cut into bricks, the dimensions of which were about 25 by 10 by 10 millimeters. The molded bricks were then dried in an air bath at 100°, after which they were placed in bottles preparatory to burning. The raw materials and finished products in all cases except where otherwise specified were ground to pass a sieve having 120 meshes to the inch. Experimental burnings have been made in both rotary and stationary kilns, but considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining an experimental kiln which would give a sufficiently large quantity of noncontaminated, well-burned clinker. A kiln must be so constructed that the escape of the heat generated from the fuel will be hindered as much as possible if a high temperature is required. Campbell,'! in his experimental cement work, used a small “Loe. cit., 91. “ Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1902), 24, 248. IKA,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 87 rotary kiln made of an iron pipe, 8 inches in diameter and 32 inches long. The lining material consisted of hard-burned mag- nesite. The furnace was rotated by means of a 0.5-horsepower motor with a speed of 1 revolution per one minute and twenty- five seconds and was heated by means of a Hoskins gasoline burner to which gasoline was supplied at about 50 pounds’ pres- sure. Temperature measurements were made by a Le Chatelier thermocouple connected with a reflecting galvanometer. In one series of experiments the following temperatures were recorded: Temperature of hottest section, 1,630° ; temperature at six inches from hot end, 1,500° ; temperature at feed end, 1,200°. We constructed a kiln like that of Campbell except that it was 1.11 meters in length. The apparatus failed to produce satisfactory results, and we were unable to obtain a uniformly well-sintered clinker, principally on account of the difficulty in hindering the escape of heat. A large amount of heat was continually reflected toward the burner, and escaped at the open- ing where the clinker emerged. Cement obtained from our rotary contained considerable free lime, and although a few assorted specimens of clinker came with- in the specifications of initial and final-set and boiling tests, yet the tensile strengths of neat and sand-mortar-briquettes were too low to pass specifications. The bricks of unplastic volcanic tuff in the course of the rough journey through a rotary were ground to a powder, some of which was blown out of the feed end.'” The usual type of stationary kiln used for experimental cement burning consists essentially of an updraft kiln.1* A temperature . of 1,370° (Seger cone No. 12) is obtained without difficulty. In a stationary upright kiln the cement mixture and fuel are fed usually in alternate layers. However, this method of burning produces clinker contaminated with the fuel ash which changes the calculated composition, and in such a furnace it is almost impossible to heat a raw cement mixture uniformly for a given length of time. ce i Fic. 1. Cement furnace, exterior. “ We were able to overcome this to a large extent by molding our cubes with an agar-agar solution instead of water, which increased the plasticity of the tuff and rendered the dried blocks considerably more durable. * Bull. Ohio State Geol. Surv. (1904), IV, 3, 244. 88 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 A design of a furnace which we have found to be satisfactory is shown in text figures 1, 2, and 3. Fig. 1 represents the empty furnace. Fig. 2 is a cross section of the furnace showing small blocks of the raw mixture piled one upon the other. The top is arranged in such a manner that the lower part of the chim- ney instead of being straight has the form of a _ staircase. This is accomplished by cutting the bricks which cover the furnace in such a way that they rest on the sides of the furnace Fic. 2. Cross section of cement furnace = project uF hang in the in- showing small blocks of the raw mixture. i terior. Fig. 3 shows the furnace covered and ready for use. The furnace was fired by means of a Cary hydrocarbon burner with gasoline under 40 pounds’ air pressure supplied by an electric motor-driven compressor. The equipment was supplied with the necessary valves and pressure gauges so that the exact pressure was always known and was under control. The hydrocarbon burner™ is placed directly against the furnace opening, in order to throw all the heat generated into it. At the hot end of the kiln, there is no opening for the clinker to emerge as in a laboratory rotary, and consequently practically all the heat generated is thrown directly into the kiln and re- flected back and forth around the pile of cement mixture in Fic. 3. The furnace covered and ready the interior. The material is Sie burned uniformly to a hard, black clinker which under a mag- nifying glass shows no white spots indicating free lime. Plate * Since a hydrocarbon burner does not work well until a temperature of low redness has been obtained, it is desirable to place a piece of wood ~ about 7 centimeters square inside the furnace at the opening directly in front of the burner. This enables the burner to draw well, and prevents it from striking back. After about thirty minutes the wood is completely burned and the interior of the furnace red hot. A piece of asbestos con- taining a hole exactly the size of the opening of the burner is placed be- tween the furnace and the burner to protect the latter from the heat. 1x,A,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 89 I, fig. 2, is from a photograph of characteristic samples of clinker produced in this manner. When the blocks of raw material have been sufficiently vitrified and the furnace has cooled, the black clinker can easily be removed by gently tapping the clusters of blocks which are sintered together. A furnace of the dimensions indicated in the diagrams yields about 800 grams of well-burned clinker in one burning. The suitability of our horizontal stationary kiln for burning cements was demonstrated by burning therein an average sample of raw cement mixture obtained from a cement company whose well-burned product meets all specified requirements. Seger cones supported on platinum were placed in the furnace behind the mixture out of the direct path of the flame. The mixture was then burned to a clinker in the manner above described, after which it was pulverized and tested. The temperature recorded by the Seger cones was 1,500°. Analyses recorded in Table IV show the composition of this mixture and of the cement ob- tained from it. TABLE 1V.—Analysis of the cement company raw mixture and cement obtained from it. Analysis | Analysis | Constituent. of mix- | ofce- | ture. | ment. | = 3 a ar | Per cent. | Per cent. | Silicat(Si@s) yerease weal wants Le ES es teh us 14.02 | 20.76 | PAV umnin'ay CAS Og) poe ae eae ieee en i 5. 93 12.50 Nerrcioxid ej (heziO3) er ee eee ose ee 0. 87 | ime|(Ca@) Peeters sae ho ree RT Oe oe Sie ed 42.12 64.80 | Maenesiai (vie ©) pest eer tiere ery Sr OP ee 1.81 2.14 | SViO] 8 tile jcc a ee ae ee oa nee cece 34299) eee ase Dota leeerar a seseee we aes Sek 8 ee ee es ok Soo 99.74 | 100.20 The silica to alumina (plus iron oxide) ratio of the mixture is 2.06. The cementation index of the mixture is 1.04. The cementation index of cement is 1.06. Pats of this nonaérated neat cement * after undergoing the boiling test proved to be unusually sound and adhered to the glass plates with great tenacity. As is well known the ordinary commercial brands of cement after undergoing the boiling test do not adhere very firmly to the glass plates. The specific gravity was 3.20, and the tensile strength of standard, 1:3 “Tt was properly burned, so that no aération was necessary to carbonate the free lime. 90 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Ottawa-sand mortar for seven and twenty-eight days was 415 and 460 pounds, respectively, per square inch. A high-limed mixture requires a high-burning temperature, and it is expedient to make the first trial burning with a low- lmed and heavily clayed mixture. It was the intention to follow our work on low-limed mixtures with an investigation of those high in lime, but we have been prevented from doing this by the pressure of other work and so present such results as are completed. CEBU RAW CEMENT MATERIALS Danao clay.—The suitability of this material for the manu- facture of Portland cement has already been pointed out,'® and it was desired to confirm this by a burning test. A composite sample of specimens obtained from the Mount Licos region near Danao, Cebu, was prepared by grinding and sifting to a fineness of 120 mesh. No rational analyses were made as the material was free from grit. In Table V is given the ultimate analysis of this material. TABLE V.—Analysis of Danao clay. Constituent. Per cent. Silica (SiO:) 58.35 Alumina (AI.0:) 20.72 Iron (Fe.0;) 7.85 Lime (CaO) 1.47 Magnesia (MgO) 1.97 Volatile matter 10.31 Total 100.67 The calculation of the combining proportions of a pure lime- stone and Danao clay cement mixture in accordance with the formula (2.8Ca0-SiO,+2Ca0O-R,O.) would be as follows: 58.35 x 2.60 = 151.71 parts ‘calcium oxide required by silica in 100 parts clay. 20.72 * 1.10 = 22.79 parts calcium oxide required by alumina in 100 parts clay. 7.85 x 0.70 = 5.49 parts calcium oxide required by ferric oxide in 100 parts clay. 179.99 parts calcium oxide required by 100 parts clay. 4.47 + (1.97 x 1.40) = 4.23 parts calcium oxide equivalent to catia and magnesium in 100 parts clay. 179.99 — 4.23 = 175.76 parts calcium oxide to be added to 100 parts clay. 56 parts calcium oxide available in 100 parts pure calcium carbonate. 175.76 /56=3.14 parts calcium carbonate required by 1 part clay. * Cox, loc. cit., 218. 1xA,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 91 Twelve per cent less calcium carbonate than demanded by the formula would require 2.76 parts calcium carbonate to 1 part of clay. The results of combining pure limestone and Danao clay according to this calculation are given in Table VI. TABLE VI.—Calculation of Danao clay-cement raw mixture. Individual constituents. an Snes e Petes ne : | Par F Iron 2 -| Volatile Silica | Alumina . Lime |Magnesia (SiOz). |(Al203).4| qe2igg)| (CaO). | (Migo). | (CO2H20 | Total. | | Figures represent parts of the material by weight. Wimestone) cosas -=- 2TCS00W Pase sean ny meee ener a 8 SASSO) |e oan ae 121. 40 Claygate eRe aoe Se 100. 00 58.35 20. 12 7.85 1.50 1.97 10.31 Unburned_.--__----- 376. 00 68.35 20. 72 7.85 156. 00 1.97 131. 70 Wolatile 2222-22-22 53.22 TRISH (DN ee ss) ese] eee ae a | eee [ese eee) | Be ey Burned 2222s 244, 30 58. 35 20. 72 7.85 156. 00 Ge Calculated composition in percentage. | | Mixtureten=--225aa- a8 fs 100. 16 15. 52 | 5.51 2.09 4}. 49 0. 52 35. 03 Clinker) 22223 8255 Ses 8 100. 24 23. 88 8. 48 3.21 63. 86 0. 81 ® Estimating all of the iron as ferric oxide. ~ Silica to alumina (plus iron oxide) ratio in the mixture is 2.04. Lime to silica, alumina, and iron oxide ratio in the mixture is 1.8. Cementation index of the mixture is 1.21. The mixture was burned to a hard, black clinker. The clinker was ground and tested in the usual manner with the results shown in Table VII. TABLE VII.—Physical examination of cement. Tensile strength in pounds per | square inch. Baza | Soundness. | | = eeesieal| Initial set. | Final set. | Neat cement. |1 cement : 3 sand. eee ee een eel = a | | 5 hours. | 28 days. 7 days. | 28 days.| 7 days. | 28 days. [ies ve ean eee lees Vie su | | Hrs. mins. | Hrs, mins. | 3.25 | Sound -| Sound -| 1.35 | 2.5 529 | 608 276 | 402 The above values represent the average of 6 determinations. The high specific gravity is characteristic of a sound cement. While the tensile strengths obtained are not high owing to the 92 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 low lime content, they fulfill specifications.‘7 Indeed, it was not anticipated that such a mixture would give a passable cement, but a low-limed mixture was chosen to get conditions under perfect control. No difficulty was experienced in working with this material, and the experiment shows that Portland cement can be manufactured satisfactorily from it. Higher tensile strengths could be obtained by working out the most suitable proportions in which to combine the raw materials. Volcanic tuff—The chemical compositions of several samples of Philippine tuffs have been published.** Andesitic volcanic tuff borders the Pasig River near Guadalupe between Manila and Laguna de Bay.'® The ultimate analysis of this tuff indicates its adaptability to the manufacture of cement, and we desired to confirm this by actual manufacture. Its physical characteristics are some- what variable; however, with proper care in preparing and combining the raw mixture any difficulty arising from this source could probably be eliminated. The sample of tuff used for these experiments was collected from a bluff about 25 meters high on the shore of the Pasig River. Specimens were taken at intervals of about 1 meter beginning at the bottom and proceeding somewhat diagonally to the top, so that the sample represents the different grades of fine, coarse, and medium as they naturally occur in the deposit. The sample was crushed, mixed, and ground. Table VIII gives the analytical data pertaining to the composite sample used for these experiments. “The standard Portland cement specifications adopted by the United States Government and which apply to the Philippine Islands require.the following figures for tensile strengths in pounds per square inch. Neat cement. 1 cement : 3 sand. | 7 days. | 28 days. | 7days. | 28 days. ! Le 500 600 | 200 | 275 u — * Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 404. * This is a water-laid formation. Adams [This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 73] states, “It is usually clearly stratified and exhibits beds of variable thickness. In places it grades into clayey, somewhet shaley beds and it occasionally contains a conglomeratic phase, especially near the foothills of the eastern cordillera. It is probable that a large part of the tuff deposits was thrown out by the volcanoes of the southwestern region, but certainly some sediments must have been derived from the adjacent cordillera.” x,A,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 93 TABLE VIII.—Ultimate analysis of volcanic tuff. Constituent. Per cent. Silica (SiO-) * 56.36 Alumina (Al.0s) 19.53 Ferric oxide (Fe.0;) 6.97 Lime (CaO) 4.31 Magnesia (MgO) ; 1.70 Alkalies (Na.0+ K.0O) 1.99 Volatile matter | 9.30 Total 100.16 4 Soluble silicates = 18.50 per cent. The relatively large percentage of soluble silicates is a de- sirable feature. A rational analysis indicated the presence of about 5 per cent of free silica. It is probable that the result gives an erroneous impression for materials of this class and that there is only a very small amount of free silica actually present.”° A mixture prepared according to the method of calculation from the formula described under.the discussion of Danao clay would consist of 1 part of tuff combined with 2.968 parts of pure limestone. Two mixtures containing 2 and 5 per cent less lime- stone, respectively, were prepared. The calculations of these are given in Tables IX and XI, respectively. TABLE I[X.—Calculation of volcanic tuff raw mixture containing 2.29 per cent less pure limestone than required by the formula. 5 | | Individual constituents. | — = —-- Boe | | Volatile | Silica | Alumina /Ironoxide) Lime Magnesia (Gg, H20, (SiOz). |(Al203).\(Fe2Os).| (CaO). | (MgO). |""e4,)/ Figures represent parts of the material by weight. Limestone -__-___--_-_-- PAN OW | --- |Suesceee sa Deen oe tad 162. 40 | ee ees 127. 60 Muther ees ses eee 100. 00 56. 36 19.53 | 6. 97 4.30 1.70 9.30 Unburned_________ 390. 00 | 56. 36 19. 53 6.97 | 166. 70 | 1.70 136. 90 Volatile 222-2 2..5 S222 2-e = ASG S G0 ence oe) | oa eas ese en ae |n--=n===---= |———— easel Stes a ee ee Bionedyee eae | 951.10| 58.36) 19.58/ 6.97] 166.70 | Lk702| ee Calculated composition in percentage. i j | Mixtures2-225502=--5--55 99. 52 14. 45 5.01 1.79 42.74 | 0. 48 35.10 Clinker = 22. =- 99. 27 22.27 | 7.72 2.75 65. 86 | ON67H| Se eae eS The silica to alumina (plus iron oxide) ratio in the mixture is 2.13. The lime to silica, alumina, and iron oxide ratio in the mixture is 2.01. Cementation index of the mixture is 1.09. ” Cf. footnote 7. 94 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 The ground clinker from the burned mixture gave the follow- ing results: TABLE X.—Physical examination of cement from volcanic tuff raw mixture containing 2.29 per cent less pure limestone than required by the formula. Fineness. Soundness. | | bbpr ne weeecorene | ot ae | Specific | | Initial Sond Final set. aka cement. Leen | satetie || wrest | 5 hours. | 28 days | l pe oe | (¢ days. aces 7 days. days. | | | | | | | | | Hrs. min.| Hrs. min.| | 89.6 | 99.8 | 3.19 | Sound =| Sound __ 55 1 15) 776} 800} 370 | 437 ! } 1 1 | : TABLE XI.—Calculation of volcanic tuff raw mixture containing 5.22 per cent less pure limestone than required by the formula. ~ ’ Individual constituents. Total. | | | | 2S <1: . Iron . | 3 Volatile Silica | Alumina | : Lime (Magnesia | (Si02). “his oxide ||" (Gao). | (aco). |CO2REe | (Fe203). | Figures represent parts of the material by weight. Limestone) Pe teseyte i ieee oe sap as | RE AN | 156.53 | ert 123.77 Dn eee | 10000 || 6.86) 102681 eer] een gig 9.30 Unburned _______- 381.30| 5636 19.53| 697) 16184/ 1.70! 133.07 Volatilewess ose naee TECH ee Fe oe Sa Westone ee) | Burned ____.----- 248.23| 56.36) 19.53/ 6.97) 161.84 1.70 | on — - — —- l - | ah — Calculated composition in percentage. | ee aN ESEEET Ae. oS. iii | | eae Mixture............| 99.48 1478) 5.12) 1.83) 42.43) 0.44) 84.88 Clinker ----e- ase | 99. 26 | 22.71 | 7.87 | 2.81 | 65. 19 | 0. 68 % pee ae a Oe EEE Eee The silica to alumina (plus iron oxide) ratio in the mixture is 2.13. The lime to silica, alumina, and iron oxide ratio in the mixture is 1.95. The cementation index of the mixture is 1.12. The ground clinker from the burned mixture gave the following results: ix,A4,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 95 TABLE XII.—Physical examination of cement from volcanic tuf raw mixture containing 5.22 per cent less pure limestone than required by the formula. Bet S tite ee ee : —— Tensile strength in pounds Fineness. Soundness. per square inch. > | Specific Initial set. | Final set. | Neat cement. lcement: | gravity. e 7 3 sand. 200 100 5 28 wi mesh. | mesh. hours. days. 7 28 u 28 days. | days. | days. | days. Hrs. mins. | Hrs. mins. | 95.0 99.6 3.16 | Sound __| Sound _- 30 40 430 620 379 | 423 fa IS SE I NN ee Or ee | The data for the first mixture are very satisfactory. The figures showing the tensile strength of neat cement for the second mixture are somewhat lower. A few other mixtures containing still less calcium carbonate were prepared; namely, 9, 12, and 17 per cent less than required by the formula, in order to gain a definite idea as to the most favorable proportions in which to combine the tuff and limestone. The mortar strengths of the cement obtained from these are recorded in Table XIII. TABLE XIII.—Tensile strength of cement from volcanic tuf raw mixtures. Per oe Proportions (parts Pest aa tap ie less by weight). square inch. ealcium carbon: ate than : required Tires 1 cement : 3 sand. Hee Tuff. stone ; (CaCOs).| 7 gays. | 28days. 9 1 2.697 226 333 12 1 2.610 214 313 17 1 2. 465 169 270 [ase di E ee oe est: From our experimental results it is evident that Portland cement can be prepared from mixtures of volcanic tuff and pure limestone. The mixture that contained 2.29 per cent less lime- stone than is required by the formula gave the most favorable results. One experiment was carried on in order to determine the influence of mixing clay with volcanic tuff. Intimate mixtures of 1 part of Danao clay with 2.83 parts of pure limestone (10 per cent less than required by the formula) and of volcanic tuff 96 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 with 2.61 parts of pure limestone (12.06 per cent less than required by the formula) were prepared. Next, these two mixtures were combined in the proportion of 2 parts of tuff to 1 part of clay. Table XIV gives calculations of the combined raw mixture. TABLE XIV.—Calculation of combined mixture of Danao clay and volcanic tuff. Individual constituents. Total. | ; Silica | Alumina Ironoxide| Lime |Magnesia (cosa (SiOz). | (AlzO3). | (Fe2O3).| (CaO). pate): se = =< ss — i J] — } Figures represent parts of the material by weight. 2 ! 2 z 2 eae Tutt mixture: =--22--25e 198. 98 | 31.22 10.82 | 3. 86 | 83.38 0.94 | 68. 76 Clay mixture ______ .___- | 100.15 | 15. 23 5.41 2.05 41.75 40.51 35.20 Unburned ________ 299. 13 | 46.45 16. 23 | 5.91 125. 13 | 1.45 103. 96 Volatile! =. 22ac) > es | 103.96 |--------_- | Beet Gene Paes 8 ——— (ecscscose Parnes ‘Borned =<. 4-2 | 195.17 | 46.45 | 16. 23 5.91 125. 13 | 1.45 | eases nee Calculated composition in percentage. 5.43 1.98 41.79 8.31 3. 03 64.04 Mixturet eo ea sd | 99. 98 Clinkers2 hase = 99. 92 15.53 23. 80 The silica to alumina (plus iron oxide) ratio in the mixture is 2.10. The lime to silica, alumina, and iron oxide ratio in the mixture is 1.82. Cementation index of the mixture is 1.20. The ground clinker from the burned mixture gave the following results: TABLE XV.—Physical examination of cement from Danao clay and volcanic tuff combination. Tensile strength in pounds per square Soundness and set. inch Specific | gravity. | Soundness. } Neat cement. 1 cement : 3 sand. | Initial set.| Final set. |-— : 5 hours. 28 days. | 7 days. | 23 days. | 7days. | 28 days. Hrs. mins.| Hrs. mins. | 3.28 | Sound ----| Sound -_-_ 2 30 8 50 510 640 239 309 Ps eS eS ee Oe ae — = 1x,a,1 West and Cox: Philippine Cement Raw Materials 97 The results indicated that there is no advantage, commensurate with the additional labor and expense involved, in using a mixture rather than tuff alone as siliceous material. It is easier to obtain a satisfactory clinker from a natural cement rock (argillaceous limestone) than from mixtures of limestone with siliceous materiais, because in the former case the materials are already chemically combined. Therefore,. it probably would be still less difficult to burn mixtures of tuff and impure limestone, such as would actually be used in cement manufacture, than mixtures of tuff and pure limestone, because the impure carbonate already contains a certain amount of combined silicates. The most available limestone in the vicinity of Manila is that from Binangonan. If tuff were utilized for the commercial manufacture of cement, it would probably be preferable to locate the plant on the Pasig River near Manila adjacent to the tuff deposit and transport the limestone to the mill. The calculation of a cement mixture of volcanic tuff and Bi- nangonan limestone would be as follows: According to the calculation in accordance with the formula described under the discussion of Danao clay, 100 parts tuff would require 166.21 parts calcium oxide. The remainder of the calculation would be as follows: LO ele Age ee Gi, 53.78 55.45 parts calcium oxide equivalent to calcium oxide plus magnesium oxide in 100 parts Binan- gonan limestone.” LZ X Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, The Bagi — Maree ee & Walsh, Limited, 32 Raffles eee ee wage So NOM @ J. Ferguson, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, 5 ‘Thacker, Spink & Oo., P. co Box 54, Ooi India. .S Cee "PUBLIC IONS FOR doo pts wt ; -EPHNOLOGY oo vor ABULARY OF THE IGOROT LAN- "uaee, re aie as Y THE BONTOC TGOROTS ” = 7 ari? “Order No. ‘408, ; 2) postpaid.) fi ; a The: vocabulary: is: given I Igor nalish : and’ he ah ar x a i ; ‘Plates: from: pied tha ce a Re - were’ aes for. she ne sean “/Baass, 6 Pl = are ound d unde ote. Ee ments, ca jer en aor a coe THE, BATA DIATEOT 2 AS ma : TOE PEANGUAGES koupy. x } shoe ante This. ‘Daper Pe >history and present condition o £ These “two cae ‘are’ iseied cunder’ oh inthe) Philippine. Agate io cover, a oe: dedi $0. ; ? e THE SUBANUNS, oF ‘SINDANGAN Bar By. Encnsoi Be CHRISTIE: ~ Ofder ie, 8, 410. 121» pages i PURE. 29 plates, y Postpaid. ‘I . Gydianaes rg is situated” on abe, Ree ‘Sern ‘coast of Zamboanga Penin orb = ; banuns of this region. were s See remot Chris ie, during . two. periods of five and Sik” weeks, respectively, . °. ates illustrate. ‘the ‘Subanuns: at’ “play; their dpdustri , houses, i ; and Risa ga cone. patos we Spee themse ives. Be, mat wr Br Nos Boasula \ aes eee 275° “page mas, = area 75, Lea THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VoL. IX APRIL, 1914 No. 2 THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF VARIOUS PHTHALIDES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS, II By Davin S. PRATT and Harvey C. BRILL (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) Six text figures The absorption spectra of phthalide and some of its derivatives both in alcohol and in concentrated sulphuric acid solutions were described in a previous paper.' It was shown that an intimate connection exists between the absorption bands given by these compounds and the character of substituting groups in the side ring or chain. When radicals are present that possess high residual affinities, the spectra deviate from the phthalic acid type to a greater or less extent, depending upon the degree of activity possessed by the substituting group. Two distinct phases are encountered in progressively increasing the activity of the nonbenzene portion of the molecule. The first tendency is to displace the absorption band and increase general absorp- tion. This is followed by an actual splitting of the band into two or more bands, one of which, under ordinary circumstances, occurs in the region characteristic of simple disubstituted benzene derivatives. It was also shown that sulphuric acid with high residual affinity acting as a solvent for phthalides transferred energy to the side portion of the molecule with similar *Pratt, D. S., This Journal, Sec. A (19138), 8, 399. 126870 105 106 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 results upon the spectra. The theory was advanced that such energy was supplied through the medium of conjugation between the solute and the sulphur atom of the acid, resulting, under certain favorable instances, in a conjugated ring characterized. by selective absorption and the production of color. Several such cases were discussed, among which may be mentioned phthalophenone and its anilide. It was also pointed out that the substitution of thionyl for carbonyl in compounds of this type results in a very marked increase of activity. It has long been known that many such sulphur compounds are colored, generally a brilliant red, and this has been explained by attribut- ing greater chromophoric power to thionyl than to carbonyl. Certain known compounds of this type and several new thio derivatives of phthalide have been prepared and their absorption spectra obtained. DESCRIPTION OF THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA The spectra were photographed in the usual manner, using an iron-nickel arc and Cramer’s spectrum plates where neces- sary. The curves are plotted as in the previous paper. Absolute alcohol, glacial acetic acid, and concentrated sulphuric acid were used as solvents. THIOPHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE Thiophthalic anhydride was prepared from phthalic anhydride and sodium sulphide according to the excellent method of Reissert and Holle.2 The product was repeatedly recrystallized from alcohol and obtained as colorless needles melting at 114° (corrected). Analysis of thiophthalic anhydride. Barium sul- Substance. See. Sulphur. Gram. Gram. Per cent. 0.2255 0.3355 20.44 Calculated for CsH.O.S 19.54 * Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1911), 44, 3029. *Due to the rapid deterioration of hard glass in the tropics, Carius determinations are very difficult to carry out satisfactorily. This fact should be borne in mind in reference to the sulphur analyses here pre- sented. a ' q — Ses ee le TOs NS Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 107 The glacial acetic acid solution was colorless, and gave a well-marked absorption band heading at i= 3340 and show- ing considerable persistence. The anhydride in concentrated sulphuric acid gives a similar band heading nearer the red 1 at es 3130 and appearing at somewhat lower concentration. Two new bands heading at ; = 3860 and = — 4200 also show, the former being shallow and the latter well defined. General absorption more nearly approaches the visible region (fig. 1). Oscillation frequency. 26 28 3000 32 34 36 38 4000 42 44 46 { i y H Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. Fic. 1. Curve 1. Thiophthalie anhydride in glacial acetic acid. Curve 2. Thiophthalic anhydride in sulphuric acid. 108 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 DITHIOPHTHALIMIDE c=s GH NH ens This new and especially interesting sulphur derivative was prepared from phthalimide and phosphorous pentasulphide. Five grams of powdered sulphide were added to 5 grams of imide dissolved in 75 cubic centimeters of boiling xylol, and the heating was continued for about three hours. The solution rapidly turns red with the deposition of black and purple decomposition products. These are removed by decantation, and the solution is allowed to cool until the greater part of unchanged imide crystallizes out. This is also removed by decantation and the xylol distilled off in a current of steam. The residue was alternately recrystallized from benzol and alcohol, after boiling with bone black. The dithiophthalimide obtained in this manner formed brilliant red needles decomposing at 180° (corrected) ; yield, about 20 per cent. The compound decomposes readily, and is difficult to separate from traces of phthalimide. Analyses of dithiophthalimide. Barium sul- Substance. Oates Sulphur. Gram. Gram. Per cent. 0.1045 0.2475 32.54 0.0773 0.1986 35.30 Calculated for C;sH;S.N 35.79 Substance. Tent noe Nitrogen. Gram. ce. Per cent. 0.2236 12.56 7.87 0.1515 8.76 8.10 Calculated for CsH;S.N 7.82 Dithiophthalimide in alcohol solution gave a complicated spec- trum with a well-marked absorption band heading at ; = 2020 and appearing at high concentration. A rapid extension of general absorption was evident between a = 2400 and 7 = 2700 and two ultra-violet absorption bands heading at : = 3020 and = 3460. Incipient benzene absorption at 7 = 3720 was clearly indicated on the photographic plates, but the limits were IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 109 indefinite; hence the band was omitted in plotting the curve. The tenth molar concentration was deep red, becoming tinged with lavender upon dilution. The more concentrated solutions fluoresced slightly in the light of the arc. The salts of the alkali metals and ammonia are very soluble in water, and regenerate the imide upon the addition of acid. The absorption spectrum of the sodium salt was obtained with 90 per cent alcohol for the hundredth molar concentration. This solution is reddish yellow, becoming canary yellow on dilution with absolute alcohol for the lower concentrations. Higher concentrations of the salt are deep red in thick layers and yellow when viewed through thin films. The spectrum showed a rapid extension in general absorption between . = 1900 and : = 2300 and a band at 2 — 2600. The band at 5 = 3020 was nearly obliterated, and that at = = 8460 was considerably reduced in persistence. Dithiophthalimide dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a yellow color, giving an absorption spectrum with a well- marked band at 4 = 2780 and the original band at = 3460. Dithiophthalimide is readily soluble in pyridine with a red color, becoming orange upon decreasing the concentration. The absorption spectrum in freshly distilled pyridine, free from water, showed a small color band heading at t= 2020 with high concentration, a rapid extension of transmission between 1 = 2400 and } = 2700, and an ultra-violet band at + = 2900 (fig. 2, page 110). THIOPHTHALANIL C=O CoH NCoHs OS Thiophthalanil was prepared from phthalanil and phosphorous pentasulphide.* After repeated boiling with bone black and recrystallization from glacial acetic acid and from alcohol, it was obtained in brilliant red needles melting at 145° (corrected), or 1° higher than found by Reissert and Holle. The solution in glacial acetic acid was red, and with hun- “Reissert und Holle, loc. cit. 110 The Philippine Journal of Science 4914 dredth molar concentration produced an absorption band in the color region heading at : = 2070. Two ultra-violet bands at + = 3060 and + = The absorption spectrum obtained with concentrated sul- phuric acid as the solvent no longer contains the color band, 3480 show with low concentration. Oscillation frequency. 78 2000 22 24 26 28 3000 =—32 34 36 38 4000 42 Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. Fic. 2. Full curve. Dithiophthalimide in aleohol. Dash-dot curve. Dithiophthalimide in alcohol with 5 equivalentes of sodium ethoxide. Dash curve. Dithiophthalimide in sulphuric acid. Dot curve. Dithiophthalimide in pyridine. but owes its reddish yellow color to general absorption. The ultra-violet bands are still present, heading at the same points as with acetic acid solvent, but the persistence of the one at : — 3060 is greatly reduced (fig. 3). IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 111 PHTHALANIL OXIME C=0 CoH NCH C—NOH Phthalanil oxime was prepared from thiophthalanil and hydroxylamine.® Oscillation frequency. (Spe ZOO OMe, 24 26 26 3000 32 SF 36 38 4000 1. \2 Gs co) -—+—* Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. Fic. 8.. Curve 1. Thiophthalanil in glacial acetic acid. Curve 2. Thiophthalanil in sulphuric acid. Repeated recrystallization from methyl and from ethyl] alcohol gave colorless needles melting with decomposition at 245° ° Reissert und Holle, loc. cit. 112 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 (corrected). The compound slowly becomes tinged with pinkish yellow on the surface upon standing in a desiccator over sul- phuric acid. It agreed in all its properties with the description given by Reissert and Holle. The alcohol solution fiuoresced greenish in the light of the arc, and gave an absorption spectrum with a well-marked band heading at = = 3150 and a more refrangible band in the benzene eecian Fh — 3840. The addition of alkali turned the alcohol solution canary yellow and shifted the absorption band to 2 = 2900, at the same time greatly reducing the persistence of selective absorp- PoE at + — 3840. Phthalanil oxime in concentrated sulphuric acid was also yellow, and gave a spectrum showing general absorption in the visible region with a rapid increase between : = 2500 and } 2700. The remainder of the spectrum closely resembled that given by the alcohol solution (fig. 4). PHTHALANIL OXIME ACETATE C=0 CoH SNCoHs C—NOCOCH; This new derivative was prepared by dissolving phthalanil in an excess of acetic anhydride and allowing the solution to stand overnight. The acetate was precipitated by the addition of water and recrystallized from methyl alcohol in colorless needles melting without decomposition at 174° (corrected). It gradually turns yellow on standing in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. Analysis of phthalanil oxime acetate. Substance. Tener Nitrogen. Gram. cee. Per cent. 0.2000 14.27 10.00 0.2000 14.17 9.93 Calculated for C:;H::0O:N: 10.00 The absorption spectrum of an alcohol solution was very similar to that given by the oxime, but the persistence of the IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 113 band heading at 2 = 3150 was slightly less. This solution in hundredth molar concentration fluoresced greenish in the light of the are (fig. 4). Oscillation frequency. 22 24 26 28 3000 32 ca. 3. 14, : aime AE TC (aN sit Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. (aa eles Fic. 4. Curve 1. Phthalanil oxime in alcohol. Curve 2. Phthalanil oxime in alcohol with 5 equivalents of sodium ethoxide. Curve 3. Phthalanil oxime in sulphuric acid. Curve 4. Phthalanil oxime acetate in alcohol. THIOPHTHALOXIME c=s CcHC D0 C=NOH 114 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Thiophthaloxime was prepared by adding 10 grams of powdered phosphorous pentasulphide to 10 grams of phthaloxime dissolved in 250 cubic centimeters of boiling xylol. The solution upon continued boiling with a reflux condenser turns deep red and deposits purple- to black-colored decomposition products. After from two to three hours of gentle ebullition, the solution is cooled and decanted from unchanged oxime, sulphides, and decomposition products. The mother liquor deposits thio- phthaloxime upon standing for some time in a cool place. The yield is meager, seldom exceeding 10 per cent and frequently even less. Larger amounts of original material give a lower per- centage yield than when the reaction is carried out on a small scale. The crude thio-oxime may be largely freed from phthaloxime by recrystallization from benzol in which it is much more soluble. Recrystallized from benzol and from alcohol, thio- phthaloxime forms long red needles melting with decomposition at 148°.5 (corrected). The compound loses sulphur easily, and is difficult to obtain pure. Analyses of thiophthaloxime. Substance. Ten nr Nitrogen. Gram. ce. Per cent. 0.2015 ales te T13 0.3010 16.52 7.69 Calculated for CsH;O.NS 7.78 Substance. beg Sulphur. Gram. Gram. Per cent. 0.2125 0.2455 16.23 Caleulated for C;H;0.NS 17.81 An alcohol solution gave an absorption spectrum with a clearly indicated, although shallow, color band heading at + =2040, a small band at 5 =3040, and a well-marked band at + =3480. The addition of alkali turned the alcohol solution a purplish red, and the spectrum of such a solution containing 1 equivalent of sodium ethoxide showed a very broad and deep color band heading at the same point as before; that is, \ =2040, but appearing in thousandth molar concentration. The band at : = 3040 was reduced to a mere fraction of its original size, and that at = = 3480 was nearly destroyed. IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 115 Thiophthaloxime dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid solu- tion with a yellow color. The absorption spectrum of such a solution showed no band in the visible region. The color is, therefore, due to general absorption. The small band in the = = 2880, and the persistence of the band heading at : = 3480 was reduced. ultra-violet was shifted to THIOPHTHALOXIME SULPHATE c=s CHICO C=NOH:H2S0O, Thiophthaloxime dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a sulphate that may be obtained by pouring the solution into an excess of ice water. The sulphate slowly crystallizes out in long yellow needles on standing. Recrystallized from dry benzol, it was obtained in stout yellow prisms melting with slight decomposition at 159° (corrected). The sulphate is soluble in absolute alcohol with a yellow color. Upon the addition of water and boiling, the solution turns red, showing the splitting off of sulphuric acid and regeneration of thiophthaloxime. The solution in absolute alcohol gave an absorption spectrum with bands at . = 3100 and : = 3700. General transmission extends into the ultra- violet a much greater extent than with the free oxime (fig. 5, page 116). The metallic salts of thiophthaloxime are highly colored, those of ammonia and the alkali metals being purple. They are very unstable in the presence of moisture, and rapidly go over into colorless salts of thiophthalhydroxamic acid. S a7, CoH OH C=NOH \ou An aqueous solution of the sodium salt became colorless almost immediately, and gave a reddish purple color with ferric chloride, showing the presence in the colorless solution of hydroxamic acid. The sodium salt may be obtained by adding 116 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the required amount of sodium ethoxide to thiophthaloxime dissolved in absolute alcohol and evaporating to dryness in vacuo over sulphuric acid. The salt is deep purple in color, and possesses a very disagreeable, garliclike odor, probably due to gradual decomposition. Oscillation frequency. 486 2000 zz 24 26 28 3000 32 34 J6 38 #000 pla telat us a eet a i et all Oe Ped il ahs lt fon” al CEE SG YONA Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. Fic. 5. Full curve. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol. Dash-dot curve. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol with 1 equivalent of sodium ethoxide. Dash curve. Thiophthaloxime in sulphuric acid. Dot curve. Thiophthaloxime sulphate in alcohol. The ammonia salt was prepared by passing dry ammonia gas over a weighed amount of thiophthaloxime placed in a IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 117 porcelain boat. The red oxime rapidly turned purple, and gained in weight corresponding to the addition of one molecule of NH,. Formation of ammonium salt of thiophthaloxime. Sample. Gain. Gain. Gram. Gram. Per cent. 0.3195 0.0285 8.92 Calculated for CsH:0.NS-NH; 8.68 The salt did not lose ammonia when exposed to a current of carefully dried air, but rapidly became colorless in the presence of moisture. The silver salt forms at once as a purple precipitate when a solution of silver nitrate is added to the oxime dissolved.in absolute alcohol or to an aqueous solution of the ammonium salt. In both cases, the salt undergoes decomposition almost im- mediately with the formation of silver sulphide. No analysis, therefore, of the silver salt was attempted. THIOPHTHALOXIME ACETATE C=8 CoH >0 —NOCOCH; Thiophthaloxime acetate was made by allowing the oxime to stand overnight at room temperature in the presence of an excess of acetic anhydride. The oxime slowly goes into solution under these conditions, and the acetate may then be precipitated in nearly quantitative yield by the addition of water. It is very soluble in acetic acid and in ethy] alcohol, from which it crystallizes in orange plates melting without decomposi- tion at 104° (corrected). Analyses of thiophthaloxime acetate. Tenth-nor- Substance. racial Nitrogen. Gram. cer Per cent. 0.2078 9.41 6.35 0.2109 9.52 6.32 Calculated for C.H;,O;sNS 6.34 Substance. Sarak Sulphur. Gram. Gram. Per cent. 0.2370 0.2340 13.57 Calculated for C1»H;O:NS 14.52 Thiophthaloxime acetate in alcohol gave an absorption spec- trum differing from that of thiophthaloxime only in the extent 118 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of general absorption, the absence of a color band at 2 = 2040, and reduced persistence of the band at * = 3480. The ultra- violet bands are otherwise the same in the two compounds (fig. 6). Oscillation frequency. 2000 22 24 26 28 3000 32 34 36 38 4000 42 STE He Ease Ra Peel oullliel e | 4 i a ee HELENE HEE Ae Logarithms of relative thickness in millimeters of 1:10,000 molar solution. CoCo BERBERS Eee Fic. 6. Curve 1. Thiophthaloxime acetate in alcohol. Curve 2. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The substitution of sulphur for oxygen in phthalic anhydride causes a marked change in the absorption spectrum. The band given by a glacial acetic acid solution is shifted from . = 3440 to - = 3340, and is increased threefold in persistence while still retaining the phthalic anhydride type. General absorption TWA, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 2 aS much more nearly approaches the visible region, and the spectrum clearly indicates increased activity of the lactone ring. The spectrum of the sulphuric acid solution is particularly significant. The single band of the acetic acid solution has been separated into 3 bands, one nearer the red and two in the far ultra-violet. The shift of the band from © = 3340 to 3 = 3130 is slightly greater than in the case of phthalic anhydride under similar conditions, and is entirely analogous, although the increase of persistence and the difference in con- centration at which it appears are both decidedly less marked. The more refrangible band given by phthalic anhydride in sulphuric acid solution is represented by two smaller bands in its thio-derivative. The small band heading at : =3860 closely approximates the position of that given by phthalic + = 3800, but the latter is of considerable width and depth while the former is small and anhydride in this solvent at very shallow. The band at - =4200 has no counterpart in the spectrum of phthalic anhydride. It is probable that the band of this compound represents a combination of the two bands in near-by regions given by thiophthalic anhydride and that the substitution of sulphur for oxygen results in a sufficient increase of activity to permit their separation by sulphuric acid. This does not conflict with the theory advanced to explain the action of sulphuric acid on compounds of this type. The two carbonyl groups are still present in the thio-anhydride, and one would expect greater activity of the lactone ring in ordinary solvents and corresponding changes in sulphuric acid. We have not been successful in various attempts to replace carbonyl by thionyl, using methods similar to those employed for thiophthaloxime or dithiophthalimide. Richard Meyer ® states that he obtained similar negative results when the anhydride was fused with phosphorous pentasulphide. The chemical behavior and absorption spectrum of thiophthalic anhydride leave no doubt but that the sulphur atom replaces the anhydride oxygen, giving a symmetrical molecule. Since thiophthalic anhydride reacts readily with hydroxylamine elim- ° Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1900), 33, 2574. 120 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 inating hydrogen sulphide, it was hoped that further proof concerning the structure of phthaloxime ‘ might thus be obtained. Unfortunately, it was not possible to replace directly the sulphur atom by the oximido group with the formation of a symmetrical oxime. The reaction always took place with the intermediate formation of phthalhydroxamic acid and opening of the lactone ring. This question will be discussed again under thiophthaloxime. A comparison between the absorption spectra of dithio- phthalimide and phthalimide* shows points of relationship as well as characteristic differences. The band heading at + =3460 is common to both, but is more pronounced in the former compound. Incipient benzene bands are evident in the spectra, but phthalimide produces no bands corresponding to those heading at = 2020 and ‘ = 3020. The addition of alkali shifts general absorption toward the red in both cases, but with the sulphur derivative more complicated changes accompany salt formation. The elimination of the color band and ap- pearance of a new band at : = 2600 can be satisfactorily explained by considering the relationships existing between partial valencies before and after salt formation. The color band heading at ‘ = 2020 probably owes its origin to conjugated linking between the two thionyl groups, as represented by the formula: _C=s anc TAC=S The introduction of metal in place of imido hydrogen tends to attract the partial valency of sulphur, thus diminishing this conjugation and reducing the color band of the imide to a rapid extension of general absorption as given by solutions of its salt. This shifting of valency must produce a new equilibrium, and in fact a new absorption band appears in the fi 1 spectrum heading at 5 = 2400 while the band at = = 3020 nearly disappears. 7 Orndorff and Pratt, Am. Chem. Journ. (1912), 47, 89; Pratt and Gibbs, This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 165. * Pratt, This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 405. IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 121 Phthalimide itself shows a tendency toward similar changes as evidenced by the marked widening of its absorption band upon salt formation. The attraction between oxygen and metal must be considerably less than that between sulphur and metal; consequently, the compound with two carbonyl groups undergoes less rearrangement of its partial valencies upon the introduction of a metal atom into the molecule. The changes characteristic of salt formation in the case of dithiophthalimide are thus diametrically opposite to correspond- ing changes with phthaloxime. The former compound is red with a band in the visible spectrum, while its alkali salts are reddish yellow and produce no color band. The latter is color- less, and gives no selective absorption in the color region, while its salts are red and show a strong color band. This is the most striking example thus far encountered in confirmation of the theory explaining color formation as dependent upon shifting of partial valency equilibrium when phthaloxime is converted into its salts. It also contributes valid evidence in favor of the unsymmetrical structure of phthaloxime, since dithiophthalimide is undoubtedly symmetrical and would necessarily show an analogous absorption spectrum if it possessed a structure similar to that of the oxime. The spectrum given by pyridine solutions of dithiophthalimide is also of special interest. It contains a well-marked color band similar to that given by alcohol solutions but appearing at less concentration, and the band characteristic of alkali salts heading at q = 2600 is represented by a step-off (fig. 2). The results of pyridine on dithiophthalimide are thus the reverse of those characteristic for phthaloxime in this solvent.? The latter com- pound in pyridine solution gives no color band, because this base is not sufficiently active to cause the partial valency equilibrium necessary for its genesis. In the case of dithiophthalimide, also in pyridine solution, the color band does not disappear from the spectrum as in the alkali salts, because again the base does not possess enough residual affinity to upset the conjugation already taking place between the two thionyl groups. This reversal of the effects caused by pyridine is what might be anticipated if the correctness of our views regarding partial valency equili- brium be granted, but is otherwise difficult to explain. The presence of thionyl replacing carbonyl cannot be respon- sible for the reversal of the effect produced by alkali. Thio- ° Pratt and Gibbs, loc. cit. 126870—2 122 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 phthaloxime is red, and its absorption spectrum shows a shallow color band at * = 2040. The alkali salts are purple, and give very strong selective absorption with a broad, deep band heading at the same wave length. The effect of alkali, therefore, is identical with thiophthaloxime and phthaloxime. The presence of thionyl does not reverse the spectroscopic changes due to salt formation. Furthermore, two thionyl groups are readily in- troduced into phthalimide, while only one could be introduced into phthaloxime. Thus chemical and spectroscopic evidence Cc=0 CHK 0 C=—NOH is in complete accord with the structural formula for phthal- oxime, and we consider that this may now be accepted as correct. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol gives a deep red solution and an absorption spectrum with a band in the color region. The addi- tion of alkali greatly increases the width and persistence of this band, and at the same time nearly obliterates selective absorption in the ultra-violet. It is evident that an ascending scale may be arranged, corresponding to increasing activity of the side ring with phthaloxime, thiophthaloxime, salts of phthaloxime, and salts of thiophthaloxime. The first member of the series causes no selective absorption in the visible region of the spec- trum, and corresponds to the structural formula given above. The substitution of thionyl for carbonyl results in a consider- able increase of activity, so much so that thiophthaloxime, although possessing the same molecular arrangement as phthal- oxime, nevertheless is a brilliant red and causes a color band in solutions of hundredth molar concentration. We consider this due to conjugation between thionyl] and oximido groups, as represented by the formula: C=s§ CoH >O " S=NO” The equilibrium in this direction is considerably less important than in the case of salts of phthaloxime as the tendency for conjugation between thionyl sulphur and hydrogen is less than between carbonyl oxygen and metal. IX, A, 2 Pratt and Brill: Phthalide Compounds 123 In a like manner, the introduction of a metal atom in thio- phthaloxime gives a maximum reciprocal effect, represented by the formula: The heavy dots between sulphur and metal may serve to in- dicate that the equilibrium of partial valency is emphasized in the salt, while the corresponding light dots show the lesser importance of conjugation in the oxime. ‘The color and selective absorption of thiophthaloxime cannot be explained by molecular rearrangement. The compound still contains a hydroxyl group capable of giving an acetate with acetic anhydride. The acetate is orange, but gives an absorption spectrum containing no color band. Its color is due entirely to general absorption, and the reason that this cuts into the visible region while that of phthaloxime acetate is much farther toward the shorter wave lengths at corresponding concentrations is to be attributed to the greater activity of the lactone ring contain- ing sulphur. The structure of the acetate, therefore, is correctly represented by the formula: c=s§ CoH DO C=NOCOCH; The molecular arrangement of the acetate must be identical with that of the oxime as the ultra-violet bands of both sub- stances are identical (fig. 6). All of these relationships taken together conclusively show that the spatial arrangement of the molecules of phthaloxime, its salts, ethers, and esters, and of the corresponding thiophthal- oxime compounds is the same in each case. No rearrangement of the molecule takes place upon salt formation, and the production or variation of color must be dependent upon changes in con- jugation between partial valencies. Thiophthaloxime dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid gave a much simpler absorption spectrum (fig. 5). Since the sul- phate was isolated from this solution, the spectrum doubtless represents the combination of oxime and acid. Such an addition product must not be confused with the type of conjugated com- bination postulated for such a substance as phthalophenone in 124 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 sulphuric acid, which exists only in solution and is at once broken up by dilution with water, while thiophthaloxime in sulphuric acid represents true chemical combination and corresponds to similar addition products, such as benzaldoxime hydrochloride, phenolphthalein oxime hydrochloride, etc. The absorption spectrum of thiophthaloxime sulphate in alcohol is very different from that given by the oxime in con- centrated sulphuric acid (dot curve, fig. 5). The general transmission of the former extends much farther into the ultra- violet, and the two bands are more refrangible. The spectrum is distinctly approaching the phthalide type, and shows the decreased activity of the side ring caused by satisfying the two extra normal valencies of the nitrogen atom. The spectrum given by phthalanil oxime shows the decreased activity of the lactone ring when anhydride oxygen is replaced by the aniline residue. The reduction is entirely analogous to that noted in comparing the spectra of phthalophenone and phthalophenone anilide in alcohol as well as in sulphuric acid solutions. The action of alkali on phthalanil oxime in alcohol is to shift the band nearer the red, reduce the more refrangible band, and extend general absorption into the visible region with the pro- duction of a yellow color. Concentrated sulphuric acid has only a slight effect, and the change to acetate has even less. The absorption spectra of various other closely related com- pounds will be presented in a future paper. SUMMARY 1. The absorption spectra of various phthalides containing sulphur replacing oxygen have been studied in ordinary solvents and in concentrated sulphuric acid. 2. Dithiophthalimide and thiophthaloxime have been pre- pared, and satisfactory proof has been obtained from their spectra in support of the unsymmetrical structure for phthal- oxime. 3. Further evidence has been presented that color production upon salt formation in oximes of this type is not due to molecu- lar rearrangement, but is dependent upon changes in partial valency equilibrium. 4, The theory regarding color in thionyl derivatives of phthal- ides has been extended. Gil: ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES Curve 1. Thiophthalic anhydride in glacial acetic acid. Curve 2. Thiophthalic anhydride in sulphuric acid. . Full curve. Dithiophthalimide in alcohol. Dash-dot curve. Dithiophthalimide in alcohol with 5 equivalents of sodium ethoxide. Dash curve. Dithiophthalimide in sulphuric acid. Dot curve. Dithiophthalimide in pyridine. . Curve 1. Thiophthalanil in glacial acetic acid. Curve 2. Thiophthalanil in sulphuric acid. PH. . Curve 1. Phthalanil oxime in alcohol. 2s Phthalanil oxime in alcohol with 5 equivalents of sodium ethoxide. Curve 8. Phthalanil oxime in sulphuric acid. Curve 4. Phthalanil oxime acetate in alcohol. Curve . Full curve. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol. Dash-dot curve. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol with 1 equivalent of sodium ethoxide. Dash curve. Thiophthaloxime in sulphuric acid. Dot curve. Thiophthaloxime sulphate in alcohol. . Curve 1. Thiophthaloxime acetate in alcohol. Curve 2. Thiophthaloxime in alcohol. 125 Ss on by THE EFFICIENCY OF PORTLAND CEMENT RAW MATERIALS FROM NAGA, CEBU By W. C. R&IBLING and F. D. REYES (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) Two plates INTRODUCTION In the interest of certain prospective manufacturers, the most promising of the raw materials from Naga, Cebu, were collected by Mr. Wallace E. Pratt, a geologist of the Bureau of Science, and submitted to as comprehensive an investigation as was necessary definitely to establish the relative merits and suitability for the commercial manufacture of Portland cement. Before presenting our experimental work, we shall discuss a few considerations which appear to be generally misunderstood or overlooked. Most of the materials had already been tested by two laborato- ries in the United States, and they reported results which, with a few exceptions, were satisfactory. However, the few un- satisfactory features involved considerations of such vital im- portance that the prospective manufacturers could not accept the data obtained as sufficient evidence to justify further steps toward the establishment of a plant. Finally, they submitted the reports to the Bureau of Science, and requested our inter- pretation of their significance. The laboratories in question did the work which they were requested and paid to do in a very honest and painstaking man- ner, and while we criticize certain of their methods and con- clusions this is not done in an attempt to cast reflections on their work and reputation. Their methods compare favorably with those of most laboratories, and their conclusions are based upon generally accepted theories and practices, some of whieh are of doubtful value. We shall make specific reference to their reports, because their data stand as official records against many of our own conclusions on the merits of these raw materials. We fail to find much significance or usefulness in results 127 128 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 obtained, as in this instance, by submitting each combination of different raw materials to only one burning test. A burning test may produce excellent cement, but the results obtained might be so seriously affected by unavoidable variations in factory conditions as to exclude the possibility of their successful commercial use. On the other hand, a burning test may give very unsatisfactory results, and yet a thorough study of the raw materials used may reveal commercially practicable condi- tions of manufacture which will produce extremely good results. Slight variations in composition, degree of burning, and pulverization are unavoidable both in laboratory and manufactur- ing practices, and such changes modify the quality of the product more or less according to the nature of the raw materials. Therefore, it is necessary to ascertain the effects produced by reasonable modifications in the hydraulic index, degree of vitrification, fineness, etc. This is especially true if, as in this instance, we desire to know the relative merits of available raw materials and the conditions of manufacture which will produce the best results from the standpoint of manufacturing efficiency. The changes brought about by well-planned modifications in the conditions of manufacture will be the more significant the more closely the experimental conditions approach those of the best commercial practices. This is especially true with respect to the degree of vitrification. A very objectionable feature of many reports is that the results were obtained with underburned or unsound cement. Such products have no definite characteristics in setting or hardening properties. They may develop considerable strength in seven or twenty-eight days only to disintegrate entirely after a few months, and both their set and strength may change from a satisfactory to an unsatisfactory one, or vice versa, overnight. In reality they are not true Portland cements but a mixture of lime; hydraulic limes; and Roman, slag, and Portland cements. Obviously, it is misleading to judge the efficiency of raw materials from results obtained by improper burning. It is much more logical to ascertain the possibilities of well-sintered mixtures, to observe whether good burning would be practicable under commercial conditions, and then to take into consideration such allowance as must be made for unavoidable variations and imperfections in commercial manufacture. If the clinker is allowed to cool slowly with the experimental kiln, the results obtained may be characteristic only of the set- Ix, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 129 kiln products. In the rotary kiln process the clinker is cooled much more rapidly, and if, as in this instance, the prospective manufacturers intend to install rotaries the clinker from the experimental burnings should be cooled accordingly. It was for this reason that we designed a furnace which enables us to dump the clinker and cool it as rapidly or as slowly as desired. The necessity of testing the resulting cements in a thorough and comprehensive manner is also imperative. This is especially true of the “time of setting.”” The extent and manner in which the setting properties of cements may change owing to the influence of slight variations in the quantity of retarder or degree of seasoning, the means whereby it is possible to ascertain if the set is capable of being kept within desirable limits during storage, and the minimum amount of retarder required have been fully described. Yet, it is the common practice of many laboratories to add 2 or 2.5 per cent of plaster to the cement and submit the result obtained as characterizing its setting properties. Nothing is apt to be more misleading, as the following incident will serve to show. One of the reports submitted to our inspection showed that the tester had added 2 per cent of calcined gypsum and obtained a cement which required an excessively high percentage of water for normal consistency and gained its initial and final sets in about five and one-half and nine hours, respectively. These and other similar results made it appear that the manufacturers would have considerable difficulty in producing Portland cement from these raw materials which would set and harden with sufficient rapidity. However, for reasons which we have already thoroughly dis- cussed,? the opinion was expressed that these cements really set so quickly that they became partially regauged and consequently abnormally slow setting during the mixing process. The com- monness of errors of this kind has been pointed out. In fact, so far as our experience goes, the regauging of extremely quick-setting cements is the main cause of the serious dis- crepancies which occasionally occur between the reports of the set from the manufacturer and those of the consumer. Nine-tenths of the cements which, when tested in the cement laboratory of the Bureau of Science, failed to pass our standard specifications did so only because they set with abnormal quickness. Fully *This Journal, Sec. A (1912), 7, 207-252. 7 Ibid. (1911), 6, 248. 130 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 one-half of these could not have produced a slow-setting paste before they were packed, unless regauging had taken place to a considerable extent during the process of mixing. We also disputed the correctness of the assumption that the cements obtained from these raw materials would set and harden slowly, because the value of the ratio of silica to alumina was high. Apparently many experts believe that the early harden- ing properties of Portland cement are due to the aluminates. If this were true, we could not account for the rapid development of great strength and quick-setting properties of many well- burned, highly siliceous Portland cements which have come under observation. Our own extensive researches verify the work of Dr. O. Schott * that the quick-hardening compounds of Portland cement are formed at a high temperature and that with the silicates the strength increases as the lime increases while with the aluminates the opposite is true; and as the high silicates and the low aluminates require the greatest heat it is evident that high temperatures produce high strength. We further expressed the opinion that a high silica cement should carry more calcareous material than one with less silica and more alumina and that in several instances the hydraulic moduli of mixtures prepared in the United States were too low. We realized that an increase in the calcareous constituents would raise the clinkering temperature, but believed that there was sufficient iron oxide in the raw materials to permit higher liming. For the same reasons, the use of less siliceous materials did not seem desirable, much less, necessary. While many of the problems involved in the successful and economic manufacture of Portland cement cannot be solved by laboratory experiments, we believe that an investigation such as is outlined and described in the following pages will establish the relative merits of different raw materials and point out the most important of the conditions of manufacture which will produce the most desirable results. EXPERIMENTAL WORK The geology, field relations, and physical characteristics of the raw materials are discussed by Mr. Pratt on pages 151 to 161. The chemical characteristics of each of the 8 samples of raw materials examined are made apparently by the data in Table I. *Cement & Eng. News (1910), 22, Nos. 9-13. 1x, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 131 TABLE I.—Ultimate chemical composition of the raw materials. cae | Sample No, Constituent. ~ = Gh, ||) Oe | 39. | 46. | 47. | 48. | 49, | 50. | 51. ; ie | eae iF iy ale peouam | Loss by ignition ----------_----- 35.90 | 36.70 | 38.92 | 41.90} 8.50) 8.07 8.44 | 40.55 19.45 Total silica (SiQz)-_-..-.---.---- | 14.87| 8.94| 8.25 | 3.80 | 70.28 | 60.29 / 58.59 | 3.20 41.97 Alumina (Al20s)______....------ 2.18 | 0.43 | 2.37 ja 1 11.89 15.04 18.53 0.85 | 8.66 Ferric oxide (Fe203) -_-_--_-----| 2.20] 3.09] 0.61 ‘ 2.36 | 12.05 | 7.58) 1.39 | 9.54 Calcium oxide (CaO) --.-..------ 43.12 | 47.40 | 46.52 | 51.59 | 2.55) 1.37, 2.69 | 53.16 |15.12 Magnesia (MgO) _-_.----.-.----- 0.87| 0.82] 0.82) 1.44} 0.91) 229) 2.25) 0.59 | 2.16 Sulphur oxide (SOs) ____________ trace Werace ‘trace | none | trace | trace 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.32 Rree|silica. sii Ree eat 2.82 | 3.51 | none | trace | 9.34| 8.24) 5.12 | 1.76 | 2.12 | | \ Werte | ‘ 9 0.84 Oe ee 0:48)) 3:78 118 | 2 | nee It was thought advisable to combine samples 35, 37, and 39 into one mixture composed of equal parts of each. Mr. Pratt states that such a mixture represents the probable average output of the most feasible quarry site, although if desirable it would be almost as convenient to confine operations to the beds represented by 37 and 39. The first mixtures prepared for burning were combined so that the hydraulic modulus per cent CaO+per cent MgO per cent SiO.+per cent San) of each of the resulting cements would approximate 2. The calcareous material represented by the mixture of 35, 37, and 39 was given the most consideration, because these limestones are said to be the most conveniently located and most easily quarried of the available calcareous supplies. The essential characteristics of the four mixtures prepared for the first burning tests are given in Table II. TABLE II].—Characteristics of the first four cement mixtures. nen Ha pe) ee Material. ree char No. 100-mesh sieve | Per cent. 1 (ae BO Pexee enim mye, el 2 ea = ee Bg aie Bea 100 92 COD FERAL GJ se EE RS et eo ent Tae a | 27 A janie EAS CU AEN at Upset Peau, Fu oe Re aI or ra Sen ee le ee SU | 100 95 CORE air NR EASE ES ae BaP Pr es Ns fc, ral OO ye 9 8 at CFL Hone (a| BLE SU et IRC Se ee Bec UL a ee eee 100 |] 94 Clays 5 retreat ere cms crue ines eM ADU Shoe 18 || 4 eae i SBaST Andi BO me eee ates es hes teeta’ Sa ey de td 100 || 98 Clay sA9 een doce sere ual i ee So eS oh Pee eel So 10 |) 132 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE II.—Characteristics of the first four cement mixtures—Continued. PRINCIPAL ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS AFTER VITRIFICATION (BY CALCULATION). Mixture No. Constituent. 1 2. 3. 4 Silica; (SiQ2)) oat a. Sees) ee ee eee | 23.10 | 23.90 | 28.55 | 23.00 JAlamina(AIeO3))) a Pa A A ee eee a 5. 22 3.14 4.15 | 4.87 Ferricioxide (ReeO3) =. 2-5 5a ee I eee eee 5. 50 3.05 4.34 | 3.76 Calcium ‘oxide((Ga@) eas) = Se. Se ee ee eee 63.60! 64.70 | 62.50 ! 63.70 Macnesial(Me@)ik. Saris. 2 eee ee 2 ee 1.43 1.28 1.57 | 1.46 ; %Ca0+ %MeO Hydraulic modulus( 7 =5,c oR» 7) seh Nase Baer ia) tra 1.92] 2.15| 1.97] 2.10 REFRACTORY PROPERTIES. ture. Observations. 1 | Easily sintered into well-burned clinker at a temperature considerably below the melting point, and no tendency of product to dust. 2 | Similar to 1, but a little more refractory. 3 | Similar to 1, but if fused the clinker dusted completely while cooling. 4 Ideal refractory properties, and no tendency todust when cooling. Le a —s = Throughout this work the various materials and products were not ground to a greater degree of fineness than is customary in commercial manufacture, although in most instances better © results could have been obtained by so doing. After the addition of sufficient water, each mixture was molded into briquettes and burned practically without contamination to the point of incipient fusion, the accepted product being anal- ogous to well-burned rotary clinker. The clinkers were crushed in a jaw crusher, mixed with 1 per cent plaster, and ground by means of a tube mill employing manganese-iron balls, to the degree of fineness demanded by our cement specifications. The finished products were then subjected to preliminary tests for soundness. As shown by the attached photographs in Plate I, all of the steamed pats remained perfectly sound. They all adhered firmly to the glass plates, and showed excellent color and texture. As the cements had not been seasoned, their soundness proved conclusively that the clinker had been well burned. Further- more, observations during the process of burning showed that the mixtures would meet the requirements of commercial kilns. Ix, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 133 The briquettes vitrified at a comparatively low temperature, slightly lower than the raw meal used for the manufacture of “Green Island” Portland cement, but sustained such a consider- able increase in temperature without fusing that no difficulty was experienced in producing good, thoroughly sintered clinker without melting part of the charge. There also was practically “dusting”? when the well-sintered, uncontaminated clinker cooled. We were prepared to make a thorough study of the setting properties of these cements under different conditions of season- ing, grinding, and plastering, but a few tests showed that there need be no difficulty in controlling their setting properties and that the amount of plaster or gypsum required could be maintained at a low figure. The results obtained with the nonseasoned cement are recorded in Table III. TABLE III.—LH'ssential characteristics of the nonseasoned cements produced from the first four mixtures. Mixture No. Test. if 2. 4, | Fineness: Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Through the 100-mesh sieve_________.____-___-.-____- 98.8 97.8 98.2 97.8 Through the 200-mesh sieve_________-______________.- 79.4 | 77.6 17.8 77.6 Soundness, 5-hour steam test _________________________-__ sound sound sound sound Setting properties. Water re- A quired +4 ate Pe for nor- oa Final set. , * | mal con- g sistency. Per cent.| Per cent. |Hrs. min.|Hrs .min. 1 1 21 3 00 6) Gis) 2 1 22 10) 6 10 3 1 a27 Flash set. 4 1 21 35 b) 25) 1 2 20.5 2,30 5 00 2 2 21 350) 5 50 3 2 21 1 30 5 30 4 2 20 3 00 5 00 . The set was almost instantaneous, but when the cement was manipulated according to specification an extremely slow-setting paste resulted which, in reality, was a regauged cement. [Cf. This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 207-252.] 134 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 All commercial cements season more or less during the process of manufacture. The cements under consideration required no seasoning, but it was thought advisable to aérate* them in the laboratory for twenty-one hours spread out in layers about 2.5 centimeters in thickness, after which they were subjected to all specified tests. The results obtained, together with the requirements of the standard specifications now in operation, are given in Table IV. TABLE I1V.—Physical properties of the Portland cements obtained from the first four mixtures.® Specified Test. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4 require- ments. Fineness: Per cent through the 100-mesh sieve ______ 98.9 98 98.4 98. 2 92 Per cent through the 200-mesh sieve ___--- 78 78.6 78.8 78.4 | 75 Specific gravity (dried at 110° C.)_____-_______- 3.16 3.15 3.16 3.16 | Bait Water required for normal consistency-__------ 20 21 | 20 20 | none Soundness, air, water, and steam___--__------- sound sound sound sound | sound Time of setting in hours: Initial seblset ie = nn ee ae tree | 2.8 3.3 0.9 3.2 | (b) inal sets: see sees 3S eee Se ee 5.5 4.8 2 4.6 (c) Tensile strength in pounds per square inch: ioday;neatmortar see: cos ea eeee eee | 507 404 870 420 none w-day, neat mortars - sans aces eee 860 740 520 755 500 28a neat in ONta apenas eens 840 780 605 780 600 7-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar __________- | 315 298 258 275 200 28-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar -_-_______- | 410 360 320 360 275 1 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE NONPLASTERED CEMENTS (BY ANALYSES). Silicai(SiOs) ave. Te eee ee eee 22.65 23.95 23. 80 23; 10). Sasa Alumina (Al2O3) and ferric oxide (Fe203) ____- 10. 70 7.54 9.65 | 10.07 Calcium/oxide (GaQ)) 2 eet ene 64. 70 65.35 62.60 | 63.95 Magnesial(MeO) Xe) oe ees ne eee 1.60 1.16 1.44 1.33 Hydranlicwmodulus)------> eee 1.98 Zaike 1.86 1.97 48 Content of plaster=2 per cent. > Not less than 0.75. ¢ Within 10. 4 Less than 4. Each of the cements passed well above all of the requirements, optional or otherwise, of the United States Government specifica- tions for Portland cement as adopted by the Government of the Philippine Islands. They also pass the requirements of the present cement specification of the American Society for Testing Materials. The good results obtained from mixture 2 are of *We regard aération as the least efficient, practical method of seasoning Portland cement, and recommend grinding in the presence of steam or, better, quenching the hot clinker thoroughly with, or in, water. x, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 1385 special significance, because the materials represented by samples 35, 37, 39 (combined), and 47 are most desirable from the point _of view of field relations. A second series of tests was made which included mixtures similar to 1, 2, and 3, but somewhat modified in composition, and mixture 5 for which limestone 46 was combined with clay 47. The essential characteristics of these four mixtures are given in Table V. TABLE V.—Characteristics of second four cement mixtures. a euncnese 1x- throug: C Parts of we Material. eiehte hi ihe oe sieve Per cent. Himes tone sah wave anu seein a eens Wile ee ety Nieita yap Ni Aol NYA DY 9 GWE 100 5 wh ae CNY FANN Ng A EN oh ak Sa Oc aa EC A ae 25 38 | (Teimestone!bOsetertan oe ow ates ue Rte Ue Reece Ie sh yn came 100 | 1 94 Z Ee Ag Une ANNES Lo EAI WN Reon MCL a AD iets 28.4 (iimestonesisbus(andisg seep ee eee ees Suu SN yale 100 2 91.2 alee lea ee ol se ON NM Meme Na es Tee rb an (eee BES HP CH as EAST eRe as a RT Ee ee WE ae 100 l 95 COP a A aR RT Ao a LAURA a Na or IN ts Al gaa Naa 14 ULTIMATE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE VITRIFIED MIXTURES (BY CALCULATION). Mixture No. Constituent. 6. la. 2a, 3a. Sili Cav(Si1 Os) Mem an anak bis URANO renege iN. I Wea MN A aoe zg 25.40 | 28.36 | 25.30 | 22.30 PAST irmvin a’ CAN 2@ 3) = seta a pled eo els SE EC eA Ltt oe NR i } HO | 5.29 4.06 | 3.87 erricioxide(MesOs) tae =e Nees seie A RIE edn Le satan ; 5.52 3.04! 4.44 Calcium oxide (CORN O) pfu Se eS raed a OC 64.50 | 62.23 | 63.00 | 64.40 IWapnesiumy\oxid ef (Me) meer eee ae eee ee ep eee 2. 06 1.42 1.27 | 1.52 Hy draulicihmodulupges sete et ewan Sea NODS ee ae is 2.04 1.86 1.90 | 2.16 REFRACTORY PROPERTIES. ture Observations. 5 | Highest temperature obtainable required to produce well-burned clinker; no fusing und no dusting. la | Easily sintered; slight tendency to dust if cooled slowly. 2a | Similar to No. 1 and a little less refractory than No. 2. 8a | Refractory properties better than No. 3, and no tendency to melt or fuse on cooling. 136 The Philippine Journal of Science : 1914 The data in Table V show that in this second series of tests the calculated percentage of calcium oxide was reduced from 63.60 in mixture-1 to 62.23 in mixture la and from 64.70 in mixture 2 to 63.00 in mixture 2a and was increased from 62.50 in mixture 3 to 64.40 in mixture 3a. The object of making these modifications has already been stated in the introduction, and the necessity of it will be verified in the discussion of the results obtained. The essential characteristics of the nonseasoned cements obtained from well-burned clinkers of these mixtures are given in Table VI. TABLE VI.—Characteristics of nonseasoned cements obtained from the second series of mixtures. Mixture No. Test. l 5. | la. 2a. 3a. | aes 7 Al | Fineness: Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Through the 100-mesh sieve -_____ 97.4 98.4 | 98.4 | 94.8 | Through the 200-mesh sieve _____- 86.7 17.8 76.4 75.8 Soundness, inair, water, and steam__| sound sound | sound sound | SETTING PROPERTIES. Water Mixture} Plaster required Initial for nor- | No. added. alone set. sistency. Final set. Per cent.| Per cent.|Hrs.min.| Hrs. min. | 5 1 Pal) FE 3 la 1 21 45| 6 15 2a 1 25 Flash set.3 3a 1 27 Flash set. | 5 | 2 | 20} 2 20| 4 20 la | 2 | 20); 2 65| 5 55 2a 2 21 30/ 1 45 2 3a | 21 2 35 5 35 ® See note to Table III. Experiments on the setting properties of No. 2a showed that the compounds which caused the cement to set were so active and abundant that 3 per cent of plaster and twenty-four hours of thorough aération were required to produce satisfactory results. The physical properties of No. 2a treated in this manner, and of cements 5, la, and 3a, mixed with 2 per cent of plaster and aérated one day, are given in Table VII. 1x, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 137 TABLE VII.—Physical properties of plastered and seasoned cements 5, 1a, 2a, and 3a. Test. No. 5. No. la. | No. 2a. | No. 3a. Fineness: | Per cent through the 100-mesh sieve_____________-__ | 97.4 98.7 98.8 96 Per cent through the 200-mesh sieve_____________-__- 88.7 78.4 77.2 17 Specific gravity (dried at 100 °C.) ______-________________! 3.13 3. 13 3.19 3.16 Per cent water required for normal consistency --------- | 21 21 21 21 Soundness in air, water, and steam ________-------------- asound | 4sound | sound | 2sound Time of setting in hours: imitialiset a s2- 25 ee 2s Sse se seo | 4 3.4 3.2 2.7 imalisetetes.se ta caen oes eres eet REE OES REESE | 6 6.5 5.4 5.9 Tensile strength in pounds per square inch: | i-day; neat mortars... ee ee eee ee | 505 395 393 477 G-day, neat mortars: = 220). 22s ee Se | 650 675 540 135 28-day, meat mortar/*2-22 = 22s ee a sane | 695 7195 640 765 7-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar_____________________- | 310 268 232 3 | 28-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar._--___-_----__-_-__- | 340 320 390 355 "The perfect soundness of the steamed pats is shown in Plate I. The results obtained with No. 5 are as satisfactory in general as those obtained with the first four mixtures. The modified mixtures also produced cements which passed all of the require- ments of our standard specifications for Portland cement. The principal object in testing these modified mixtures was to ascertain the effects of the changes in the hydraulic moduli, and therefore the other conditions of manufacture and testing were maintained as nearly constant as possible. Slight devia- tions might be expected on account of the unavoidable variations in mixing, burning, and grinding and the personal equation in testing. However, the results showed only slight differences between the physical properties of cements 1 and la or between 3 and 3a, and as these were all very good cements the four experiments show that the raw materials used are capable of producing good Portland cement regardless of considerable variation in the hydraulic moduli and unavoidable changes in the conditions of manufacture. On the other hand, there is a very marked difference between the setting properties of cement 2, which was very satisfactory, and cement 2a, which required 3 per cent of plaster and considerable seasoning. Additional experiments showed that cement 2a, containing 2 per cent of plaster, failed to become desirably slow setting while undergoing thorough aération for a period of seven days, although the specific gravity fell to 3.09. 