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THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

ALVIN J. COX, M. A., Pu. D.
GENERAL EDITOR

SECTION A
CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

EDITED WITH THE COOPERATION OF

H. C. BRILL, Pu. D.; J. R. WRIGHT, Pu. D.; G. W. HEISE, M.S.
T. DAR JUAN, A.B., PHar. D.; A. H. WELLS, A.B.
R. C. MCGREGOR, A. B.; H. E. KUPFER, A. B.

VOLUME XIII
1918

WITH 26 PLATES AND 62 TEXT FIGURES

y,
es

{nstitU tig

wo.
fr on
ASS

aS)

3

MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1918

DATES OF ISSUE

No. 1, pages 1 to 48, February 17, 1918.
No. 2, pages 49 to 98, June 7, 1918.

No. 3, pages 99 to 145, June 7, 1918. ;
No. 4, pages 147 to 216, December 19, 1918.
No. 5, pages 217 to 274, February 1, 1919.

No. 6, pages 275 to 368, Mey 20, 1919. | 4
ii ;

CONTENTS
No. 1, January, 1918
HEISE, GEORGE W., and BEHRMAN, A. S. Water analysis in the field..
One plate.

BEHRMAN, A. S. Two field methods for the determination of the
ROU MAT OWESS MO: Weube tase. ek es ee 2 ee I Pace ateeten

Witt, J. C. Some generalizations on the influence of substances on
GBOMONbEATTCCON CTC DE reset rear TORUS ee eee ed ote ko a Ae

No. 2, March, 1918

WRIGHT, J. R., and HetspE, G. W. The radium content of water from .

iB. (QUINONE, ISIE RO SE a ne ea se pe Ne Aa ee ee
Two text figures.

Witt, J. C. Methods of burning pottery in the vicinity of Manila

and their influence on the quality of the product...
Two plates and one text figure.

CocANNOUER, JOSEPH A. Tests of some imported garden legumes...
ERTRUVIUTAVHGS oa ee ee i pe Oe ene fy TUE ah SC br ea Oe UNM ee oi een
No. 3, May, 1918

YCASIANO, FRANCISCO R., and VALENCIA, FELIX V. Practical opera-

BIOMOL SA pPrOGUCCY-2AS \POWer PLA ccs sone eee eee sera ce eee cee
Nine text figures.

MIRASOL, JOSE Y JISON. Fertilizer experiments with sugar cane........
Two text figures.
No. 4, July, 1918

Wirt, J. C., and Reyes, F. D. The solubility of Portland cement and

liserelation. to! theories: of hydration... 026.4) 2s
One text figure.

REINKING, OTTO A. Philippine economic-plant diseases.......................
Twenty-two plates and forty-three text figures.

No. 5, September, 1918
REINKING, OTTo A. Philippine economic-plant diseases (concluded) ..

No. 6,.November, 1918

VALENCIA, F. V. Mechanical extraction of COiY.............-2.-....:c2ccceceeeoes
One plate.
KING, ALBERT EH. W. The mechanical properties of Philippine coir
and coir cordage compared with abaca (Manila hemp)..................
Four text figures.
YCASIANO, F. R. A recalculation of certain data on steaming tests
HELL PINE nO AIS Seems eet le teen ee ete ae eS

161175——7 ili

29

49

59

67
97

99

135

147

165

217

275

285

347
361

PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE |

Peek TEN-VEAR INDEX

4

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ae « VOLUME 3 (1906). ‘TO VOLUME x (1915) - see

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THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

A, CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

Vou. XIII he JANUARY, 1918 No. 1

WATER ANALYSIS IN THE FIELD +

By GrorGcE W. HEISE and A. S. BEHRMAN

_ (From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila)

ONE PLATE

Recent developments in water analysis have emphasized the
importance of making examinations at the source whenever
possible. The work of the Bureau of Science has shown the
need of field investigations and the peculiar applicability of
field methods to Philippine conditions. Accordingly field work
has been made one of the most important features of our study
of water supplies.

Owing to the comparative isolation of the Philippines, the
great distance from scientific or manufacturing centers, and the
‘consequent loss of time when apparatus and supplies are pro-
cured from abroad, we have found it necessary, to a large extent,
to build our own apparatus, to prepare our own reagents for
field use, and to devise and adapt methods suitable to our needs.

The field work of the Bureau of Science has been carried on
for three years. Because of the importance of field methods
at the present time, and because workers in as isolated places
as the Philippines will continue to be dependent, in a great
measure, on their own resources, we have thought it advisable
to describe our field methods and apparatus in detail.

Our methods are based upon those described by Leighton.?
Several changes, however, have been made. A “tabloid” de-

* Received for publication August, 1917.
* Leighton, M. O., Field assay of water, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply
Paper (1905), No. 151.
151772

2D The Philippine Journal of Science 3 os 1918

termination of acidity and a rough estimate of the total amount
of solid matter have been added, the soap method for total
hardness has been replaced by a new and more accurate proce-
dure, and several minor modifications in the details of manipula-
tion of some of the old methods have been introduced. Other
minor changes have been made in apparatus, as will become
evident in the detailed description to follow.

In connection with the study of potable waters, a field bac-
teriological examination is also made. This consists in 24- and
48-hour colony counts at ordinary temperature and a presump-
tive test for Bacillus coli or related organisms that would indicate
fecal contamination. The uniform tropical temperature (25°
to 30° C.) makes this bacteriological work a very simple, while
a very valuable, feature of the examination.

The outfit has been gradually reduced in size, although the
number of determinations made has been increased; so now
enough apparatus and materials for a month’s chemical work
can be carried in an army telescope. This makes a package
weighing less than 20 kilograms, which fits well on one side
of a packsaddle or on the back of a cargador. The bacterio-
logical outfit is carried in a small metal box. The complete
equipment is shown in Plate I.

A comprehensive sanitary survey, embracing, in so far as
possible, all those features that might influence the quality of
the water under examination, is, of course, included in field work.

The details of the methods employed in regular field examina-
tion are outlined and briefly discussed.

TABLE I.—Chemical methods.

Quantitative. ’ Qualitative.
Color Odor
Turbidity (as SiO.) Total solids
Alkalinity (as CaCO:) Appearance on ignition
Acidity (as CO”) — Calcium
Tron (Fe) Classification for boiler use

Chlorides (Cl)
Normal carbonates (as Na,COs)
Bicarbonates (as CaCO: or
HCO:) [by calculation]
Sulphates (as SOs)
Total hardness (as CaCO:)
Estimated encrustants
[by calculation]

Color is determined with the United States Geological Sur-
vey color outfit described by Leighton,’ consisting of a standard

* Op. cit.

xm,a,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field 3

length aluminium tube, which is filled with the water under ex-
amination. The color of this column of water, viewed longitud-
inally, is matched by disks of colored glass that have been
rated in parts per million to correspond to the platinum-cobalt
standard.

Iron is conveniently determined with the same outfit as used
for color, as described by Leighton. The only extra equipment
required is a series of prepared colored disks corresponding
to those produced by treating standard solutions of iron. These
disks have not been available. In lieu thereof, red and yellow
glasses from the Lovibond tintometer have been employed, in
connection with two matched Nessler tubes in galvanized iron
outer tubes. When 100 cubic centimeters of water were used
in a determination, it was found that a summation of 6.0 on
the Lovibond scale was very nearly equal to 1 part per million
of iron (as Fe). The following is the procedure employed:

To 100 cubic centimeters of the water under examination in
a Nessler tube add 4 cubic centimeters of concentrated nitric
acid. Mix thoroughly by pouring six or seven times from one
tube to another and allow to stand at least five minutes to insure
complete oxidation. Then add 6 cubic centimeters of a 2 per
cent solution of potassium sulphocyanide, mix thoroughly by
several pourings, and allow to stand ten minutes for the color
to develop. Exactly at the end of ten minutes make the color
comparison with the Lovibond glasses under the empty Nessler
tube, using a piece of white paper to reflect the light. Hold
the tubes with one hand sufficiently high to reflect all the light
possible. Interchange the tubes several times to avoid inequal-
ities of light. The tubes should be held in such a position that
both may be seen with one eye. Obviously, the final reading
may be made either by using all the glasses under the empty
Nessler tube or with some under the water as well. In this
way intermediate values sometimes not otherwise obtainable
may be found.

In all cases the nitric acid used should be tested beforehand
for iron, this being a not infrequent impurity.

Turbidity is determined with the electric turbidimeter de- ;
scribed in Leighton’s paper. By means of an electric flash light,
a cross of light is provided at the bottom of a long graduated
tube. The well-shaken, turbid water is poured in until the sharp
image has disappeared and the hazy cross of light just dis-
appears. This is taken as the end point in the lower part of
the tube. In the upper part of the tube (that is, for slightly
turbid liquids) there is no hazy cross of light, and the end point

4 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

is taken as the depth at which the sharp image of the cross
disappears, giving place to a slightly blurred one—that is, it
seems out of focus. Table II is provided for converting the
turbidimeter depths to parts per million of silica.

TABLE II.—Conversion of turbidimeter readings in depth to parts per million
of turbidity.

Reading. (oma Reading. Geos Reading. aay Reading. ea
Parts per| — Parts per Parts per Parts per
em. million. cm. million. cm. million. cm. million.
2.3 1, 000 6.3 350 10.5 210 19.6 110
2.6 900 7.3 300 11.0 200 21.7 100
2.9 800 7.6 290 11.5 190 28.0 90
3.2 700 7.8 280 12.1 180 25.0 80
8.5 650 8.1 270 12.8 170 28.0 70
3.8 600 8.5 260 13.6 160 81.0] - 60
4.1 550 8.7 250 14.4 150 35.0 50
4.5 500 9.1 240 15.4 140 42.0 40
4.9 450 9.5 230 16.6 180 52.0 30
re 5.6 400 10.0 220 18.0 | ° 120 70.0 20 |

Turbidity may be also determined with the turbidity rod,
which consists merely of a bright platinum wire fastened at
right angles to a tape. Under the proper conditions the tape
is lowered into the water under examination, and the end point is
taken as the depth at which the wire just disappears from view.
The tape is calibrated directly to read parts per million of silica

The disadvantage of the turbidity-rod method is the required
nicety of adjustment of conditions, involving the use of a large
sample under circumstances often impossible. The turbidimeter
method, on the contrary, is independent of most of these con-
ditions. Only a small sample is required. Since the method
is based on the diffraction of light, the accuracy of the deter-
mination is almost independent of the intensity of the light and,
therefore, of the condition of the batteries and bulb. It fol-
lows directly that the original calibration as given by Leighton
* is applicable to any well-constructed turbidimeter. No difficulty
was experienced in. having a suitable instrument constructed
for our purposes. i :

Sulphates are also determined with the turbidimeter, as de-
scribed by Leighton. To 100 cubic centimeters of the water
is added 1 cubic centimeter of hydrochloric acid (50 per cent
concentrated. acid by volume) and 1 gram of powdered crystals
of solid barium chloride. Precipitations are conveniently made
in 250 cubic centimeter glass-stoppered bottles. The water is

xu,a,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field 5

allowed to stand for ten minutes, with frequent shakings. The
turbidity produced is then determined with the turbidimeter as
before. The sulphate content (as parts per million of SO,) is
read from Table III.

-TABLE III.—Converting readings in depths by the turbidimeter into parts
per million of sulphate.

1

Reading |Parts By Reading |Parts per| Reading ee per
in centi- | million | in centi-| million || in centi-| million
meters. | (asSO3).| meters. ee al meters. | (as SOs).
1.0 522 5.4 104 10.8 53

rie 478 5.5 103 11.0 52

1.2 442 || 5.6 101:| 11.2 51

1.3 410 5.7 99 | 11.4 50

1.4 383 5.8 97 11.6 49

1.5 _ 369 | 5.9 96 11.8 48

1.6 338 | 6.0 94 12.0 47

17 319 6.1 93 12,4 46

1.8 302 6.2 91 12.6 45

1.9 287 6.3 90 12.8 44

2.0 278 || 6.4 88 13.0 43

2.1 261 6.5 87 13.5 42

2.2 250 6.6 86 14.0 41

2.3 239 6.7 84 14.5 39

2.4 230 6.8 83 15.0 38

2.5 221 6.9 82 15.5 37

2.6 213 7.0 81 16.0 36

: 2.7 205 7.1 80 16.5 35
2.8 198 7.2, 79 17.0 34

2.9 191 7.8 78 17.5 33

3.0 185 7.4 vit 18.0 32

3.1 179 7.5 16 18.5 31

3.2 173 7.6 15 19.0 30
preh “els 168 || 7.7 74 20.0 29 .
| 3.4 164 || 7.8 73 || 21.0 28
3.5 159 | 7.9 72 22.0 27

3.6 155 || 8.0 71 22.5 26

3.7 151 || 8.1 70 23.0 25
3.8 147 8.2 69 24.0 24

3.9 144 || 8.3 68 25.0 23

4.0 140 | 8.5 67 26.5 22

4.1 137 8.6 66 28.0 21

4.2 133 sir 65 29.0 20

4.3 131 8.8 64 31.0 19

4.4 128 9.0 63 || 33.0 18

4.5 125 9.1 62 || 35.0 17

4.6 122 9.3 61 |) 37.5 16

4.7 119 9.5 60 40.0 15

4.8 117 9.7 59 || 43.0 14

4.9 115 9.8 58 il 26.5 13

5.0 113 10.0 57 50.0 12

5.1 110 10.2 56 55.5 ll

5.2 108 10.4 55 62.0 | 10

5.38 106 10.6 54 | e2.0 | 9

6 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Calcium was formerly determined turbidimetrically by the
United States Geological Survey method, but this has been
abandoned because of its inaccuracy.

The qualitative field test for calcium is made by adding enough
ammonia to some of the water in a test tube or bottle to make
it alkaline to litmus and adding some ammonium oxalate.

Total solids are determined qualitatively by evaporating 50
cubic centimeters of the water in a porcelain casserole to dryness
over an alcohol lamp. The solid content is reported merely
as “very small,” “moderate,” “large,” etc. The residue is then
ignited, and any change in “appearance on ignition” is noted.
This may be a browning or blackening due to organic matter,
or a deep red-brown coloration due to the-oxidation of con-
siderable amounts of iron present. The last is of value as a
confirmatory test for large amounts of iron.

Odor is reported, wherever possible, in such a way that both
the derivation and the relative amount are indicated, for in-
stance, ‘“‘very slightly sulphuretted,” “strongly acid.”

Alkalinity, acidity, chlorides, normal carbonates, and total
hardness are determined by the use of tablets, as outlined by
Leighton. In brief, this method consists of the use of pellets
containing known amounts of reagents, instead of standard solu-
tions. The titrations are performed in a small (100 to 150
cubic centimeters), heavily glazed porcelain mortar, a pestle being
used to crush the pellets and to stir the liquid. The volume
of water used for a titration is conveniently measured from a
tall, 100 cubic centimeter graduated cylinder, provided with a
double scale, so that both the water withdrawn and the volume
remaining can be directly read. What are practically duplicate
determinations can be made very rapidly in the following
manner:

A few pellets are crushed in the mortar, and water is added
from the cylinder till the end point is reached. The volume
used is noted. Several more pellets—preferably the same num-
ber as before—are added, followed by water from the cylinder,
until the second end point is obtained. In this way not only
is it possible to secure more accurate results by taking the
mean of the two values obtained than by making a single de-
termination, but in addition any gross error that may arise
from an unclean mortar, contaminated indicator, or defective
tablet can be detected and corrected. ;

The following reagents are used in tablets in the various
determinations:

Sodium acid sulphate for alkalinity and normal carbonates;

xm4,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field uy (

sodium carbonate for acidity; silver nitrate for chlorides; and
potassium palmitate for total hardness.

Kaolin is used as the filter and binding material for the sodium
carbonate and silver nitrate pellets, while glucose is employed
for those of sodium acid sulphate and potassium palmitate.
Glucose is superior to kaolin, as it is completely soluble and
consequently does not obscure the end point. It cannot, how-
ever, be used in the first two cases, because unstable pellets
result. Water is used in all cases in making up the pill mass.
The reagent is dissolved in water and carefully stirred into the
binding material. The mass is kneaded in a mortar, more water
being added if necessary, until it is homogeneous and of the
‘desired consistency.

The tablets are made in a tablet mold. We use a hard rubber
mold (No. 10, Whitall Tatum Company, for making 50 one-
grain tablets at a time). The molded pellets are dusted with
powdered tale, dried in the air and then in a desiccator over
calcium chloride, after which they are packed in glass tubes,
about 15 centimeters in length and holding about forty pellets
each. The tubes are sealed with paraffin, and. those containing
pellets of silver nitrate are covered with heavy black paper.
Needless to say, the silver nitrate pellets are made ina dark room.