126870——3 138 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Also, the addition of slaked lime in quantities up to 2 per cent failed to retard the set. The object of adding slaked lime was to ascertain the possible effects of free lime, small amounts of which are present even, in the best burned commercial products. It is known that if this lime remains unslaked until the cement is used the heat generated when the water is added will tend to quicken the set. Since, in this instance, small quantities of slaked lime did not retard the set, the presence of free lime could only serve to quicken the setting properties. Consequently, we believe that it would be impossible to control the set of well-burned cements made from the same mixture as cement 2a so that it would remain within desirable limits until used. We believe that this change from normal to quick-setting properties was due entirely to the reduction in the content of calcareous materials. This conclusion is warranted to some extent by the fact that the same raw materials were used in both instances and by the normal setting properties of the cements (3, 3a, 4, and 5), which were made with either similar limestone or similar clay. However, it required additional data either to verify this conclusion or to prove that good results were dependent upon the conditions of manufacture which pro- duced cement 2. Owing to this and the importance of the raw materials under consideration, we prepared and tested a third mixture (2b) which contained more of the calcareous material than either 2 or 2a. Mixture 2b was calculated so that the resulting cement would contain about 66 per cent of calcium oxide, thus increasing the hydraulic modulus from 1.86 and 2.15 to 2.31. No difficulty was experienced in burning this high-limed mixture properly, and the well-sintered clinker, pulverized with 1 per cent of plaster to about the same fineness as cements 2 and 2a, gave the excellent results recorded in Table VIII. TABLE VIII.—Composition and setting properties of cement 2b. Material. Parts. | Composition of mixture: | Limestone, equal parts of Nos. 25, 87, amd 89". -- 2 - = nn ge ee eee 100 | Clay Aono SEs ne See 2 Oe ER Re ne aS 2a ne | i Ix, a,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 139 TABLE VIII.—Composition and setting properties of cement 2b—Continued. Material. Per cent. Composition of clinker (calculated): Silzcer (SiO 2) eee eae Ne eS NE USS HR EN BEN eM AUN Re NRA SD: O BE 22. 54 PMuminai@A2Os) §32 3s = se Ss ENN 2 ee Saar jolly ete: 38.53 Herricroxides(e2O3) ioe 5) ee Tek ealee OW Oia) Kg eins neve AA eon, usa ea IRE Aaa 3.06 GCalciumvoxidel(CaQ) pees. oe ece Ue ree eae Seay mL Tae Ne se ath tO MeN NLR EE tk 66. 20 IMagnesium‘oxide; (Me @))) 22s Rue RaW) REG ey ON ee Pe ek ks epee ys 1.28 PEby rata i Chinie Oxi) Sas Sree gs oh a epee ee a Re Pe OR eRe I athe eed eI USL 2.31 Fineness of the cement: IPericentiresidue onithepl 00>meshysiey.ec mae mace acum eee en See pe ne tale ee 93.6 iPericentresidueonsthe!200-mesh)sieviem sasme saa eee aes ee ee eee 18.2 Soundness, b-hour’steam (test. EE LEE IRS AN Re R ISTO ie NS eee Be sound SETTING PROPERTIES. Water required one Cement. Blaster for nor- Taina Final set. a * | mal con- sistency. Per cent.| Per cent.|Hrs. min.|Hrs. min. INonseasoned (sp sere — 3-14) 1 21 15 4 00 1D Yo) alee asa A TE ah elecmeeetee een © TIRES AMEE Se Aa eat 2 21 2 40 4 60 Aérated for 19 hours (sp. gr. = 3.11) ._____-_-_-._-__-__- 1 21 3 5 DS) Oe ere a en Dal arene a Mae IBIS 1.5 21 2 00 4 50 Dove se see Sea oN Ao Na ad a Ls Se 2 21 3 35 6 | As the setting properties of this higher limed cement proved entirely satisfactory and easy to control, the results obtained with mixtures 2, 2a, and 2b showed that it is necessary to keep the hydraulic modulus within the upper rather than the lower limits _if quick-setting products are to be avoided. The combined re- sults also show that the range of permissible variations in the upper limits is sufficiently wide to permit satisfactory factory control in composition. FINENESS In Tables III and VII it is recorded that with the exception of 5 the cements were not pulverized nearly as fine as modern grind- ing machinery has made practicable. The finest ground commer- cial cements which have come under our observation show about the same residue on the 100- and 200-mesh sieves as No. 5— namely, 2 and 13 per cent, respectively—and our work on the physical and chemical properties of Portland cement proved very 140 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 conclusively that such fine grinding is very beneficial because it increases the sand-carrying capacity, permits better seasoning, and increases the constancy in volume after induration. As stated in a previous publication, we believe “that the influence of fineness on the rate of set introduces no new or insurmount- able factors into the problem of the control of the set.” How- ever, aS our conclusions in this respect have not been generally accepted, we reground all of the cements except No. 5, and then subjected them to physical tests, the results of which are re- corded in Tables IX and X. TABLE 1X.—Characteristics of the reground cements." ¥ eae Results. Test. —— = —— = — No.1. | No.2. | No.3. | No. 4. | No. 1la.| No. 2a.| No. 3a. Fineness in per cent: Through the 100-mesh sieve -______- 98.6 99.4 99.6 99.6 99.3 99.6} 99.6 Through the 200-mesh sieve _- | 86 84.6 85 85.4 85 85.6 | 85.4 Soundness: | 5-hour steam test__....__._________ sound | sound | sound | sound | sound | sound ‘sound Normal consistency: | Per cent water required _._._______ 21 21 20 21 21 b28 | 21 Setting properties: F Initial set in hours____.. ____..-..-. 8 2.60 0.25; 1.75 3.20 | ®flash | 1.75 Final] set in hours_ reins ara 4,25 4.35 1.45 2.45 4.15 | >flash | 4 Tensile strength in pounds per square | inch: | 7-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar ___-| 303 317 ©250 307 320 ©200 343 28-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar a$| 366 360 ©283 335 350 ©225 369 a 3-month, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar | 447 421 ©392 440 385 ©330 380 1 * Content of plaster=2 per cent, except for cement 2a which contained 3 per cent. > See footnote (a) to Table III. ¢ Very erratic development of strength on account of quick-setting properties. TABLE X.—Setting properties of cement 3, reground.* Per cent Time of setting, in | Per cent | Water Sound- hours. : } require ness j__ Seasoning. pian for nor- | (steam | * |malcon-| test). | Initial Final | sistency. | | set. set. —— — wey —_ — —_ —— _ — | | | | None st 24 a: inna ha ana 0.5 21 | sound | 1.60 | 3.00 Dow e ahs x 1.0 21 sound 1.75 3.75 | | Aérated 4 hours - -| none | 20 | sound 1.00 5.00 i ———d “ Content of plaster=2 per cent. Regrinding caused no undesirable characteristics to develop in 1x, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 141 cements 1, 2, 4, la, and 3a. Cement 3 became quick setting, but as is shown by the data in Table X its quick-setting properties were easily remedied by either a little additional seasoning or plaster. Cement 2a became extremely quick setting, but as already stated its setting properties were not satisfactory when it had been pulverized only to an ordinary degree of fineness. AUTOCLAVE TESTS It is not thought probable that an autoclave test such as is described in the ‘specifications for Portland cement” of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Company will be adopted by the United States Government or by the American Society for Testing Materials. However, the data in Table XI make it evident that these raw materials are capable of producing Portland cement which will pass even such severe requirements. TABLE XJI.—Autoclave tests* of cements” 1, 2, 4, and 5. Results obtained. | Requirements of the D., L. : Test. d Co. and W.R.R. No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 4. | No. 5. wu Tensile strength in pounds per | square inch: Neat mortar after 24 hours in | Not less than 200 ________ 507 404 420 505 moist air. Neat mortar after autoclave | Not less than 500----_____ 580 | 700 596 573 test. | Expansion of neat mortar in per | Not greater than 0.5-____- 0.127 | 0.104) 0.160 | 0.052 cent. | . | 4 Steam pressure=—295 pounds per square inch. > Not reground. The fineness is recorded in Tables III and V. RELATIVE MERITS OF AVAILABLE RAW MATERIALS Other conditions being the same, the suitability of a lime- stone for the manufacture of good Portland cement increases as its chemical composition approaches that of the cement clinker. “Cement rock,” which requires little or no additional calcareous or siliceous material, is ideal in this respect, as nature already has prepared a more or less intimately mixed and partially com- bined mixture which must be produced by artificial means when the limestone is purer. Furthermore, the particles of com- paratively pure limestone which fail to combine with siliceous 142 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 material remain as free lime,* whereas the coarse or underburned particles of cement rock are more apt to possess the more desirable properties of such products as hydraulic limes and Roman cements. However, it should be borne in mind that, as an impure limestone requires less siliceous material than a purer one, the relative cost of quarrying, crushing, and grinding the different raw materials might make it advisable, from an eco- nomic standpoint, to use the purest available limestone in spite of these advantages of impurity. The data in Table I show that the available crystalline lime- stones 46 and 50 contain only 3.91 and 6.44 per cent, respectively, of clay substance and fluxing materials. Such pure limestones are practically nonfusible, and they must be ground to extreme fineness to enable them to unite thoroughly with the pulverized siliceous materials at cement-kiln temperatures. On the other hand, the coralliferous limestones 35, 37, and 39 are more closely related to cement rock. They contain on the average about 13.2 per cent of clay substance and fluxes, and combine so much more readily with siliceous material that their use is advantageous and involves less danger from free lime and kiln troubles. In addi- tion, they are the most conveniently located and the most easily quarried and pulverized of.the calcareous materials. These ad- vantages are especially significant here, because clay 47 is the most conveniently located and desirable of the available siliceous resources. Clay 47 has the highest content of free silica. Ordinarily, this would be disadvantageous, but in this instance the grain is so fine and the content of total silica so high (70.28 per cent) that, as a whole, the silica content is very satisfactory. Iron in quantities above that required for fluxing purposes iis not desirable. Clay 47 contains the least iron, but sufficient to produce, without excessive treatment, a well-burned cement (2b) with a hydraulic index as high as 2.31. Clay 47 can be combined with limestones 46 and 50 to produce good cement, but much more satisfactory results are obtained by combining it with the coralliferous limestones. This is more or less apparent from the data given in Table XII. °The evil effects of free lime and the manner in which it affects the physical and chemical properties of Portland and other hydraulic cements haye been thoroughly discussed in previous publications. Cf. Reibling, W. C., and Reyes, F. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 117-142; ibid. (1911), 6, 207-252; ibid. (1912), 7, 135-191. 143 Portland Cement Materials Reibling and Reyes IX, A, 2 “BuUlyJes YIINdD Jo yUNODOB UO JI4BAMa ATAA 4 ‘punos [UN pauosEag ‘punos peureulad 4rd pouiways ay} alojoq SAnoy gp LOZ JAAR] UIY B UL atoydsouyR 9ay} 0} pasodxq ; *pouosreasuon “IB]JLOUL PULS-BMEIIQ ‘8:7 ‘ARP-27 Pp 2 “4Sse} SUIUIRAIS ANOY-¢ q “BADIS YSOWI-NOT AY} YAnNorYy, Jue J97 5 O1VBI SGOMPOACY PITY UALS =| [AAG ULL Cf Oe ere | | | nn | aces | (cS | QPza -19 9991] B Inq ‘AtojoORISIVeG |--- ;pexoBIO puw pedis | 0} B[Qe Jou a1aM 9M 3eY} AIOJOBIJOI OS | LIZ 126 I 2 Ds al | at oe ees \ q¢ “A[pldesr 104381 | oor 971) pelood uey Ueda A[QeiIepisuod peysnp *“paleyot 07 a[qissod BEDE (Oy “ANE EOCRG VR HaNe] Cal Gyfabyiadgey fh | (a) “Wt pus Suljjes YoMb AtaA [7 Ops === TayzeI [IHS nq ‘g ueYyZ A1OJOBIJOI ssaT | 18 °T 3°86 8 Se see) Bg “‘q8Np 10 Jeu 0 AOUSpUaT ON “1a COP | di | SYUl[OH Pout -]{OMeaIN POLIO Vs oT UTA ee ee een |e | a | | SU (0) ie cd Nae ee re kes ieee aa O Diss eat gee aie OD mame -9l aqeuiezqo ainzeroduts, ysoysiy | 40'S &6 | a eet. ol any aes Sees ~ g -ysnp 10 4[euL || oor ce 0} AdDUepus} OU pus ‘AI[MOWIp 3no | 1 pn eae, a OSCiDs Meee Sass AAOYOBFSIVSS ATO A |-~~~~ 7mm OD rar “YPM TOYUITD pourIng-[[eM OFUL petozUIS | 1E°% 16 | b ue pose eras Frac l q “4ysnp 0} AdUSpuUs} OU AT[BO Cor SIS Ae a8] “019 -qy081d pus “4uiod Junjeul ayy Mojleq -U0d 03 A[NOWIP eyjBA puB A[qetepisuod oaanzereduio} @ ye Ja Ip nearer | Sn a ae | 068 Bulq}e8 YOIMb aq 0} poulpouy |~~~--~7 >>To (Oa -UI[D poeuIN-][9M OU! patozUls ATISeW | 06 'T 3°16 fA ee Pe eee ix \ Bz *pa[ooo Iexul[D ey} UeyM | OOF Oe ease Suljsnp ou pue 4jeut 0} Aduepuey | ON ‘“AexUID peurNQ-][eM OZU! pa.ey (6 | pp [-reeoceesc eee 098 ALOJOVIS1FES ALO A punog | -uls ATIsve ynq ‘ez UBYy ATOJOVAJaI aIOW | GTS | G6 1 QOL 0 trnnnt ato 6g pue ‘ye a @ aeehee *solqtedoid 3uiyqeg q'sseupunos “sn ee ken ‘ON 2u0jsoUT | ‘on ; “saiqzedoid Zula ul[O BLLPOUL | ser SSOUs Sate | e103 e erneae. -oul XI] ZUSUIED JO SOI4SIIOJOVIBYO = *S[BI190} BY gs pups ypn Qe pun ‘ng ‘e ‘saunguru quawa fo so14814a,00.40Y49 fo uosi.sndwmod Y— TIX ATAVL 144 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 With the crystalline limestone, a hydraulic index of 2.04 gave satisfactory results although some difficulty was experienced in obtaining a sufficiently high temperature. However, when the index was lowered to 1.87, the clinker dusted and the cement became extremely quick setting, and when the index was raised to 2.17 the mixture became too refractory. With the coralline limestones, no difficulty was experienced in obtaining good cement from mixtures having hydraulic indices of 1.90, 2.11, and 2.31, and even the last was easier to sinter than 5a, the least refractory of the mixtures, prepared with the crystalline limestone. In this connection, it is only fair to note that results were obtained with limestone 50 and clay 48 (mixtures 1 and la). However, this clay contains 12.05 per cent of iron oxide, 15.04 of alumina, 1.18 of alkalies, and only 52.05 of soluble silica. It is very fusible, and if utilized for the rotary process is apt to cause trouble similar to that described in the following extract of an article by J. G. Dean:' * * * the clay used in manufacturing was low in silica and high in iron oxide and alumina. The Silica-Alumina Ratio per cent SiO. per cent Al.O;+ per cent Fe.0; would average a trifle less than 2. When pure limestone was used with this clay it was nearly impossible to produce a cement that could be depended on for setting time and tensile strength, and if the lime content of the mix was high enough to burn properly in the kilns the cement would seldom pass the “boiling test.” In order to overcome this defect in the clay, it was necessary to mix the limestone from the upper strata of the deposit, which was siliceous in itself and carried in addition the sand and silt that filtered into it, to the purer stone from the bottom of the quarry. By this haphazard method we were able to keep the Silica-Alumina Ratio high enough to produce a high grade cement. This method required very careful mixing and grinding, as with cements having a low Silica-Alumina Ratio the limits of variation are extremely narrow. If the lime content is lowered the cement becomes erratic in setting qualities and other peculiarities of over clayed cement. If the lime content is raised the cement will fail on constancy of volume tests and will require “air slaking.” These peculiarities become very complicated with such materials when they have been properly proportioned but improperly ground before burning. * * * The burner will complain of its being “soft” or over clayed. The boiling test on the cement will reveal “free lime” and the tests for setting time and strength will indicate an excess of clay, while the * Chem. Eng. (1909), 10, 52. ix, 4,2 Reibling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 145 chemical analysis will reveal nothing out of the ordinary. * * * [The sieve test] will show that that portion of the mix which was capable of combination was over clayed and the coarse particles of limestone in the mix were burned to “quick lime,” consequently the resulting cement dis- played the double characteristics of being over clayed and over limed. No such difficulties would be experienced with a proper mix- ture of the coralliferous limestones and clay material 47, whicn latter has a silica-alumina ratio > per cent SiO» per cent Al.O;-+ per cent Fe.0; which averages a trifle less than 5 and is sufficiently low in lime and alkalies to possess desirable refractory properties. ROTARY VERSUS STATIONARY KILNS Provided that financial considerations permit, we strongly favor the installation of rotary, rather than stationary, kilns. Underburning is fatal to the efficiency of Portland cement, and while with these raw materials there would be no necessity of producing soft-burned clinker if the rotary process was used the best stationary kilns would yield a considerable amount of underburned cement. In fact, the product of a set kiln, unless well sorted at considerable expense, would not be true Portland cement but a mixture of seasoned, underburned, and well-burned cements containing sintered, nonsintered, and hydrated free lime and fused and sintered compounds of many kinds. However, we made a few tests of underburned clinkers obtained from some of the mixtures already described, and the results obtained are recorded in Table XIII. TABLE XIII.—Characteristics of decidedly underburned cements seasoned until sound. — 2. is ei Gerdes Denies, Results. Test. a ver- No. 2. | No. 2b.| No. 8a. Bee. | SDECINCIS TA VI EN = See ee ee eee metho Seed ee oO ae maaan tan ae 2.94 2.95 ZOO Time of setting in hours: Enibial pete netsh eats ey ake ae Be es a oe ata ee A 1,25 1.85 0.85 | 1.30 MIMD Seb ye seer ett eee any ier, MN oR ie ee el PUG 8.45 6.90 | 7.40 Tensile strength in pounds per square inch: Radavaliios © ttawsa-sandimortanjes ae see seo eeeee te are 212 189 177 193 28-day, 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar ________- Se Nae Se ELS 220 170 180 190 8-month, |1 23; 'Ottawa-sand mortar ---2. .2----2 =< - 22-228 325 315 822 321 146 The Philippine Journal. of Science 1914 It is evident’ that the well-burned clinkers could be mixed with considerable of the underburned product, and yet, if properly seasoned, produce Portland cement which would pass all the requirements of our standard specifications. NATURAL (OR ROMAN) CEMENT In a previous publication of the Bureau of Science * we called attention to the possibility that the present and near future resources and the commercial and economic conditions of these Islands might favor the manufacture of what may be called an artificial natural, or Roman,® cement. Natural cements are largely used in America because of their cheapness. They harden more rapidly in air or water than hydraulic lime, but generally speaking they lack uniformity in strength, setting properties, and constancy of volume to a much greater extent than Portland cements. This is due largely to the present universal practice of burning cement rock in set kilns under which conditions considerable variations in chemical com- position and both under- and overburning are unavoidable. To produce a more desirable cement of this class in the Phil- ippines, we advocate the method of producing an artificial Roman cement by blending ground calcareous and siliceous materials in the proper proportion and then burning the mixture in a rotary kiln at a temperature of about 1,000° C. By this method the chemical composition and the degree of burning could be uniformly regulated and a cement of definite physical properties produced. It might not be a feasible method in countries where the cost of the production of Portland cement is low, but the high cost of imported coal and Portland cement in the Philippines would overcome this objection and especially since local coals could be utilized for burning the natural cement. We prepared and burned several of such artificial Roman cement mixtures, and the results obtained showed conclusively that the method could be adopted with good results. We had time and opportunity to make only a very preliminary study of the possibilities of the raw materials in this respect, but even so obtained several cements which passed all of the requirements of the American Society for Testing Materials for natural cement, even though we used heavily clayed and, consequently, easily burned mixtures. The data in Table XIV show that these ‘Cf. This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 117-142. *This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 185-195. *Bleininger, A. V., Bull. Geol. Surv. Ohio (1904), 4, 186. Ix,Aa,2 etbling and Reyes: Portland Cement Materials 147 raw materials are capable of producing natural cement with a cementation index as high as 2.47 and still pass the require- ments of specifications in spite of the fact that such products become feebler as this index rises above 2. TABLE XIV.—Characteristics of artificial Roman cement “I” obtained from Naga raw materials. MIXTURE BURNED AT 1,000° C. | Parts Loss by| Cemen- Material. by SiOz. | ReOs. | CaO. | MgO. | igni- | tation weight. tion. | index. Coralline limestone -____________ --__=- 100 9.34 2.94 | 47.38 OLED |) sh 60 |i -5 3 | IC Levy sg DUR ea gay Oe ai ES AG 100 | 41.97 18.20 15. 12 PANS TESS eee Mis Gre sues Nis Me de RN EY 200 | 51.31 | 21.14] 62.50 SHODN | pose See | IPEricen tye sia a sabe CTW ie NN ee 100 | 25.65 TONS Ts) 939525 1.52 | 27.68 | 22.47 CEMENT. Regaine ment o: Test. Result. aeatiene tions. > Time of setting: Initialisetiini minutes: 252s. ese ee ES EOE 30 (c) MinallSetyimi hours yes ses lesen Masel ae) eI, oe UU gs A 3 (4) Tensile strength in pounds per square inch: INeatimortar day so sc8 sie k ew UNE ee ee Ce ed Ae 167 150 INeatmortarsZ8idaysule eta ii es re iL Phe aU ie eA a ee 262 250 INeatonontarpopmoOmnth stew em ie Olio Ne ans eiMie 2 eas cin wn ken elena | 300 (e) TRO VOB} (OUR REE Doel ipetore te Ee a ee 148 50 28-day neo Ottawa-sandimortares sso) some Te ee eae ee ee 330 125 S-monthepel-1s4 Ottawa-sand mortar see see tee ene Ep eas 885 (e) 2.8 X %SiO2 + 1.1 X %AOs + 0.7 X %Fe2Os © Not less than 10. - %CaO + 1.4 X ZMeO 4 Not more than 3. b Am. Soc. Test. Materials (1912). © Not given. CONCLUSION The results obtained by this investigation are regarded as conclusive proof of the following: 1. The raw materials which are available in the vicinity of Naga, Cebu, are eminently suitable for the commercial manufac- ture of high-grade Portland cement.’° ” Plate II, figs. 1 and 2, are photographs of raw materials from Naga, Cebu, and samples of Portland and Roman cement and concrete which they produced. These products formed part of the exhibit of the Bureau of Science of local calcareous-siliceous resources at the 1914 Philippine Expo- sition. 148 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 2. The raw materials represented by coralline limestones 35, 37, and 39 and tuff 47 constitute the most desirable of the available resources. This is especially true as, in addition to their high merits with respect to manufacturing efficiency, their use would reduce the cost of quarrying, transportation, and grinding to a minimum. 3. Proper mixtures of these two raw materials produce cements which are comparatively high in silica and low in alumina, and for best results the hydraulic modulus per cent CaO+ per cent MgO per cent SiO.+ per cent R.O; should be kept within the higher (2 to 2.3) rather than the lower (1.8 to 2) limits. Owing to the presence of a very desirable quantity of fluxing materials, the high-limed mixtures have ideal sintering properties and the use of less siliceous materials is not desirable, much less necessary. 4. Contrary to a somewhat general belief, it is not character- istic of Portland cements as high in silica and low in alumina as proper mixtures of these raw materials to harden too slowly. On the contrary, they are very apt to be extremely quick setting if the hydraulic modulus is low. 5. These raw materials are capable of producing satisfactory, artificial natural (or Roman) cement, and as the clay content can be carried very high with good results the commercial production could be accomplished at a minimum expense. Incidentally, this work demonstrates many important principles involved in testing raw materials, and the results obtained add corroborative evidence to our published observations and conclu- sions concerning the physical and chemical properties of Portland cement and specifications and methods for their purchase."* * Reibling, W. C., This Journal, Sec. A (19138), 8, 107-124. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE [ Steamed pats of nonseasoned cements 1, 2, 3, 4 (Table IV), 5, 1a, 2a, and 38a (Table VII), showing perfect soundness. PLATE II Fig. 1. Naga, Cebu, raw materials, and the resulting Portland clinker, cement, and concrete exhibited at the 1914 Philippine Exposi- tion. % actual size. 2. Naga, Cebu, raw materials and the resulting Roman clinker, cement, and concrete exhibited at the 1914 Philippine Exposition. 1% actual size. 149 neg AAS. bOOTK hf eteg pee Cerca gatas i, Bet Daey UC ONAL “a *' rant ee APS ate) ha bests Sndibaaldoibad ye * fam atdert® Set ting sprewole a Pi aah 2 i aw rh mu aidhowet” ‘shtor fee 4d ee ines ean ani? ase aston 3 Ty ence, pad ant onl fever Lacie haees| wnt, t beers GLEE aa Fe “ battdite h pas REIBLING AND Reyes: PortLAND CEMENT MATERIALS. ] (Pum. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 2. : | -~ MK Le 20%water ed PLATE |. SOUNDNESS PATS OF NAGA CEMENT AFTER FIVE-HOUR STEAMING TEST. “Il ALW1d *paonpoid ajya19u00 "paonpojd 93010u09 pue “Bld pue ‘yuaswad ‘ayxUI]9 puel]zOg a4} pue ‘ngag ‘eben wooly sjeidazeW MEY “T “HIG *yUaWiad “VayUI}O UBWIOY 94} puke ‘ngay ‘eben wWiods s]BldazeU MEY nC, NT VO TIFID VIYN Waly |) wep wer Be LYN “ON ‘V ‘XI “I0S “NNO “IHg] ['STIVIMGLVAL INGWaAD GNVILYOd :SUAGY INV ONITEIGY GEOLOGY AND FIELD RELATIONS OF PORTLAND CEMENT RAW MATERIALS AT NAGA, CEBU By WALLACE E. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) One plate and 3 text figures INTRODUCTION In 1911 the Bureau of Science undertook to investigate the possibilities of manufacturing Portland cement in the Philippine Islands somewhat more comprehensively than had been attempted previously, and began the work with a study of the geology and field relations of the raw materials. The possible manufac- turing sites which had been discussed by previous investigators ! ’ and ail other districts where the requisite calcareous and siliceous materials had been encountered under conditions at all favorable as to the factors of transportation, fuel, and markets were included in this study. Samples were collected for subsequent’ chemical examination and experimental burning tests. A general statement of the results of the geologic investiga- tion was published in 1912,? and the vicinity of Naga, Cebu, was noted as one of the possible sites which were considered most favorable. The central position of Naga in the Archipelago throughout which the product could be marketed and the proximity of the raw materials to railroad and harbor facilities and to fuel in an adjacent coal field were found to be the principal advantages of this site, apart from the unusual suitability of the raw materials themselves. The raw materials from Naga have been burned to a superior Portland cement both by testing laboratories in the United States and in the Bureau of Science,* and the geology and field relations at Naga are taken up in this paper to supplement these data. SITUATION The proposed manufacturing site is on the southeastern coast of Cebu, at the mouth of Pandan River, a small stream which empties into the sea near Naga. The Philippine Railway crosses *Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1909), 4, 211; ibid. (1908), 3, 391. * Pratt, Wallace E.; Min. Resources P. I. for 1911 (1912), 82. * Reibling, W. C., and Reyes, F. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 127. 151 152 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the site, and offshore is a small protected harbor, designated as Tinaan Anchorage on the maps of the Coast and Geodetic Survey (fig. 1). At the head of Pandan River, 12 kilometers from the coast, is the Uling coal field which could probably be utilized to supply fuel for a cement plant. The coal is of suitable quality, and there is no special difficulty in the way of locating a railway along the valley of Pandan River. A wide alluvial plain has developed at the mouth of Pandan River and along its lower course except where the valley cuts through Magdagoog Range, a ridge trending parallel to the coast at a distance of about 2 kilometers inland. Mount Magdagoog from 4 Tinaan Anchorage 901 SKETCH MAP VICINITY or NAGA = CEBU SCALE 1.400000. Fic. 1. Outline map of the vicinity of Naga, Cebu. (1) Location of limestones 35, 87, and 39; (2) limestone 46 and tuff 47; (3) clastic rocks 48 and 49; (4) limestone 50; (5) shale 51; (6) upper limestone in coal measures. which this ridge takes its name lies about 3 kilometers north of the plant site, and attains an elevation of nearly 400 meters. GEOLOGY, CHARACTER, AND FIELD RELATIONS OF THE RAW MATERIALS General—The formations represented in section in fig. 2 comprise the usual Philippine sedimentary column. The paleontologic studies of Abella,* Martin,’ and (in more detail) of Smith * make it reasonably certain that the greater part of the section consists of rocks of Miocene and Post-Miocene age. On *La Isla de Cebu. Madrid (1886). * Ueber tertidare Fossillen von den Philippinen. Translation by George F. Becker. 21st Annual Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1895), 129-140 of reprint. ° This Journal, Sec. A (1913), 8, 235 et seq. PEAY 2), Pratt: Geology of Cement Materials 153 the lower flanks of a cordillera made up of Pre-Oligocene igneous and metamorphic rocks are the upturned edges of sedimentary beds which dip away from the axis of the cordillera on both sides. Both the trend of the cordillera and the general strike of the sedimentary rocks are north 20° east. West of the cordillera is the Miocene series in which the Uling coal occurs, while beds of tuff and limestone, more recent than the coal measures, are encountered in considerable thickness on the eastern flank of the igneous-metamorphic complex. The coal-bearing rocks consist of a basal conglomerate overlain in turn by limestone, shales, fine-grained clastic rocks, alternating shales and sandstones, and an upper limestone. Three coal seams varying from 1 to 5 meters in thickness are intercalated ‘Miocene and Pre- Oligocene Mrocene\?) Pliocene i Ohgocene Igneous and Shalesluttand Fleistocene Coal Measures Metamorghn Comply Limestone limestones =_-2----- ----+- -<2e-rs+- —---e+—-5 EERO BA \s 1 West-north west <— —— fast-southeast | Fic. 2. Diagrammatie cross section from the southeastern coast of Cebu to Mount Uling; length of section, 8 kilometers. (A) Limestones 35, 37, and 39; (B) andesitic agglomerate; (C) limestone 46; (D) tuff 47; (E) conglomerate, shale, ete.; (F) clastic rocks 48 and 49; (G) limestone 50; (H) shale 51; (K) upper limestone of coal measures. with the alternating shales and sandstones, while a single seam about 1 meter in thickness is found in the basal conglomerate. The lowest member of the sedimentary series on the eastern flank of the cordillera is also a conglomerate which is associated at places with limestone, but no coal-bearing series overlies these rocks; instead, are about 100 meters of shales, sands, and clastic rocks overlain in turn by tuffs, limestones, volcanic agglomerate, and at the top of the series by other limestones. These most recent limestones are of Pliocene and Pleistocene age according to Abella,’ and they are of widespread occurrence along the entire coast line of Cebu. They are important as cement raw materials, and samples 35, 37, and 39 are represent- ative of them at the proposed manufacturing site. "Loe. cit. 1268704 154 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Caleareous materials 35, 37, and 39.——The Pliocene and Pleistocene limestones form a terrace which rises abruptly from sea level at the coast to an elevation of about 30 meters and thence continues inland at a gentle slope to the crest of Magdagoog Range (Plate I). The upper or latest portion consists of fragmental coral in beds which dip very gently toward the coast and do not persist inland more than 1 kilometer. Mingled with the coral in different beds (fig. 3) are marine shells, coral sand, chalky limestone, and a fine conglomerate of various other rocks. Parts of the beds are entirely coralline, and the corals often remain almost intact in the position assumed during growth, but more generally the rock consists of large and small fragments of coral in utter disorder. Evidently the formation resulted from the intermingling of fragments eroded from adjacent raised coral reefs and of material carried down Fic. 3. East-west geologic section through limestones 35, 37, and 39, Naga, Cebu; length of section 1,500 meters. (A) Coralline limestone; (B) coral shells and fine conglomerate; (C) fragmental coralline limestone; (D) coralline limestone and fine conglomerate; (E) chalky limestone; (F) calcareous, sandy clay. periodically from farther inland, with growing coral near the shore line. Beneath the fragmental coral beds, the maximum aggregate thickness of which is perhaps 60 meters, is a soft yellowish gray limestone very much like chalk in character. A few hundred meters inland where the upper beds, by reason of their tendency to thin out, are no longer encountered, the chalky limestone is exposed without overburden at the surface. The material is uniform, and occurs in heavy beds with a total thickness of about 30 meters. Minute fossil forms are to be observed, but the character of the grains is essentially that of very finely divided, amorphous calcium carbonate with ac- companying traces of clay. This uniform extreme fineness of grain makes it appear improbable that the chalk originated as coral sand; a more plausible suggestion is that it represents IX, A, 2 Pratt: Geology of Cement Materials 155 an accumulation of chemically precipitated calcium carbonate or, possibly, of very small, lime-secreting marine organisms. It would be possible to quarry these limestones advantageously from either of two sites. From the bluff near the beach at Tinaan, fragmental coral with the composition represented by the combination of 35, 37, and 39 (Reibling and Reyes) could be secured in adequate quantity. The quarry face would be 14 to 25 meters high, and the excavation could proceed readily over an area of some 20 hectares, making available at least 5 million metric tons of material. The present annual consump- tion of cement in the Philippines is between 300,000 and 400,000 barrels, while this estimated supply of limestone would permit the manufacture of 500,000 barrels of cement annually for fifty years. The alternative quarry site is in the beds of chalk, at a point along the west wall of Pandan Valley about 800 meters from the coast. From this site a supply of material equal to, or greater than, the foregoing estimate could be obtained under most economical conditions. The quarry face would be about 30 meters high, and there would be no overburden to remove since the overlying beds do not extend so far inland (fig. 3). More than fifty samples have been taken from the two proposed quarry sites and submitted to chemical analysis. The greater number of these samples were obtained as cuttings from drill holes. The test holes, which were 5 centimeters in diameter and varied from 6 to 18 meters in depth, were drilled with a hand drill consisting of a steel chisel-shaped bit joined to a drill rod of 1-inch gas pipe. The cuttings were removed from the hole by means of an earth auger (in some materials a simple sand pump was necessary) attached to the drill rod in place of the bit.® The fragmental coral beds at the quarry site nearest the coast are not uniform chemically ; the average composition lies between the limits shown by samples 35 and 39, and several samples * Hand churn drills of this type for prospecting moderately hard forma- tions have been described by many writers. They are cheap, easily con- structed, and surprisingly effective. Four Filipinos can operate such a drill to good advantage. On the work at Naga, each crew was provided with a tripod made of three 6-meter lengths of bamboo, which was set up over the hole and used to support the lengths of drill rod as they were withdrawn. With such a tripod the drill rod need be disconnected only at from 10- to 12- meter intervals, and much time is saved which would otherwise be lost in disconnecting more frequently and in handling the heavy tubes as they are drawn from the hole and laid on the ground or lifted from the ground to be reconnected. 156 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 varied more widely than these two in composition. The chalk at the second quarry site is more uniform, and the composition of every sample taken from this site is very close to that of 37 or 39. The material at both sites is closely similar to a raw mixture for Portland cement in composition; the fragmental coralline limestone contains from 10 to 14 per cent of silica and from 3 to 5 per cent of iron and aluminum oxides, while the chalky limestone contains from 7 to 9 per cent of silica and about 3 per cent of iron and aluminum oxides. Neither material contains more than 1 per cent of magnesia. Something of the relative ease of quarrying these limestones is to be inferred from the experience of the district engineer at Cebu. Such rocks have been classed as “‘soft rock excavation” in the specifications for practically all engineering work involv- ing excavation in them. Contractors have found it advantageous in several cases to remove such material by pick and shovel without the use of powder. In Portland cement manufacture the coarse crushing of these materials should also be accomplished cheaply because of their softness and naturally fine grain. The cost of fine grinding, on the other hand, might be slightly higher than usual since chalk is less brittle than the crystalline limestones which are commonly used in making Portland cement. Calcareous material 46.—Sample 46 represents a bedded, crystalline limestone which outcrops in the western base of Mount Magdagoog on Pandan River about 2 kilometers from the coast. This limestone is stratigraphically lower than the rocks just described, and between it and the chalky limestone some 50 meters of calcareous sandy clay and a considerably greater thickness of volcanic agglomerates intervene. The agglomerate forms the core of Magdagoog Range, and is exposed in the cafion of Pandan River. Limestone 46 appears to stand on edge in the most clearly defined exposures, and the strata are much broken. 3 In composition, 46 is a fairly pure limestone; the ratio of silica (3.1 per cent) to iron and aluminum oxides (2.2 per cent) is less than in the more readily available limestones near the coast. The small number of samples which have been taken show moderate uniformity in chemical composition. The lime- stone is available in an adequate quantity, and is encountered along the route of the proposed railroad from the mill site to the Uling coal field, as are all the other materials considered. Calcareous material 50.—Sample 50 is a crystalline and relatively pure limestone, which is interbedded in the base of the coal measures and lies inland about 7 kilometers from the IX, A, 2 Pratt: Geology of Cement Materials 157 coast along Pandan River. It contains numerous foraminifera, and is referred by Smith ® to the Oligocene. The limestone is bedded, with a total thickness of some 10 meters, and dips at a high angle to the west. As in the case of limestone 46, it has not been thoroughly sampled but appears to be fairly uniform in composition with about 2.0 per cent of silica and 1.5 per cent of iron and aluminum oxides as the principal impurities. Although it is at a considerable distance from the coast and the cost of quarrying would be high on account both of the hardness of the rock and the limited width over which the quarry face could be extended because of the steep dip of the beds (fig. 2), limestone 50 can be obtained in adequate quantity and is therefore considered as an available calcareous raw material. The upper limestone in the coal measures which occurs at an elevation of from 550 to 650 meters on Mount Uling, on the other hand, is so far from any railroad that would be built to bring the coal down to the coast that it may be considered inaccessible and therefore not available for cement manufacture. Siliceous material 47.—Sample 47 represents an extensive and exceedingly regular formation made up of very fine volcanic tuff or ash which is indurated into a moderately hard, light- colored rock of fine grain and splintery conchoidal fracture. Bedding planes are not clearly defined, but numerous minor joints pass through it. The tuff lies stratigraphically below *° limestone 46 and in close proximity to the andesitic agglomerate in Magdagoog Range; underlying it in turn are the shales, sands, and conglom- * Doctor Smith studied thin sections of this rock, and his notes indicate that the conspicuous fossil casts in it are very similar to, if not identical with, Heterostegina margaritata, which according to L. Schlumberger [Note sur un Lepidocyclina nouveau de Borneo in Samm. d. geol. Reichs- mus. in Leiden (1902), I, 6, pt. 3] was found by K. Martin in the Oligo- cene at Dax (France 7). *Tt is not clear whether the tuff is related in origin to the andesitic agglomerate in Magdagoog Range or not. In fact, there is doubt as to the relative age and the manner of origin of the agglomerate which is breccia- like in some exposures and appears to surround or inclose a core of massive andesite. The apparent metamorphism and disturbance in the crystalline character and upturned beds of limestone 46 and in the indurated, closely jointed structure of the tuff could be explained by assuming that the andesite was of intrusive origin and had forced itself up through these rocks subse- quent to their deposition. Evidence of local thermal action may be deduced from the presence of hot mineralized springs in the andesite at the barrio of Mainit. Apparently the andesite may have resulted from volcanic activity which yielded alternately flows and coarsely fragmental ejecta at a 158 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 erate which rest upon the eastern flank of the cordillera. It can be quarried under favorable conditions at Pandan, a little more than 2 kilometers from the coast. At this site a quarry with a face 30 meters high on the average could be advanced over an area of about 16 hectares. It has been noted that the composition of the coast limestones would require very little modification in cement manufacture; as a matter of fact, from 5 to 7 parts of tuff are sufficient for 100 parts of limestone. On this basis of calculation, there is available several times the quantity of tuff required for combination with the total supply of limestone at the mill site. Quarrying the tuff would not be expensive because, although it is moderately hard, it is easily shattered and broken up and there is no overburden to be removed. In chemical composition the tuff is unusually constant. The average analysis shows 70 per cent of silica, 12 per cent of alumina, from 1 to 2 per cent of iron oxide, 4 per cent of alkalies, and 2 per cent of lime as the principal constituents. In 20 anaiyses of drill-hole samples from widely separated points, silica ranges from 67 to 72 per cent, and in 10 of these it lies between 69 and 71 per cent. In spite of the high content of silica, the tuff is very easily fusible due perhaps to the large content of volcanic glass which is present. Siliceous materials 48 and 49.—The shale-sand-conglomerate series beneath the volcanic tuff rest upon-the Pre-Oligocene complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks which are exposed at the surface in the mass of the cordillera. Various basic igneous rocks, a majority of which are of the deep-seated type, as well as schists and gneisses are encountered in this part of the section, but the predominant rocks are slightly metamor- phosed clastics or arkoses, which appear to have been derived from a closely adjacent land area—one consisting perhaps of the time subsequent to the deposition of the tuff represented by sample 47, or it may be conceived of as an intrusion, the outer shell of which has been rendered fragmental by movement during cooling. Although the tuff ap- pears to lie at a horizon lower than that of the agglomerate in the Pandan section, yet elsewhere in Cebu the same rocks occur in reversed stratigraphic position; that is, the tuff overlies the agglomerate or breccia. Whether the andesite is extrusive or intrusive, it appears in either case to be of local origin, while the uniformity and extent of the tuff suggest that it is a widespread formation. The chemical compositions are quite different, too, the tuff carrying considerably more silica than the andesite. On the other hand, the two classes of rock are inevitably closely associated, and in an exposure near Iligan, a barrio of Toledo, there appears to be a continuous gradation between the two types. IX, A, 2 Pratt: Geology of Cement Materials 159 primary rocks with which the clastics are associated. Abella spoke of these rocks as “‘tobas’” (tuffs), a term which he seems to have used to denominate secondary rocks closely associated with an igneous type from which they were derived, partly by erosion and partly perhaps by residual decomposition. Samples 48 and 49 represent earthy clastic rocks of nonuniform grain size, from different horizons in this formation. They were obtained on Pandan River about 6 kilometers inland, from rocks which are imperfectly bedded, much crumpled, and slightly schistose in some exposures. The clastic rocks are not ideal cement raw materials; the few analyses which have been per- formed show that the composition is not uniform, silica varying from 58 to 60 per cent, iron oxide from 5 to 12 per cent, and alumina from 13 to 19 per cent. Their physical character is likewise objectionable because of the coarse and nonuniform grain size and the incipient schistosity. They are available in enormous quantity, however, and in as much as the coast lime- stones require so little clay that any change of composition in the clay would change the composition of the entire cement mixture to a much lesser degree they were considered as possible siliceous materials. Siliceous material 51.—The shale (sample 51) which pre- dominates in the coal-bearing rocks is a bedded deposit of uniform physical character and very fine grain. The most con- venient quarry site in this material is at Buntun on Pandan River about 9 kilometers from the coast. More than an adequate quantity is available, and could be quarried cheaply since the shale is relatively soft. As with the clastic rocks, however, the chemical composition of this material appears to be variable. In view of the rather high content of silica in the coast limestones, the shale might prove useful on account of the low ratio of silica to alumina plus iron oxide (silica, 42 per cent; alumina plus iron oxide, 18 per cent). CONCLUSIONS The coast limestones, represented by samples 35, 37, and 39, are preferable to any other available calcareous material by reason of their favorable situation, their softness, the nearly horizontal position of the beds, the absence of overburden, and their close approach to the desired raw mixture in chemical composition. The chalk, which has the composition of sample 37 or 39, is preferable to the fragmental coral with the average composition of 35, 37, and 39, because of its greater uniformity 160 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 in chemical composition and in fineness of grain. On the other hand, the chalk requires slightly more clay for a proper cement mixture, and must be hauled a short distance (600 meters) to the mill site while the other rock lies practically on the mill site. Good cements have been made from each class of material and from mixtures of the two classes of material. Limestone 46 must be transported about 2 kilometers; it is -hard, and quarrying relations are not favorable. Owing to its composition, a large proportion of clay materials must be added to it to produce a Portland cement raw mixture. Because of this requirement, limestone 46 cannot well be used with tuff 47 which is too siliceous to be added in large proportion to a cement raw mixture, and since tuff 47 is the most desirable of the available clay materials limestone 46 cannot be considered as favorably as limestones 35, 37, and 39 which can be used with tuff 47. The same objections may be made to the use of limestone 51, with added emphasis as to unfavorable quarrying relations and as to the length of the required haul, which in this case would be about 7 kilometers. Siliceous material 47, a voleanic tuff, is preferable to the other siliceous materials by reason of the shorter transportation which its use would involve and the uniformity in its physical and chemical character. It could be quarried as cheaply as either of the other available siliceous materials, and for use with the best calcareous materials its composition is at least equally suit- able. Siliceous materials 48 and 49, which are clastic sediments, are objectionable chiefly because of their nonuniform chemical and physical characters. The expense of quarry operation would be about equal to that required for material 47, but the cost of transportation would be greater because material 47 is less than half as far from the proposed mill site. Siliceous material 51, a shale, is constant in physical character but varies in chemical composition. Like materials 48 and 49, it would be quarried cheaply, but it is at an even greater distance (9 kilometers) from the mill site. The experimental results of Reibling and Reyes show that calcareous materials 35, 37, and 39 and siliceous material 47, which are considered most favorable from the viewpoint of field relations, are likewise most desirable from the viewpoint of ease of manufacture and excellence of the product. This being the case, the other materials tested lose their importance, while at the same time the feasibility of cement manufacture at Naga is established both by the study of the field relations and the burning tests on the raw materials. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I (Photograph by Pratt) Portland cement raw materials near Naga, Cebu. Alluvial clay flood plain of Pandan River in foreground, terraces of coralline and chalky lime- stones in distance. TEXT FIGURES Fig. 1. Outline map of the vicinity of Naga, Cebu. 2. General geologic section from Naga to Mount Uling, Cebu. 3. Geologic section west-northwest through Pliocene and Pleistocene limestones, Naga, Cebu. 161 } iy 17, A ne id t fy eee ) ni t ve . : vs ‘ bal SU i Te ¥ ye } fi th 1 £ ~ ‘s yey , eS ’ F a , : a tate Hid aids , 5 be dig m4 i} ay £ on % ’ te QTE: rel RT ret rior w ew { \ (i we forte J) as on co ae RS eae Doi * i ee es PEAT ‘uns el ee, Mee PAC ae Te RE dy Sore} h separa b vanattien Dwi, aR Sat " i" ' j ems tab A eel A d n't sida t ¢ . ren | } / ; Mi luer ings ih - 7 i a ee 7 ; ay ‘7 i | | | | Wa i t i iv cs a : , Aa i 1 t yy “ 13) Te } , ; rm i q i ‘ | ; ¥ 7 eee a . . ‘ | . | , ay | ‘ p 1 ’ i | | f Pte “AONVLSIG NI SANOLSAWIT AMTVHO GNV ANIT1VYHOO JO JOVYYSL ‘GNNOYDSYOS NI YSAIY NVGNVd 4O NIVId GOOTS AVIO TIVIANTIV ‘NGA0 ‘VOVN YVAN SIVINALVW MVY LNAW30 GNVILYOd (| 3LWid °Z ‘ON ‘VW ‘XI “IOS ‘Nuno "TIHgG] [‘SIVINGLVJ. LNGWAD JO ADOTONY : LLVYd NATURAL CEMENT VERSUS BRICK; IWAHIG PENAL COLONY RAW MATERIALS By W. C. REIBLING (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) One plate INTRODUCTION Although this investigation deals primarily with the value of certain raw materials which are available for the manufacture of brick and natural cement at the Iwahig penal colony, many of the results obtained and the principles discussed are universal, as well as local, in their significance and value. This is especially true of the data on the manufacture of natural cement by the so-called artificial process. : Results obtained by using fine coral sand as the calcareous material, while especially interesting to this country, are none the less valuable to the cement industry in general. They show the economic possibilities not merely of the Iwahig sand, but also of vast resources of similar coral and calcareous sands which heretofore have been practically overlooked by cement producers although already ground fine by natural forces. The artificial method of manufacturing natural (or Roman) cements is com- paratively new, although advocated by A. V. Bleininger? many years ago as a practical method of overcoming the lack of uni- formity in the setting and hardening properties of natural cements. BRICK MANUFACTURED AT IWAHIG The history of the manufacture of brick at the Iwahig penal colony shows that the industry was started at the suggestion of Governor Evans. He had experience with brick making at Bontoc, and believed that successful results could be obtained with the clay located a short distance from the colony on the banks of Iwahig River. The Iwahig bricks are made from an alluvial clay obtained near the junction of Malatgao and Iwahig Rivers adjacent to the penal colony. At first, the clay was pugged by a homemade mill turned by a carabao, and the bricks were molded by hand. Now, the clay is taken directly * Bull. Geol. Sur. Ohio (1904), 4, 186. 163 164 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 from the ground, mixed with water, and compressed in molds by an animal-power Henry Martin machine. The clay is taken from not less than half a meter below the surface to exclude loam as much as possible, and water is added until a mud ball dropped 45 centimeters will flatten but not crack. No sand is used ex- cept for the purpose of sanding the molds so that the green bricks can be removed without difficulty. The bricks are “hacked” as soon as they are dry enough to withstand handling, and finally they are burned in a kiln 45 meters long, 3 meters high, and 2.5 meters wide. Wood fuel is used, and a white heat is maintained for a continuous period of at least twelve hours. The appearance of the finished product is shown by bricks 1 and 2 in Plate I, fig. 1. No. 1 shows the appearance of the cut surface which, owing to the extreme stickiness of the clay when pugged to the consistency practiced at Iwahig, is deeply pitted and ruptured. The sanded sides shown by brick 2 are fairly smooth, but the white coral sand used for sanding the molds gives the brick a very unpleasing appearance. Also, since the sand is highly calcareous, it is converted into caustic lime which, upon subsequent hydration, slakes and, in expanding, destroys the original smoothness of the surfaces. Also, there is some pitting and abrasion due to the slaking of nodules of lime beneath the surface. It is suggested that the use of molding sand might be avoided and the appearance of the brick improved in consequence if the molds were merely dipped in water instead of being sanded. The physical properties of bricks 1 and 2, which are given in Table I, are characterized by excessive porosity, poor strength,, and high absorption. TABLE I.—Physical properties of the brick manufactured at the Iwahig penal colony. Brick. Item. Riis ae No. 1. No. 2. Dimensions injcentimeters 2222244 ase nee 20.39.25. 4 |20.5X9.7X5.5 Wieieht in-erams)(dry)/s- = 28. seen = ee ae ee ee 1,781 1, 888 Apparent density (weight/ volume of brick) --____ .--------------- 1.69 1.71 Sprecificigrayvity 22--- ood. Sess ee, Le eee ae 2.91 2.94 (Absorption of wateriin per cent)22-2 2 = Seen oe eee eae 20. 61 20. 22 Modulus of rupture: Transverse strength in pounds_____-_------------------------- 1, 050 970 Distance between supports in inches -__---_------------------- 6.0 6.0 SRI/2bdi22-~ shoe sees a aes ess a ee eee 339 274 Crushing strength in pounds per square inch _-____-_------------- 779 701 IX, A, 2 Reibling: Natural Cement versus Brick 165 It was thought that a study of the physical and chemical properties of the clay might reveal a practicable method of improving the quality of the brick, and finally at the suggestion of the Director of the Bureau of Science a representative sample was forwarded to the Bureau of Science. The clay, which is a dirty brown in color and lightly specked with white particles, many of which prove to be grains of coral sand, was first subjected to a chemical examination. The results obtained are recorded in Table II. TABLE II.—Chemical characteristics of Iwahig clay (dried at 110° C.).3 ULTIMATE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. Constituent. Per cent. Loss by ignition 10.70 Total silica (SiO:) 42.16 Soluble silica 9.40 Alumina (AI.0;) 24.26 Ferric oxide (Fe:0;) 13.90 Calcium oxide (CaO) 6.40 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.90 Sodium oxide (Na:O) 1.41 Potassium oxide (K.0) 0.10 Sulphur trioxide (SO) 0.20 Carbonmdioxide(C Osa War vastnr ny nie ear ahah UMM SMe cea ek Total fluxes 2255 RATIONAL ANALYSIS. Feldspar 31.38 Quartz 21.02 Clay substance, about 42.00 a Analyzed by F. Pefia, chemist, Bureau of Science. The high content of iron and calcium oxide and the low con- tent of silica indicate that the clay has little or no value for the manufacture of hard-burned ware, such as paving brick. Ex- periments showed that it burned best at a temperature of about 1,050° C. Stiff-mud briquettes, burned at this temperature in an oxidizing atmosphere, showed a tensile strength of about 230 pounds per square inch and were of an agreeable brick red. Except for the few particles of coral, the clay contains very little sand that is visible to the naked eye. It is easily pulverized, and for best results the nodules of coral should be disintegrated or separated from the clay by sifting or elutriation although the clay does not contain more than 1.2 per cent of such material. The round ruptured spot near the top of brick 5 and the cracks on the surface of brick 6, as seen in Plate I, fig. 1, show the unde- sirable effects of nodules of calcareous material in the clay. For 166 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 brick 7, the pulverized clay was screened through a 30-mesh sieve and the surfaces remained free from rupture. Ground until no residue remains upon the 20-mesh sieve, or finer, the clay is easy to pug, and when mixed with about 24 per cent of water produces a stiff mud which is easy to mold by hand or to express smoothly through an ordinary brick die. The addi- tion of more water tends to produce a soft mud which is too sticky and too lean to mold well in any single process. If molded by pressure in the semidry or dry state, the brick disintegrates with even ordinary handling or it cracks and warps while drying or burning. The hand-molded, stiff-mud bricks dry fairly rapidly, and in so doing shrink about 8 per cent and develop a tensile strength of 133 pounds per square inch; but better den- sity, strength, and appearance can be obtained by first molding the stiff mud by hand or by expression, and after most of the shrinkage has taken place re-pressing it at a pressure of about 1,000 pounds per square inch. TABLE III].—Physical properties of bricks produced from Iwahig clay by different processes of manufacture. Brick. Item. erase ot os. land 2 Peete No. 3. No. 4. Iwahig. Processiofmoldings 2-22. eee ee eee (a) (b) (c) Dimensions in centimeters_______________________- 20.3X9.5%5.4 | 19.49.4x5.4| 20.6*9.9X6 Weirhtiinicrams| (dry) eee 1,807 1, 821 2,153 Apparent density (weight/volume of brick) _____- 1.70 1.82 1.80 Specifierrravityre = (ans se ee ee 2.93 2. 82 2.83 Absorption of water, per cent ____________________ 20. 42 16. 63 15.54 . Modulus of rupture: Transverse strength in pounds _-_____________ 1,010 2, 250 2, 460 Distance between supports in inches -________ 6. 00 6.00 6.00 SPY Obd2i eer eer ease eee eee beeen ae 307 648 656 Crushing strength in pounds per square inch __._ 750 1, 244 1,021 Total shrinkage. pericent--2-32-23— 5) es ee | ee 7.6 10.00 8 Pressed soft mud. b Re-pressed stiff mud. © Stiff mud molded by hand. There is not much difference between the handmade and the ‘re-pressed bricks except in appearance; both products are much better than the brick manufactured at Iwahig. Bricks 3 and 4 in Plate I, fig. 1, represent the product obtained by the best methods of manufacturing brick with Iwahig clay. Both were molded by hand in the condition of stiff mud, but No. 3 was re-pressed at a pressure of 3,000 pounds per square ERB An, 2 Reibling: Natural Cement versus Brick 167 inch after the clay had become sufficiently dry. Their physical properties are recorded in Table III, which for the purpose of ready comparison includes the corresponding average values of the Iwahig product. The appearance and properties of brick 8 are those of the best product that can be manufactured at Iwahig, unless a suit- able clay for admixture can be obtained. It is unquestionable that a brick with good color, smooth surfaces, clean sharp edges, and sufficient strength and density to meet the requirements of ordinary construction work could be obtained. For moderate demands, a brick having the above qualifications would also be good enough for face brick. To produce such bricks on a com- mercial scale, the clay should be ground fine enough to eliminate all danger from free lime, pugged and molded in a stiff-mud brick machine, and then re-pressed after the bricks had dried until most of the shrinkage had taken place. The same process of manufacture could be utilized to produce common floor and roofing tiles and terra cotta merely by changing the dies. The unit cost of manufacture should be no greater than it is at present. However, for reasons which are given in the following pages, the Iwahig clay can be utilized to better advantage with the available fine-grained coral sand for the manufacture of natural (or Roman) cement. And since the natural cement can be made to serve equally well as, or better than, the brick for most purposes, the manufacture of natural cement is probably better economy than even an improved manufacture of brick. While, from the standpoint of efficiency as a structural mate- rial, Portland cement ranks higher in order of merit than natural, or Roman cement, of which Rosendale is a type, yet for many purposes natural cement is perfectly suitable in point of strength, and for such purposes its considerably lower cost makes it more desirable than Portland cement. NATURAL (OR ROMAN) CEMENT MANUFACTURED AT IWAHIG A previous contribution from this laboratory 2 suggests that the present commercial and economic conditions of these Islands favor the manufacture of what may be called an artificial Roman cement. The necessity of regulating the composition is shown by Eckel.’ ? Reibling, W. C., and Reyes, F. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1912), 7, 147. * Eckel, Edwin C., Cements, Limes, and Plasters. New York City (1905), 198-199. 168 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 The work of the Bureau of Science on materials from Naga, Cebu,* demonstrated the possibility of manufacturing good natural cement with a cementation index as high as 2.47 from the available coralline limestones and siliceous clays. The coral sand at Iwahig requires very little grinding. The Iwahig sand is a white, powdery material, consisting almost entirely of comminuted coral and shells. -s=o esse ee ee b 160(37) 95(37) | 105(39) | heatsup | With 1.0 per cent plaster ________._________- 90(37) 65(36) | 15(37) 20(87) | With)2.0\pericent plaster =--- =o. = eee 40(37) | 40(35) 15 (34) 25 (36) Withi2sb> percentiplastent = se = ee 25(85) 25(34) | 5 (84) 35(36) « Tested according to the 1912 United States Specification for Portland cement. » The figures in parenthesis give the percentage of water required for a paste of normal consistency. Standard specifications do not require that natural cements pass the accelerated tests for soundness, but all of these cements remained sound when subjected to the regular steaming test for Portland cements. The nonplastered, nonseasoned cements failed to harden sufficiently within twelve hours to bear the weight of the heavy Gilmore needle without showing the mark of the point. On the other hand, all of the cements gained their final set in less than ten hours, which must be considered very satisfactory for natural cements tested by the Gilmore method.*° The setting properties of these cements were again tested after they had aérated for eighteen hours, spread out on paper in layers about 1 centimeter thick. The results obtained are given in Table VII. As anticipated, seasoning had the desired effect of retarding the initial set and quickening the final set, and all of the plastered cements set in a very satisfactory manner. °Cf. Reibling, W. C., and Salinger, L. A., This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 187-185. IX, A, 2 Reibling: Natural Cement versus Brick 171 TABLE VII.—The setting properties of cements 1, 2, 3, and 4 aérated for eighteen hours. | Per cent | rp: eI Mie. Per cent obese nee + re | plaster No, | added. | f0% nor- sistency.| Initial. |Final set. WY AU RNREAS 35 50 600 1.0 34 50 440 8 2.0 34 45 340 225 84 35 285 LADS Wena e 35 80 600 2 1.0 84 55 480 2.0 34 50 400 2.5 34 45 480 eee reese 35 70 500 1.0 34 55 140 3 2.0 35 50 110 2.5 35 55 90 bercobeses 40 115 600 4 1.0 37 80 540 2.0 37 70 525 255 37 70 510 Unfortunately, there was not enough material left to test the hardening properties of cements 3 and 4, but the data in Table VIII show the excellent results obtained with 1, not seasoned, and 2, aérated for eighteen hours. Each strength recorded is the average of four tests; and it is worthy of mention that the differences between the average and the maximum and minimum results were remarkably small compared to the variations usually obtained with Portland cements. TABLE VIII.—Hardening properties of natural cements 1 and 2, containing 1 per cent of plaster. Results. Test. Cement |Cement 2, 1, not | aérated seasoned.) 18 hours. Tensile strength in pounds per square inch: Neat mortar— day in(moistia@ir e-- 22-5262 eee cee e a eee hoe eee ed 91 Gal) Pits setae 1 day in moist air, 6 days in water _________________- ae eseye ae 256 233 150 1 day in moist air, 18 days in water _________________________ 296 295 (b) 1 day in moist air, 27 days in water -------____--_---_-______- 318 306 250 1 day in moist air, 90 days in water _______-__-__-___________ 370 336 (>) 1:3, Ottawa-sand mortar— 1 day in moist air, 6 days in water _-__---__________________. 144 141 50 1 day in moist air, 18 days in water -_-___..___.____________. 182 194 (b) 1 day in moist air, 27 days in water ___.__. _-..._______-____- 214 287 125 1 day in moist air, 90 days in water _-_-_-_-_-_--_-__-______- 317 242 (b) 2 Am. Soc. Test. Mats. (1912). > Not given. 172 The Philippine Journal of Science . 1914 A mixture of the four cements in equal proportions aérated for eighteen hours, molded into neat briquettes, and exposed to the atmosphere in the laboratory gave the following average tensile strength in pounds per square inch: 7 days=138 pounds per square inch. 28 days=168 pounds per square inch. 154 days= 85 pounds per square inch. The compressive strength, developed by 2-inch cubes of neat and sand mortars of the same mixtures, is given in Table IX. TABLE IX.—Compressive strength of cements 1, 2, 3, and 4, mixed. Compressive | | strength in pounds _Per square inch. | Age of 2-inch cubes. ae j | 1:3 Otta- Neat | a. =| Wa-sand mortar. | mono i iP | Gene ast WAL Bonet. | LEONG Ay WARE NE Lg PO Se me 1,989} 1,188 | | 28 days in air The strength developed by these cements far exceeds the requirements of the standard specification for natural cements, and there is little doubt but that a more thorough study would secure still better results. Plate I, fig. 2, is a photograph of part of the Bureau of Science exhibit of calcareous-siliceous resources at the 1914 Philippine Exposition. It shows the Iwahig raw materials and the clinker, cement, steamed soundness pats, and pressed concrete bricks which they produced. CONCLUSIONS The Iwahig penal colony could convert its brick plant at very little extra expense into a cement factory which could produce a good grade of natural cement. The brick press at _ the colony would serve to mold the cement mixture and the kiln to burn the resulting bricks. It would be necessary to install only pulverizers, and as both the raw materials and the clinker require very little grinding this would not be expensive. The cost of manufacture would be much less than for the clay bricks. Neither the molding nor the burning requires great care, and it is only necessary to maintain a temperature of 1,000°C. in the kiln for from three to four hours, whereas with the clay bricks a temperature of about 1,050°C. must be maintained for twelve or more hours. IX, A, 2 Reibling: Natural Cement versus Brick 173 Enough work has been done to prove the feasibility of the commercial manufacture of natural cement at Iwahig and to show that the product will meet the requirements of many kinds of concrete construction work. Natural cement can be used to advantage mixed with Portland cement. A mixture containing 9 parts of natural and 1 part of Portland cement will gain strength more rapidly than natural cement and may be employed where early removal of the forms is desirable. It is probable that by further study the raw materials could be utilized to produce much better natural cements than those described in the preceding pages, and a thorough investigation should be made before a cement plant is installed. eee ora epee xe Perec re RUSS bap tee: ‘las ‘aeeeeer Nerant : pers rm? wok fade alike Fig TUT] rate ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Fic. 1. Bricks manufactured from Iwahig clay: Nos. 1 and 2 manufactured at Iwahig by the soft-mud, direct- press process. Nos. 3 and 4 manufactured at the Bureau of Science by stiff-mud processes. Nos. 5 and 6 show-effects of nodules of calcareous material in the clay. No. 7 shows smooth surfaces obtained when nodules of calcareous materials are pulverized. No. 8. Floor tile. 2. The raw materials and natural cement products obtained by the artificial process of manufacture. 175 BAT ERATE hl) ¢ et Pg f Se rete peter bey sy fi ate teed ; i oksrinw:. sa Pete ain © Lage) anitlel TO OES Waphirg dR. Oh gas met dy ORG A ee ea a dona } prgehapity Pk a Seca ae Ait ta) a 2 peek wary AVA step?) ‘ oe ify Kaiti RL cc gM * ne A DO asians ; hte Soa ars Qs Bahu hawt bee 3 aia eas ed’ Ald “te Dare ade! Dov , o%e atin REIBLING: NATURAL CEMENT VERSUS BRICK. ] [PuiL. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No .2. Fig. 1. Good and bad bricks manufactured from |wahig clay. C] a KER SOUND STEAMED PAR Bo NWR, CEMENT oi CONCRETE EF ROM IWMHO. CLAY ¥ Fig. 2. |wahig raw materials and the natural cement products obtained from them. PLATE lI. Ss THE COCONUT AND ITS PRODUCTS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CEYLON By Davin S. PRATT (From the Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) Five plates The cultivation of coconuts and the preparation of various commercial products from the palm form one of Ceylon’s great industries that has been carefully and scientifically built up. The planters in the Philippine Islands and in the other insular possessions of the United States have much to learn from the results thus obtained, and it is hoped that the following informa- tion may be of value as well as of interest. The facts here presented have been obtained through recent personal investigation and from various sources of undoubted authenticity. Much of the information was made available through the efforts of Mr. C. K. Moser, American consul at Colombo, Ceylon, who assisted me in every possible manner. COCONUT CULTIVATION IN CEYLON For the nursery, heavy round nuts are selected of such a size that from 900 to 1,200 nuts would be needed to produce a candy? of finished copra. The ground is carefully cleared of all roots, stones, and rubbish, and the seed nuts are planted in holes 60 cen- timeters deep and a like distance apart in both directions. Some sand or wood ashes are frequently mixed with the soil, or are placed in the pit prepared for the nut, to minimize the ravages of white ants. When the soil is poor, fertilizer in moderate amount is also included. The practice of using salt varies greatly, but does not appear to have any advantage, and may even be injurious to young plants. There is a divergence of opinion regarding the best pociien for seed nuts, some advocating planting with the stalk end _upward, others preférring a slanting or horizontal position. The latter method appears to be most popular, and is generally followed. The nursery is watered two or three times a week. * One candy equals 254.5 kilograms equals 560 pounds. 177 178 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 When the young palms become a year old, the most healthy and vigorous are transplanted, great care being taken to prevent injury to the roots. Close planting is prevalent in the southern sections of Ceylon, and one frequently notices young palms trying to grow between rows of old trees, with the inevitable result of tall, slender trees incapable of yielding a satisfactory crop. Such conditions, of course, do not prevail in well-managed estates, where it is customary to plant 160 trees to the hectare (65 to the acre), in holes 75 centimeters by 75 centimeters and 1 meter deep. At least 30 centimeters of finely pulverized virgin soil are usually placed at the bottom of this hole. Low-lying groves are well drained by ditches running parallel to the rows of palms, and water is not allowed to stand in the holes around individual trees. A 3-meter circle is constantly maintained around each tree, and is kept free from grass, weeds, etc., by thorough digging. The palms are manured at least once every two years, or more frequently if the soil is very deficient. Abundant cultivation, wide planting, and careful fertilization will increase the ordinary yield of coconut palms from 50 to 200 per cent and at the same time make the palms more resistant to disease. Various firms make standing offers of free soil analyses and advice regarding the type of artificial fertilizer best suited to the estate in question. The coconut trees in Ceylon require a comparatively large amount of this treatment as there are few soils rich enough to furnish sufficient food material for abundant crops of nuts. Nitroge- nous material is probably the most necessary, with phosphoric acid and lime to assist in assimilation. Excellent fertilizers are prepared in Colombo from ground fish, oil cake, nitrates, phosphates, etc. Best Ceylon practice includes plowing the entire estate every two years, at which time the grasses, together with all small growth surrounding the cleared circular spaces, are turned under to enrich the soil. One of the most prominent features of well- kept estates is the evident care taken in removing all fallen dead leaves and rubbish. Nothing is allowed to accumulate that affords breeding places for beetles or diseases, All trees which become badly infested with beetles are felled, cut into short lengths, and burned. It has been suggested that such drastic treatment be required by law, although this has not as yet been adopted in Ceylon. The “‘Coconut Preservation Enactment” of the Federated Malay States, from which the Moro regulations of the Philippine Islands were derived, represents what may be IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 179 accomplished in this way. Constant vigilance in removing and killing the beetles is always necessary, but no satisfactory results can be expected unless the groves are kept clean. The infected areas of palms suffering from stem-bleeding disease, caused by Thielaviopsis ethaceticus Went, are completely removed with a chisel. The wounds are dried by the brief application of a burning rag soaked in kerosene, and are protected from beetles by one or more applications of hot coal tar. Bud-rot is held in check by the prompt removal of all dead or dying palms as soon as observed and by carefully burning this dangerous material. Root disease is similarly treated. These several diseases are not factors at present in Philippine groves, but careful planters must be able to recognize the symptoms and be prepared for prompt treatment should the occasion arise. The sacrifice of a few trees is a very small matter if thereby an epidemic may be averted. The trees produce from 4 to 6 blossoms monthly, and nuts are thus maturing practically throughout the entire year. Pick- ing is done largely by hand, and is controlled almost entirely by skilled natives who have a remarkable faculty for telling just when a nut should be taken in order to give the best product. Estate managers and others informed me that there was not a single European in Ceylon who could judge the condition of the nuts as accurately as these trained natives. Great impor- tance is attached to this individual selection when first-class copra is desired. There is no doubt that one factor contributing to lower the quality of Philippine copra may be found in the gross careless- ness and ignorance displayed when judging the correct time for harvesting nuts. Unripe coconuts are picked in far too many instances. The harmful results of such a proceduré were recognized and prevented in German Samoa by the passage of a law forbidding the picking of coconuts. All nuts must thus be allowed to drop from the trees before being used in the prep- aration of copra. This would appear extreme in the other direction. The custom of cutting steps in the trunk to facilitate climbing is almost unknown to the Singhalese, even in sections where palms receive least care and attention. Nearly all trees bear one or two dried coconut leaves tied around the trunk at a height of from 3 to 4 meters. These are supposed to give the night watchman warning of thieves by the unavoidable noise made in removing or climbing over them. An interesting custom con- 180 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 cerning protection is very prevalent. This consists in painting tar in the form of snakes on the trunks, the idea being that predatory rats will be frightened away. An average palm will produce about 40 full-grown nuts per year, although in well-kept, mature plantations this figure may be nearer 60. There are about 303,644 hectares (750,000 acres) at present devoted to this industry in Ceylon, with an annual crop estimated at 1,250 million nuts, of which 2 million are con- sumed daily as food and the remainder exported in one form or another (Table XIV). The Ceylon price during 1913 for good-quality coconuts deliv- ered at buyers’ stores ranged from 40 to 56? pesos per thousand. The area devoted to coconuts in the Federated Malay States in 1911 was estimated at 57,782 hectares (142,774 acres). The Chief Secretary of Government in his annual report for 1911 stated that this industry had not yet received the attention it deserves. Approximately 65,600 tons of copra were expected from the area devoted to this purpose should the entire crop of nuts be converted into this product. The increasing imports of coconuts into the United States during the past ten years may be seen in Table I. TABLE I.—Value of coconuts in the shell imported yearly into the United States.* Year. Value. Year. Value. Pesos. Pesos. 1903 ee = ee eee i SI6FAR4" |) S909 SW. Tee be er eee ee 2, 505, 188 1904's 3.622 SR ESS Eee enc oe hese ft S45 704.1) ASO) S5_ Riek as ee ae ee 2, 591, 708 iL 1); Ae ee ee ec Cen Se 2 Spm e paper ge 2,172, 946 {| US iiss s Poa et ee 3, 408, 210 1906) 593325 oc Se 5 te OS OT. ASO | ONZE Se eel 3, 898, 812 1907 ores ne ee ee ee PASS 85 VT Nea Er Soe re as a pet a 38, 562, 754 1908. [23 A ee Se 2, 879, 540 * Compiled from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, Series of 1904-5, 1906-7, 1908-9, 1910-11, 1912-13. COPRA Copra is the kernel of the coconut from which the greater part of the water content has been expelled, either by the natural process of sundrying or by warming over low fires. The method employed by the native of Ceylon is very simple, and consists in merely chopping the nut in half and exposing the hemispheres, ? One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos equals 50 cents United States currency. IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 181 meat upward, on dry, sandy ground. The nuts are carefully covered at night and kept free from all dirt. The meat shrinks away from the shells after two days, and is then removed for further drying. The process is usually complete in about six days, whereupon the copra is ready for market (Plate 1, fig. 1). Artificially dried copra is frequently inferior to the sundried product since the heat and smoke give it a darker color and wizened appearance. Fire drying requires from two to four days in the large mills and from five to seven days on native estates. The latter rate is preferable as it produces a higher grade copra. The process is essentially the same in both cases, differing merely in the rate at which it is carried out. A plat- form is constructed of green areca-palm (betel-nut palm) laths placed about 1 centimeter apart, forming a floor from 2 to 3 meters wide and of any desired length. This is erected about 2 meters above an earthen pit in which coconut shells are fired, after having been fitted into each other in parallel rows from two-thirds to 1 meter apart. Three or four rows of these shells are generally fired at one time, with an occasional reduction of the heat for several hours. A row of shells burns for from five to six hours, sometimes much longer. The half nuts on the platform are turned over after the second firing, and the partially dried meat is released after the third. Three more firings com- plete the drying. When this method is carefully carried out, only dry shells are burned, as these produce very little smoke but considerable heat. The husks are employed in the preparation of fiber, as will be shown later. The resulting copra is fairly white and clean, and since it sells for nearly top prices in the London market estate owners are content to use this method, as supplementary to sundrying without employing more com- plex machinery. All Ceylon copra at the present time is pre- pared by one or both of these processes. A very successful native drier claims he can turn out the best white copra by grill drying and even more economically than by sundrying. He fires only one row of shells at a time, and re- quires five days and nights of continuous heating to complete the drying. Many planters start with sundrying, and complete the preparation of their copra over grills. The amount of copra from a given quantity of fresh nuts depends to a considerable extent upon the rate of artificial drying. Ordinarily, from 170 to 200 nuts give about 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of copra. The two extremes are encountered in compar- ing the output of sundried copra with that of desiccated coconut 182 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 products. The relatively low yield of the latter is well known, a decrease of 10 per cent, based on fresh kernel, not being unusual. The process of desiccating coconut will be taken up in detail under this heading; suffice here to state that drying is accomplished in less than an hour, as compared with the several days needed for drying copra. The decrease in time required for expelling the water is, therefore, coincident with increased loss of oil, and all methods of preparing copra must represent an economical balance be- tween these factors. It is unquestionably possible to make copra in much less time than is required by either the sundrying or grill-drying processes, but experiments made by planters in Ceylon have not impressed them with the advisability of adopt- ing such changes. One of the most progressive coconut planters in the island constructed a drying house with brick heating flues, and produced paper-white copra in less than twenty-four hours, but discontinued the process because of the resulting high loss of oil. It is his opinion that a continuous slow current of air at from about 54° to 60° (180° to 140° F.)