The silver nitrate and sodium carbonate pellets retain their
strength almost indefinitely without change. Those of sodium
acid sulphate lose strength very slowly and should be restandard-
ized every month. The potassium palmitate pellets lose strength
rather rapidly and should be restandardized weekly.

Alkalinity.—Pellets are molded from a pill mass containing
6.5 grams of crystallized sodium bisulphate and 150 grams of
glucose, the proportions that will yield a pill of very nearly the
desired strength (one pellet equivalent to 1 milligram calcium
carbonate, CaCO,). The pellets are standardized by crushing
five of them in a mortar with a little distilled water and adding
a drop of butter yellow indicator solution (0.2 gram butter yellow
in 100 cubic centimeters of alcohol). Tenth-normal sodium
hydroxide or sodium carbonate is added till the end point is
reached. From this titration the reacting value of the pellets
may be readily calculated.

The field determination of alkalinity is analogous to the stand-
ardization of the pellets. The 100 cubic centimeter cylinder
is filled to the mark with the water under examination. Two
or three of the pellets are crushed in the mortar with a little
- of the water, and a drop of the indicator is added, followed by
more water from the cylinder till the end point is reached.

8 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The volume of water used in the titration is noted, readings
being taken to the tenth of a cubic centimeter. Two or three
more pellets are added, followed by more of the water to the
second end point.

The alkalinity, expressed as parts per million CaCO,, is sendilys
calculated from the number and strength of pellets and the
volume of water used in the determination. Thus, if 4 pellets
of sodium bisulphate, each equivalent to 1.10 milligrams of
calcium carbonate, require 22.4 cubic centimeters of the water for
interaction, the alkalinity will be

1,000 x 4 X 1.10
22.4
and would be reported as 200 (that is, in terms of two significant
figures).

Normal carbonates.—If normal carbonates (or hydroxides)
are present, the water will give a pink coloration with phe-
nolphthalein. In this event the amount of normal carbonates is
determined with pellets of sodium bisulphate. The procedure
is identical with that for the determination of alkalinity, except
that 5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution (1 per cent
alcoholic) are used instead of the 1 drop of butter yellow. Where —
the normal carbonates are present only in small amount, half,
or even a quarter, of a pellet may be all that can be used.

As phenolphthalein is sensitive to carbonic acid, the end point
in this determination is reached when only half of the alkali
is neutralized. Accordingly the same sodium bisulphate pellet
that was equivalent to 1.10 milligrams of calcium carbonate
in the determination of alkalinity will be equivalent to twice
that amount, or 2.20 milligrams, when used in the determination
of normal carbonates.

Thus, if 2 of these pellets required 57 cubic centimeters of
the water for the reaction, the results expressed in parts per
million of calcium carbonate would be

1,000 « 2 x 2.20
57

When, as is usually the case with Philippine waters, the
phenolphthalein alkalinity is less than half that determined with
butter yellow, the alkalinity of a natural water is caused by
bicarbonates and normal carbonates and is equal to their sum.
If, therefore, no normal carbonate is present, the alkalinity is
numerically equal to the bicarbonates, when both are expressed
in terms of calcium carbonate. If, when normal carbonates
are present, the alkalinity is found to be equal to the normal
carbonates—that is, when the phenolphthalein titration is one

=O

sani (f=

xur,4,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field 9

half that with butter yellow—the absence of bicarbonates is
indicated. If the alkalinity is found greater than the normal
carbonates, the difference will be bicarbonates, all expressed
as calcium carbonate.

If, however, the phenolphthalein titration is more than one
half that with butter yellow, the waters contain calcium or
other alkaline hydrates (caustic alkalinity). In case the phe-
nolphthalein and butter yellow titrations are identical, all of the
alkalinity is due to hydrates.

The relations between the various forms of alkalinity just
discussed are shown in Table IV.*

TABLE 1V.—Relation between normal carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydrates
in natural waters, as indicated by titration with sulphuric acid (sodium

bisulphate) in cold.
- a
| Carbon-| Bicar-
: ates. | bonates. |Hydrates.

VES Oa Se Ae Bee ee ees a ee ae oO B oO
RST Oe Se eee ee aoe es See ee ee ee See 2P B-2P Oo
TES 5 Sa RR a AI ea a a aa Sen aR to ee 2P C0) oO

P, phenolphthalein titration; B, butter-yellow titration.

When it is desired to express normal carbonates as sodium
carbonate, the calcium carbonate value is multiplied by 1.06.
Similarly the bicarbonates may be expressed as HCO, by multi-
plying the calcium carbonate equivalent by 1.22.

Acidity.—If a water reacts acid to phenolphthalein, the pres-
ence of carbonic or a mineral acid is indicated. In the first
case bicarbonates may be present, but normal carbonates will
not. In the second case neither bicarbonates nor normal car-
bonates can be present, and the water will react acid to butter
yellow or methyl orange as well as to phenolphthalein. ;

Mineral acidity, when present, is determined with pellets of
. sodium carbonate, using butter yellow as an indicator. Total
acidity, due to the combined effect of mineral and carbonic
acids, is also determined with pellets of sodium carbonate, but
in the presence of phenolphthalein as indicator. The carbonic
acid acidity is the difference between the total and the mineral
acidities.

Mineral acidity in natural waters is rarely encountered in the
Philippines. Acidity is practically always due to free carbon di-

*Cf. Standard Methods of Water Analysis, American Public Health
Association, Boston. 2d ed. (1915), 39.

10 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

oxide and is, therefore, determined with sodium carbonate pellets,
using 5 to 10 drops of phenolphthalein solution as indicator.
The manipulation is identical with that described for “alkalinity”
and “normal carbonates,” except that, ordinarily, only one or
two tablets, or even less, will be required for a titration. Fur-
thermore, since the kaolin in the pellets slightly obscures the
end point, the discrepancy between duplicate determinations is
usually 0.5 cubic centimeter and often 1 cubic centimeter.

In the manufacture of the sodium carbonate pellets 4.0 grams
of anhydrous sodium carbonate are used to 130 grams of kaolin.
This gives a pellet of approximately the desired reacting value,
namely, 1 milligram of carbon dioxide. To standardize, 5 of
these pellets are triturated-in a mortar with recently boiled
distilled water, 5 drops of phenolphthalein solution are added,
and the solution is titrated with 0.1 N sulphuric acid.

If, in a field determination, it is found that the average of
two readings taken for the reaction with 1 pellet equivalent to
0.95 milligram of carbon dioxide (phenolphthalein being used
as indicator) is 24 cubic centimeters of the water, the .acidity,
expressed in parts per million of carbon dioxide, would equal

1,000 x 0.95
were == l)p

Chlorides.—For the determination of chlorides, “weak” and
_ “strong” pellets of silver nitrate are employed. The former are
each equivalent to about 1 milligram of chlorine, the latter to
10 milligrams. In the manufacture of the weak pellets, 12.5
grams of silver nitrate and 200 grams of kaolin are used, while
156 grams of silver nitrate and 250 grams of kaolin are the
proportions used for the strong pellets.

The pellets are standardized with a sodium chloride solution,
which is conveniently made to be equivalent to 1 milligram of
chlorine per cubic centimeter. Potassium chromate is used as
an indicator.

The determination of chlorides in the field is rapid and
simple. A small quantity of water, usually only 10 or 15 cubic
centimeters, is introduced from the filled 100 cubic centimeter
graduate into the mortar. Five drops of potassium chromate
solution (5 per cent) are added as indicator. If the chlorine
content of the water is high, “strong” silver nitrate pellets are
added one at a time, with thorough mixing, until an excess is
indicated by the rose color of silver chromate. If the chlorine
content is low, “weak” pellets are added till the end point is
passed. If the chlorine content is low, that is, under 10 parts per
million, a half or even quarter tablet will be sufficient. In any

xm,A,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field ji!

case, after an excess of silver nitrate has been provided, more
water is added from the cylinder until the rose color is entirely
displaced by a bright yellow, corresponding to the shade used
in standardization. Check determinations may be made as be-
fore by adding more pellets and titrating.

If, to react with a half of a ‘‘weak” tablet (a whole tablet
being equivalent to 0.96 milligram of chlorine), there were
. required 76 cubic centimeters of the water under examination,
the chlorine content, expressed in parts per million of chlorine,
would be found from the expression

_ 1,000 x 0.5 x 0.96 _
ao ae A

Total hardness.—The pellets of potassium palmitate used for
the determination of hardness are made from a pill mass of
giucose and potassium palmitate. One hundred grams of glucose
are used with an amount of potassium palmitate correspond-
ing to 15 grams of palmitic acid. To make potassium palmitate,
palmitic acid is dissolved in alcohol and neutralized with normal
alcoholic potash solution, using phenolphthalein as indicator.
The resulting alcoholic solution is then evaporated to dryness.
The residue may be used without further treatment for making
the pellets.

The following method is employed for the standardization
of the pellets: A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is
prepared from pure calcium oxide. The normality of this is
determined by titration of 25 cubic centimeters with 0.1 N
sulphuric acid, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. One
hundred cubic centimeters of the calcium hydroxide solution
‘ are then pipetted into a 200 cubic centimeter volumetric flask.
A few drops of phenolphthalein solution are added, followed by
normal sulphuric acid to acid reaction. Alcoholic potash (0.2
N) is then added, drop by drop, until a faint pink is produced.
Distilled water that has previously been boiled to expel carbon
dioxide is added to the mark.

The calcium sulphate solution thus prepared is used to stand-
ardize the pellets. Five of these, crushed in a mortar with a
little distilled water, and 5 drops of phenolphthalein are added.
The standard calcium sulphate solution is then added from a
burette, until the last trace of phenolphthalein pink disappears.
From the number of cubic centimeters used, and the determined
strength of the calcium hydroxide solution, the strength of the
pellets, expressed in term of calcium carbonate, is calculated.

Since a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is about 0.04

Cl 6.3.

12 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

N, the standard calcium sulphate solution as prepared above
will be about 0.02 N, that is, 1 cubic centimeter will be equiv-
alent to about 1 milligram of calcium carbonate.

The potassium palmitate tablets, as prepared above, will each
be found equivalent to 1.5 to 2.0 milligrams of calcium carbonate.

These pellets should be standardized every week, as they lose
strength fairly rapidly. What this loss of strength is due to
is not yet certain, but from the data at hand it seems at least _
possible that it may arise from an acid fermentation of the
glucose, bringing about a decomposition of the potassium pal-
mitate with the separation of palmitic acid.

For use in the determination of total hardness, 1 cubic centi-
meter graduation marks were etched on a 100 cubic centimeter
cylinder, so that volumes up to 105 cubic centimeters could be
read. For a determination, 100 cubic centimeters of the water,
measured in this cylinder, are transferred to a dry 250 cubic
centimeter bottle (the glass-stoppered variety is convenient).
A very small piece of methyl orange paper is suspended in the
liquid by means of a platinum wire, while normal sulphuric
acid is added from’ a dropping bottle until the paper becomes
red. The paper is then removed to avoid coloring the liquid.

The liquid is then aspirated for five minutes with a con-
tinuous pressure bulb operated by hand. After aspiration, 1
cubic centimeter of phenolphthalein is added, followed by 0.2
N alcoholic caustic potash from a pipette, till a faint pink color-
ation develops. The liquid is now returned to the cylinder,
the bottle being drained as completely as possible. The volume
of the liquid is noted within 0.5 cubic centimeter. This will
usually be between 102 and 105 cubic centimeters.

About 10 cubic centimeters of the liquid are then introduced ~
into the mortar. One or more potassium palmitate pellets are
then added, until.an excess is present, that is, when a pronounced
phenolphthalein coloration is produced. More water is then
added from the cylinder, until the phenolphthalein coloration
completely disappears. The volume of water used is noted.
Several more pellets are then added, followed by water, till a
second end point is reached. The two determinations should
check each other within 0.5 to 1 cubic centimeter.

It is well to use four or five pellets in the two titrations to
avoid any considerable error due to the lack of uniformity in
the pellets.

To calculate the total hardness, it is first necessary to reduce
the number of cubic. centimeters of the water as used in the
determination to the equivalent number of cubic centimeters of

xu,a,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field 138

the original water, that is, before it was diluted with sulphuric
acid, phenolphthalein, and alcoholic potash. Then the total
hardness is computed from the value and number of the pellets
used.

For example, let us suppose that the original volume of 100
cubic centimeters had been diluted to 104.5 cubic centimeters
before titration with the palmitate pellets, each equivalent to
1.80 milligrams of calcium carbonate. Obviously the 48.5 cubic
centimeters used for the determination are equal to

48.5 X 100__
Waban

cubic centimeters of the original water.
Therefore the total hardness would be derived from the
expression

1,000 x 4 « 1.80
46.4

Or, using the data above, we may represent the entire calcula-
tion in one line as follows: Total hardness (as parts per million —
calcium carbonate) is equal to :

10 X 104.5 x 4 x 1.80__
48.5 a
Total solids may be also estimated with the aid of Dole’s

formula,’ slightly modified. For Philippine ground waters the
following will be found satisfactory:

155.

100 + normal carbonates (as Na,CO;) + bicarbonates (as CaCOs) + 1.7
SO; + 1.6 Cl.

Estimated encrustants are calculated (for clear water) from
Dole’s formula: °

Bicarbonate alkalinity (as CaCOs)

+ CaSO; + total hardness (as CaCO;)
5 ;

Assuming the sulphates to be present as calcium sulphate,
the CaSO, in the above formula may be calculated as 1.7 SO,.
In this form the formula is available for field work.

Classification for boiler use is based upon the amount of
estimated encrustants, as given by the American Railway En-
gineers’ Maintenance of Way Association: *

Estimated encrustants—=

* Dole, R. B., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1916), No. 399,
304,
°U.S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1910), No. 254, 232.
"Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. & Maint. Way Assoc. (1904), 5, 595,

14 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE V.—Classification for boiler use.

Paris per million.

Less than 90 : Good.
90 to 200 Fair.
200 to 480 Poor.
430 to 680 Bad.
Over 680 Very bad.

The use of the Berkefeld army filter to clarify turbid waters,
as suggested by Leighton, has been discontinued in our field
work for several reasons. Comparatively few of the waters
examined on the average field trip are turbid. An analy-
sis of only the clear portion of a turhid water is ordinarily
not of great value, and when it is desired, a clear sample is
readily obtained by sedimentation or by filtration through cotton
or paper. Turbidity interferes appreciably only with the de-
termination of sulphates. Its effect can be readily overcome
by determining the turbidity of the liquid after adding hydro-
chloric acid and before adding barium chloride and subtracting
this from the reading obtained after the sulphates have been
precipitated. The difference represents the sulphate turbidity,
and the amount of sulphates can be determined from the table
without appreciable error. In short, the Berkefeld filter has
found such limited application in our work that the minor bene-
fits derived from its use have not been commensurate with the
trouble and inconvenience of carrying it.

Accuracy of field determinations.—While field methods do not
claim the exactness and accuracy possible in the laboratory,
it is interesting to note that in several cases the values obtained
by the two procedures do not differ very widely. As has been
previously stated, results obtained in laboratory determina-
tions are expressed in terms of two significant figures only.
This mode of expression itself involves limits of accuracy that
permit a maximum error of about 4 per cent. The average
accuracy of field determinations, as stated by Leighton and con-
firmed in our own work, is roughly about 5 per cent. Turbidity
shows the widest variation, ranging from about 3 per cent with
turbidities of 500. to 1,000 parts per million to about 16 per
cent with a turbidity of 30 parts per million, the deviation
increasing fairly regularly with decreasing turbidities.

There are several sources of probable error of which the
following are the most important:

When using a 100 cubic centimeter graduated cylinder, vol-
umes cannot be read more accurately than to the nearest tenth
-of a cubic centimeter and often not that accurately. Further,

xu,4,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field |= 15

when the mortar is washed with the water under examination,
a certain amount remains in the mortar, which affects the volume
subsequently employed for the next titration. Also the lack of
uniformity in the pellets may introduce a very appreciable error.

In our own work additional. sources of probable error have
been encountered with ‘tabloid’ methods. Our pellets are
molded by hand and are, consequently, not as uniform as ma-
chine-made pellets. This is especially true of the potassium
palmitate pellets, which form a sticky pill mass that dries very
quickly and that is very difficult to mold uniformly. Again
kaolin is used in the sodium carbonate and silver nitrate pellets
and obscures the end points, thus decreasing the accuracy of
the determinations.

In the “tabloid” determinations outlined above our methods
differ from Leighton’s in that, in the determination of chlorides
and of total alkalinity, Leighton treated a known quantity of
water with an excess of reagent to obtain an end point, while
in all cases we titrate a known amount of reagent with the water
to secure an end point. The former method gives values that
lie between certain limits, as the excess of reagent is added in
the form of parts of a pellet, and consequently the exact amount
of reagent required for the titration is not determined. By
making the excess small, the deviation from the true value is
correspondingly decreased.