—the proper temperature to be determined by experiment—should complete the drying process within three days and nights, and with the least loss of oil. A rapid drying in ten hours must be attended by a considerable loss, and will require about 15 per cent more kernel to produce a given weight of copra. Ceylon copra is graded in four qualities: ‘““Kalpentyn,” re- presenting the best produced, followed by “estate,” ‘““Maravila” (ordinary), and ‘‘common” or “cart.” Kalpentyn copra is grown nearly as far north as Jaffna, in a dry locality, and this climatic condition is generally supposed to produce an oil of lighter color. Estate copra, as its name indicates, is made from nuts grown upon estates under careful supervision. The ripe nuts are selected by competent natives, and are sundried, grill dried, or prepared by a combination of both. This preparation is superintended by a competent man, either connected with the estate or provided for the purpose by dealers who have already purchased the crop on the trees. Cart copra is a general name applied to the product purchased, piece by piece, from small producers scattered throughout the island. The dealer drives along with a bullock cart, and buys whatever is offered, fre- quently in lots not exceeding the production from one or two trees. The result is naturally a product that commands a lower price than the preceding. IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 183 The following rates prevailing one day in December, 1913, will give an idea of the differences in value. TABLE I].—Prices paid for various grades of copra. Rupees | Grade. per Pose candy. ; ra fs) ke] oO =} ct < =] PRE AY PEI ONE OES LAS ere a EE Seal aa Se 97.25 259 | Ris tate mss Ghar: 2! cite Spe hel Cue Vo de US SEC RAIN Aid Ainge sien eo RR 96-97. 25 | 256-259 Maravilay (Ordinary) mos a cee wun een os See tee Bou ue) Ee mn CE ye ea 95-97 253-258 CCRT a NI A OS SR AI Si Sl eens cd eee ee 87-95 232-253 It is interesting to compare these various grades with the terms employed for Philippine copra. The best quality pro- duced in these Islands is known as “Samar sundried.” It com- mands good prices, but is practically all used locally for the production of oil and is consequently not included in newspaper quotations. “Cebu sundried” commands top market prices in the public quotations, followed by “F. M. M.” (fair merchant- able Manila). “Laguna” is frequently made from green nuts, is dried over smoky fires resulting from burning husks, and often molds before reaching the market. The large Ceylon estates submit samples of their copra to the brokers of exporting firms, while small dealers bring their product in native cadjan boats from the Low Country, where it has been collected in small lots and shipped to the market. This water route is via the Kelani River and the canal passing through Negombo, Marawella, Chilaw, and Puttalam, these being the principal coconut centers of Ceylon. The Grandpass Market, situated on the banks of ‘he canal and a few kilometers from the fort at Colombo, is the principal market. Copra is here bought and sold every morning. Ex- pert native brokers are employed by the exporting houses, and bid on the copra offered, generally on a commission basis. Much experience and tact is necessary in estimating the value of the copra thus offered and in purchasing as desired, for com- petition is very keen and margins are small. Ceylon copra is ranked as second in quality only to that of Cochin and the Malabar coast, and is quoted at about 20 pesos less per ton. However, it is generally believed by Ceylon producers that the best grades of their white oil eventually reach the consumer in large quantities as Cochin oil. 184 The Philippine Journal of Science - 1914 The copra destined to be exported to a foreign market for oil making is spread out in warehouses and sorted according to quality, dryness, color, etc. Each hemisphere is then chopped into three or four pieces and resacked for shipment. The work is largely done by women laborers, who receive approximately 20 centavos each per day. This handling and chopping causes a loss in weight amounting to from 0.5 to 1 per cent, and a further loss of from 3 to 5 per cent is generally allowed for shrinkage during the voyage. Table III shows the various countries to which Ceylon copr was exported during the past three years and the amount shipped to each. See also Table XIV. TABLE III.—H xport of Ceylon copra.* Destination. 1911 1912 1913 Tons. Tons Tons Germany 282. 5S I ee ee ee eee 27, 984 18,312 | 40,314 Russiaiss ose ee eS oe ee 8, 164 6,981 | 12,094 Demnatr de gga se ke AS Ns ee a 550 3,950 1, 258 Austria's) 22205383) 4 2 Oo 8 eh Se eee eee 735 1,370 2,105 Beletumy: 2224-5 ee Ee 5 St ee ee eee 525 301 1, 650 United: Kinedom 252 23232 2-. S55 eee ee 375 363 75 Brance. 2222-6 3 cn eee a eee are cee 7175 100) }esneseeeee Holland <2 2. 3sc2255) 2b saa 2 ee ae 50 50) essere Other. countries .sosa35 sets os ns ae ce Fe ak fa es Ad 216) ts eee 209 Totals f21824.0 32 eee Fee ee Se eee | 39, 434 31,427 | 57, 705 & Supplements of the Ceylon Chamber of Commerce Reports. A marked falling off of all coconut products from Ceylon in 1912 was caused by drought in the preceding years. This was also the case in other neighboring countries. Thus the exports TABLE IV.—Copra imported into the United States.* Year. Amount. ioe ik Tons. Pesos. Pesos. A907) 22s kT ee 2 SE Ee BS ae Ee ena ee 3, 158 604,264 | 191.33 190804. 55 dane So a he ie a ee 6, 303 962,464 | 152.70 1 ee enna ee DRM OE MER Cima rN a Nt a ie lade 10,644 | 1,333,640; 125.29 POIO 25222 25...2-2 0052 ae I eee 9,511 | 1,525,120 | 160.35 BOUT 2h betel: PROC ee eee 16,882 | 3,073,436 | 182.06 OTD os Pe ato ie A eee orl i, ee ee LE 28,831! 5,620,342 | 194.94 MOUS Se oo RE i An A ne Se 15, 343 | 8,063,640 | 199.67 * Compiled from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, Series of 1908-9, 1910-11, 1912-13. PRATT: COCONUT AND ITS PRODUCTS. ] [Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 2. Fig. 1. Drying refuse from desiccating mills for copra. Fig. 2. Soaking coconut husks before separating the fiber. PLATE Il. PRATT: COCONUT AND ITS PRODUCTS. ] [PHIL. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 2. ‘se LO th, OE ap fe O * Fig. 1. Coconut husks at a small fiber mill in Negombo, Ceylon. Fig. 2. Rear of mill, showing exit of fiber and heaped-up fiber after fanning. PLATE Ill. “AL ALW1d -a1qe}z Bulpyoey 0}; Jaqy poyeiedas Bulkuueg *Z “6l4 *|[1W Jaqy 0} sysny ynU0D0D payeos BulAWeD ‘THI 3 ON ‘V ‘XI “IOS “Nunof "lH g]) [‘stondoug SLI GNV LANOOOO 7 LLVad PRATT: COCONUT AND ITS PRODUCTS. ] [PuIL. Journ. Sct., IX, A, No. 2. = 5 = o 2 5 PLATE V. VARIOUS PRODUCTS MADE FROM COCONUT FIBER. SAMPLES 1 TO 10, IN- CLUSIVE, WERE SUBMITTED BY HINDLEY & COMPANY, LONDON. 1X AL 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 185 of copra from India for 1912-13 amounted to 34,350 tons valued at 8,330,991 pesos, as compared with 32,876 tons valued at _ 7,368,683 pesos in the previous year. Statistics covering imports of copra into the United States show the following yearly amounts and corresponding values. The economic loss to the Philippine Islands due entirely to unsatisfactory methods of preparing copra has been commented upon repeatedly. The actual figures are startling, as may be seen from Table V, where the monthly losses during the period from 1907 to 1911 are shown in detail. TABLE V.—Comparative prices per metric ton in Europe for copra from Ceylon and from the Philippine Islands. | s 1907 Month. Ceylon. Ehilippine Difference. Peeeite Penne eC Islands. Islands. Pesos. Pesos. Pesos. Tons. Pesos. January tee ce ss oe ese 257. 90 242.00 15. 90 1, 850 29, 415. 00 ebruarys so 2228 Sead ou be eee 267. 00 246.00 21.00 900 18, 900. 00 [Mia rc hire. tacinlik eo Seas ed 70.10 248. 80 21.30 1, 082 28, 046. 60 SNS 05 9 VE RRR ROL eae OS 255. 50 239. 90 15. 60 4, 568 71, 260. 80 IM OS7 2 oe See no oe eee ae Bee, Dene 245. 40 229. 90 15.50 600 9, 300. 00 AIST YS om aa cee es a Se 238. 00 216. 20 21.80 2,500 54, 500. 00 dca ly een ENS IR sah She IE 229.90 206. 20 23.70 5, 250 124, 435.00 PAUSES Gee sees eI IS Ta 221. 70 196. 20 25. 50 5, 035 128, 485. 00 September =. ses 222 see =e 215. 60 183. 50 32. 10 6, 610 212, 181. 00 Octoberis 5 oR: 2 N 218.70 186.10 32. 60 8, 500 277, 100. 00 November! 2225s se ee 215.30 180.30 35.00 5, 886 206, 000. 00 IDecember=:s.s282 5802-222 ees b b 293, 750. 00 IAN Crag en sate eee ee 206s at le 22566) 2a Tonics cece eal ee Se ossrin, 1907222 we. ak Sa 1, 448, 328. 40 1908 JANUAr ys. ete SL ae ee 186. 14 169. 22 16. 92 6, 000 103, 520. 00 ebruary, 2202 seer! es ecto 176. 40 157. 82 18. 58 1, 250 29, 750. 00 Marc hate 0h cee oe See SS 163. 62 144.78 18. 84 7, 500 141, 600. 00 L Nya) og) Ps 321 oe erat ee 165. 46 147. 44 18. 02 4, 000 72, 080. 00 IE LESS IT ol 169. 10 146. 86 22.24 5, 000 111, 200. 00 AE UNO = = oes, Sito lals ome: ee aE 173. 36 151.46 21.90 9, 000 197, 100. 00 MUL Yee ok be Stee lee ec ee 177. 12 155. 98 22.14 4, 350 96, 318. 00 PAUIPUSL)= =.= o> He ete ds see ees 176. 06 158. 60 17. 46 9, 750 170, 235. 00 September a 22255 soo ae) 178. 34 157. 82 20. 52 7, 250 148, 770. 00 October eee aoe wee Ne 186. 38 160. 86 25. 52 12, 750 325, 380. 00 November 22 ese 2 os eo ee 188. 86 160. 58 28. 28 11, 000 311, 080. 00 December. = 2 see ee aes 196. 12 169. 54 26. 64 11, 848 315, 630. 72 Average .-esnet nts ce’ 178. 08 156. 74 B15 42) ce eS tue ce TOS Bini 1908 ten ee ee eee rece ooo ee eee Ce eee eae Shs 2, 022, 663. 72 126870——6 186 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE V.—Comparative prices per metric ton in Europe for copra from Ceylon and from the Philippine Islands—Continued. 1909 | Se : Shipped | Loss to Month. | Ceylon “islands. Difference. ne a | | Pesoo. Pesos. Pesos. Tons. | Pesos. January oo soe mee bee | 197.70 176. 40 21.30 10,250 218, 331.00 February 242. a1 3ee8 & 188. 90 171.80 17.10 3,500! 59,850.00 March: #224 7 ide a 251.88} 223.54 28.34 13,141| 376,415.94 mee 4, 121, 835. 94 15, 108, 427. 36 1X, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 187 COCONUT OIL Coconut oil is expressed from copra, and is largely employed in the manufacture of soap and edible fats. The latter use demands a high purity oil of light color and bland taste. Products meeting these requirements are made with difficulty from dark-colored or moldy copra, whence the demand for the better grades. Copra is a difficult product to ship without deterioration, and is certain to become moldy with the production of free fatty acids during transit unless thoroughly dried. The only logical procedure is to extract the oil at some central point near the source of supply, thus greatly reducing the bulk of the shipment and avoiding loss due to spoilage. The operation of mills for this purpose in the Philippine Islands cannot be too strongly urged, as the economic advantage to the country would be very great. The immense amounts of coconut oil entering commerce and its financial importance may be judged from the following table showing imports to the United Kingdom during a single year. TABLE VI.—Coconut oil imports for 1918. Refined. Unrefined. From— Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Tons. Pesos. Tons. Pesos. Ceylon Mase. EE cae ai ias Sete unde iy iv eee Uae ei 216.6 85, 757 8, 552.4 3, 183, 065 Mirrd 122 9 Petia Ait ee MRM Nom Re een eae Ta 18.3 7, 740 1,294.7 517, 980 PAnIS traliq=e 2 Sei ele eae ee eke: Be ile es ice AlN eed 4,329.7 1,595,475 ATI Ce eed POLE ks ees Sod pe Ae Le oN 13, 517.2 | 5,699, 167 445.1 169, 983 Germany ee tS Ee Ee Sy te oD) 10, 948.9 | 4,753,010 15, 339. 4 5, 627, 193 CLOT UT eee me RCN TLE oe eee oO 2,897.0 | 1,207,757 1, 122.4 388, 107 Penman kas p ee eyes eee Pe 2,410.6 | 1,094, 839 370.9 136, 877 Othericountries|=s= ee maee ses ee oe 79.1 32, 893 105.0 41, 089 Potaliese = Sos to aaet ABs hs Se 2 30, 087.7 | 12,881, 163 31,559.6 | 11, 659, 769 The exports of coconut oil from India during the year 1911-12 amounted to 8,184,089 liters (2,165,103 gallons) valued at 2,626,876 pesos, of which Germany took 2,208,469 liters (584,251 gallons) and the United States 1,804,901 liters (477,487 gallons). The total export for 1912-13 was much less. Statistics covering imports of unrefined coconut oil into the United States show the following yearly amount and corre- sponding values (Table VII). Long experience in Ceylon is the basis for the general estimate that 40 full-grown coconuts will yield 3.78 liters (1 gallon) 188 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VII.—Coconut oil imported into the United States.* | Year. Amount. Total rae! a | Tons. Pesos. Pesos. TOOT =.) esas ee ae Se ed a ee ae ee eee 15,868 | 5,247,948 | 330.72 1908 S22 5.5 3 ee AES ee I eee eee 18,616 | 6,535,170 | 351.05 1909\. 2525522525 oe ea Ses eee Oe Se eee 22,986 | 6,159,364 | 267.96 1910)--. 5-505 eee oe eS Sa Se ee 21,583 | 6,682,818 | 309.63 VOUT th ea EA ee eS 8 AD SAS ee ees 22,820 | 8,288,888 | 363.23 0) ee ee ee eae een ee he SS eee 20,701 | 7,702,558 | 372.08 1913 |S = see Sn ne eee 22,546 | 8,366,072 | 371.07 2 Compiled from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, Series of 1908-9, 1910-11, 1912-13. of oil, or approximately 1,000 nuts for 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of oil. Comparatively little oil is expressed in Ceylon at the present time, and with the exception of a few large mills the machinery is primitive. Prices in 1912 ranged from 324.40 to 362 pesos per ton, and advanced during 1913 to 425 pesos, with little indication of falling off. Table VIII shows the amount exported to the various countries during the past three years. See also Table XIV. TABLE VIII.—Haport of Ceylon coconut oil. ==, = a a Shipped in— ee To— eon Tard: | 1911 1912 1913 eR eS = ify aE ates J) eee Tons. Tons. Tons. United!States. 294 Me: 2 ak Bah eo aie Rid be Be ee 8, 696 8,640 | 15,918 United Kinedom? 23... = See | ae Be Be ee | 18,341 8,019 | 7,617 |: Nomway.andi Sweden: ® 2+ bh jas 29 wees ONTO ee ck 973 1,590 | 2,227 Axigtria; oo Oot 2 2k ee ee ee eee | 843 879 725 Boel earn an 5 ae a ge eee ea 549 141 220 Germany 232th 2 5 a ee OR A en eRe / 766 235 85 (Hollandiess 522 ee hd SR eden Be i 107 72 155 Ttaly {22 2 eeateb goed ee eee oh Pg Ba, dead 43 | 102 | 115 RUBBI8 ~. 2.255 oS eecn 3 Foe c ee ae Bee eee oe eee eee Be Ee ey | 20 Tharkey 2) coe eee ee te es De 13 14 | 13 Tndias c+! 2254s A US Se ees eae 82 | 61) 147 Other ‘countries|#. 2 U_3 3 22-540). Pe ee ee eee ee | 202 | 32 | 41 | Total 2-22-82 ea CS op ee ee ER 25,615 | 19,785 | 27,288 | A very brief description of the essential parts of one of the largest mills, located in the suburbs of Colombo, would include the following processes: The copra is passed through elevators to machines that cut it into small pieces, which are then ground IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products ‘ 189 to a coarse bran. This is heated in large, steam-jacketed con- tainers provided with stirrers to insure a uniform temperature. The temperature employed is very important, as it affects the quality of the resulting oil to a great degree, and it is one of the carefully guarded details of the mill. The warm mass is then run into large vertical presses, in which it is separated by perforated plates that determine the thickness of the resulting cake. Hydraulic pressure of 2 tons is gradually applied, until all except about 10 per cent of the oil is expressed. The press cakes are then ground, rolled, heated as before, and submitted to 3-ton presses that reduce the oil content to about 6 per cent. Copra yields roughly 66 per cent of oil by this method and 33 per cent of press cake, called poonac. These cakes weigh approximately 5.5 kilograms each, and are packed in burlap for shipment to the continent as cattle food or are ground with fish, phosphates, and nitrates as fertilizer for estates. Germany is the largest buyer, followed by Belgium and the United King- dom. For yearly export, see Table XIV. The total consump- tion of oil cake as food for draught cattle, milch cows, and pigs is rapidly increasing. It possesses the valuable property of adding to the firmness of butter produced by cows fed upon it. DESICCATED COCONUT The processes employed in the manufacture of various des- iccated coconut products are not so generally known as in the previous industry, and will, therefore, be discussed more in detail. The husked nuts are brought to the desiccating mills in bullock carts well covered to protect them from sun and rain. Here they are counted, and are bought at prices ranging from 52 to 56 pesos per thousand. The broken, blemished, and under- sized nuts are used for making copra, while the selected ones are covered to protect them from rain and sun which would cause bursting followed by rancidity. Rain especially injures the flavor, and in case the nuts cannot be used at once they are removed to storage sheds. The satisfactory nuts are then counted into baskets containing 50 each, which are carried to natives seated in long rows and pro- vided with small hatchets and chopping blocks. The shells are skillfully chipped away, leaving the kernel entire (Plate I, fig. 2). These are rapidly passed to women who pare or shave off the coarse, brown outer surface. The instrument used is an ordinary carpenter’s spokeshave having one end cut off. The use of special machinery for this operation was tried at 190 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 one time and abandoned as being more expensive and less effi- cient. The shellers and shavers are paid from 26 to 32 centavos per 1,000 nuts, good workers of either sex handling from 1,500 to 2,000 nuts per day. Children for carrying, etc., receive about 20 centavos per day. The parings are carefully collected and spread out on cement floors to dry (Plate II, fig. 1). Women provided with rakes turn this material over from time to time until the copra thus produced is ready for the grinders and presses, where it is com- bined with that made from discarded nuts. The entire amount is not large, even in mills capable of turning out considerable desiccated coconut, but is a by-product well worth handling. The broken shells are used for fuel to fire the engines, and in one mill visited they were utilized as a very satisfactory source of producer gas for an internal combustion engine.* Hand shelling and shaving is used for all ordinary forms of desiccated coconut, such as “‘granulated” and “threaded,” but for certain grades, especially “chips,” it is advantageous to have the kernel come to the knives in perfect form. This is accom- plished by cutting the entire nuts into quarters with a circular - saw, that the meat may leave the shells intact. The shaving is then done by a selected corps of women. The men at the machines receive from 32 to 40 centavos per 1,000 units. The shaved nuts are thrown into tanks of fresh, cold water to remove all milk or particles of dirt. Three successive wash- ings are generally given the kernels on their way to the des- iccating room. This is necessary to keep the meat fresh and clean, as otherwise rancidity would injure the flavor. All opened nuts must be prepared and packed ready for shipment within twenty-four hours; if not, they must be discarded for copra. The nuts are now quartered and sliced by women workers, given a final washing, and packed in baskets for the machines. The wash water is run into tanks, where the oil is allowed to rise until it can be skimmed off. Irregularly shaped pieces of nut are sent to the “granulating”? machines and pieces of proper length to the “thread’”’ machine. Shaped portions of entire nuts go to the “chip” machine, where they are packed in special steel baskets holding perhaps half a dozen pieces. ‘These baskets are open at both ends. A filled basket is then introduced into a machine that turns out shavings of coconut not unlike the wood shavings from a carpenter’s plane. * This use for shells offers a very promising source of power. IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 191 Shredded coconut is manufactured solely for the American market. It requires slightly different methods in preparing the meat and a special shredding machine consisting of a rotating disk with four sets of knives fixed in slots. The knives for making “shred” or “strip” have serrated edges, and are not set at any special angle. The same machine is used for “flake,” but with knives having a chisel edge and set at a proper angle. A shredding machine with fast and loose pulleys, together with one full set of knives for flakes and another for strip and capable of handling somewhat in excess of 50 kilograms per hour, sells for about 390 pesos. The men at these machines work by the day, and receive from 22 to 32 centavos, with 50 per cent extra for overtime. During rush season, when the mill cannot shut down, these laborers invariably refuse to work in day and night shifts, but remain at work for practically twenty-four hours at a stretch. Women workers receive slightly less wages than the men. The grating machine consists of a spindle upon which are placed a number of circular saws. These protrude slightly through a grating into a small open cast-iron box to which is given a reciprocating motion. Nuts are pressed into the box, and come into contact with these rapidly revolving saws, while the motion of the box causes all portions of the coconut to be acted upon. A grating machine provided with fast and loose pul- leys and a full set of saws is quoted at 350 pesos, requires approximately 3 horsepower for its operation, and slightly exceeds the capacity of the desiccator described in the following paragraph. The freshly cut or “wet” coconut is.carried immediately to the desiccating machines. No. 4 Brown’s patent desiccator is the best for coconuts, and has been adopted generally by all Ceylon firms handling this product. Each machine has an approximate capacity of 50 kilograms of desiccated nut per hour, and sells for 1,358 pesos. Here the moist product is placed in shallow trays 5 centimeters deep, 1.2 meters square, and having perforated bottoms. The desiccator holds 5 such trays at a time, and consists of a sheet steel chamber through which a current of air heated from 82° to 93° (180° to 200° F.) is rapidly driven by fan. The air is heated as a rule by individual furnaces placed at the side of the machine just outside the desiccating room. The furnaces consume either wood or coal, and frequently coconut shells are burned, although these destroy the fire bars very rapidly unless used with wood or coal. 192 The Philippine Journal of Science | 1914 During the course of from thirty to sixty minutes, the mois- ture content is reduced to the allowable maximum of 1.5 to 2 per cent, leaving a paper-white product that crumbles readily between the fingers. The dry coconut is now removed to mechanically operated screens and sifted into fine, medium, and coarse grades, differ- ing merely in relative size but with no distinction in quality. All products of this class are made by essentially the same process and from the same nuts. Granulated, chips, thread, and shredded coconuts vary only in form according to the re- quirements of the various markets. The graded products are taken to the packing room, where they are spread out on zinc- topped tables to cool for from two to three hours before being placed in chests. These chests are made either from dark Ceylon redwood or a better quality of Japanese Momi wood. Tea-lead linings are made over proper-sized forms by skilled workmen who have learned to solder the easily fusible foil, an operation requiring considerable practice. Many chests are im- ported from Japan, both for packing desiccated coconuts and for tea. These cost from 64 to 80 centavos each at the wharf. The coconut is packed in these chests by aid of a hand press and is hermetically sealed, the net weight being about 59 kilo- grams per chest. It is estimated that the “wet” coconut loses approximately 50 per cent of its weight during desiccating, and owners of Co- lombo mills expect an average of 150 kilograms of desiccated product per 1,000 nuts. In northern districts this figure is frequently as high as 173 kilograms. Attempts have been made in southern India to produce desiccated coconut products, but have not been successful owing to competition with Ceylon, partially because nearly twice as many Malabar nuts are required for a given output and also because of the higher cost of Indian coconuts. It is difficult to estimate the number of laborers employed in the desiccating mills in Ceylon, but one of the largest of the four principal ones employs between 500 and 600 men, women, and children at an average wage of 28 centavos per day. These mills with this force are able to handle from 75,000 to 90,000 nuts per day. All of the desiccated coconut is exported, the bulk of it going to the following countries in the order named: Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. The yearly export and dis- IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 198 tribution of the product may be seen from the following table, which shows the prices of the various products in the foreign markets, principally London. TABLE 1X.—Market value in pesos per kilogram of desiccated coconuts. Dec. 30, 1918. Apr. 30, 1913. 0. 30-0. 33 0. 33-0. 35 0. 36-0. 38 0, 29-0, 32 0. 32-0. 33 0. 35-0. 36 0. 38-0. 40 0. 31-0. 33 Table X shows the estimated cost in Ceylon of a plant capable of handling 90 tons of desiccated coconut per year.‘ TABLE X.—Estimated cost in Ceylon of a plant capable of handling 90 tons of desiccated coconuts per year. Buildings. Pesos. Nut stores (iron roof, brick walls, and fioors) 2,800 Superintendent’s dwelling 3,400 Office 600 Storehouses for fuel and material 2,000 Storehouse for copra and parings 2,000 Tool house and forge 680 Chopping and shaving shed (iron roof and pillars, brick floors, and trough) 2,800 Desiccating factory (iron roof and structural work, brick wall, 17 by 30 meters) 16,000 Engine room 1,400 Packing room 1,400 Copra drying kiln 1,400 Carpenter’s and box maker’s shed 680 Total 35,160 Machinery. Pesos. Engine, oil or gas, 50 B. H. P. 14,000 8 double desiccators 18,400 2 disintegrators 2,700 2 sifters 660 Plummer blocks (shafting) 2,000 Belting 500 Trolleys and rails 400 Electric light plant 2,400 Tools 300 Spare parts, ete. 2,000 Total 43,360 * Quoted from Rutherford, Planters’ Note Book. Colombo, Ceylon (1913). 194 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 These figures are included not because of great accuracy or exact application to conditions here, but rather to supply all available information regarding a little-understood industry suitable for the Philippine Islands. The following table shows the extent and destination of this product: TABLE XI.—Export of Ceylon desiccated coconut. Shipped in— To— 1911 1912 | 1913 | Tons. Tons. Tons. WnitediKimedom’-s..2i0> ee oo. ee ese Ue ee eee | 7,098] 5,656 | 6,839 Germany yee teeta i Ee Pel eee Mo ere aL | 9,610] 2,723} 2,302 Wntied Statews-1:si sew es hs Aes 2 Oe ney ee 2,588 | 2,462 | 3,787 Toye (eq Ui ee Oe ER se ee ee Se eR Se a ee 363 603 | 558 ol rnd eed we OI WN Dae 2 Ns AO Re 273 | 461) 315 UN Tey na apa PO et Re cae ne MITER 5, es PONS SARS Te TREES OME 264 | 375| 306 Spain 200 Eo ot Ao, 5 Sea MS RV 195} 268 | 237 PA pistes hick) 2 eset eee ss eee ee ae ee ee a ee 565 | 640 709 Carri ay Ne Sk SE Ta Oe Se eae twa a ee ee eee Leen eee 173 | 303| 378 Title We oe ar Re ee, Mee beeen esa ee et 101 | 92 | 98 Say) Cea ee 2 8 oe Se De ae AL ee eee ys 70 168. 12 iNew, Zealand) 442. "ee 4) Fin Se ep eee eee eee 154 | 150 | 7 Other ‘countries. 525 8 oo See es eee a ee Bee 98 | 64 93 Tebaleee ee Pe LA att bd te, A he = Ee Be 4,552 | 18, 965 | 15, 326 COIR FIBER The manufacture of fiber from coconut husks is another industry well suited to the Philippine Islands, but which has never been exploited here. Its introduction would not only result in utilizing the husks as an added source of profit both to large and small planters, but would at the same time tend to eliminate the harmful practice of burning husks for copra drying. The fire from husks is smoky and much less desirable than that resulting from shells alone, as it produces dark-colored copra of inferior grade. The coir industry is profitable in Ceylon, and gives employment to many women and children, especially since it may be carried on by individual workers during spare hours as well as in a mill equipped with modern machinery. In fact, the best grade fiber is made entirely by native methods. Galle is the center of the native coir manufacture, and a trip through the surrounding country will disclose nearly every family engaged with piles of husks or partially prepared fiber. All the processes employed are simple, even where machinery is IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 195 used. The primitive methods in vogue throughout the Galle District may be taken as representative of native manufacture. Bamboo inclosures, each of a few square meters’ area, are constructed along the numerous streams, esteros, and the sea. The husks are thrown into these pens and submerged by adding lengths of palm trunk or other suitable material (Plate II, fig. 2). The action of the water is allowed to soften the husks for about six days, and is generally considered to give a more desirable fiber where a mingling of fresh and salt water acts upon the material. The softened husk is placed upon a block and thoroughly beaten, either with a stone or a short stick, thus causing a separation of the fiber. The outer surface is then stripped off as valueless, and the fiber is shaken free from fine bits of husk, woody pulp, etc. It is then hackled with a coarse wooden comb and dried. Two classes of fiber result, the coarse “bristle fiber’? averaging 30 centimeters in length and the finer ‘‘mattress fiber.”” The latter is spun into what is known as “coir yarn” in strands about 40 millimeters thick and 17 meters long. The spinning is done by women who rapidly twist the fiber between the thumb and palm of the hand, building up two strands, which are then twisted together. Women employed in this way claim to earn from 0.60 to 1.20 pesos per day, but no definite information is available as they work at irregular times under no supervision. Husks are purchased by the bullock-cart load at fiber mills for about 16 centavos per hundred, although it is possible in some localities to procure them without other cost than cart hire (Plate III, fig. 1). They are then quartered and placed to soak. Better type mills conduct the softening process in large tanks with iron rails to keep the husks submerged. Others utilize swampy ground with soaking pits. The soft husks are removed after five days and carried to a machine known as a “breaker” that crushes them in prepara- tion for the “drums” (Plate IV, fig. 1). These are in pairs, a coarse machine for the first treatment and a finer one for the second. They are circular iron wheels 1 meter in diameter, and revolve at high speed. The 35-centimeter rim is studded with spikes that tear out the woody portion of the husks held against them, leaving separate the long coarse fibers (Plate Ill, fig. 2). Torn and broken fiber that falls from the spikes is fanned, spread in the sun to dry, subsequently cleaned, and finally baled as mattress fiber (Plate IV, fig. 2). The long, coarse fibers are washed, cleaned, and dried. They are then 196 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 further hackled by women, who comb them through long rows of steel spikes, set upright at short intervals along a table . top. The fibers are now bunched in hanks approximating 30 centimeters in length with a diameter of from 4 to 6 centimeters. These are then baled for shipment by hydraulic presses or receive a preliminary bleaching with sulphur fumes. The bales are sewn up in jute for better protection, and weigh from 100 to 125 kilograms each. This fiber is used in the manufacture of brushes etc. The mattress fiber is spun into coir yarn from which an excellent rope is made. It is also made into various mats and coarse cloth. For the latter purpose, it is frequently dyed brilliant reds, greens, and purples with aniline colors. The weaving is done with primitive looms built on lines identical with those used in weaving Philippine native cloth. There are two principal grades of Ceylon coir yarn known as “Kogalla” and “Colombo,” which are further subdivided into from 15 to 24 standards differing slightly in thickness, color, twist, etc. Mattress fiber and yarn for export are stoutly bound with iron bands in bales weighing from 100 to 125 kilograms. The demand for coir yarn exceeds the present supply, and the price’ is steadily rising. Table XII shows the market prices of the various products. TABLE XII.—Market price of fiber products in pesos per ton. December, | November. | Product. 1912. 1913. Bristle! No. Ui s22525 200 So ote on as eh be eee cca ke se ccusecaca seen 168. 80 fa | Bristle No.2) 25. ore eee eee ron ee ene ee ee ee ener 119. 60 | Wi Mattress Nox 2) 265 Ce oa ee cee cen eee eee no eee 31.60 26- 98 Mattress No.\2)G--5. 5 -cos2 22 ooo ee oe ee eee eee mene artes 22. 80 Coir’yarn' Nos. 1/to'6; ‘Koralla®--- 25 ee en ean eae 143, 20-214. 40 154-220 Coir yarn Nos; 1 ‘to'6; Colombo 2222222225 See ee een ae 129. 60-194. 80 140-206 Exporters’ usual prices range from 146 to 290 pesos per ton (cost, insurance, freight), New York. It has been estimated that 1,000 coconut husks will produce from 30 to 35 kilograms of bristle fiber besides about 140 kilograms of mattress fiber and yarn. Practically the entire export of these products is to the United Kingdom and Germany. The yearly imports of coir yarn into the United States and the value of this product may be judged from Table XIII. See also Table XIV. IX, A, 2 Pratt: Coconut and its Products 197 TABLE XIII.—Coir yorn imperted into the United States.* | Year. Amount. ay BE ed | Tons. Pesos. Pesos. TE seh ea eee Aes et ae SSP Os ct ST sg 1,980 | 383,994 | 168.68 TATE aN AN Se US UU LT ape an AL Pte Ne I Ppa 8,322 | 640,050 | 192.67 HL UG fepwrenn sneer aria NYE iat AER) Ne aknens sagem ret vem s Us Nyc TR, 8,091 | 550,250) 178.01 TS AD) che ea eS RNG NM AL SH i ed Aa a DON 2,721! 409,898 | 150.64 PO TE rte ia en NH LE RS a CE Meh a He A el aed 8,486 | 618,136 | 179.90 ILO 1 pre Weds Le ide Sa cote re Way ea er re ea SIRE AOS Ua rey tall aeal 4,051 | 827,908 | 204.37 TAR AS a in a a a a WRN a 8,269 | 624,098 | 190.91 * Compiled from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, Series of 1908-9, 1910-11, 1912-13. The various types of fiber product may be judged from Plate V. Table XIV shows the amounts of the various coconut products exported from Ceylon during the past ten years. TABLE XIV.—Yearly export of coconut products from Ceylon. Pa Desicca- eT Year. Oil. Copra. | ted coco- | Poonac. | Coconuts.| Coir yarn.| and mat- nut. tress fiber. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. |Thousand.| Tons. Tons. 24, 981 35, 715 8, 356 12, 290 16, 957 4,536 6, 340 29, 741 19, 665 9, 276 13, 535 18, 047 5, 653 7, 546 26, 954 22, 556 9, 023 12, 957 16, 013 5, 150 8,246 23, 900 19, 258 10, 403 11, 410 13, 813 5,311 9, 239 33, 506 38, 440 12, 237 15, 232 21, 188 5, 658 8, 713 29, 074 38, 601 11, 598 12, 685 18, 185 5, 130 7, 404 30, 819 38, 345 12, 148 15, 479 16, 114 5, 439 8, 820 25, 612 39, 440 14, 555 10, 699 15, 589 5, 776 9, 759 19, 787 31, 427 18, 971 8, 451 15, 983 5, 193 11, 728 27, 288 57, 706 15, 328 11, 998 16, 858 5, 762 12, 852 | OTHER PRODUCTS The most important of the remaining products is undoubtedly the fermented drink arrack, made on a large scale from sap excreted by the flowing stem. Many palms are devoted to this purpose, being leased by native manufacturers. The process is too well known to merit further discussion. A new use has been found for surplus shells that gives promise of future development. The dry shells are either burned to charcoal in pits, or are destructively distilled in iron chambers. The latter method produces a pyroligneous liquor that finds 198 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 application in coagulating rubber latex. The charcoal from shells is excellent, and enjoys a growing demand. It would seem as if this offers opportunities for profit in the Philippines. Table XV, showing freight rates from Colombo to New York and to London, is included for comparison with rates from Manila. TABLE XV.—Freight rates from Colombo in pesos per ton (November 8, 1918). ey teal | ! Product. aay London. Coconntiont =e... 222" Neer BREAN Be. RE RR PEE Sree a 17.50 13.75 Coconnt, desiccatediin cases! 223: orc Sa a ee ee Ne ee 18. 75 13.75 Goconnte in Jhare sn oe a eS py ee aes be ee 16.25 11.25 Garrpli pressed ales 20 ns nee ee ON ae Se ee en oe 16. 25 11.25 Coir yarn and fiber, in bundles or coils -_--_------------------------------------ 9.25 7.50 Coir‘ yarniand fiber; crewed bales!) «32222 5-- 5 ee ee ede 16.25 11.25 Goir bristletfiber. in‘ pressed bales*s 5222-22) =e Fee ee ee eee 16.25 11. 25 Coprarin: Dag ses ee Ee ee a ae oe ee re Ee 17.50 15. 00 Coconut butter is rapidly becoming important, and a brief outline of the method employed in its manufacture should be of interest. The following process is extensively utilized in Bohemia, where the output has increased during the past six years from 40 tons a day to nearly 300 tons, and the price has correspondingly advanced from 40 to 60 pesos per 100 kilograms. . The oil is extracted from copra in the usual manner with oil presses. It contains soap fats, and frequently has an unpleasant odor. Powdered chalk is added to the crude oil, and settles to the bottom after absorbing the soap fat. The free oil is passed through 4 or 5 filters, and is run into a steam-heated tank, where the temperature is raised to about 270°C. until the oil is clear and begins to bubble. It is then passed through an automatic weighing machine and subsequently run into molds, cooled, and packed. The combined soap fats are freed from chalk by treatment with sulphuric acid, and are sold to manufacturers of soap. The addition of sesame oil to render the butter more pliant is a common practice. Coco butter keeps well even in warm weather, either raw or refined, and closely resembles oleomargarine. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE IJ (Photographs by author) Fig. 1. Sundrying copra in Ceylon. 2. Removing outer shells from coconuts in preparation for desiccating mills. PuaTE II (Photographs by author) fig. 1. Sundrying refuse from desiccating mills. This is pressed for oil. 2. Soaking husks to soften them before separating the fiber. PLATE III (Photographs by author) Fic. 1. Coconut husks at a small fiber mill in Negombo, Ceylon. 2. Rear of mill, showing exit of fiber and heaped-up fiber after fanning. PLATE IV (Photographs by author) Fig. 1. Carrying soaked coconut husks to fiber mill. 2. Carrying separated fiber from above husks to hackling table. PLATE V (Photograph by Martin) Trade name. Pesos per ton. No. 1. Medium roping 150 No. 2. Stout roping yarn 140 No. 8. Ceylon yarn 220 No. 4. Comming weaving yarn ; 200 No. 5. Fine weaving yarn 230 No. 6. Best red allapas , 290 No. 7. Best augrezi 300 No. 8. Coir yarn 240 No. 9. Ceylon fiber, low grade 90 No. 10. Ceylon fiber, high grade [70 Nose Bundlevotibristlenibery - wile! eerie) Vip Shiite ne PMR ub) i) ie. INO Set 2s COTEPDEX aN aGa unin by to nN hn amu Nummer ao) AGEN Fmt bl le ec 199 | tt Ta) NaI Bas Sey MS Gh » , v wy Me A Kae } v y ky * #7 r : 1 , Ff t. Fe WS hab vedi th ee Te , {hee tia eae F er I wi. at 4 treats Vai! AUN eed Bee Li ATAAS es bt ee v ta palate . * i aber wha lees PAY Septet * ‘Fi tetas re uae SF ape RL spe ee ee etapa Th Sy, omer Si A ar an ite ies ballads a3 pen th 1 Rivs Maley Spriterctle tat) Ric ae Tp 4 TF ke 5 JM rage i ‘ “nai 4 ehege wae 7 “gv Ah i ae xt here et ee Ve) a | 44 pt der “?T) . 00" i. vids a ee -; wee "Fe 4 of T\a 4 ; sy me Wds prio ie Ret hie aioe tees Mie ee me ee Ug oe 2 PRATT: COCONUT AND ITS PRODUCTS. ] (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 2. Fig. 1. Sundrying copra in Ceylon. Fig. 2. Removing coconut shells preparatory to desiccating. PLATE I. ‘ TAR minut Germanys riLemts, ~The sBhilipphie owsnat ot Uene er Sah ‘fol WS ¥, Seca, A, Chemical and _ Geologica’ Sciences and the Industr: - only with a palbirnctibe file of section a or C_ ‘Supplement to Volume I (Botany) . Be eS. ; Volume I (without sapplement), sol id ° ly with ‘@ complete = section A, B, or C2... ae ‘Each Beetion. is separately paged. and ing Publications sent in exchange for. the. Philipp should be addressed: Library, Bureau of Sci Subscriptions may be sent to the. Busine E nal of. Scan Bureat Hf Sa: Mar ~ listed Below. Setar Ted" i ON % Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, tral » Martinus Nijtioff, Lange Voorhout 9, The * ~~ Mayer & Miiller,. Prinz Louis: Ferdin Kelly. & Walsh, Limited, 82 ‘Raitles Place, AL Me & J. Ferguson, 19 Baillie Street, Colo SE paaers mp sé at P.. ay she tee rae: A “ETHNOLOGY (A VOCABULARY, OF TBE conor. TAN. GUAGE AS SPO: BY THE WEN SA ; ‘SonToe gonors qe By. ‘Wauen Geaxrén Cur “Order No. 406: ; “postpaid.” The vocabulary ‘is aiven peat Paglietelbrees 3 = “ionter! zi 403. : eras $0.05: ; half mo: “rocco, $0.75 ‘postpaid. 3: - The - Nabaloi;. ‘Dialect - “(65 pages, 29° ‘aplatea): and >the: taks. -of Pa n (7 ae act ie se Bpons LISeINE GROUP "OF EEL h Sand yee sn ‘oy IN PHILIEPINE bake Pose SEROUASHA YE Order No ‘407. rad These two papers. late’ ‘eat Sailer one- gover, A4i ecee ect a hs oC poston "Order ios: 210. 321. pages, i Se ‘map, 29: plates, esi postpaid. Sindahgan ‘Bay. is situated on the north- ern coast of Zamboanga Peninsula.’ The*Su- ‘banuns of. this region were studied -by Mr Christie * during ‘two. Periods: ‘of. five. and. six > “weeks, respectively.’ as " a /altars,” ‘and. De digi at and» ‘the people * : cst aie Bey ‘to a ‘of. seu : ‘oros ‘in ‘ ‘{imes to. THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES Vou. IX JUNE, 1914 ; No. THE IRON ORES OF BULACAN PROVINCE, P. I. By F. A. DALBURG and WALLACE EH. PRATT (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) One map, 6 plates, and 6 text figures CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. General statement. Scope of the present paper and sources of information. Summary of principal results. obtained. GEOLOGY. Situation of the ore deposits. Physiography. General geologic relations. Sedimentary rocks. Post-Miocene formations. Miocene formations. Igneous rocks. Effusive rocks. Intrusive rocks. Deep-seated rocks. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. General character of the ores. General character of the ore deposits. The Camaching ore deposit. The Montamorong ore deposit. , The Hison-Santa Lutgarda-Constancia ore deposit. fcr The Santol ore deposit. { Minor ore deposits. \ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ORES. GENESIS OF THE ORES. QUANTITY OF ORE AVAILABLE. 127944 201 202 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 THE MINING AND SMELTING INDUSTRY. History. Mining. Smelting. The smelter. Charcoal burning. The process of smelting. Capacity of the furnaces. Efficiency of the smelting process. Metallurgy of the smelting process. Cost and value of iron produced. Statistics of production. UTILIZATION OF THE IRON ORES. INTRODUCTION GENERAL STATEMENT The iron-ore deposits in the Eastern Cordillera of Luzon were discovered early in the seventeenth century, and it is a matter of record that attempts at mining and smelting iron ore were made as early as 1664, although it is not clear whether the reference is to the deposits in Bulacan Province or to the similar deposits in Rizal Province which adjoins Bulacan on the south. The importance of iron ore to industrial progress has been recognized alike by the Spanish and American Governments in the Philippines. The Spanish Inspeccién de Minas spent con- siderable effort in attempts to establish an industry in iron mining and smelting, while the first geologic reconnaissance by the Bureau of Mines: of the American Government was devoted to the iron-ore deposits near Angat, Bulacan Province. How- ever, there was demand for more detailed information than it had been possible to obtain in the early reconnaissance, and after the edition of the Bureau of Mines report, which was published in 1903, became exhausted the work recorded in this paper was planned. SCOPE OF THE PRESENT PAPER AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION The principal field work for this report was performed by F. A. Dalburg and Wallace E. Pratt. On December 6, 1911, Mr. Dalburg, chief of the party, and Feliciano Nable went into the district. On January 4, 1912, Mr. Pratt joined the party, and Warren D. Smith, formerly chief of the division of mines, Bureau of Science, spent a week in the field at about this time reviewing the progress of the work. Field work was suspended at the end *McCaskey, Hiram Dryer, Bull. P. I. Min. Bur. (1908), 3. IX, A, 8 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 203 of January, but was resumed again on February 19 by Mr. Dalburg and Mr. Pratt who remained in the field until the middle of March. In the preparation of the manuscript for publication it became apparent that additional geologic data which would necessitate further field work were required. The stress of routine activity in the division of mines delayed the accomplish- ment of this additional work until December, 1913, before which time Mr. Dalburg had severed his connection with the Bureau of Science. Consequently, the supplementary field work which required about one month’s time devolved upon Mr. Pratt. Mr. Pratt is also responsible for the preparation of the manuscript which is based upon the notes of Mr. Dalburg, Mr. Nable, and himself. This investigation was undertaken with the idea of aiding the established Filipino iron-smelting industry and of determining the possibilities of commercial exploitation on a larger scale. The plan included (1) a study of the geology of the ore deposits in its bearing upon a determination of the quantity and quality of the ore available; (2) a study of the factors which would affect the mining and smelting of the ore, such as transporta- tion, fuels, fluxes, power, market, etc.; and (3) a study of the native smelting process with a view to its possible improvement and expansion. The smelting process, however, was found to afford so large a field for investigation that it will be taken up in a separate paper to be published later. The detailed work involved was rendered very difficult by reason of the situation of the ore deposits in a heavily wooded, mountainous, and almost impassable region, together with the lack of an accurate map and the entire absence of subsurface mining operations. The funds available did not permit the making of a complete accurate map of the district, and it was therefore necessary to rely upon the existing maps supplemented by compass traverses.’ In the absence of underground development the estimates of the tonnage in the ore reserves are of necessity based upon the observed areas of the outcrops and geologic nature of the deposits. A magnetic survey was attempted in the vicinity of * The map accompanying this report was compiled from original compass surveys made in connection with this study, surveys by the Spanish Inspec- cion de Minas, by the Engineer Corps of the United States Army, and by McCaskey. McCaskey’s map is very good over parts of the area, but a glaring defect is the inexplicable distortion by which the Camaching District is located north of the town of Sibul; its true position is far to the south of this town. 204. The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 each outcrop, but these surveys yielded no data which could be used in quantitative determinations. McCaskey’s work, already referred to, is the most important publication on the Bulacan iron ores and iron mining. McCaskey mapped the region and described in detail the smelting process, but was unable to devote much time to the geology of the ore deposits. A report by Maurice Goodman * contains accurate cost and production data for the mining industry, together with a design for an improved blast furnace. Warren D. Smith‘ has published brief notes on the geology of the region, and has ventured an opinion on the genesis of the ore. The other published references are brief general descriptions, the value of which is principally historical, or reports of the former annual mine inspections of the Spanish Government. SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL RESULTS OBTAINED The iron ores of Bulacan are situated in the edge of the Eastern Cordillera of Luzon in an inaccessible and undeveloped region; the ore bodies are not continuous, but are found at intervals over a distance of about 15 kilometers. They occur at the base of the Miocene sedimentary rocks in the overlap of these beds on the older complex of deep-seated and effusive igneous rocks of the cordillera. Intrusive rocks in the form of dikes are found in proximity to the ore deposits, and are probably genetically related to the ores. The largest ore body is at Camaching in the northern part of the region, but other deposits which may be of commercial importance are situated at Hizon, Santol, and Montamorong. The ores consist of magnetite and hematite in intimate mixture; quartz is the most abundant gangue mineral, but pyrite is also common. Magnetite, hematite, and pyrite occur as primary minerals in quartz; quartz and pyrite also occur as secondary minerals. The ore occurs in veins and as replace- ments, the latter class of ores being more important. The largest deposit is in sedimentary rocks with which it conforms in strike and dip; it replaces limestone and clastic sediments. Some of the ore bodies are probably in igneous rocks. The walls of the ore bodies are uniformly composed of a soft dark green rock made up of complex silicate minerals which is comparable with the “‘skarn” characteristic of some of the Scandinavian iron-ore deposits. ° 6th Annual Rep. P. I. Min. Bur. (1905), 48-56. * Min. Resources P. I. for 1909 (1910), 32; zbed. for 1910 (1911), 57. PavAs Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 205 The ores which are mined at present average more than 60 per cent of metallic iron, but the bulk of the ore reserves is probably somewhat lower in iron. Phosphorus is below the Bessemer limit in most of the ores. Sulphur is not generally present in prohibitive amount. Siliceous ores, which are not utilized at present, occur in considerable proportion. The origin of the ores is ascribed to contact phenomena at- tendant upon the intrusion of the dike rocks, although the re- placement ores are not confined to immediate contacts and there is little evidence of extreme high-temperature mineralization. The findings do not support the theory which had been suggested previously that the ores are surficial deposits resulting from the alteration of pyrite and other iron-bearing minerals and the concentration of the resulting iron by surface waters; conse- quently, the economically important conclusions based on this theory that the ore will become more pyritiferous with depth and will fail entirely within a short distance from the surface do not apply. On the other hand, it is reasonable to assume that the ore will persist unchanged to a depth commensurate with the other dimensions of the outcrops. Although an unqualified statement of tonnage cannot be made with development at its present stage, it is reasonably certain that more than one million tons of ore are available. The correctness of this estimate could be ascertained by simple ex- ploration work at no great cost. It is probable that several times this quantity of ore is available. The ores are at present exploited in a small way by Filipinos who produce cast-iron implements, such as plowshares and plow- points, directly from the ore by a primitive smelting process. The beginnings of the smelting industry date back as far as 1664, and although the process has borrowed methods from both the Spanish and the Chinese it is unique in many respects. Like most primitive smelting operations, the process is not efficient although it is profitable under existing conditions. The ores are not self fluxing as has been stated, but as the process is con- ducted a suitable slag is automatically formed from parts of the furnace walls. Quartzose ores which are at present discarded ought to be utilized, and a plan by which they could be utilized is suggested. The Bulacan ores might be exploited on a larger scale by the electric smelting of iron and steel. The fundamental require- ments, such as suitable ore, water for hydroelectric power, char- coal, and fluxes for reduction, etc., are met in the conditions 206 The Philippine Journal of Science a which obtain. The situation of the ores in a difficultly accessible region makes them less readily available than other known ores in the Philippines. GEOLOGY SITUATION OF THE ORE DEPOSITS The Bulacan iron ores occur along a north-south line which lies near the western border of the Eastern Cordillera of Luzon (fig. 1). Discontinuous exposures are found over a total length 121°00 OUTLINE MAP TARLAC... \ i CENTRAL LUZON Iba x E VA EClJU i SHOWING Capasso _\ ‘i j SITUATION OF ua wen ea BULACAN IRON ORE REGION SCALE 1:1500000 DDibcinste Mop “\LAGUNA_Y \ a fF Fic. 1. Outline map of central Luzon, showing situation of Bulacan iron-ore mining region with respect to Manila. of 15 kilometers, the southernmost exposure being about 8 kilo- meters northeast of the town of Angat, Bulacan. Further east, near the axis of the cordillera, are several minor deposits, and at Santa Inez and Bosoboso in Rizal Province, some 45 kilo- meters to the south-southeast, are other iron ore deposits similar in general character to those near Angat.® Only the Bulacan ores are to be discussed in this paper. The town of Angat is almost due north of Manila, and is distant some 60 kilometers by the main routes of travel. It is situated * Adams, G. I., This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 106. IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 207 on Angat River about 17 kilometers upstream from Baliuag where the Manila-Cabanatuan branch line of the Manila Railroad crosses the river. There is a fair road between Angat and Ba- liuag and a first-class road from Baliuag to Manila. From Angat it is possible to reach Manila more directly by going to Bocaue over a very poor road and thence to Manila by train. It is likewise possible to ship freight from Manila to the vicinity of Baliuag by shallow-water transportation across Manila Bay and up Angat River. From Angat to the ore deposits transportation is difficult. Only foot trails are in use at present, and on account of the rugged topography the construction of better roads would be expensive. It is more feasible to approach the northernmost ore deposit, Camaching, by going north to Sibul and then coming | back southeast up to the valley of Balaong River to the ore deposit. By this route Camaching is 147 kilometers from Manila, while a direct route via Angat is only 80 kilometers in length. PHYSIOGRAPHY The area shown on the general geologic map includes a part of the low-lying, flat Central Plain of Luzon and the foothills of the Eastern Cordillera up to the crest of the first or westernmost range. Although the highest elevations are only about 1,000 meters, the drainage is deeply incised between sharp ridges and peaks with precipitous slopes. The greater part of the moun- tainous area including the vicinity of the ore deposits lies at elevations between 200 and 500 meters. At this latitude (about 15° N.), the Eastern Cordillera is made up of three parallel ranges trending in a general north-south direction. Angat River flowing southward in its upper portion separates the western and central ranges to a point south of the ore deposits where it breaks through the western range and flows westward across the Central Plain. The upper part of Angat River receives very little water from eastward-flowing tribu- taries, and does not control the water courses in the vicinity of the ore deposits. Instead, drainage from territory immediately adjacent to it on the west, including the region of the southern ore deposits, escapes to the west through Bayabas River, a sub- sidiary and roughly parallel stream, which reaches the edge of the Central Plain before it finally joins the larger stream. Ba- laong River, rising in the vicinity of Camaching very close to the upper Angat farther north, flows northwest out of the area, while between Balaong and Bayabas Rivers several streams flow westward from the iron-ore region to the Central Plain. 208 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 The influence of the structure upon the development of the topography may be detected in the general north-south alignment of ridges and water courses parallel to the axes of intrusions and folds in the cordillera and to the general strike of the sedimentary strata. The western dip of the beds in much of the area of stratified rocks is reflected in long gentle slopes on the western sides of ridges and steeper eastern slopes. A belt of limestone running across the region in a north-south direction forms a conspicuous ridge or line of hills through which the drainage passes either in deep gorges or in underground courses (caves). The Central Plain supports a large population, and is given over largely to rice cultivation. The foothill country is partly under cultivation, but the larger part of it is covered with scrub timber. The cordillera is practically uninhabited, and is heavily forested. Near the smelting centers which are located at the ore deposits, the forest has been cut away for charcoal, and the cut-over areas have become an almost impassable jungle of second-growth timber, bamboo, and rattan. GENERAL GEOLOGIC RELATIONS The Eastern Cordillera as a whole is a complex of Pre-Miocene, igneous rocks, folded sedimentary rocks, most of which are of Miocene age, and extrusive rocks of varying age. The Central Plain is made up of younger flat-lying sedimentary rocks. In that part of the western range of the cordillera shown on the geologic map the sedimentaries lie upon the western flank, deep- seated igneous rocks occupy a central position, and effusives and intrusives in a general way make up the eastern slope. The most conspicuous holocrystalline rock is a granite which is exposed in an elongated area with its longer axis extending in a north-south direction. The strata in the sedimentary for- mations strike parallel to this line, and dip generally to the west. They overlap directly upon both the granite and upon older effusives. Fringing the granite are numerous small areas of intrusive rocks from which dikes extend into the granite, the sedimentaries, and the older effusives; these intrusives are usually of porphyritic or of fine-grained holocrystalline tex- tures. East of the granite, the rocks at the surface are usually altered effusives, in part fragmental. In some of the deeper canons holocrystalline rocks of related’ types are exposed. The stratigraphic sequence is indicated in fig. 2, and the gen- eral structure is shown in the generalized east-west cross sections through the region (fig. 3). Overlapping upon a base- IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 209 ment of older igneous, including both surface and deep-seated types of undetermined age, Miocene sediments were laid down. The base of this series and the rocks upon which it lies are cut by dikes or small intrusions. In the upper part of the series andesites are found which, although fragmental, appear likewise Oder gravels. V Recent reed Alu wiuim and gravéls:0-300m. Pleistocene -Shale and sandstone 0m, Limestone; 1§-100m. Shale: 100m. Andesite; 11a5s/VE ; jand agglomeratic. Flrocene(?) Fhacerne () d | Shales, sandstone faults avd clash racks; allernaring 07:5: 600 -2000 mm. Miocene he Limestone: 10-50 m. Miocene or | Ohgocene (7) | Wnt iy |) Bairerentialed SA eR effusive ard intrusive. 7 ! Tre-Miocele yN Grontte. Fic. 2. Stratigraphic column for the Bulacan iron-ore region. to be intrusive, but are probably later than the intrusions in the basal beds. Overlying the Miocene beds unconformably are bedded tuffs, clays, sands, and gravels which are believed to belong to the Pleistocene, and upon these in turn are recent deposits including older gravels and modern alluvium. 210 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 East-west section through Camaching East-west section through Hison Sampsloc ,c East-west section through Santol East-weat section through N orzagaray Scales approximately. |: 100000 Fic. 3. Geologie sections through the iron-ore region, diagrammatic in part: (a) Post- Miocene sedimentaries; (b) Miocene sedimentaries; (c) granite; (d) effusives with intrusives; (e) intrusives with effusives. 1X, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 211 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Post-Miocene formations.—Alluvium is developed along Angat River in the vicinity of Norzagaray and Angat, between which towns the river shifts across a wide valley floor. The town of Matictic above Norzagaray occupies an alluvial flood plain. The alluvium in this vicinity, owing to its position just at the point where the swift mountain stream debouches upon the plain and in consequence loses much of its transporting capacity, is made up largely of coarse gravel with subordinate proportions of sand and clay. The erosion of a comparatively large area of complex geologic formation in the cordillera has resulted in a wide diversity of rock types in the gravel. The older gravels indicated in fig. 2 occur at an elevation from 25 to 35 meters above the present level of Angat River, and attain a maximum thickness of about 10 meters. They are not confined in their distribution to a former valley of this stream, but are found uniformly north and south of Angat along the eastern edge of the Central Plain. In Nueva Ecija Province to the north, these gravels have been exploited in a small way as placer-gold deposits, and in the vicinity of Angat itself fine gold can be obtained from them by washing. In contrast with their extended occurrence to north and south, the gravels do not persist over more than a few kilometers laterally. Their western boundary coincides roughly with that of the area mapped, while to the east they do not continue beyond the barrio of Sampaloc. The gravels are probably to be looked upon as overlapping alluvial fans formed at the margin of the cordillera during earlier stages of erosion. The individual fans have been more or less commingled and spread out, probably through the lateral shifting of the streams flowing across them. There is a notably larger proportion of light-colored siliceous rocks in the older gravels than in the modern alluvium, and it may be assumed from this that at the time of their deposition erosion in the mountains was confined in its action to a horizon represented by the present ridges of altered and silicified effusives. No attempt has been made to differentiate the relatively small areas of alluvium and of older gravels from the underlying Pleistocene formation on the geologic map. The Central Plain is built up of a series of tuffs, clays, sands, and gravels, which attains a general thickness of at least 300 meters. This series of rocks occupies the western portion of the area shown on the map, and overlaps on the Miocene beds 212 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 along the eastern edge of the Central Plain. Artesian wells in the vicinity of Angat near the edge of the plain have gone down to a depth of 150 meters without passing through these beds. At Moronco, west of Angat, the uppermost member is coarsely fragmental tuff, but at Angat the fragmental tuff has been removed and beds of fine tuff and clays are exposed at the top of the series. The artesian well records show thick beds of coarse gravel in clay, together with fine tuffs, clays, and sub- ordinate fine clean gravel. The fine tuff and clay exposed by Angat River carry numerous pieces of carbonized wood and also numerous calcareous concretions. The strata lie nearly hor- izontal, but minor displacements through faulting are to be observed. Fossil leaves of species closely related to those at present living are found in the clays, and the formation is believed to be not older than Pleistocene. Miocene formations.—The greater part of the area mapped is occupied by sedimentary rocks of late Miocene age. This formation extends across the area from north to south in a belt of varying width. The thickness in the exposed sections also appears to vary, aS may be seen from an inspection of the graphic sections (fig. 3). It has not been possible to make close measurements of the thickness of the series because of the absence of continuous exposures, but it is believed that the maximum thickness is close to 2,000 meters. The beds are inclined at many places steeply toward the west, the strike varying from north 30° west south of the ore deposits to north 30° east in the northern part of the area. There are numerous local overturns or folds, but the formation as a whole is tilted away from the cordillera. There appears to have been dis- placement at a number of places along faults about parallel with the strike, but the study has not been sufficiently detailed to supply definite information with regard to faulting. A thin discontinuous limestone made up of well-preserved co- rals marks the top of the series, and immediately below it is a sandy, brownish yellow shale. It seems probable from the results of studies of similar formations elsewhere in the Philip- pines that these two members are as young as the Pliocene. Underlying the shale is a much more prominent limestone which can be traced south in almost continuous exposures to the Binan- gonan limestone in Rizal Province. The age of the Binangonan limestone has been definitely fixed by Smith * as Miocene, to which *This Journal, Sec. A. (1913), 8, 242. IX, A,3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 913 therefore the limestone in question can be assigned. Corrobora- tory evidence as to the age of this limestone was obtained by study of a sample take from Bagum Barrio on Bayabas River, in which fragments of Lepidocyclina were found and identified by Smith as a Miocene species. The Binangonan limestone is conspicuous along the margin of the Central Plain in this region. It is yellow to white in color, crystalline in texture, and massively bedded in structure with numerous vertical joints which give weathered exposures a columnar appearance. An unusually fine-grained, bedded ex- posure near Bagum Barrio has been exploited to some extent as lithographic stone. The maximum observed thickness, about 100 meters, is exhibited in the precipitous upper slopes of the hills southeast of Sibul. Beneath this limestone is the principal member of the Miocene series, a succession of shales, tuff, and sandstone, which is ex- posed in greater thickness at Camaching than in the southern part of the field. Together with one or both of the limestones between which it occurs, this member reappears in irregular exposures to the east of the granite exposure. The strata in the upper part overlying the volcanic agglomerate are indurated and nonuniform in bedding, with small rounded pieces or tongues of andesite along the bedding planes. Fragments of chalcedony and silicified wood are common in this. portion of the formation, and warm mineralized springs issue from this horizon at several places within the area mapped. These upper shales are encountered uniformly throughout the area, but the beds below them present considerable variation. In the northern part of the region the upper shales overlie bedded andesite tuffs, flows, and clastic rocks with an aggregate thickness from 1,500 to 2,000 meters. Along Bayabas River farther south the beds next below the upper shales consist of an upper zone of fine-grained, regularly bedded, calcareous shale which is gray, brown, or red in color and a lower zone of tuff- sandstone, fine-grained clastic rocks, quartz-sandstone, and conglomerate. The whole Miocene series in the Bayabas River section is less than 1,000 meters thick. The conglomerate is at the base of the series, and is found at places immediately over- lying the igneous basement of granite and older effusives. An exposure on Santol Creek reveals such a relation, and in the conglomerate are angular pieces of both the granite and the older effusives. Undoubtedly the quartz in the quartz-sandstone and conglomerate was also derived through erosion from decom- 214 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 posed exposures of the granite. The varying thickness of the column of sedimentary rocks, as exposed by erosion at different places, is due apparently to the increasingly greater overlap of the successive beds upon the older basement. Very close to the base of the series, which from the presence of the Binangonan limestone in its upper portion has been designated as Miocene, is a subordinate thickness of white crys- talline limestone or marble. This limestone was not identified in all parts of the area, and is not differentiated on the geologic map from the shale-tuff-sandstone member in the base of which it occurs. Its stratigraphic relations are most clearly developed near Camaching, where it is thoroughly metamorphosed and is interbedded with tuffs and clastic rocks near the base of the series. The Binangonan limestone, with the underlying shales, tuffs, sandstones, and clastic rocks and the lower limestone, can be correlated stratigraphically with the coal-bearing Miocene in other parts of the Philippines, notably in Cebu. In the Cebu sedimentary column the lower limestone, which is immediately above the basal conglomerate, is rich in fossils, and in a sample collected by one of us, Smith has identified tentatively Heteros- tegina margaritata Schlumberger, which according to L. Schlum- berger? was found by Martin in the Oligocene near Dax (France ?). It is probable, therefore, that the limestone at Camaching is Oligocene in age, although at this place it either is not fossiliferous or the fossil outlines have been lost in the crystallinity resultant upon metamorphism. To the east of the iron-ore deposits and outside the region shown upon the geologic map are a number of small detached areas of sedimentaries, in some of which reddish slates were found apparently underlying the rocks just described. From the presence of annular tests suggestive of radiolaria in samples of these slates, Smith is inclined to correlate them with the Baruyen chert of Ilocos Norte and the Ulion slates of Panay which he considers to be probably Jurassic. The sedimentary rocks are related to the iron ores through the occurrence of the latter, together with intrusive dikes, at the base of the Miocene series and the association of the Cama- ching ores with the lower limestone. * Note sur un Lepidocyclina nouveau de Borneo in Samm. d. geol. Reichs- mus., Leiden (1902), 1, 6. 1X, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 215 IGNEOUS ROCKS Effusive rocks.—The effusive rocks can be divided at once into an older and a younger series, the one antedating the sedimen- taries and the other being probably contemporaneous with the later stages of sedimentation. The later effusives are represented by the agglomerates and massive andesites (flows ?) in the upper part of the Miocene beds. The best exposure is found south of Sampaloc and Bagum Barrio on Bayabas River, where a small lens-shaped area is en- countered, the major axis of which trends north and south. Whether the effusives at this point were spread out contem- poraneously with the beds in which they occur or were forced into these beds at a later date is uncertain. The agglomerate structure, tuffaceous matrix, and other characteristics suggest purely surface rocks, but a slight metamorphism and irregular- ity of the overlying beds are evidences of a disturbing factor, intrusionlike in its effect, which was active subsequent to their deposition. There is no indication that the period of vuleanism marks a break in the sedimentary processes, and it is clear that the volcanic rocks came from an adjacent center of extrusion. Under such conditions confused relations would be a natural result. The agglomerate is composed of irregular fragments of por- phyritic andesite, usually less than 20 centimeters in diameter, embedded in a soft, decomposed, light-colored matrix. The formation presents no appearance of bedding, but is closely jointed. No petrographic determinations were made, but the rock is classed as an andesite from megascopic examination. The porphyritic fragments consist of small phenocrysts of plagioclase feldspar in a preponderant dark-colored groundmass which is almost glassy in many specimens. The exposures of massive-appearing rock are more like the matrix than the frag- ments in character. Probably some of the rocks in the area of effusives and in- trusives which lies to the east of the ore deposits are to be cor- related with the later agglomerates, but such occurrences cannot be delimited without more complete data. The older effusives are typically much altered and thoroughly impregnated with silica. The hills and ridges to the east of the ore deposits are composed very largely of rocks of this class. They are light colored, felsitic, and are usually fractured or brecciated, the cracks being stained with iron oxide. A rep- resentative older effusive from Mount Maypapa which lies just 216 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 outside the eastern edge of the central part of the area shown on the map is described by Rowley ® as follows: The specimen is an aphanitic rock, variously tinted gray, pink, yellow, and brown, with areas, sometimes roughly banded, which resemble feldspar crystals, but have a cherty appearance. In thin section the rock is seen to be an altered porphyry, stained with iron oxide and composed almost wholly of cryptocrystalline quartz. The outlines of the phenocrysts in- dicate that they were originally feldspar, which has been completely replaced by silica, cryptocrystalline to crystalline in character. The ground- mass is likewise cryptocrystalline quartz. Anhedrons of magnetite in various stages of decomposition are scattered throughout the rock. Iron oxide is so abundant as to make the rock opaque in part. A sample taken from the upper slopes of Mount Camanglao, just east of the Hison ore deposit, is classified by Rowley as a rhyolitic type composed largely of quartz and feldspar anhedrons of microcrystalline to microgranular size. Silica has replaced much of the original rock material. Green altered felsites in the vicinity of the Hison and Constancia deposits were classed by Smith as fragmentals, probably tuffs, and Eddingfield found similar rocks from Santol to be silicified tuff. The conspicuous feature of the older effusives is their alteration and replacement by silica. In their present condition they are essentially iron-stained quartz. Intrusive rocks.—The numerous small exposures of fresh- appearing rocks which are encountered along the perimeter of the granite and in the base of the sedimentaries have been spoken of as dikes, and it is believed that these rocks occur chiefly as dikes, but the obscurity of geologic relations, due to the lack of clear exposures, the extensive mantle of saprolite, and the prevalence of impassable undergrowth renders it impossible to trace their contacts accurately. There are several varieties of rocks which are classed as intrusives because of their occurrence in fresh unaltered condition in the decomposed granite and older effusives and in the sedi- mentaries. The most clearly dikelike exposure is encountered on Maarat Creek (a small eastward-flowing affluent of Maon Creek) just below the Santa Lutgarda ore deposits. This dike ® Petrographic studies of rocks collected by us were made by the men who at various times have performed the petrographic work required by the Bureau of Science. Warren D. Smith and Frank T. Eddingfield, of this Bureau, and Randall A. Rowley, of the University of the Philippines, have all contributed in this way to the present paper. In each petrographic description the name of the petrographer is mentioned. EXGVA, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan Dalla is composed of a dense aphanitic grayish white rock, thin sections of which were examined by Rowley. He classifies the rock as an acid intrusive, a quartz porphyry with phenocrysts of quartz and less abundant feldspar. The quartz is much cracked and corroded; the feldspars are altered and clouded, and are also cracked and ragged in outline; both orthoclase and plagio- clase were identified, but the orthoclase variety is predominant. The groundmass is microcrystalline, and is composed of consertal anhedrons of quartz and feldspar with traces of chlorite. While this most clearly defined dike consists of a quartz- bearing acid rock, it is believed that the majority of the dike rocks are basic in character. They are dark in color, and are felsitic, finely porphyritic, or holocrystalline in texture. A. sample of a dike of black felsite within the granite near Banco west of the Hison iron-ore deposit was examined by Smith; it was found to have an ophitic texture and to consist principally of plagioclase feldspar and hornblende with secondary epidote. Another rock occurring as a dike at the edge of the granite near the Montamorong iron-ore deposit he found to be quite similar in texture and composition. A second dike-rock from Montamorong he classified as a diabase—a holocrystalline rock whose texture is ophitic and whose essential minerals are plagio- clase feldspar and pyroxene. An apparently intrusive rock at Santol was likewise identified as an ophitic diabase containing feldspar, green hornblende, and considerable magnetite. An intrusion in the base of the sedimentaries at the Tumotulo iron- ore deposit he classed as porphyritic andesite, with plagioclase feldspar, hypersthene, augite, and magnetite, while a sample taken from a small intrusive area at the western margin of the granite near Maasim River he determined as diorite—holo- crystalline with plagioclase feldspar, amphibole, minor quartz, and magnetite. Deep-seated rocks.—The only rock which is clearly of the deep-seated type in this area is the granite which occurs in the one rather extended exposure near the eastern edge of the cordillera. An area of quartz-diorite, which may be either intrusive or deep seated, occupies the upper valley of Bayabas River to the east of the area included on the map, and still farther east at the headwaters of Angat River very coarsely crystalline diorite was observed which is probably of deep-seated origin. The granite is a somewhat decomposed, holocrystalline rock made up very largely of quartz and feldspar. It yields a quartz sand upon decomposition, and level exposures are invariably 1279442 218 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 covered with a deep mantle of coarse, sharp quartz. Bowlders and stream-floor exposures of the granite exhibit pitted surfaces, caused by the unequal resistance of the constituent minerals to weathering processes. Rowley examined petrographic sec- tions of a sample from Calingnag Creek west of the Hison iron-ore deposit, and submitted the following notes: The specimen is a light-colored, medium to coarse-grained holocrystalline rock which would be classed megascopically as a granite. In thin section it is seen to be composed principally of quartz and feldspar with subordinate epidote, green hornblende, titanite, and iron oxide. The fabric is consertal, unequigranular. The feldspars predominate slightly in abundance over the quartz which, although it exhibits some true crystal faces, occurs usually in irregular, apparently rounded anhedrons, or is graphically intergrown with the feldspar. The quartz contains many fluid inclusions as well as gas bubbles and dust particles. The feldspar is subhedral to anhedral, prismoid to equant; zonal structure is common, and Carlsbad and albite twinnings are to be observed. In places combinations of albite and peri- cline twinning produce the “grating”? appearance characteristic of micro- cline. Some of the feldspars are considerably clouded, some show twin lamellations due to strain, and some exhibit a striated appearance sug- gesting crytoperthite. The cloudy feldspar with or without Carlsbad twin- ning appears to be orthoclase. The zonally developed feldspars and those exhibiting albite twinning are proved by their optical properties to be alkalic plagioclase; in quantity these two classes of feldspar are about equal. Titanite occurs usually as small anhedrons, but also in the well- known wedge-shaped form, and anhedral amphibole with a tendency to fibrous structure is present. The epidote also appears to be secondary, and together with the amphibole probably resulted through the decompo- sition of primary minerals, possibly biotite or pyroxene. The titanite, epidote, and amphibole are usually closely associated, and with them are small flakes of magnetite and hematite. The rounded appearance of the quartz noted in the petro- graphic sections is much more pronounced close to the margins of the granite exposure, and is evident in hand specimens. Thin sections of the marginal rock from just below the Constancia ore body on Maon Creek, examined by Smith, showed corroded and rounded quartz phenocrysts in a fine groundmass which appeared to be fragmental or possibly effusive in character. Another sample from the north end of the granite area near Calumpang Smith found to consist principally of fragments of quartz and feldspar. It appears that the granite has been subjected to some process by which a brecciated or disintegrated border zone has been recemented to form a rock much like the original granite in appearance, but with a clearly fragmental texture and a marked predominance of quartz over feldspar in abundance and in grain size. DXAA, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 219 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE ORES The iron ores consist of magnetite and hematite in intimate mixture but in varying proportions. Both minerals are usually massive, although specularite is not uncommon. The surface bowlders appear to be principally hematite, but beneath the surface even in the shallow pits that have been opened magnetite is encountered. Thus the ores from Hison and Montomorong where pits are worked are practically pure magnetite as shown by chemical analysis, while the Santol ore and other ores which are obtained by breaking up bowlders contain very little mag- netite. At Camaching, however, an ore high in magnetite is taken from the surface. The predominant gangue mineral is quartz, although the ore used for smelting, which is selected so as to eliminate gangue as much as possible, contains an unusually small proportion of silica. The slightly leaner ore which constitutes the bulk of the ore reserve is typically quartzose, the quartz filling interstices in the iron minerals and cutting the ore in small secondary veins. Eddingfield, in a microscopic study of the Bulacan iron ores,® found quartz to be even more abundant than appears on megascopic examination. According to his results, some of the quartz crystallized simultaneously with the iron oxides, but the deposition of quartz was also renewed subsequently as is evident from the presence of the later veinlets through the ore. Edding- field and Rowley agree that both magnetite and hematite occur as primary minerals in quartz. Next to quartz, complex silicates are most prominent gangue minerals. They occur most abundantly in and near the walls of the deposits. These minerals appear to be alteration prod- ucts of wall rocks caused by the action of the mineralizing solu- tions and, according to the determinations of Eddingfield, include fibrous amphibole (tremolite), pyroxene, chlorite, epidote, etc. ' Pyrite occurs in the ore in varying proportions, but is usually conspicuous in or near the walls. Eddingfield and Rowley both found primary pyrite with the iron oxides in the ore, but pyrite, like the quartz, also occurs secondary along cracks in the ore. Chalcopyrite is found sparingly with the pyrite at several places. The average specific gravity of the ores is 4.7; a metric ton of ore, therefore, occupies 0.21 cubic meter or 7.4 cubic feet. In the present practice all the ore is broken to nut size in mining. If it were desired, the hematite could be mined so as to produce *This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 263. 220 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 practically no fines. The magnetites are so soft that a consider- able proportion, perhaps 20 per cent of the ore mined, would be objectionably fine. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE ORE DEPOSITS The ore deposits are revealed by the presence of bowlders of iron ore which are found most frequently in streams and on the hillsides adjacent to streams. Such masses weighing from 50 to 100 tons are common in the vicinity of the principal deposits, Hison and Camaching. Bowlders and large blocks of iron- stained quartz are also found in profusion near the ore bodies, and, as has been noted, the adjacent effusive rocks are highly silicified. In a general way, the deposits are arranged along a line which marks the base of the sedimentary series and the strike of the ore bodies at Camaching and Hison is parallel to that of adjacent sedimentary beds. The form of the deposits cannot be accurately determined because of the obscure geologic relations and the absence of development; but, as is brought out in the subsequent descriptions of individual ore deposits, the ore appears to occur both as a filling in cavities or veins and as an extensive replacement of the adjacent rocks. The inevit- able alteration of the walls renders it impossible to define their original character, but here again in a general way it may be said that the ores occur in proximity to intrusive dikes and sills and are located in sedimentaries or in granite or other igneous rocks near their contact with the sedimentaries. Ed- dingfield concluded from a microscopic study of the ores and wall rocks that much of the altered wall rock was originally a diorite. Hematite was observed replacing limestones, coarsely fragmental rocks, and volcanic breccias; likewise small veins of magnetite in limestone (Plate III) and blocks of limestone inclosed in bodies of magnetite-hematite ore were noted. At no place were veins or lodes with sharply defined walls of fresh rock noted. Invariably the walls are a soft, dark green rock composed of basic silicates, commonly fibrous, and carrying varying proportions of magnetite and hematite. The associa- tion of this greenish, altered wall rock with the iron ore is a matter of general observation with the Filipino miners, and is so nearly universal that they have learned to know it as camisa de bacal (the shirt or cloak of the iron ore). The suggestion at once arises that this rock with which the iron ore occurs may be analogous to the skarn of the Scandinavian iron-ore deposits. Skarn is defined ?° as a rock of varying composition, consisting * Sjogren, Hjalmar, Trans. Am. Inst. Eng. (1907), 38, 766. IX, A,3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 221 mostly of lime, magnesia,*iron, and alumina silicates of the pyroxene, amphibole, and garnet groups, formed through an exchange between the silica of the quartz-feldspar rocks and the basic constituents of the ore formation. The wall rock in Bulacan consists principally of complex silicates of the amphi- bole, pyroxene, and chlorite groups. Those ore bodies which are not adjacent to the granite in Bulacan appear to have lacked the quarz-feldspar rocks which are involved in the origin as- cribed to skarn, but if it be conceivable that the sources of the interchanging constituents may be reversed—that is, the silica be derived from the ore formation and the bases from the inclosing rocks—then the analogy of the Bulacan “greenstone” to skarn can be conceded. C. M. Weld," in a description of Fic. 4. Geologie section through ore body at Camaching, along an east-west line; diagram- matic in part: (a) Miocene shales, tuffs, and clastics; (b) altered wall rock; (c) iron ore; (d) intrusives; (e) blocks of limestone in ore; (f) limestone and clastics; (h) effusives; length of section, about 200 meters. an iron-ore deposit near Hongkong, strikingly similar in some respects to the Bulacan ore deposits, noted the occurrence of an enveloping greenstone which he relates to skarn. The following descriptions of the individual ore bodies will make clearer the general character of the deposits. THE CAMACHING ORE DEPOSIT The largest outcrop of iron ore in Bulacan Province is at Camaching near the head of Balaong River in the northern part of the district. The somewhat diagrammatic cross section in fig. 4 shows the general structure and geologic relations of the deposit. The iron ore is encountered between the usual walls of greenstone or skarn in steeply tilted beds of tuffs and fragmental rocks with a limited thickness of crystalline lime- stone. The altered rock in the hanging wall grades into a clastic or fragmental rock which contains a large proportion of volcanic * Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. (1914), 86, 177. 999 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 material. The limestone which occurs just below the ore and accompanying skarn lies upon a complex of effusive and intrusive rocks. Dikes and flows are found in the bedded rocks. The out- crop is exposed in the northwestern slope of a spur of Mount Silao, and can be traced over a length of 600 meters and a width of from 20 to 70 meters. It strikes north 20° east, and dips about 45° west-northwest, in strict conformity with the bedded rocks. The ore is principally magnetite carrying quartz and pyrite which appear in each case to be present both as primary and secondary minerals. Eddingfield studied microscopic slides of the Camaching ore in which quartz and pyrite were apparently original constituents with magnetite, while the occurrence of small veins of secondary quartz and pyrite in the ore was com- monly observed in the field. The ore grades into wall rocks, and the gradation stage consists of an increasingly leaner ore of magnetite with altered pyroxenes or amphiboles, pyrite, and quartz; fibrous aggregates in the green wall rock were identified as probably enstatite by Smith. Samples of the limestone re- placed by red hematite were obtained; likewise veinlets of mag- netite up to 15 centimeters in width cut the limestone, and “horses” or rounded blocks of limestone are found inclosed in the main body of magnetite (Plate III). The precise relation of the intrusive rocks to the ore at Cama- ching was not determined. Many of the indurated fine-grained fragmental rocks are quite similar to the igneous rocks mega- scopically, and the two types could not be distinguished satis- factorily. A rock which is exposed with ore on both sides of it by one of the small creeks flowing across the outcrop and which exhibits the appearance of a dike was examined in thin section by Smith and classed as porphyritic andesite with phenocrysts of green hornblende and decomposed plagioclase feldspars. Another igneous rock from near the ore deposit Smith found to be holocrystalline and to contain principally pyroxene and plag- ioclase feldspar with some quartz. This rock might be classed as a diorite. THE MONTAMORONG ORE DEPOSIT The Montamorong outcrop is exposed near the eastern margin of the granite area by a small stream which is tributary to Maasim River. It is about 7 kilometers south-southwest of Camaching, and lies a little to the west of a line from Camaching to Hison. A shallow pit a meter or more in each dimension has been sunk in the outcrop. Intrusive rocks, ophitic in texture 1D, A Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 923 and composed of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene or horn- blende, are prominent near the ore deposit but in undetermined relations. The general structure is shown in fig. 5. The ore consists of soft massive magnetite with quartz and pyrite. It grades into the walls which are composed of the usual complex of silicates among which amphibole, pyroxene, epidote, and chlorite were identified by Eddingfield, together with much magnetite, quartz, and pyrite. As revealed in this pit, the ore appears to form a vein 1 to 2 meters in thickness. The outcrop can be traced over a length of 50 meters. The strike appears to be northwest and the pitch northeast at an angle of about 45°, but the presence of two strike faults with evident displacement makes the true attitude of the ore body a matter of doubt. In the hanging wall is a small parallel quartz vein carrying magnetite and pyrite. Eddingfield found by the Fig. 5. Geologie section through ore body at Montamorong, along a northeast-southwest line; diagrammatic in part: (a) Granite; (b) intrusives; (c) altered wall rock; (d) iron ore; (e) effusives ; length of section, about 100 meters. study of thin sections that the original quartz in this vein had been shattered and recemented by quartz and magnetite. THE BISON-SANTA LUTGARDA-CONSTANCIA ORE DEPOSIT About 9 kilometers south-southwest of Camaching and on the line of the strike of that ore body are three adjacent outcrops of iron ore. The central and largest of these outcrops is known as Hison. About 300 meters south-southwest of Hison is the Maa- rat or Santa Lutgarda outcrop, and 500 meters north-northeast of Hison is a smaller outcrop called Constancia. Each outcrop is revealed by a small eastward-flowing tributary of Maon Creek. Although the ore cannot be traced in continuity from one out- crop to another, yet the exposures appear to be closely related and are probably situated on the same structural line if not actually continuous. These outcrops lie just outside the eastern limit of the granite 224 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 area, and within a few meters farther east sedimentary rocks are found. The general relations for the Hison outcrop are shown in fig. 6. The granite in the immediate vicinity of the ore bodies exhibits the recemented border zone noted in the description of the granite, and is cut by dikes of both acidic and basic character. Some of these dikes strike parallel to the trend of the ore, that is, north 15° east, but dikes striking in various directions were noted. A green felsite which has the appearance of a fine-grained, altered tuff occurs with the sedimentary rocks east of the out- crop. Smith examined several thin sections of this rock, and concluded that it was fragmental in character, altered, and somewhat schistose; the sections contained fragments of quartz and feldspar in a mat of minerals of the chlorite group, together with considerable magnetite. This rock grades into the usual Fic. 6. Geologie section through ore body at Hison, along an east-west line; diagrammatic in part: (a) Granite; (b) intrusives; (c) altered wall rock; (d) iron ore; (e) effusives; (f) limestone, shale, and sandstone; length of section, about 200 meters. type of wall rock at the outcrops proper. The sedimentaries consist of schistose, black, laminated shale; schistose, mottled gray limestone in beds made up of thin lenses; and a clayey sandstone-conglomerate or clastic. The strata:strike north 15° east; the dip is uniformly to the east at a high angle, but the structure is evidently that of a closely folded or flattened syn- cline. The total thickness of the sedimentaries as exposed in Maon Creek is apparently not more than 50 meters. At Hison, ore has been dug out of the bank of a small creek called Sapang Bacal (Iron Creek), until a face several meters in height above the bed of the stream is exposed. A wall trending north 20° east extends along the west side of the ore pit; it consists of the usual green silicate minerals with magnetite, quartz, and pyrite. The floor of the excavation over an area of about 50 square meters and one face, some 5 meters in width, are soft massive magnetite. On the surface above and south of the. ore face are large, hard bowlders of hematite with magnetite. In EXVA, 8 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 995 the stream below the outcrop to the east are numerous very large bowlders of hematite. Across the creek to the north the slope is covered with a talus of disintegrated rock and the ore does not appear. A small vein of quartz and pyrite in the wall rock is exposed a few meters to the east of the ore pit. This vein strikes north 15° east, and pitches 70° to the west. The Santa Lutgarda outcrop is at the head of Maarat Creek. The ore appears in the form of a vein some 4 or 5 meters in width. . The footwall is fairly well defined, striking north 15° east and pitching west 60°. It is an altered green rock with a fragmental appearance, either tuff or clastic. Massive hema- tite, specularite, magnetite, quartz, pyrite, and occasional small patches of kaolin (?) compose the ore. In thin section, Edding- field noted hematite as a primary mineral in quartz. Maarat Creek below the outcrop carries numerous large bowlders of ore. Constancia is a veinlike deposit which is poorly exposed and appears to be of lesser extent than Hison or Santa Lutgarda. Comparatively little float ore is found in the creek which flows across the outcrop. The ore is adjacent to the peripheral zone of fragmental granite, but is inclosed in walls of the usual green silicate minerals. The vein displays a width of a meter or more, and the walls carry much ore. The strike is north 15° east. McCaskey !2 estimated the thickness of the entire iron-bearing bed at Constancia, which was opened by pits at the time of his visit, at about 5 meters. Quartz is not as conspicuous here as elsewhere; pyrite is noticeable, especially in the altered walls. Massive magnetite is the principal vein mineral, and occurs also in the walls as grains in a mixture of finely fibrous, light-colored amphibole which Eddingfield identified as tremolite. THE SANTOL ORE DEPOSIT At Santol about 4 kilometers southwest of Hison, iron ore is again encountered. Numerous large bowlders of hematite are strewn over the lower slope of the steep northern wall of the valley of Santol Creek about 500 meters upstream from Puning Cave. The ore is hard, and carries considerable quartz as a filling between grains of hematite and in veinlets through the ore. The larger part of the hematite is massive, but specularite is also present. Some ore is found on the upper slopes 150 meters above the level of Santol Creek, but most of the bowlders and especially the large bowlders, some of which weigh a number ® Loc. cit., 50. 226 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of tons, lie near the foot of the slope. They are ranged over a distance of about 300 meters along a northeast line, which is continued farther in both directions by bowlders of iron-stained quartz. The ore bowlders lie on the surface embedded in re- sidual clay, and no ore in place is to be seen. The rocks exposed in the stream adjacent to the bowlder ore include small areas of the granite, which is complexly distributed among altered fel- sitic tuffs and flows, and intrusive rocks which penetrate both granite and effusives. Limestone overlying quartz-sandstone and conglomerate is found close by, both to the east and west of the ore, and bowlders of limestone are mingled with the bowlders of ore. No replacement of limestone by iron ore, like that at Camaching, was detected at Santol; in a general way, the lime- stone bowlders occupy a position just above the ore bowlders on the hill slope. It is not apparent whether the limestone east of Santol is the Binangonan limestone with which the limestone to the west of the deposit is correlated or whether it is the lower limestone. The dip of the beds is uniformly to the west in both exposures, and both limestones are much jointed; they are alike indistinctly bedded, yellow to white in color, and in large part crystalline. Faulting along the strike might have displaced the Binangonan limestone in such a manner as to make it appear at apparently different stratigraphic horizons on the two sides of the ore deposit. In the limestone which lies to the east of the ore, a very white crystalline bed was observed, samples of which upon analysis proved to be dolomite. Dolomite is of unusual occurrence in the Philippines, and it seems probable that its occurrence here is the result of the replacement or dolomitization of original limestone, An origin related to that of the ores is suggested by the fact that most of the ores carry an unusually large content of mag- nesium as compared with their calcium content. MINOR ORE DEPOSITS At Tumotulo, 3 kilometers southwest of Santol, an insignificant quantity of ore was observed as small bowlders of hematite which occur together with similar bowlders of porphyritic andesite half way up the eastern wall of the valley of Bayabas River. The hillside on which the bowlders are found consists of shales and sandstone overlain at the top of the hill by the Binangonan limestone. The ore is massive hematite with some magnetite, quartz, and pyrite. Chemical analysis reveals the presence of 9.31 per cent of titanium oxide in this ore, whereas no other 1X, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 297 ore analyzed contained more than a small fraction of 1 per cent of this constituent. Smelting furnaces have been operated at Macatalinga, Mayapo, and at Tagpis 6 to 10 kilometers east of Hison, but very little ore is to be seen at any of these places. The country is made up of effusive rocks much silicified. The ore is hematite, often of the specular variety, with pyrite and quartz. It is found sparingly in small detached pieces on the surface of, or: embedded in, residual clay near the summit of the divide between Bayabas and Angat Rivers. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE IRON ORE The ore used for smelting charges in Bulacan Province usually carries more than 60 per cent of metallic iron, and samples secured by breaking up bowlders usually carry nearly or quite as high a proportion of iron. Smelting charges as employed by the Filipino, however, represent selected ore especially in the elimination of all quartz-bearing material, and it is probable that surface bowlders are also richer in iron than a repre- sentative sample of the ore in place would be. Therefore, it may be expected that the deposits entire carry somewhat less iron than the ore which it is possible to sample at present. The analyses in Table I show the chemical composition of samples from each of the ore bodies discussed. For convenient comparison, analysis of an ore from Hongkong and analyses of several standard iron ores have been inserted. The analyses show that the ores smelted are fairly pure mag- netites or hematite or a mixture of these two minerals; in all cases the combined water is very low. Except in the quartzose ore, alumina is high in proportion to silica as com- pared with the iron ores most widely smelted elsewhere. Mag- nesia is generally more abundant than lime. A majority of the ores are within the Bessemer limit as to phosphorus, although some exceed it. Sulphur is reasonably low in the pure ore, but is high in the replaced wall rock where it occurs as pyrite. Pyrite from Montamorong was found to contain 0.15 per cent of cobalt, and it is probably due to traces of cobalt in the pyrite generally that slags from ali the furnaces show a cobalt- blue color in patches. Titanium and manganese are low with the exception of the one ore from Tumotulo which is inexplicably high in titanium. In the quartzose ores, silica increases at the expense of the iron, while in the altered wall rock it is probable that magnesium, aluminum, and lime replace the iron, although no analysis of this material was made. 1914 Journal of Science ippine al The Ph 228 “a[luey ‘neoang Bururjy aour10g Jo [dung [neg Aq pozAleue ‘1001 WorZ ZOT ‘JOOI WOAT 940 D1ZIAA TOT {0.10 BIOURYSUODH “SBUIJ, Op UOIoDedsuyT Yysiuedg ey} JO spaod01 fo10 epaesyny wvyueg *SBULJ] Op UgIO -dodsuy ystusdg ayy Jo spa0ded {0.10 UOSI FT *90UdI0gG JO neoing ‘ysiuoyo ‘uene zeq “J, Aq pozA| | 99 66 9L 66 20 ‘00 &1 "66 eed) | 00813 €0°0 | I8°L a0B1y | 0081] Paes 20 °% ane} L1g°% GLY ve Zé -vue ‘ejduies esozqaenb ATOA ‘010 uOsITT (fe) feeders oo | eee once aia e le oeci ru 09° | op-0r | az°z | OL-eP “e[luRyy ‘Neoing Burry, tourst0y Jo ‘[auezg [neq Aq pazAjeue toto uostFT |-----~~|------= LT-89 | 66°66 | TO'0 | > 90817) LL°0 | 810 | S10 | 26 T | 22°88] 29°9 | Pas ‘g0udIDg Jo neeing ‘oA “g 4891104 Aq pezA[Bue ‘41d a0 Jo SdBF 1O}OUI-), B8O10B o[duiws foro UOSITT | 890°0 | 190°0 | LE “G9 | 09°00T | 080 | 12‘0 | PL‘O | 9>843|] 80°0 | HIT | 12’0 | 28L%| 92°29 | g9'e 99°F “SUI Op UgIOd0dsuT ystuedg ey} Jo spxo0ea fo10 Supyowurey |-------|------- 00°99 *aDUaING JO Nvoaing ‘4siwoeyo ‘19Aeg “g 4serI0.T Aq pozs[euvy oBrByo ‘oovuINy ‘oro Sulyowuey | ELT "0 | 290°0 | 9°29 | 26°00L | OT | 200 | 2t°0 | 2:0 | bZ'°0 | PLO | 98°0 | ¥9°02| Th'99 | os’ | zo'9 SS oe ie ae |e = ellie ae gy | 4 ia | ele ey D Pa aste be re be elea led fae |e Le ee i) 4 = g 3 & | of 3 i) s ® 8 3. | 8 5 > ta 5 45 e m ® =~ e 8 z. ey io} & Fr, i] ao =| ~P “A Q a ° ® ~~. : a | 3 = a | oF SS = ® 5 2 a 2 SYTVUIOY © a mo Z mae a iste) 2 4 a o iS ©) als B. , pO 1 ve lie ies at wales | ely Se 5 tJ e ra) ® 0 R i | : a — a og = ° © i=) e fe) ° , 8 “eo | & He a a ola ae & ewe eet Seales : ‘ ° © “D c00T ernqsroWy S240 UM L0Y}0 pun Unonjing fo Uuoyrsodimos joorMay O—yT ATAV, (‘240 Jo WYSIOM Aap JO yueo Jed ssordxe saoquinn) 291 TOL O9T 6ST ‘ON o[ dures 229 Iron Ores of Bulacan Dalburg and Pratt IX, A, 3 “BJOSOUUIY] ‘osuBy Iqesep ‘oFIVULOPT *BIUBA[ASUUOY “[[BMUIOD WOT oJ1QOUDe LY “uspeMg WOIF oLQOUsePT “PST ‘98 ‘8 “Oug “uy “FsUur “Wy yng seuryog ‘suoysuopy Wory oyjousepy “g0uadI0g jo neeing ‘ieAog “g 4sed10,7 Aq pozA[eue ‘os1eyd odeuing ‘e1o0 odevsep “adusl0g Jo neeing ‘teAog “g 4se110,q Aq pozA[eue ‘es1eyo sdvUudng ‘o10 Vsull[eyeoRyy “e0UaIDG jo nveing ‘isAeg’g ySedI0O,y Aq pezAjeus ‘eZ1vyo ooBvuIN; ‘oro ojngnumy, ‘o0UdIDG jo neveing ‘uene 1eq “TL Aq pozA[euse tos1eyo sdeuiny ‘ato [owueg *e0UaIDg Jo nveing ‘leAeg “g 4Se110,7 Aq pezs[eue ‘siepl Mog ulorj s[jeds ‘e10 [0,UeG “SBUIW] Op UdIODedsuT ysluedg 04} JO Spioded fo10 Buorowe}UopY “a0Ua1DG jo nesing ‘leseg “g 4S8e110,~ Aq pozA] -eue ‘adivyo sovuiny foro SuorowezUOW “SBUIJ, Op UgIDDedsuT ystueds ey} JO Sspazodea ‘edo BioueysUOH eid 290 0 jae 100 °0 aa a £000 ee v00 "0 882 °0 | 190°0 v6T 0 | T90°0 p43 "0 | T9L 0 9600. | $80°0 §8 89 G0 °LS 8T Lg gL °99 L§ “69 97 LS 6L TS GL “LG OGRGGi masceens 82 00T | 99813 82 °00T | 8L°0 69°66 | 9°70 06°66 | 810 &T OOT | 0&0 10°0 0g °% 20 °0 TL0 (0) x) Or 0 (0) pa PIO | eovay PLO | e083 180 | 18°6 Oe aaa 90B1} 80°0 | e08z3 810 | 020 i ees 660 See ase v6 piaeens 98°T 8h T | 79° 0v'0 | 86°0 4¢°0 | 710 88°0 | 89°0 $0°0 | 90813 STO | 00°T 3&0 vL 3S Lig 09°0 1&0 &@'0 88°0 99 TT SP ET 68° VI -L9 &1 99 68 G8 99°68 66 °& LLG 08°9 $9 °8 Sv OT 06 T 66°L 98 I oS 6 S20 190 Té'T 61 8T LT 9T 19 £9 a ST ts ia vé &1 230 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 GENESIS OF THE ORES The Bulacan iron ores have a sufficient number of features in common to lead to the belief that they are related in origin, although local conditions have undoubtedly been effective in modifying the character of the individual deposits. Concerning Macatalinga, Mayapo, and Tagpis, information is insufficient to justify further statement. The titaniferous character of the Tumotulo ore sets it apart from the others, perhaps, because of the frequently observed association of titanium with a distinct class of magnetites ascribed to the action of magmatic segrega- tion. For Tumotulo, also, the lack of information prevents more than this generalization. Among the features which are significant as to the origin of the other and more important ores may be noted the intimate and general association of the ore minerals, magnetite and hematite, with quartz; the occurrence of ore in sedimentary rocks, as at Camaching, and the conformity of such ore bodies with the sedimentary rocks in strike and dip; the evident replace- ment of sedimentary rocks, especially limestone and breccia, by ore and the presence of veins carrying the ore minerals, as, for example, the small quartz veins adjacent to and parallel with the main ore bodies at Montamorong and Hison; the presence and character of the altered wall rock with the ore; and the presence of original pyrite with magnetite in the ore. With these features in mind, it will scarcely be suggested that the ores are original beds deposited as sediments or as bog ores, nor can they be explained as the result solely of concentration or metamorphism of ferruginous beds or bog ores unless a separate origin be assigned to the small quartz veins. In this connection it should be remembered that not all the ore bodies are certainly within sedimentary rocks. Moreover, there is no evidence of regional metamorphism which is usually in- volved in the change of original limonite beds to magnetite and hematite; schistose rocks are not of general occurrence, and the granite which is believed to be older than the ores shows no trace of gneissic structure. A theory advanced by Adams to explain the occurrence of iron ore at Santa Inez, Rizal Province, may be quoted here as equally applicable to the Bulacan deposits since the Santa Inez ores have features in common with those of Bulacan, namely, they consist of magnetite and hematite as ore minerals, with quartz, pyrite, and chalcopyrite, and they occur at or near the con- tact of igneous rocks (andesites) with sedimentaries, including Exes Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 231 clastics and crystalline limestone. Bowlders of iron ore, in which magnetite occurred in limestone as a replacement or a vein just as it does at Camaching, were noted by one of us in Lenatin River below the Santa Inez deposit. Adams ™ says: * * * Bowlders of iron ore, some of which are from 2 to 3 meters in diameter are encountered about one hour’s walk [from Santa Inez] up the river [Lenatin] in the bed of the stream. The mountain to the west of the river was evidently the source of these masses. The lower slope of the mountain was ascended along the bed of a stream which empties into the river just above the bowlders. The country rock exposed by erosion is an andesite containing numerous small specks of pyrite, and in some places bunches of pyrite were found in sheer zones. The larger masses of pyrite were partially altered to hematite. In places there is a small amount of chalcopyrite present and the alteration has given rise to a coating of blue and green copper carbonates. The copper ores have been prospected lately but have not been found in encouraging quantities. On the wall of the ravine, a face of rock was seen which showed a considerable amount of iron ore, coating and replacing the country rock. This has somewhat the appearance of a dyke running up the mountain, although there is no proof that it is, since the dense vegetation obscures the formation excepting in the walls and bed of the ravine. Near the top of the hill there is an outcrop of iron ore. The summit of the hill is capped by a heavy bed of limestone, such as is frequently met with in the eastern cordillera. In descending, exposures of a metamorphosed fine-grained clastic rock were seen in the bed of the ravine to the south of the one which was followed in ascending. This rock contains specks of pyrite, but no bowlders of hematite were seen. A simple and sufficient explanation of the origin of the iron ore is that it has been derived from the pyrite which is found disseminated in the country rock and occurring as masses in the sheer zones. It is probable that the mineralization is a result of contact phenomena resulting from the intrusion of the andesite in the sedimentary formation. According to this idea the iron oxides which are hematite and magnetite (Adams noted the occurrence of hematite only) formed through the oxidation of pyrite, which in turn is the product of contact metamorphism. Smith * has proposed a similar origin for the Bulacan ores: I wish here to record the result of my own very limited observations in addition to the remarks by Mr. McCaskey regarding the occurrence of the ore. The ore is found in the massive crystalline rocks of this region, which are in the main dioritic and andesitic. The iron ores, hematite, magnetite, etc., are alterations of these crystalline rocks in place. They are not sedi- mentary deposits, and therefore any regular strikes and dips, such as occur in sedimentaries, would not be found. The iron deposits, as far as I was able to make out, have absolutely no connection with the later sedimentaries. The diorite is very rich in ferromagnesian minerals, with an unusual amount * This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 106. “ Min. Resources P. I. for 1909 (1910), 32. Dee, The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of iron pyrites and chalcopyrite which have gradually yielded their iron to the percolating ground water traveling along fractures. The present de- posits in my opinion represent merely a segregation of iron oxide resulting from decomposition of the above-mentioned minerals. And again, later, Smith and Fanning © state: From our examination of the Bulacan deposits we can say that they are very irregular and occur with igneous rocks of the Eastern Cordillera as local enrichments from the alteration of chalcopyrite and other iron bearing minerals of that formation. The rich pockets which we examined near Angat, and from which the natives mine their ore, are located along frac- tures in the formation. The observations recorded in this paper do not support a theory of origin through superficial alteration of pyrite or other iron-bearing minerals and rocks. The direct product of such alteration would apparently be limonite and possibly hematite rather than magnetite and hematite. Moreover, microscopic study of thin sections of Bulacan ores by both Eddingfield and Rowley indicates that magnetite and hematite occur as original minerals in quartz and that the associated pyrite is partly of contemporaneous deposition with the magnetite and partly of later deposition; in either case, the pyrite is generally unaltered. F. Rinne has suggested an origin for the magnetic iron ore at Bato-balani, near Mambulao, Camarines, which could be applied plausibly to the Bulacan ores. The Bato-balani deposit has been studied by one of us; it contains hematite and pyrite as well as the more abundant magnetite, and was found to show a close similarity to the Bulacan ores, as will appear from the following translation from Rinne :* * * * The mountain (a hill near Bato-balani) on its summit and its slopes over a length of 400 meters and breadth of 200 meters fairly bristled with countless large and small bowlders of magnetic iron ore. In the bed of a small stream on the side of the mountain the ore stood out in bowlders and rounded blocks; in the surrounding hemp clearing, dark, bare, frequently jagged and porous blocks protruded from the ground everywhere, and in the jungle one could distinguish the same blocks in great number in the ground. Here and there in the mottled laterite (in which the bowlders are embedded) the structure of the original rock could be distinguished. * * * Apparently the weathered rocks are to be traced to a dioritic “Hruptivgestein,” of which several fairly fresh pieces were found between the ore rocks in the hemp field. * * * It might be thought that the magnetite masses here are a segregation from an igneous rock, probably from the diorite found between the ore masses. It is surprising, however, in explaining the magnetite as a magmatic segregation that nowhere was the contact between the diorite and the ore to be seen. The ore masses * Ibid. for 1910 (1911), 59. * Zeitschr. f. prak. Geol. (1902), 10, 117. 1X A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 233 were encountered everywhere without any adhering or inclosed pieces of diorite. This circumstance indicates strongly that the once existing rock with which the present ore blocks were associated was comparatively easily destroyed so that the ore, freed through weathering, is now nowhere to be found in continuity with them. In this connection the occurrence of a dark-colored limestone of which several pieces were found at a place on the same slope is interesting. It is possible that the ore masses were enveloped in this easily destroyed limestone. It appears to me very plausible that the magnetite blocks at Bato-balani were formed from contact phe- nomena between diorite and the limestone which is still found in traces over the former surface of the igneous rock. * -* * One could suppose that the ore formed in the limestone under the influence of the solutions and gases coming from the cooling diorite magma. I did not observe other contact minerals, such as garnet, at this place, but in complete accordance with this theory is the occurrence of nests of yellowish white, needlelike quartz which are found sparingly in the magnetite. In places the ore particles build a sort of frame or skeleton, the spaces of which are filled with quartz. * * * The igneous rock that occurs with the magnetic iron ore is an augite-bearing hornblende-diorite. It has a speckled appear- ance, resulting from the arrangement of white to gray plagioclase and the scattered, rounded, or elongated grains of greenish black hornblende which dot the abundant groundmass. It is concluded that the Bulacan iron ores are similarly the result of contact phenomena caused by intrusions. The intrusive rocks are identified with some hesitation as imperfectly defined dikes, the occurrence of which has been noted. Weld,'’ in his study of very similar deposits near Hongkong, found that the Hongkong granite was the rock whose intrusion into older sedi- ments had caused the deposition of magnetite-hematite ores. It is not impossible that the Philippine granites, of which the granite in Bulacan is representative, are to be correlated with the Hongkong granite, but the directly resulting suggestion that the granite in Bulacan is the intrusive rock involved in the genesis of the ore deposits there is refuted by the clearly estab- lished priority in age of the granite over the sedimentaries which are affected by the intrusion. For contact deposits, however, the Bulacan ores occur in notably large part as a replacement of the intruded rocks, limestone, and other sedimentaries; they are not confined to a narrow con- tact zone. In minor occurrences the ore has also filled fissures which are not on the immediate contact. Some of the more common contact-metamorphic minerals, such as garnet and wol- lastonite, were not identified in the Bulacan ores in spite of the fact that they were especially sought. The Camaching limestone Lot. ctt. 1279448 234 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 at the border of the magnetite veins in it contains no minerals other than calcite. On the other hand, some of the characteristics of the ores that have been recorded are strongly significant of contact metamor- phic deposits. The association of contemporaneous magnetite and pyrite, for instance, according to the widely quoted state- ment of Waldemar Lindgren,'® is the one unique feature of such deposits. It is probable that the intrusions which are involved in the formation of the Bulacan ores cooled at no great distance from the surface; the fine-grained or porphyritic texture of all the intrusives observed would support such an idea, and it appears that the overlying sedimentary rocks, in the vicinity of the ore bodies, were never very thick in their overlap on the older rocks. If this supposition is correct, the phenomena of mineralization characteristic of deeply buried contacts would have been modified by the proximity of the surface and the absence of certain contact features so explained. Typical thermal effects from the actual contact of molten rock are subordinate in Bulacan to the more widespread effect of the solutions associated with the cooling magma. Whether the solutions were juvenile waters expelled from the magma or were heated meteoric waters circulating along contacts with the intrusions and along openings formed by the cooling and contraction of the intrusions is undetermined. If the genesis which has been outlined in this paper for the Bulacan ores is correct, there is reason to believe that the deposits will continue in depth in proportion to their outcrop dimensions. The suggested manner of origin has a further economic bearing in that it involves no necessary increase in the proportion of pyrite in the ore with increasing depth, such as would be ex- pected if the ores had resulted from surface alteration of iron- bearing minerals. QUANTITY OF ORE AVAILABLE In the absence of all development work it is not possible to estimate closely the ore reserves. In an attempt to arrive at some idea of the extent of the ore bodies beneath the surface, a magnetic survey was made at each deposit. This method failed to yield reliable information because of the deflections of the hori- zontal and vertical needles caused by the large bowlders of iron ore scattered over the surface in the vicinity of each ore body. Horizontal deflections of as much as 17° and corresponding in- * Trans. Am. Inst. Eng. (1901), 31, 227. IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 935 creases in the dip of the dip needle were often obtained near outcrops, but quite without regularity, so that when plotted up according to approved methods they yielded no intelligible data. At distances of from 30 to 50 meters from the outcrops the deflection of the horizontal needle is almost normal or, more accurately, it is uniformly about 3° east, while the normal deflec- tion in the Philippines is about 1° east. If the results of the magnetic survey alone are considered, the conclusion to be drawn is that large bodies of hematite or magnetite do not exist in the region. But if the other data presented herewith be considered, it appears that the quantity of ore is large enough to be of economic importance. If the ores originated in the manner suggested by this geologic study, it is probable that they persist for a reason- able distance below the surface, since the dip or pitch dimen- sion of a replacement or vein deposit which has been formed under magmatic influences, as these ores probably have, would presumably be of the same order of magnitude as the strike dimension of the same deposit. To assume that such a propor- tion exists in estimating ore reserves, however, would not be justified without more evidence than is available for the Bulacan ores. On the other hand, the vertical extent of the ore bodies in the present case ought surely to be as great as their least hori- zontal dimension, that is, their width, and in order to obtain some basis of estimation it will be assumed that such is the case. Judging solely by the extent of the outcrops, it appears that the Camaching ore body contains a much larger tonnage than all the other deposits. The outcrop at Camaching is 600 meters long, and measured widths varied from 20 to 70 meters. The average specific gravity of the ore was determined as 4.7; taking 20 meters for the average width of the deposit over the length of the outcrop and assuming that the ore will continue in depth a distance equal to its least surface dimension, there results from calculation something over 1,100,000 tons as the estimated ore reserve at Camaching. In view of the conservative figure used for the average width and for the extent of the ore below the surface, it appears that the tonnage obtained represents the minimum quantity of ore available rather than the probable size of the ore body; that is to say, there is present at least this quantity of ore. Employing similarly conservative figures for the other ore bodies, there results a combined total of about 100,000 tons of ore. Indeed, only at Hison and Santa Lutgarda can one be definitely 236 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 assured that there is more ore present than the few thousand tons contained in the bowlders. The only estimate which can reasonably be made, therefore, places the total reserves in the Bulacan ore deposits at 1,200,000 metric tons; even this figure involves an assumption as to the depth to which the ore persists. Yet, if the dip dimension of the Camaching ore body is at all comparable with its strike dimen- sion, there is from five to ten times this quantity of ore present in this deposit alone.*® In view of the possible size of the ore bodies in Bulacan, there is justification for sufficient exploration work to determine some- thing of the extent of the ores beneath the surface. It should not be particularly expensive nor difficult to carry out such explora- tion in the vicinities of the larger outcrops. Hand-operated core drills, it is believed, would afford the most convenient and satis- factory means of obtaining the data required for preliminary estimates. THE MINING AND SMELTING INDUSTRY HISTORY The first authentic mention of iron mining in the Philippines is contained in a report ?° dated July 16, 1664, from Governor- General Salcedo to the Spanish crown. In this letter the gov- ernor-general states that he had brought out from Spain at his own expense an engineer to develop an iron mine, that 600 arrobas *! (of iron) had already been obtained, and that he was continuing the work. This statement refers to the iron ore near Santa Inez or, possibly, near Bosoboso in Rizal Province. Viana, a former royal fiscal, spoke 2? of the same locality on February 10, 1765, and stated that the iron mines were then in charge of Juan Solana and Francisco Casafas, that they had established furnaces, coalpits (charcoal pits ?), and forges, and had mined large quantities of iron ore. Soon after this date, one * Dr. James F. Kemp, quoting McCaskey, submitted to the 11th Interna- tional Geological Congress a rough estimate of from 500,000 to 300,000 tons for the ore reserves in the deposits near Angat, including, apparently, only Montamorong and the Hison-Santa Lutgarda-Constancia deposits. Iron Ore Resources of the World. Stockholm (1910), 983. *°MS. in Archivo general de Indios. Sevilla, folio II, 481-483. Title quoted by Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Cleveland, Arthur H. Clark Company (1903-1908). **1 arroba=11.502 kilograms. MS. copy in the possession of Edward E. Ayer, Chicago. Title quoted by Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 (1903-1908). IX, A,3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan Dork Francisco Salgado secured a concession 7° to work the same mines upon the basis of an annual royalty of 20,500 gold reales and the guarantee of an output of at least 125 tons of iron each year. He secured from Mexico an engineer named José Bustos, but the enterprise failed after having obtained 2,000 piculs?* of iron which were sold for the equivalent of 4,000 pesos. There is a further reference to these mines in a record of their sale in 1781 to Maria Isabel Carreaga for 10,400 pesos, and when in 1798 Conde Aviles petitioned for certain iron mines on Sapa Nagaray Vivit, sitio Modete, Morong, his petition was opposed by a certain Carreaga who claimed to have the right to them through this sale. The record of the exploitation of the Bulacan ores dates from 1781 when Juan Belli, chaplain of the Royal Armada, was entrusted with the working of iron mines near Angat. The chaplain was only the director of the work, however, and Lo- renzo Lopez de Buycochea was given actual possession, on July 18, 1781, of a concession called San Felix de Valois, situated on Pinugayan Creek, which name is at present applied to the small stream at the Santa Lutgarda deposit. The limits of the prop- erty are stated as all territory within a radius of one league around the foundry, but the actual mine was only 180 varas long by 2 varas wide. At this time a foundry was situated on Maasim River, and ore was evidently taken from the Santol deposit. In 1784 Buycochea sold his mine to Felix de la Rosa for 11,000 pesos. On June 6, 1805, Juan Escalante y Lazo sought title to a mine on Santor and Viga Creeks (the present Santol deposit), and on July 4, 1806, obtained possession of a claim 400 brazas *° square. The two sons of this man, Juan and Vicente, acquired a mine in 1816 on Tuyo Creek which was probably their father’s old property, since Tuyo (dry) is another name for the upper part of Santol Creek. There is no subsequent reference to the Santol deposit in the Spanish records. It is held to-day by two Amer- icans, Messrs. Chas. Wilson and A. G. Rose, who have two mining claims on the outcrop. The Hison property was granted to Santiago Hison on April 25,1816. This claim was demarcated as a circular area, having a radius of 200 varas with an outcrop on Bacal Creek as a center. * Memorias historicas y estadisticas. Arenas (1850), Chap. 9. *1 picul=62.262 kilograms. *1 vara=0.836 meter. *1 braza=1.672 meters. 9238 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 On January 22, 1850, José Fernando, grandson of Hison, sought title to a mine on Maon Creek, which from its description is evidently the original Hison grant. The later concession was also granted, but appears to have been surveyed 100 brazas long by 50 brazas wide. It is owned and worked to-day by the direct descendants of Hison, and constitutes the Hison mining claim. According to McCaskey, a Chinese ironmaster, Ongsayco, who had worked in the Bulacan smelters for over thirty years, solic- ited 2 claims on March 21, 1873. Through faults of omission and protests by other claimants, no concession was ever obtained. Again on September 9, 1873, Quiterio Anchuelo Rodriguez sought possession of 4 claims to be known as Santa Lutgarda. Although there is no record of the issuance of title to this concession, the Spanish engineers apparently recognized it as valid judging from the records of the official visits of 1887 and 1893. The Constancia claim of two pertenencias was regularly solic- ited by Francisca Talag on February 22, 1879, but the petition was opposed by Hilario Fernando on the ground that this was the same claim that had been granted to his ancestor Santiago Hison. After various legal formalities it was shown that the property solicited was separate and distinct from the Hison claim. The act of demarcation was performed on June 23, 1880, and on August 13 of the same year title was granted to Fran- cisca Talag. There is an unofficial record that this claim was sold on July 27, 1901, to Pedro Otayco for 200 pesos. The Montamorong deposit was solicited on November 21, 1892, by Francisco Sanchez. Demarcation was performed by Abella y Casariego, the mining inspector, on April 16, 1893, and title issued June 9 of the same year. Sanchez later sold his prop- erty to Chas. Wilson, an American. The first reference to the Camaching ore deposit is dated October 15, 1816, when José Ycaza petitioned for a mining claim called Santisima Trinidad, situated at Ylasag, which, it appears, is the place now known as Camaching. Possession was granted on December 4, 1816, but nothing more was heard about this mine until about the year 1830 when Domingo Rojas and José Basco formed a company for the smelting of iron and the manu- facture of steel and decided upon Camaching as the most favor- able site for exploitation. Machinery was imported from Europe and elaborate plans were made, but the transportation of the machinery from Manila to Camaching proved so difficult that it was left scattered along the road and the attempt failed. On January 22, 1853, Joaquin Melchor de la Concha petitioned “~ IX, A, 3 239 for title to a mine located at Camaching, and in 1856 Enrique and Francisco de la Concha also sought title to mines at Cama- ching. These petitions were granted on June 23, May 10, and May 16, 1856, respectively. An application by Fernando de los Cajigas for a mine of titaniferous iron at Cupang, which was conceded in 1850, is also to be referred apparently to Camaching, although the Camaching ore is scarcely to be described as titaniferous. Cu- pang is situated near Acle, and is connected by trail with Cama- ching. Jagor,?” who visited Cupang in 1859, speaks of iron mines which were being worked by an Englishman. Possibly this Englishman, who is remembered by the Filipinos in the mining industry to-day and whose smelter site is shown on old maps, obtained possession of his mine through the concession granted to Cajigas. According to the records, the claim San Pio Quinto at Cama- ching was granted to Pablo Carlos on December 7, 1883, but at the present time San Pio Quinto and other claims at Camaching are held by Joaquin and Francisco de la Concha, heirs of the earlier locators of the same name. In the following table is a list of all the mining claims in the Bulacan iron-ore region that are recorded in the archives of the Inspeccién de Minas. Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan TABLE II.—List of Spanish iron-mining claims, Bulacan Province. Name. Claims.| Area. Owner. Location. “ sate ee Sq. m. De Hison _______ 1 | 111,798.16 | Heirs of Hison _____ Bacal Creek, Maon___| Apr. 25, 1819 De Concha____-_- 2 | 125,772.93 | Heirs of Concha.___| Bacal Creek, Cama- | June 23, 1856 ching. Constancia _____ 2 | 300,000.00 | Francisca Talag ____| Pinugayan Creek____| Aug. 13, 1880 San Pio V _____- 2 | 300,000.00 | Pablo Carlos__---__- Bacal Creek, Cama- | Dec. 7, 1883 ching. Sapang-Munti-_. 1 | 150,000.00 | FranciscoSanchez__| Montamorong_-__-___-_ June 9, 1893 Recently claims have been located on the minor ore deposits at Tumotulo, Macatalinga, Mayapa, and Tagpis, but no patents have been issued. The Angat Iron Mining and Smelting Com- pany, a corporation composed largely of Filipinos, controls the Montamorong and Macatalinga properties, and another corpora- tion, the Constancia Iron Mining and Smelting Company, is attempting to establish its title through the heirs of the former * Reisen in den Philippinen. Wiedmann’sche Buchhandlung, Berlin (1873). PAD The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 owners to the Constancia and Santa Lutgarda properties, which are being worked in the meantime by the descendants of San- tiago Hison. Iron smelting in the Philippines between the years 1784 and 1797 appears from the scant description on the record to have accomplished first a reduction of the iron into balls (bolas) or pasty masses which must have been somewhat malleable since bolos and other forged implements were made from them.”® The first smelting was undoubtedly done under the guidance of Spaniards, and can scarcely be spoken of as a Filipino process, but the present-day smelting bears less evidence of the influence of the Spaniards than that of the Chinese, and is apparently unique in many respects. The modern process has been described accurately and in de- tail by McCaskey.?® In it no attempt is made to produce any- thing other than cast-iron plowshares and plowpoints. On this account, the smelting process differs somewhat from the native practice in Borneo, which produces a malleable iron and with which Becker *° has compared the Bulacan smelting. MINING In 1913 there were 10 furnaces in operation in the Bulacan region—2 at Montamorong, 3 at Hison, and I at each of the deposits, Camaching, Santa Lutgarda, Santol, Tumotulo, and Macatalinga. The practice in mining and smelting is similar at each of these places, and the materials used in building the furnaces at several of the smelters come from the same locality. Some of the furnaces use ore containing only 50 per cent of iron, but usually these ores are enriched by addition of scrap iron to the charge. The smelting process has not changed materially within the last fifty years. During the last few months, however, several of the operators have been experiment- ing by using different clays for the furnace lining or by adding small quantities of limestone to the charge. The mining will require little description since it involves only the breaking up of bowlders with hammers and bars or of scraping the ore out of the shallow pits by similarly simple methods. The ore is mined and sorted by the same laborers who carry it in baskets to the smelter. The location of a smelter is ** Buzeta, Manuel, and Bravo, Felipe. Diccionario geografico, estadistico, historia de Filipinas. Pena, Madrid (1851), 21. * Loc. cit., 55 et seq. ® 21st Annual Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. (1901), 584. xeAY S Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 241 conditioned almost wholly on the situation of the charcoal, since the ore can be carried over a distance of from 2 to 3 kilometers to better advantage than can the charcoal. SMELTING The smelter.—The smelter building or camarin consists of a thatched gable roof about 16 meters wide by 22 meters long set up so as to cover the furnaces and an additional space suf- ficient for a train of molds, a storeroom for iron, a charcoal bin, an ore pile, a core-burning pit, a blast apparatus, and rather restricted quarters for the employees. At least three sides of the building are left open, the fourth side usually being closed by the charcoal bin which occupies about one-fourth of the total floor space. Generally two furnaces, which are alternately in blast and in repair, are set up in the center of the smelter. Behind, and between them and the charcoal bin, is the one blowing apparatus which serves each furnace in turn. A train of about 15 double molds extends around the perimeter of the smelter. The store- room for iron may be small, but is always strongly built and is kept locked to prevent theft. The ore pile is about a meter square, and serves as a breaking floor for reducing the ore to the required fineness as well as a stock pile. A small pit at one side of the furnaces is used to bake the clay cores which are placed in the plowpoint molds, and near it the core maker works, forming core, tuyeres, and molds, which are all of clay. The furnaces are cylindrical stacks 2.25 meters in height and 1.5 meters in exterior diameter. The upper part of the stack to a depth of 1.75 meters is hollow, and constitutes the smelt- ing crucible which is shaped like an inverted truncated cone with a diameter of 1 meter at the top of the furnace and about 0.5 meter at the bottom or truncated section of the cone. The stack is pierced from front to back through the bottom of the . crucible by a rectangular hole or runner, 12 centimeters deep and 13 centimeters wide. The front end of this runner, con- stricted somewhat by a temporary clay bridge, serves as a tap hole for both iron and slag, while the rear end of the runner admits a single tubular clay tuyere through which the blast enters. Below and in front of the tap hole is a bench or step upon which a hand ladle, also made of clay, is placed to receive the iron upon tapping. The walls of the furnace are soft-burned brick made of clay and set in a mortar of the same clay. The clay used for this DAD The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 purpose by several of the smelters is the residual clay which results from the decomposition of the granite. A chemical analysis of this clay appears in Table XI, page 254. Before each smelting-run the sides of the crucible and runner are lined or veneered with a mixture of clay and charcoal. A feature of the furnace which is essential to successful smelt- ing is a quartz-sandstone block 20 by 30 by 40 centimeters in size which is set in the wall of the crucible over the tap hole just where the blast, entering through the tuyere from the opposite side, will impinge upon it. This stone, which the Fili- pinos call bato buga, is more refractory than the furnace clay, and resists the highest temperature of the furnace at a point where without it the furnace wall would be quickly eaten through. These refractory stones for all the furnaces are ob- tained from the bedded quartz-sandstone at the base of the sedi- mentary series near the barrio of Bayabas. The tuyere (bombon) is a tube 60 centimeters long, 6 centi- meters in interior diameter, and 20 centimeters in exterior di- ameter, which is made of unbaked furnace clay. The blowing apparatus (joncoy) is a hollow log, 35 centi- meters in interior diameter and 3.5 meters long; it is fitted with a wooden piston which is edged with soft chicken feathers to prevent the leakage of air around it. The piston rod is long enough to permit a full stroke of the piston when worked back and forth by hand. The blower is double acting, wooden tubes conducting the blast from valves at both ends of the displacement chamber to the tuyere. In operation the blower lies almost horizontal, one end being raised slightly from the floor to facili- tate the work of the operator. The molds (hormas) are made of clay reénforced by rattan or occasionally by wire. Each mold consists of a base, which is fixed rigidly to a frame or rack, and a removable cover. One end of the frame rests always on the ground, but the other end can be raised to a seat on two crotched sticks so that the molds when in position to receive the metal are inclined at a convenient angle, about 40° from the horizontal, for pouring. The frames, together with the small posts upon which the raised ends rest, are called horses (caballos), and the usual equipment for a smelter includes a train of about 15 horses, 3 mounted with large single plowshare molds and the rest carrying each a pair of smaller plowshare or plowpoint molds. Charcoal burning.—An essential attribute of the smelter is the cluster of charcoal kilns which surrounds it. There are some- IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 243 times as many as a half dozen charcoal kilns located at favorable places in the forest within convenient distances from the smelter. The Filipinos in the iron industry have evolved a useful and fairly efficient method of burning charcoal in connection with their smelting practice. Formerly, they burned their charcoal in pits, as is still the practice elsewhere in the Philippines. Abandoned charcoal pits may still be seen near the old smelting centers; they are often located in a side hill, and are circular in plan, 3 meters in diameter and 2 meters deep, with an opening or hearth on the down-hill side. A temporary covering or roof of green wood and earth was provided, and the fire was controlled by making this roof more or less impervious to the draft. The charcoal kiln now in use is built of bamboo, and is entirely above the surface of the ground (Plate VI). It is ealled an inglesa for the reason, it is said, that an Englishman (ingles) who operated an iron smelter at Cupang in 1860 first used this type of kiln. An inglesa, or charcoal kiln, is simply a rectangular inclosure, the walls of which are made of bamboo poles; it is about 14 meters long, 4.5 meters wide, and 4.5 meters high. The logs for charcoal are cut into lengths 1 meter shorter than the width of the kiln, and are corded up inside the kiln with a space 0.5 meter wide everywhere between the pile and the bamboo walls. About 30 per cent of the wood in the kiln is in the shape of logs 0.5 meter or more in diameter, while the remainder is graded in size down to about 10 centi- meters in diameter. Openings which run longitudinally along the floor of the kiln and up one end of the pile are provided for maintaining a draft. After the pile is completed, the space around it inside the walls is filled with fine charcoal waste and a cover of the same material is spread over the top. The fire is started at the lower end, and gradually burns through the kiln, being retarded by the smothering effect of the charcoal cover. Two burners are employed, who control the burning by opening vents through the walls at proper places as the carbonization progresses. By the time the burning is complete, the pile has subsided to a height of 2.5 or 3 meters. It requires anywhere from fifteen to thirty days to burn a kiln of 140 cubic meters of charcoal. The charcoal is obtained in unusually large pieces, and is hard and strong. Where wood is cut for charcoal on mining claims, all classes of timber are utilized; the hard woods of the first- and second-group trees make splendid charcoal. Even where the wood is cut under license on public land and DAA The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the operator may use only third- and fourth-group woods, the charcoal obtained is first class. A cubic meter of wood yields 0.8 cubic meter or 14 bushels of charcoal, weighing 155 kilo- grams. The following table contains the proximate and the ultimate analyses of a representative sample of the charcoal produced, with a chemical analysis of the ash from the same sample. TABLE III.—Proximate and ultimate analyses of Bulacan charcoal and chemical analysis of the ash content.? Per cent. Proximate analysis: Moisture tees ne nnn srs see ne on re Sn eR ns 4,48 Volatile'combustible matter; £22222". 355 252 Ee eee 11.23 Bixed scasbon oo 2s Be Be RN Se ce Se ee a ee ee a 81.17 732) ie As ee ee eee ee eee Ue eens Soe eee oe 3.12 Totals: 5 122) co. = SSS ee ee Ne te 5 as ee 100. 00 Ultimate analysis: Carbone en 20 Sate ato re ee eee eee BR eee en eee ee eee 83. 36 Hydrogen: ==). 22 2 3 eb J. Sao sees See es eben es SI ee 2. 82 INitregen S322 2c Ons hte IN i ah SR eke a oe Ses ee 0.47 Oxygen (byidifierence),<-= 5° se Sto. Sone ieee aes Sek We Pa ae ee ee 6.75 Sulphur. = 222-2 soe ee ee ae ee ae et ee ne ee ee 2 Oe trace gh AC UL ee I ie ALN i SS ee A BS ER SE SE Nh ee i A I 100. 00 Ash analysis: Silica|(Si@a)h. Se Se ees ae ae Sa a ee ee ee ee eee 2.89 Ferricioxide and:alumina; (R203) <8 55 ee a eat ee 12.58 Time! (CaQ)e 22S. ee eee ee na ears OE 2 oe 2 re ne ere a = Se sere 66. 73 Mapnesrum oxide. (MeO) 35 = Se Ce SE ee ee 8.58 Potassium oxidel(KeO) pees 3. 5 Fh i ee ee ted ed Sa ES ee 5.48 Sodiumipoxide(NacO) © 2 2 ok oa ak 2 ee es al a ee eee 3.65 ‘Phosphoric’ anhydride: (eh 2Op) a -— —— ee a en Se ee trace 8 Analyzed by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. The process of smelting.—The furnace is in blast night and day, and the following personnel is required for the two daily shifts: An administrative superintendent (encargado), who is also clerk and storekeeper; a technical superintendent (maestro), who is in charge of the smelting; an assistant maestro, who acts as maestro on the night shift; 2 mold men (braganantes) ,*2 “The term “braganante” may have come into use through the work of the molders in continually raising and lowering the mold frames from the seat of forked sticks upon which they rest and in lashing and unlashing the mold covers. The root of the word appears to have an application in Spanish to a fork or crotch of a tree and in military usage to a rope used for lashing. TXaVAy 8 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 245 who are also slag men (escoriadores) ; and 4 blower men (jila- dores). The success of the operation depends absolutely upon the maestro; competent maestros are scarce and comparatively well paid, although the rate of payment is based upon the quantity of iron produced. The mold men are called upon only. at intervals to attend the pouring, empty the molds, or remove the slag, but they work day and night as do also the blower men. In addition to this smelter force, laborers are required for cutting wood, burning charcoal, and for breaking up the ore, and carriers (cargadores) are necessary for bringing the ore from the mine (tibagan) and the charcoal from the kiln to the smelter, for transporting the finished product from the smelter to town, and for bringing in food supplies. When it is desired to blow in a recently constructed or repaired furnace, a slow fire is started in the crucible and allowed to burn for several hours; then charcoal is added until the crucible is filled and a light blast applied. About twenty-four hours after the fire is kindled, the blast is increased and a small quantity of ore together with more charcoal is charged in at the top of the furnace. Increasingly larger charges are now added at intervals until the operation is normal and the furnace is in full blast. Afterwards, ore and charcoal are charged together at intervals of from one to five hours depending on the rate at which the iron comes down. The average charge consists of 43 kilograms of charcoal and 25 kilograms of ore. Charcoal and ore are each distributed evenly over the top of the burden. ‘The ore is broken into pieces with a maximum diameter of about 2 centimeters. When the furnace is working normally, iron is tapped off from two to five times per shift. As soon as the reduction of the ore begins, the lining of the crucible is attacked and eaten away to supply the necessary flux for the slag. In this way a small depression below the level of the runner is very soon formed in which the liquid iron collects. In tapping, the clay bridge with which the tap hole is partly closed between tap- pings—although for some reason the tap hole is always left partly open and at each stroke of the blower a tongue of flame rushes through it—is removed, and the maestro with a long iron rod proceeds to pull out first the ropy, viscous slag which is floating on the iron in the bottom of the crucible. As the slag is drawn forth, it is allowed to fall into the ladle which is thus preheated before it receives the iron. The slag is pasty enough to adhere to the end of the rod, and the maestro, working the last of it into a ball, improvises a rake with which he draws 246 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the molten iron forward so that it spills out over the lip of the tap hole into the ladle. The iron is poured from the ladle directly into the molds, a cover of floating charcoal preventing the oxidation of the surface of the metal while in the ladle. The plowpoints are cast hollow by pouring around a suitable clay core. The only parts of the casting which necessitate the use of molding sand are the pro- jecting rods on the bottom of the shares by which the shares are clamped to the plowbeam. To provide for these, the share molds have a core box into which molding sand, consisting of a pulverized mixture of clay and charcoal, is pressed around 4 small sticks, so placed that the spaces left upon their removal serve as molds for the rods. After each pour, the mold is opened, the casting removed, and the surfaces of the mold care- fully inspected for broken places. All cracks and flaws are patched up with clay, and the surfaces are painted with a char- coal paint. The smelting continues as long as the furnace works well or until no more iron can be brought down, ordinarily for a period of from twelve to fifteen days. Occasionally a furnace cannot be made to work properly, and is allowed to “die” after four or five days’ trial. In such cases, the lining of the crucible is removed and a new lining built up. After a run, the furnace is cleaned and relined, and is then ready to be again blown in. Capacity of the furnaces.—The following table shows the pro- duction in pairs *? and in kilograms per day and per smelting run for 4 furnaces. The first three are ordinary runs, while the last is the record run for the district. It will be noted that there is little evidence of a decrease in production toward the end of the runs. This is due to the tendency to stop the smelting whenever, after the usual length of time, the furnace shows signs of working badly, instead of continuing until no more iron is reduced. * Plowshares (lipias) are made in three sizes and plowpoints (sudsuds) in one size (Plate V). They are counted and sold in pairs (pares), which consist in the cases of the points and each of the two smaller plowshares of two castings, but each one of the larger plowshares constitutes a pair. A first-class pair (1 large plowshare) weighs 3.2 kilograms; a second- class pair (2 smaller plowshares), 4.0 kilograms; a third-class pair (2 plowshares), 2.5 kilograms; and a pair of points weighs 5 kilograms. IX, A, 8 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 247 TABLE 1V.—Output of various furnaces per day and smelting run. FURNACE No. 1. Plowshares produced. Total. Plow- Number of days furnace in blast. : 2 Poa Fist Second apie duced. Pairs. Kilos. Pairs. Pairs. Pairs. Pairs. 10 6 380 50 192 9 13 9 49 80 294 12 9 9 40 70 258 5 5 5 25 40 148 15 15 12 58 100 366 16 15 10 59 100 368 12, 13 9 46 80 294 12 14 10 44 80 290 10 10 5 25 50 176 95 104 75 376 650 2, 386 FURNACE No. 2. 3 6 29 40 156 4 8 5 43 60 224 7 20 13 40 80 288 6 20 11 43 80 286 5 20 11 44 80 286 4 10 10 36 60 214 3 10 10 37 60 214 6 10 14 40 70 250 2 8 7 43 60 222 4 10 10 36 60 214 4 9 8 39 60 220 4 7 7 382 50 182 8 16 9 27 60 210 6 16 8 20 50 172 eee ee 2 5 19 26 94 66 172 132 526 896 3, 232 6 20 40 146 11 41 80 290 11 32 70 252 10 50 90 334 10 60 100 874 8 40 100 364 4 51 100 374 8 43 90 336 8 49 101 378 6 36 80 296 3 30 60 228 6 42 80 280 6 32 70 256 97 526 1,061 8, 918 248 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE 1V.—Output of various furnaces per day and smelting run—Contd. FURNACE No. 4. = Plowshares produced. Number of days furnace in blast. First Second size. size. Pairs. Pairs. yes he em el Si Sw a ea oN 14 6 2 oe ES ee en ee eee ae 15 15 SOS oe eS Sie ek Se ee Seas 15 18 {WE Se ee A EA aca Shree sae 2 gael 21 21 Ee Se ie AS ke eee 20 23 (ee ec Sha ie See eee ta es eel BEL a) 20 20 } aera wee ae ake oe BO DR een Soe 25 21 So oat re es ee eee ed 23 23 ene SO es eae eee eee 2a 20 TORS So ee Ate 2 ee ees 20 21 nb Rh eet eh ol) RE a a 22 20 Les Seren eee a a MELE ys a 20 21 aR Oe Es Cosa ny ee tet eM oes 20 17 1 Pee cee et Sehr nd Wie SNS Se Seer eee! 22 16 1 See See Oo ee ee 20 19 1G 2h 2 ee ee ee ee eee 20 17 We ceco oe oeecee se aie ee eee 24 18 ft ae we ee De eh eS ee 23 21 bs ET Nip eee ceed = Eh ER ge yo eA 14 9 20 sosk eh Se oe hn ee 20 26 A ons oe eee eee ee 16 24 Deen tee fe Se a ee 12 30 28 2 oe SB ee SA ek ele ae 6 19 7, Se Ue aie ee ee a Ree id eI 20 26 COB oct tee ee ee er ea 20 27 Total so_ 3 gehen secs eee ed 474 498 Third size. Pairs. 10 21 18 20 24 21 17 23 20 19 20 20 18 17 19 17 19 16 15 19 18 23 15 26 24 479 Plow- points pro- duced. Pairs. 10 29 29 38 43 46 1,071 Pairs. 117 2, 522 Total. Kilos. a Furnace blown out for lack of charcoal. The tabulated records show that the process yields from 200 to 400 kilograms of metallic iron per day from each furnace, but it is probable that 250 kilograms, or about 80 pairs, is a fair average figure for daily runs throughout the district. Efficiency of the smelting process.—The following table sets forth the data with respect to the smelting industry in 1913, from which an idea of efficiency of the process can be obtained. IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 249 TABLE V.—Statistics of tron smelting in 1918. NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND VALUE OF PAIRS PRODUCED. Pairs. Tons. Value. | IPAS TIC IABB eR mee mee yn nel won Aye Mea UM Nene ean MSIL Be eesti iNa Maka. are) 12, 440 40.4 | P13, 684 SECONGIC]AS See his ue Re Sy ee ARYL ARAN Eto te fe ON I RRL Lue Spies 9, 147 36.6 | 18,720 EDIT Gr ClAg sa oss de eb a oislewe cea Caste metal oeL AN) Wi ee ie) Ie UL sel NY 13, 006 36.0 | 12,006 TEROPD als) cals ae Mee ch SS LL aD DN SS PE es BO HO OM 22, 783 113.7 | 25,061 PN Gy te eee ale a WA OR A ute a le pe AL SN ce ew ee SOLA 0 ton or 56, 376 226.7 | 64,471 PHA CSU als bios eee oi uN acalatiey Ma AR INN NE) FADD 2 ieee sat MnO eee ese Ly AI as ated 10 Smelting runs (cendidas), all furnaces . 61 Days in blast, all furnaces ................... OD Ii ORC USEC iat a a PE SENS Wh b .. DDS Caleulated weight of iron in ore® .. domes 333 C@harcoaltuse diese cleat See eae Ave: eee ea tree er MeN Sag RNS MN a OU Riera bee eT Ow ssid 960 Average length of furmace rum oon ecceeccecceeceeeeeeeeeeeee 11 Days in blast (average for each furnace for the year) 20.i.i.o....ssecsssececcceseccccesceceseeseseeseseeneeeenesesseeeesene 66 Parsi Der daysiniolasty (AVETAGE)) iene eae. co Use A LLnL Suen L UUM Rue we Clee eT 86 Iron per day in blast (average) ....... 345 Ore required per ton of iron smelted ... 2.45 Charcoaltused) peritonvot iron smelted) ee eee ae are ee eee eel do........ 4.23 Efficiency of Filipino process, per Cent CXtraction 2.0... cenccececeeoecssceeessececseceseeceseeseseeeeseetecestesenereeeeeese 68 Waluevotiproductip eriComiic css n ks cllah com ul Sub eee Me As ee aa wee tel 284.00 4 Metallic iron assumed to constitute 60 per cent of ore. About 68 per cent of the iron in the ore is extracted by the process. The loss of iron is not due, however, to the production of a ferrous slag but, as will be shown presently, to the carrying off of pellets of iron and pieces of unreduced ore which are mechanically inclosed in the slag. Metallurgy of the smelting process.—The cast iron produced in Bulacan is uniformly a white fine-grained iron which is low in silicon, contains very little graphitic carbon, and is extra- ordinarily hard. Due probably to its hardness, the iron is very satisfactory in the use to which it is put and the implements made from it are much preferred by the farmer to those made from imported pig iron. The properties of the iron can be explained by the low temperature at which it is reduced and cast and the rapidity with which the castings cool. Analyses of the product appear in the following table. Sample 13a is an unusual iron produced in the Hison smelter and cast at the end of an unsuccessful run of three days; the difficulty in this run was explained by the maestro as due to the presence of quartzose ore (bacal sigay) in the charges. Sample 99 is the typical Hison iron, and sample 100 is the usual Montamorong product. 1279444 250 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VI.—Analyses of tron produced by Filipinos from Bulacan iron ores.* Sample No.— Constituent. > = 13 A. 99. 100. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Silicon. (Si) 4-2 2 Se eae ee eee ea eee 1.520 0.070 0. 620 Sulphur) (SG) Bean aa eae oe ee ee ah eee ee ed 0. 044 0.070 0. 089 Phosphorous: 22-28 =2 ee a SS Sa eee ae Ses ee Oe 0.115 0. 053 0. 130 Manganense! (Min) 22-2 eo era ee ese aah SEIS eet a 0.101 0.127 0.091 Total:carbon) (C@) Aces = sae ea a a a ee EEE a 5. 640 3. 840 3.790 Graphite!carbomoo +o 35244 32 $222 | eee Ses i eee 1.600 0. 198 0. 232 Ironby: difference (Re) 2.0202 eR eee Ee ae 92. 580 95.840 | 95.280 eh tA Ss ee ee ees 2 ce eae oe 2s eee eee 100.000 | 100.000 | 100. 000 8 Analyzed by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. J ° s, The statement has been very commonly made that the Bulacan ores are self filuxing, and the conclusion would be natural to one who made a short visit to a smelter while the furnace was in blast, since there would be observed only the charging of ore and fuel and the tapping of the reduced iron, with no evidence of the addition of fiuxes. If, however, the observer has an opportunity to watch the repair of a furnace at the end of a successful run, he must get an entirely different impression. On blowing out, the crucible is usually found to be somewhat deepened and to be enlarged at least 50 per cent in diameter; moreover, throughout the smelting the clay tuyeres are gradually consumed through the eating way of the hot end, and conse- quently must be renewed every two to three days. The quartz- sandstone block on which the blast plays is the only part of the crucible which is not slagged away in considerable pro- portion. It is indeed very probable that the necessity for the periodic closing down of the furnace is due not alone to the mechanical irregularity caused by the enlarged section of the crucible but also to the circumstance that through the same cause the flux which the ore demands becomes less readily available. That the ore does demand the addition of fluxes to form a fusible slag becomes evident upon study of typical ore analyses. Calculating the proportions of the principal constituents in the slag which the Hison ore (analysis 6) without any flux would yield, if all the iron in the ore were reduced and carried with it 1 per cent of its own weight in silicon, the following result would be obtained. IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 251 TABLE VII.—Calculated composition of slag from Hison iron ore (unfluxed). Constituent. ‘ Per cent. SULT ea tS i Oy yea a SITE, STs ER ene AUN 2 Oe aN dee ae aR 89.2 PAlaminat(Als@s) pete) oes eaes OPW Re OE es ee RO AY EEE 1a) nae 44.5 Teimeh(CaQ) poeta eS. EL RUS de AL Ue GRID ee Lal SAN oa ae dard a 255) Magnesiag Vic @) = 22802 2 a0 0G. i1 An sin aN | oreten A ENP Mag el ee Sus ISON 13.8 PT Gel eae ENR eS BORD aN SW etre) fe WY SP RUAN ea EA RP 100.0 A slag of this composition would generally be considered as undesirable for blast furnace work, and it is doubtful if it could be fused at the low temperature which prevails in the Bulacan furnaces. It is true, of course, that even in the absence of fluxes the slag actually obtained would differ from the calculated slag in composition because of the facts that (1) not all the iron is reduced, (2) the reduced iron contains less than 1 per cent of silicon, and (3) the ash from the excessive quantity of charcoal used goes into the slag. If allowance be made for the ash from 172 parts of charcoal for every 100 parts of ore, if 0.5 of silicon be allowed for the iron produced— a proportion which to judge from the analysis of cast iron in Table V is not far from representative—and if the slag be assumed to contain 1 per cent of ferrous oxide, the slag from Hison ore (sample 6) should have about the composition shown in the following table. TABLE VIII.—Calculated composition of slag from Hison ore (sample 6), modified by charcoal ash. | Constituent. Per cent. Silicay(S1@2) hese eee TREN ok he AY aoa ee eA re te I a a 28.4 PAM errmniricas C'S (0) s) etsy ee ete meee LE ee a ee al di ee Une a 80.1 Werrousioxid ey (Ne ©) = eer se mete a ees See 8 eS ee eR ns 2S ERE ee Peer 1.0 Mimel(Ca©) fee see ce eae CN AEST IN ea Seta FER MEN fo 26.1 INT TY OS 11h (ge ©) vee Sees Sa ER RSL NS yh UB el 8 ones CN SS Be Lae A 11.0 Potassiumioxides(K20) )pesseseee sass s ee ee ne eWay nurses tbl ooo Se soak ace 2.0 Sodiumioxiden(Naz@) ies ettnta none hae 6. er Be eae Tee a ae Neh eee ee eee ee Se 1.4 Rota seen scorns Seah e west ta! 2 NY LSet Ame eae LeeLee LS 100.0 4 The alumina as calculated includes also the ferric oxide in the ash of the charcoal. Even as modified by the charcoal ash the slag is still undesir- able, principally because of the high alumina, and as a matter of fact is quite different from the slag actually obtained in practice. The composition of Bulacan slags is shown in the following table. Sample 13 is an unusual slag obtained under the condi- tions stated in connection with the analysis of sample 13a of 252 _ The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 cast iron. Sample 27 is a representative sample of the slag from the Hison furnace. The first two columns show the actual analyses of the slags as received; the last two columns show the same analyses recast so as to exclude a portion of iron which was found by magnetic separation and analysis to be present in the slag as metallic shot and pellets. TABLE IX.—Analyses of slags from Bulacan blast furnaces.* Sample No. Constituent. 13. 27.D 13.¢ 27.¢ Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Silica (SiQ2) jee hoe) Sond eye? Fe eRe 60. 36 49. 94 63. 90 55.10 Werric:oxide!(Re2Qs) see eee ne ee ee I 13.16 10075) |.te_ 2 eee Werrous‘oxide (HeO) ©. 44 F 0 Res ey es Ae eee ae | 7.88 1.25 ‘AllominawCAleOs) bee a ale ee Siete 15. 85 14.50 16.80 16.10 ime (CaQ) ics a 5h se At ee ene eee 5. 82 16. 80 6.16 18. 63 Macnesiai(Mc@))2: = 22h 2 2 aie Ree eee) 0. 88 3.22 0. 93 3. 58 Titaninmoxide (DiOz)E.-_ we hae! eee eae 0. 55 0. 48 0. 58 0. 53 Manranese oxide (MmnsQ4) --=- 2 = ee eee trace trace |-=242-- eo) ee Sodiumioxide (NasO)= =e. = enops ea ae ee 2.45 2.34 2. 59 2.60 Potash (K2O) tat keene ae 5 See ee ee See 1.10 1.99 1.16 2.21 Sulpburi(S)) 2222 Boe es ee es OR NE ee es Ose trace trace trace trace Total, :2 S825 Sees oe Se Bee eae eee 100. 17 100. 02 100.00 | 100.00 a Analyzed by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. > As received. ¢ Free from metallic iron. If now the analyses of the calculated slag including charcoal ash and the actual slag in the following table be compared, a difference will be apparent which is the result of the fluxing action of the furnace walls and the tuyeres. In these analyses, which are directly comparable, the magnesia and minor con- stituents have been summated to their lime equivalent, in order to show more clearly the general character of the slags. TABLE X.