By our method, however, the exact titrating volume required
is determined quickly and fairly accurately. The approach to
the end point is thus reversed. This probably introduces an
error in the determination of chlorides, which, however, is cer-
tainly much less than that involved in Leighton’s method. It
should be also remembered that the standardization of the pellets
is made in the same manner as the field determination, thus
decreasing the probable error. In the case of the determination
of alkalinity, however, where methyl orange or butter yellow
is employed as indicator, the reversed approach to the end point
(that is, from acid to alkali) is theoretically the more correct
of the two procedures and should, therefore, further increase
the accuracy of the method as outlined above.

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

The bacteriological examination consists of two parts. One
of these is a colony count made from two plate cultures. The
other is a presumptive test for the presence of organisms of
the B. coli group, which is made with one or more culture tubes.

The culture medium used in both cases is litmus lactose agar

16 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

(1.5 to 2.0 per cent agar, 1 per cent lactose). The reaction of
this medium is almost neutral, there being present barely enough
alkalinity to give a slight blue. It is put up in test tubes, in
10 cubic centimeter portions, and is thoroughly sterilized.

The Petri dishes used for the plate cultures are packed in
individual envelopes and then sterilized. The envelopes, made
of heavy Manila paper, are about the same width as the dishes
and about twice as long as they are wide. Packages of six
plates, well wrapped with paper, may be transported with little
danger of breakage and will remain sterile indefinitely.

The pipettes used hold 1 cubic centimeter and are about 20
centimeters long. If these are not available, they may be readily
made from glass tubing. The pipettes in lots of six are well
wrapped in cheesecloth, having several folds of cloth between
one pipette and the next. The ends of the package are tied
‘together, and the package is inserted in a tin can just large
enough for the purpose. The closed tin can containing the
pipettes is then sterilized. While warm, the can is sealed with
adhesive tape. When cool, the tape is well covered with paraffin.
Pipettes so packed will remain sterile almost indefinitély.

For several kinds of work sterile bottles may be employed.
Instead of the ordinary cotton plugs, which are often either
pushed in or which come out during transportation, we use a
cotton-covered cork. This arrangement has been found very
satisfactory.

Ordinarily two plate cultures and one tube culture are made
of each sample. Three tubes of media are thus required. The
tubes are melted by heating in water over an alcohol lamp and
are then cooled to 45°.

Plating is done at a temperature of from 40° to 43°C. For
a water such as that from a spring or artesian well, believed to
be comparatively pure, 0.5 and 1.0 cubic centimeter cultures
are made. For a water suspected of contamination, plates may
be made of 0.2, 0.1, or 0.05 cubic centimeter, depending on the
apparent degree of contamination. The water is introduced
into the Petri dish, the liquified agar is added, and the plate is
manipulated to insure thorough mixing. After complete cool-
ing, the plates are returned to their envelopes and carried in
an inverted position to prevent spreading of the colonies by
water. of condensation.

The tube culture for the presumptive test is made by intro-
ducing the desired amount of water into the tube of liquified
agar and mixing thoroughly by agitation. - Usually 1 cubic centi-
meter is taken for this test, though more or less may be em-

x,4,1 Heise and Behrman: Water Analysis in Field a7

ployed. The upper limit will be determined by the fact that
1 per cent agar is the weakest that solidifies on cooling to the
‘ temperatures ordinarily encountered (25° to 30° C.).

Incubation is at the ordinary temperature. No special ap-
paratus is, therefore, required.

Colony counts are made both at the end of twenty-four and
forty-eight hours, using a lens magnifying at least 5 diameters.
The average of the two counts is the recorded value.

When the number of colonies is high, the plate is marked
into sectors of convenient size, and the total number of colonies ©
is estimated, or else the number on representative areas of 1
square centimeter is determined (a small card with openings
of appropriate size and shape has been found very convenient
for field work), and the necessary calculation for the total area
is made. The presence of red colonies is noted.

The presence of the organisms of the colon group is indicated
by the formation of gas in the tube cultures and by the for-
mation of acid, as shown by the change of litmus from blue
to red.

Summing up the whole question of the value of field methods,
it might not be out of place to quote from the introduction of
Leighton’s paper:

To the methods hereinafter proposed the term “assay” readily lends
itself. There is no attempt at water analysis. The plan contemplates the
determination of ingredients which give to water certain well-known charac-
teristics. The methods have been found to be more nearly accurate than
was at first anticipated, though this fact, it is believed, has not greatly
increased their usefulness for the purposes in view. By their use, combined
with a fair amount of common sense, the essential characteristics of waters
can be ascertained at small expense. In almost every situation in which
such determinations are significant they will afford sufficiently satisfactory
data. In the case of finely balanced considerations of a purely physical,
chemical, or geologic nature, however, they are practically useless. They
are intended for practical purposes and have no place in pure science.

In the Philippines field methods have shown themselves to
be both accurate and efficient. They have enabled the differen- -
tiation between good and bad waters used for domestic pur-
poses, the selection of proper water for municipal supplies, the
condemnation of dangerous sources of infection in cholera-
infested districts, and the rapid evaluation of waters desired
for industrial purposes.

151772——2

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ILLUSTRATION

used in a field assay of water.

- packed for | ransportation.

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19

HEISE AND BEHRMAN: WATER ANALYSIS IN THE FIELD. ] [PuHm. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, No. 1.

Fig. 1. Apparatus used ina field assay of water.

Fig. 2. The same, packed for transportation.

PLATE I.

TWO FIELD METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE
TOTAL HARDNESS OF WATER +

By A. S. BEHRMAN

(From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila)

In a field examination of the chemical quality of water the
determination of total hardness is one of the most important
analytical procedures. The data thus obtained, when used in
conjunction with the results of the other commonly made deter-
minations, give definite and quantitative information as to the
nature of the most important of the dissolved constituents.
This knowledge may be employed to advantage in connection
with various problems related to water supplies, such as pota-
bility, purification, and industrial applications.

The Blacher method ? for the determination of the total hard-
ness of water by titration with potassium palmitate has been
found to possess several marked advantages over the standard
soap solution and similar procedures. It is clear-cut, accurate,
and rapid.

Based on a study? of this method as applied to the analysis
of typical Philippine waters, two field methods for the deter-
mination of hardness have been devised. Both are “tabloid” in
nature, employing pellets of potassium palmitate instead of a
solution of the reagent.

METHOD I

The first of these procedures is similar to Leighton’s field
modification ¢ of the soap-solution method, in that the reagent
is added in tablets of three strengths, until a sufficient excess
is present to give a characteristic end reaction. Pellets of the
same reacting values as those suggested by Leighton for sodium
oleate are used, namely, 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 milligrams of calcium
carbonate, respectively.

One hundred cubic centimeters of the sample are measured
into a 250 cubic centimeter bottle. A small piece of methyl

* Received for publication September 11, 1917. -

* Blacher, C., Griinberg, P., and Kissa, M., Chem. Zeitg. (1913), 37, 56-8.
*Behrman, A. S., This Journal, Sec. A (1916), 11, 291.

* Leighton, M. O., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1905), No. 151.

21

292, The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

orange (or butter yellow) paper is suspended in the liquid by
a hooked platinum wire, and normal sulphurie acid is added
from a dropping bottle, until the indicator gives a decided acid
_ reaction.” The paper is then removed from the bottle, to avoid
absorption of the indicator. The solution is next strongly as-
pirated for five minutes, to remove carbon dioxide, using a
continuous pressure atomizer bulb. When the aspiration has
been effected, 1 cubic centimeter of phenolphthalein indicator
solution (1 per cent) is added to the liquid by means of a 1
cubic centimeter-bulb pipette: The acidity of the solution is
neutralized with 0.2 N alcoholic potash, which is added drop by
drop until a barely perceptible pink is observed.

The solution is now ready for treatment with the pellets of
potassium palmitate. These are added in the same manner as
in Leighton’s method, using first the strong tablets and later
the weaker ones, until an excess is present. The end point in
this case is a deep phenolphthalein coloration.

A short cut that may be used advantageously in this method
is to pour half of the solution to be treated with the pellets
into another receptacle. Strong pellets are added rapidly to
the portion in the bottle, until an excess has been provided.
The remainder of the liquid is then returned to the bottle, after
which the end point may be approached quickly, using the infor-
mation gained in the treatment of the first portion.*®

METHOD II

The second procedure differs from the first in that the end
point is reached when an excess of the water, instead of potas-
sium palmitate, is present. In addition, pellets of only one
strength are employed, “whole” tablets being advantageously
used.

A 100 cubic centimeter portion of the sample is acidified,

* The addition of acid would, of course, be unnecessary in the case of a
water with an acidity due to mineral acids. Such waters are extremely
rare in the Philippines.