—Analyses of actual and calculated slags from Hison ore (sample 6). : Caleu- Constituent. lated. | Actual. Per cent.| Per cent. Silica (SiQ;) $6 Sc 200. a5 See Ak a ee pee Aes Se eS 27.4 56.1 Alumina (A1,053) -:2 2-222 2-2 e oe 2 ee pe os ee me ey ee ene 29.2 16.1 ame!\(CaQ), (summated) Clay from decomposed granite near Hison; analyzed by T. Dar Juan, chemist, Bureau of Science. Cost and value of iron produced.—The cost of a smelter fully equipped varies from 900 to 2,500 pesos. If the site is distant from clay suitable for furnace and mold construction, if two furnaces are erected and the smelter is roofed with sheet iron, the cost approaches the higher figure. If the furnace clay is at hand, if only one furnace is erected and the roof is made of palm leaves or grass, the smaller sum will suffice. The cost of smelting and marketing the castings varies with the distance of the smelter from charcoal, ore and clay deposits, and from market. The cost of charcoal varies from 10 to 20 pesos per metric ton, equivalent to about 90 bushels. An average cost based on the actual expenditure for 4 separate kilns is 14.75 pesos per ton. The cost of transportation from smelter to market varies from 0.05 peso to 0.30 peso per pair, depending on the distance IX, A, 3 Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 255 involved. The transportation of clay, ore, and charcoal to the smelter varies from 0.14 to 1.00 peso per 100 kilograms accord- ing to the distance; this item may amount to as much as 0.10 peso per pair of castings. The smelter employees are paid on the basis of 1,200 pairs of castings. For 1,200 pairs of castings, the maestro and his as- sistant each receive from 30 to 50 pesos; the 2 mold men, 20 to 25 pesos; and the blower men, about 10 pesos. The encargado receives from 12 to 15 pesos per month, and the core maker who is usually also a mold man receives 0.50 peso per 100 cores and from 0.15 to 0.20 peso for each tuyere. Laborers receive from 0.30 to 0.80 peso each per day. The regular employees around the smelter are supplied with food by the operator. The castings sell for from 0.80 to 1.10 pesos per pair. They are marketed throughout Bulacan and the adjacent provinces wherever rice is grown, the plows being used generally for rice culture. By manufacturing castings from his iron ore, the operator receives from 250 to 300 pesos for his product, whereas if he sold it as pig iron he could not hope to get more than 60 pesos per ton for it. A careful record of production and costs for 7 smelters cover- ing a period of two months in 1912, during which time the total number of days of smelting operation for all furnaces was ninety-two, yielded the following data. The furnaces consumed about 65 tons of ore and 112 tons of charcoal, and produced 7,249 pairs or a little more than 26 tons of castings. The total cost of these castings, including costs of the charcoal, mining, smelting, repairs, molds, transportation, subsistence, marketing, and general expense, was 4,375 pesos. The market value of the product was 7,100 pesos, yielding a total profit of 2,725 pesos or a profit of nearly 0.38 peso per pair. Statistics of production.—The following table shows the ain tity and value of the iron produced in the Philippines from the date of the earliest records to the end of the year 1913. During the last fifty years the whole production has come from Bulacan and has been made up exclusively of plowshares and plowpoints. It appears from the records that the industry was larger in 1884, when it centered around Camaching, than it is at present. At that time Camaching produced about 30,000 pairs annually, while the other properties combined produced 28,400 pairs. To- day, Camaching is credited with a scant 10 per cent of the total production. In addition to the plow castings smelted from iron ore in Bulacan, the Chinese foundrymen in Manila make the same im- 256 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 plements from imported pig iron. Accurate figures as to the size of the Chinese production are not obtainable, but it is probably larger than that of the Bulacan operators. The Chinese casting is considered by the farmer to be inferior to the Bu- lacan casting, and brings only a little more than half as much on the market. The annual production has increased until it is now worth more than 50,000 pesos, and it could probably be materially increased if through a lowering of prices on the part of the Bulacan smelters the Chinese castings could be crowded out of the market. TABLE XII.—Quantity of iron ore mined and quantity and value of iron produced in the Philippines, 1664-1918. Years. Tron ore. |Castiron.| Value. M. tons. | M.tons.| Pesos. AG54-1883 ee Asha look) ee a ahs ee et oe ce ee a8, 000 2,500 | 350, 000 La a as i ne an ee Se 300 115 | 25,040 NR85-190} .. Soo a Rh A EE SE CE ee SR ee 22,000 600 | 70,000 9908 oes er Ber ee eet Ons 8 ee ee Se Oe 160 56 6, 400 1908 jerohe es oe a BS ot es ee 2k 2 200 70 | 15,900 BL 1 eee ie ne ee arene ae eee eB ee 42d ts aat Meee Gait Len 350 123 | 20,170 A906, tee. Sek eee Le eee ee ee ee be ee es 320 116 | 18,400 $906 ceebepssette 225. bP ae hE es pe ee 2 Se a 350 125 | 18,000 1907 223 ao ee eB ee ee 180 132 | 19,536 1908 2S aa ena met et nt ene ae ee Ree ee eee eae eee 290 96 | 17,500 1909)! Cok 2 TOU SO Se EE SEA Se eee ey 234 78 | 31,078 1910 Wo 2 3.025 ees es be ae A ee eee ee 150 50 | 20,023 } FON 283 aceon So ae ea rn et er ee 219 73 | 29,159 LT oa ge ee oars a ia Se Ce erate ee 352 141 | 49,272 NOUS 2 ots EEE RE Eee. CERES Se ee ee ees 555 227 | 64,471 Totale .-= +. 7 See. AST Wo eS ese ae ee 13, 960 4,617 | 754, 949 8 Estimated. UTILIZATION OF THE IRON ORES The present industry whereby a few hundred tons of ore are smelted each year for the manufacture of cast-iron plows, the life of which is rarely more than two seasons, is not an adequate nor an economic utilization of the Bulacan iron ores. While the ore reserves do not contain the vast tonnages that characterize so many deposits in America, it appears from this study that there are available at least a million tons and probably several million tons of ore in the Bulacan region. Considering the present con- sumption of iron and steel in the Philippines, 40 to 50 thousand tons annually, this district might supply ore for an iron and EXVANB Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan DATE steel plant appropriate in size to the market over a period of time long enough to redeem the capital invested. Such a plant would have to manufacture its pig iron into standard forms, plates, rods, rails, etc., since the local ele uses comparatively little pig iron or steel: The exportation of iron ore from the Philippines is prevented at present by the collection of a wharfage tax of 2 pesos per ton on exports of ore. Even if this tax were removed, it is ques- tionable if the Bulacan ores could be exported advantageously because of their situation so far from a seaport. Recent progress in the electric smelting of iron and steel has been attended with the design of plants which, although complete in themselves, are of limited capacity. At Domnarfvet, Sweden, for instance, a commercial plant for electric iron smelting has been erected ** which has only one furnace capable of reducing about 11,000 tons of pig iron per year, and at Hagfors, Sweden, is a similar plant with two furnaces which together will produce about 18,600 tons of pig iron annually. Both of these plants, it is said, are in successful operation; they are modeled after an experimental plant which was built at Trollhattan, Sweden, at a cost of less than 200,000 pesos and which demonstrated conclusively the feasibility of commercial operation on this scale. Electric furnaces for steel manufacture are designed in simi- larly small units. The smaller iron furnaces require about 2,250 kilowatts of electricity, and another furnace to make steel out of the pig iron produced would require an additional 500 kilowatts according to the estimates of the writers quoted above. Coking coal occurs only in limited quantity, so far as is known, in the Philippines; in Bulacan no commercial coal has been discovered. The forests in the iron-ore region, however, appear to offer an abundant supply of charcoal, a reducing agent which is peculiarly adapted to present practice in electric smelt- ing; coke, as a matter of fact, has not been used successfully in the Swedish type of furnace. The greatest obstacle in the way of development in Bulacan is the isolation of the ores in a mountainous region. Trans- portation difficulties are involved, no matter where the smelting site is located. In this respect the exploitation of the Bu- lacan ores presents severer problems than would attend the utilization of other iron-ore resources in the Philippines, notably * Lyon, Dorsey A., and Keeney, Robert M., Bull. U. S. Bur. Min. (1914), 67, 27. 958 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the hematite and magnetite ore at Mambulao Bay, Camarines. This condition may defer operations on a larger scale in Bulacan. Because of their location, it is probably not practicable to erect a reduction plant at the site of any of the ore deposits. If the plant cannot be located at the ore deposits, its situation will be determined by the market and electrical power factors. The possibilities of long-distance transmission of electric current leaves the manufacturing site independent within certain limits of the power-plant site. Market requirements will best be met if the plant is established at Manila itself, although some ad- vantage in shorter transportation of ore, flux, and charcoal would be gained and the market would still be close at hand if a site at the head of navigation on Angat River were selected. Aérial cableways offer the best solution of the problem of getting the ore down out of the mountains. By providing suit- able intermediate loading stations, charcoal and limestone flux could be brought down on the ore cableway. The cableway might possibly be extended to a point where water transportation was available; if any intermediate haul were necessary, it would be short and through level country. So far as can be ascertained in advance of exploration, the largest supply of ore is at Ca- maching, but intelligent prospecting by diamond-drill methods, which should precede actual development, might reveal larger ore reserves elsewhere. With suitable branch cableways, ore would be taken from several of the deposits at the same time. The vicinity of Polo a short distance above Matictic, on Angat River, has been proposed as a tentative site for hydroelectric development by Col. C. de las Heras, an engineer in the Spanish army who was formerly in charge of water supply for the city of Manila. Practically the same site is contemplated in preli- minary plans by the Bureau of Public Works for the develop- ment of electricity in connection with an irrigation project which would secure water from Angat River. The irrigation division of the Bureau of Public Works maintained a gauging station at Polo throughout the years 1910 and 1911. Their records show a minimum flow of 7,000 and a maximum flow of 1,198,000 second liters of water in Angat River at this point during the period covered by their observations. Colonel Heras’s estimates show that at ordinary stages of the river 5,800 kilo- watts, and at the lowest stage a minimum of 3,700 kilowatts of electrical power, could be generated if a suitable dam were constructed across Angat River, a short distance above Polo. PAPAS Dalburg and Pratt: Iron Ores of Bulacan 259 According to the data already quoted concerning electric smelt- ing installation in Europe, 3,700 kilowatts would more than meet the power demands of a plant consisting of two small furnaces, one for iron and one for steel manufacture. The excess power over that required for smelting would hardly be sufficient at the lowest stages of the river for the operation of the cableway to the ore deposits and the machinery for working up the iron and steel into marketable forms, but during the greater part of the year there would be ample power for all purposes. Electric furnaces, therefore, appear to be an important con- sideration in connection with the future exploitation of Bula- can iron ores. The fundamental requirements of a small iron and steel industry are met in the conditions which obtain in Bulacan. ge. i oe dpe aaa: il af PE ee LS ee (ste wena aR Ferhat a Baty Thi eHi5) eaten wy ei oR ahs i RRR eee ce nt eee ie ee Abit Ve eT phe 2 haa nests + iy riety. age are ey vinde tise aie Res OAL UAL ET TORE Rory my ad ieee hee as Fhe ao Khe heh to Conia vee eters a Pony ni satiety ee ti Miva b Tied, LIA, eB aay, Ae LRP ate wean Abd ‘ pail j Lud 1 ae se Fon lukas , SNe sy RB) bey av “) ow Anya yatta iw nb)? TOES sane Fig. Fie. FIG. Fig. Fig. Fig. i) iw) qo bo ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I (Photographs by Pratt) . Binangonan limestone in Mount Bahay Panique (home of the bats) ; looking southwest. . Typically forest-covered slope in iron-ore region; Mount Mayapo. . Balubad Falls over a face of bedded tuff; Balaong River. PLATE II (Photographs by Charles Martin) . Granular magnetite in fibrous amphibole (tremolite?), hanging wall Constancia ore body; natural size. . Specimen across wall of magnetite vein in limestone, Camaching; natural size. PLATE III (Photographs by Pratt) . Magnetite vein in limestone, Camaching. . Inclusions of limestone in iron ore, Camaching. . Small diabase (?) dike in diorite, Bayabas River; quartz filling along fractures. PLATE IV (Photographs by Pratt) . Ore pit at Hison ore body. . Ore face in pit at Montamorong. . Large hematite bowlder in stream below ore body, Santa Inez. PLATE V (Photographs by Pratt) . Filipino blast furnace in operation, Mayapo. . Cast-iron plowshare and plowpoint produced by Filipinos in Bulacan. . Iron smelter in forest, Camaching. f PLATE VI (Photographs by Pratt) . Charcoal burning; wood in place in kiln. . Charcoal burning; kiln at end of firing. MAP Geologic map of Bulacan iron-ore region. 261 262 ibis, ak The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TEXT FIGURES Outline map of central Luzon, showing situation of the Bulacan iron-ore mining region with respect to Manila. . Stratigraphic column for the Bulacan iron-ore region. . Geologic sections through the iron-ore region, diagrammatic in part: (a) Post-Miocene sedimentaries; (6) Miocene sedimentaries; (c) granite; (d) effusives with intrusives; (e) intrusives with effu- sives. f . Geologic section through ore body at Camaching, along an east-west line; diagrammatic in part: (a) Miocene shales, tuffs, and clastics; (b) altered wall rock; (c) iron ore; (d) intrusives; (e) blocks of limestone in ore; (f) limestone and clastics; (hk) effusives; length of section, about 200 meters. . Geologie section through ore body at Montamorong, along a north- east-southwest line; diagrammatic in part: (a) Granite; (6) in- trusives; (c) altered wall rock; (d) iron ore; (e) effusives; length of section, about 100 meters. . Geologic section through ore body at Hison, along an east-west line; diagrammatic in part: (a) Granite; (6) intrusives; (c) altered wall rock; (d) iron ore; (e) effusives; (f) limestone, shale, and sandstone; length of section, about 200 meters. DALBURG AND PRATT: BULACAN IRON ORES. ] [Puit. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No 3. Fig. 1. Binangonan limestone in Mount Bahay Panique (home of the bats) ; looking southwest. Fig. 3. Balubad Falls in bedded tuff; Balaong River. PLATE I. DALBURG AND PRATT: BULACAN IRON ORES.] [PHIL. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No 38. Fig. 1. Granular magnetite in fibrous amphibole (tremolite ?), hanging wall Constancia ore body; natural size. Fig. 2. Specimen across wall of magnetite vein in limestone, Camaching; natural size. PLATE Il. DALBURG AND PRATT: BULACAN IRON OREs.] [PuiL. Journ. Sci., IX, A, No 3. Fig. 1. Magnetite vein in limestone, Camaching. Fig. 2. Inclusions of limestone in iron ore, Camaching. Fig. 3. Diabase (?) dike in diorite, Bayabas River; quartz filling along fractures. PLATE Ill. DALBURG AND PRATT: BULACAN IRON OREs. | [Pui. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No 3. Fig. 1. Ore pit at Hison ore body. Fig. 3. Large hematite bowlder in stream below ore body, Santa Inez. PLATE IV. + F . ~ = ‘ E “ A ; ‘ ‘ — - : or vs £ - '- ; i sf ; - ‘A ALW1d ‘ueoe(ng ul souldi|i4 Aq “Pulyoeured ‘yso10j Ul 4azjaws UO‘] *¢ *HI4 paonpoid yULOAMO|d pue sieYSMO|d UOdI-}seQ “ZHI ‘odeAelA] ‘U0!ZBAadO Ul aBDeUIN{ yse{q OUIdIj!I4 ‘"T “HI4 6 ON ‘V ‘XI “lg ‘Nuno “1H g] [‘sayQ Nouy Nvovwing :Livud aNv pynaivq yy = a= — = i ~ i , ‘ - ‘ we . @ ’ - - ~ ’ DALBURG AND PRATT: BULACAN IRON OREs.] [PuiL. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No 3. Fig. 1. Charccal burning; wood in piace in kiln. Fig. 2. Charcoal burning; kiln at end of firing. PLATE VI. 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The bacterial count often shows enor- mous increase after a heavy shower. The amount of insoluble suspended matter increases appreciably in rainy weather, and the oxygen-consuming capacity appears to do the same. Table II shows the daily variation in bacteria count, as measured in the Manila water supply, and demonstrates that water from surface streams, no matter how well guarded, is not entirely satisfactory, since it is always subject to sudden contamination. TABLE I].—Bacteriological examinations of the city of Manila water supply. Cea ; ae Date. | Colonies. Hie a Baculis Amebz.| Ciliates. HEC 1915. Apr. 12 258 = _ ae at a 13 216) + — + 4 en 14 356 ot | = + ae + 15 256| 9 + = sy i 4 Sy ahaa ye | se - + i! uu 17| 2,289) + = i an 4 SP Tyas Pe (2) Me ‘a a 19 928 + —_— + at a 20| 1,654) + — + i Be 21| 3,058) + ~ + fe + 22 768; +4 = ais bp ne 23/ 1,040| + me 4 4 i 24 800 4 — ae ne 5 25 731 4 a i 4 a 26 780} + = si ui il 27 976 + _ + a. as 28 941) 4 = aL at as | avi3 Pe ae su if 30; 1,908) + = I 4 a May 1] 1,152) + = ; bu i 2 608} = 4 4 4 3 656; — = + a 4 422 = — 4 ie 5 381; — = a n ue 6 464 | +j — 4 st ® Bacillus coli group. *Pub. P. I. Bur. Govt. Lab. (1905), No. 20, 39. 284 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE II.—Bacteriological examinations of the city of Manila water supply—Continued. | | 5 | | Date. (ola Ereaump : Bers Pere Ciliates. Blase. | i ! i 1913. | | May 7 254 to lS | 1b yet | 8 496 + (eta ht ok i 9 336 +} = * + BS 10 906 Sn f . Ni 11 400} + | — Eat Ra aves a | 12 | 66| + | — ai pt ate aa fee) Aes, soi], Fel He iy a + hy | 16 399 lis | = as + + | 17 416 r — H =E =i | a | | 18 628} + ato) fe ee Ci ee oy.) Sate ae eae 20i1\ wedx658' |e ER eres) ee glad iy de Palio eames 21| 2,925 | Se Wa ee eee gee | Bo Ste eee + : | od ® Bacillus coli group present. As the density of population increases and uninhabited water- sheds become scarcer, the problem of proper protection of water sources grows more complex, and measures have to be taken further to purify the water. At the present time the need of filtration and sterilization is manifest in Manila. A study to determine the method of purification best adapted to conditions in the Philippines is in progress. Water supply in Manila—During the Spanish régime an elaborate water-supply system was installed at Manila. A dam was built across Mariquina River, and the water was pumped from this dam to an underground reservoir having a capacity of about 72,000 cubic meters (19,000,000 U. S. gallons) and was then conducted into the city mains. The water was not filtered or otherwise purified. Mariquina River drained a territory in- habited by approximately 15,000 people, who used the river for bathing, washing clothes, depositing garbage and excreta, as well as for drinking purposes. The banks of the river were thickly inhabited, and the water passed through two large towns and a number of smaller ones. A source of this kind could never be safe. During cholera epidemics, armed guards were stationed along the river banks to protect the river as much as possible from contamination. In 1908 a new water system was installed, deriving its supply from Mariquina River at a point above which no people live. A large dam was constructed at Montalban Gorge, and the watershed from which Mariquina River obtains its water supply 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 285 was reserved from settlement and guarded against trespassing. From this dam the water is allowed to flow through pipes to a _large open reservoir having a capacity of 206,000 cubic meters (54,500,000 U.S. gallons) and to a small reserve reservoir hav- ing a capacity of 68,130 cubic meters (18,000,000 U. S. gallons). This installation furnishes an adequate supply of water for the city for almost the entire year, though in case of a long-continued dry season it is sometimes necessary to use the old intake to supplement this supply. At such times, guards are stationed along Mariquina River to prevent pollution of the stream. Though the water supplied to the city is not absolutely safe, it is an improvement over that of the old source, as is shown by health conditions. The city of Manila has about 225,000 inhabitants, and uses approximately 48,000 cubic meters (12,700,000 U. S. gallons) of water per day. The daily per capita consumption is about 214 liters (56.5 U. S. gailons) as compared with a weighted average of 378.5 liters (100 U. S. gallons) per capita for rep- resentative American cities.© Water is delivered free at public hydrants, from which many of the Filipinos carry it, generally in open 5-gallon kerosene cans, to their homes, where it is often kept in ollas. At the present time the water is unfiltered, but it is treated with enough chloride of lime before entering the city mains to correspond to an addition of 1 part of ‘‘available chlorine” in 2,000,000 parts of water. The chlorination has not appreciably lowered the bacterial count in the tap water, probably, because of the large amount of suspended organic matter. The water almost always contains amcebe, ciliates, and flagellates, but until very recently organisms of the Bacillus coli group were rarely present. Cebu water supply.—At Cebu a dam capable of impounding 1,260,000 cubic meters (333,000,000 U.S. gallons) of water from an uninhabited watershed has been constructed. In addition, a distributing system has been installed. The new waterworks were completed early in 1912. SURFACE WELLS It is difficult at best to get pure water from a surface well, and more difficult to keep the supply pure and unpolluted. E. Bartow 7 reports that 2,638, or 43 per cent, of 5,587 shallow wells * Johnson, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper (1918), 315, 17. See also, Salt, This Journal, Sec. D (1918), 8, 165. "Ind. San. and W. S. A. (1918), 86-90. 286 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 examined in Illinois from 1907 to 1912 were condemned. H. E. Barnard * states that an examination of 5,000 wells in Indiana showed over 50 per cent to be polluted, and he recommends the abandonment of every surface well in the State. When such is the opinion expressed in the United States, the general undesir- ability of surface wells in the Philippines must at once be apparent. Here we must contend with the effect of higher hum- idity and temperature, increased bacterial activity, rapid putre- faction, and the ignorance of many of the inhabitants with regard to the necessity of pure water. A simple hole in the ground, unlined and without a curb, covered partially with a loose bamboo platform, has frequently been considered an adequate and satis- factory installation. Such a well, situated in the midst of a crowded barrio where life is conducted in a primitive manner and where there are no sewerage facilities, cannot possibly be and where there are no sewerage facilities, cannot possibly be safe. Practically every shallow well examined by the Bureau of Science has been found dangerously polluted. The analyses given in Table III are typical. *Tbid. (1913), 43-46. 287 ippines al Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Ph IX, A, 4 "88g “d UO MOl[OF Sa}0U}00,J—"dALON “s10}0Ul G°g *pregurelg gO Ge sar | pas caer Tn ae a he [@WA4ON | 78 107eM ‘deep sdoyoul OT [JPM | ‘UeNZeUBqED ‘efiogq BAONNY |---~-~------ GIGI ‘ounL | ZOEFIT 91 PgR ae en Bee a iS SRS RN Se eS Ean ee OR Se Te SRE Ea [aes ES esof UBS ‘OLOPUIIT |---~-“TT6T ‘aequiezdag | 1.7076 cl “quoUl | -Ipes Jo JUNOUIe [[euis “Io[oo MoT[ax |--~--------- [J2\ uedo ‘JJ ajdureg |---------------------- ODsgrrs (ino ase Se ec ee ODsaman 60LE6 ae *“qUeUIIpes ‘od Ayey ‘ytep yyIMm aojoo yYystuMorg |-~~~~~------- [19M uedo ‘f ejdureg |------- ALOPSAIOSGO “epueyy |-~~- ~~~ ~~ TI6L ‘1940490 | G0TE6 el (eee ee een cea eee ao eee te ee 66 UOl}Ipung,, | ~~~" ~~~ sornurerquy “epiueyy |-~~~~- ~~~ ~~~ go6T ‘ung | zEETs ar Fn ee enn nae se | en 9a reeset Se eet Se ees [E SP T&L BPUY AT[BD “BlLuBW |------~ 906T ‘Atenazgeg | GrSLZ It "UMO} 2O(Qatl eae ea ee ae es: O Diseas JO 1939 UI [[JeM USdO ATeUIPIQ | ODsceaalee soe ss2 35 so as5 op----- £9086 Or *UMO} JORTed YQ10U “441d 4900 Bris naa ioe nee ae ore op----"| jo yawd yoeq ye [Jem uedQ |~~~~------~~ ueurg ‘eunseT |-------- -[T6T “t9q0190 | E9086 6 fxr nae ee ga rae eG oe RE eae FCEEYD CREREMEES FLEW EL RTAIIR TO) OSS SSS SSS SSS (0) 9 EOE CARTS 8 Eee rs carne a ea = epee ees een] [OMe OULU Ton 031 Cl OUT AO1 cle |e eens een eaten ean O Dieta ns | Gann meene oa neo ODEs aaa ltGGCGe L Eee SAS eae Os hae ete! Ape | Pee AXIO JO Ae YRATOU “[TOM |-- OPr mao Opa =-="1 Bagge 9 SS ee a a ee ~“doop siojour pg ‘TJoM[e@droruny |-----------ue sia “Ing sodo]] |------ gQ6T ‘Aequieseq | ggcgs g ‘yey -SO}]T puv[sy usSyyNOG Avou eMnching | pe eeeree a OD eaten ‘doap saoqoul pg “Jam Bnq | ---- 1X8 YO} SLX EIQ) |S E1GT ‘124°390 | LLPLIT t HL@29N 9 NOES a soa fe [BULION [>> --> ve doop 810}0UL 9°), “[JOM nq | -~~--- okesug ‘ngap |------ SI6T ‘Tequiaydes | gLOLTT g | “uel 0 Cea | Sipe ct ee Co ne ee ey a ie een net tesa =~ pen aioe ODresSs -eliqaey, ‘esesueyy ‘loyog j)----------~----- op = 96998 z | “uet SOUL[ GS [Ve tak eee i ent ans ae ee eel | Reo eee oan [[PA oovzang | -B[Iqsey, ‘qeAeoun’T ‘joyog |------- TI6T ‘Arenaqa,q | ggg9g T doad & | BCN on “UOI}OvAYy ‘salqtodoad jeoisAyg “uolyd119seq “AVLBI0'T 078, But a A309BI0Q8] | Seay cee [Juessid=Y fsoeyQ=y fuUSN ‘enw=—7T) ‘syjam aovfuns wo1f 4aynm fo sashjpun hinpuvs— Tt aIav 1914 rence Journal of Se lippine a The Ph 288 “(sA0GB pauoljUeU OM} 4SB] BY} UsaMjoq ABM-J[BYy) ABSeg ‘OSULWOG IZOD ‘g “ON p *[OOYOS [BdiolunuUL JO JuOTy UL [[eM UBISSTIe ay} IveU ‘AUSEg ‘soZIng SFO a ‘ayeulrxoiddy q “UIBIP JO014S SB SUIAIIS YO}IP VB1IB[ B WOT S19}9UL YT [2M » = SOG bt eae ee ana genes ee O Desa | egee JOVEM VOVTAINS JJ] o[dureg |-~ ~~ ~~~ C*) «amar | ea cha a ODE gaas 9P89L iA | 2O Cpa P| Pie acer aa Soo ah een ain ee ODT aE tem AOPEM GOBVIING ST] OT MULES 555 asa 5 OD2555 | seiceet ee ae Ops == 9PS9L 74 eo LUE BS YES] 9 UY 8 0 | Op==="5 Exes esses Taye VdBjANS ‘7 e[duieg }--~~~-- ~~~ Avusley ‘seqedey, |-~ ~~ ~~~ ~~~ OT6T “Yo2RW | 9P8OL &@ “daep s1eqoul TT [[oM BOG (ile, a re ba IO ee [BULION | BDBJINS ‘uoloBlqod jo oltaeg |~----~-~--- euevony ‘seqvdAey, |------ SI6L “Aequieseq | PPELIT a *S19J0UL GT 12 497BM “O{NUIW Jed s1oql] get ee Bane Ra pe aie ame sduind ‘doap s19j0Ul 1% ‘99 “ON |-~~----~------ Buosroy[ “[eziy |--~---EL6L ‘Aequiezdag | EzoLIT 1% £0 Cilio Ente eat om Tat aig OD=SS ti | NeGeneeee San ee acme es PO Dae SIC = hee OP aa ir ck cee ORIS<3 III edures | 02 | SOG =p) |(SF ies Seeenas wares s MO] ODN S LOA OF SF | ieee me eee D[1SMaied Qi a Sosa Sea seas= Sosa Ogee ite sce: aaa Opies II e1dwveg | 61 "OG SSE FG SERRE Sa Reo Sa ee eas ELIT Nid Ferg 2 a OS On re Se al | aie te ee ABseg ‘[BZyy |----- >>> ~ TIGL “19q0990 | [ e[dureg 8 SOULE N Vill ae SS TSESte es Peas Sesh [oo Spr acs So bese aaa e 2 Ronee Pe Sidi) duiey ‘uevuisesueg |------~ 806T ‘AlBnaqea.y | LOOT Li *u013089 “setjszedoid jeoiséy | “UOINd 1089: *Aq1[290' ‘aqeq soN Buy 1 aI r shy g | : dicosaq HBoOry A10VOIOGB'T “DBA, “‘penutquU0pj—s7jam aonfuns woul sajnm fo sashyvun hunpung—yIT a1av I, 289 2 ippines a Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Ph IX, A, 4 anyd[ns pus “Butueyoe|q 1311S og “quesedd 2709 “gg ‘og od “Buu Mosq FY SIS “SulUeoR[g *oplxorp eprydins ues -orpAy JO SZUNOUIe [BUS SsuTe}UOD “BulUSyowyq USNS “SulueHyoVg “queseid 209 *¢ “SuLueyoB[g_ “SYIBUIOI pus ‘u0}{1USI UO eNpIsed Jo Jo1ABYyeg TL&h EL “LT SP 82 78 9 TL PPL TL 68 29 “LET 89 TET 8 TL 00 808 IT 68 26 °8L 16 eT 88 2S “AIBA -odurey, *ssoupieyy “eultoyy9 "SOUI}IN 260 ‘0 108 °0 £96 °F Oct 0 ge |PSeeeeeee N 6100 L v10 0 [ok ag ea 26T ‘0 cea eT TP 0 08h ‘Te L10°0 &P9'S T&0 0 v8& 0 &70 0 O8T 62 L830 yee T G06 ‘0 898 0 v0 '0 a 6100 TI 2000 616 'T 0800 L Tar “0 “eLuoul *ga781},N | -UIe plou “lund y —SB U9ZOAINE “elUOUIUIe e217 "wo1y ust uo ss0'T 0°LOT ‘T 6168 *19}} @UL [BreuIyy 8°99 v96P 0°66) 0°0&S 8°888 L°18L L C61 ‘T 0068 0°20 °T 0 8h2 0 023 ‘T 3 968 “splfos [e101 [queseid=—q faoey= J] SUS N Sey = 7) ‘ponuluog—s7jam aovfuns wort 4aj0m fo sashjnun hunzuvg— yl aATAVL 9F89L 9P89L 9P89L | PYGLIT az EZ0LTL | Il edures | oz Wedueg | 6t | Tedueg | gr Z90T a Z298PIT or | 12026 a 60186 ve | 60186 er | | | | Leste a | 6h8L2 II £9086 Ot £9086 6 Z6S88 8 68e8s L 3gcge 9 9898s 9 LLPLIT , ELOLIL 8 99998 z gg998 I ‘oN ‘ON | A20;B.10q8"T ee 128080-——2 290 The Philippine Journal of Science igt4 SPRINGS There are large numbers of springs in the Philippines, many of which are credited with medicinal properties. Thermal springs are numerous, and there are many springs which are heavily charged with gases or with mineral salts. These are discussed under a separate head on page 381. Sanitary analyses of Phil- ippine springs are given in Table IV. 291 ip pines al the Ph m Water Supplies 1 Cox et al. TX, A, 4 “Ggz “d UO MO[[OF S9}0UJOO.J—"ALO NT SDIOB ALU SNS Gace ana eee a een ais OD ese oaaen soInseg ivou Bulids o3teq 7 Opis aa en es ee OPisenan A900T “gq dureg SOG) laa ae eee 7 989[9488} PUB AIBaID | MOTEq SAazoU QOS ‘HUVq Joe |-- OPzse55| =o: ae eee ODieasn £900T *901Nos WIT U9He} JOU B[dures SOC) 29h soars (ae eee a ee ee ssooqsey, | ‘¢ dug ozsoddo yYueq yySIy | ~- (0) Jee EE a eae OP seas 1900T SOChs. al asecaee sos qisodop useid pues en{q {plop |--~ ¢ duizo ozIsoddo yu yyy | BG ys Col Rae Ga Open Yyg00T "O 086 21nze10d "JOAIL “og -wie} fanydjns jo dopo pue e4sey, | Jo YUeq JYsII UO Bultds YFP |~-- OD areca | eso eaen sso ae Opens 39001 [OCS © Gl sopiae 23 eee SSO[IOpO pus s90[0}8By, | -- ~~ WB91}8 WOIF USHV} O[MWIBG |-~—-~— 7 OPzsaes| aaa +52 soe pest ODaaaae J900T “aA0ge [00a = lies cee a ee SSo[1OpO puk Iea]D | SloJOWOTIN Bp BuUldds [[ewWg | ---- ODey soe |g ZOGT ‘toquisaonN | 2900T SOG: 22-4 | saspes sean Ss8d[1OpO pUB ‘BS9[9}8E} ‘P[OD [~~~ XB UL TSC CL SURLY ONT | cat OD Sass S| ees aes ae ODmesea | P900T [Oia «| Gate ee oe §S0]0988} PUG P[OD |-~~-- > 7 a3103 Ul weeryg |--------- > syeog UIMy, “ensueg |-----~-~-~-----~ ODmea 2900T ‘OD oGL eanyereduiey | | ‘og finydjas jo dopo pue 94se} ‘1eatD | ~~~ AVAIT dAoqe Surids oR |----- > Jaaly peng “Yensueg |------+--------- ODaaans q900T coy q Caine Paper sa g890[048e} pus ‘plod “ABe[D |-~~-- > ploo ‘sutadg uynog |------- ~~~ syReg UM, “ensueg (--------- ZO6T ‘19G0290 | B900T nego eee ane or (O Daaraa| pecs emia pera J UT OOO race Seana ere we eee SOD Meena anne wea ea eR O Dama MOL Be eae ea Ce eee er re ODiaaces | pa ESS OUTIL STOWE DON Gi pene sae eee nna O Do ean | panna iam pemeesO Deena NOSE pier as quellipes Jo JUNOUIe [els AI@A |--~~~-~~-~~--- Bulaids winiieyuesg a a eee ma eee Lh CYS f = ZOGT ‘Aequiszdeg | 88h SAP TS Eby 4 0 (eal betes Seem ene ab eee weary eggs a ny Cree ee ee ee | ee uvteleg ‘sedey ‘sesueyeg |--------- IGT snsny | ZSLeil “Bulidg 2: Cuaiee|| (acess ENO] [ANUS LUUAS OSL CTA ULES) PLC] CELT | cn ne nn qouey ‘Ssoulte@weg soquiy |------------ eI6l ‘oun | TLOSTT ‘od -- piqin} ‘JUSOWWIpEs ABO YZIM UMOTG [~~~ >>> PLEA SOY 8 Gil oat eS Ro prs225|G-<5 55S sc5= €I6T ‘euNL | SE8PIT SDIOW S| Sawer ap ca eer ear aaa apni [BOON spe tie es oe a SE APP OOS ON py [PS a TANT TAC [Vas | eee SI6T “3snsny | TELSTT | “IOATY Bee ier a pea ee yee ysiyoeag |-------~-------~----> Bulads yoy | @aqy ‘Sulssoao seyjimop ‘erqy | ~~~ «SCT'TT6T. *I9Q0JDO |---- 77> “ON “uol}OBaYy “saiztodoaid [Bo1sAyg “uoIydI1039q *AYIVIO'T -27eq sae | | 61 8T LT 9T oT tL &1 rae IT mo Oh OD -oBlL [90844 = 7] {queseid=g !lu=N !ew—T Susy —H ‘eaisseaxeo—q * e[qetepisuos =H] ‘suaj0Mm Husds fo sashjnun havpuog— Al ATVI, 1914 rence Journal of Sci ippine al The Ph 292 s[RaqnO Ns < eene (Oh (eae cea oe arureyy Byung, owowsed ‘seulaBUED )-~-=-— === =o Co) VOLG | &F OUl[ BN We |= eee IO[Od o7BIS ‘piqany, | -- « Aou0se’y O[e'T,, [se BOX ‘soULTBUIED [~~ =-~~ om PO6T ‘AB | HOLE | 2b ]BXIUONT Soo weee ee Oe ge ae O Der | art et ee 5 Teer aoe ita wee eras Waaeow on aos C1) Sg ocd Pema SI6I ‘Avenue | LOPTIIT | 1h ie Sa ae ee Openness amms Opmrmn|o-= === BUS [gis ‘uwoB[Ng |---~-~ ZIT ‘aequiezdag | OSELOT | OF (OG. oe |S ee ea eee ODS Sic s =o ea ODF Sta a Se a, Oe 52) aes (a ae ae ZIGT “tay | 99LTOT | 68 ‘ourndé OC eee nae at a TWUIZO NG | pains carries eae OBES Sane OR EUAN BES OR SILAC To ee ZI6T “YorB | OL0G6 | 88 SOUITEH [Wal igen ce ee oan et ere | ene ae ee Mae OD tier: | pee Sanaa = Sener ete ODRa Hse Roaa oe B06T ‘ounr | SF68S | LE sig SES poe eer ee a ape mmr aR hae ere ae SBULAAG [NGI | --— Op "--- === QOGT ‘raquuadeq | SBEse | 98 wana nnn enn nnn nn nnn nn nn nnn nn | ns nnn nnn on nnn nn nn nnn fn nn nnn nn nnn nnn Op-~ ~~" |>-=-"==—"===GOG6T “YOaBy | 99Z9T | oe “oun AR SIMATNONS | te OU POSTS LURE ST Se ee ae ee Op JENS Ueg ‘[NGIg ‘weow[Ng |-----~------- POG ‘ABW | FOL6 re (pmo wh Oe pe Sree at OE Cee ae ee ae ea Eee ee EL Bulids JOH | sozUBALOH 78 [[LY JoJOOF ‘90}U0g |--------- TTT *49qQo039Q |~--~--~-| gE Cater wile cone Manus eae tema ae Og Seer Seer iosin aoe rie are ar | a ee UBSIGU TL TOUOR [Hs Z16T “AlN | PIGPOT | 28 TOUNGHIW ee cies ee [MUO NT B= F555 Soo aSS prea Stas anager pasta. area oreng ‘joyog |----------~ ZI6L ‘yore | G98L6 | 18 ST ETVUIO NIH" pases oa ee [ane rte om ea eae PR | ra oad ama uesiqny, ‘louog |---~---~ ZIGT ‘Arenaqay | 89TLE | 08 SULT OH Ful Ee he Se en | BE ne eee aa ea | one Maa eae AeoT ‘Joyog |------- TIGL “Aoquieseq | 82686 | 62 ‘plow AY SYg |-~~-"FUSwpes FYB! 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Table V, showing the number of wells drilled by the Bureau of Public Works from year to year, in- dicates the manner in which the work of supplying the country with water is progressing. TABLE V.—Wells drilled by Bureau of Public Works. Year ending June 30— wells wells expend- ! | Deep Jet-rig | Insular driven. | driven. iture. | =" Oo = oo Table VI contains sanitary analyses of water from deep wells throughout the Philippine Islands.° * Technical analyses of waters are included in Table VII. 301 ippines iL v Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Ph IX, A, 4 "Beg ‘d ‘9]qu} 84 JO pus oy} 4B MOT[OJ S9}0U}OO.J—ALON “OTNULU tod S197] OLG | SOU ON [Wil Bacar cms yeas Sere ee me OPE eae SMOY ‘deep S1a}eUl ZZT SQL “ON [>>> OD rence ee eae op--~ | 12¢62 “oynuLU aod S197] OFZ SMOY SOULS [RPA SUN Si ipsa pea nace ees a Oo) ors ‘deep sieqyoul EPIL *79T “ON [7777 usdeleg ‘sedueyeg |-----~------~ OL6L “A[nE | ZIL8L © (tests | eater eee r a ate ag eae we eae OD aes ie eS dvep 8.10 9Ul G8T '66 HONG sae os he eee [ee], ‘StsueywyY |-----~ 606T ‘tequiezdesg | SLIOL “oqynuUlUL Jed 81941] O6T | sduind ‘siejeu 99 7e Jayem | | SOUL BS Yellen, > ae ORT ee meee [BUItO NT ‘deep SdoJOuU PZT £L0¢ ‘ON |------=---- SVSeVUly ‘se.duvyeg Fee a SI6L “19qQ0100 COPLIT BO Clee eee ee easy = Bae 2 SSR | a mie Ea SSO GRUE SiO TE S))9 Va) | ieee nn eee ane pay Ag pf Qs SE6LIT FR ean eee at ee eG ye ne ea ea JoWURSEIT OVO FV | —-~ AeIld “esoy eIueg ‘uvayeg | ~~~" Op" | SEGLTT Catan an ah ae Ora ae ER RC Rae, LE a See 1 i es0r UBS ZI[2N 4V | eld ‘ouonbeg uevieg U6 ie | eae enna O Diam EGCG) Ti OGM ose ae See PIQ2UE 4 ieee aeieeaas COANE QUO FP qelig ‘ueeyeg |-~-~---- ODE SE6LIT | Sees Sp ALS Sap a ES ne, replace ae nemeaeee ree “UBSBAIT FV |--->--ae[Ig “esoy Bjyues ‘ueeyeg |-~~~~~~~~~~- ~~~ Op" - ~~} SS6LIT 0 Yip 2° = paseen = Sn etna ane gee eee | Een pe ee eae SESUL NO TCO NVA sac > oe cee eae ODeaees a= eo eee Opes SE6LIT TBAT Ne oe ee ie = ee aaa PERE oIped Ueg eT1@D FV Bild ‘ueeyeg | ~--~~ SIGT “tequieseq | Sg6LIT “qUeUIIpes “eyNUIU ted S191] gg sdund j | | AQABII YALA ‘UMOAG YSIMOTIOA Spiqany, | ‘deap staqew F'ZgT ‘Gog “ON |---~~>7> 77 EO) VERY [PS SI6T “AINE | 99SSTT : “9JNULUL od 81941] OLT SMO 10GS Ss asa as oe eae OD meee sdaep SieJeUL EPIL ‘819 “ON | >> ovuleyl ‘Aeq¢y |-----~~ SIGE ‘tequieseq | TOO8TT ‘aINULUI Jed 81041 OP SMO ay 6 (82 eect areca OD amass ‘deap siajeur p16 ‘76h “ON |-~7777>7 OBa sya A GC iva eee SI6L ‘Tady | 699211 “oynuluLr dod S10}l[ GP | sduind ‘s.1ejeul gg pesea [e048 SOULE [Vales eee a tee ee ed [@W4ION | ‘deep sxteyour POZI ‘0S “ON | - 7 Aeqry “Aeqry | SI6T “19G0}90 | GOLLIT | “YUSUIIpEs YsUMOIG puB | | 9188} YSLOVIq YFIM pjqin, yeEYMOWOG |~-———— SCCSONG pee neo uenjng ‘uesnsWw j--- TT6T “Yoteyy | S998 bees “U0}}OBOY “selqaedoid [waisAyg ‘UO}}dlJosep pues [[JaM Jo “ON “£UBIOT “oye | ae 1 i : | [‘peunuiajepun= fQ ‘ov = | ‘yuesaid=g ![lU=N !e9T="T ‘ eArssaoxe =] ‘syjam daap worf 4ay0m fo sashjnun hinpuvg—]A Ida, 1914 Te 0£ 66 82 LZ 9% SZ ve &@ &2 1% 08 61 8T LT “ON But -dB1], a[RUNONS f= as; 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S) — ~ Ines | | oS oA EMS CK CHS TP0 ECT | el | Que IL “P6L N bLE ‘0 g10°0 LT0°0 | 602 p°ST9 9°S§9 8IP66 | Tep nH g°10))8u | + o1ue310 Jo [jews pue Surueyoepg” |---| Ly OLY N N 988 °0 6080 =| b'6P ¥ P90 '‘T 8°80T ‘T SIh66 | OSP SS ae ea ee ee Sasa eee en ens G°LZ N 918 "0 410°0 N 2 °Sh v SIP 9°89P LEZEIT | 62P Sy ca |e ee ee Se te ee eee 8°6S L oT Té0°0 210°0 89 0°8Lh 8 °68P CELSO | 8aP = 06 “ZL €98t | 09h 0p 0 400 ‘0 119°0 €hL 0 LSP 8°L¥8 9 °866 61896 | LP S FO (]emany | are ee eens | P8°LZ L N 622 0 TL9°S val 8 E29 @ S29 92918 | 9zP = SOC" | pera Sn Poa 86 ‘OT FIP 0 L 10) i) L220 aut aes 8668 £2918 | 9¢p © Hees ULERIAN OOK CY UTS ET CS ec 18 ‘OT N N 92T 0 Ory 0 VS 9°egs 0°Ss3 97978 | Pep Ss ESULUOM OBC CL] S| eater eae | ee 80°L69 L iL vZL0 0 08& °0 SIL 3 "F08 ‘T 0°9T8 ‘T S86F8 | &aP Q SE UL CU ARON CN | aa ea 00 ‘0S2 N GL Tr0°0 L980 0°6T 9°EL6 9°266 86188 | Zap S ‘Bulueyoel_ | 29'p 18% PL 262 N N 110°0 868 0 8% 8 °GF0 ‘T 9°SF0 'T S6PI8 | Lap iS 02 “TLT 08 "82 LT A 080°0 £80°0 110°0 8'T P66E 2 10P OSh08 | 0Zr AY oh L%°9 €9 QPL N N S2r 0 COV Obes 0 caine ee een 3196 18208 | 6IP 2 co aetna oa it) § N L v20 0 LOO Oa Sete eee ia cas ag 0°90T 262811 | SIP ee cue So me a ee ee eseteeee ~| 18°18 L L 850 °0 S50; O Mew eementars | aaa arn 8°89F SIL9TT | LIF “ABI “yueu 4 ‘ a vou | “ByuouLULE “‘syTBUWIAA satura ds “eMaed, ‘auitojy9 Foot eat ca ares SEEN | “UOIQIUS! | *109;eUr ‘Splfos | . mens a ait pus ‘UOI}IUSI UO ONpIser FO AOIABYog , | uo SSO'T | [B1OULT [230], -oqe’'y |-ovxy, “*sSOUPIB]T —8® U2S0I1}IN ‘ponuryu0g—s7jam daap wouf aynm fo sashjoun hunpuvg— tA aTavI, 338 1x, 4,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 839 The high chlorine content is one of the most notable general features of Philippine artesian waters. This does not neces- sarily indicate sewage pollution, but rather seepage from the ocean or contact with some underground salt deposits or im- pregnated rocks. The water from some of the artesian wells has been found to be too salty to drink. The high free ammonia content of certain wells, as for exam- ple those in the towns of Iloilo, Santa Barbara, and Jaro, Iloilo Province, is especially interesting. These wells are from 60 to 175 meters deep, and are cased to the bottom. They probably owe their abnormal ammonia content to the peculiar nature of the strata through which they pass. According to W. E. Pratt of the Bureau of Science: The wells at. Iloilo are sunk through estuarine deposits which are high in organic matter resulting both from plant and animal remains in the sediments themselves and from included remains of organisms that lived in the salt or brackish water in which the beds were laid down. The character of the water itself is likewise transmitted to the sediments through saturation during deposition and preservation by subsequently deposited overlying strata. Silts with considerable contents of humus, soils, carbonaceous clays, shales, and sands impregnated with salts from sea water are the prominent members of the formation. Artesian water is obtained from lenses of sand or fine gravel in the general formation. It is uniformly salt in the low-lying part of the province at a depth greater than approximately 165 meters. A flowing well is to be preferred because of the decreased danger of pollution. It is an established fact that bacteria cannot be entirely removed from deep wells by pumping; on the other hand, flowing artesian wells from deep strata are practi- cally sterile. The pressure in flowing wells tends to prevent sur- face seepage. In a study covering 22 flowing and 12 pumping artesian wells, Barber ’° of the Bureau of Science found that the best pumping well showed more bacteria per cubic centimeter than did the poorest flowing well reported. He says in con- clusion: the waters from the flowing wells show a remarkably high degree of bacterial purity and may be regarded as free from pollution by pathogenic bacteria. The pumping wells show a much lower degree of bacterial purity, although it is unlikely that any of them were polluted to a dangerous degree at the time of examination. These wells should be examined oc- casionally—especially during the prevalence of water-borne diseases— since they cannot be regarded as absolutely safe from pollution. In general, artesian water has been found quite satisfactory, both from the chemical and biological points of view, and in ” This Journal, Sec. B (1918), 8, 458. 340 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 many instances where the quality left something to be desired the water was so much better than any other available supply that its use has been permitted. POLLUTION OF WATER SUPPLIES All available data emphasize the difficulty in obtaining pure water in the Philippines and in keeping it free from contamina- tion. Edwards, in a biological study of Philippine waters, found 53 per cent of all the samples submitted dangerously pol- luted, and confirmed the generally accepted conclusion that all water used for drinking purposes should be boiled. Even where pure water is obtainable, the methods of handling and storing %? are often such that the water is unfit to drink. At Antipolo, 25 kilometers from Manila, is the shrine of Nuestra Sefiora de la Paz y Buen Viaje, to which people make pilgrimages in large numbers. Sometimes as many as 10,000 persons visit the shrine in one day, and they have to be accom- modated in the small town of Antipolo, which has no facilities for meeting the sanitary needs of such a multitude. To quote again from the report of the Bureau of Health. One of the greatest dangers connected with the pilgrimage is the fact that it is customary after visiting the Virgin to bathe in the river which flows by the town. The water for drinking and other domestic purposes is obtained from this river at a point below where the bathing takes place. In order to supply a better drinking water an artesian well has been dug. Unfortunately, the quality of the water is not of the very best, and on account of a slightly disagreeable taste it is almost completely eschewed by the people, who still continue to obtain their water supply from the river. Another source of great danger is the lack of proper facilities for the disposal of human excrements. The sanitary facilities of the town are not nearly sufficient to meet the demands of the great number of persons who go there. The state of affairs in this small town is rather significant. The municipality has not sufficient funds to provide a system of sewage disposal adequate for the needs of its own inhabitants. For a long time Manila had the highest infant mortality rate of any city on record. In this connection Musgrave says:' The next most important faulty custom consists in the dilution of milk compounds with unsafe water. In our investigation of the causes “Tbid. (1908), 2, 21. “For an account of the mode of living and the customs of the Filipinos, especially with reference to the problem of water supply, see This Jowrnal, Sec. B (1909), 4, 211. * Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Hlth. (1912-138), 62. “This Journal, Sec. B (1918), 8, 465. 1x,A,4 Cow et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 341 of death of 300 babies, it is found that tap water, either with or without boiling, is used as a diluent in most instances. As a majority of the houses of these people are at considerable distances from the nearest faucet, the water is carted by water carriers and kept in earthenware jars or other vessels under the most unsanitary conditions; in many instances whatever safety might be secured by boiling the water is destroyed by the subsequent manipulations and care of the water and by the methods employed in making the dilutions of the milk mixtures. WATER-BORNE DISEASES The average Filipino is undernourished and underdeveloped. From 80 to 96 per cent of the native population suffers from intestinal parasites. Just how great a role impure water has played in bringing about this state of affairs has not been demon- strated, but it certainly has been one of the great factors. Vital statistics indicate that the death rate from intestinal diseases was three times as great before the installation of the new Manila water supply (1908) as at present. In periods of con- tinued drought when it became necessary temporarily to use water from Mariquina River to supplement the regular supply, there was in each case a sudden increase in the death rate.'® Contrary to experience in the United States, water-borne dis- eases are more prevalent in the Philippines during the rainy season * than at any other time, probably due to the washing of accumulated surface débris and fecal matter into the water courses. The three most important “water-borne” diseases are typhoid, cholera, and entameebic dysentery, although water probably is not the most important medium for their transmission. Typhoid.—Typhoid fever is very common and widespread in temperate and tropical countries. Chamberlain '* and Heiser '° have written concerning the prevalence and nature of typhoid in the Philippines. It appears to be distributed equally through- out the year. Chamberlain reported the death rate in Manila from typhoid as 36.8 per 100,000. This rate was exceeded only by those of cities which were notorious for high typhoid rates. Chamberlain points out that— The water supplies are almost universally bad, the proper disposal of excreta is almost entirely neglected, the crowding in the habitations and * Tbid. (1909), 4, 261. *% Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Hlth. (1912), 4, 46. Thid. (1911-12), 47. *® This Journal, Sec. B (1911), 6, 299. ” Thid. (1912), 7, 115. 342 The Philippine Journal of Science : 1914 the native manner of eating favor contact infection. Yet, in spite of these unfavorable conditions, there is little evidence that severe and destructive epidemics of typhoid fever occur among the Filipinos. * * * Widal reactions performed on the blood of 591 healthy Filipinos suggest a comparatively recent attack of typhoid in about 6 per cent of adults, but do not indicate that the disease is prevalent in childhood. According to Nichols *° typhoid is endemic in Samar, Leyte, and Iloilo. Cholera.—In spite of the frequent and terrible outbreaks of cholera in the Philippines in the past, it is still an open question whether or not the disease is endemic. For the last few years, the disease has been practically absent. It is significant to note that the year from July 1,1912, to June 30, 1913, was the first on record during which, so far as known, there was not a single case of cholera in the Islands.”* That cholera vibrios will live in water is a well-established fact. They are, however, very readily destroyed. Schobl *? of the Bureau of Science, who studied the vitality of cholera vibrios in Manila water, kept the organism alive at room temperature (25° to 27°) in sterile water for seven days, in unsterilized tap water for fifty-six days, and in sea water for one hundred six days. The inoculations were made with feces. The experi- ments with tap water were especially significant, since they showed that the organisms may persist in ordinary water for a long time. When the amounts of feces used for inoculation were small, the vibrio remained alive longer than when the amounts were increased, indicating that highly polluted water is less favorable to the existence of the organism than is the ordinary tap water of Manila. At no time, even during the worst cholera epidemics, were cholera vibrios detected in the Manila city water supply. Entamebic dysentery.—Entameebic dysentery has frequently been considered to be a water-borne disease, but Walker ** has shown that entamcebe do not multiply in water and if present are there only in the encysted form due to direct contamination by human fxces. A large percentage of the Philippine waters examined at the Bureau of Science contains amcebe. The Manila water supply - * Tbid. (1909), 4, 282. = Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Hlth. (1912-18), 110. “Extract from a paper read before the Manila Medical Association, April, 1914. = This Journal, Sec. B (1911), 6, 259; Walker and Sellards, ibid. (1913), 8, 258. Ix,4,4 Cow et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 38438 has practically never been free from them. However, that the amoebe ordinarily growing in water cause dysentery in man has been disproved.?* PURIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLIES As all natural waters in the Philippines, with the probable ex- ception of most flowing artesian wells, contain various organisms, it is evident that, to be perfectly safe, water must be sterilized or at least so treated that harmful organisms will be destroyed. Distillation.—The Americans soon introduced the use of dis- tilled water for drinking purposes, both the military and civil governments operating their own distilling plants. The latter furnishes the public with drinking water at the rate of 1 centavo (5 mills U. S. currency) per liter. Recently, distilled water has been largely replaced by water from artesian wells known to be pure. Boiling.—Boiling is perhaps the simplest and most universal safeguard in so far as contamination of water due to living organ- isms is concerned, and is necessary in the Philippines in localities where distilled water or water procured directly from sources of known purity is not available; but general information con- cerning the subject is not widespread, and the cost of fuel is so high and the cooking facilities in the average home are so poor that in some instances it is difficult for families to cook their food. The peculiar taste of boiled water, superstitions regarding its harmful character, and the lack of a comprehension of the purpose of the boiling militate against its use. Filtration.—So far very little work has been done in the Phil- ippines on the filtration of public water supplies, owing to the - urgency of other work and to the scarcity of large water-supply installations. Filtration on a large scale has not yet been at- tempted, but the need of some adequate system of purification has been felt in the city of Manila, and it is probably only a question of time before some filtration system will be installed. Ulira-violet light.—Preliminary experiments on sterilization with ultra-violet light have been very encouraging, and further investigations are contemplated with the sterilizing outfit re- cently installed at the Bureau of Science. Copper sulphate.——The purification of the Manila water supply with copper sulphate was investigated in 1906 and again during an interruption of the service of the Montalban water supply in “Walker, loc. cit. 344 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 1912. It was demonstrated in the laboratory that, in order to safeguard the supply against cholera vibrios, the addition of cop- per sulphate in the ratio of 1 part per 150,000 of water (a strength considered undesirable for drinking purposes), acting over a period of four hours, would be required. Calcium hypochlorite——During the past few months the water entering the Manila city main has been treated with an amount of calcium hypochlorite representing an addition of from 1 part of available chlorine in 3,000,000 parts of water to 1 part in 1,200,000. Unfortunately, the city is using unfiltered surface water, leaving the ultimate success of chlorination in considerable doubt. A rather extensive investigation of the purification of Manila water is being carried on, and is to be reported more fully later. The water is chlorinated at the reservoir just as it enters the main leading to the city. At San Juan Bridge, about 3 kilo- meters below the chlorination station, the water shows a much lower bacterial count than the water entering the reservoir from the dam or pumped into the old Spanish reservoir from Mari- quina River at Santolan, indicating a high efficiency for the chlorination process. The velocity in the city main is relatively low. The mains were designed for a daily consumption of 25,000,000 gallons which would produce a velocity of almost 1 meter per second. As they usually carry less than half that amount, there is insufficient scouring of the pipe to carry off sediment. Considerable quan- tities of fragments of leaves, wood, and other organic matter are carried by the water into the mains, where they lodge and form culture media for bacterial growth. There seems to be no doubt that bacteria multiply rapidly in the pipes within the city, for the bacterial count from the taps at the Bureau of Science is usually higher than that at either San Juan Bridge or even at the intake of the city mains. This is further substantiated by the significant fact that, although bacteria of the B. coli group were usually absent in 2 cubic centimeter samples of water taken daily for a period of several weeks at San Juan Bridge, they are generally found in samples taken from the taps at the Bureau of Science. The forced flushing of the mains with sufficient water to scour the pipes would be beneficial, but this measure is impracticable during the dry months, when the amount of water available is so small that it is either inadequate or barely sufficient for the city’s needs. 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 845 WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES In the Philippines, where manufacturing industries are for the most part still in their infancy, little or no attention was formerly paid to the question of the quality of water for industrial pur- poses. However, there is a growing demand for systematic study of industrial water supplies. The problem of finding water, not only in sufficient quantity but also of suitable quality, is one of the large factors in the determination of the ultimate success or failure of many of our commercial enterprises. This is partic- ularly true in the Philippines, where there is an excessive amount of salt in many inland waters. The rapid corrosion of metals, probably accelerated by the high temperature and humidity, also introduces many factors with which manufacturers elsewhere generally do not have to contend. The qualities most desired in water for industrial purposes are, in general, softness and freedom from suspended matter; however, the suitability of any water depends, in a large measure, on the industry for which it is to be used. Very soft water; water containing sulphuric acid, free carbon dioxide, or over 200 parts per million of chlorine; and acid waters in general are corrosive, especially when used in boilers. Water with over 100 parts per million of chlorine generally proves injurious to plants. Water containing sulphuric acid is not adapted to sugar manufacture. Hydrogen sulphide is poisonous, and renders water generally unfit for drinking or for industrial use; silica is objectionable in boiler water when present in more than 15 parts per million; and a high nitrate content spoils water for brewing, fermentation, or sugar refining. Alkaline salts tend to make water unfit for boiler supply, irrigation, or sugar refining ; more than a trace of ammonia interferes in brew- ing, fermentation, or starch industries; and iron and manganese are nearly always objectionable, even in small quantities. Water which is entirely unfitted for one enterprise may be excellent for another. Waters containing sodium chloride are undesirable for soap making, yet are sometimes decidedly advan- tageous in brewing. Hard waters entirely unsuited for laundry or boiler use may be quite suitable for irrigation purposes. Waters containing calcium and magnesium sulphate, adaptable to brewing, are undesirable for soap making or boiler use. Technical or commercial analyses of waters are made to deter- mine their suitability for making steam, for manufacturing, and 346 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 for domestic or laundry and irrigation purposes. By furnishing analytical data with regard to the waters of the Philippines, we hope to give information concerning the suitability of various waters for industrial purposes, the cause of difficulties arising from their use, and the possibility of improving them. The ordinary analytical methods used in the examination of water permit of accurate determinations of the total solid matter and of the elements and radicals present. The treatment of the total solid matter with a small amount of water sufficient to dissolve the alkali salts will more or less approximately separate the scale-forming from the nonscale-forming ingredients. To go further than this in an expression of the salts and compounds present in water is largely a matter of conjecture.2> Table VII contains technical analyses of waters throughout the Philippine Islands.?® * Cf. Hendrixson, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper (1912), 293, 136. * Sanitary analyses of water from deep wells are included in Table VI. 347 ippines ul Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Ph IX, A, 4 ‘TLE “d ‘olqey eyy jo pue ay} ye MOl[OF Sa}0U}00qJ—aLON ere 0999 ‘T eee amin aie OD) Caged a mere OAL TT peng BAOQB 95.105) (eee rea ho OD cae | nar eg ee a cae op---~ | q900T $2 1 canoe a 0 'F6Z inn ben ans = oeenen OD ene |iemmame S)[COcT UTANT, po UTI Qt TOG Daina nine eee 1ONl0.U0 Cn | a one ea oem 7G TantOdO20()m| A EO(O): | 2 | 0"9Ts CARS AS) Pm | ate meets eet ODeras ge te ere eas. 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The manufacturing industries in the Philippines are generally in an undeveloped state, and few specific troubles have been encountered that can justly be ascribed to the water. Most of the establishments, particularly those at Manila, have had little or no trouble in obtaining an adequate supply of suitable water. Many of the industries, of which tan- ning is an example, are carried on in such primitive fashion that the question of the quality of water used seldom comes up for consideration, but this question will become more and more sig- nificant as manufacturing industries develop. The chemical composition of a feed water plays an important part in the formation of scale and sediment, in the corrosion of metals, and in the causing of priming and foaming. Few natural waters are entirely suitable for boiler use without previous treatment. Even distilled water may have a corrosive action on boiler parts. Rain water, or a heavy fall of snow melting quickly on watersheds, is sure to give to its drainage rivers a water which has a highly corrosive action when used in boilers.” CONSTITUENTS The following classification shows the effect of different ingre- dients in boiler waters: Calcium carbonate (CaCO;) \ Magnesium carbonate (MgCO.) Calcium sulphate (CaSQ,) Magnesium sulphate (MgSO,) Silica (Si0.) Tron oxide (Fe.0:) Aluminium oxide (A1.0;) Grease, suspended matter, mud Sodium chloride (NaCl) in the presence of\ calcium and magnesium salts Magnesium chloride (MgCl) (due to de- composition of this salt at high temper-) Cause corrosion. atures) Calcium chloride (CaCl.) Potassium chloride (KCl) Alkali salts Cause priming. Cause scale formation. Calcium carbonate—Calcium carbonate is almost insoluble in water. Water containing carbonic acid dissolves calcium carbonate more freely on account of the formation of the more soluble bicarbonate, and this is the * Kent, Steam Boiler Economy. J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1901), 313. 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 373 form in which it usually exists in water. The carbonate may be precipitated by boiling, and it forms a soft mud in boilers unless sulphates are present when with the other sediments it is cemented together into a very hard and insoluble scale. Magnesium carbonate-—Magnesium carbonate is slightly soluble in water, and therefore when held in solution by the presence of carbonic acid will not be entirely precipitated by boiling off the excess of carbon dioxide. Magnesite (natural magnesium carbonate) is used as a pipe covering to reduce radiation. It is, therefore, obvious that it should be avoided as scale. Calcium sulphate-——Calcium sulphate is somewhat soluble in both pure and salt water and unlike most salts in inverse ratio to the temperature up to 150°C. This temperature corresponds to a steam pressure of 4.7 kilograms per square centimeter (67 pounds per square inch), and at this pressure all gypsum is deposited before any consequential evaporation has taken place. In boilers it becomes precipitated as fine crystals not so much by concentration as by the elevation of the temperature which when mixed with the mud in the boilers forms a hard undesirable scale so difficult to remove that it can be accomplished only by chipping. This scale may be recognized by its vitreous appearance. Magnesium sulphate-—Magnesium sulphate alone does not form any scale in boilers. When present in water with calcium carbonate it reacts with the latter and forms a scale which is generally considered to be a com- bination of calcium sulphate and hydrated magnesium oxide, one of the hardest scales known. Silica.—Silica is present in most natural waters as a colloid. It may be precipitated by boiling, and is occasionally found in considerable quantities in scale. The scale formed from it is not excessively hard, and has no very characteristic physical properties. When it is deposited with calcium sul- phate, it forms a very hard scale which is difficult to remove. Iron and aluminium.—These metals are found in most natural waters and may be considered as incrustants, appearing in the scale as oxides or hydrated oxides, although neither of them is particularly troublesome especially because they are generally present in feed water in very small amounts. Iron derived from corrosion of the boiler may be added to the scale. When too much aluminium sulphate is used as a coagulant for feed water, the excess of the salt may enter the boiler and cause trouble, since, by hydrolysis, sulphuric acid is formed which is highly corrosive. Grease.—The action of grease, especially fatty substances, readily de- composed by heat in a boiler is to form a soft deposit similar to scale but with ten times greater resistance to heat which even more seriously inter- feres with the transmission of heat. Mud and sediment must be blown off else they will harden and produce dangerous scale. SCALE FORMATION Certain dissolved mineral matter remains in solution at low temperatures, but is precipitated when the water is heated or concentrated, and falls to the bottom or is deposited on the boiler tubes and shell.“ With pure water the evaporation efficiency per unit of heating surface will not vary greatly ** When precipitation takes places inside the water or steam space it is called sediment, but if deposition forms a hard coating on the water-heating surface it is called scale. 374 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 for different boilers, but with waters containing varying amounts of scale- forming ingredients the efficiency of all boilers is seriously interfered with. The question as to whether a given water is satisfactory can be decided only when its chemical composition is known. Although it is difficult to fix an arbitrary standard, the following classification of waters with reference to their suitability for boiler use serves very well for practical work. The figures show the number of parts of scale-forming solids in a million parts of water. Quality of water for boiler purposes.* Less than 90 parts per million Good. 90 to 200 parts per million Fair. 200 to 430 parts per million Poor. 430 to 680 parts per million Bad. Over 680 parts per million Very bad. « Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. & Maintenance of Way Assoc. (1904), 5, 595. If the amount of scale-forming ingredients in water for boiler use is high, the interiors of the shell and tubes of the boilers become coated with scale which offers one hundred times the resistance of steel to heat and seriously interferes with the transmission of the latter. Steel is not a remarkably good conductor of heat when clean, and a very thin coating of scale often markedly shows in loss of heat. The effect of scale on the transmission of heat through a boiler tube is extremely variable, the mechanical structure of the scale at least as important a factor as the mere thickness. A hard scale 7 or 8 millimeters thick may result in a reduction of from 15 to 20 per cent in the evapora- tion.” Schmidt and Snodgrass * have investigated the effect of scale on the transmission of heat in locomotive boiler tubes, and feel warranted in summing up the results of their tests in the following conclusions: “1. Considering scale of ordinary thickness, say of thickness varying up to one-eighth inch, the loss in heat transmission due to scale may vary in individual cases from insignificant amounts to as much as 10 or 12 per cent. 2. The loss increases somewhat with the thickness of the scale. 3. The mechanical structure of the scale is of as much or more im- portance than the thickness in producing this loss. 4. Chemical composition, except in so far as it affects the structure of the scale, has no direct influence on its heat transmitting qualities.” A thick scale may cause overheating by preventing radiation, rapid deterioration, and even blistering and cracking of boiler tubes and shells. When the chemical analysis of a boiler water is at hand, its scale-forming properties can readily be determined. In this connection the formule developed by Stabler are of special value: Scale (in pounds per 1,000 gallons of water) =0.00833 suspended matter + 0.0083 colloidal matter (= SiO. + ALO; + Fe.0;) + 0.0107Fe + 0.0157Al + 0.01388Mg + 0.0246Ca. * Palmer, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper (1909), 233, 186. * Bull. Univ. il. (1907), 4, No. 15, 1. * U.S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper (1911), 274, 176. 1x, 4,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 375 The preceding formula shows the total amount of solids (scale and sludge) precipitated under ordinary conditions. The amount of matter deposited as a hard scale will be: 0.00833Si0.+ 0.0138Mg-+ (0.016Cl1--0.0118SO.—0.0246Na—0.0145K). Though scale is a serious menace to boiler tubes and shell, a very thin scale may sometimes be advantageous in a boiler, especially when a cor- rosive water is being used. Kent recommends the occasional addition of lime water to water of this kind, so that the resulting thin scale may protect the boiler. WATER SOFTENING AND SCALE PREVENTION Yor most technical and industrial work a water low in mineral content is generally desired. In many localities such water is not available, and the existing supply must be softened to make it suitable for use. The scale- forming ingredients of water may easily be reduced to 50 parts per million by careful treatment. When a boiler plant is supplied with impure water, either the formation of hard scale must entirely be prevented and the soft scale and sediment blown off or the plant must be in two parts, one the boiler proper and the other the purifying apparatus which is so far as possible independent of the boiler and in which chemical precipitation of the scale-forming ingredients takes place where it will do no harm. As hardness is generally due to salts of calcium and magnesium, the main problem of water softening is to precipitate these salts as completely and as cheaply as possible, without introducing any ingredient injurious to the water. The cost of any process or method for the treatment of a boiler feed supply depends to a large extent upon the chemistry of the water to be treated. No one reagent. is known which will remove the scale-forming ingredients from all waters, although almost everything from soda to catechu has been proposed and tried. Calcium carbonate held in solution in water by excess of carbonic acid may be precipitated by removing the carbon dioxide by boiling or by the addition of lime. Calcium carbonate is practically insoluble, and therefore the reaction proceeds practically to completion. Magnesium carbonate reacts similarly, but owing to its slight solubility the reaction does not proceed to completion, and in order to remove it completely a further quantity of milk of lime must be added. The completeness of the precipitation of calcium carbonate is the same whether water is boiled under atmospheric pressure or under a pressure of several atmospheres. The completeness of the precipitation of mag- nesium carbonate, however, is increased by increasing the pressure.” Freshly precipitated calcium carbonate settles very slowly, especially when obtained by treating the bicarbonate with milk of lime in the cold, so that the precipitation must be made in large tanks where the treated water can remain a long time undisturbed. Heat hastens the settling. By properly handling such a water in a boiler, a loose powdery sediment is obtained which may be removed by blowing off, but if sulphates are present it is deposited as hard scale. If sulphates are present, the chemical pre- cipitation should be carried on outside of the boiler. The amount of the sulphate ion in boiler waters is important on account “| Loc. cit. " Knight, N., Hng. News (1905), 53, 311. 376 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of the scale-forming propensity of calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate is removed by the use of soda ash thus: CaS0.:+ Na.CO;sCaCOs| + Na-SQ,. Sodium carbonate added to magnesium salts precipitates basic magnesium carbonate Mg(OH)-2MgCO; and liberates carbon dioxide. One of us™ has shown that this precipitation is not complete and that both sodium chloride and sodium sulphate either at ordinary temperature or at boiling render this more incomplete. To precipitate magnesium as completely as possible, one must add both soda ash and lime according to the equation MgSO.-+Na,CO,+ Ca(OH) -<$Mg(OH).|-+CaCOs|+Na.S0.. When the carbonate and sulphate of lime are both present as in some waters, sodium hydroxide is all that is necessary practically to precipitate completely both of the salts as shown by the following equation: CaH.(COs:)2+ CaSO.+2Na0Hss2CaCO; +Na.S0.+2H:0. Of all the reagents used as coagulants, it is probable that sodium hydroxide gives the best results in the majority of waters. Sodium sulphate (Na2S0Q.) is very soluble, and is unobjectionable in quantities such as usually result from the chemical precipitation of the scale-forming ingredients of water. The use of alum in boiler feed waters is very old. It is used to coagulate the impurities where mechanical filtration is used, and has been thought to reduce the quantity of scale formed. As a scale preventive it is undesir- able unless used outside the boiler in a settling tank, for it reacts with some of the calcium carbonate present, which otherwise would give a soft seale, converting calcium carbonate into calcium sulphate which forms a very hard injurious scale. Alum and sodium hydroxide are sometimes used together. The reaction which takes place may be represented by K-AlL (SO.).+8Na0OH=3Na:S0.+ K.S0:+ 4H-0+ ALO.Na:, in which sodium aluminate is formed and in turn reacts on the salts of calcium, magnesium, and iron to give aluminates of the corresponding metal and an equivalent amount of sodium salts in the water The re- actions involved in the precipitation are CaH.(CO;) 2+ Al.0,.Na.-+ H20=CaC0O;4 2Al1(OH);s+ Na.CO, and CaS0.+Na.C0O;= CaCO,+ Na:SQ.. Seven different waters were tested by this method and also by sodium hydroxide alone, but in each case the latter removed only about one-half the quantity of lime that was thrown out by the aluminate. The precipi- tated alumina also removed suspended matter most completely. One of the newer methods of softening water which deserves mention is the “Permutit” process,” in which a large excess of an insoluble purifying agent is used instead of a small amount of a soluble one. ‘“Permutit’’ is made by heating feldspar, kaolin, clay, and soda in definite proportions to form, presumably, 2Si0O2-AlO3-Nas0‘6HO. Hard water passed rapidly * Stillman and Cox, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1903), 25, 734. * Mabery, Chas. F., and Baltzley, E. B., Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 25 Pt * Ghickauf (1911), 47, 982. 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines oti through a comparatively thin layer comes out thoroughly softened. The substance may be regenerated by treatment with warm 10 per cent salt solution. The cost of softening water by this method is about 1.25 to 1.5 centavos per cubic meter. Crude oil has been suggested to assist in the prevention of scale in steam boilers, but it is injurious in that its residual tar combines with the sedi- ment to form an undesirable scale. Kerosene has been used in the preven- tion of scale without deleterious results,” because this is the fraction of crude petroleum from which the naphtha or volatile products have been re- moved in the process of refining and it has no residual product. The action in this case is mostly mechanical in that it forms a protective greasy film over the interior boiler parts and greases the precipitated matter so that it does not coagulate but remains in suspension, in which condition it can be blown off easily. Kerosene is very satisfactory as a scale preventive, but it should be handled with care, and it must be remembered that it will attack the rust and open up leaky parts and is apt to be carried in the steam in sufficient quantity to injure the rubber packing of the engine and of all valves. Tannin and other wood extracts are excellent scale preventives in that they cause the precipitate to form as soft scale or sediment that can be easily removed from a boiler by blowing off. On the other hand, some wood extracts contain acid in sufficient quantity to attack the metal of the boiler. Of the chemical softeners, soda ash (crude sodium carbonate) and lime are the ones most widely used. From the chemical analysis of the water, the necessary amounts of each of these can readily be calculated. According to Stabler ** the number of pounds” of 90 per cent lime (CaO) required=0.00931Fe + 0.0288Al + 0.0214M¢g + 0.258H + 0.00426 HCO; + 0.0118CO.; and the number of pounds of soda ash (95 per cent Na:CO:) =0.0167Fe + 0.0515Al + 0.0232Ca + 0.0382Mg + 0.462H — 0.0155CO; — 0.00768HCO; for every 1,000 gallons “ of water. CORROSION There are many causes of corrosion, and a substance which may resist one eause may readily yield to another. Boiler corrosion does not neces- sarily depend on the quality of the boiler plate; in fact, steel often corrodes more quickly than wrought iron.” Continued or interrupted use of a properly cared for boiler has little to do with corrosion, but when not properly cared for a boiler in continued use will not corrode as rapidly as one in interrupted use. Stabler” has calculated the “coefficient of corro- sion,” c=H + 0.1116Al + 0.0361Fe + 0.0828Mg — 0.0336CO: — 0.0165HCOs. If ¢ is positive, the water will certainly corrode a boiler. If c+0.0503 Ca is negative, the mineral constituents in the water will not cause corrosion. If c is negative but c+0.0503 Ca is positive, corrosion may or may not occur, the probability of corrosive action varying directly with the value of the expression c+0.0503 Ca. All natural waters contain oxygen in solution, and this is continually being introduced into the boiler by means of the feed pump and often “Lyne L. F., Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. (1888), 19. * U.S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper (1911), 274, 170. ° 1 pound=0.45359 kilogram. “1 U.S. gallon=3.78543 liters. “Eng. News (1908), 50, 286, 296, and 502. “ Loc. cit., 175. 878 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 produces corrosion at the point of discharge. In badly designed boilers, oxygen introduced in this way together with the air left in the boiler is apt to accumulate in pockets due to improper circulation and is capable of causing the corrosive action, technically known as pitting because of the small holes or “pits’ found in the damaged area. Pitting is the most dangerous form of corrosion. The presence of carbon dioxide together with the oxygen in a boiler water increases its corrosive action. Cases have been known where the mixing with air of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide produced by the decomposition of sewage entering a water supply have caused very rapid corrosion. The use of alum for coagulation in mechanical filtration is sometimes bad, for alum may react with bicarbonates to change them into sulphates and thus liberate carbon dioxide and cause corrosion of the boiler. A feed water which contains considerable quantities of magnesium salts when purified by sodium carbonate alone will liberate carbon dioxide as represented by the following equation: MgS0O.+MgCl.+2Na-CO;+ H.OSSMg (OH) -MgC0;+ Na:SO:+2NaCl+CoO:. Schreiber * calls attention to the corrosive action of such a water on a boiler especially in the region of the intake. In the absence of air, iron is only slightly attacked by an excess of carbon dioxide.“ The rusting of iron in the presence of air is much more energetic when in contact with water containing chlorides (NH.Cl, MgCl., KCl, NaCl, CaCl, BaCl.).“ Magnesium chloride, while not a scale-forming ingredient, is accepted as an exceptionally active corrosive agent. Sometimes the water is red or black, which in either case is evidence that energetic corrosion is in progress. It often happens that there is pitting over the entire inner surface of the boiler, but again it may be local in its action. It sometimes has been explained that magnesium chloride is much more injurious than the other chlorides through the hydrolytic splitting off of hydrochloric acid. “ Magnesium chloride cannot split off acid without simultaneously forming a basic magnesium compound. The injurious corrosion resulting from the presence of magnesium salts is not due to reaction of free acid but to the interaction of the salts themselves. Ost,” working experimentally in the absence of air and under a steam pressure of about 10 atmospheres, has shown that with boiler plate in contact with pure water or waters contain- ing about 5 per cent of magnesium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate, calcium sulphate, and magnesium sulphate, respectively, there is rusting in all cases. That is, after each trial the interior of the experimental boiler was covered with an amount of ferroso- ferric oxide (Fe:0,) which he attributed to the oxidation of iron through the decomposition of the hot feed water.“ Only when magnesium salts “Chem. Zeitg. (1903), 27, 327. “ Howe, J. L., and Morrison J. L., Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 422. * Wagner, A., Dingler’s polytech. Journ. (1875), 218, 70. “The action of chlorides on copper is quite different, for the latter forms double salts with chlorides and in this way goes into solution. “Chem. Zeitg. (1902), 26, 819, 845. “Tt is a well-known reaction that oxygen interacts vigorously with iron and similar metals when the latter is at a red heat. The slow reaction which involves the decomposition of water is of even greater interest. 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 3879 were present did any iron go into solution. The action began at about 100°, and the evolution of hydrogen was most pronounced when calcium and potassium chlorides and potassium and sodium sulphates were used, which indicates that the rusting in the magnesium chloride solution was not the result of splitting off hydrochloric acid. The magnesium salt reacts with the oxidized iron to form a soluble salt of the latter, while the magnesium is precipitated as hydroxide. Within certain limits this reaction is reversible, and in no case will it proceed until all of the magnesium salt is precipitated. When equilibrium is attained, no more iron will be dissolved until a new supply of magnesium sait is introduced or the equilibrium disturbed in some other manner. The view that magnesium chloride does not have the highly corrosive action generally attributed to it is further corroborated by Bradbury,” who found that magnesium chloride, either in cold or hot solution, would not attack iron at atmospheric pressure. Rohrig and Treumann”™ have shown that at high pressures magnesium salts and calcium carbonate interact to precipitate hydrated magnesium oxide. When a 0.5 per cent water solution of magnesium chloride is employed, it is possible to precipitate 63.3, 83.1, and 100 per cent of the magnesium oxide present under a pressure of 5, 10, and 15 atmospheres, respectively. Ost found that at a pressure of 10 atmospheres the equilibrium soon established itself and even at lower pressure the carbon dioxide liberated soon escaped with the steam. The interaction was not complete, but a sufficient quantity of the magnesium is precipitated in the mud to stop the solution of iron. The presence of free acid in hot water in more than 40 or 50 parts per million is apt to cause serious corrosion of a boiler or any metal parts with which it comes in contact. The action of acid due to grease which, in spite of all precautions, finds its way into a boiler is sometimes the cause of serious difficulty. The presence of acid-free volatile oil can do no harm in a boiler. On the contrary, besides assisting in preventing scale it is useful in reducing the rusting. For the treatment of acid mine waters, Ba(OH). is the most serviceable reagent.” Electrolytic action is sometimes the cause of corrosion. When there is a difference of potential between different parts of a system immersed in an electrolyte, electrochemical action is set up at the expense of the more electropositive element; for example, if brass feed or internal pipes were used in contact with iron, the iron would disintegrate rapidly. In spite of this fact, it is common practice to use brass or copper piping for feed pipes. Impurities in iron, as carbon or slag, would have the same injurious effect. But the presence of a more electronegative substance is not necessarily the only cause of electrochemical corrosive action. Strain, distortion of any part, lack of homogeneity, or even a difference in temper- ature between portions of the same piece of metal may cause differences of potential and greatly accelerate corrosion. From electrochemical con- siderations the corrosive action of acid waters is also readily explained. Iron, which is electropositive to copper, will precipitate the latter from “Chem. News (1918), 108, 307. ° Zeitschr. f. off. Chem. (1900), 6, 241-3. * Griffin, M. L., Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 665. 