° From the number and strength of pellets used, the hardness of the water
is readily calculated. Thus, if there were required 7 “whole,” 3 “half,’’ and
2 “quarter” tablets, having reacting values of 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 milligrams of
calcium carbonate, respectively, the total hardness, expressed in terms of
parts per million of calcium carbonate, would be derived from the following
expression:

Total hardness= 1,000 x [(7 x 2.0) + (8 x 1.0) + (2 x 0.5)] —180.

100

xm,4,1 Behrman: Determination of Hardness of Water 23

aspirated, and neutralized, exactly as in the first method. The
liquid, thus prepared, is returned to the 100 cubic centimeter
cylinder, and the volume is noted with the aid of graduation
marks, etched on the cylinder at 1 cubic centimeter intervals to
105 cubic centimeters. The volume of the liquid should be read
to the nearest 0.5 cubic centimeter. This will be usually found
to be between 102 and 105 cubic centimeters.

In a small (100 cubic centimeter), heavily glazed porcelain
mortar two or three pellets of potassium palmitate are crushed
with 10 or 15 cubic centimeters of water from the cylinder. If
an excess of the reagent is not indicated by the characteristic
phenolphthalein coloration, more pellets are added until this
condition is reached. More water is then added from the cylin-
der, slowly and with constant stirring, until the phenolphthalein
coloration completely disappears, giving place to a creamy or
yellowish white (depending on the amount of methyl orange
absorbed during acidification). The end point is sharp and is
easily determined. The volume required for the first end point -
is noted, reading to the nearest 0.5 cubic centimeter. Several
more pellets are then added, preferably using the same number
as before. Water is again supplied from the cylinder, until a
second end point is obtained, and the amount used is noted.
The two volumes should check within 0.5 cubic centimeter in
fairly hard waters. Where a slightly larger difference is found,
the mean of the two determinations may be employed in cal-
culating the total hardness.’ P

PREPARATION AND STANDARDIZATION OF POTASSIUM
PALMITATE TABLETS

Potassium palmitate being unavailable, it was prepared by
the neutralization of an alcoholic solution of purified palmitic

"The volume used in the determination is reduced to the volume of the
original water, that is, before being diluted with acid, indicator, and alkali.
The total hardness is then calculated from this corrected volume of water
and from the number and strength of potassium palmitate tablets employed
in the determination. Thus, if a 100 cubic centimeter portion of a given
water was diluted to 103.5 cubic centimeters before treatment with potassium
palmitate, and if, of this diluted volume, 42.5 cubic centimeters were re-
quired to react with 4 pellets of potassium palmitate, each equivalent to 2.0
milligrams of calcium carbonate, the total hardness, expressed as parts per
million of calcium carbonate, would be found from the following expression:

10 x 103.5 x 4 X 2.0

Toiehnatdh esse
Sige 42.5

9A The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

acid with a normal solution of alcohol potash. The resulting
liquid was evaporated to dryness.

For the “whole” tablets 100 grams of finely. powdered glucose
are used with the potassium palmitate from 15 grams of pal-
mitic acid. Corresponding amounts are employed for the weaker
pellets. With the aid of a little distilled water, a homogeneous
pill mass is made and is promptly molded to avoid changes in’
consistency. Where molding must be done by hand, a Whithall
Tatum Company No. 2 tablet mold, which makes fifty pellets
at one time, has been found satisfactory.

After being molded, the pellets are dusted with powdered talc;
they are then dried, first in the air and then in a desiccator.
They are subsequently packed in glass tubes, which hold about
forty pellets and which are sealed with paraffin until desired
for use.

The potassium palmitate pellets are standardized with a solu-
tion of calcium sulphate, prepared as follows from a saturated
’ solution of calcium hydroxide: The normality of the calcium
hydroxide is determined by titration with standard 0.1 N sulphu-
ric acid. Into a 200 cubic centimeter volumetric flask are pipet-
ted 100 cubic centimeters of the calcium hydroxide solution,
and 1 cubic centimeter of phenolphthalein indicator solution is
added. The solution is acidified with normal sulphuric acid
and is then neutralized with 0.2 N alcoholic potash. Only a
very faint phenolphthalein coloration should be present. Re-
cently boiled, distilled water is now added to the mark.

Five of the pellets to be standardized are crushed in a mortar
with a little distilled water, and phenolphthalein is added. This
solution is titrated with the calcium sulphate, prepared as above,
which is added drop by drop from a burette, with constant
stirring. The end point is the disappearance of the phenol-
phthalein coloration,’ just as in the field determination. From
the mean of several such standardizations is calculated the .
reacting value of the pellets.

Unfortunately pellets of potassium palmitate lose their strength
rather rapidly and must, therefore, be restandardized at fre-
quent intervals. The exact cause of this deterioration is not
as yet definitely known, but from the data at hand, it appears at

‘It is essential, in preparing from palmitic acid the potassium palmitate
to be used for pellets, that neutralization be effected with the slightest
possible excess of alkali. If any appreciable amount of free alkali is present,
the alkaline reaction to phenolphthalein will be due-to this cause as well as
to hydrolysis of the potassium palmitate and will not, therefore, disappear
when an excess of calcium or magnesium salts is present.

x,4,1 Behrman: Determination of Hardness of Water’ 25

least possible that the reason may be found in an acid fermen-
tation of the glucose, in which a portion of the potassium pal-
mitate is decomposed, with the separation of free palmitic acid.

It is possible that this objection may be overcome by the
choice of a material more suitable than glucose. However, using
the pellets made with glucése, it has been found very satisfactory
to standardize the tablets weekly in the central laboratory in
Manila and to supply the worker in the field with these data.
A typical series of such standardizations is given in Table I.

TABLE I.—Reacting values of “whole” potassium palmitate pellets.
(Milligrams of calcium carbonate per pellet.)

Date. Reacting value.
April 4 1.68
April 12 1.59
April 27 1:52
April 30 1.49
May 7 : 1.43
May 14 33
May 21 . ‘ 22,
May 28 1.06
June 5 0.89

The figures in Table I indicate a gradual and fairly uniform
loss of strength in the pellets. In field investigations extending
over comparatively short periods of time, reacting values may
be obtained without serious error by interpolation. Where an
extensive field study is planned, however, the method of periodic
standardization in a central laboratory is preferable.

ACCURACY OF RESULTS AND COMPARISON OF METHODS

The first method described is essentially a field modification
of Blacher’s laboratory procedure and, therefore, has as its
maximum accuracy that of the latter manipulation. From this
must be subtracted the errors accruing from the field technic.
Here the possible sources of error are the presence of a relatively
large amount of glucose, the lack of uniformity of the pellets,
the inaccuracy in reading volumes, and the fact that an excess
of reagent is employed to obtain the end point.

The accuracy of the Blacher laboratory method has been found
by a number of workers” to be about 2 to 3 per cent. That
- glucose does not introduce an error, in the quantities used, was

* Zink, J., and Hollandt, F., Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. (1914), 27, 489.
Nochmann, E., Pharm. Zentralh. (1914), 55, 436-7. Behrman, A. S., loc.
cit.

26 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

shown in a series of experiments in which concentrations as
high as 2 per cent of glucose—a condition not met with in prac-
tice—were employed without appreciably affecting the end point.
Since volumes may be read to 0.1 cubic centimeter with a tall
100 cubic centimeter cylinder, the error involved here is also
negligible. The error due to the excess of reagent present when
an end point is obtained may be reduced to 1 or 2 per cent by
making the excess small. The error due to lack of uniformity
in the pellets may be placed at a like figure. .

It is, therefore, reasonable to assume an error of about 5
per cent in using this method, an estimate that was verified
in the case of several natural and artificially prepared waters.
This degree of accuracy is ordinarily sufficient in questions of
potability or of the suitability of a water for technical purposes.

No extensive comparison was made of results obtained from
this method and those from gravimetric determinations. This
was due to the fact that the first method was discontinued in
favor of the second, as soon as the latter had been shown to
be sufficiently accurate for field work.

The second procedure possesses three important advantages
over the first:

(1) It is more rapid. The solution of the pellets in the
first method requires considerable time. It was found that
from fifteen to twenty minutes were required for a determination |
by the first method, while ten to twelve minutes sufficed for
the second. (The five minutes employed in aspiration in both
methods may be usually subtracted from the time of the analyst
required, as this may be performed by an unskilled attendant. )

(2) Less reagent is needed. As only a part of the sample
taken is treated with potassium palmitate, the second method
will ordinarily require only a third or a fourth of the number
of pellets required in the first.

(3) Several determinations may be rapidly made from the
same sample, thus avoiding any gross error that may occur in
a single determination.

The error of the second method is, like that of the first, about
5 per cent. It is believed that the accuracy of the method could
be increased by machine-molding the pellets, thus securing
greater uniformity, and by the selection of a: material more
suitabie for binding and filling than glucose.

In Table II are shown the results of a number of field deter-
minations of total hardness by the second method, compared
with the calculated values of the same from gravimetric analyses
of the calcium and magnesium contents.

xi, 4,1 Behrman: Determination of Hardness of Water

27

TABLE II]—Comparison of field and gravimetric determinations of total

hardness."

Total Total
No. Galeium.| Magne- |hardness| hardness) "or
lated). |method).| °ent)-
ih pan te A US SAE SR | Se he 140 11 395 385 2.5
DR aes ME ees by et 36° 14 150 G5i MUELOL0
oe ES Sew Cine oe Ps al at 94 21 320 340 6.3
Ape POT RLS IEE at 80 24 300 285 5.0
ce. ee Se Ce coer eee 34 25 185 195 5.4
B neon tt GL ee RS ae en ee ae 12 3.8 46 49 6.5
f seinecvecee et pth Meebo ae eam ete 92 28 345 350 1.5 °

8 The gravimetric determinations herein recorded were made by Mr. J. Gonzales y Nunez,
Inorganic chemist, Bureau of Science.

SUMMARY

Two methods have been described for the rapid determination
Both methods have
been shown to be applicable to field investigations, though pre-

in the field of the total hardness of water.

ference has been given to the second procedure.

The latter has

been employed, with satisfactory results, for the past eight
months in connection with the water survey made by the Bureau

of Science.

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SOME GENERALIZATIONS ON THE INFLUENCE OF SUBSTANCES
ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE *

By J. C. WITT

(From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila)

The great variety of uses which modern industry is finding
for concrete is continually presenting new problems for research
and likewise increasing the importance of work that was
completed at a time when the theoretical side was perhaps the
only one under consideration. I refer especially to the sensitive-
ness of cement to many substances and to the destructive chemical
action of some external agencies on concrete. The presence of
any one of a number of organic or inorganic substances in the
water or aggregates used in mixing concrete may seriously inter-
fere with the work or later result in its failure. Even after
concrete has been properly made and placed and the work has
not failed in either quality or design, it sometimes happens that
the construction is not permanent, because it comes into contact
with some destructive substance.

This field of research. is becoming more important year by
year, because of the many new demands being made on the
material. Sewer and drain pipe, storage tanks for various liq-
uids, and even boats are now made of concrete. Therefore it
is not surprising that the material should be called upon to resist
conditions which were not known a few years ago. These agen-
cies may be encountered in a number of ways. For instance,
a sewer pipe may be capable of resisting the ordinary substances
found in sewage, but may be injured by some industrial waste
material which has found its way into the drainage system.
Storage tanks may be constructed for a liquid in the belief that
they will be satisfactory, but later it may be found that the
liquid acts on the concrete, either injuring the tank or contam-
inating the liquid.?

It is highly desirable that as many substances as possible be
investigated in relation to their effect on cement, so that the
presence of harmful ones may be avoided in mixing concrete

* Received for publication May 2, 1917.

*Cf. Rohland, P., Beton u. Hisen (1914), 13, 341; Feuerungstechnic
(1914), 2, 360. Sartori, A., Chem. Zeitg. (1915), 39, 957. Hinzlemann, R.,
Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1904), 23, 995.

29

30 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

and that the finished construction may be protected from them.
Although it does not follow that the effect of a substance on
cement as shown in the laboratory will necessarily be duplicated
with concrete in practice, nevertheless such research is useful
in indicating what substances are likely to cause trouble.

The literature since 1889, when Chandlot ? made the important
observation that certain substances affect the setting of cement,
contains many papers on the subject. Some of these are simply
reports of observed failures of concrete, while others are the
result of much careful labor. At first it appears that the subject
must be fairly well covered, but a study of the papers reveals
that there is not much agreement among the various inves-
tigators. Table I shows an alphabetical list of electrolytes that
have been studied relative to their effect on cement. When the
same one is mentioned in more than one paper, the references
have been arranged chronologically.

TABLE ].—Effect of electrolytes on cement, as reported by a number of
investigators.

Aluminium chloride. Dobrzynski, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1892), 11, 525.

A cement was gauged with water and with ammonium chloride solu-

tions, ranging from 1 to 6 per cent. The lower concentration resulted

in an increased tensile strength for 7-day briquettes, while the re-

verse was true with the higher concentrations. All the solutions
lowered the strength of 28-day briquettes.

Aluminium chloride. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33,
2831. ,
The set was accelerated; no details are given.

Aluminium chloride. P. Rohland, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. (19038), 16,
1049.
The original setting time of a cement was five hours and eight minutes.
It was accelerated to one hour and eight minutes by using a 5.5 per
cent aluminium chloride solution. With a 9 per cent solution the
setting time was four hours and fifty-nine minutes.
Ammonium sulphate. L. Perin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1906), 25, 812.
Ammonium sulphate (0.86 per cent) has a greater influence on the set
of cement than an equivalent amount of calcium sulphate (on the
basis of the sulphuric anhydride content).
Barium chloride. Dobrzynski, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1892), 11, 525.
A cement was gauged with a solution of barium chloride, ranging from

1 to 6 per cent. The tensile strength was considerably increased in
every case.

Boric acid. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
The set was retarded; no details are given.

*Chandlot, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1889), 8, 543.

XIII, A, 1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 31

Calcium chloride. Chandlot, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1889), 8, 543.
' The set was retarded.

Calcium chloride. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
The set was accelerated; no details are given.

Calcium chloride. N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 972.
Small amounts retard the set; large amounts accelerate it.

Calcium chloride. P. Rohland, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. (1903), 16, 1049.

A cement gauged with calcium chloride solutions from 11.10 per cent

to 25.90 per cent showed constantly decreasing setting time. The

maximum change was from nine hours and thirty minutes to five
hours.

Calcium chloride. R. C. Carpenter, Eng. Rec. (1904), 50, 769.
An addition of 0.5 per cent produced the greatest retardation.
This amount had no injurious effect on the ultimate strength.

_ Calcium chloride. O. von Blaese, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1907), 26, 19.
The maximum retardation was produced with a 2 per cent solution.

Calcium chloride. P. Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
’ A small amount retards the set, but a large amount accelerates it.

Calcium chloride. Spielgeberg, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 1181.
The effect varies with the composition and general properties of the
cement. ;

Calcium chloride. H. Burchartz, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1910), 29, 1108.
A small addition retards the set, while a larger one accelerates it.
Four samples which were mixed with 20 per cent of the salt failed
in soundness.

Calcium chloride. O. Kallauner, Z. Betonbau (1914), No. 2; Mitt. Cent.
Ford. Deut. Port. Cement Ind., 3, 213. [Chem. Abst. (1914), 8,
2236.]

It decreases the strength. - The author believes that all soluble calcium
salts decompose cement.

Calcium chromate. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
It retards the set. No details are given.

Calcium hydroxide. R. C. Carpenter, Eng. Rec. (1904), 50, 769.
Slaked lime (2 to 4 per cent), added to a cement which had become
quick setting, restored it to normal.

Calcium nitrate. Chandlot, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1889), 8, 548.
The set is retarded.

Calcium nitrate. O. Kallauner, Z. Betonbau (1914), No. 2; Mitt. Cent.
Ford. Deut. Port. Cement Ind., 3, 213. [Chem. Abst. (1914), 8,
2236. ] :
There is a decrease in strength.

Calcium oxychloride. F. Hauenschild, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21,
£75:
The strength of specimens stored in air is increased, but the reverse is
true of specimens stored in water.

32 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

_ Calcium sulphate. Chandlot, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1889), 8, 543.
The set is retarded.

Calcium sulphate. L. Deval, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 971.
It produces a change of form and an increase in volume with a tendency
to diminish the tensile strength. It has no effect on nonaluminium —
cements nor on those low in calcium.

Calcium sulphate. R. C. Carpenter, Eng. Rec. (1904), 50, 769.
The maximum setting time was obtained with an addition of 1.5 per
cent.

Calcium sulphate. P. Rohland, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. (1905), 18, 327.
The effect varies for nearly every cement, depending on the size > of
grain, the chemical composition, etc.