880 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 solutions of its salts, the iron going into solution at the same time. In the same manner, acid hydrogen, being negative to iron, is liberated and iron is dissolved (corroded). Stray currents are another important factor influencing corrosion. At best proper insulation is a difficult problem in any city, but it is especially difficult in Manila, where the heavy rains keep the ground saturated four or five months in the year. Here many cases have been found in which excessive corrosion of boilers has been accompanied by appreciable differences of potential between boiler parts and surrounding objects. Corrosion may be avoided in a variety of ways. Corrosive ingredients may be eliminated by proper chemical treatment. Iron does not corrode readily in the presence of alkalies, hence the addition of soda ash or lime to water is beneficial. Since iron is attacked electrolytically only when it is the anode, any method whereby it is made the cathode will prevent corrosion. Zinc is electropositive to iron, and hence when con- nected with it will make the iron the cathode of an electrolytic cell. It corrodes very easily, and is now very satisfactorily in use to protect the internal parts of boilers and condenser tubes on steamers from electro- lytic corrosion.” Rather recently the suggestion has repeatedly appeared“ to make iron the cathode by impressing an electromotive force from the outside counteracting many internal currents which might tend to destroy the iron. Another method of inhibiting corrosion takes advantage of the passive state of iron. As is well known, iron, under the influence of certain chemicals, notably oxidizing agents, becomes passive and resistant to ordinary forms of attack. The addition of 1 kilogram of potassium dichromate (K.Cr.0-;) to 12.5 metric tons of water should prevent corrosion.” FOAMING AND PRIMING Foaming is the formation of an aggregation of bubbles on the surface of the water of a boiler. Sometimes the bubbles which constitute the foam are durable and remain for a long time without breaking; when formed in rapid succession, they entirely fill the steam space and pass along with the steam. When this is the case, a boiler is said to prime. In passing through the steam pipe the bubbles become broken up and are carried into the cylinder as hot water. The priming tendency is influenced by the steam space and the design of the boiler, and in general increases as the steam space diminishes. A boiler ordinarily supplying dry steam may prime heavily under an overload. Some of the causes of foaming are the presence of sodium and potassium salts in quantity, mud, organic and suspended matter, or any material ““ Has a reddish sediment. © Clear and colorless. Becomes yellow-brown and turbid on exposure. IX, A, 4 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million. ] Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 387 Laboratory No. = 12568. 9704-II. 9704-ITI. 47089. November, 1904................. UNE LOO NS DUNE ON eeme July, 1907. Ambos Camarines, | Ambos Camarines,| Ambos Camarines, | Babuyanes, Cami- Paseao. Goa. Pasacao. | guin Island. “Punta Mainit” | “Lalo” Spring, La-' “Punta Mainit’” | Hot spring, SW. Spring. gonoy. Spring near Pasa- coast. cao. | LH Rs Sos a ee eee AL el Slate color ; turbid........... Clearer e j Alkaline. | Alkaline | Oto OO eres ices Unless ly haere | 1,908.00. 20,092.6. CCST) SR eda edeeer ape no 130.60... | 178.6. Considerable 410.836. 419.93. .| 694.627. 5,914.18. 388 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TasLeE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral [Numbers give Physical properties Reaction Total solids...... Silica (SiO2) Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,) _...... Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOs) ... Carbonic acid radicle (COz)....... Nitric acid radicle (NO;) Nitrous acid radicle (NO.) Phosphorie acid radicle (PO,4) 00... Metaboric acid radicle (BO2) Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br)... Iodine (1) Tron (Fe) eee Aluminium (AN) Ec ence Iron oxide (Fe.O;) and alumina (Al,O3)...|---- Manganese (Mn) Barium (Ba) Strontium (Sr). Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) Oxygen to form Fe,Q3........ Free carbon dioxide (CO.) Classification Remarks Laboratory No. 47090. 115782. en ys 19 Oe ee eee eee August, 19132 ee 4 Babuyanes, Camiguin | Batangas, Gapas, Ba- Island. layan. Hot spring, south coast. . Sodie, bicarbo nated, alkaline, siliceous. IX, A, 4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] 389 Laboratory No. rium” Spring. Small amount.... Small amount.... Spring.” | Small amount........ 788. 789. 790. September, 1902..... ee 3 roel September, 1902.............-.. | September, 1902............... Benguet, ‘“Sanita- | Benguet, ‘“Bued River | Benguet, ‘Loo Spring.” Considerable Considerable.. | Trace. | 588.0. =| Drace- .| Nil. | 134.0. | | Trace. .| Trace. | 90174. September, 1911. | Benguet, Klondike Spring. 40.9. 348.6. 21.3. Nil. 388.2. 390 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analysis of waters from mineral [Numbers give | Laboratory No. 101638. | 18654—I. — } == Date: Réaction. seu te Os Se ee Alkalinel eins: flees Alkaline)... =e Total solids........ Silica (SiOz)... Sulphuric acid radicle (SOx)....... Bicarbonie acid radicle (HCOsz) ..... Carbonic acid radicle (COs) Nitric acid radicle (NOs) Nitrous acid radicle (NO.) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,) Metaborie acid radicle (BOz)...... Arsenic acid radicle (AsQ,) _...... Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (1) Tron (Fe)....... Aluminium (Al) Iron oxide (Fe.O;) and alumina (AI,0;) ... Manganese (Mn) Barium (Ba) Strontium (Sr)... Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) = Sodium) (Na): 2 ee Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,)... Oxygen to form Fe.Oz. Free carbon dioxide (COz.).. Classification Remarks............. | 988.2... 20.5 ec. per liter. 8 Antamok River Spring. >In small amount. Slight, disagreeable, foul odor. 1x,A4,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 391 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] Laboratory No. sea Nie wae x Be ELISH 18654—-IT. 18654—-I1T. | 9704-I. 56698-I. NUL sO OD seer ceceecsecr ace! uly sy 9 0b wes ee ee, umes O04 eee eee March, 1909. Bataan, Dinalupihan....| Bataan, Dinalupihan....| Bulacan, Sibul................... Bulacan, Sibul. SDLIN eee ceeresreecse Spring eee Sonn gee eee Spring. Suspended organic | Suspended organic | Slight, whitesediment... matter.> matter.» FAK aline@ ss eemse re ees Alkalinek. oes x caw at INGUL Tae ee ee Alkaline. Lead, 12.29 © 536.20. ¢ Small amount of carbon dioxide. 4 Caleic, saline. 392 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analysis of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. | 56698—IT. 56698—-IIT. } ....| March, 1909 | Bulacan, Sibul.... .| Bottom of spring... March, 1909. .| Bulacan, Sibul... .| Surface of spring. le SOUTCC === ae | Physical properties... Reactions == Total solids Silica (SiOz)... Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,).... Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCO;) Carbonie acid radicle (CO3) Nitrie acid radicle (NOg).......... Nitrous acid radicle (NOz2) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,).... 4 Metaboric acid radicle (BOs)... | Arsenic acid radicle (AsO.) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br).......... Iodine (I) Tron (Fe)........ ES ome | Aluminium (Al) | Tron oxide (Fe.0Oz) and alumina (Al.03)... Manganese! (J¥in)). =" se IBariam (Ba) aa Se eee 4 Strontium (Sr) Calcium (Ca) = aso | Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) | Sodium (Na)... CH ice aaa Lithium (Li) .... | Trace. Ammonium (NH,) Seal | Oxygen to form FegQg...n.....eececceceeeses Free carbon dioxide (COz)........ ee Classification, ocd (a) (2) DR end a ec eee Pe | es | "a a Calcic, saline. > With slight odor of sulphureted hydrogen and sulphureted alkaline taste. ix,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 398 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million. ] Laboratory No. 56698-1V. 66195. | 69012. 74181. December, 1908..2........-----. pul yal 909 eee January, 1910. Bulacan, Marilao............ Bulacan, Hagonov......... Bulacan, Hagonoy. Artesian well... iNT (C10 3 eon Ree Weil 3. Very slightly brownP..|... || PAllk alin ese eee © Sodic, bicarbonated, alkaline, siliceous. 4 Sodie, sulphated, saline. 8394 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analysis of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. 116873. 13198. September, 1913... September, 1904.2 ee Capiz, Sohut, Dumalag...... Cavite, U. S. N. station... Sounce jc en 4 Spring. ee From artesian well 158.4 meters deep. Physical properties Reaction Total solids Silica (SiO.) Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,) Bicarbonie acid radicle (HCOs3) Carbonic acid radicle (COxg) -.-..---- Nitric acid radicle (NOg) ..0--..-..---.ecceees Nitrous acid radicle (NO2) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,) .... Metaboric acid radicle (BOz) Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (C})........ Bromine (Br) Iodine (1) Tron (Fe) Aluminium (A1) Iron oxide (Fe,0;) and alumina (Al,O;)...; 3-7... Manganese (Mn)... perder | Barium (Ba)........ ioe ee i SIO i MaRS) || Fees SNe pie cau Alkaline Strontium (Sr) ad bee meet Calcium (Ca)... Magnesium (Mg)... Potassium (K). Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li)................ Ammonium (NH,).... ss Oxygen to form FeoOg. oi ecccccescecceseeceeeeeeeens Free carbon dioxide (CO.2) Classification A hr -y pL etaroesoneee Very little. 8 Sodic, bicarbonated, muriated, alkaline, sulphureted. > Odor of hydrogen sulphide. © Contains carbonates and bicarbonates. IX, A, 4 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million. ] Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 395 Laboratory No. 86357. 88381. 53251. 53252. Micrel Olt eee eee Cavite, U. S. N. sta- tion. U.S. N. station water system. AAT TO rere Cavite, U. S. N. sta- | tion. | Slightly brownish | Alkaline December, 1907................. Cebu, “Maaslom” Spring. Cebu, Spring. | Acid. $0.1. 233.5. --| Nil. + Nil. 0.43. 6.56. | Trace. December, 1907. “Malanza” Spring. 4 Acidity is due to free carbon dioxide. © Sodic, bicarbonated, alkaline, siliceous. t Aluminic, sulphated, acidic, siliceous. 396 The Philippine J ournal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analysis of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. | October 19102 October, 1910............ et Cebu, Mainit, Naga. Cebu, Mainit, Naga......... a -| Saline taste 2_ a. .| Saline taste 2. Silica \(SiO3) = ee Sulphuric acid radicle (SOQ,) 2... Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOx3) Carbonic acid radicle (CO) Nitric acid radicle (NOs) Nitrous acid radicle (NO2) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,) Meitaboric acid radicle (BO.) Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (1) Iron (Fe) Aluminium (Al) : Iron oxide (Fe.03) and alumina (Al.Oz)... Manganese (Mi) -.......2..--.ccss-ceeececeeeeenes North Spring... South Spring | Strontium (Sr)... Calcium (Ca)...... Magnesium (Mg)... Potassium (K).... Sodium (Na).... Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) Oxygen to form Fe.Qz........ 45.5 ee. per liter..................... 35.3 ce. per liter.................-. Free carbon dioxide (CO.) Classification (2) (>) Remarks 00) tv 2 Se ee eee (¢) (3) * Transparent with bluish tint; odor of hydrogen sulphide. > Thermal, sodic, sulphated, muriated, alkaline-saline, sulphureted. © Hydrogen sulphide, 0.16 ec. per liter ; 305 bacteria per ce. ; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0015; water, 34°.5 C. 4 Probably of the same origin as the North Spring. Hydrogen sulphide, 0.16 cc. per liter; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0015; water, 34°.5 C. we 1x,A,4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines 397 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] Laboratory No. October, 1910..........0.0.... October, 1910.................... October, 1910... October, 1911. Cebu, Guadalupe, | Cebu, Bolocboloe, | Cebu, Kanaga, Si- | Cebu, Kanaga, Si- Carcar. Barili. bonga. bonga. Sorin gence teva ee Sorin gira ineee nee feo North Spring............... South Spring. (3) Colorless, slight hepa- (@) (®) | tic odor and taste. 21.38. 27.97. 360.8. 0.5722. .| Nil. Trace. Present. Nil. 30.29. Nil. Nil. ...| 3.875. 70.31. | 36.93. 5.39. 30.37. | 4.9 ec. per liter.................. 5.35 ec. per liter............... .| 3.4 ce. per liter... 10.0 ec. per liter. (©) (g) | (S) (®) (*) @) | (@) (G) e Thermal, calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline, sulphureted. t Hydrogen sulphide, 2.3 cc. per liter; 212 bacteria per ec.; specifie gravity at 4° C., 1.000; air, 29° C.; water, 34°.2 C. # Calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline, sulphureted, carbon-dioxiated. h Hydrogen sulphide, 0.28 ce. per liter; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0006; air, 28°.5 C.; water, 31°.1 C. Number of bacteria excessive due to the lack of protection ; contaminated by bathers. i Hydrogen sulphide, 0.68 ce. per liter; air, 27° C.; water, 33° C. J Hydrogen sulphide, 0.965 ce. per liter; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0009; air, 27° C.; water, 82°.5 C. 398 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. | Locality... ES a5 oe Ce ee eh sete at aan ene Physical properties... Reaction Silica (SiOz) .. = Sulphuric acid iradicles(SQ)}) oe URS neers eee ee Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOxg) AEE eee PRE aeee te Carbonic acid radicle (CO;).. | Nitric acid radicle (NO;) Nitrous acid radicle (NOs) .......... eee | Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,)..... Metaborie acid radicle (BO.).... Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) .. Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br)... Todine (1) ee Dror (ie) ean re ae en cere eee y Aluminium (Al) i Tron oxide (Fe.03) and alumina (AI,O3) ...| Manganese (Mn) s.,-tene e Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K)...... Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) Oxygen to form Fe.Os Free carbon dioxide (COz). Classification 5.5 ec. per liter... (>) (©) Remarks............... vf (Ss) (*) * Continuous bubbling of sulphureted hydrogen and carbon dioxide. > Thermal, sodic, alkaline-saline, sulphureted. © Hydrogen sulphide, 20.56 ec. per liter; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0009. 4“ Clear, transparent, opaline, gaseous bubbling; odor of sulphur dioxide. © Thermal, sodic, biearbonated, alkaline, sulphureted. t Hydrogen sulphide, 4.1 ce. per liter; temperature of water, 35° C. IX, A, 4 springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million. ] Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines Laboratory No. 399 16301. 78438. October, 1910..................- Cebu, Mainit, Oslob.......! SDEIN GED teen eee 10.5 ec. per liter................, (e) (h) October, 1910... Cebu, Mainit, Oslob........ Springs ee 8.18 cc. per liter CG) (J) March; 905i Novloslolom ase Well 70 meters deep....... Alkaline. 2,348.0...... July, 1910. Yloilo, Guimaras Is- | land. Spring. | Trace. | Trace, & Clear, transparent, opaline, gaseous bubbling; odor of sulphureted hydrogen. h Hydrogen sulphide, 4.3 ec. per liter; 562 bacteria per cc. ; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0006; temperature of water, 35°.8 C. 1 Calcic, magnesic, bicarbonated, alkaline, sulphureted. J Hydrogen sulphide, 0.22 ee. per liter; 3,250 bacteria per cc.; specific gravity at 4° C., 1.0006; temperature of water, 29°.9 C. Number of bacteria excessive due to the lack of protection; people bathe inside the basin. 400 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral [Numbers give —————— os Z | Laboratory No. | 97669. 102169. Date: so 9 Sou) hl eee a eee, June, 1912... Locality. ce Rie) et eee Source. ne Imported Physical properties.. Reaction Total\ solids. 2-5-0 es ee ee Silica (SiO.) Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,) Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOs) .... Carbonic acid radicle (COz)......... Nitrie acid radicle (NO;) Nitrous acid radicle (NO.) Phosphoric acid radicle (PQ,)... Metaboric acid radicle (BO.). Arsenic acid radicle (AsQ,).... Chlorine (Cl)...... Bromine (Br). Todine (1)...... Tron (Fe)........,. Aluminium (Al)... eR aR ey Tron oxide (Fe.0z) and alumina (Al,0;) ..| Slight.. Manganese (Mn) Barium (Ba)... Strontium (Sr) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K)... Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) Oxygen to form Fe.O; Free carbon dioxide (COz)... Classification Remarks (*) (>) 4 Labeled ‘“‘Veronica Spring Water,” from Santa Barbara, California. > Mineral water labeled ‘‘Monsaris.”’ ix,A,4 Cow et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines AOL springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million. ] Laboratory No. 104468. 77156. 563858. ‘ 67953. February, 1910................... February, 1908.................- May, 1909. | Laguna, Mabitace............ Laguna, Mabitac.......2... Laguna, Santa Rosa. .| “Galas” Sprineg................ malas DYN oars, Stream. Alkaline. .| 410.0. 87.4. 2.36. 367.599. Nil. ....| Nil. | Nil. 65.76. --| 16.3. | 11.85. 44.89. 5.9753 grams per liter |.... or 679 ce, per bottle of 225 cc. (2) t Pa © Labeled ‘‘Dacapo”’ mineral water, Shanghai, China. 4 Calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline. 128080——9 402 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. 117796. 15434. Date. 2.2. ee Se es December, 1913...................... .| February, 1905-0... Localityicke stale oe 2 ee ..-| Leyte, San Isidro................. Manila, Singalong farm...| Sour eteeeee seer are Physical properties.. Reaction... Total solids.. Silica (SiOz)....... Sulphuric acid radicle (SOx) Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCO3) Carbonic acid radicle (COs) ........ Nitric acid radicle (NO;) Nitrous acid radicle (NOz) Phosphoric acid radicle (POx) Metaborie acid radicle (BO.) Arseniciacidiradicle'( AsQOy) =... o nena a ek Chlorine (Cl) BSrOrm ime (BBY) a sass centaur ec ccu can cad chee ses ceca emcee sacs chee Reena toc aa cce cee Todinei(D) sss a a eee es | eae ee de me eae, ne tad cheer toon er Iron (Fe)........,. Aluminium (A1])... see cpe ee Ce ty | Seen celta Beara Iron oxide (Fe.Os) and alumina (AloOg) 01) Trace. ne... eecseceeecnesseseneesnecneensed| eeeneeeneeneeenees Manganese (Mn) Little Magnesium (Mg)...... Potassium (K) Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) | Oxygen to form Fe,Qg.............. Free carbon dioxide (COs)... Classification,...............--.+ 8 Calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline. IX, A, 4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] 403 31228. Laboratory No. 51255. 118570. 116154. June, 1906... May 9 deere eee Mindoro, Puerta Ga- lera. Hot springs... February, 1908................... Laguna, Los Bafios (c) (>) September, 1913. Misamis, Camiguin. Spring Coot, Catar. Normal. 348.4. | 109.7. ...| Trace. _...| 270.2. | Nil. Trace. Trace. | 1.04. > Thermal, sodic, calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline-saline, siliceous. © Odor of hydrogen sulphide; contains organic matter. 4 Calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline, € Hydrogen sulphide, sulphureted, carbon-dioxated. 0.48 ee. per liter. Gases determined in laboratory ; probably low. 404 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral {Numbers give ; Laboratory No. | 1085. 88870. ne een a ee ee. Locality. ..A eee ee Nueva Vizcaya, Dopol........| Nueva Vizeaya, Salinas... .| Saline spring | Saline spring... Silica (Si02) Sulphurie acid radicle (SQ,4) -.-.. te Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOz)..... Carbonic acid radicle (COs) Nitric acid radicle (NOz).............. Nitrous acid radiele (NOz).......... Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,4) ................ pate to he ate Metaboric acid radicle (BOs) eee Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (1)..... ae ron) (‘el ee eee ee Aluminium (A]1) Tron oxide (Fe.O;) and alumina (A1,Oz) ... Manganese (Mn).............. Barium (Ba) Strontium (Sr) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mc) se meee PotaRsinimn) (K:)) eo eee ee ee Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Ammonium (NH,) Oxygen to form Fe.03..... Free carbon dioxide (CO.) Classification,................. IX, A, 4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] 405 Laboratory No. 88870. Nueva Vizcaya, linas. Saline sprineg....... Slight. Present 12,796... Salty taste 115260. 113346. 117015. PANT OTIS tal OU emer November, 1913................. Occidental Negros, Buenavista. Ditty OLS See ees Oriental Negros, Gui- julngan. VOUS DTN oer eee eee Slight sediment, turbid. PAPA alin ewe see .| 594.8..... September, 1913. Oriental Negros, Ma- saplud. Spring. Turbid. Acid. | 1,586.0. 242.0. | 869.5. _| Nil. Nil. Nil. Nil. Little. 400.5. 124.5 (Al,Oz). Trace, | 96.5. 31.9. ...| Little. Wi9B:5 5 Nil. (>) 4 Thermal, sodic, bicarbonated, saline. b Aluminic, sulphated, acid. 406 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral [Numbers give Laboratory No. | 113345. 13627. eI ULL al OI See eee ee ese October, 1904. ...0.....cecccseccecseeone Oriental Negros, Polim- | Palawan, Culion pinon. Hot spring. Souree........... Physical properties................. Reaction............... Silica (SiO.) Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,) Bicarbonic acid radicle (HCOs).... Carbonic acid radicle (CO3) Nitric acid radicle (NO3) Nitrous acid radicle (NO2) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,) Metaboric acid radicle (BO2) Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Todine (1)... Iron (Fe).... Aluminium (A]).......... Ivon oxide (Fe.03) and alumina (Al,Og) ...| 2.8....--.---....-.--- Manganese (Mn) Barium (Ba) Strontium (Sr) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg)... Potassium (K) Sodium (Na) Lithium (Li) Mittles 22 ter on. oo ee Bison Ami omitaml Ng) Bois ai soos ccicaestccsboseiceit dase Cercacen eacete eves atta? pec eeapeenseer gee Oxygen to form Fe,Qx........ Free carbon dioxide (CQz).. | Classification.............. 2,985.2... Remarks a About the same composition as sea water. Ix, A, 4 Cox et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] ra ‘ i es No. a 58527. 86907. 114328. 3323. ume h 1908 seen eeeeere June, 1911... .| August, 1913 Goes 1903. Pampanga, Santo Tomas. Artesian well Pampanga, Mexico........| Artesian well Pangasinan, Balun- Rizal, Mariquina. From Mariquina River. | Neutral. 179.8. 34.2. 9.84. _| Small amount. 29.8. Trace. b Sodic, bicarbonated, alkaline, siliceous. ¢ Sodie, calciec, muriated, sulphated, saline. 407 408 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of waters from mineral {Numbers give Laboratory No. 75529. Source Physical properties Reaction Silica (SiO.). Sulphuric acid radicle (SO,) Bicarbonie acid radicle (HCOs) Carbonic acid radicle (COs) .. Nitric acid radicle (NOs) Nitrous acid radicle (NO2) Phosphoric acid radicle (PO,) Metaboric acid radicle (BO.)... Arsenic acid radicle (AsO,) Chlorine (C1) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I) Tron (Fe) Tron oxide (Fe.0O3) and alumina (A1.Oz) ....... Manganese (Mn)... Barium (Ba) Strontium (Sr)... Calcium (Ca)... Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K). Sodium (Na)... Lithium (Li)............ Ammonium (NH,).... Oxygen to form FeO. Free carbon dioxide (CO) Classification IX, A, 4 Coa et al.: Water Supplies in the Philippines springs and other sources as noted—Continued. parts per million.] 409 Laboratory No. 108098. 115733. October, 1912 Sorsogon, Sorsogon... HPAII USE lO Louse eee een eae a Tayabas, Gasang, Marinduque... 1,180.0...... (le Dreccierer CUA Sete ante oat eect ee OS ee boettee ceoererpencr errr Nil... -| 1.98. | 227.3. ---| 46.21. w-| 0.52. | 161.00. | 0.731, May, 1910. Tayabas, Gasang, Marin- duque. Hot springs. Brownish ; suspended matter. Neutral. 1,173.4. 88.15. 65.425. 928.236. ---| Nil. -| Nil. Nil. -| 6.4661. Little. ..| Trace. Nil. Nil. 18.5. Nil. Nil. 8 Calcic, bicarbonated. > Calcic, bicarbonated, alkaline, sulphureted, carbon-dioxated. © Hydrogen sulphide, 1.16 cc. per liter. Values for CO. and H.S are probably low. 410 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 The need of a systematic water survey in the Philippine Islands is strikingly apparent. Attention has repeatedly been called to this need as shown by the following quotation from an annual report of the Director of the Bureau of Science: Our knowledge of the quality and quantity of available Philippine water supplies is extremely limited. * * * the bacterial count of water has little significance after a sample has been drawn for an hour or two without being kept on ice, and sanitary and mineral analyses of water should be considered more in the nature of a series of experiments than as giving results from which one may make a direct interpretation of the potability or medicinal value of the water. All classes of water analyses simply assist us to judge the character of the water. Without an accurate knowledge of the normal constituents of the source, the conditions under which the sample was taken, and the other factors which influence it, it is impossible to pass judgment upon a water. An investigation and study of all medicinal and thermal springs in the Islands should be undertaken, and a reservation as a public domain of a suitable area surrounding those of value should be made. It seems to me that it is a duty the Government owes to future generations to provide an adequate water survey at the present time. When funds are available, an ap- propriation should be made to this Bureau for carrying on a careful survey of Philippine water supplies. The standards laid down for water in the United States, espe- cially in regard to chlorine and ammonia content, are not appli- cable to conditions in the Archipelago, and unless a special study of the subject of water supplies is carried on it will be many years before the routine work will have furnished enough data to warrant definite conclusions. There are also much-needed analytical results which can be secured only with a portable laboratory in connection with field work. Even at the present time there are many valuable data in the possession of the Bureau of Science which should be much more useful to persons interested in the problem of water supply than has been the case. Thousands of pesos have been spent in drill- ing wells in the Islands in places where a study of available geologic and chemical data would have shown conclusively the impossibility of obtaining a suitable supply of water. A careful survey would prevent unwise expenditure in unknown barren districts. By combining the geologic information with all available chem- ical and biological data concerning the water occurring in any one district, it should not be difficult to establish safe limiting values for the normal constituents of water to serve as a basis in determining its fitness for any particular purpose. * Cox, 12th Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Sci. (1918), 107. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I Fic. 1. Open well near municipal building, Taytay, Rizal Province. 2. Outhouse in proximity to well, Taytay, Rizal Province. PLATE IT Fig. 1. Open well, Pasay. 2. Flowing well, Malolos, Bulacan. 3. Flowing well, Malolos, Bulacan. PLATE III Fig. 1. Water carriers at a public hydrant, Manila. 2. Carrying water in a bamboo tube; a common provincial method. . A method of distributing milk and native drinks which are fre- quently diluted with impure water. PLATE IV [vY) Near the Manila city water supply dam at Montalban, looking upstream toward the dam. (Cut loaned by the Bureau of Printing.) PLATE V Fic. 1. Section of a boiler tube entirely closed with scale, taken from a neglected boiler in the provinces. 2. Section of the same tube, showing an iron cleaning rod broken off in an attempt to remove the scale. 411 vita fe oil gad irda ite’ zi cabin) el aed oor ate tits IWR ‘ ANS bit eye wel ae Bite ymactetius se. 8 Ap ae Lat uP Alen galt Prete Ya" Publ wy yr tt es et : a f @i% Pui y RS da ral bean TOA NE: ENS ‘aber lihe Tia, GR) Mae eee fof ta Y ates ie ty ti (Wha aos scare ea ‘gaat qn aee ae eth | one 9 ay cathy wit it Cet sii: i pate: pies Wah OE. Sts haat ito hee Be a Mee PER Re Rn, ® Cox ET AL.: WATER SUPPLIES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] (Pui. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 4. Fig. 1. Open well near municipal building, Taytay, Rizal Province. a r YP SS thy Ss Fig. 2. Outhouse in proximity to well, Taytay, Rizal Province. PLATE I. at) = Cox kT AL.: WATER SUPPLIES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | (Puiu. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 4. Fig. 1. Open well, Pasay. Fig. 2. Flowing well, Malolos, Bulacan. Fig. 3. Flowing well, Malolos, Bulacan. PLATE Il. yON ‘VW ‘XI “10S “AayeM JAN! YPIM pazNnfip Ajyuanbeasy aae YOIYM SyHUIAP aAlzeU pue xIILW JO SHAPUDA JeOIGAL “NUNOP -TIHG] ‘¢ Bld Wt ALW1d *poyzow jeloulaoid uowwos B saqn} ooqweq e& ul dayem Bulkiuieg “g ‘Bl4 "ejlURIA] ‘pURIPAY OI|qGnd e& ye SualdueO UazeAA “THIF [‘S€NIddINIHg AHL Ao SdITddNg ALVA + TV La x00 ‘NVG SHL GYVMOL WVAYLSdN ONIMNOOT1 ‘ON ‘V ‘XI “lg ‘Nunog “1H g] NVE1VLNOW LV INVO ATddNS YALVM ALIO VWIINVW SHL 40 3LIS “Al ALWId [‘SANIddITIHg AHL dO SaIIddng YWaLVM : “Iv La X0D ‘A ALW1d *a/BOS BY} BAOWIA! 0} }dWI9}}e UP UI Yo Uayx01q *SQOUIAOJd 94} UI 1a]10q pazoa/Heu e Wody pos Bulueao uodl ue Huimoys ‘aqn} awes ay} jo uolzoaG «+z HI uayey} ‘a}B0S YZIM pasolo Ajad!}Ue BQN} Jaj!0q e Jo U0!1}DaG = *T “BI VON ‘VW ‘XI “fs Nance "MH ] [‘SGNIddiIH gd FHL JO SalIddng YaLVM "IV La XOO a os ; popteale ak Veta: tially a seh fy sepa’ ‘a th “tivated, areas io the. Phitippines.. _Déste lotions, swith’ keys,” of, O¥er | 1,000 sh s “genera, and, 156) families, sapah nt ie g PlonRanY: of) technival Heim tc.) Shes a, J ee oe coconur’ “paLM ay oEP PINE TF highs si :) Order No. rer Paper, 3 L Hee 3 by i oe Sabi #4 i | i ees. ¥ f y a fat ete Aer ak eae c ee a SER a eget che ah Ree ans en tae LTS 8 Ish x aiven ‘ By Prep. iw. Foxorrer Order. hee 41 Ps ges tes, $0.50, als “it, Mot Dice or | ei y has ‘ogether a la nts oS Sof mocurate, informatio BOSCO BETTIS, ‘trees | i trae, aaah Np eae of, economio: ag sag ap %, ; ai ‘ : id, fi ‘ 5 aes 4 3 y ane Orber No. 418. {ee “ibe « 6 pages, $050, ree Sasi postpaid; 5. UR ee eM ys Aig Arsh this 13) the \anly recent atterot tovenu- © pop SSF erate the | maminals’ of , the Philippine bs 8 oe ce? \ stands... The. distribution of ‘each. species® BRN Cat CUR a Biers ang the. ariotonk? et ae Pipes polted bp poke Wealee 4 & Son, 28 Bssex aalib ‘Stra: ee . Martinus Nijhoff, Tange. Voorhout 9, The Hague,; Meh aera age eter idence e. a F % Kel ‘i A, Mw i a } ETHNOLOGY | rg rat Ml REN “A YocasuLany OF THE ‘teonor tas Bil Veen de oe tHcy EBON GE oi zis GUAGE AS SPOKEN B pes : sone Bes. Ak Wns vee Gens sD TGOROTS | ie By WALTER: CLAXTON Guar. he ote y “Order No. 408. Paper, 89 pases, 90.75, a ‘ postpaid, ue ‘$e "The: yooabulary is ‘given in, ‘Wgorot-Enatish.” te and Ras, tah Se URES “volume deals, wi xt oe Ses ae : ss uae “owritten > desea os, =the Mo + ome I re payer rss INDUSTRInS 6 78 a By Onto Semen od SP ATO Fa itetah Unig! | wie ao es BarUPrINE eee B: Rositson F LANGUAGES 0) 8 ped sa 66. “pages, s Pie Bo NGS Bor : ‘pos pakose 53 oar Seas oe ro ‘By Cas Poa et conan mae Ake This ‘paper. isa” “convise. record: of “Order, No. 407. These two’ papers ‘are’ served: naar ‘ene _ Soha cover, 141: hag hit a ie 50, oleate ad are ae ‘history and present condition of. neh rhag the Bek Bibl tae eat ; “THE SUBANUNS: OF. ‘SINDANGAW BAY Bee Ga ‘By Berson. B. CunisttE Beis Ra heite Order No. Ae Phage 123 rhe 1. : Tila iss ‘map, 29 p , $1.25, postpaid. Hes eva - 2 << Sindangan eerie is, Ssibiahad on the ‘north: Reo, eR ern coast of Zamboanga Peninsula. The Su-. c ates Sia .» * “banuns of this: region were studied: by Mr. e ree 5 “Christie during two. periods of five and. Bix “i 2-6 weeks, respectively. : rh, # The 29. plates illustrate the Subanuns at “i>. «werk and. at play;. their industries, “houses, 9 © SaMars, and Swed ind" cand, the people © ik sea Mas cea pier Rec eae EE ary Wy Be HISTORY oF. sue - 5) By Nasebe M. Sammy ‘ ‘Order. "No. -406;- |’ Paper, 275° pages NG igs . maps, 2. diagrams, ‘$0.75, ‘postpai in the Bipharakion ef his manuscript me b The History Sula; - Doctor Saleeb: it uch: ores: pen effort in eee 3 : = ents in the possession of the Sultan at uray 2 of Sulu, This ‘book. is’ a history of ate fo j Ste ‘Moros in the Philibpines from the saartion De, ue the RRO ays Mi THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND THE INDUSTRIES VoL. IX SEPTEMBER, 1914 No. 5 PHILIPPINE DIPTEROCARP FORESTS By WiLu1AM H. BRowN and DonNALD M. MaTHEWs * (From the Botanical Section of the Biological Laboratory of the Bureau of Science and from the Division of Investigation of the Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.) Thirteen plates, 12 text figures, and 1 map CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. General description of diptero- earp forests. Distribution in the Philippines. Importance of dipterocarp for- ests. Composition and arrangement of Philippine dipterocarp forests. DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED AREAS. The forest of northern Negros. The forest of Bataan. The forest of northern Laguna. The forest of Mount Maquiling. PLANT ASSOCIATIONS ON CLEARED AREAS. General description. Cut-over region Negros. Cleared areas in Bataan. Cleared land at the base of Mount Maquiling. in northern VOLUME OF DIPTEROCARP FORESTS. GROWTH. General discussion and methods of measurements. Annual diameter growth. Seasonal diameter growth. Growth in volume. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS. .Temperature. Moisture; rainfall, soil moisture, humidity, and evaporation. EFFECT OF CUTTING IN DIPTEROCARP TORESTS. PLANTING. Planting on grasslands. Planting in second-growth for- ests. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF MAN- AGEMENT. SUMMARY. * Assistant professor of forestry, University of the Philippines. 129873 413 414 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 INTRODUCTION The fact that the dipterocarp forests are the most extensive and important forests of the Indo-Malayan region has been pointed out by a number of writers, but up to the present time little or no attempt has been made toward an understand- ing of the factors influencing their growth and development. A clear comprehension of these factors is important from an ecological point of view, and is absolutely necessary if the forests are to be handled according to rational silvicultural practice. The need of such data has led us, one a botanist and the other a forester, to undertake this study with the hope that it will result in a foundation which will help in the future under- standing and management of these forests. Both of us have been in full codperation in all parts of the work, although naturally some portions are more particularly the result of individual investigations. The results here presented are, there- fore, in effect the conclusions of both, We were particularly fortunate in having the assistance and criticism of Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, who has made an extended study of the trees of the Indo-Malayan region and especially of the dipterocarps; of Dr. E. B. Copeland, who is thoroughly acquainted with the vegetation of the Philippines; and the as- sistance of Mr. E. D. Merrill in the identification of specimens. A list of all the species mentioned is given at the end of this article. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DIPTEROCARP FORESTS The dipterocarp forest is a tall, tropical lowland forest characteristic of the Indo-Malayan region, usually occupying the localities most favorable to tree growth. It receives its name from the fact that species of the family Dipterocarpaceae are the dominant trees. The forest may be composed almost wholly of one dipterocarp species, as in some of the forests of Shorea robusta of northern India and of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus of Burma.? In other cases two or more different species may pre- dominate. In many forests the numerical proportion of diptero- carps may be small, but owing to their large size they may yet give a characteristic appearance to the vegetation and form a large proportion of the volume of timber. This condition * Brandis, D., An enumeration of the Dipterocarpaceae based chiefly upon specimens preserved at the Royal Herbarium and Museum, Kew, and the British Museum; with remarks on the genera and species, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. (1895), 31, 1-148. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 415 will be brought out in connection with the forest of Mount Maquiling. Dipterocarp forests may thus contain a relatively small number of dipterocarps, but the individuals are mostly large trees, and one of the chief characteristics of this family is the production of large stands by one or several species. To quote from Brandis: The most striking peculiarity of this order is, that numerous species are gregarious, forming nearly pure forests of large extent in which one species has obtained the upper hand, to the exclusion almost of all others. In the tropical forests of Eastern Asia these species play the part which in Europe belongs to trees of Coniferae and Capuliferae * * *. The most remarkable of these gregarious species is the Sal tree, Shorea robusta, which forms pure or nearly pure forests of vast extent at the foot of the Himalaya, * * *™ and in the hills of EKastern Central India * * *. In a climate and on soil which suits it, this tree reigns supreme. Although the dipterocarps form large stands, there are usually a number of other species associated with them. Whitford reports * 120 different species on 10,200 square meters in the Lamao forest of Bataan, P. I. Of these, 7 were dipterocarps. On a plot of 2,500 square meters on Mount Maquiling there were 92 different species, only 2 of which were dipterocarps. Many of the species growing with the dipterocarps are small, there being frequently 2 stories composed of different species growing under the first or dominant story. Besides these smaller trees, there are frequently also in the first story, larger species _ other than dipterocarps, some of which may reach the height of the tall dipterocarps. Kurz‘ describes the tallest story of the closed tropical forests of Pegu as being composed chiefly of deciduous Sterculiae, while along with these there are ever- green dipterocarps and trees of other families. Between this forest which can hardly be called dipterocarp and one in which the top story is composed almost exclusively of dipterocarps there must be many different types. The number of large trees other than dipterocarps naturally varies inversely as the number of dipterocarps. The same is usually true also of the small understory trees, the reason being that as the dipterocarp layer becomes more highly developed less light passes through it. Dipterocarp forests extend from northern India through Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra to * Whitford, H. N., The vegetation of the Lamao forest reserve, This Journal (1906), 1, 378. *Kurz, S., Preliminary report on the forest and other vegetation of Pegu. C. B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta (1875). 416 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Java, Borneo, and the Philippines; and probably also to Celebes and New Guinea, as dipterocarps have been reported from these regions. These forests usually occur below elevations of 1,000 meters, and generally show the greatest development at low elevations. They generally occupy the regions best suited for tree growth. Dipterocarp forests usually give place to other types in dry regions, but the requirements of different dipterocarp forests as to moisture and temperature vary greatly. In the constantly humid forests of Sarawak, Borneo, dipterocarps are conspicuous, while in Bengal Shorea robusta occurs in localities where the dry season is so pronounced that fires cause considerable damage to the forests.. These two regions also illustrate the differences in temperature endured by dipterocarps, the forests of Sarawak having a continuous high temperature, while Shorea robusta in Palaman and Hagaribagh Districts of Bengal is repeatedly injured by frost. DISTRIBUTION IN THE PHILIPPINES According to Whitford,® the dipterocarp forests cover 75 per cent of the virgin forest area of the Philippines, or 77,700 square kilometers (30,000 square miles), and contain approx- imately 95 per cent of the standing timber. These forests occur on almost all types of topography, but usually grow best on well-watered plains or on the gentle lower slopes of the main ~ mountain masses. On such sites the soil is usually a deep loamy clay of volcanic origin, and as we pass from these situa- tions to soils of a drier nature and of calcareous origin the dipterocarp species give way to a more open type usually dominated by such species as Vitex parviflora (molave). Both dipterocarp forests and the individual trees are best developed at comparatively low altitudes, and as higher elevations are reached the trees become smaller and the dipterocarps less numerous. At elevations of 800 meters or less this type gives way to one in which miscellaneous trees—Quercus and other genera—are more prominent. Dipterocarp forests may extend practically to the sea, where situations favorable to them occur, but they do not grow on sandy beaches or muddy flats. How- ever, the type is not usually found within 3 or 4 kilometers of *McIntire, A. L., Notes on sal in Bengal, Forest Pamphlet, Calcutta (1909), No. 5. * Whitford, H. N., The forests of the Philippines, Bull. P. I. Bur. Forestry (1911), No. 10. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests ALT the coast in most regions, because where situations suitable for it are found near the beach the original forest has been for the most part cleared away and the land put under cultivation. The accompanying map, which is a modification of Whitford’s,’ shows the distribution of forest areas throughout the Philippine Islands. The pine forest shown on the map in double hatch is a high mountain type and need not interest us here. No distinction is made in the map between large areas of commercial forest which are chiefly dipterocarp, small areas of high mountain forest, and forests of the drier sites that occur scattered through the larger forest areas. For the purposes of this paper the forest area may be considered for the most part dipterocarp. Large portions of the forests have been only _ partially explored, but will probably prove to be of the same general character as those in better-known parts of the Islands. The distribution of the forests as shown in this map is in part due to climatic differences and in part to the influence of man aided by climatic conditions. Temperature plays little part in this distribution, as temperature in the Archipelago is regulated by altitude rather than by latitude. Moisture conditions seem to be the determining factor. In general, the climate of the Philippine Islands, in regard to rainfall, may be classified as a monsoon climate; that is, rains depend upon rain-bearing winds which shift their direction twice a year. This statement is essentially correct for the entire western side of the Archipelago, but cannot be taken literally for the eastern portion. The rainfall of the Islands can be divided into two general classes. The first class may be distinguished as a seasonal rainfall, the climate being marked by very distinct wet and dry seasons. This climate is found in the western half of the Archipelago. In the eastern part of the Islands rainfall is distributed throughout all the months of the year, and there are therefore no pronounced wet and dry seasons. The explanation of this difference between the eastern and western coasts of the Islands is that the northeastern monsoon, striking the Islands on the eastern coast, deposits a large part of its moisture before passing over the mountain masses and then continues over the western half of the Islands as a drying wind. The southwestern monsoon, on the other hand, is not "Bull. P. I. Bur. Forestry (1911), No. 10. * Cox, A. J., Philippine soils and some of the factors which influence them, This Journal, Sec. A (1911), 6, 279-330. A18 The Philippine Journal of Science i914 nearly so strong a wind, and although it brings rains on the western side of the Archipelago a large part of the rains which come at this season of the year is the result of cyclonic disturbances (typhoons) which cause the deposition of rain on both coasts. This difference in the character of rainfall between the eastern and western halves of the Archipelago is pronounced on Luzon, where there are large mountain masses running north and south. Forest areas are very extensive on the eastern side, where there is a nonseasonal climate. The same relation between forests and rainfall is also evident to some extent in the southern islands, particularly so in Mindoro, which like Luzon has a high central mountain range running north and south and a rather nonseasonal rainfall on the eastern side which is also heavily forested. Cebu, on the other hand, which lies farther east than Mindoro, is a relatively low island, and being sheltered on its eastern side by Leyte and Samar has a very distinct seasonal climate and is almost without forest. This relation between the distribution of forests and rainfall is due to the seasonal character and not to the total amount of rainfall. The average rainfall as taken at the weather stations for the western, seasonal or monsoon, climate is 2,327.3 milli- meters per year; for the eastern or nonseasonal climate, 2,273.7 millimeters. Moreover, the total range of rainfall in each climate is considerable, varying from 1,188.8 millimeters to 3,954.4 millimeters in the region of monsoon rainfall and from 905 millimeters to 3,859.2 millimeters in the region of nonseasonal rainfall. Thus, it is evident that if any relation between forest distribution and rainfall is to be established it must depend upon the seasonal character rather than upon the total amount of rainfall. What has been said in regard to rainfall. will apply over large areas, but the local configuration of mountain masses will, of course, affect these conditions very considerably. It is very probable that, with the exception of certain limited very dry regions, all of the Archipelago was originally covered with forest, the greater part of which was dipterocarp in character. The extensive grass areas and second-growth forests which now occupy a large portion of the Islands are undoubtedly due in large part to the influence of man. In this connection it may be interesting to refer to the following table (Table I) from Whitford: *° * Cox, loc. cit. * Bull. P. I. Bur. Forestry (1911), No. 10. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 419 TABLE L—Areas covered by different classes of vegetation in the Philippine Islands. | Class of vegetation. Area. Sq. miles.| Per cent. Vireiniforests ee ate abe) ed alee De ath alent ieee luce ee Alor 40, 000 83} Second-growth forests 20, 000 16% Grassland sees ee S 48, 000 40 (Cultivatedtlanids) 223220 0 Ay ee Ra ee aS a eS Oe ee 12, 000 10 = Rae ia aE Wb Deb Meh MA tie | arate TIN ~320,000/ 100 | As will be seen here, the grasslands are more extensive than virgin forests, while the extent of cultivated lands is only one-fourth as great as that of the grasslands. There can be no doubt that these grass areas are a result of cultivation. The cogon grass (Imperata exaltata) readily invades cultivated areas and often leads to their abandonment, or the land, after a lapse of cultivation, becomes overgrown with this grass, which effectually prevents further cultivation. By reference to map 1 it will be seen that the nonforested areas largely overgrown with grass are most abundant in the region of the pronounced dry season. The reason for this is that the grass becomes very inflammable during the dry season and is regularly burned. This results in the death of nearly all tree seedlings and in the extension of the grass areas. These fires do little or no damage to the grass on account of its large underground rhizomes. In the region of nonseasonal rainfall the grass areas more rarely become dry enough to burn readily. Consequently, forest spe- cies can become established in areas abandoned after cultivation and the forest is able to maintain itself. Thus, it seems evi- dent that the present distribution of forests in the Philippines is largely due to the combined effect of the action of man and the influence of climate, human activity in destroying the forest being aided in the western half of the Archipelago by climate and retarded in the eastern half. IMPORTANCE OF DIPTEROCARP FORESTS The importance of the dipterocarp family as the source of the chief timber supply of the Philippine Islands was first clearly shown by Whitford. Whitford estimates that the dip- terocarp forests contain 95 per cent of the standing timber in the Philippines and that 75 per cent of this timber is diptero- carp. As stated in the above paper, 144 out of a total of 200 "Forests of the Philippines, Bull. P. I. Bur. Forestry (1911), No. 10. 420 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 billion board feet of standing timber in the Philippines is es- timated to be dipterocarp. The large size of the individual trees, the density of the stand, and the readiness with which the market receives the timber for construction and finishing work of all kinds make the forest an extremely important one to the logger; and capital has already been invested in the commercial development of this forest to a very considerable extent. Other timber of greater value for cabinetwork and interior finish is found in the Philippines, as throughout the tropics, but not in sufficiently heavy stands to warrant the investment of large amounts of capital. Certain grades of dipterocarp timber are, however, eminently suited to take the place of such woods as walnut and mahogany, while other grades furnish excellent construction timber; these two uses make the exploitation of the forests on a large scale a certainty. If the destruction that has attended the exploitation of valuable forests in other coun- tries is not to be repeated here it will be necessary to obtain a thorough understanding of their growth and reproduction, from which can be deduced a rational system of silvicultural management. The importance of the sal forest, a dipterocarp type of India and Burma, has long been recognized by Indian foresters who have prepared elaborate plans for its management. In general, however, the importance of the dipterocarp type has not been recognized, but from data at hand it seems probable that it is just as important throughout the Indo-Malayan region as a whole as in the Philippines. The impression has prevailed that the tropics furnish only very heavy hardwoods and cannot be counted on for soft and medium-hard construction timbers, which constitute the bulk of these used throughout the world. Thus Fernow ™” says: Most of the woods of the tropics are very hard, fit primarily for ornamental use and hence less necessary. Possibly a change in the methods of the use of wood may also change the relative economic values, but at present the vast forests of the tropical countries are of relatively little importance in the discussion of wood supply for the world. It seems evident that this statement does not apply to the Indo-Malayan region and certainly not to the Philippines nor to the sal forests of India and Burma. The dipterocarps, in general, are soft and medium-hard woods, and without doubt occur in sufficient quantities partially to meet the world’s demand. That they are not more generally used for construction purposes ” Fernow, B. E., A brief history of forestry. University Press, Toronto; Forestry Quarterly, Cambridge, Mass. (1911), 4. BROWN AND MATHEWS: DipTrEROCARP FORESTS. ] [Puin. Journ. Scr., IX, A, No. 5. i ¥ 13° } ) T T ==, DIST RIUTS AN OF FORESTS nN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS SCALE STATUTE MILES FORMOSA |. KiLomertas 2 00 NOS. PROVINCES BATANES / /LOCOS NORTE MOUNTAIN a APAYAO 6 KALINGA ¢ BONTOC o LEPANTO © AMBURAYAN f (IFUGAO SUBPROVINCES BATANES IS. & SENGUET SS 2 CAGAYAN 3 1060S SUR + ABRA SUBPROVINCE 4 ISABELA 5 LA UNION 6 NUEVA VIZCAYA ? TAYABAS MARINDUQUE SUEFROVINCE 8 PANGASINAN 9 NUEVA ECIJA /0 ZAMBALES // TARLAC /2 PAMPANGA /3 BULACAN 14 BATAAN 15 RIZAL 16 CAVITE 17 LAGUNA /8 BATANGAS 19 AMBOS CAMARINES 20. ALBAY . CATANOUANES SUBPROVINCE 2/ SORSOGON MASBATE SUBPROVINCE MINOORO SAMAR PALAWAN 22 ANTIQUE 23 CAPIZ ROMBLON SUBPROVINCE 24 LOO LEYTE CEBU 26 ORIENTAL NEGROS SIQUISOR SUBPROVINCE BOHOL om 27 SURIGAQ $ 28 MISAM/S Th QEPARTMENT OF M/NOANAO AND SULU” i LAWAQ J DAVAO k ZAMBOANGA / COTABATO m SULU AGUSAN 7 BUTUAN 2 BUKIDNON OISTRICTS | svsprovinces * cuYo 6. s0, * CPZDUMARAN CAGAYANES IS. SIS o AQBUGSUG Dag, U Geaasnc iF L icstraie J BANGUEY |, © CAGAYAN SULU 1. us 4 p 25 OCCIDENTAL NEGROS i Y ZY : f a ° BASUYANES |S. MILLO I. LEGEND COMERCIAL FORESTS UWA PINE REGIGN og K Wn <._) CATANDUANES 1 Z yo“) Sp BATAN | 20 v7 Ue CAMOTES IS. ¢ DINAGAT |, CV snncaa if Map 1. Distribution of forests in the Philippines. i ay Oe hy of ; f ’ . _ Lt 7" ow! a ’ { 7 ) ¥ ) aN, a! iy a Mita i 7 2 am y.d/ sti {oe Nara Sgr one eee Gin wie . a ta ti A tA ee: et ea tn ine ie 7 tea; 7 . - S $ M1 Doe Pa pede ty EH ai Ne Sy made , : Aa P= | } ~- a 16 r sides ; : - Vd nis tHe Mahia ws Aa a | 7 ‘ We PCC O eet tin ant tht f i ; ’ i 7" 5 pf i) heady AAA iG Ra Br Ae. 4p | t wal ei ay Bry @otee) 2 eee ate ee : at, 4 4 . a, Wir oie Si je i P ‘ \ ; \ evi eM ys) ae im ¥ i pithy artnt: Ry: By : ) res ai W655. ~¥ 0) te ean OE ly par ieare : ; a.3 . ‘ue ae 4 | his ' ~ é | ; ' t ' Sit) Oe » ely i OMA 4 t k \ wa e ; a ABs 6 - as | "gape Verecitex. (ie meni e . wp? pauper ya i ? : eh ‘ 7 ; Pa ar, Ae Tore ali ty! gp OG Aer “gig eS eee 1 dah EE Ry Hig SORT Fy AA ti Ree } ‘ " > ) ict Se ears oe = = rey wk ek eo ' . aS Put, bs AV x ad ee a td A | % ) see reat =, igre: #ii nage’ j ‘ 4 ak i erty) iF, My he (ae ete, Sg * rent | é Cl, Chet Sek Rh pele igend ee hs i i Fag) oie i a wees he iaieee. ms ig, Bh \ | ia A ee, tae ee peal “ ute ¢: bias su wate th } oe i ess * ye y or ay , leans reece * nye + hed ON et ' if o's 5 : ¢ g a & Bi fd »_* haveu: i, Ap Say wee): A ie bas m tlahite aetna id ene ee P ‘ as APT YD ied » only al the wert’ A i Cs Madbets wreaitl Boos i Pri. ie eee ae dud. Geeta yay inistad he hiro ta a THA Se tated: sda a A ; - "aly uipades + ee ot pete Sy 2 os ee sr test gage gee fa 4 » (ey ee | et de PN a A Me ee eh hs shape i” che Pt Su ome %) 4 8 ww Tf a og neue enh jeans ie TX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 42] outside of the region in which they occur is naturally due to the fact that only the better grades have been exported, and these the world markets have accepted as finishing lumber. Furthermore, the primitive methods of lumbering, which until recent date have been the only ones in use in the tropics, have made lumbering expensive and the handling of large trees impossible. Under these conditions, the only woods which could be exported with profit have been the very hard ones which are in constant demand for ornamental purposes and for which very high prices are paid. With the introduction of modern logging machinery, lumbering in the Philippines is becoming constantly: cheaper, the supply of construction timber is exceed- ing the local demand, and exportation of various classes of lumber has begun. Comparatively little is known of the class of timber existing in the extensive forests of tropical Africa and South America, but judging from descriptions of forests in both of these regions the stands are dense and are composed of large trees. Pechuel- Lésche ?* in his description of the west African rain forest says: There is rather a rich repetition of certain forms developed into giants which invest it with an imposing uniformity. Again, Stanley * describes the forests of the great Congo region as composed largely of great buttressed trees with clean boles. Schimper? in speaking of the forests of tropical Amer- ica says: The tropical virgin forest of America has very properly acquired the highest reputation. The ordinary descriptions of tropical virgin forests chiefly refer to it * * *. I found it, in many ways, far more ea one than in Java, owing to the larger dimensions of the trees, * * *, It seems not unlikely that further exploration of these regions will develop the fact that they are capable of supplying a large proportion of the construction timber of the world. COMPOSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF PHILIPPINE DIPTEROCARP FORESTS Most of the descriptions of tropical forests have been written by naturalists who were looking for new and curious forms of plants. Their descriptions and pictures have, therefore, led to the popular impression that tropical forests are composed largely * Pechuel-Lésche, E., Die Loang-Expedition. Abth. III, Halfte 1. Leip- zig (1812). See Schimper, Plant geography. Oxford (1903). “Stanley, H. M., In darkest Africa. C. Scribner’s Sons, New York (1918). * Schimper, A. F. W., Plant geography. Univ. Cambridge Press, Oxford (1903). 422 The Philippine Journal of Science _ 1914 of bizarre plants and that their appearance is almost entirely different from that of temperate ones. The low, mossy type of high mountains is certainly very different from anything seen in temperate countries. The tall dipterocarp type of forest, however, presents an appearance strikingly similar to a deciduous forest of the temperate zones; it differs from the latter largely in having the trees arranged in stories, with an accompanying greater density of foliage, and especially in containing a much larger number of different species (Plate I, fig. 1). In the best-developed dipterocarp forests the top story forms a very even canopy, reaches to a height of about 65 meters or more, and is composed almost entirely of dipterocarps (Plate-V). The trees frequently have a diameter of 1.5 meters and sometimes 2.5 meters or more (Plate VII). In more poorly developed types this story is lower and may contain more trees of other species than of dipterocarps, while the canopy is frequently very irreg- ular, as the dipterocarps are still the predominant large trees and tend to tower over the other species. Under the top story there are two other stories, each composed of distinct trees, and a ground covering of small bushes or herbs (Plate VI, fig. 2). The presence of these three stories of dif- ferent trees is not evident on casual observation, for the compo- sition of all of the stories is very complex and few of the trees present any striking peculiarities, while smaller trees of a higher story always occur in a lower story and between the different stories. The development of the lower layers is usually in in- verse ratio to that of the top story, the reason being that the better the top story is developed the less light passes through to the lower stories (compare Plate I, fig. 2, and Plate II, fig. 1). The middle story is composed of fair-sized trees which spread their leaves under the branches of those of the top story. The trees of the third or lowest story are small, about 10 to 12 meters high, and have a relatively small amount of foliage (Plate VI, fig. 2). Tree palms probably occur in all of the dipterocarp forests of the Philippines, and may exceptionally form a con- spicuous part of the vegetation in small pockets (Plate II, fig. 2). In the best types they are usually relatively inconsiderable parts of the vegetation. Climbing palms (rattans) (Plate VI, fig. 2) are always present in large numbers, although they are much more prominent in the poorer than in the best types of forest. The rattan plant forms a rosette when young, and maintains this form until the spiny, pinnate leaves are from 2 to 3 meters long. After this it sends out a climbing stem with long internodes, and may IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 423 attain a length of more than 100 meters. Rattans in the rosette stage usually form the most conspicuous part of the ground covering, and difficulty in penetrating the undergrowth is usually due to the spines of the rattan rather than to the density of the vegetation. The composition of the ground covering other than the rattans varies greatly in different situations. On ridges of the lower slopes of mountains in regions with a pronounced dry season it consists almost altogether of small woody shrubs. In ravines, near streams, ferns are numerous, while miscellaneous her- baceous plants occur in considerable numbers. Near the upper edge of the dipterocarp forest and in regions without a pro- nounced dry season, ferns and herbaceous plants are often present in large numbers even on the ridges. Large vines are a characteristic feature of the dipterocarp - forest (Plate I, fig. 1), and in poorer-developed types of forests they may be prominent enough to influence the appearance of the vegetation markedly, while in the best types they are much less noticeable. In the poorer and particularly in cut-over types climbing bamboo is frequently well developed. The greater de- velopment of vines in the poorer types is connected with the fact that more light comes through the canopy of the top story than in the best types. Epiphytes, which are very prominent in the mossy forest, are in the dipterocarp type chiefly restricted to the larger branches of the tall trees where they form regular aérial gardens. The chief constituents of these are ferns—particularly humus-gather- ing ones, such as species of Drynaria—xerophytic orchids, and species of Hoya. These are frequently so completely hidden by the foliage beneath them as to be invisible from the ground. Epiphytes on the trunks of the trees are rather scarce and, with the exception of the bird’s-nest fern (Asplenium nidus), are usually inconspicuous. The bird’s-nest fern, on the other hand, with its fronds a meter or more in length is the most striking epiphyte in the forest. It does best in somewhat moist local- ities, and is almost entirely absent from dry ridges. We have seen that the dominant trees of the forest are dip- terocarps and that as these increase in number and size the other constituents of the forest become less prominent. This is probably connected with the fact that as the dipterocarps become better developed they shut out more light from the lower stories. In the best forests there are sometimes small patches where the dipterocarps cast such a dense shade that there is practically nothing growing on the ground under them. However, such 424 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 places are rare, as both the understories and ground covering are usually very dense, the average undergrowth in a good forest being always much more abundant than in a well-developed deciduous forest of the temperate zone. The forest is, however, far from being an impenetrable jungle. One can pass through it readily if he carries a long knife to cut the spiny leaves of the rattan, while even this is unnecessary in the best types. How- ever, the edges of even the best types of forest are very dense (Plate IV, fig..1). Comparing the appearance of the dipterocarp forest with a deciduous forest of the temperate zones, the chief difference lies in the greater density of the dipterocarp type. This dif- ference in density includes foliage, undergrowth, and the num- ber of trees and vines. Next to density comes the presence of palms, particularly of the rattans, which form such a con- spicuous element in the undergrowth. Besides this, the pecu- — liarities of certain trees should be noted. These are buttresses, cauliflory, and the presence of strangling figs. A considerable proportion of the tall trees have tremendous planklike buttresses (Plate VI, fig. 1), which in extreme cases extend several meters from the tree and probably help to support it. The strangling figs, species of Ficus, present a most peculiar appearance (Plate III, fig. 1). Starting as epiphytes in the tops of the trees, they send down roots which become connected with the ground (Plate III). Branches from these roots grow around the tree and coa- lesce either with each other or with a main root, until the trunk of the tree on which the fig started, usually, becomes inclosed by a network. As this grows it interferes with the growth of the trunk, the fig leaves shade the tree. and roots of the fig interfere with those of the tree. This combination usually results in the death of the tree on which the fig is growing. The meshlike support of the fig continues to grow until it may finally assume the appearance of a solid trunk. ‘These strangling figs frequent- ly occur on the largest trees, but are much less numerous in the best forests than in the poorer types. Caulifiory occurs in a number of species, particularly of the genus Ficus. However, neither strangling figs nor cauliflorous trees are present in the best types in sufficient numbers to influence the general appear- ance of the vegetation. If we were to sum up the impression which one gets in pass- ing through a dipterocarp forest it would be something like this: A tall, dense forest is seen in which large trees and small ones are crowded together until their leaves very fully occupy all of the available space, while the ground is covered with a IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 425 dense undergrowth consisting largely of feathery rattans, some of them reaching up among the trees. Scattered here and there are tall palms, while now and then the eye is caught by a large tree with gigantic buttresses, the bizarre form of a strangling fig, a tree trunk covered with fruit, or the long leaves of the epiphitic bird’s-nest fern. There are, of course, in the forest many curious plants of great interest to the botanist, but these plants are frequently inconspicuous or their peculiar features are such as would only attract a naturalist. They do not influence the general char- acter of the forest, and might readily be overlooked by the casual observer. We have discussed the dipterocarp forest as though it were a single type. This is true of the general features such as have been described. The systematic composition of different forests, however, varies considerably. Thus, in the forest on the northern and eastern slopes of Mount Maquiling, Parashorea plicata (bagtican-lauan) is the only dipterocarp present in suf- ficient numbers to give character to the vegetation. On the eastern slopes of Mount Mariveles, at an elevation of about 500 meters, Shorea polysperma (tanguile) occurs in much greater numbers than any other dipterocarp. The dominant story of the forest of northern Negros on the banks of Himugan River is composed chiefly of four dipterocarps, Shorea negros- ensis (red lauan), Shorea eximia (almon-lauan), Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong), and Shorea polysperma (tanguile). The differences, here mentioned, are much greater than those between some other forests, as the forests grade into each other. There are, however, almost as many types as there are forests, and it is even difficult to divide them into general groups. For the purposes of this paper it seems best to regard such dip- terocarp forests as are discussed as being of one type with many variations. DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED AREAS The dipterocarp forest as it occurs throughout the Indo- Malayan region and the Philippines has already been discussed, and now certain selected forest areas in the Philippines will be taken up and discussed more in detail. The forests described below have been chosen not only because they are typical of a large portion of the dipterocarp forests of the Philippines, but also because growth and other silvicultural data which will be used later in the discussion of the management of the dip- terocarp type have been obtained in these regions. Also, these forests are typical of different forms of the dipterocarp type, A26 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 and each forest presents a somewhat individual problem in its management. THE FOREST OF NORTHERN NEGROS The northern end of Negros is characterized by broad gently slopizg ridges which extend from a broad coastal plain inland to a voleanic cone rising to an elevation of about 1,400 meters. The climate of the region is nonseasonal in character at all points above 100 meters in elevation. The soil is a deep, fer- tile, well-drained clayey loam of volcanic origin. The forest extends on the northern and eastern slopes to within 6 kilometers of the coast, where the altitude is from 30 to 50 meters. It is dipterocarp in character up to elevations of 700 meters and over, where it grades into mountain-top forms, but it reaches its best developement on the lower broad gentle slopes up to elevations of 500 meters. On the broad lower slopes the forest is typical of the best- developed forests of the Islands (Plate V). From the stand- point of yield and simplicity of composition, the forest is unsurpassed. The dominant trees, numerically and commer- cially, are only six, and all are dipterocarps. They are Shorea negrosensis (red lauan), Shorea polysperma (tanguile), Shorea eximia (almon-lauan), Pentacme contorta (white lauan) Pava- shorea plicata (bagtican-lauan), and Dipterocarpus spp. (api- tong). These trees are all of large size, attaining an average diameter of 70 centimeters and a height of 50 meters. Indi- vidual trees attain diameters of over 250 centimeters and heights of over 65 meters, and over large areas the average diameter of the 6 species may run as high as 100 centimeters (Plate IV, fig. 1, and Plate V). Owing to the fact that the top story is so highly developed, the under stories are less prominent than in the average dipterocarp forests. This forest is, therefore, not as typically three storied as are most forests in the Islands. An analysis of the stand shows a striking lack of intermediate- sized trees of the predominant species. The understory is for the most part made up of a great number of minor species which are too small and too varied in quality to be of importance commercially. In other words, the forest approaches an even- aged stand of overmature dipterocarps with a scanty under- story of mixed pole-sized dipterocarps and miscellaneous species. This fact is illustrated by Table II compiled from data given by Everett and Whitford ** in their working plan for this area. * Everett, H. D., and Whitford, H. N., A preliminary working plan for the public forest tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Occidental Negros, P. 1., Bull. P. I. Bur. Forestry (1906), No. 5. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests (427 From Table II it may be seen that although, exclusive of seedlings under 10 centimeters in diameter, there are nearly as many individuals of dipterocarps below 40 centimeters in diameter as there are above, nevertheless, the great bulk of the forest in regard to volume is distributed among the larger trees. Furthermore, the same fact holds true in regard to the distribution of the canopy. The main canopy of the forest is that of the standards and veterans, and this is an entirely closed canopy. The trees of as small diameters as 40 centi- meters have their crowns overtopped by the crowns of the main overmature stand, and, as a consequence, these trees are poorly developed, slender poles with suppressed crowns. When TABLE II.—Stand table for forest of northern Negros. [Volumes are given in cubic meters.] 5 gg Shorea poly- | Shorea negrosen- sp. Gplton). | almond. | Perma (ean- | sto (mangacha. Diameter of tree above but- ‘ ~ tresses in centimeters. Trees. Wole Trees. evol Trees. Wol- Trees. | Volume. pT Fy teeeme te es SNE te te od Beas 8.47 0.34] 8.58 0.84) 2.51 0.10 | 3.18 0.18 CTR aU hy ns ote ey) EO tale ae | 9.61 2.40] 8.25 2.06} 3.86 | 0.96] 4.48 | 1.12 GML MR WRI ee Sey era We 5.388%) 3.23] 4.59 2:74 2.32 | 1.89 | 2:82) 4.34 AQWe itoh reece tgene ton esl 3.22 | 3.86] 1.98 PGi || tbe |), 1k) ob 2.24 | Cig eae ok Ne Mh geek Shia | 3.29 5.18] 1.96 | 4.31] 1.28 2.06 | 1.22 2.18 BO MaIME aaa Lahis aE AS yt 2530) | ANGO) T5400) |e As02 | etet0, mean ta 30)) my exoT Roane sll See fs ea | 1.88 4.76 | 1.26 4.10 | 0.75 LED | bie I] Bee | Uy sees eel Aa) NI Os sr lea | 1.88 6.02] 1.17 4.65 | 0.95 2.99} 1.04 3.54 (TRA AES MAREN CA VesRareace aa BD 1.63 6.65 | 1.00 4.70] 1.06 | 4.05) 115 4.69 QA Risk pul el, Eres 5 ewe lek CM. 1.11 5.50 | 0.81 4.45| 0.66 | 3.05| 1.04 5.05 BM RM aa I Sees all 1.10 6.60 | 0.75 4.82 | 0.59 | 3.10] 0.99 | 5.66 FAY any Fae a MN a 0.64 4.61 | 0.93 6.89 | 0.55 | 3.54| 1.08 7.24 Se ee rs hc or ai 0460:|) 95.124) O88") 7/391) On60))| 4246 | O91 |) 7205 G0 Rie) ERNE te eS Th nel 0.51 5.11] 0.46 4.39 | 0.46 3.94 | 0.69 6.15 CR Me es Bit Lr ET ee 0.25 2.90 | 0.383 SnD 4 Ossian un Sa01u|N 0878 7.96 TOQuen hs conus tic eas Bie 0.14 1.86] 0.51 5.66 | 0.40 | 4.39] 0.72 8.24 LOD Me eee DUR as edie Coed te 0.31 4.71 | 0.64 | 8.73] 0.27 3.33 | 1.10 14. 40 TIO SSR ARAN UNO Bee NG yacialll, J 0.13 2.31 | 0.42 6.43 | 0.16 | 2.20] 0.97 14.34 AS eee OOM cele see Ili s. 2 0.037 | 0.77! 0.88 6.51! 0.18 | 1.98! 0.71 11.01 j SUA id AN ugh ui ll otal 0.054 | 1.25] 0.40 7.66| 0.16] 2.68] 0.91 | 16.67 | LOG PEN 2 lee PAR ee J 0.054} 1.46] 0.11 2.34] 0.16 2.92 | 0.68 | 18.77 PR) Pe cet SbF el gn cee ot 0.037 | 1.05] 0.11 2.60, 0.18 3.60! 0.59 | 13.18 | TRB ase ee eee Ang 2 Com Ui) 0.018} 0.56] 0.16 4.18 | 0.091| 1.99] 0.58 12. 88 AU TG et ai natal peace el De alia Lea hd 0.16 AGO) |e [Rageeree 0.69 18.22 | PAG SAAT es ive ounce ee SOE TEN 5g 0.018} 0.65} 0.091) 0.69) 0.054) 1.42] 0.25 6.12 | ABO Se Pia NR ees gee Nah (ow ee 0.091} 0.70} 0.037] 1.05 | 0.29 8.95 LBB a a Oe ae ee Me al ee ele Sd eee ae 0.13 4.30 T60 ne sca ee suai oe hele a CA erie ll 0.018} 0.15} 0.018! 0.60] 0.24 8.40 Lee es Re ope I ER RE Red EH eT I UO a ASS BAESE Prue ees AI UFO shins eh eaeritn nl gia HN ad oll LE Teom tl ee A) OVE O80) eo eee et 0. 074 2.98 th Total -| 42.618 | 81.54 | 37.598 | 111.80 | 20.010 | 64.68 | 30.884 | 218.96 — a I. ~ — -- a a u ameeverenes A283 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE II.—Stand table for forest of northern Negros—Continued. Parashorea _ can) and fen.| Totaldiptero- | Allother | Grand total Diameter of tree above | tacme contorta ; ; buttresses in centi- (white lauan). meters. Trees. vol | Trees. | Volume. | Trees. Vol: Trees. | Volume fens eeepc = 1.61 0.06 | 24.35 1024 eee ee 24.35 1.02 25 ee re 2 ee, ees 2.82 0.71 | 29. 02 econ teh eee jawecesss 29.02 7.25 OO: 222s eee en Bee 1.39 0.83 16.00 | Obes ee eee ; 16.00 9.53 4022252 ose a ee 0.99 1.26 9.15 12.06} 2.92 3.75 12.07 15.81 yee a ete ae pees ea 0. 64 1.04 8.39 14.72 | 2.40 3.85 10. 79 18.57 BOE So saat eee eae 0. 46 0. 92 6.70 14.75} 1.30 2.62 8.00 17.37 $02. ego seesaae eee ee 0. 42 1.06 5. 43 15.05 | 0.64 1.62 6.07 16. 67 | eee ee ae 0.27 0. 86 5.31 | 18.06 | 0.36 1.15 5. 67 19.21 (7 ee ee See eee See 0. 35 1.32 5.19 | 21.41; 0.31 1.90 5.50 23.31 Y (| ee ee aie eee 0.33 1.52 3.95 | 19.57 | 0.16 0.71 4.11 20. 28 15 ae ee ea 0. 24 1.24 3.67 | 21.42 0.14 0.76 3.81 22.18 || ose eee See 0.18 1.16 | 3.38 | 23.44 | 0.16 1.04 3.54 24. 48 Bh fae EELS Sia oe. = Ses 0.14 1.08 3.18 | 25.10 | 0.091 0.68 3.221 25. 78 90. ee eee eae 0.13 1.09 | 2.25 20.68 | 0.054 0. 46 2.304 21.14 5 228 oe re ee ; 0.13 1.25 1.80 18.66 ; 0.037 0.36 1. 837 19. 02 100): Ae a ee 0.22 2.41 1.98 22.56 | 0.018 0.19 1.998 22.75 NODS re eee 0.20 2.49 2.52 33.66 | 0.018 0.21 2.538 33.87 P10} 226s. oe eee 0.071 0. 98 1.751 Oi) |e ae | ee eee 1.751 26. 26 th V5 yes ee oars cae Eee 0. 091 1.34 | 1.348 DAT GUN ease eee ee 1.348 21.61 1208. = ae eee ae 0. 054 0.99 1.578 PEAS eee (See a ae 1.578 29.25 | oe ee ee 0. 037 0.68 1.041 Die lee sl cee ae 1.041 Ail bg 130). <2 SRE a Fee 0.071 1, 42 | 0. 988 21.80 th SA SE 0. 988 21.80 (Sb bce ee Saas eee 0. 054 1.18 0. 853 | ZOO eee Seat Sek ee | 0. 853 20.79 TER dO S28 oes eae 0.018 0.41 | 0. 868 PREV SIA oe apes e| eee 0. 868 23.23 ABH ae Se apo ee sl eee ee | 0. 413 GEN) | pecmeesc||conssce 0.413 150! 0! SS 8 eee Fae fae Se eee 0. 418 10.70 | 0.018 0.48 0. 436 is ae ee eee Eee RO med 0. 130 PUT eee Lark exe 0.130 160. - 3282 eee 0.018 0.57 0.294 9.72 | bec cs scsi usd 0.294 G5: se oe hee eee eae ae pS a ale | fe Ys ee ee ATO oe eee ate A a 0. 092 S26 iE so ae eee | 0.092 Total. .-"=~=-t---5 10.984 | 27.87 | 141.994 | 499.80 | 8.626 | 19.78 | 150.620 | 519.58 * Data for miscellaneous trees less than 40 centimeters in diameter are not available. the main overmature stand is entirely removed in accordance with a management plan based on a diameter limit, we have left not a healthy, young, fast-growing stand, but a scattered stand of weak, slender poles, incapable of producing seed and often incapable of recovering from the suppression under which they have developed. The undergrowth is much less dense than is usually the case in Philippine forests, due to the well-developed and extremely dense canopy and to the fact that this forest occurs on level or gently rolling land. Various kinds of erect palms occur scat- tered in all parts of the forest, as do rattans and other vines. IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests . 429 However, only in places where light has been admitted to the forest floor, due to a clearing or to a fallen tree, do rattans and other vines form the dense tangles so common in the poorly developed forests. The rattans and woody vines occur in sufficient quantity everywhere to give character to the forest, but the massive tree trunks are for the most part free from clinging vegetation and one’s attention is attracted to them directly rather than to the minor constituents of the forest (Plate VI, fig. 1). The heavy shade likewise prevents a dense herbaceous growth in the ground cover, which is scanty. The commonest plants in the ground cover are seedlings of the main tree species which thickly carpet the floor in many parts of the forest. It is a striking and very significant fact that tree seedlings below 7 centimeters in diameter are the most numerous of all the plants in the forest. The extraordinary abundance of these seedlings is shown in Table III. The data shown in Table III bring out two important facts; namely, that small seedlings are present in large numbers, but due to the lack of light rarely develop into larger trees, and that small-sized poles are numerically the next most important tree class. It is to be noted, however, that these small poles which make up the bulk of the lower story are largely of species other than dipterocarps. From the above one might naturally conclude that if the main stand were removed without seriously injuring the stand of seedlings and small poles on the ground a thrifty rapid-growing young forest would be the result. Such would be the result with any forest in the temperate zone similarly constituted in regard to size classes, but unfortunately this is not the case in the Philippines. As will be shown later, it is, in the first place, entirely impossible to remove the main stand without practically destroying the understory. Secondly, the removal of the main stand carries with it the removal of almost the entire canopy, which results in the immediate. death of almost all seedlings and of a large portion of the small poles. Summing up, we see that we have in this class of forest a very overmature stand, almost exactly balanced between growth and decay, with the canopy and bulk of the stand concentrated in the largest size classes. The heavy shade cast by the main stand has prevented the development of an evenly graded under- story which could be counted on to reproduce the forest and fill up the blanks made by the removal of the mature and overmature classes. The problem presented is that of removing within the 1298732 430 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE III.—Reproduction surveys in virgin forests of Negros. PLOT 1, 25 BY 100 METERS. Seedlings| Saplings Stand- | Trees (up to7 | (7 to 10 | Poles 10) aras (80 |(above 60 Species. ems. in | ems. in | 5 Giam- | 60.cms.| ems. in | diam- diam- tex) indiam-| diam- | eter). eter). . eter). eter). | 1 Shorea negrosensis (red lauan) _______________- 5697) 2h ee es 5 2 6 | Shorea ezimia (almon) -_----------------------- 1937 [eee ee | 5 4) ee Diospyros'sp: (ata-ata) —_------------------ ==. 147 2| 5 1 [Meee Shorea polysperma (tanguile) _____-_____-____- SO) 'sc552 ees aera (PERE ern | Diptercearpus grandiflorus (apitong) ___-.---- 56 13 34 10 1 All othergie2 26 oo eee ee BS eee 301 19 38 Dy i ee ats opek Pls EN AO ES CN 1, 346 34 87 | 18 q PLOT 2, 50 BY 100 METERS. Shorea negrosensis (red lauan) _________------- QO ee eee 13 10 il Shorea eximia (almon) -_-.__-----_____---____-_- 982 2 14 10 4 Diospyros sp. (ata-ata) _.__._..-..----___--___- 178 3 19 |i occ 2k] ee | | Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -__________-____- 300 2 3 5 2 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) ____-_-_- 205 3 18 LT |22cS eee | SA) otters S595 5S 0S foe a 0 TS eR RS 466 36 62 2) 23s motales: . ee eb ENE ey, eae eee 3, 401 | 46 128 38 17 PLOT 32, 25 BY 100 METERS. Shorea negrosensis (red lauan) ________-_______ 579 2 | 4 8 6 whoreaieximia (almon)-=.2) =~ ee 4 288) vse oe 6 AN) 2 ee | Dospyros ep:)(ata-ata) oo 4 oe ee 98 4 u Ralf. =e ; Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -_______ .._______. Fe es ee Se, 2 ph eran Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) ________- 33 4 18 15 2 A Wotherst: 2) Aso eee a a oe Bad 288 22 43 leach eee Biota ly ty eee kee id Wy VEE al 1, 359 | 32 82 22 s | PLOT 4, 50 BY 100 METERS. Shorea negrosensis (red lauan) _________.___-__ 12046) |s ee 8 2 2 Shorea eximia (almon)___---._--------=-_------ | 398 if 2 1 1 Diospyros sp. (ata-ata) _-_--__-__-- pase reecieeh 220 3 | 28 |e ockasse [oe | Shorea polysperma (tanguile)_________________- A5Al| Le Ie 5 oh 4 | ES ee Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) _____--_- 110 6 | 56 21 3 | she Alliothers/e. SSS daes or (Sun Rt mo 634 39 50 |) ope Totals Pee ORAL.) 2's see aoe 2, 562 49 143 26 | 6 shortest possible rotation a large amount of accumulated wood capital which is not producing and which is, nevertheless, so integral a part of the forest that its removal endangers the very existence of the forest. THE FOREST OF BATAAN The southern part of Bataan Province, lying across the bay from Manila in latitude 14° 30’ north, is a mountainous region TX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 431 with a central volcanic cone rising to an elevation of about 1,400 meters. This region differs from northern Negros in that it lacks the broad coastal plain, the ridges sloping directly to the sea. The ridges are narrow and steep, and the interior is badly broken up into knifelike ridges, running up to elevations of over 1,000 meters and separated by deep narrow valleys with steep rocky sides. The climate at elevations below 500 meters has a rather pronounced dry season lasting from December to the beginning of May. At higher elevations this is less notice- able. Whitford *" gives the rainfall for this part of the province as follows: : TABLE IV.—Rainfall, in millimeters, at Lamao, Bataan, and at Manila for parts of the year 1904-5. Month. Lamao, | Manila. December!) ase ere es EOE Te a Se trace 20.2 SP EREA UAL Se ese ie a A A ey a eh Ne Lo te ee, Bae BO tee 0.0 ODYUAYY eras alae ME athe pl ly las pyaar Meals ang MB Me teh ke Rae Bt 0.0 2.8 JE EET eM ee SN OT SS I ay ee Sah ak ear 0.8 1.1 April soe or BESO EEE ES SR ee Ags See be Sete Sei osott oes lols 127.0 | 9173.8 MT hy fe AA ee Ne Og le (ai erable DEI oe sul iia 38.1 24.0 CU ACS) a eee ee er RC ae ORE AE AE EL eae ee Re Se AA 497.2 346.2 8 The excessive rainfall for April is the highest ever recorded. It is mainly the amount which fell during the typhoon which visited the Islands on the 80th of that month. The soil is a stiff loamy clay of volcanic origin, similar to that of northern Negros with the exception that it is probably less heavily charged with humus. Owing to the occurrence of a pronounced dry season, the surface layers of the soil are frequently much dryer than in northern Negros. The forest under consideration lies on the eastern slope of Mount Mariveles to the west of Limay and Lamao barrios of the town of Orion, and extends from within a kilometer or so from the coast to an elevation of about 900 meters up the slopes of the mountain. The forest is distinctly dipterocarp in type at all elevations up to 800 meters, where it grades into a forest of miscellaneous smaller species, to which Whitford *8 has given the name Hugenia-Vaccinium formation, but at no elevation is there so large a proportion of dipterocarps as in the northern Negros forest. The systematic composition of this forest has been thoroughly described by Whitford.'!® We need, therefore, do no more than “This Journal (1906), 1, 379. * Tbid., 652. * Thid., 384-481, 637-679. 432 The Philippine Journal of Scienee 1914 point out such characteristics as are of interest from the stand- point of management. Due probably to the pronounced dry season and rough topography, the forests of Bataan are more complex in composition than are the forests of northern Negros. This is evident in the smaller size of the dipterocarps and in the larger number of smaller-sized trees of other families which enter the dominant story. The forest at various elevations is dominated by different dipterocarps, although these various species are represented at all elevations by scattered individuals, Below 250 meters the forest is dominated chiefly by Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis), from 250 meters to 450 meters by Diptero- carpus grandiflorus (apitong) and Shorea polysperma (tan- guile), while above this Shorea polysperma is the commonest dipterocarp in the forest. There are several other diptero- carps scattered throughout the forest at all elevations, but in no place do these dominate the forest. The most prominent of these are Pentacme contorta (white lauan), Dipterocarpus ver- nicifluus (panao), Hopea acuminata (dalindingan), and Shorea guiso (guijo). At elevations of 450 meters and over, Pentacme contorta occurs sometimes in sufficient numbers to give char- acter to the forest, but at the same time Shorea polysperma is present in larger numbers and is really the dominating species. Guijo, dalindingan, and panao do not occur in sufficient numbers to lend a distinctive character to the forest, and such other dipterocarps as have been reported from the area occur so rarely that they do not in any way affect the management of the area. The lower part of the forest, which lies below 250 meters and in which Anisoptera thurifera is the predominant dipterocarp, is more complex and less distinctively dipterocarp in character than the forest of the next higher elevation. Thus, at low elevations where the forest has been continuously logged for many years the stand of timber is found to be an open irregular one in which dipterocarps are predominant as to size but not as tonumbers. Due to the opening up of the area large numbers of fast-growing species, such as Parkia timoriana (cupang), Zizyphus zonulatus (balacat), Albizzia procera (acleng-parang), and Lagerstroemia speciosa (banaba), have entered or become more prominent, and over large areas an erect bamboo, Schizos- tachyum mucronatum (boho), occurs in such profusion as to give the forest anything but a dipterocarp character. However, as we proceed up the lower mountain slope we enter a region which has been more difficult of exploitation for loggers who depend upon the most primitive forms of transportation, and we find the great body of the forest between elevations of IX, A. 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 4383 250 and 800 meters a decided dipterocarp type with patches where dipterocarps, especially Shorea polysperma (tanguile) and Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong), occur in almost pure stands. However, the average stand covering fairly large areas does not show the predominance of dipterocarps common on areas of equal extent in Negros. Table V, computed from val- uation measurements taken on 18.12 hectares, in one solid block, at elevations varying from 400 to 500 meters on the slopes of Mount Mariveles, Bataan, shows the volume and species com- position of a typical stand (Plate VI, fig. 2). Table V shows that in the Bataan forest the great bulk of the timber is between 50 centimeters and 100 centimeters in diameter, indicating that the trees do not attain the large diameters in this forest which are so commonly encountered in the forest of Negros. The fact that the forest of Bataan does not produce a uniform stand of exceptionally large-sized, over- mature trees and that the main canopy is not so exclusively dipterocarp are the two main points of difference between this forest and that of Negros. The reason is, of course, that the site as a whole is not as favorable for the growth and develop- ment of dipterocarps as is the low, rolling, well-watered and well-drained plain of northern Negros. This less desirable site has resulted in giving an opportunity for other species, which are not the equal of the dipterocarps on the best sites, to develop, come to maturity, and reproduce themselves. The rough topog- raphy has resulted in a very uneven development of the stand in different situations, there being some exceptional patches which compare favorably with the average for northern Negros TABLE V.—Stand in 1 hectare based upon 18.12 hectares computed from valuation surveys in Bataan forest, showing number and volume of trees. [Volumes are given in cubic meters.] Diameter class in centimeters. ; Shed. 30. 40. 50. f Vol- Vol- Vol- Trees. aii, Trees. nina Trees, ane, Dipterocorpus grandifiorus (apitong) ---------- 1.76 1.05 1.87 2. 44 1.60 | 3.44 Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao) _------------ 3.75 2.25 2.53 3. 22 1.93 | 4.15 Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) -._.-.--------_- 1.32 0. 86 1.59 1.19 1.04} 1.35 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) _____.-.__---__---- 2. 42 1.65 2.15 2.68 1.71) 3.45 Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) -__-__-___--___- 0.98 0.16 0.55 0. 60 0.388 | 0.78 Pentacme contorta (white lauan) .-.-.---------- 1.76 1.32 1.65 2.22 1.43 | 38.20 Shoreaigtisol(euijo) ane o-225 2s oans eee enna 1,32 0.87 0.77 0. 99 0.38 | 0.78 (Allother:speciesye ose cee asta ontenewccesel coke 18. 96 6.16 8.88 8.91 5.40 | 10.44 Tota] ies: See ee el Eee ake aces 27.27 | 14.32 19.99] 22.25] 18.87 | 27.59 Total dipterocarps_-_-...------------------ 18, 31 8.16] 11.11] 18.384 8.47 | 17.15 AZA The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE V.—Stand in 1 hectare based upon 18.12 hectares computed from valuation surveys in Bataan forest, showing number and volume of trees—Continued. Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 60. 70. 80. Vol- Vol- Vol- Trees. ans. Trees. cine Trees. ee Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) -___------ 1.26 3.80 0.27 1.33 0.11 | 0.86 Dipterocarpus vernicifivus (panao)_------------ 1.15 4.12 0.38 2529). |e Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) ----- cea O260 1.33 0.41 1.58 0.11} 0.54 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -__-__- eee sea kyal 3.81 0. 55 2.57 0.66} 4.24 Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) ---- ---| 0.05 0.17 0.05 0.26 0.05 | 0.38 Pentacme contorta (white lauan) ----_-_-------- 0. 88 2.99 0.22 1.07 0.11} 0.74 Shorea guiso (guijo) 0. 44 1.39 0. 22 102). ee All/otherispecies) 222-522 S a0 es eee 2.75 8.77 0.71 3.46 0.33 | 2.12 Total peat Nee eae ee eae awe 8.34 | 26.38 2.81 | 18.57 1.37] 8.88 Totalidipterocarps-.--—25 s2e- 222s enone 5.59 | 17.61 2.10} 10.11 1.04] 6.76 Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 90. 100. | 110. Vol Vol- Vol- Trees. wanes Trees ancl Trees. ane Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) ____----_- 0. 05 | 0.55 0.38 SGA 8 eed | ea aan Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao) --_---_---__- 0.11 1.12 0.16 Py (iy (Ra Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) _--_-_---_-_____ 0.16 1.20 0.16 1.55 0.05 0.64 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -_-____--_-_---_-_-- 0.27 2.29 0. 60 6. 66 0.27 3.80 Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) -_-___------.---|__-_-----|_-_-___- [ete io |S oe RI Se | Pentacme contorta (white lauan) ----..---------|_-------|-__--__- ee te a Gere ‘Shorea guiso (eaijo) ose. 02 ae ea ee: ESN 2S | OES ees | eee /Ali‘other: species:-= 3 2-6-2 5.545 Suse see 0.33 8.64 0.11 121: |....2-3.) 22558 otal 22800 ee oon nk Sonal ote! es 0. 92 8.80 1.41 | 16.33 0.32 4,44 Total dipterocarns)----2>-- ese ee one 0.59 5.16 2580)) > 15212 0. 32 4,44 | Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 120. Total. Vol- Trees. mice Trees. | Volume. Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) ----..-------------------|--------|_--__. Sh res 18.31 Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao)_-----------------_--------- 0. 05 0.88 | 10.06 20.10 Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) ----.--------.-.---.~----------|.-------|-------- 5.44 10.24 Shorea ‘polysperma (tanguile)=----<- 2-22-22 -eeeeeee 0. 22 3.70 | 10.06 34. 85 iHopea acoumimata; (dalindingan))=-° 2. = 2). 2 ee ee ee ee 2.06 2.35 Pentacmeicontortal (white iauan)) eases ee een | | ae 6. 05 11. 54 Shorea gwiso (giijo) == ee ee oe re i ee | Re | ee 3.13 5.04 Alliother species! 222-5402 2 Se ee ee eee | a 82.47 44.71 Motal eS ee en a em 0.27 4.58 | 76.67 | 147.14 Totalidipterocarps'-3222--. 4). ee as se 0.27 4.58 | 44.10] 102.43 IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests A385 and other patches in which the total volume is small. The average volume over large areas is, therefore, much less than in northern Negros. The poorer development of the main story, resulting in the entrance of a large number of species other than dipterocarps, has produced well-developed second and third stories. For the same reason the undergrowth is denser, except on the ridges, than in forests where the main story is more prominent. This undergrowth is composed largely of tree seedlings, as is shown by Table VI. TABLE VI.—Reproduction plot, 5 by 50 meters, in forest of Bataan. Soe Diameter class in centimeters. Species. under | AIR ative is | ACH air halk 9 pl fatal Ua a | Shorea polysperma (tanguile) __-.---_- B54 | el | oe es ace a RUE Ca lace a Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao) --_- Se es a a fee UN el pa | Dipteroearpus grandiflorus (apitong) - 6 TW Seagate) | aa Ee eee LS Le ee Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) -.__-_- 12 1 A eens Ui He aoe Freee Lee | Pentacme contorta (white lauan) -_-.-- 219 1 op | eeseere | eee feo 1G Reeeed eos | Sten pao (Cit) ene eee a ee i ee Og eh te al We | Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) -__--- PP NN EE ee I AR a pe a NinePote e778 Mi (rn CAA Sir) oe eee |e cee |e SL AE a ae ee ee | Calophyllum blancoi (palomaria) ---_-- SET SY ke eS a a a Pe Dee | Miscellaneous trees_______---_--------- 647 6} 26] 15 | 7¢ 7 2 Bib OE Miscellaneous brush --____________-_-.- 409 Geese EL Sa eee [eee S See REEL ES |-=----|----=- Total ales Cues a Renan 1,443| 11] 29] 16 By 3 4| 2 PTO tall Kt recs eee ate ew a ce ET a al ao | re Sg Ee eh Motalidipterocarps pe eee ae a eee ee | a Teal sete fee el een sy eat Fee | ee Diameter class in centimeters. Pate aul t08.)| 120004) 308 |fa0;)"|/ pos Over is Shorea polysperma (tanguile)-_______________|_____- [Psa UA) a a age a coe 6 Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao) _________|_----_.|_--._- jie cree (eee le Tre Se eee 3 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) .---.--|.-----|_-----|_--_--}------|_--_-_] .-----]_--_-- ts Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) __--_--__----|-_.-__|______|------ SOE ee eee 1 18 IRN CLR) (GAS LEE) S23 eee I 222 Spread GOED (Cantity) oe ee ee ee ale as [ieee eee ee niches [TSE Dare ale tense 1 PAcisopterci tinier (palosapis) ee sna ae eee | meee | ee ee | meee | aera ce | | ee ee 2 | Eugenia sp. (macaasim) besser ene See el eee ab a Ree eH eae I aa 1 2 | Calophyllum blancot (palomaria) .._..-------|------|------|_---_- TD es a a 144 Miscellaneous)trees!s22 5-268 asl OL ees 9 PA eee yA oe | a 725 lee Ma scellancous\ pcs seem eee een ennai eae | Beer | eee [ieee eat tee ae ena ee Dal aa 409 | Total Total trees Total dipterocarps Plants which are trees 73.4 Plants which are dipterocarps 16.7 Trees which are dipterocarps 23.0 436 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Owing to the complex character of the forest and the prom- inence of a large number of trees other than dipterocarps, there are many more seedlings of other species than of dipterocarps. Nevertheless, the number of dipterocarp seedlings is greatly in excess of that found in the better-developed dipterocarp forest of northern Negros. These seedlings become established during the rainy season when the moist soil furnishes an excellent seed bed, and owing to the greater amount of light they are able to maintain themselves better than in the denser forest of northern Negros. This better development of the understories and ground cover is accompanied by a better distribution of the age classes of the dominant species. The forest is, therefore, much less overmature than that of Negros. There are, however, certain patches in the forest where the situation is especially favorable for the development of dipterocarps and which show the same overmature even-aged development as is found throughout the whole of the northern Negros forest. Table VII illustrates this character. Were it not for the extreme difficulty of logging this area, due to the roughness of the topography, the forest would present a much easier management problem than one on a well-watered plain. In general, the problem presented by this forest is that of removing a mature and overmature crop of dipterocarp timber within as short a period of time as possible and of obtaining reproduction with dipterocarps as the leading species under a shelter wood, which for the most part will be made up of species other than dipterocarps. The companies which are interested in logging this kind of forest desire to remove dipterocarp species almost exclusively. If they are compelled by rational forest management to leave any timber on the ground, they much prefer to leave species other than dipterocarps; and any system of management which takes this problem of utilization into ac- count must look as much to dipterocarp seedlings and poles already on the ground for reproduction as to dipterocarp seeds that may be sown in the area from the overmature trees which it is possible to leave in the remaining stand. THE FOREST OF NORTHERN LAGUNA The northeastern portion of Laguna Province, Luzon, is a plateau which rises on the west with an abrupt escarpment, some 300 meters in height, from Laguna de Bay. From the edge of this escarpment the plateau continues to rise gently toward the east to the divide between the Pacific Ocean and Laguna de Bay, the highest points in the plateau being from 50 to 600 IX, A,5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 437 TABLE VII.—Stand of timber on 1 hectare of virgin forest, Bataan Province, Luzon, showing volume in cubic centimeters of each species and of each diameter class. | Diameter class in centimeters. | Species. | 5to35.| 40. | 50. | 60. | 70. | 80 90. | Shorea polysperma (tanguile) __.__.________- 3.28 | 1.68] 3.15} 4.55 | 19.00 | 10.60 | 653.73 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong)_______ 7.23 | 8.83 | 10.62 | 33.09 | 23.47 | 22.99) 55.01 Dipterocarpus vernicifluus (panao) _-_-____- ONIGH|Ea22e6 Pal (EM Clee) ed a (i a ed | Dae te ee Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) ___________. 2aGbT INOS S45| saa BaS6rl esata a eee eee Shorea guiso (guijo) -...--_-..-_---------___- HRT OY Ven a Nica ISG gba etek tae, S| Va Nl eee ee Pentacme contorta (white lauan) ___________- 1512) Rees E74) || Pade SEAL |) COR eee Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) -----._____- OE 29) eee BE See ae |e Pe ee eae Ee Eugenia sp. (macaasim) --------------------- DEGHM wee 1S 4 eek. [baie | RR ie ceed Bs CE Callophyllum blancoi (palomaria) -__________ CATS HTP At) ea ee Ni a ee Ln JE pal [OR Strombosia philippinensis (tamayuan) _-_-__-. OLG33 1} (OsGY4 Woe = 2 ios A a 2 eA 5 lB ae Miscellaneous species ______-__.-_____________ PAE CU IPE) GB BEETS WORE aa a Cobny byes Totalesee SPR Po AM e SAEED EN 46.93 | 30.17 | 24.82 | 56.28) 57.36 | 50.96 | 108.74 Species. 100. | 110. | 120. | 130. | 140. | Total. | Shorea polysperma (tanguile)__-- 2-2) 2 ee BO380) aaa [oese wee 184. 85 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (apitong) -_------_----- 24.90 | 15.75 | 38.86 |__---__|_-_-___ 240.75 DPipterocarpuUsiVerniCrfieiws | (DANAO) eee ee ae eee | ana | | | ee 0.16 | EIODEMIACIULIMN TALE Oalingdin gan) pee eee | eee ne | ene eee | Eee | eee | Se Steen 13.08 | ISTLON CGO UTSOV (LUO) ye a ee tL ee BI es es Reng os eas [(Ca SNL MAU 5.58 Pentaeme contorta (white lauan) ______-_--_---_._-_]-------]_----_- ORAS S| Cerne | eee 82. 42 Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) ______._-__-___-_-- NOS G4 9 |e oe es Soe | 27.90 | 39.13 | EU GeENtaISD 4s (MACAASIIN) Meee ee ee (ee eee ee 3.78 | Callophyllimiblancous(palomaria) eee cee |e eee | eee ees | eee | enue | Renee 5.06 | Strombosia philippinensis (tamayuan) ___-._----.--|_----__]-----_-]_-_---_]--_____]_--__-_- Yi MiiBcellanecous’s DCCC a ee ene een San tee eae or bea |e es ee 15. 32 Ke Total c25 2205 2h Ute ORE a ay Se a 35. 84 | 15.75 | 97.15 |_-----__ 27.90 | 551.90 Cubic meters. Trees less than 50 centimeters in diameter 80.409 Dipterecarps less than 50 centimeters in diameter 32.288 Trees more than 50 centimeters in diameter 471.49 Dipterocarps more than 50 centimeters in diameter 433.69 meters in elevation. Directly to the east of Laguna de Bay there is very little difference of elevation over large areas. Farther to the north, the country rises to the foothills of the main cor- dillera of Luzon, becoming very rough and broken, while to the south the region rises gently to meet the lower slopes of Mount Banahao. The main drainage throughout the central and south- ern portion of the region is the Pagsanjan River, which empties into Laguna de Bay below Pagsanjan. Throughout this plateau all the smaller streams are very irregular in their courses, and lie in narrow valleys from 20 to 30 meters below the general level 438 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of the plateau. The soil, which is a deep, stiff, red clay, is rather poorly drained. The forest lies some 6 or 8 kilometers to the east of Laguna de Bay, and extends to the Pacific. The area between the edge of the forest and the lake has been cleared to permit cultivation. The climate throughout the area is very distinctly that of the nonseasonal belt. The season of heaviest rain is from June to December, but the northeast monsoon rising from the Pacific over the rather abrupt elevation of the Pacific slope deposits considerable rain throughout the balance of the year. During the months from December to June the rainfall is heaviest on the eastern side of the forest near the Pacific, becoming gradually less toward the western edge of the forest. A rather heavy bank of clouds lies over the forest at almost all periods of the year, and is very evident on the horizon as the forest is ap- proached over the cleared portion of the elevated plateau be- tween the forest and the lake on the west. The forest is very distinctly dipterocarp in character through- out the whole region. Due to the fact that changes in elevation in the area are not appreciable, the composition of the forest remains very similar throughout all parts of it. The dominant story is composed almost entirely of dipterocarps, the two most prominent being Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong) and Shorea squamata (mayapis). Associated with these in the dominant TABLE VIII.—Stand table for 1 hectare (average of 6 hectares), northern Laguna forest, showing number and volume of each species. {Volumes are given in cubic meters.] | Diameter class in centimeters. : 30. 35. 40. | 50. Species. | ped Maniebeds £4 i ? Vol- Vol- |p. Vol- | Vol- | Trees. ee | Trees. Grae | Trees. eae Trees. | ai ; md, 1 oo deel Pi 1 | eo eae Shorea squamata (mayapis) ----------- | 5.82] 2.56] 1.21 | 1.23 | 12.83 | 13.00 | 8.66 | 17.75 Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong lauan) _| 3.16| 1.55] 1.15 | 0.838 | 7.32} 8.00} 5.99 | 12.28 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -__-_-__- | 0.82] 0.41] 1.82) 1.85] 1.14] 2.67]. 2.65] 6.36 Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong) -___------ 15493]. (O72: eases ee inh 98) | 62h 80, Gon) eno Pentacme contorta (white lauan) --_-_- 0:'66'||) (0582) | 22se6 ele ae A820) eda te ee oes Dipterocarpus sp. (panao) ------------ OFG64)™ OF32) cea ea 0.33 | 0.86; 0.16) 0.34 Hopea pierrei (dalindingan isak) _____ 8.16 | 1.55] 2.99| 2.03] 1.15] 5.63! 2.49] 5.10 | Total dipterocarps_--_------------ 15.27} 7.43) 7.17) 5.44 | 26.57 32.72 | 20.60 | 43.89 | Total, all other species __________ 71.82 | 3.44] 4.32] 2. 2.64 | 13.15 | 18.16 | 3.16] 6.10 Grand total:3..2 55 sess): 3H 23.09 | 10.87 | 11.49 ~ 8.08 08 | 39.72 | 45.88 23.76 | 49.99 IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 489 TABLE VIII.—Stand table for 1 hectare (average of 6 hectares), northern Laguna forest, showing number and volume of each species— Contd. Diameter class in centimeters. Species! 60. 70. { 80. 90. 1 Vol- | Vol- Vol- Vol- Trees, wits Trees nine Trees.| mnie Trees. Ame =F | Shorea squamata (mayapis) --_____-__- 3246) P10570)| 10865") 1420931) (Os 48i 18294). 2 el eee Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong lauan) _| 2.98} 9.88; 0.71! 6.22] 0.70) 7.56] 0.16] 1.55 Shorea polysperma (tanguile)_________ 0.82 | 2.75] 1.15] 5.85] 0.81) 5.64! 0.16] 3.11 Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong) ____-_____|_------|-_---_- QuSSE| Pane TB beter ee ei nid Pe ae Pentaeme coniorta (white lauan) _____- ObSS HWS 1S he ee ee ee OFERTAS 66 | Sivas: | es! Dipterocarpus sp. (panao) ______-_-___|_-----_|--_---_| OS163 O87) eens femlbee | is lee eel Hopea pierrei (dalindingan isak) _____|_____ oll rs 2 fp Ses ee | ee ee [eee eee Totalidipterocarps_—----------_-- 7.291 24.46 | 3.00 | 18.78| 2.15] 18.80] 0.32] 4.66 Total, all other species --_.______ RAO PAS TSM OGG aad | cose se oe ee kee Grand 'totalit&). 222 ees ee 8.78 | 29.19 | 3.66 | 22.32 | 2.15 | 18.80 0.32 | 4.66 } i Diameter class in centimeters. Species 100. Total. ) Vol- Trees. Tien Trees. | Volume. oats EIN wa a is | SLOT EDSCUAINALAACMAYADIB) eee ee ie ee eee ae ine | ae he | See | 32.31 53.27 Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong lauan) -__-_______-_ ---___-_-------- 0.16 | 2.01 | 22.33 49. §8 Shorea polysperma (taneuile)) sos see see nese eee | 0.99 | 12.09; 10.36 40.23 DePteTrOCarDuUsiSDs (ADILONe) eae ee a eee | eee |e eed se4 4.45 6.15 iRentacmeiconlontan whitelauan) eee eee eee nee ye a be [ama | ee Ia aj. eB 4.55 | Dinter oca7-pitsisp-3(PANAO) oes eee aa es A ee a Jose 1.31 1.89 Hopea pierre (dalindingan isak) 29-02) eee Jeon 9.79 14.31 Totalidipterocarpsl= eee seeeialee elias Ce ONL 1.15 | 14.10 | $3.52 | 170.28 MTotalalliotherspeciess = see eee ea ett oo oe eee FEtee tat | 30. 60 33.61 Grand itota) Sates ce ee oe a eee ee ee en a ee 1.15 | 14.10 | 114.12 | 208.89 story are Shorea polysperma (tanguile), species of Dipterocarpus (apitong and panao), and a number of other dipterocarps. Hopea pierrei (dalingdingan-isak) is the principal second-story tree, and occurs in large numbers everywhere, except near the edge of the forest where it has been largely removed by logging. The above species occur in mixture with Machilus philip- pinensis (baticulin), Palaquium spp. (nato), Vitex sp. (sasalit), Astronia spp. (dungao), Mastixia philippinensis (tapulao), Dillenia sp. (malacatmon), and others, but the percentage of dipterocarps both as to number of trees and total volume is almost as great as in the forest of Negros, although the total volume of the forest is much less. The data in Table VIII, com- 440 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 puted from valuation surveys on 6 hectares at different points in the area, are fairly typical of the stand in this forest. A review of Table VIII shows that this forest differs from those previously discussed in that, although it is dipterocarp in composition, it is a forest of smaller-sized trees and is very dis- tinctly not overmature. Due to the elevation at which the forest occurs and to the presence of rather heavy clouds over the area at almost all seasons, the site as a whole is less desirable than that of Negros for the development of a large forest, and the result has been that although dipterocarps have claimed the area almost to the exclusion of other dominant species they have not been able to dominate it sufficiently to produce an even-aged forest of but a few species. Each species in the area is rep- resented more by trees of the smaller diameter classes than by large overmature specimens. The main canopy is even more irregular and open than that of the better parts of the forest of Bataan, and this has resulted in a very well-developed lower story and a dense undergrowth (Plate VIII, fig.1). The undergrowth is made up almost entirely of tree seedlings, to a very large extent of those of dipterocarps. The excessively moist soil and high relative humidity furnish the dipterocarps excellent conditions for germination, and over large areas dipterocarp seedlings, particularly those of Hopea pierrei, a meter or less in height, form dense thickets. As is true in all forests, certain patches may be found through- out the area where the situation is more favorable to the develop- ment of the predominant group, the dipterocarps, and in these patches the forest approaches the overmature character of the other forests discussed, but in no place does this become suf- ficiently pronounced to necessitate serious consideration in the management of the area. The data in Table IX, from a patch of forest of 44,100 square meters, illustrate the best development attained by the forest of this region. Certain portions of this forest lying within easy logging dis- tance of large wood-using communities have been continuously logged over for many years in a desultory manner with a diameter-limit regulation of 40 centimeters. Practically the only effect of this operation on the forest has been to reduce the percentage of large specimens of the more desirable species, such as dalindingan isak, macaasim, tanguile, and baticulin— the dipterocarp character of the forest being little changed. This is, of course, largely due to the fact that the logging itself has been very selective in character and has not sought diptero- carps as the main product. However, the satisfactory distri- IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 441 TABLE I1X.—Stand table for 1 hectare. Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. (Based on surveys of 44,100 square meters. Volumes are given in cubic meters.] Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 45. 55. 65. 75. 85. 95. | 105. | 125. | Total. Pentacme contorta___.- Shorea emai en) 41.50 | 45.85 | 50.15 | 28.10} 9.08 | 2.42 | 9.19 | 452 | 190.31 Shorea squamata _-_---- Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong). --_- 8.89} 8.53] 5.88] 1.44] 3.41 |_----_|_----_|------] 28.15 Hopeca pierrei (dalindinganisak)-_| 11.41} 8.28) 3.63 | 1.37 |_____-_|-----_]______|-_----- 24.69 Miscellaneous -_.__--_---------_-- AMES Wh IKOLYAL | EUR ao Heese | DER oe esl he ee 33.24 Total so) se be a 76.25 | 72.87 | 67.74 | 30.91 | 12.49 | 2.42.) 9.19 | 4.52 | 276.39 | bution of trees of different diameters is a factor in the result, and from a management standpoint this forest approaches as nearly the ideal, in regard to composition and the distribution of volume throughout the different size classes, as could be expected of any natural forest in the Philippines. The even distribution of all species throughout a large range of diameters makes the forest thoroughly suited to the selection systena of management, which is preéminently the system most suited to forests in which the species are tolerant in youth and later develop into large distinctly intolerant trees. The forest is one of the few in the Islands which could be satisfactorily managed with a diameter limit as the sole managerial regulation, and the problem presented is merely that of the removal of mature trees, which, with careful logging, can be accomplished without endangering the existence or the reproductive power of the forest. THE DIPTEROCARP FOREST OF MOUNT MAQUILING Mount Maquiling is an isolated volcanic cone situated on Luzon midway between the eastern and western coasts, about 64 kilo- meters southeast of Manila in latitude 14° 10’ north and longi- tude 122° east of Greenwich. The climate of the region is distinctly monsoon in character, but the dry season, although pronounced on the eastern side, is very much less severe than on the western side. On the dry western side the forest to a large extent has been replaced by grass areas. The soil of the eastern side is a heavy reddish brown clay of volcanic origin heavily charged with humus. The forest under discussion is located on the eastern and southeastern slopes, extending from the cleared land at the base of the mountain, at elevations of 442 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 from 50 to 100 meters to elevations of 600 meters, where the dipterocarp forest gives way to mountain-top forms. The topog- _ raphy of this section of the mountain may be described as a series of radiating, broad, well-drained ridges separated by narrow valleys. The forest is located in the center of a well-populated district, and has been subjected to a process of selective logging for many years. The trees most valuable for commercial purposes have been almost entirely removed from the forest at all elevations below 400 meters. The dipterocarps which originally made up a large portion of the forest cover were probably Parashorea plicata (bagtican-lauan), Shorea guiso (guijo), Pentacme con- torta (white lauan), and Hopea acuminata (dalindingan or mangachapuy). Representatives of these species in the seedling and sapling classes are to be found well distributed over the mountain and in the case of guijo and white lauan in sufficient numbers to indicate that there was a considerable stand of these two species on the lower slopes not over seventy-five years ago. Guijo and white lauan are in great demand throughout the sur- rounding communities for the construction of bancas, and da- lindingan, being a close relative of yacal, is everywhere in demand for house construction., Bagtican-lauan, not being especially desirable for either of the above uses, has suffered less than any of the other dipterocarps, and remains as one of the main species in both the main and the understory of the forest. This condition is not the result of a few years’ active logging. The change has come about slowly, and a dipterocarp forest such as the situation indicates probably has not existed on the lower slopes of this mountain for as much as from one hundred fifty to two hundred years. As is to be expected, the result of this selective logging has been to favor the species which would normally exist in the understory to such an extent that they occupy the dominant situation normally held by the dipterocarps. Species, which due to their persistence remain as inconspicuous elements in a normal undisturbed forest, without ever becoming entirely elim- inated, have increased in numbers, and others, which under the shade of a heavy dipterocarp crown cover rarely reach notice- able size, have developed so as to become prominent components of the main stand. Thus, the present forest, although possibly not any more complex than originally with respect to the ab- solute number of species, is apparently of very mixed character because so many species have come into the main story. The most accessible portions of the forest are those extending IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 443 from 1 to 2 kilometers from the edge and up to elevations of 200 meters. They have been so heavily logged that the main canopy has almost entirely disappeared and only remnants of the lower stories remain. The entrance of light to the forest floor in these places has permitted a tremendous development of climbing bamboo, rattans, and vines of various kinds (Plate VIII, fig. 2). The trees are mostly small, but are fairly numer- ous. The forest is, therefore, a low dense tangle. The drying out of the soil in such situations prevents the easy germination of high-forest species, and although logging has practically ceased, the jungle growth still maintains the upper hand and the change back to a forest of commercial species is being ac- complished very slowly. The forest lying next to this belt and up to 400 meters in elevation has been logged over more slowly, and although the best specimens of the dipterocarps, with the exception of bag- tican-lauan, which here has probably always been the dominant species, have been almost entirely removed, the climatic condition of the forest has not been seriously changed and the smaller classes of the more valuable species are present in sufficient num- bers to insure the reproduction of the original type of forest if placed under management (Plate I, fig. 1, and Plate IX, fig. 1). Above 400 meters logging has not been carried on to any considerable extent and what is probably the original character of the forest remains unchanged. Scattered specimens of bag- tican-lauan are to be found as high as 600 meters, but here species of Quercus and Dillenia are more prominent. At 800 meters these species occur less frequently, and the forest begins to change into the mossy type which extends from an elevation of approximately 1,000 meters to the summit of the mountain. The following stand table (Table X), compiled from data gath- ered at an elevation of approximately 140 meters, shows clearly the character of the forest after selective logging has been completed. [See pages 444 and 445.] Out of a total of 319 trees 15 centimeters and over in diameter on 1 hectare, only 4 dipterocarps are reported, 3 of these being of one species, Parashorea plicata (bagtican-lauan). The volume is extremely low (122.83 cubic meters), and as may be judged from the fact that over 50 per cent of the volume lies in the diameter classes below 40 centimeters, the main canopy has al- most entirely disappeared. Furthermore, the extremely mixed character of the stand is well illustrated by the fact that 61 per cent of the stand by volume is distributed throughout 27 listed species, while the remaining 39 per cent is distributed among 444 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE X.—Stand on 1 hectare of over-cut forest on Mount Maquiling, Laguna, Luzon, showing number of trees and volume in cubic meters of each species. } @ Diameter class in centimeters. | | BIA Ys. 25. | 35. 45. 55. Species. ee | lebals 3 ; 3 : 3 : 3 3 3 | Bit ofc oe i liegie| Bayh: BOTS) |e ne ‘ Pahudia rhomboidea (tin- i dato) aaeee oP eR [2 eee 1 | hg. o5 | es AEE 15/9142 2 Lagerstroemia speciosa (banaba) ieee os eee cd 1 | Shorea guiso (guijo) ________ J | Tarrietia sylvatica (dun- } Prone) SECO EE Phe SESS e ak aE ee ee Seca | See): Pes | 1 1,42) 223 52a Sideroxylon sp. (white [oe anato) aes ee Se ae (eee beetle 0 ete eae jovooo-|--=----|--=---]|-------|---~--]--------- | Sandoricum koetjape (san- | tol) eneeese te i tghned Shoe iE Bisbee flees ollhore 8 | eat Aceh 2.9)i\(G ose lect oleae | Dillenia philippinensis | (catmon) )o9 382 een | eee |p ee eae | enese 1 O69 2 = ee ee Koordersiodendron pinna- | um (amuguis))s2225 2. ee eee ee. lee 2 0:50) }:- 22 eee ee] ee 8 hea ee ee | Parkiatimoriana (cupang)-|_____-_|____-- 2 0.50} 1 O69). oo). ale | Polyscias nodosa (malapa- | Pays) p< ee ee ed _| Sy ae 1 OF25) 2a | pasesee lessee] ene seedl pace ss||asesssese | Alstonia macrophylla (ba- SAE PES ane SN en SE EP et eH 10 G03 aw 1 | 249 | Strombosia philippinensis | (tamayauan) ------------- | Mallotus philippensis (ba- | mato) so 5 2A 2) esse a | Canarium sp. (pili) sroatenal | Anonaceae (lanutan)_______ | Alangium meyeri (putian) | | Myristica philippensis (du- | POEHLER) secoeseseteeteccetee | eee een re ee eee | ee ee ea | ec a a PR Streblus asper (kalios) -----|_-_____|------ 1 O25 |e 82 ees Se ees. | Planehonia spectabilis (la- | | j4 euimog) at =oa ees es Sle een ae 3 CC (3 eee tees oe (eee | (ee eee 1 2.49 | Canangium odoratum | | | | (ylang-ylang) ------------|------- |------|------ pe meeed Feat O69) |e a2 cee 1 2.49 | Diplodiscus panieulatus | } | (balobo))2=2e2 4-20 ond [Pero fee tee 35 8.75| 9 | 6.21] 6 8052) =| ee Parashorea plicata (bag- | | | | nA Stican)c. eee aie Re ei, jcOReE hee Neat) toveaae ewok ret Reh Tt 2.49 | Garcinia binuecao (binu- | | | HOMORCE. YY eR pee (eas 4 1300)|) hs ONG9, [a2 pra a ME 9 0 | Celtis philippensis (mala- | | hier) ei het ee ee J cea fea tll Moles |’ De [role t) aed ae Dracontomelum cumingia- | | laa crazacene (LAIIO) se un eel ee eu | | Bischofia javanica (tuai) IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 445 TABLE X.—Stand on 1 hectare of over-cut forest on Mount Maquiling, Laguna, Luzon, showing number of trees and volume in cubic meters of each species—Continued. Diameter class in centimeters. 16. Delia” ESB) 45. 55. Species. 3 3 i i ny | 3 | 3 ESSA cee wesc ede eae eaetve ds ee iO : sal SS Trewia ambigua (bato- ato) meee bese Ue aM Eee ee (se 7 TSB) bot tells Sd eee Re eee Miscellaneous --_-_________- spy None) 35 | 8.75/10 | 690] 6 | 8.52] 1 2.49 Totale sss rae ie ae GT pe), (Me ewe $0 22.50 | 31 21.39 | 18 25.56 | 5 12.45 Percentage of stand_____._- 52.5 |--.---| 28.3] 18.05| 9.8|17.15| 5.3 | 20.45] 1.6] 11.55 Diameter class in | centimeters. Part i . 6. 6 Irotai| of | Total Pereent Species. 3 gj itrees.| Band vol- Stand|by, : € . Ee | us ume. | volume. eae |g | 8 num- o S o 2 ber. BH > a > | Pahudiarhomboidea (tindalo) 2222225 |eane=-|a2-----|2---=-|------— 2) 0.63) 1.67 | 1.386 Lagerstroemia speciosa (banaba) __-___|------ Sa ee eee ae Hearse | Sle ig (OYE ike Shorea gurso) (g@uijo) sa sane ee ee ee eee eee ees Pane 1 GOSS (Ree anes eee Tarrietia sylvatica (dungon) _-_-------|------|------- il 5. 81 2 0.63 9,23 5.89 Sideroxylon sp. (white nato) __________ 1 SSOG) | Seen Ce eee 1 0.31 3.96 3.22 Sandoricum koetjape (santol) ___-_____|------|-------|----_-|------- 2 0. 63 2.84 2.31 Dillenia philippinensis (catmon) -----|------|-------|------ [pee eer 1] 0.31] 0.69} 0.56 Koordersiodendron pinnatum (amu- FEY ee a eee 2) O563)) "0°50; Ol41 Parkia timoriana (cupang) _-----.----|------|-------|------ jossecss 3] 0.94 1.19 0.97 Polyscias nodosa (malapapaye) _____-.|------|-------|------|------- Wh OLeRt 0. 25 0. 20 Alstonia macrophylla (batino) ___-___-|------|-------|------|------- 2 0.63} 3.18 2.59 Strombosia philippinensis (tama- } SHAT he) ed ES eee, See eae PAA SGB} | eel eee | Mallotus philippensis (banato) LEA ONG euamaele| Rat Oe Canarium sp. (pili) _-----------_------ 8) 0.94 6.75 5.49 Anonaceae (lanutan) -_-_____-_-._----- 2 0. 63 0.25 0.20 | Alangium meyeri (putian) Ze OnGe: 1.67 | 1.36 | Myristica philippensis (duguan) -_____-|------|------- eee tee esr 1 GOS Sis | eee leat Styeblusiasper, (kalioa) jess bees eta peas 1! 0.31] 0.25! 0.20 Planchonia spectabilis (lamog) -__-----|------|-------|------|------- 4| 1.26 3.24 | 2.64 Canangium odoratum (ylang-ylang) _-|------|-------|------|------- 2 0.63 3.18 | 2.59 | Diplodiseus paniculatus (balobo) ----.|------|-------|------|------ -| 80] 25.07] 23.48! 19.11 Parashorea plicata (bagtican) _...--.-|------)-------)------|------- 3 0. 94 4.16 3.39 Garcinia binueao (binucao) _-__--..---|------|-------|------ {he each ety 7 2.19 1.69 1.38 Celtis philippensis (malaicmo) ---_-_--|------|-------|------|------- 2 0.63 0. 94 0.77 Dracontomelum cumingianum (lamio) -|------|-------|------]------- 4 1.26 2.32 1.89 Bischofia javanica (tuai) -_._.___------ 1 196) | eee | eee 1 0.31 3.96 3.22 Trewia ambigua (batobato) __-._-..---|------]-------|------|------- 3 0.94 1.38 1.12 Miscellaneous 3 17.43 | 183 | 657.37] 48.05) 39.13 Total ee ee a ae 6 29.05 |} 319 100. 00 Percentage of stand 1.6 | 28. 25 ~ 100 | Saar 1298733 446 Fhe Philippine Journal of Science 1914 miscellaneous species so varied in character as to be impracti- cable of identification by casual inspection. Table XI, compiled from data gathered at an elevation of 250 meters and over a kliometer from the edge of the forest, is a typical illustration of the better parts of the forest below 300 meters in elevation. TABLE XI.—Stand on i hectare, altitude 250 meters, on Mount Maquiling, Laguna, Luzon, showing number of trees and volume in cubie meters of each species. | Diameter class in centimeters. | ee Rinag 25 [ab Al aia | tees Mi ol [Trees Vol on x ae ise Vek | } i } } Dicspyronen eek 15 Wryanee | 21 oa! | 2H 1.28 | gel. | | | | | | | | Petes Great-| Story Indi- Dia- | Dia- |, est | est to No. | Species. vid- is eta meter | height diam-! which | | uals. | 7otal. |classes\“/48se8| on jeter on tree be- | | at |40cem.} plot. | plot. | longs. | 10-40 d ! | cm. a | | over. | | : dog es! ——__| i | i | | | Dipterocarps: | jeu. m.|Cu.m.|Cu.m.| m. | em. | 1| Parashorea plicata (bagtican lauan) ..| 29 | 18.47 | 2.65 | 15.82 | 35.95 | 96.0 1 | 2 Shorea guiso (guijo) -----.------------| 4] 0.09} 0.09 |---__-- 10.50) 15.0 3 Hopea acuminata (dalindingan) _____- I || .----22|-222==5} aaa = NAG, 2.0 1 Miscellaneous species: | | 4 Bischofia javanica (tuai) -____--------- 1} (4.88) | Bene 4.31 | 21.00 | 72.0 | re 5 Canarium luzonicum (pili) ----------- 2) 3.04 ae Pe 3.04 | 23.60} 58.0 1 6 Canarium villosum (pagsahingin) atl a ee ae | 5.80 6.0 1 1 Canarium sp. (pagsahingin) -___._---- Gil OsOT (0507 |Le=-=- 10.10 | 17.0; 1 8 CONGTILNU BD) nee a oe ees poosece 4.90 5.0 1 | 9 | Celtis philippensis (malaicmo) -------- TH} (0224: Oj14u eee | 18.35 | 15.0 | 1 10 Eugenia similis (malaruhat) ---------- ba) ee: Bt: 4] aes 8.92 | 26.00 | 95.0 1 } ll Eugenia luzonensis (malaruhat puti) - Dal (0x05) |) (0: Oea--2-2 | 6.85 | 13.0 1 | 12 Eugenia mananquil .....-...---------- 2 | SECS Ee: Cee) ee 3.00 2.5 1? | 18 | Whgenia op ee a ih) ane a Wark 2.30; 25| 2 | 14 Meliosma macrophylla __..---..------- 4! 0.46| 0.46 |____--- 21.25 | 25.0 1 ERAN Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 449 TABLE XII.—Stand of trees over 2 meters in height on 0.25 hectare. Alti- tude 450 meters on Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon—Contd. Volume.4 Great-|Great-| Story Indi- Dia- Dia- | est est to No. Species. vid- aca meter |height] diam-| which uals. Total. classes classes} on |eteron|tree be- 10-40 an om plot. | plot. | longs. cm. | over. Miscellaneous species—Continued. cu. n.|Cu. m.|Cu. m.{ Mm. cm. 15 ENGL CLEG Bp) Fu SP ee aaa EON Ul 0 4] 5.88] 1.18] 4.25) 28.40; 50.0 1 16 Palaquium tenuipetiolatum (palac- Malac) eke OL Beh ee alse 2a RON2 20 On 220 | eee | 22.65 | 20.0 1 17 Planchonia spectabilis (lamog;) ----.--- DATS B Tala 7.87 | 28.30 | 75.0 1 18 Palaquium sp Cho eae ce ore PE 4,30 3.0 1 19 Palaquium sp C3 le ane WES I OO Oi yu 20 Pterocymbium tinctorium (taluto) ___- Ev eer es Oui a segs ee 2.50 1.5 i 21 Ste7,CUlzaispel lapnit) see ee i Chet) pase = 6.35 | 32.10 | 83.0 1 22 Turpinia pomifera (malabago) -______.. ZA OL8%D |} Os85 Webs Lo | 17.55 | 25.0 1 23 Diplodiscus paniculatus (balobo) -___- PANN) sei i WEB} |e 13.00 | 34.0 2 24 Aglaia diffusa (salaquin pula) ___.__-- i Ni ee | PROT Ce Al PRE ro sti 2.10 1.5 2 25 Aglaia sp. (malasaguing) __________._- BL) OSB I O88 hone es 17.10 | 30.0 2 26 Alangium meyeri (putian) ______-__--- Sil Os03 Ol 038i sean 13.55 | 14.0 2 27 AIROOT IBD) 2 6 sug. Sa NEU Ie F531 (pape ee enreteee on 8) FRIIS 6.00 8.0 2 28 Ardisia perrotettiana ___.-____----.--- EA ae | ER | 9,20 8.0 2 29 TW ORK TL A} «aS a 3S EP 5s) (8 Al ons | 2.70 2.0 2 30 Ardisia boissieri (tagpo) ._..---------. A) 0539)).10589)) | ees e aes 14.15 | 25.0 2 81 Chisochiton philippinus (salaquin FET W EPP NE Aer URE SS IL a ee AL) a oe | APR Let 2.00 2.0 z 32 Chisochiton cummingianis (salaquin UCI) eee Ceres a meh Unies appa Rau 5 2 8 0. 05 (0) (0)5) Jose 11.65 15.0 2 33 ViieYs he See A meee aA et 1 Re Ny OLR Bi GO EPAL es =} 17.40 | 25.0 2 34 Cinnamomum mercadoi (calingag) __- 1! Cebit | Os fil eee 20.00 | 30.0 2 35 Cryptocarya lauriflora .__..__-.--.---- DUM ay e215) O LES aan eed ete gy 5.60 4.5 2 86 Cyclostemonisp eae ene 3 ee ea eee 4.17 4.5 2 87 Dillenia philippinensis (catmon) _.___- 16 | 5.86] 2.31 | 3.05 | 17.00 | 55.0 2 38 Dillenia reifferscheidia (catmon) -_---- ib) Os Yen 0.78 | 14.20 | 45.0 2 89 Diospyros discolor (ecamagon) ____--__- 9} 3.21) 1.46, 1.75 | 22.00] 50.0 2 40 DY SOLYLONSED een ae eps ee ens area Aue Neti A SU | Poa 2.80 3.0 2 41 Euphoria cinerea (alupag) -____--____- i | eee eee AR RAS SS aa 2.10 2.0 2 42 Euonymus javanica ._____.-_---------- yu) estes meee pe oo Oe 2.45] 2.0 2 43 TOO G oi Ons oi eee 16.55 | 25..0 2 44 2| 0.98] 0.98 |__---_- | 20.15] 38.0 2 | 46 |e OCG) ONC y esemeee | 13.14 | 20.0 2 46 ics oes (aumit) es sseee eee By ONS | Wy wa ee 12.50 | 16.0 2 47 Ficus variegata (tangisang biawak) | 6| 1.60) 1.60 |--.- 20.35 | 35.0 2 48 Garcinia venulosa (gatasan) PAN OO I WL On eo 9.80} 16.0 2 Ag Garcinia binucao (binucao) _.-_.--- --- al ese peewee |e oD 2.5 2 60 Gymnacranthera paniculata (tamba- | - TE) ee ee AE DVL ORC IN FOU) Pl pastel asa [eaten 3.10| 4.0 2 bl WEATSEC) CON CTAC mee tees een a eens! By lhe ala te re) es a 17.50} 35.0 2 62 Lophopetalum toxicum (kalatumbago) - By abs Bl Us| ees 24.00 | 30.0 2 63 Livistona sp. (anahao) _..-.-.---------- Iron OF seems ten| Pema reese 18.00 | 21.0 2 b4 Mactixia philippinensis (tapulao) _.__- 3] Ee, ae Sele a ASH OT 3.0 2 65 Memecylon paniculatum (culis) _-.---- | Qi eR EL Dep l yepa kd) 2.5 2 56 IN GALCLEQI71 C010) aa ne nL | ane reas PSB ee pares 5.35 8.0 2 67 INanteled) calycinduans: once esses eee see Si OKOGR Os 0G le=eeeee 16.85 | 21.0 2 450 TABLE XII.—Stand of trees over 2 meters in height -on 0.25 hectare. The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Alti- tude 450 meters on Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon—Contd. letcg |e wa ! | ' | | Volume. a | | | Great-|Great-| Story Indi-| Dia- | Dia- |, est | est to No. Species. vid- nition mie =r Beige diam-} which uals Totals lalansca on jeter onjtree be- | 40 ee plot. | plot. | longs. 10-40 End cm. | over. Miscellaneous species—Continued. cu. M.| CU. M.|CU.m.| Mm. em. | 58 Nephelium mutabile (bulala) --__.------ | 10} 1.69/| 0.56| 1.13] 23.00] 42.0 2 59 Pisonia umbellulifera (anuling) --_____- bel feel lee a fared | 7.20} 8.0 2 60 Polyalthia lanceolata (lanutan) -_-__-_- | 3 eee | poets) | ae S| 9.20} 11.0 2 61 Sumplocos:sy .2 2-2. Ade Se | dD Beat et RNS | oan’ ZN 1 38.20 3.5 2 62 Sarcocephalus junghuhnii (mambog) _- 4:10:38") (0-88) |2---=— 13.00 | 25.0 2 63 Semecarpus gigantifolius (ligas) ___--_- | 1| 0.43} 0.43 | He spieee | 19.00} 30.0 2 64 Strombosia philippinensis (tamayuan)_ a pel Pa Se fbeeones 8.90 3.0 2 65 Terminalia pellucida (calumpit) ___-__- iA eae | SE eee | Seen 8.15 8.0 2 66 Ficus minahassae (hagimit) -____-__-__ Taam: HES) feet Pe 10.05 3.0 3 67 ELA COUTTUANSD ree eee a) ie | fs, Sea iecwen! 2.40 2.0 3 683]. Gureinia rubra ce ji hrttas ee eee apie 7.00| 7.0 8 69:| v § Grrchatiern si aes, | eS) eet ee ae | 406] 60] 8 70| Glochidion lancifolum ____.----------- Bes otos oceteen) ee bees | 3.07} 3.0 3 71| Goniothalamus elmeri_...____---------- 1 i: en etd eee 4.40 | 5.0] 8 712 Grewia stylocarpa (susumbik) ___-____- 9} 0.01 | OXOM 2 ees ! 10.72 17.0 8 3 Izora longistipula ___....--..----_------ nO [ar =) Ye | | 2.20 2.0 | 3 74 Izora macrophylla_____-.--..--.--------| |e eters | ee ee lekabess 6.15| 6.0 3 75| Laportea subclausa (lipa) —___.--.------ 12| 0.02} 0.02 |... | 10.20! 10.0 8 | | 76 Leea philippinensis ______-...--_--. ---- 2h SOSO25 \OS08s| sae ese 10.90 | 10.0 3 7 Teen mamillensts =. 2222 2222-258) hee ee |) BSS Beans eee 11.20 8.0 | 3 | 78 BO COULEGLG =o nee nea ee ee Cia eres ae Ee | 2.90! 3.0] 3 79 Leucosyke capitellata (lagasi) __________ a Ap) | ea Sect eee | Pes 1 Scs0Ne aco 3 80 Macaranga grandifolia (taquip asin) --| Si) OsGe7) Ota ee 12.40! 15.0 | 3 | 81 Macaranga bicolor (hamindang) _____-- | 1} 0.06| 0.06 gies be 11.60 | 12.0 S 82 Mallotus ricinoides (hinlaumo) _____--- } 15/5 ee lesenees 2.50 2.0 | 3 83 | Neolitsea villosa_____.__--.--.---------- | 2] 0.08 | O03) |e 8.95] 10.0) 8 84 Oreocnide trinervis _____._-------------| 9} 0.01] 0.01 |------- 8.25 | 12.0) 3 85 Saurauia latibracteata___.------------- | ea} sels |) (Ee Wal eee 10.20 | 25.0 3 86 SALT OUAG (BD om em a eee Noth ee ———— 6.60} 7.0 3 87 Sambueus javanicus ___.___-_----------| 1 eS at Loe ch etcies: 2.00; 1.5 3 88 Trewia ambigua (batobato) -_________-_| SS | lee sases Rast \caaeeee 5.00 7.0 3 89| Callicarpa erioclona...-.--.------------ I Ne (<2 ae al alae | 2.10 |, 0 es 90 Clerodendron quadriloculare-_-___------- a hee Ree SI let a Loe 3.70 2.0 4 91 Tabernaemontana pandacaqui (panda- j | | OT fepatlie ciel il Malloy! 61 0 Py estes Esa! (ees | 450] 55/ 4 92 Wikstroemia meyeniana __------------- p Uy eee eee aes | 2.08} 15 4 Wofal kg (i an 5 ee | | 853 | 76.85 | 19.08 | 57.27 |_.----- Le i] ! © The volume of trees less than 10 centimeters in diameter is omitted. > This story is regarded as part of the undergrowth. As may be seen from Table XII, dipterocarp species form a noticeable part of the stand, but the forest is still very complex and the percentage of dipterocarp timber by volume is low. The dipterocarps at these elevations are relatively small, rarely IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 451 reaching a height of more than from 35 to 40 meters. The main canopy is not only low, but it is also very open, so that both the lower stories and undergrowth are well developed. The original forest on the lower slope of the mountain must certainly have been more distinctively dipterocarp than is the forest which we now find in a virgin condition at and above 400 meters in elevation. The management problem presented by the forest is the same as that presented everywhere throughout the Islands by forests which are located within easy reach of a large agricultural population. Such forests are always drained of their more valuable species throughout a long period of years until the species most sought after disappear; after this the edges of the forest pass through a period of extremely heavy culling, which leaves them in an almost hopeless condition. The edges of the Maquiling forest will certainly not return to their original composition and volume in any reasonable period, with- out the aid of actual reforestation. The complete closure of such areas as have been most heavily cut over will result in the gradual entrance of dipterocarp species, but at the same time many other species of less desirable character will gain the ascendency and the forest will necessarily pass through a period of, perhaps, from two hundred to three hundred years during which dipterocarps will remain inconspicuous elements. That portion of the forest lying a little farther to the interior in which | dipterocarp seedlings and saplings are fairly well represented will return to its original composition and volume in a much shorter period of time and without actual reforestation. The problem presented is that of removing a considerable portion of what is at present the dominant story, and of removing it in such a manner that the dipterocarp element in the forest will have a chance to develop at least as rapidly as the other com- ponents. Were there any market for the trees which make up the bulk of the present canopy, the matter of making the neces- sary opening would be very easily handled. For the most part, however, the species which make up this canopy have no market whatever, and unless a market could be developed for them the only possible way of giving the dipterocarps and other valuable species an equal chance in the present mixture would be by girdling and cleaning operations, which would necessarily be conducted at a very high cost. PLANT ASSOCIATIONS ON CLEARED LANDS Land which has been cleared of forest usually passes over either to second-growth forest or to grassland. A452. The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 If the land is cleared of forest and not cultivated, it is very quickly covered by second-growth trees. The most prominent are Trema amboinensis (anabion), Homalanthus populneus (ba- lanti), Macaranga bicolor (hamindang), Macaranga tanarius (binunga), Mallotus ricinoides (hinlaumo), and Mallotus moluc- canus (alim). One of these, particularly one of the first four, may in certain localities form almost pure stands. Thus, a small cleared plot at an elevation of 450 meters on Mount Ma- quiling was very quickly covered by a growth consisting almost entirely of Trema amboinensis, while cleared areas on Mount Mariveles at a similar elevation frequently show practically nothing but Homalanthus populneus. Along with the trees mentioned there may be a number of others, but they usually occur in much less abundance. All of these trees are small, soft-wooded, rapidly growing species. They reach maturity early, are subject to decay and insect attack, and thus are very short lived. The future development of these second-growth forests varies with their size and situation. If the second-growth forest is a small patch in a dipterocarp forest or is on an area adjacent to one, some of the species of the dipterocarp forest will invade the second growth. The first invaders are frequently species of the genus Canarium or of the families Meliaceae and Sterculiaceae. The second-growth trees are very intolerant of shade and form only a very light canopy. The conditions under this canopy are very dry as compared with those in the original forest, and especially in regions with a pronounced dry season are apparent: ly not favorable to species requiring the moist conditions of a dense forest. The stages through which the forest passes in re- turning to the original dipterocarp type have not been studied, but the changes must be extremely complex and the time required considerable, for as will be shown later, the trees of dipterocarp forests, unlike those of the second growth, usually develop in dense shade and are very slow growing. The second-growth forest will apparently give place to a dipterocarp one much quicker in a region without a pronounced dry season than in one which has a long season of dry weather. Where the dry season is not pronounced, dipterocarps, if there are seed trees present, may seed into the second growth very quickly, and in many cases the seedlings will be able to survive. Climbing bamboos and other vines frequently come into the second-growth forests to such an extent that they form a very dense tangle through which it is difficult to pass. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 453 If the second-growth forest is widely separated from any dipterocarp forest, it is not likely to become dipterocarp in character. The first trees, which are very intolerant of shade, gradually give way to other more tolerant species, and the com- position of the forest becomes more complex. The trees are still mostly small, soft-wooded species and of little or no value in the production of timber. It is thus evident that little can be expected from these forests until they have been planted with more valuable species or until a neighboring dipterocarp forest has spread to them. So far we have considered only land which has been cleared and not cultivated. In the past, however, almost all clearing has been for the purpose of cultivation. The succession of vegetation naturally varies greatly with the subsequent treat- ment, and results in the production of either grassland or second-growth forest. The most primitive method of cultivation, and one which is practiced even now by some of the wild tribes, is to make a small clearing, or ‘“‘caingin,”’ in the midst of the forest, plant it to rice or yams for a year or two, and then, as weeds grow, to abandon it. These small patches are quickly covered by second-growth trees which kill out the weeds. A more destructive system and one which has been very generally practiced is the making of clearings on the edge of the forest. These clearings are cultivated by very primitive methods. Cogon grass (Imperata exaltata) or talahib (Saccha- rum spontaneum) comes in along with various herbaceous an- nual weeds, conspicuous among which are species of composites. The area is burned over regularly, which results in the death of practically all tree species and the spread of the grass, as the large underground rhizomes of the latter are not injured by fire. In a few years the grass takes possession of the area and cultivation is abandoned, as it is easier to clear a new patch of forest than to eradicate the grass by the primitive methods of cultivation generally in use. It is at this point that the differences in climate probably play their most important role in determining whether the land shall remain permanently in grass or return to forest. In regions with a pronounced dry season the dead leaves of the grass become, in the dry weather, very inflammable. These grass areas are burned over regularly. Tree seedlings are thus killed, and the area remains permanently in grass. This shift- ing system of cultivation has resulted in producing and extend- A454 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 ing grasslands until at the present time their extent is, according to Whitford,?° four times as great as that of cultivated lands. In regions without a pronounced dry season the grass does not become so readily inflammable and the trees have a chance to become established. This point has been discussed in connec- tion with the distribution of forests in the Philippines. Imperata exaltata is rarely more than 1.5 meters in height, while Saccharum spontaneum is frequently more than 3 meters. The latter grass grows in more moist situations than does Jm- perata exaltata and forms denser stands. Growing along with the grasses and particularly with Jmperata are a few other plants. Their total bulk is small, and they are usually char- acterized by having large underground structures which are not injured by fire. There are a few trees which are able to grow up through the grass, even when this is burned over regularly, provided the burnings do not occur at too frequent intervals. Notable examples are Bauhinia malabarica (alibangbang), Antidesma ghaesembilla (binayuyu), and Acacia farnesiana (aroma). These trees have well-developed roots, and sprout readily from the base of the stem after the upper portion has been killed. After each succeeding fire a larger stem is produced, until finally the tree is able to shade out the grass around it to some extent and may form the center of a small clump. These trees, how- ever, occur in grass regions, which are regularly burned, only as scattered individuals or small clumps, as they can make but little headway against the grass when subjected to fire. Second-growth trees grow up and kill the grasses by shading when the latter are not burned. This process generally requires only a few years, as the trees to furnish seed are usually scattered throughout the grass areas, especially in ravines and along the banks of streams. The seeds are usually small and are readily dispersed by birds or by the wind, and nearly all of the second-growth species grow very rapidly. The first stages in the invasion by tree species differ greatly from those on cleared land. The first species present are naturally those fire- resisting ones which are usually present in grass areas. How- ever, many other species come in quickly, among which there are usually individuals of the same species that invade cleared areas. The chief difference between the first stages of second- growth forest in grass areas and on cleared land is that on * Bull. P. I. Bur. of Forestry (1911), No. 10. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 455 grasslands there is usually a greater diversity of tree species than on cleared lands. As the second-growth forest increases in age it becomes denser, owing to the fact that the trees which grow up in it are likely to be more tolerant of shade than some of those forming the first stand. If the forest is not situated near a dipterocarp one, it will continue to be composed of small trees of little or no value in the production of lumber and only a small propor- tion of which will make even good firewood. Despite the fact that the trees of the second-growth forest are not valuable, the growth of such a forest on grasslands is a decided practical advantage. The tall grasses of the grass areas are coarse, and do not make good forage for animals. They serve as feeding grounds for swarms of locusts, which every year do great damage to cultivated crops, particularly rice, sugar cane, and corn. The soil of grasslands, moreover, is very unproductive, while it is much easier to put under cultivation land in second-growth forest than that covered by grass, as the roots of the latter are exterminated only with great difficulty. From a consideration of grasslands and second-growth forest it is evident that if a dipterocarp area is to be kept as such, it must either be logged in such a manner that the forest is not destroyed or the area subsequently must be replanted. Both of these methods will be discussed later. If the influence of man were removed from the Archipelago, the grass areas would grow up into second-growth forests and the dipterocarp forests would gradually, in the course of centuries, occupy most of these areas. However, this fact is of little importance from the standpoint of practical forestry, as the time required would be many centuries. The development of second-growth forests is, with the same treatment, remarkably uniform over the entire Archipelago. There are, however, certain minor variations. It seems wise at this point to describe briefly the successions on the cut-over areas of three of the forests already described, as illustrating different courses of development under different conditions. These results will be of interest later in connection with the problem of management. CUT-OVER REGION IN NORTHERN NEGROS A lumber company has been operating for a number of years in the forest previously described as occurring on the banks of Himugan River in northern Negros. Trees under 50 centi- 456 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 meters in diameter are not cut, but as already pointed out the great bulk of timber is contained in the massive trees of the dominant story. The cutting of the large trees results, there- fore, in the breaking and killing of a large proportion of the smaller ones. The ground is opened up to such an extent that almost all seedlings are killed by insolation, while most of the small trees become unhealthy and finally die. All of the large defective trees which have been left have been killed by brush fires, except in the very recent cutting areas. The ground is thus practically cleared of its original vegetation, and is very quickly covered by a second-growth forest. The first plant to become established is a species of wild banana. This occurs abundantly on waste lands and in forests from which trees have been removed. The fruits are eaten by birds, and the seeds are thus quickly scattered. It is frequently abundant in cut-over areas even before the logs have been re- moved. Some small herbaceous weeds enter the area, but they are few in number and apparently have little or no effect on the succession of vegetation. Small patches of Panicum sarmento- sum are sometimes conspicuous, particularly on the perpendi- cular sides of the cuts made for the railroad. The banana is quickly followed by tree species, which soon cover the ground ex- cept where the banana has formed small patches which shade the ground and keep out the trees. Trema amboinensis (anabion) is by far the most prominent tree in the second-growth forest, and in places it forms practically pure stands (Plate IX, fig. 2). Along with it are several other species, the most prominent being Mallotus moluccanus (alim), Homalanthus populneus (ba- lanti), Macaranga bicolor (hamindang), Macaranga tanarius (binunga), and Piptwrus arborescens (dalonot). The canopy here, as in all such second-growth forests, is very light and the conditions under it much drier than in the original dipterocarp forest. The later stages in the vegetation were not observed, as the land is very valuable for agriculture and is quickly homesteaded and put under cultivation. It is evident, however, that the orig- inal forest is completely destroyed by the method of logging in use and that it is replaced by a worthless one of an entirely different type. It is also evident that destroying the forest does not produce grasslands even though the brush left from the fallen trees is burned. Grass, however, covers large areas in this region, and this growth is evidently the result of a shifting system of cultivation. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 457 The wild banana mentioned is found over large areas in Negros, but is not generally distributed over the Philippines. This general type of second-growth forest is otherwise similar to that in cut-over areas in most of the Archipelago, although as previously pointed out the specific composition may vary. CLEARED AREAS IN BATAAN In the forest, previously described, in Bataan back of Limay, a lumber company has been operating for the last five years and has cut a strip 15 kilometers long, running from an eleva- tion of about 50 meters to approximately 500 meters. An exact determination of the successions is rendered difficult by the fact that each year’s cutting occurred at a successively higher level and that the first stages have been observed only in the recently cut areas. The trees of the dominant story of the dipterocarp forest are not as large as those in Negros, and there is a greater number of small trees. Until recently the cutting has been done with a lower diameter limit of 40 centimeters, allowing the removal of all large trees. A large proportion of the small ones were, at the same time, killed by the falling of the cut trees. As in the cut-over region in Negros, nearly all seedlings were killed by insolation and most of the small trees became unhealthy and soon died (Plate X, fig. 1). The few remaining ones seem to stand small chance of reaching maturity. Still further destruction has been caused by the burning of the branches and leaves of the fallen trees over large areas. This results in the death of all trees in the burned area. Of the original forest, only a very few scattered specimens of old defective trees and a few small unhealthy ones are left. After the trees of the original forest have been removed, the ground is quickly covered by seedlings of second-growth trees (Plate X, fig. 2). A few herbaceous weeds enter the area, but only two are prominent; namely, Panicum sarmentosum, which as in Negros forms small patches particularly on the steep sides of the railroad cuts, and Blumea balsamifera (sambong), which is especially abundant in burned-over areas. Both of these species are comparatively small, and apparently have but little effect on the further development of the vegetation. The principal tree species is Homalanthus populneus (balanti or banalo), which forms practically pure stands over much of the area. Along with it are a number of other species, the chief ones being Trema amboinensis (anabion), Macaranga 458 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 bicolor (hamindang), Macaranga tanarius (binunga), Mallotus ricinoides (hinlaumo), Mallotus moluccanus (alim), and Ficus variegata (tangisang biawak). Up to this point the general type of the vegetation on the cleared land in Bataan is very similar to what has been described in Negros, although the spe- cific composition is different, and the wild bananas are lacking in Bataan. However, in Bataan this type is practically restricted to the cutting area of the previous year, and disappears in some of the older portions of this area. The areas which have been logged for more than a year are all dominated by an erect species of bamboo (Schizostachyum mucronatum) known locally as boho (Plate XI, fig. 2). Owing to heavy cutting or clearings, this bamboo was scattered through the earlier cutting areas before the company commenced its logging operations, and as the original forest has been removed the bamboo has taken its place. The flowering habits of this bamboo are not known, but it probably spreads rapidly by means of underground stems. When it enters an area where there are small second-growth trees, it grows faster than they do and thus kills most of them by shading (Plate XI, fig. 1.) This is particularly true of Homalanthus populneus, which is a very small tree. This tree is very scarce where the boho occurs, while Trema amboinensis, a somewhat larger species, is relatively much more abundant. Thus, mixed with the boho there are patches of second-growth trees, old trees left from the original forest, and also rather extensive patches of climbing bamboo. It is possible that, as logging continues, the cutting area may be moved away from the bamboo so fast that the latter will not be able to keep up with it and that a second-growth forest will finally have a chance to develop. If, however, the boho should seed, it could readily enter the freshly cut-over areas and thus continue to dominate all of the ground. As higher elevations are reached it may be that boho will not be able to stand the environmental conditions. Most of the boho on the cutting areas is still immature, but nearer the beach there are large forests of it which apparently are practically mature. Here it occurs in large clumps from 3 to 4 meters apart and from 12 to 15 meters high (Plate XII). Seattered in with this are dicotyledonous trees, but practically no seedlings. In situations similar to those on which the forests of boho occur, there are also extensive areas of second-growth forest. From what has been observed in the recently cut-over areas, it would seem that when there is a competition between the boho and second-growth trees the latter largely disappear. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 459 These second-growth forests must, therefore, have developed when the boho could not enter the area. Such a condition is easily imagined, as the ground might have been cleared during a period when the boho was not seeding and at such a distance from the latter that there was a forest barrier between them. It is also possible that the boho did not have sufficient time to grow into the area before the second-growth forest had already developed. Whitford 7: has described the mature bamboo forest in con- siderable detail. He regarded it as a climax association, and believed that its composition would remain the same as at present, unless some of the constituents were artificially removed. The bamboo forest when once developed certainly seems to be very stable. It produces a dense enough shade to prevent the development of second-growth trees, while the conditions within it are apparently not favorable for the growth of shade- enduring species. It is evident that when the bamboo can enter a cut-over area it will replace the original dipterocarp forest, and it is probable that all of the bamboo forests in the Bataan region as well as in other parts of the Philippines originated as the result of clearing off the original vegetation. Since the forests of boho are second growth in character, it seems probable that in the course of time they would be replaced by the original dipterocarp type if the influence of man were removed. The stages by which this would take place are not evident, but since there is little chance of trees seeding in the boho forest to any great extent this process would, probably, take several centuries. From the standpoint of practical forestry it may be said that in the area here described the dipterocarp forest has been completely and permanently destroyed. Boho occurs in cut-over regions throughout Bataan, and plays an important part in the vegetation of such areas, although, as pointed out, forests of second-growth trees may be developed under certain conditions. The boho is of more value commer- cially than the tree species. It is a thin-walled bamboo, the - stems of which are split, flattened, and woven into a kind of matting, known locally as sawale, which is much used for walls of dwellings. It also offers possibilities in the manufacture of paper.??4 Seedlings of Pentacme contorta are springing up and surviv- * This Journal (1906), 1, 384. = Richmond, G. R., Philippine fibers and fibrous substances: their suit- ability for paper making (part II), This Journal (1906), 1, 1075-1085. 460 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 ing in the area covered by Homalanthus populneus, and so it would seem that Homalanthus, if not destroyed by boho, would make a good nurse crop for Peniacme. Other species also may be able to survive under Homalanthus, but this point has not been determined. The success of Pentacme is probably con- nected with the moist conditions at the high altitude at which the logging is now being done. CLEARED LAND AT THE BASE OF MOUNT MAQUILING The two cases of second growth which we have described occurred on cleared land which had not been cultivated. The area to be considered now has been in grass as the result of cultivation. All of the land around the base of Mount Maquiling has been cleared of the original forest and put under cultivation. Much of it has subsequently grown up in grass, and cultivation has been abandoned. The College of Agriculture was established in 1909 on such an area on the northeastern side of the mountain. Between the college buildings and the mountain there were ex- tensive grass areas. The region under consideration consists of broad flat ridges about 75 meters in altitude and separated by narrow valleys. The original forest remained, but in a very badly cut-over condition, in the valley of Molauin River. Before the establishment of the college most of the area ap- pears to have been burned over very frequently, and large portions of it were burned as late as 1911. Since then fires have been largely excluded, and the area is rapidly going over into second-growth forest. As long as any area continued to be burned over, tree seedlings were killed and the area remained in grass. The grass consisted mostly of two species, Imperata exaltata (cogon) and Saccharum spontaneum (talahib). Imperata appears to be disseminated quicker than Saccharum, and at first probably occupied the larger part of the area. At present it occupies all of the driest spots, but is apparently giving way to Saccharum in the more favorable localities. Table XIII gives a good idea of the average composition of an area dominated by Imperata. Table XIII shows that there are many herbs and shrubs pre- sent with Imperata, but that they are all small plants. With the exception of Hulophia, which has large underground roots, all of the plants have come in since the last fire and have not had time to reach their normal size. The vines are likewise recent ar- rivals. The presence of the large number of small miscellaneous plants shows clearly that if fire is excluded from the area, plants other than Imperata will become prominent very quickly. IX, A,5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 461 TABLE XIII.—Composition of plot of Imperata exaltata. - Plot, 2 meters square. IMPERATA EXALTATA (COGON). Height, 180 to 140 centimeters. Plants with: One stalk 1,675 Two stalks 147 Three stalks 82 Four stalks 38 Five stalks 19 Six stalks 15 Total plants 1,976 Total stalks 2,552 MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES. Species Total |Greatest| Average| Seed- 4 plants. | height. | height. lings. Herbs and shrubs: cm, cm. SESLLO DILL CL OLE RTC eps aa ae fe) ee ee Nea 5 60 35 1 BLODRYLUMISENSULU ULM ee ee 7 4 3 Elagunella Delaney eee a ene ee 16 3 DR ee wan ay i | MAMLOSC\ DULCE - 22 A UN Ee ope aa UES) 68 18 1.5 43 | Desmodium pulchellum 22 ee 122 a7 21 84 | Commelina Tia uflorc ee ee ee ree 7 4.5 3 T Com positae aes fe 2516 eS CUPRA T ee Ra ee lye 23 6 4 23 | UM COTELLE LOM NON pe es ee NB Us 10 21 NSIC UE TESTS eases teh alters Le rN PRET a ANCL UC 1 55) 5.5 1 HLACCLANS Deen een naman panes Lp ASS RL MENT HRS Nh RSH Many. |Pesiis tos. eee: fi eA See Vines: | Streptocaulon baumit _.-__-----___-_---s-----.------- 2 6 5.5 | 2 (QUGRRMIOICO NT OD INO eae ee De 1 | 9 Co) ee nes Re OTRO Ohya ANir Reh hs SN DST 2 280 145 1 | MeCrremigihaslatae sansa ore aan esi aye Se Lien ie 5 | 6 3 5 GESSUSLE TTS OLLIE ey oa ta SEV 2 173 (ty ee eens IDOMVEONET ALOU: Wore ene re aU ee nae Luts ee aia 9 69 | 31 4 | Ch Ree UO Ua NS Oe rR SR A NO 28 Ti een nat 181 | In the grass area there were a few individuals of fire-resisting trees, chiefly Antidesma ghaesembilla (binayuyu), Bauhinia malabarica (alibangbang), and Acacia farnesiana (aroma). Soon after fires were excluded from the region, a growth of tree seedlings, herbaceous shrubs, and vines entered quickly. The early stages of this process are accompanied by changes in the composition of the grasses, as cogon and talahib are usually replaced by species forming even taller stands, which, however, are much less dense. The grass gradually dies as the trees begin to shade it. In this manner large parts of the area have passed from grasslands to second-growth forest since 1911. The tree species which have come in are so numerous and the composition of the forest so varied that it is difficult to tell which are the most prominent species, but among them are Melochia 129873——-4 462 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 umbellata (labayo), Columbia serratifolia (anilao), Litsea glutinosa (puso-puso), Macaranga tanarius (binunga), Premna cumingiana (maguile), Ficus nota (tibig), Ficus hawili (hauili), Mallotus philippensis (banato), and Alstonia scholaris (dita). It is uncertain how long it will take this forest to occupy the whole area, but it seems likely that if fires are excluded this will take place in less than ten years. It will be seen from this that it would be a very simple matter to replace grass with second-growth forest if the inhabitants could be prevented from setting fire to the grass. VOLUME OF DIPTEROCARP FORESTS Whitford,”? writing on the composition and volume of the dipterocarp forest in the Philippines, has shown very clearly that in situations suitable for the best development of species of the family Dipterocarpaceae the forest which is developed is - one in which dipterocarps are the leading species not only from the standpoint of the botanist, but also from the standpoint of the forester and lumberman. He comes to the conclusion that “success in virgin forest growth should be measured in terms of bulk, or of bulk and annual increment combined ;” and, again, “if measured in bulk alone, some temperate regions as com- pared with the Philippines show greater success in forest growth.” Success in virgin forest growth may be measured in terms of bulk and annual increment combined, but a virgin forest of great bulk may be in a very poor condition for manage- ment, and bulk alone is not always a true measure of what the forest site is capable of producing. As Whitford states, when using bulk alone as a measure of success in forest growth, we find that in temperate regions some forests, such as the coniferous ones of northwestern United States, are more successful in this respect than any forest that has thus far been accurately measured in the tropics. Unfor- tunately, there are not available in the Philippines any detailed stand tables of virgin hardwood forest in temperate regions for comparison with a similar table compiled from data collected in the Philippines. However, the yield tables compiled by Wim- menauer 2° for pure stands of oak in central Germany will serve as a standard for forest growth in the temperate zone. As a basis for comparison of volume and distribution of volume by ~ Whitford, H. N., Studies in the vegetation of the Philippines, This Journal, Sec. C (1909), 4, 699. * Schlich’s manual of forestry, 3d ed., London (1905), 3, 346, 347. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 463 diameter between forests in the Philippines and those of the temperate regions, Wimmenauer’s table for oak on site I is presented here in the form of a model all-aged managed forest for 1 hectare (Table XIV). There are 16 age classes in the original table, the oldest being 160 years. The basal areas and volumes for each age class have been determined by dividing the volume and basal areas of an average stand of that age for 1 hectare by 16, so that there are represented that number of distinct age classes in our table for 1 hectare. That is, the volume and basal area given in Wimmenauer’s table for the 160- year class divided by 16 give the volume of that class in an all-aged managed forest having represented in it trees of all ages from 10 to 160 years. Likewise, the volume given in the original table for an even-aged forest of 150 years divided by 16 gives the representation of that class in an all-aged managed forest of 1 hectare and so on down to the youngest class repre- TABLE XIV.—Oak. Site I. Europe. Model all-aged forest of 1 hectare. 5 i . Age in years. Dian | Bagel Volume. Age in years. ete Bosal Volume. =| | | cm. sq. m. cu. Mm. cm. sq. m. cu. m. LO ea Shee A 2.54 ORS 7 Sy | see SFL OO fa 5 yo eet 39. 40 2.137 34, 12 CAV a gee le ee ee 6.10 1.004 2SA5i| Nell Os etc Sakae an 42.90 2.194 36.39 Cee Seen ey ee 10. 90 1.276 TEASE 20 ls cee oe 8 46.70 2. 252 38. 43 Qe te ee se ALY 15.50 1.477 12810130 ease eee 49.80 | 2.295 40. 31 BO es at nee ilies 20. 80 1.649 TSAO LAO eck Sea 53.30 2.335 42.06 (i) See ere ee 25.10 1.798 QU 691502 a es 56. 60 2.381 43.77 (0) ee ae ae 29. 00 1. 908 25. 32 H GOH os Bese ae 59. 70 2.410 45. 43 ROR See 32. 50 2. 008 28. 56 SFA ea st [EN 29.774 | 427.82 | | beeen ease te 36. 10 2.079 31.57 | sented—that of 10 years. The table which we have thus com- puted for oak represents an average of even-aged managed stands in which all ages occupy equal areas. Comparing this table with that for one of our best. dipterocarp forests, that of northern Ne- gros (Table XV), we see that in regard to volume and basal area the two forests are not greatly dissimilar. Judging from the standpoint of bulk alone, the virgin forest in the Philippines seems to be somewhat more successful than a normal managed forest, containing all ages, in the temperate zone. Although the total volume of the dipterocarp forest exceeds that of the managed oak forest by 92 cubic meters, it will be seen at a glance that the volume of the Negros forest is distributed throughout diameter classes up to 170 centimeters, while the largest diameter class in the managed forest is 60 centimeters. The conclusion that must be drawn from this is that unless the dipterocarp trees produce, in the same length 464 TABLE XV.—Dipterocarps. The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Site I. Philippines. One hectare of virgin forest in Negros. | Diameter in centimeters. Bora Volume. Diameter in centimeters. Bast Volume. Arae 1 jaan 7 | sq. m. cu. Mm. sq. m. cu. m APREERE LY WT NS 0.421 A028 OER SOULE Se eee 2.198 | 38.87 25% nha Bead et Nes Ve | 1.428 SDB MN ADO SLi ate es ll 1.664 | 26.26 Sha ce et scans ne eR ee be ee a ln BO) RE Lee es on te ale ey Teo ap ee Sb Sie} Mirage) mets oso}. atest, Ses CeO | ee Pd ee pt Te 6/901) Lege |p See eee OG ote ih tel et ee pe, 9:00] (0.gR8 | oe | airs aS SS eS ESL I I ET (eh 990). « tae) ee | ee rf ita tesla Dat spun Me ceteh 5 come rece) ay Badan eset Sure 7. 0.920; al eee ae ot See 9.80] ‘0844 oo [eee ! Watt: dies? Sal Wl aay a7) 2 99.929 | 6.959 | Average__ S 3 iy C3 5) SE eee 2 Et | 9.9% Wears tri elareye— 2 23 ee 6.85 6.33 5.00 of even such a rapid-growing species as Parashorea plicata will be much greater than that of temperate zone species. However, in comparing the results which may be expected from management in the Philippines with those that can be obtained in temperate zones, the very long period of suppression may very reasonably be left out of consideration. In other words, we may consider those individuals of the stand which lie below from 5 to 10 centimeters in diameter not as a portion of the stand, but merely as the necessary factors of reproduction which are always present in the forest. Following out this IX, A,5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests ATT conception and plotting the curve of growth for Parashorea with that portion of the curve below 5 centimeters omitted, we see that the species does not compare unfavorably with those of the temperate zone for virgin forest. Referring to fig. 8, page 496, in which curves of this character are presented, we find that the curve for bagtican-lauan lies below that of white oak only up to the 32d year and below that of the yellow poplar up to the 63d year. Above these points the curve rises rapidly until the trees attain diameters of 80 centimeters in the same period of time, one hundred thirty-nine years, as it takes yellow poplar to attain a diameter of 62 centimeters and white oak to attain a diameter of 46 centimeters. From the above, it would seem that a forester working with rapidly growing species, such as Parashorea plicata, should ob- tain better results with regard to total volume production per year than could be obtained in temperate zones. It should be remembered, however, that dipterocarp forests contain a great mass of foliage that is not producing commercial wood, with the result that they are not as heavily stocked with dipterocarp species as are hardwood forests of temperate zones with species comparable to dipterocarps. As has been shown above, the forest of Mount Maquiling is not by any means a good dip- terocarp forest, and the species, Parashorea plicata (bagtican- lauan), standing almost alone in the dominant tree class, is growing under much more favorable conditions than it would were it a component of the first story in a heavily stocked dip- terocarp forest. The rates of growth which are shown by Parashorea under the above-mentioned conditions apparently are not duplicated by other species of the family Dipterocarpaceae growing in denser forests. A study of growth in other forests makes this apparent. Measurements of growth were made in the forests of northern Laguna at an altitude of approximately 500 meters for the period from April 6, 1913, to April 6, 1914, for the following species: Shorea squamata (mayapis), Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong), Shorea polysperma (tanguile), Hopea pierrei (dalin- dingan-isak) , and Dipterocarpus spp. (apitong and panao). The results of these measurements are given in Tables XVIII to XXII. From these tables the ages of trees of different diameters were calculated, and the results are plotted in fig. 2. In this figure also appear the same curves for white oak and yellow poplar as were plotted in connection with that for Parashorea plicata on Mount Maquiling. In all of these the growth below 5 centimeters was omitted. A comparison of figs. 1 and 2 shows 129873——5 A478 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 that the species of northern Laguna grow much more slowly than does Parashorea plicata on Mount Maquiling. Thus, it takes Shorea teysmanniana, the most rapidly growing of all the northern Laguna species, one hundred two years to grow from 5 centimeters to 50 centimeters in diameter, while Parashorea makes the same growth in eighty-three years. Dipterocarpus TABLE XVIII.—Annual diameter growth of Shorea squamata (mayapis). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Diameter class in centimeters. Re atone ei 0 to 10. 10 to 20. | 20 to 30 Dems Growth. Dig Growth. | Dis Growth. | Brees iat a aaa ea a cf | = 7 ie ecole i Ae gy a oat 7.6 0. 345 18.2 0. 768 22.3} 0.461 QRS Be PARE SOE 9.1 0. 198 10.8 0.362 21.5] 0.207 | PRSESE =: Biases | Beer ee eels: 7.5 0. 559 16.1 0.148 26.1} 0.329 HOY a mm TES FEES REC eee 1.5 0.345 14.9 0.773 26.6 | 0.625 Dp Siesta eal 2 Ce cal kA oi py 28 6.1} 0.905 10.2} 0.542) 22.8] 0.722 | i A A AEE De Ta a, 8.9 0.346 15.4| 0.493 28.9] 0.806 | ) Seed S.C eee ee 9.6| 0.115 10.6! 0.082) 20.1! 0.280 | See see EP ae ee ese Lee 9.9, 0.148 19.0} 0.214; 29.9] 0.099 | a ee oe ee ee ve Ban 0:0977|| 9” 1288)|) | Osea | 2 0yS) men ores iam TOS ee LEY ENE 5e9 Pee 1.7 0.296 12.7! 0.148/ 28.8] 0.115 LO i, alo hte ge Naan OS 7.4! 0.066 14.4 0.038 26.2! 0,329 ibaa ata See PRED PEE ERAS OY 7.5 0. 263 17.4 0. 164 23.8 | 0.099 Fi peace ene poche ee aged | 90 Pel oalPik oe 13.3} 0.148 21.4] 0.296 | UR a bee Oe RB La NS eT me Be | ee A aa 11.6 03263) |2aeiee se [2 :, ee OD eh A Beal all le | Sap ~ ga 13.0 0:41 /|ee A see 1G aes eS he tse een oe | Se eel 17.0 0.477) | a iN iat Sh ie aint, Re oat Rach enh ode fae cae al Hesestec tl 15.4 (0; 280) (ceo |e Total tee eee ee | AEE sat Paes rag eee eee Diese 4.599 (AVON AG aot wn Sen ee | ae eee 05316) | Eee ONZ80 Sen =seemee 0.354 Wears in'class=.522- 30 31.6 | 35.7 | 28.2 Diameter class in centimeters. No. ofitracin clase. | 30 to 40. 40 to 50. 50 to 60. Dies | Growth. Diame Growth. Diam: Growth. | —— ae — - | a = | SJ) ea ele Se eee hE reg 34.7| 0.268 40.5| 0.625 57.0| 0,268 ee eee ae Se 31.7 0.575 48.0 0;281. | 2.2. ee | 6 eR aa es yc wea Bis Poe ht 37.9 0.000 41.8 0,460 ook oe 7 fee MEMOS AD SL pM Gul “ 39.2 05846"). eB Re INERT Phe eee Eb erase RS MS See eh ee 37.5 0; 1815] oe ee a | ee (joensen ante! Fey es Gee ey 35.4 O;O1GH) Fat elie ks a | (ROC neti i Deheanes Ns. we Bema Bean, Oo BED,| 2 eee ee on een 8 | | TX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 479 TABLE XVIII.—Annual diameter growth of Shorea squamata (mayapis). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon—Continued. = rr Diameter class in centimeters. INowatitiresnniclace: 30 to 40. 40 to 50. 50 to 60. Diam- | Diam- Diam- Aes Growth. ies Growth. Sie, Growth. | See aI aN Oak cee aL ren (eos) Tay tN | Bana aen Nl Ee aay [la eer. ALN ee be bs UD Pe cre ER Oy oF hs | [eg dae | eeepc a OC SEN Pe eee pene | Ae eee en eR ee GU EPS aie Ne ENS I SSN SU MOSS Das oe EM a re Eee as le Ue ee be ae ea ee ENS pe ee ee eC as Uh ICS PUYE ETNA SN le OUR MI ROT CR Se ee ete Sas AE BU ee ree ees SoS ell I pa care | les UI oe te ee a eal acral aU ee a Se yy ka a | rd ae oR 3 |e EU a ee el ee ee i Sie pee fae Ea le oe Ue Paes ea oe PET see tay ct es ae EE oe pes ON ens Al 5 Rs Bi a ec ec eR Eyey eCPM ES POG a Ee ATEN ET be ee ea eas Uae nS ep incertae S94 | See ee SEPASG oe 0. 263 AV Crag Qbt see See oe wee 25 ee NE bask COS PARC (IE acre eee ON422 a ees 0. 263 Wears) iniclass/s2-— 222 22 36.1 23.7 38.0 TABLE XIX.—Annual diameter growth of Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Diameter class in centimeters. INodoE Eoin clans 0 to 10. 10 to 20. 20 to 30. 30 to 40. Diam: Growth. Diam Growth. Dist Growth. Diem, Growth. 8.1 0. 444 16.6 0. 099 29.8 0. 888 31.3 0. 889 9.0 0. 142 11.6 0. 608 20.6 0. 362 39.1 0. 263 8.9 0.527 16.1 0. 822 24.0 0.345 34.6 0. 575 7.6 0. 592 14.8 0.280 23.3 0.740 35.3 0. 2638 8.5 0. 329 17.6 0. 542 27.7 OFZ.) | Seeees Wee cena ae 7.4 0. 082 19.6 0. 427 29.4 OSS 720 teers alee a ees Hf fe aI paps ek A eS eg ke er 0. 198 13.5 0. 493 20.9 C158 fyi ie tery Hea a ko (; Seasons NI a) ive, Neh am 8.6 0. 230 11.4 0. 016 20.2 OS428 cise soe eee ead 1! Ya TENG Slope ages I wean ey 6.9 0. 049 17.3 OR08S i Sees Sees ees ee ee ees LQ eau ee ieee i ees Co 7.2 0. 609 18.4 OF S29 i eee Ne ee a ee ys VAce Sp aa CRS 9.2 0. 066 17.6 (5 EE sa |S el ep aa (Aer eee a UE GN ile eRe PR en ane 9.8 0.115 10. 6 ObeGy4 [Sas ercca eee ete ee a ee As Su pe Pe A RAY Pe 9.2 0.197 15.2 KOMP AER Yi Ses oa ed Eee (eer le |e aS = A ae SP AE ea cB Re | rg bby OS SO Fay eae neers | epeenee ees ee nee | ee AB reece eet aw ame manera oem Se SS SAS a ay 12.2 OWT DS jsrail | ee mere ee ue eens BA Re SP a SO a ta a en ef 11.2 O000)) | ne nnn So es lL ee Ne ea nly (Reaeaerss ae alse eet eR eS See ee ears: 17.8 C0 DY} Me or eli PSL eas oe sects Fee A al [A SARS Totals Se oe eis oS fy tel) epee GV B28 eee ae 4.589) |e oe: oe 1.990 AVGlaR Go2s2252 2. 6266/55-2-e28 OFZ D) emer OF8S4a | Eeee oe OGG fe |eeese ae 0. 497 Years in class __-.-._-__-_- 36.3 26.1 17.6 20.1 | A480 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XIX.—Annual diameter growth of Shorea teysmanniana (ttaong). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon—Continued. j Diameter class in centimeters. No. of trees in class. | 40 to 50. 50 to 60. | 70 to 80. | eter. eter. ! 56.0 0.395 | 72.9 | 52.6 0. 493 70.5 53.1 | 0.427 | |Diam- \erowth, Diam- | ¢rowth,| Diam- Growet | TABLE XX.—Annual growth of Shorea polysperma (tanguile). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. {Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Diameter class in centimeters. = Ses eee See eS Se eee ee 3 es AS 7.0| 0.312 | 19.4| 0.182} 20.3) 0.148) 32.8| 0.197 r Senes ee Pea nbt 0) | 8.7) 0.281) 138) 0.411) 294 0.460) 33.6 0.658 3 | 26.7' 0.608/ 316} 0.182 | Averave=-*225 eee ee! 1°: 278 eee we | 0.271 De ere "05896! |222 "= | 0.374 | Weara'in‘class <= 2 = | 36.9 36.9 25.3 26.7 IX, A, 5 TABLE XX.—Annual growth of Shorea polysperma (tanguile). Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon—Continued. 481 Northern Diameter class in centimeters. Navetiircountclase: \ 40 to 50. i 50 to 60. i 60 to 70. | Diam- Diam- Diam- ian Growth. eaten Growth. Bow Growth. | 53. 6 0. 263 66.9 | 0. 296 ASN OS 89D i ase el lean el 53.0 ORAD Riise he sean Dae a 53.8 OS263 0) ce oo ee, TABLE XXI.—Annual diameter growth of Hopea pierrei (dalindingan-isak) . Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Diameter class in centimeters. | Nekeeiecinfetiea | hil notede: | 10 to 20. 20 to 30. 30 to 40. Diaw Growth. Diam Growth. Diam: Growth. pape Growth a Be RRS Pea 9.0 0.263 | 13.7 0.115 20.1 0.411 OES RB ee are 6.8 0.197} 10.8 0.197 21.6 0. 626 14/ 0.197 | 10.9 0. 247 24.0 0. 231 8.4 0.829 | 12.1 0. 362 29.8 0. 295 8.1 0.313 | 11.4 0.099 20.5 0. 428 9n9) 0.313 | 17.8 0.197 26.7 0. 164 9.9 0.099 | 10.7 52:1 4) eee ea SES net eel| te tail 0.362 | 18.0 (WSR | U T8 T, S 8.4 0.230} 11.7 ONT G40) Aas uy SRE MA Ile Lar ncel a th ree LS 8.1 0.214 10. 4 OROGG| ters seeaeel |: SS oe |e Ne Se a 9.8 0.247 | 12.9 ORIGAy ats a Jee sek oe wks | ae ee 7.9 | 0.182 | 18.4 OSB GOM Meme a 2 aes Pe St p PASTRY 8 pie Sate oF, eae A 10.8 OE268 7 mene reget | eee Se a | ier | ete ee Begs, Ae 17.6 EAA ice eae | ered a a ee eee ee ey en see 18.7 ORTIGAS tee pee on eae ie he kL SR 5 a TI ea | ot A le | PA) 0. 362 |__ Sp. SUP 108i | PETAR eee Se Os ees eRe 13.0 KORY Ta aap a al ge a Se ee Re oe ae 13.0 COL A3 OM Fe ee al ER Oe Le a pe eres ol aes sees4) ARES OMT |e tk ere SOR SN es | ee hf RTD (ES Sena Lag OF ZS8Oy| ae ar |e ea ee | Ue al ee es 11.5 0.345 13.6 0. 296 18.0 0.318 Totally Ree ress fae beth ss ee 2) 896i)|5 see DMT AON eee AR bb) | eons ee 0. 214 AV CYA PCa ease ee eee (574-9 Ee eee 2 1) 240) ee OSSHON| oe eee 0.214 Years in class --_--.-__---- 41.5 40.0 27.8 46.7 482 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TaBLeE XXII.—Annual diameter growth of Dipterocarpus spp. (panao and apitong). Northern Laguna forest, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] | Diameter class in centimeters. | | No. of treein class. 0 to 10. 10 to 20. 40to50. | 60 to 70. | aes | Hee | = | 1 Diam- Diam- Diam- Diam- | ater. eer ere aaa tae. [Gace eter, | Growth. | | } { 1 oy | 70] oss} 125| 0.148 | 46.8 | 0.00 | 67.0 | 0.189 Os hia SR md | 6.9) 0.148 | 15.2) 0.182| 42.0) 0.230 | oc a Rogie ee See A pee | | 122] 0.181] 47.1] 0.247] fe ota ee ee [one es ere ee | Wotal= 22s See Ss ae Average Years in class Diameter in centimeters. Age in years. 100 120 40 {60 {80 200 ates | jcaniea alee a Fic. 2. Rates of growth of dipterocarps in northern Laguna Province, Luzon. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 483 spp., the slowest of the group, takes three hundred three years to increase from 5 centimeters to 50 centimeters in diameter. It will be seen from the curve that individuals of Shorea teys- manniana between 60 and 80 centimeters make a very rapid growth. This part of the curve, however, is based on only 2 specimens, and the average of a large number of individuals would probably not show this rapid rate of growth. Certain large individuals of other species of dipterocarps growing in exceptionally favorable situations show similar rapid rates of growth, but this cannot be taken as an index of the rates of growth of the average large-sized trees. A glance at the curves for dipterocarps of northern Laguna reveals the facts that only one species, Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong), lies above the curve for yellow poplar for any con- siderable distance; that Shorea polysperma (tanguile) is the only other species which shows itself much more successful in growth than white oak; that Shorea squamata (mayapis) is similar to oak in its development; and that Hopea pierrei and Dipterocarpus spp. lie below the temperate zone curves, Dipterocarpus spp. especially making a very poor showing in comparison with the temperate species. It is probable that Parashorea plicata (bagtican-lauan) may be a more rapid-grow- ing species than any of the dipterocarps here considered, but it is also reasonable to suppose that the slower growth shown by these species is due to the more crowded conditions existing in the better stand in which they have developed. This sup- position seems to be more reasonable when we pass to a con- sideration of the growth of dipterocarps in a still better-stocked stand of dipterocarps in Bataan Province. It seems best to consider now the figures from Bataan Prov- ince which were collected on type area B at elevations of from 400 to 500 meters. Type area B represents a dense forest dominated by Shorea polysperma. The stand on this area is denser than that of either of the two areas previously discussed, and the site is probably better than that of either. The aver- age yearly growth for dipterocarps on this area is given in Table XXIII. The ages of trees of different diameters, calcu- lated from this table, appear in the form of curves of diameter on age in fig. 3. Individual curves are given for Shorea polys- perma, Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, and Pentacme contorta, and a separate curve is presented compiled from the averages of all the individuals of dipterocarps measured on the area. In com- piling these curves the trees were considered as originating at 5 centimeters. The actual ages, of course, are much greater than 484 The Philippine Journal of Science "4914 those indicated by the curves, but for the practical management of existing forests this treatment has been justified (see page 476). Shorea polysperma, which in northern Laguna is considerably slower growing than Shorea teysmanniana in the same area, is the fastest-growing species measured on type area B, Bataan. However, it shows a slower rate of growth on type area B than in northern Laguna. Thus, in one hundred twenty-seven years it grows from 5 to 50 centimeters in northern Laguna, while it Age in years. 80 120___160 200 240 _280 _320 __360 400 _ 440 — alll ‘sah Saaer 2 aR ane a ili el od Diameter in centimeters. mae aE (JZzae8 (son ell Fic. 3. Rates of growth of dipterocarps. Type area B, Bataan Province, Luzon. requires one hundred fifty years to make the same growth on type area B. Referring to fig. 6, in which are presented the average curves of growth for the dipterocarps of each area, it will be seen that the curve for type area B lies below that of northern Laguna. This would seem to strengthen our conclusion that dipterocarps as a class grow slower as the density of stand increases. It does not follow from this that the volume of timber produced per year in the denser stands will be less than that in open stands, as the greater number of individuals in the denser stands may more than make up for the slower rate of growth of the individual trees. IX, A, 5 TABLE XXIII.—Annual diameter growth of dipterocarps. Bataan Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 485 Type area B. aps 4 Diameter class in centimeters. Species 0 to 5. 5 to 10. 10 to 20. 20 to 30. Diam- Diam- Diam- Diam- eter Growth. tan Growth. ete Geowel ion. Growth Shorea polysperma (tan- : BUile) |S Le re I Ye 3.5 ONOIGR (Eee e GeO eee ee 16.8 0.573 25.2 | 0. 128 )D Yee oN ele Le Rs 3.8 OL 004) (Eee sree see eee 15.6 0. 000 23.2 0.174 Dos se eee ee 4.5 0.115 8.9 0.091 10.1 0. 075 26.4 0.340 DB Yo a Fos OS NY He SE Pa 8.9 0.178 rileal 0. 265 23.2 0. 5338 1D Yo Yee A yA Se ey aC Ae AT SOL 8.3 0.099 13.1 0. 000 21.0 0.182 | ND) ae a ee een (rete llores Ua 1.3 0. 140 11.4 0.178 28.6 0.810 | Dipterocarpus grandiflo- rus (apitong) Average Years in class Anisoptera thurifera (pa- LOB DIS) Esse wee oe sere eel een ope 9.2 0. 122 18.1 0. 099 Total, all diptero- CAL Bie es a ee polar | soccer UL ee 4. 233 Average, all diptero- Carps2naee se eo. | haus 048) [sous ecke OX086) |keeee eee 0. 183 Years in class, all diptero- CAND Bi A+. oe tennessee 116 56.1 54.6 22.9 21.0 486 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XXIII.—Annual diameter growth of dipterocarps. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon—Continued. : | Diameter class in centimeters. | ; . neces | 30 to 40. 40 to 50. 50 to 60. cae wai Bee | | Diam- Diam- a eeahelsj rane } Shorea gusso (euijo) a= > = Se tO ae. Se ee Ae RN ees See ot Anisoptera thurifera (palosapis) -__-_------ Total, all dipterocarps -___._.-________ a Average, all dipterocarps_____________ Years in class, all dipterocarps _____________ IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 487 TABLE XXIII.—Annual diameter growth of dipterocarps. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon—Continued. ip Diameter class in centimeters. Species. \ 60 to 80. 80 to 100. 110 to 120. Diam- Diam- | Diam- stark Growth. Stel Growth. Star Growth. | Shorea polysperma (tanguile)....__-________ Pesca as SC 96. 00 OR2 TIM Memkee Fs se Do--- 1D Ye ae ne eee ES Cee Te 2D Ya Sees pe oh ERE eles i Hi Ie ge al | Nfl tv |e 0 I et Us a | emi TaN 2D SSO ae ane ae ra YS re (Se Lee | ee ra [Searles ee eee ae TT to eel unl en SOE Oe Snare eel Pete Se oe ae |e eee OE eae Ws ade a ee DOs 22h Saee sees ual! Ud ee Mea as SNE Sole | see mele ener | MM OL So ee RE ak Ws YU fa ta ADS 2s Secerep as Aoi Laer ug Nees Mei | ome ce) SU ACN LE a US Nore ta Se ees I | am ea Total vets ae ch ES SLEW aut. Aenea lane ay fe ee eee aa OND Tih Paes 2 2 eae PAV ETAL Cl = SUE ) a qt | rR “iclost.lt VY az pce ea i Sia | H+ 20 ; in i Fic. 7. Rates of growth of trees. Type area B, Bataan Province, Luzon. In fig. 4 for type area A, Bataan, where owing to cutting the trees of class II are more prominent than in the virgin forest, we find this class developing at a more rapid rate than the dipterocarps, while tree class III is but slightly inferior to the dipterocarps in rate of growth. In fig. 5 for the trail trees, where there has been excessive cutting, we again find class IT making a more rapid rate of growth than do the dipterocarps, while class III is still below both of the other classes. 496 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 Referring to fig. 8 for the Maquiling forest, we have repre- sented curves of growth for Celtis philippensis (malaicmo), Age in years. 20 40 60 80 /00 120 140 / Diameter in centimeters. Fig. 8 Rates of growth of trees in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. Dillenia philippinensis (catmon), and Diplodiscus paniculatus (balobo). Malaicmo is a typical second-class tree which, due to 497 the heavy cutting that has been carried on in the Maquiling forest, has attained a more or less dominant position. Its rate of growth is noticeably slow. Diplodiscus and Dillenia are typical third-class trees and never achieve dominance. Their rates of growth are also slow, but curiously more rapid than that of Celtis and, in the case of Dillenia, much more rapid than that of Parashorea in its younger stages. However, Dillenia is a short-boled tree that never attains great height and which develops a large crown. It is natural, therefore, that the same amount of growth distributed over a short bole should result in a more rapid diameter increment than when distributed over a longer bole as in the case of the dipterocarps. It may be that the results shown by these curves are due to peculiarities of the individual species and are probably not as correct as those for type area B, which are made from a larger number of trees growing in a virgin forest. IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests TABLE XXVII.—Annual diameter growth of trees of Class IJ. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] | Diameter class in centimeters. | Gnecice! 0 to 5 5 to 10. 10 to 20. Diem: Growth Diem Growth. Dian Growth. Calophyllum blaneoi (palomaria del TDOTECE) Nene ten tan ae nea ei caes Se EIR LS 4.1 0. 257 7.3 0. 248 15.3 0. 266 1D Yay een 5 a) ai a ge eed al [02 4.2 0. 103 5.7 0. 055 18.1 0.277 ) D fa eae en nae ARR cate as le Gal 3.8 0.111 5.7 0. 188 13.7 0. 407 11D Yoyspe A Ns 5 Up ERD UCL Ne aati Sed (age een) ae eee 6.4 0.079 12.4 0. 188 CT) Eee ee SL Oe Noe ULE DSA US ae A Lee S| NOE i 8.6 0. 154 15.3 0. 297 LD Foy SRN ng) EA A oe UCU a he | begga | en eee 5.4 0.084 10.5 0.181 CO ee eno treater et ene Rar et eer ve | ce es 9.5 0. 046 18.1 0. 067 FL) eee bes somes ete ec ee OO ee rare es Cod| ree UE 8.3 OULZ Oa ae oe Santiria nitida (alupag macsin) -_-------_|-_------|_-------_- 6.0 0. 048 15.3 0. 016 TD ee RIAL Oras SE meh eS a eee as eee sae 8.6 0. 000 19.4 0.071 VD Yay 2 Se nae eo, 3 See am eee | eee eee | (en Ce PR 14.6 0. 067 Myristica philippensis (duguan) ----------|--------|_-.------- 9.5 ORT 4G 1 Se eee oe ae eee SULENOLAULO NI CALCUULCLIOY (ULC LI GELTD) eae ere ree | eater ee | ter See ee 17.2 0. 166 UCL EN OLY COTES ea reee ie ast eee UE AES ee TR a Ee ee 15.3 0. 206 FEU CNG BD aes re ee EE CaM (Ua 8 See ee ste A, BU eo acer | 18.4 0. 146 Mugenic guicrcalyc \mareeg) 2 pees teks | Ra Neg poet We TY un EU aa ee ID Ya pera a Naeem la DAG ce rs en Fes nA LeeLee] [tele APE ae ery [ope aIR )| LA ay pe eet THM AWS Cie, (HELENE) I le se 6.4 0.028 10.2 0.099 Ormosia:calavensisi (bahay) ast sas cee an | ee ee | ee |e oe ee ee ne |e MCAUIUT ET CACLUUSS ATCC xin Ui Len ny) eee ee | serene | eee eens | eens | une pee 17.5 0.000 Total nese ates ee To Ue ee hs OX4 715 eee PLOGH | Geseeee 2.854 ASV erawe: Nici iis fines bes Ease eee OS05 74a eo =a (UEP ee ee 0. 157 Wears in:clags)q 2s tees ee ee 31.8 64.3 63.7 498 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XXVII.—Annual diameter growth of trees of Class II. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon—Continued. Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 20 to 30. 30 to 40. Diem- Growth. Dam- Growth. | | Calophyllum blancoi (palomaria del monte) _-__------------_- |) 2029) ny OORT ee feeerees DO. 28 se Fe te aE Tat? SOS ee NES ee 25.2 (80 BY pea ee joncect ee 1D bee tlh Se erties | earthen Mt ta 20.7 |" 0.860. Ped! | Do ASUS (PON or wee Teese pout) Gib] <0 ae See | D0 anna eee eee eee D0. ee oot pe Ss eho Ss ee eee ee er I ape | eee | { Doe nae eer nce pA ak es et ee Seep Sak (Ee {eV OS tee eA | Ce ee ee eee eecceeccd eosesas- a 2 3 Santiria nitida (alupag macsin) __------_-------------------- 22.6 | 0.229 37.6 0.059 Done rete cee Ab) At eel eM ga toes Cee RRA la ait RAO 38.8 | 0.067 | DO oS ee os ee ee a eee ee Poase= == jt.’ a) Ae Ree Myristica philippensis (duguan) ----------------------------- [eos Pace es | eee ete Sideroxylon duclitan (duclitan) ---___---_-------------------- Jovso2-- ee |.2-—2-08 Ree Sideroxylonsp 224.056 = Wau ek Me em ee oo 2 esa cee {augers Se ace eeee | FUgenia sp.) 22 SE ee oe i Eugenia glaucicalyx (mareeg) DOs. = 5 a et ee ie Se ne ee Soles Wageria ap imalaruhat) -- eer acne sone re ae eee Ormosia calavensis (bahay) -___-- Mangifere altissima (pahutan) Poreheew 2 si eel ph, ee ee ae ae | ans ones} seme | 1.190 Averawe:-Ve.c.a02 2 Jaen twien Bi Eh 2 oe eee Seer ea d| oer 2 NOI GR) | Seem nen De Wearsiin classi) -- Fh ee ep or re ee te 59.5 | 42.0 | e é LAE Se TABLE XXVIII.—Annual diameter growth of trees of Class III. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] | Diameter class in centimeters. A | sobeies 0 to 5. 5 to 10. 10 to 20. | Diam- | Growth | ss Growth. | Di8™-! Growth. | oe i a teh +| Aporosa‘sp. (bignay) ..-.-.------=--------- 4.8 0.118 6.1 0. 055 | 10.4; 0.032 Doses meee? aR ee 4.8 0.166) 5.1 0.099) 11.1] 0.028 To eset fee Oe Be ae cs [a eee | 51) 0,108] 12.4] 0.075 Does 20 2 ee yee a he eee OT |e 6.1] 0.186} 10.1] 0.052 Dow .4-ees5.- geek me 1 Re eee eee 8.6| 0.020) 14.9] 0,229 Dio irra! Josten Be Me ral Sits Nate a eee a 7.6) 0.028) 13.4] 0.099 D028 2a EN ee oe eS ieee eee 6S74)46 02078, |e522 2-3 =e ee 9 2 ee ee Lai eee | i akatens [etl Mie G8)". 0,000)|-:20- oe eae Deets) 3 EE Ee 6 a GiAl| Sy yo. tee Sy eee Dosa: Satine ces eee heey al Oe SARE Bad’ | ON040;|o2-0 1 ae Gee oi eee Co ( (ears Le lagigi | alors te eae als | IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 499 TABLE XXVIII.—Avnnual diameter growth of trees of Class III. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon—Continued. Diameter class in centimeters. Species! 0 to 5. 5 to 10. 10 to 20, Ga | Growth. pee Growth. Diem Growth | 5.4 O13 0} ee cee Geena! | 7 1 ee OMOBO! le eases (meee naan 9.8 COCO LSS ) ages eave 7.6 OROS Ta ho ae asa Nie | BEAN es ON020) eee See as eee 6.7 ONOZBY |= Sher eas | Coen area (3 Pe dopo | 5.4 O3040 i) Sos Saal Rate ee che | 5.4 C36 C0) Wi ees ae ee 6.1 0.079 13.0 0. 036 6.1 0. 004 12.8 0. 138 Cy 0.126 10.1 0. 138 6.4 0. 099 10.8 | 0. 099 Talauma villariana (patanguis) __-_--._-_]__..-___]--.--- .-- 6.7 0.020 18.8 0.119 TARTS COS Yai reece eae ey see ee 3.8 OS STIS fy MEER Re io aa 15.3 0.071 MO LLT DOU US LULZOTLEN STS =e ee re ae | NER EN | pee HL De ee | ee | Te tues Antidesma bunius (bignay) -...-.-.------- 2) se |e aren 5.4 0. 020 Gonocaryum calleryanum (malasamat) ___ Canthium sp PU GCUNU DT CSUR ay eee Mn en ON GD SLOMLOT ICO, Ce ee Cyclostemon bordenii (talimorong) -_.__-- Cyclostemon microphyllus (talimorong) - -- Memecylon ovatum (culis) 500 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XXVIII—Annual diameter growth of trees of Class III. Type area B. Bataan Province, Luzon—Continued. Diameter class in centimeters. a i : i Guecies! | 0 to 5. | 5 to 10. 10 to 20. | } } al { | | Diam- Diam- Diam- | ete! | Growth. | A. Growth. Stan | Growth. pepe en ores Ur la | wer Hi LAtcht RUC DOIN StS nae eee | eee | ere 7.9 O}000)|2a==seee |acece2 ee Diospyros sp. (bolongeta) -____.-------.---]-------- \eeeeeseee 5.4 03,069). 2 =. 22): Rendiaspamalabacsuan) sce | ee ee eee 5.7 OSA 227 23k sl eae DU fo i Ben Meee 24.70 0. 700 26.35 0. 508 PO ses Us 21 eat Rat ely ir freee ese as MND Rk Sues SPAR nO 21. 40 0. 428 25. 40 0. 541 his Sue hak eS Reg UN EES A a ek A Uo 21.20 OF 8435 | Ree oot Tea eee Nrsteea tee ILO NT PER oe Wee UG Oe Dat ON MEONA Toe eee cuanto EEE Byes re Ge Hs 8 RMA aE NM NPRM cee TRS) ROU Lk 24.15 QBATG EES A (hi 2 SR el LS IS SITU Nf 21.80 OES TY | PRE tea Gs SA aS 2 Sta Re NS RY UE a a ea pe Sj ti Segre se Gh ee SS EY I A USC MT 2 A I leet eg Rl So one es I ag A ek ae A SM A lS iI et eS UNLV 2 RN CB SU AE Pe ts aa ee BL (Es aes ane GOR set Ze SA eae Ne RIL IY RC Ree on Leek coy uty tae cD Sl PEE I OE Ts ey SE ON RTS SEE Eh eS a large i be ear AS DOE Ek) SEE PIN PO SU CP RUN NO a SA Ue ae A ah ea DP a DIAN |e Be PU a a SR oat ae ue gh oe oy Tad Ma dc id i ee fa al Se ge (as Sal he Ma A AL ieee A eee SG J) A Sa RN ae SU Bo a | Toten ee DU Nas te seas lanes eae ME soup Ts 2 Average___ Years in class TABLE XXXVII.—Annual diameter growth of Dillenia philippinensis (cat- mon) in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters. ] Diameter class in centimeters. Novontresinclasse 5 to 10. 15 to 20. ined 20 to 25. Diam- Diam- Diam- eae Growth. etal Growth. ea. Growth. PLO es ti AUR we le 0 alan) el el 8.05 0. 605 15.15 0. 524 20.0 0. 286 Dias Dap ee een WAL: Ue eae ey ee I A We wo ee CGS Ok eae Se ee 22.3 0.319 GS a SS A aah 2 Min Te AB a (ae A eK | Bp a fll 22.5 0. 461 CVE Bd WTA oe pea ee eae ek] SA DE SHpS CLS oe ae facoreecee 24.7 0.335 Mopac MMOL) Ra LMR ORE ie oeos |/entaa | Oust mei 1.401 Average ssh hioiue bby Yo Uke ee ad (0), C10} Wo ee (Uap! |e ee 0.350 Nearsiniclase |e ede ee pe Se eee ee iota MMip nM WTO UE lle geecha Hele aaah Vi | 0.319 CAN O18 Go) Sais a ame Ee Ho Ske! ee all ee ae 054875) Se tse Years in scale 512 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XXXVIII.—Annual diameter growth of trees of Class I. Miscel- laneous species. Trail trees. Bataan Province, Luzon. [Diameter and growth are given in centimeters.] Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 20 to 30. 30 to 40. 50 to 60. 10 to 80. Diam- 'Growth.| Pia™- | Growth. Dian, Growth. Dis: Growth. eter. eter. Koordersiodendron pinna- tum (amuguis) --..-.-_--- 26.7 0. 480 32.1 2.510 53.1 0:257)|2.. 2 eee Dracontomelum dao (dao) -| 29.2 | 0.285| 34.0] 0.689] 57.9| 1.641] 76.1| 0.732 Total wesc sk chet sz seul eteecace OS763 hoc Le Le eee 2898 it eee 0. 732 Average-._.....-.---- | weccdwst 0.382 feces D599) eect) 0.9492) Sse eee 0. 782 Years in class -....__--.--_- 26.1 6.3 10.5 13.6 From the above data it is seen that as long as we maintain the dipterocarp canopy undisturbed the dipterocarps remain the fastest growing trees in the forest. By their existence in the dominant situations they hold down the miscellaneous species growing under them to such an extent that these species cannot enter into serious competition with them. However, a disturb- ance in the main canopy is accompanied, in every instance, by in- creased rates of growth of these species. They are generally more numerous than the smaller-sized dipterocarps, and when the opening in the canopy is large this fact enables such numbers of them to obtain dominant situations that they place many of the young dipterocarps at a great disadvantage. Unregulated logging in dipterocarp forests will always result in a gradual change in composition and volume such as that described above. The need of great care in the regulation of any cutting in this forest is very apparent. Success over any large area cannot be expected from a mere rule of thumb, such as a diameter-limit regulation, for this will only accidentally so reg- ulate the cutting in certain places that openings in the canopy will be made which dipterocarps are able to fill, and in a majority of cases will result in so favoring one or many of the minor species that dipterocarps will be placed at a great disadvantage or partially eliminated from the area. We have yet to consider what can be expected of the diptero- carp forest at points near its upper limits. At elevations above 600 meters in most parts of the Islands the climate approaches that of the nonseasonal belt at lower elevations in everything except temperature. The rainfall is noticeably in- 1X, A,5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 513 creased due to increased cloudiness, the amount of light is less and the humidity is higher. Accompanying this is a reduction in temperature. It is to be expected that the reduction in the amount of light and the lower temperature will be reflected in a slower rate of growth, and such meager data as have been collected bear out this expectation. In Table XXVI are presented figures for the growth of all dipterocarps measured on type area C at an elevation of approximately 700 meters on Mount Mariveles, Bataan, and in Tables XXXIII and XXXIV similar figures for the miscellaneous trees of class II and class III - are given. An examination of these tables shows very little difference in rates of growth between dipterocarps and the other tree classes, and the rates of growth shown therein are notably slow. When compared with the growth of yellow poplar, we find that it takes an average dipterocarp three hundred eighty- three years to grow from 10 centimeters in diameter to 40 centi- meters, whereas it takes the yellow poplar but seventy years to make the same growth. The figures on which these results are based are too few to have great reliance placed upon them, but it is not probable that any error which may enter into the re- sult will be sufficient entirely to vitiate them. It seems to be quite clear that above elevations of 600 meters little can be ex- pected from forests in the Philippines in the production of com- mercial timber under any reasonable rotation. A striking fact which is suggested by the tables for species at this elevation is that even in a virgin forest there is probably little difference in the rates of growth of trees in the dominant class and those of classes IJ and III. The forest is, of course, more open than that at lower elevations, and the composition is less complex. This accounts in part for the ability of species of tree classes II and III to maintain rates of growth similar to that of trees of the main canopy, but it is also probable that conditions of growth have so changed from the optimum for dipterocarps that they have been reduced in their rates of growth to approximately the same as those of the second- and third-story trees which are more at home at this elevation. We have already noted that the dipterocarps apparently show a more rapid rate of growth in open than in dense forests and that removing part of the main canopy, as in the case of type area A and the trail trees in Bataan, increases the rates of growth of tree classes II and III. These points are emphasized in the curves in which the rates of growth of the same tree class in different areas are compared. Comparing the rates of growth 514 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of the dipterocarps in the various areas in Bataan (fig. 6), we find that those along the trail, where there has been very con- siderable cutting, grow faster than any of the others. Those in type area A, where there has been less cutting, and those in the virgin forest of type area B have about the same rate of growth. These curves do not show the rate of growth of trees less than 20 centimeters in diameter. If the smaller sizes were included, the dipterocarps on type area A would show faster rates of growth than those on type area B. Those on type area C, at a higher elevation, have a still slower rate of growth than those Age in years. 20 40 60 60 100 120 140 169 180 200 220 240 260 Diameter in centimeters. Fic. 9. Rates of growth of trees of class III. on type area B. The last point on the curve for type area C was calculated, but it is probably not far from correct. In fig. 9, in which the rates of growth of tree class III in the different areas are compared, it will be seen that the trail trees again make the fastest growth, those on type area A are next, while the growth of those on type area B is still slower. The curve for tree class III on type area C shows a more rapid rate of growth than that for type area B. This faster rate of growth in type area C is probably connected with the more open condition of the forest at the greater elevation. In fig. 10, in which the rates of growth of tree class II are IX, A, 5 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 515 compared, it will be seen that the trees on type area A and the trail trees have approximately equal rates of growth, which are faster than those of the trees on type areas B and C. Tree class III thus shows, as do the other classes, faster rates of growth in cut-over than in virgin forest. It is noticeable that the curves for tree classes II and III on the different areas Age in years. 20 40 60 a0 100 120 TT ci 180 fa 220 alah Diameter in centimeters. ae Fic. 10. Rates of growth of trees of class II. Bataan Province, Luzon. 10 show approximately the same relative positions as do those for the dipterocarps. In fig. 11 are presented curves showing the age of individuals of different diameters of Shorea robusta growing in virgin stands. The data from which these curves were drawn were collected in India.”* *Caccia, A. M. P., A preliminary note on the development of the sal in volume and money value, Indian Forest Rec. (1908), 1, 85. 516 The Philippine Journal of Science Along with the three curves of Shorea robusta in different situations, we have also presented a curve for Parashorea plicata on Mount Maquiling and one for Shorea polysperma on type area B, Bataan. The curve for Parashorea plicata shows a somewhat faster rate of growth than do any of those for Age in years. 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 <4 yo _| PAL VAT Al BEVECZaAERRAG wer | ee AT Fic. 11. Rates of growth of Shorea robusta compared with those of Philippine dipterocarps. Diameter in eentimeters. 20 10 Shorea robusta, while the curve for Shorea polysperma shows a rate of growth not very different from the two curves for Shorea robusta drawn from data collected at elevations of 300 and 900 meters. 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", oi -QOCO,. ete 753, postoai, Fogel TB Nabale Q pa satel) ee 1 oes, - These two ‘papers’ de fesiied: Neha: one. “over a pages, paper, Esti “By EMenson ‘é. Cuno by Hy “Order No. 410: 4 paves: pades, “vs 2 man, 29 plates, cri a " “Sindangan, Bay” is Situated on: ght morte ern coast of. Zarnboanga:’ Peningula.”The Neues ‘ »)Sbandns of “this region‘ were ystudied ‘by “Mrs Christie during two “Periods: ot, foe and, ‘sik © rder* Noo 406." baghie 25 ue i: =* maps, 2 diagrams, $0.75, ea : } a p> i earl ee a "Plates pies photo Stogrdbhe a were. taken. at puaticn re ‘houses, m aa i yma oes, of. f the’ people: the ace This eeu a win and eet ren oer f. he th PP lange Considere oa in 3 ” in the Island, of it. abers ae — GX} vAGIG Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 523 TaBLeE XLI.—Annual volume growth of 1 hectare of average forest in north- ern Laguna. [Growth is given in cubic meters.] | Diameter class in centimeters. Species. 30. 35. 40. 50. 60. Shorea squamata (maypis) -_.--.----------------------- 0.0865 | 0.0248 | 0.3361 | 0.3299 | 0.1565 Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong) _------------------------ 0. 0948 | 0.0380 | 0.2796 | 0.3109 | 0.2414 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) -__----------------------- 0.0157 | 0.0500 | 0.0899 | 0.1261 | 0.0881 Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong) -_-----__------------------- OOS |e 0.0341 | 0.0190 |_-_.-___- Dipterocarpus sp. (panao) ---.-------------------------- OR002 7 aae eee 0.0055 } 0.0047 }_.---_.__. Pentacme contorta (white lauan) ----------------------- OX005 5) Benen OX03TS) sees 0.0131 Hopea pierrei (dalindingan isak) ---_.._---------------- 0.0427 | 0.0865 | 0.0993 | 0.0620 |_._._--__ Miscellaneous trees ____-_------------------------------- 0.1078 | 0.0807 | 0.2840 | 0.1504 | 0. 0627 Total offallisnecies 2) or Res ee ENE en a aii aeae ese 0. 3682 | 0.2300 | 1.1098 | 1.0030 | 0.5118 Diameter class in centimeters. Species. = aaeLaG | | el totals 70. 80. 90. 100. Shorea squamata (mayapis) -__------------------------- OXOASGHIMOL0349))| Sees eee | eens 1.0123 Shorea teysmanniana (tiaong) -__---.------------------ 0.1364 | 0.1364 | 0.0195 | 0.0195 | 1.2765 Shorea polysperma (tanguile) .__.--.------------------- | 0.0667 | 0.0540 | 0.0268 | 0.0811 | 0.4984 Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong)-------_----------__-------- ONL Tes | a aree nent ih Face urea anew 0. 0827 Dipterocarpus sp. (panao) _---_--------------__-_--__-_- ONO OSGi ase. ees i rae 8 8 Na aN Sieg 0. 0215 Pentacme contorta (white lauan) --_..-..-.._------__---|_------- OROOSG | eerie | ene 0.0501 IODECI DUCT. EUi GANG IN SAT SE) ee eae | ee | es ea | | 0. 2405 Miscellaneous\trees t=! *2ee eee Pasa ste eee OS OS 22/1) LAS Sea lobe EP ee 0. 7178 Total! of/allispecies's 22 |e ous ce kun es Ne SOD ee 0.3046 | 0.2339 | 0.0463 | 0.1006 | 3.9082 which represents the average number of trees per hectare in this forest. The results of these computations are presented in the form of volume growth for each diameter class of each species in Table XLI.. The data presented in this table were obtained by multiplying the growth in volume for any species of any particular size by the number of trees of this species and diameter class as given in Table VIII. Where the growth data in Table XL do not extend to diameter classes which appear in the stand table, the growth in diameter for size classes not represented was assumed to be that of the highest diameter class measured for the species in question. One species, Pentacme contorta (white lauan), which appears in the stand table, is’ not represented in our volume growth table. The figures for volume growth of apitong were used in calculating the rate of growth of this species, in as much as the growth figures for apitong and white lauan have been found to be similar in another part of the Islands. Likewise, having no growth figures for 524 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 the miscellaneous species existing in the forest of northern La- guna, the figures for growth in diameter of tanguile, which were found to be about the average for the dipterocarps, were applied to the volume table for the miscellaneous species in calculating the growth of these species in the stand. These figures are probably erroneous for the higher diameter classes of the mis- cellaneous species, in as much as tanguile probably grows more rapidly than the large classes of these species. However, the ‘majority of the miscellaneous species do not get into the larger diameter classes. By reference to Table XLI we see that the greatest amount of growth is taking place in the diameter classes of 40 and 50 centimeters. This is due, in part, to the fact that trees of these sizes are growing at a rapid rate, but more largely to the fact that these trees constitute the bulk of the forest. The total amount of growth per hectare per year in this forest is 3.9 cubic meters. Since the bulk of the growth occurs in the lower diameter classes, if all the timber over 60 centimeters in diameter were removed from the forest, it would reduce the growth per hectare per year less than 0.7 cubic meter, and if the rate of growth of the smaller trees did not increase this forest would still be producing over 3.2 cubic meters per hectare per year. The reduction in rate of growth in volume per year would prob- ably be insignificant, as the trees which were left on the ground would probably respond to the removal of the larger trees of the forest by increased rates of growth. Of the total annual production of 3.9 cubic meters per hectare, 0.7 cubic meter is produced by miscellaneous species other than dipterocarps. The balance, or 3.2 cubic meters, is produced by the dipterocarps alone. The total growth of 3.9 cubic meters is the annual growth on a capital of 203.9 cubic meters, and is therefore a growth of 1.91 per cent. Assuming that the percentage of growth as shown by this forest is approximately normal for equal volumes of timber throughout the Philippine Islands, we are in a position to make an approximation of the total production of timber in the forests. Whitford estimates the total stand of timber of the Philippine Islands as 822,584,000 cubic meters. By applying our percentage growth of 1.91, we can estimate that the total annual production of timber in the Philippine Islands amounts to 15,711,000 cubic meters. Statistics from the Bureau of Internal Revenue place the total amount of timber cut in the Philippine Islands per year at 277,171 IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 525 cubic meters. It would appear from this that under any rational system of management we can increase our timber production about fifty-six times without in any way reducing our forest capital. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE FOREST The measurements of environmental factors here recorded were made on a ridge in the dipterocarp forest of Mount Ma- quiling, at an elevation of approximately 300 meters, and near the region in which growth measurements were taken. They cover nearly the same period as do the records of seasonal growth. In discussing the distribution of dipterocarp forests in the Philippines, it was shown that the temperature at low elevations was remarkably uniform throughout the Archipelago and so its variations could hardly have any considerable influence in pro- ducing the differences between the types of vegetation which cover large areas in the lowlands. The temperature in the forest, however, will have to be taken into account in any ex- planation of the rates of growth shown by the trees. Records of temperature in the forest of Mount Maquiling were taken about 75 centimeters above the ground by means of a Draper’s recording thermometer. The results are presented in Table XLII in the form of maxima, minima, means, averages of daily maxima, and averages of daily minima for periods of ‘four weeks. The means were taken from the original auto- matically traced records by means of a planimeter, and for this reason should be highly accurate. An inspection of Table XLII brings out two points: the temperature is remarkably uniform and it is not extraordinarily high. The mean temperature from January 3, 1913, to January 2, 1914, was 23°.1. The maximum for the year is 29°.7 and the minimum is 19°.4, the yearly range being 10°.38. The highest mean temperature for any of the four-week periods is 25°.1 and the lowest is 21°.7. The daily range is likewise small. The average maximum for the year is 25°.1 and the average minimum is 21°.6, making the average daily range 3°.5. These figures show that the temperature under the forest cover is high enough at all times of the year to make growth possible. The temperatures, however, are never as high as those which are regarded as optimum for rapid growth, and for most of the time are probably about 10° below the optimum. It is difficult to compare the effectiveness of temperature in 526 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 TABLE XLII.—Temperature of undergrowth in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. (Degrees Centigrade.] } : Ae Average | Average Period. Max, .| ) MOUS ah areans t Jans8 to Dango) ne seen een eee | 24.8 18.6 21.7 Jan: 31 to Febso8 ee ee ee 25.6 | 18.9 21.9 Web: 28:to Mars gies. 20" 210 he wa bine eet 19.4 23.0 Mars tovAprs2n eo 58 eee en poe 28.0 19.4 23.8 ‘Apr.i25 to May.23 ese eee eee 28.3} 20.5 24.1 May 23 toltune 2086 2) Pe 29.7| 21.7 25.1 June 20) toJulys8 se ee eee | 27.7 | 20.5 23.8 JulyietorAugiibsee ns ko). See eee 27.4 21.1 23.3 DG ID Een ee ee 27.4 | 20.5 23.4 Sept. 12 tolOct-i0s fae. Tt eS lit toziail ( Meois 23.6 Oetsl0 toNovyre he Clk ee 25.8 19.4 22.7 Nows ito Dec spect 5 te eee ae 25.0 19.4 22.0 Dee £00) Aint ae en ene 25.0 19.7 Pai bay k A VETARE ee eS 19.9 23.1 | different regions in advancing growth. Livingston and Living- ston 2° suggest a formula which should be useful, although, as they point out, the figures in it are tentative. They assume that the rate of growth is unity at 40° F. and that it doubles for each rise of 10° C. (18° F.) above this. The last assumption is based on recent experimental work on growth and other metabolic processes. If ¢ is taken as the normal daily mean temperature on the Fahrenheit scale and if w is the correspond- ing temperature efficiency for growth, according to the assump- tion then— t-40 Uu=—2* The time element is taken into account by adding together the efficiency indices for all of the days of the frostless season. Fol- lowing this method, Livingston and Livingston have prepared a chart of the temperature efficiencies in the United States. Temperature on Mount Maquiling is so uniform that instead of calculating the efficiency for each day, we have made the calculation for the average of each four-week period, multiplied it by 28, and then added together the results for each period. The resulting efficiency is 1,360, which corresponds on the chart ~ Livingston, B. S., and Livingston, G. J., Temperature coefficients in plant geography and climatology, Bot. Gaz. (1913), 56, 349. IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 527 of Livingston and Livingston to the southern end of Florida, the portion of the United States showing the highest temperature efficiency. The efficiency for Mount Maquiling is roughly twice that of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee in the central hard- wood region, from which were obtained the growth measure- ments of white oak and yellow poplar, which we have used for comparison with those of the dipterocarps. This comparison of temperature efficiencies in the United States and in the forest of Mount Maquiling is, of course, by no means accurate. Livingston and Livingston do not assume that the equation on which these results are based is final; besides this, in any exact comparison we would have to take into consideration the daily range of temperature and the differences in the reactions of tropical and temperate zone plants. TABLE XLIII.—Temperature in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. [Degrees Centigrade. ] Undergrowth, Second story, aver-| Dominant tree, averageof weekly—| ageof weekly— {average of weekly— Period. ; Maxima. | Minima. | Maxima. | Minima. | Maxima. | Minima. | { WANG tO} ane Sly see ae ee 23.8 20.0 25.1 19.5 30.9 | 19.1 Jian-olstowMeb, 28-5 -2 2-25) ee 25.0 19.3 26.9 19.1 31.9 191 Feb. 28 to Mar. 28 _____-__-__-_---_--- 26.8 20.0 PHS) 19.4 87.2 20.2 MaryZSitovA pr 20a ees eee ae 27.4 20.5 27.0 21.2 32.6 19.9 ADE co to Mayiesie se a nee ee ene 27.5 21.1 27.1 21.7 32.6 | 20.2 May 28'to June'20)-2200 0) 2 ra 29.0 21.9 28.7 PPA Th 33.1 21.1 June 20 to July 18 _-____.__--_______ 27.3 21.4 26.8 22.0 33.9 21.0 SIU V pS COPA Pil bye es eee es 26.6 21.4 25.0 22.2 30.0 | 20.2 WeAupenioytolsep ta 12)aoeeaenanesuenes 26.6 21.2 26.7 21.1 30.9 21.1 Sept 2itoOctsO essere aae a eeee ee 26.9 21.1 27.5 21.9 34.6 20.6 Oct HlOitoyNovesises a ee os 25.6 20.7 26.5 | 20.9 $1.2 20.0 INovzhi to; Dect b 2.2225 2. way eee 24.5 20.0 24.9 19.7 29.4 19.1 Dect 5ytowsans 22e- sue save ee 24.1 20.0 24.6 20.7 28.4) 19.1 AV eTa Renn - 2s oysuWera sc ene 26.2. 20.7 26.5 20.9 82, 1 20.1 Measurements of temperature were also taken with a maximum and minimum thermometer placed in the lower part of the crown of a Dillenia philippinensis, a typical second-story tree, and another in the top of a dominant Parashorea plicata. The latter thermometer was protected from the sun by means of a per- forated wooden box. The maximum and minimum thermom- eters were read weekly. In Table XLIII these results, together with the weekly maxima and minima from the recording ther- 528 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 mometer, are compiled in the form of averages of the weekly maxima and minima for periods of four weeks. An examination of Table XLIII would seem to show that there is little difference between the temperatures in the undergrowth and in the second story. The average weekly maximum is 5°.9 higher and the minimum 0°.6 lower in the top of the dominant story than in the under- growth, while the average weekly range is 12°.0 in the former and only 5°.5 in the latter situation. Since there is but little difference between the minimum temperatures in the two places and the average weekly maximum is 5°.9 higher in the dominant story than in the undergrowth, the dominant story should have the higher average temperature and the one most likely to cause rapid growth. However, this temperature can hardly be re- garded as high enough to be optimum for more than a small portion of the time. The rainfall for the year is given in Table XLIV. It will be seen that the dry season is pronounced, but that it is relatively short, and that there is no month without rain. Saderra Masé6 *° states that the average rainfall for the Archi- pelago is 240 centimeters. The rainfall in the region under dis- cussion is distinctly less than this. The rainfall in the forest would be classed as seasonal. It is, however, more evenly dis- tributed throughout the year than at most of the weather stations where there are distinct wet and dry seasons. In Table XLIV there is also given a record of the percentage of soil moisture for the year. The figures are averages of weekly determinations, and the percentages are based on the dry weight of the soil. All samples were taken at a depth of 20 centimeters. The percentage of moisture is always high, and the seasonal changes while pronounced would hardly be called excessive, as the table shows an extreme variation of from 43.2 to 58.2 per cent. Relative humidity was measured in the forest, at about 75 centimeters above the ground, by a Draper’s recording hygro- meter. The results are given in Table XLV in the form of maxima, minima, means, averages of daily maxima, and aver- ages of daily minima for periods of four weeks. The means were obtained by using a planimeter. The table shows that the humidity is very high and uniform throughout the year. * Saderra Masé, M. S., Annual amount and distribution of rainfall in the Philippines. Weather Bureau, Manila, P. I. (1914). IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 529 TABLE XLIV.—Rainfall and soil moisture,* forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. | Sicrees | Period. Rainfall. hc Mi | moisture. i em. Per cent. RAT ORLO eATIE coh woes = See he) See eh ee a ee ee ee eee ee eee 5. 67 63.3 Pre MiSR Tet LR LOR EUC Bt. ect a a a 3. 93 48.8 Sp SOCOM MEAT NS een ose ee eee eel ee eee See Le oe eel us 1.87 43.2 eMiara2Sitopaprs apie = laces. Beals Te DO ou ee) ae eee eee ee 1,05 44.5 TACT VO OKLONI AV OCO re ace SRN A Ree a RR eee NS Ao ee le i1.11 46.7 Wiws2otGrnuneya0e=a oe See oe oe De eo hee eh eee 9.21 48,6 BURLLG TOUS CON A CLL NUS ees ee ee ae ee er aS ae a NI sae rea re eas 26.87 53.2 HoatlyaletovA Url O ment st. Shee Se ee eee ee SS Se a oe en Aug. 15 to Sept. 12 Sept. 12 to Oct. 10 CTCL LOCO OW Boe een tae ree tee CES er. Sree eee oak IMENiawAlT tojDec (Mies) VAL i ESRC NE wee TRU i ae) | Dec. 5 to Jan. 2—14 | eT eo ea ek oN A AN I NY Ue ET eit | VAS OTE Gers conc aoa sve nlane ol U S ANS RIE Ie fe Me Ls & The record of soil moisture is taken from an unpublished paper by W. H. Brown and A. S. Arguelles. TABLE XLV.—Relative humidity in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. : ite Average | Average | Period. aera Poe] ereG | cad | : mum. mum, os a ee —4] i AN StO; ANAS 22s oe ee 99.5 85.5 95.6 97.3 92.7 Wan Oloto] Deb nasa tee en ee emu ee 99.0 80.0 93.6 97.3 88.6 MebncsitolMarnasice sess see none ane eee at 100.0 74.0 91.1 98.4 84.2 Mar 28\tovApr job) o an seen sak 2 ee | 99.5 68.0 91.4 96.8 81.9 Apriapito Mayi2o-2 asso eons Loe 97.5 71.5 92.7 96.4 84.5 May23tolJiune 20S. asee ye e eeeO 97.0 73.5 90.6 94.9 $1.2 dune)20'tol duly 1Sesee eee eee eae 96. 0 82.5 91.5 93.4 87.8 UlypS toy Au nO eee nen ee nee 93.5 78.0 89.8 91.5 85.0 ATID SID tOLSe DL. p lan ee ease na een 95.0 77.0 90.2 92.4 86.6 Sep talZito) Octy Oli a. aes nan nee eee eee 96. 0 79.0 91.5 93. 4 86.5 Oct OOIN OVA a aes anaes nore nee 96.0 75. 0 92.3 94, 4 88.3 NOV intOsD GCs Doan a RO ee ee 97.0 86.0 93.4 95.7 90.5 eee OiLOans apa ance eee ane ee ret 97.0 86.0 93.9 95.6 92.3 | vverarey 0. at leet eS 97.2 78.2 92.1 95.2 | 86.9 Records of evaporation were obtained by means of a Living- ston rain-correcting atmometer.*! The evaporating surface in this instrument is a porous clay cup so connected by means * Livingston, B. E., A rain-correcting atmometer for ecological instru- mentation, Plant World (1910), 13, 79-82. 530 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 of rubber stopper and glass tube to a water bottle at a lower level that the cup is kept constantly filled, the water evaporating from the moist clay surface being replaced from the bottle. Entrance of rain water around the stopper into the reservoir is prevented by means of an apron of waterproof cloth. The absorption of rain water by the clay cup and the flowing of this water back into the reservoir is effectually prevented by the in- sertion of a mercury valve between the reservoir and cup, which allows free movement of water from the former to the latter but not in the reverse direction. All readings from the instruments were reduced to the standard used by Livingston. The results are given in Table XLVI in the form of average daily rates for periods of four weeks. The atmometer in the undergrowth was placed 25 centimeters above the ground, the one in the second story was protected by the canopy of both the dominant and second story, while the one in the top of the dominant story was fully exposed to both sun and wind. The rate of evaporation under the main canopy is low, par- ticularly so near the ground. In the top of the dominant story the rate of evaporation is much higher, being on the average more than six times as great as near the ground. The effect of seasonal changes on evaporation is marked. In the top of the dominant story the daily rate of evaporation for periods of four weeks varies from 8.4 cubic centimeters to 22.1 cubic centimeters. TABLE XLVI.—Daily rate of evaporation in forest of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province, Luzon. 1 30 centi- | Period. Pec poe Peds | ground. tree. tree. | cc. | ce. ce. Jan’3 to Tans Glico See. ee ee eee ee 1.4 2.6 8.4 Jan? 31 tolReb. 28 a eee on eee en ee ae om me hee mee 2.5 5.6 15.4 Feb.:28:toMar. 2852. S32.) See 8 eo ee eee 4.2 7.5 20.0 Mar 2a OLA DY 20 pare ne a oe Sa te at te a ee ee re 5.3 W6 19.7 DSS SAT oy GPA pe enn a Se ae eee ee epee ee 3.6 | 6.6 18.4 May 23 todune 2025.0 ee cc ite ee ene 4.9 | 9:0)| = 22 SUA YI@: ZU CO RAED SE a aa ste re i SO ee el ea 1.6 | 3.8 13.7 July/18 tovAtue: 15 2 2 Se Ss TE a eee LTH 7.0 20.9 Arigetb to sep ic ia. eee en a ne ee ea ere eens 1.2 5.0 16.9 Septai2ito! Oct. 10): ecko Se ee ee re ee 24 4.2 15.4 Oct. 10st Naw: ics oe ns ee ee eres 1.6 4.7 13.0 | INOW: 7 TODOS Os aces cae ar ee a ee ae en tae ee L2 3.7 114 | Dees’ to Fans Bie ee ee oe ee ee een 0.7 1.8 8.6 | DN (orc: ea Se Serene ac ot ee a os 3 he eS 2.5 | 5.3 15.7 IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 531 Livingston ** gives the rates of evaporation at a number of stations in the United States for the period from May 25 to September 7, 1908. He says: “The deciduous forest of the mid- dle east occupies a region with over 100 cc., often over 150 and even 200 cc., as the mean weekly summer rate.” These results are not directly comparable with those from Mount Ma- quiling as they were obtained from atmometers placed 15 cen- timeters above the ground in the open and with free access to sun and wind. A comparison of the highest rates obtained on Mount Maquiling with those from the United States, how- ever, seems to show that the rate of evaporation from the top of the dominant story on Mount Maquiling is not particularly high even during the height of the dry season. It has already been pointed out that the moisture content of the soil is high at all times of the year. This indicates that conditions in the forest were not excessively dry even at the height of the dry season. It should be remembered, however, that the effect of the dry season on the vegetation is very marked. We have already seen that Parashorea plicata shows a very slow rate of growth at this time. The main canopy of the forest, while by no means deciduous, is much less dense during the dry season than at other times, while small herbs may wilt or even dry up completely. The foregoing discussion of environmental factors in the forest of Mount Maquiling seems to indicate that the conditions were very favorable for the development of a luxurious vegeta- tion and for rapid growth. The forest of Mount Maquiling is very open as compared with a well-developed dipterocarp forest, but is very dense in comparison with a deciduous one of a temper- ate zone. We have already seen that Parashorea plicata grows from 30 centimeters to 70 centimeters in diameter in fifty years, while it takes yellow poplar, the fastest growing temperate-zone species considered in this paper, one hundred fifteen years to make the same growth. This rapid growth is, however, not equaled by smaller individuals of Parashorea nor by other dip- terocarps where growth has been studied in denser forests. According to our calculations it takes a seedling of Parashorea in the forest sixty-two years to become 5 centimeters in diameter. This slow rate of growth is due to the density of the forest, and it is probable that the same conclusion will hold for the * Livingston, B. E., A study of evaporation and plant distribution, Plant World (1911), 14, 205. 532 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 slow rate of growth shown by trees in denser forests, for while environmental data are lacking for these forests it does not seem likely, nor do our observations seem to show, that these regions which have produced forests denser than that of Mount Maguiling have climates which are naturally less favorable for growth. The density of the forests undoubtedly greatly reduces the amount of light received by all except the largest trees, while at the same time there must be severe competition among the roots of the vegetation. It is to be expected, therefore, that if suitable trees were grown in plantations in such a way as properly to regulate the density the resulting growth would be very rapid. This conclusion is confirmed by the rapid rates of growth shown by Parashorea growing in the open and by the even faster development of second-growth trees. Results which have been obtained in plantation work by the Bureau of Forestry are also in accord with this view. One of the most striking things about the forest of Mount Maguiling is the great difference between the conditions in the dominant story and in the undergrowth. The most obvious dif- ference is that of light. The dense canopy which cuts down the amount of light entering the undergrowth has a similar effect on the wind, the undergrowth being at most times remark- ably still. The fact that comparatively little wind enters the undergrowth probably has a decided effect on the temperature in it. This temperature has a lower average and is much more constant than that in the dominant story. Our records of evaporation show a rate in the top of the dominant story which is, on the average, more than six times as great as that in the undergrowth. These rates, being from white surfaces, do not take into account sufficiently the difference due to sun- light, so that the actual difference between the rates of evapo- ration in the two situations is even greater than that indicated. When we consider the differences between the conditions in the undergrowth and in the dominant story, it would not be surprising if plants which had developed in the former were unable to stand the conditions in the latter. When the main canopy is removed, the plants which are left are subjected to conditions at least approaching those to which the dominant story is exposed. We have seen that the removal of the main canopy is usually followed by the death of most of the trees and seedlings which remain. If the only difference between the conditions to which these were exposed before and after the removal of the main canopy was that of evaporation, this alone would probably, in most cases, be sufficient to cause their death. IX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 583 In very moist localities the effect of removing the main canopy might be much less severe than it would be in the dipterocarp forest on Mount Maquiling. EFFECT OF CUTTING IN DIPTEROCARP FORESTS As has been indicated in the discussion of growth, cutting in a dipterocarp forest carries with it a disturbance in the main canopy which is usually accompanied by increased growth and development of the second- and third-story trees, for the most part of inconsiderable commercial value. This holds true, of course, only for unregulated cutting in which the distribution of dipterocarps in the second and third stories is not adequately considered. All cuttings under the supervision of a forest of- ficer or staff are supposed to be done with some attempt at regulation. Where the forest staff is small and has an extremely large area to cover this regulation generally takes the form of a simple diameter limit. The purpose of the diameter limit is so to regulate the amount of cutting that the desirable species remain on the ground in sufficient volume to insure their per- petuation as the dominant species. This system of regulation is essentially a regulation by volume, and in temperate climates, where forests are composed of one or, at the most, of a very few species, it has proved very successful. In the tropics the same measure of success has not, for the most part, been attained. Naturally, some forests are much better suited to the successful operation of such a system than others, but dipterocarp forests are, in a great majority of instances, not among those in which this system succeeds. The use of the selection system, operated by means of a di- ameter limit, presupposes that there is in the forest such a dis- tribution of size classes that there can be fixed a diameter limit which will remove that portion of the stand which is ready for cutting and leave on the ground only that portion which should remain. Our dipterocarp forests do not meet this necessary condition. An inspection of the volume table for the northern Negros forest on page 427 shows at once that no diameter limit of any reasonable size will restrict the cutting to only that portion of the main stand which can safely be taken out at one cut. A diameter limit of 50 centimeters is regarded, in most parts of the world, as exceptionally high; but as can be seen from the above- mentioned table the operation of such a limit in northern Negros would allow almost clear cutting of the main forest canopy. In the discussion of associations on cleared lands this has been shown to be true. 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As an example of what may happen to a forest when such an apparently reasonable diameter limit is applied to a heavy stand of dipterocarp timber, there is here presented Table XLVII for the hectare of timber in Bataan, represented in Table VII, after it has been cut over under a diameter limit of 50 centimeters. These tables are summarized in Table XLVIII. TABLE XLVIII.—Comparison of stand of timber on a sample hectare in virgin and logged forest. Bataan Province, Luzon. [Numbers show volumes in cubic meters. ] j | Uncut | After | gre cy | forest. | cutting. | of | Trees less than 50 centimeters in diameter _______-____------------- 80. 41 | 47.13 | 33. 28 | Dipterocarps less than 50 centimeters in diameter__ exS 32. 28 | 17. 63 14. 65 | Trees more than 50 centimeters in diameter__-___----_------------ 471. 49 | 59.23 | 412.26 | Dipterocarps more than 50 centimeters in diameter _______---___-_.. 488.69 | 42.51 391. 18 otaleme ck ate Se: Sit Sa Ie Lee oe J eee ee 551.90 | 106.36 | 445.54 The results presented in these tables indicate that the effect on this forest has not been unduly severe; that is, we have left 106 cubic meters out of an original total of 551, and 42 cubic meters of dipterocarps out of an original total of 433. In tem- perate regions this would mean that the logging operation had been very successful from the forester’s standpoint. In the Phil- ippines the reverse of this is true. A study of the table reveals the fact that the main canopy of the forest has been almost entirely removed, that only 4 dipterocarps above 50 centimeters in diameter remain on the hectare, and that the bulk of the stand numerically lies in the tree classes from 5 to 40 centi- meters. With the exception of the 4 trees over 70 centimeters in diameter, all of the stand on the ground has developed entirely under the shade of the main canopy. The result is that these trees have very straggling thin crowns with broad succulent leaves suited only to the conditions which exist under the dense shade of the main canopy. The sudden exposure to full sunlight results in the death of a great majority of the smaller trees within a very short period. On this same hectare, before cutting, we had on an average plot of 250 square meters a stand of 1,539 seedlings, 1,130 of which were tree seedlings and 409 brush seedlings. Out of the total of 1,130 tree seedlings, 259 were of the family Dipterocar- paceae. After cutting, the number of seedlings on the same area had been reduced to 191, only 38 of which are dipterocarp. The TX, A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 537 significance of this astonishing reduction both in the total number of seedlings and in the number of seedlings of dipterocarps is very clear. The destruction of a portion of these seedlings was probably due to mechanical injuries incident to the logging operation. The great majority, however, have died because of the excessive insolation they received during the period just after the main canopy was removed. A discussion of what this change in temperature and atmospheric conditions may amount to has been given in another portion of this paper. The results brought out there show very clearly that the conditions are so changed that seedlings which have developed in dense shade are placed at an immense disadvantage. As an example of what happens during the period subsequent to logging, Table XLIX is presented, which shows the stand of seedlings on an area of 250 square meters one year after it was logged under the same conditions as those described on page 536. The total number of dipterocarp seedlings in this area is 94. However, 79 of these are of one species, Pentacme contorta. This one species alone seems able to exist under the general unsatisfactory conditions incident to a heavy opening of the crown. However, as against the 94 dipterocarp seedlings exist- ing on this 250 square meters, there are 430 seedlings, other than dipterocarps, less than 10 centimeters in diameter, and 435 seedlings of miscellaneous intolerant weeds and vines. It is clear from this that the dipterocarp element will be very in- conspicuous in the forest which is developing on this area. On areas logged two years ago there are only 2 dipterocarp seedlings to 25 square meters. As in the case of the northern Negros forest, it has been shown in the discussion of cleared areas that logging in Bataan with a diameter limit of 50 centimeters has resulted, in the past, in the destruction of the dipterocarp forest. In Bataan the forest has been replaced by a bamboo thicket. It may be that at the higher altitudes, about 500 meters, at which the cutting is now being carried on, the moisture or other condi- tions may make it possible for Pentacme contorta to compete with the weed species. The conclusion to which one is forced, from a consideration of the above data, is that an attempt to limit the cutting in a virgin stand of dipterocarp forest by means of a diameter limit of any reasonable size usually does not limit the cutting at all, but results in a clear cutting operation. This is probably true ‘at least for most areas where intensive utilization is practiced, and where logging is carried on in an intensive manner over large areas. 1914 Journal of Science . ippine ab The Ph 538 LO LT Sd1e00.10}dIp o18 YoryA sed, 216 Sdieo.010}dIp ere YyoyM sque[g 20'S S901} O18 YOIYM SjUB[F yu9d 18g | Be Sel resign See MO cael ole See [pee (hoo ers ae [Cese alee | ee | ee AI (eS See HFG aes) [game a) amon | ree | ete | ol ge ee tenia gry SS |e SR ge | en |e | eas mee aie mein = eS a em a ke atl a i 8d180019}dIp [Bj07, CASS oMaH | Sas 24 fe om ant et amar | Rae le =| a dal bea | saa a Use ea Waa (oie | cg ad eo cence aay ote ie Sa = or Oe 8901} [80], 196 it T z a z Mirae linea. a v OL g 9 66 ST G88! ee ger ee so acre Tae eee = we eS [8701 Di: ae ee cae | emcee |e aa li a hoes oe ome | che | ee eee | eee T P T lo eae SS aa a ee ee (SuBdno) vunr10me nivying ($7 el cake lal ie Eta [aca ad ba ol faa ad bs ee | ee I ie OF - ee | ae Ro ae ee aan a (B{@AuU0[OG) VLIYIUDSONd SoLAdso1g, GYyee ea Pe 1 | me a fee a OF eI pe en i 4 I T Gc |S ae a a oe ee Qeynieeu) ‘ds piuabingy pe ame eee og a IS a aa aka ac tea! | Pe a bc a Ud ak FL £ T OS See eee a A ee a ee (Aednjv) va.awie prsoydnsy Ry | ae ices | an | a a | Pea er Se ies | ime era |e es | nm nm em ee kei emcee | eee Ob) SR Se ae ee ee ee Sqnays snoouelyjeosi, 602 (v 1 T z @ ee a € g a § 6 Pb SLT |e (ee an ee ee as ae oes S901} SNOVUB] [OSI EON areas |i ae. li aac ee es (ame [i ee | eee eT ee ee | ae ea ee es Dee | Fae oo Sea a oe ae a ee (BlaBwo[ed) 209Wn)q wn7jphydowD See ac ea | Spe S| es |e el aca gl > FR | nae ae gees |e Z aie =a ae 2 L g EL orl Sree (uoinpEeul 10 yueleq) snaujndod snyjyunjpwopy aa Ge Se ee SP er | Bea eee oS men Seema nae see eae Tee. OS eee ee | Benge" | eer Soe ee ae (Sidesojed) viafiiny) vsajdoswupy Pe leas | eo a ees [FO col| eeEES oa ARE ce oo sa aes as (oe Ml ae ee L ae Sak oe eae ae cee gale ge (oftn3) 081n6 va1oys Gee | seats | atiea eee |e |e ee (eee Tt I ce eal naa Zz v ti eel. Se ae eee ee (WeNnB] 271M) D72107W09 auloD.UAaT ww --2---|--->--|------]------!------|~-----!------|------)------]------|------|------|------|------|------ |-------~|~------=-----~ --=------------ (UBSUIPUL[Bp) DJDULULNID DadozT Pe et | mah oe |e ee em eee ae a aa me | mem Ss me |v atm | pr a im mm (ZuojIde) sn1oprpunss sndano049jdruq Se (etctetetetel latices letetat are] fatatatatatel fete tiie eet Cee Pere Pei Eee | ee Tt jnenes> | Of “ee | bt a oe Ee SS (oBuRd) srnproiusad sndano0saqcaq wore nnn n [an nn nn |en naan | on nnn n | oon na] - nn =| w= ~~ = nw nn wna == |e |---| |---|] 2 - == [ovo ra sa pres seers ses sess seneccsso"""" (@[INSuez) Dwsodshjod va.oys 1 ate a | ee eee oa l= — ——- —---- 0g OF 08 02 oO 6 8 L 9 S y g a I aan "1807, el Sarin ree _|6 ae *sorsedg *$19}9UIIZU99 UI S8R[9 JoJoWRICT | “pe9S | fig pun sarvoads hq szunjd fo “SSD]O LazauUvrip saqunu Burmoys ‘bur.b60) 421f0 woah auo suajau avonbs ogg fo j0)d v uo UoYyonpouday— X]T'TX FIAVL IX, °A, 6 Brown and Mathews: Dipterocarp Forests 539 The effect of regulation by a diameter limit in a forest less overmature and where logging is more selective than intensive is very different from that just described. In the forest of northern Laguna logging to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters has been carried on, in a desultory manner, for the last fifty or sixty years. The result is very clearly shown by our volume table for this forest, which is presented on page 438. The men who have been logging this region have not been able to use every tree or even every species. They have gone through the forest selecting the medium-sized straight-boled trees of the most desirable species, especially those of Shorea polysperma (tan- guile), Dipterocarpus sp. (apitong), Hopea pierrei (dalindingan isak), and a few of the understory trees, such as Machilus phil- ippinensis (baticulin) and Eugenia spp. (macaasim). They have rarely returned to the same spot in two successive years. The result of their operations has been to change the composition of the forest by a slight reduction in the volume of the species which they have most desired and to change the volume composi- tion of the forest by the removal of the medium-sized and larger- sized trees. The result in regard to volume composition is very clearly shown by our table, and from the forester’s standpoint a proper and elastic diameter limit would probably work very successfully. The past success of this limit system for this forest is in part due to the better distribution of age classes and in part to the fact that the logging has not been intensive. We have now considered a situation where the diameter limit system of regulation has proved an entire failure, and one in which it would probably prove a noticeable success. Between these two extremes we have all gradations. If the diameter limit has been correctly determined, its successful use will depend upon the distribution of the volume throughout the various diameter classes and upon the intensity of the logging. Wher- ever the volume is grouped in the larger diameter classes, the system will fail, even though the logging is selective. Where there is a uniform distribution of volume in all size classes, it will prove a success if logging is not intensive. Where large investment calls for heavy utilization, an arbitrary limit which permits of the utilization called for by the size of the investment will usually fail over large areas. It will succeed on any large area for that portion of the forest where very small amounts of the larger sizes of trees exist, but will fail in all parts of the forest where a heavy stand of large-sized trees is encountered. The reason for the failure of the diameter limit in overmature forests over large areas is that the limit approximates clear cut- 540 The Philippine Journal of Science 1914 ting and the clear cutting extends uninterruptedly over the whole area of the operation. If the system of utilization is necessarily so intensive that it becomes impossible to leave the necessary amount of shelter wood in the area, it will be better to abandon entirely any thought of limitation of the cut and to accept as in- evitable the fact that clear cutting will have to be carried on and then so to regulate this clear cutting that a fair measure of suc- cess can be expected. Due to environmental considerations clear cutting in the Philippines will probably rarely be a satisfactory system of forest management. The intense insolation following any considerable opening of the forest crown is always followed by a tremendous reduction in the percentage of the main species in the reproduction and by the entrance of vast quantities of intolerant, rapid-growing weeds, trees, and vines. The larger we make the opening in the forest, the greater is the change in the climatic condition and the more surely does the forest pass over into a second-growth or jungle habit. If then clear cutting becomes necessary, it must be confined to the smallest possible area permissible under the system of logging in use. The smaller the opening in the forest, the more does the effect of the adjoining forest extend over it and, likewise, the less is the opportunity for light-loving weeds and vines of the ad- joining open land to enter the area. If the system of utilization is not so intensive as to preclude the possibilities of leaving on the area a shelter wood which will at the same time protect the young growth already on the ground and furnish seeds for additional reproduction, some system of limiting the cutting is advisable. The defect of one arbitrary diameter limit for the whole area has already been discussed. If the amount of supervision that can be given the operation is so limited that it becomes obvious that nothing but a diameter limit can be used for purposes of regulation, the limit should vary for each of the main species in the area. No diameter limit whatever should be set until after a thorough study of the volume and species distribution of the forest has been concluded and until there have been collected data showing the approximate size at which most of the main species come into full seed bearing. With data of this kind at hand it would be possible to set a diameter limit for each of the species in the stand which would be satisfactory for certain limited types of forest. It would not be possible to set such limits for each species, over the entire area, as the habit of growth of the trees, their time of seeding, and distribu- tion by volume will differ at different elevations and under dif- ferent conditions of soil moisture and exposure.