Calcium sulphate. lL. Perin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1906), 25, 812.
Plaster of paris and raw gypsum (containing equivalent amounts of
sulphuric anhydride) have the same effect.

Calcium sulphate. Spiegelberg, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, Thats,
The effect varies from the composition of the cement.

Calcium sulphate. W. C. Reibling and F. D. .-Reyes, Phil. Journ. Sci.,
Sec. A (1911), 6, 225.
The maximum retardation is produced with 2 to 3 per cent of calcium
sulphate.

Calcium sulphate. O. Kallauner, Z. Betonbau (1914), No. 2; Mitt. Cent.
Ford. Deut. Port. Cement Ind., 3, 218. [Chem. Abst. (1914), 8,
2236.]

Temporarily the strength is increased.

Calcium sulphate. J. C. Witt, and F. D. Reyes, Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A
(19177). 1253s.

Six brands of cement were tested with additions of calcium sulphate.

In general, the maximum retardation of set was produced by 1.5 to

2 per cent sulphuric anhydride. Lower tensile strength and high

expansion in sea water resulted when more than 3 per cent was

present. ;

Calcium sulphide. N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 972.
Calcium sulphide forms an insoluble compound with calcium hydroxide,
but the effect is relatively low, because about 3 parts of the sulphide
are required to combine with 1 part of the hydroxide.

Calcium sulphate. O. Kallauner, Z. Betonbau (1914), No. 2; Mitt. Cent.
Ford. Deut. Port. Cement Ind., 3, 2138. [Chem. Abst. (1914), 8,
2236.]

Temporarily the strength is increased.

Calcium thiosulphate. O. Kallauner, Z. Betonbau (1914), No. 2; Mitt. Cent.
Ford. Deut. Port: Cement Ind., 3, 2138. [Chem. Abst. (1914), 8
2236.]

Temporarily the strength is increased.

XML A,1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 83

Carbon dioxide (aqueous solution). N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.

(1902), 21, 972. c

A pronounced accelerating effect is noted, though the solubility of the
gas in water is low.

Carbon dioxide. C. Montemartini, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1908), 27, 228.
When dry, cement is treated with a current of dry carbon dioxide; no
change is apparent.

Ferrous sulphate. French patent 408,060, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1910),
29, 631.
The addition of 1 to 3 per cent ferrous sulphate is said to quicken the
set and increase the strength.

Lithium chloride. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
There is no effect.

Magnesium chloride. Dobrzynski, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1892), 11, 525.

The concentration of the solutions was from 1 to 6 per cent. The lower

percentages causes a slight increase in tensile strength, while the
higher ones causes a slight decrease.

Magnesium chloride. O. von Blaese, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1907), 26, 19.
The maximum setting time is obtained with 6 per cent of the salt.

Potassium aluminium sulphate. L. Perrin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1906),
25, 812.
’ When cement is mixed with 1.54 per cent of the salt, the setting time
is unchanged. The author believes that the presence of aluminium
is responsible for the negative effect.

Potassium carbonate. N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 972.
No comments are made.

Potassium dichromate. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33,
2881.
The set is retarded. No details are given.

Potassium dichromate. P. Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
The set is retarded.

Potassium sulphate. P. Rohland, Zeitschr, f. angew. Chem. (1903), 16, 1049.
The set is retarded or accelerated, depending on conditions.

Sodium bisulphite. H. Luftschitz, Tonind-Zeitg. (1918), 37, 1986.
The salts were mixed with cement in various proportions from 0.5 to
4 per cent, and tests were made for tensile and compressive strength.
The strength of the specimens decreases with increased amount of
salts.

Sodium borate. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
The set is retarded. No details are given.

Sodium borate. P, Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
The set is retarded.
1517723

34 The Philippine Journal of Science | 1918

Sodium carbonate. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
The set is accelerated. No details are given.

Sodium carbonate. N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 972.
No comments are made.
Sodium carbonate. P. Rohland, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. (1903), 16, 1049.

The set is first retarded and then accelerated. The results were similar
but different in degree for the several cements investigated.

Sodium carbonate. P. Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
The set is accelerated.
Sodium chloride. Chandlot, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1889), 8, 543.
It. has no influence on either set or tensile strength.
Sodium chloride. Dobrzynski, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1892), 11, 525.
Sodium chloride solutions from 1 to 6 per cent were employed; most
of them caused a slight increase in the 7-day strength and a slight
decrease in the 28-day strength.
Sodium chloride. P. Rohland, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
It has no effect. No details are given.
Sodium chloride. N. Ljamin, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1902), 21, 972.
No comments are made.
Sodium chloride. P. Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
Small quantities have no effect.
Sodium chloride. A. Passow, Tonind. Zeitg. (1914), 38, 995.
Strength is increased by adding 0.5 to 1 per cent sodium chloride by

immersing the specimens in a salt solution. The effect is attributed
to the increased Sola BE aae of calcium hydroxide in sodium chloride

solution.
Sodium sulphate. P. Rohland, Ber. d: deutsch. chem. Ges. (1901), 33, 2831.
The set is retarded. No details are given. ;

Sodium sulphate. P. Rohland, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1909), 28, 23.
The set is retarded.
Sodium sulphide. J. C. Witt, Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1916), 11, 273.

Small amounts retard the set, but larger amounts accelerate it.
The tensile strength is decreased. In general, the cements highest in
iron are most affected.

Table I reveals that, regardless of the value of each paper
when considered alone, the general subject shows little progress.‘
Aside from certain substances which have been investigated
in great detail by a number of workers—such as calcium sul-
phate—it is impossible to find much definite information in the
literature. In some cases an electrolyte has been investigated
by only one worker. As a rule, one paper does not cover suffi-
cient ground to make the work of general value. This is true

*Cf. Desch, C. H., The Chemistry’ and Testing of Cement. Edward
Arnold, London (1911), 127.

XI, A, 1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 35

of boric acid, barium chloride; calcium oxychloride, calcium
thiosulphate, and lithium chloride. When a substance has been
investigated by a number of persons, it often happens that
conflicting statements are published. According to Chandlot and
Rohland,’ sodium chloride has no effect on cement, but Dobrzyn-
ski and Passow say that it increases the tensile strength. Roh-
land classes sodium carbonate as an accelerator of the set of
cement, while in a previous paper he stated that it might either
retard or accelerate it. Similar disagreements on the effect of
calcium chloride may be found, though its general effect on the
set has been established. One interesting example of dis-
agreement is that of ferrous compounds. Desch®° is of the opi-
nion that if any ferrous iron is present in cement it may be
converted into ferrous sulphide by calcium sulphide, which is
produced by the reducing action of the fuel. Ferrous sulphide is
-considered objectionable because of its ability to become oxidized,
which would result in a change in volume. However, there is a
French patent for the right to add from 1 to 3 per cent dry fer-
rous sulphate to cement. It is claimed that this will accelerate
the set and increase the strength. The general effect of calcium
sulphate is perhaps better known than that of any other sub-
stance, because so much research has resulted from its use in the
manufacture of cement. However, there are still many conflict-
ing views on the role of the substance in controlling the set and
the amount that can be added without endangering the quality.’

The causes that have thus far prevented many of the investi-
gations carried on by various workers from being comparable
may be divided into two classes:

1. Details that either cannot be controlled by the investigator

or which can be controlled only with considerable difficulty.

- These include the individual characteristics of cements, resulting
from the composition of the raw materials and the methods of
manufacture; the personal equation of the investigator; varia-
tions in temperature and humidity due to change of season and
to location; and differences in apparatus and methods of pro--
cedure in various countries.. Most of these points do not require
explanation. It is well known that cements of the same chemical
analysis may be entirely different in their physical properties.
While it would be possible to control the temperature and
humidity of laboratories so that cement could always be tested

°*See Table I.
° Desch, C. H., op. cit., 75.
"Cf. Witt, J. C., and Reyes, F. D., This Journal, Sec. A (1917), 12, 133.

36. The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

under the same conditions, the time and expense would be hardly
justified.

2. Details which can be easily controlled by the investigator.
These include the adoption of some definite plan for the work,
so that results obtained with different substances may be directly
comparable in so far as the concentration and purity of the solu-
tions employed are concerned; analysis and physical tests of all
cements as received; the choice of a sufficient number of cements
so that results may be considered as averages.

- Chemical and physical tests of all cements investigated should
be made because the results may point out the constituent of
the cement that is most concerned in the observed results. The
conditions under which work is carried on, including the average
temperature, humidity, and laboratory methods, should be given
because they are of recognized importance. As a rule, solutions
are made on the percentage basis and are not afterward analyzed.
The results obtained are not directly comparable in some re-
spects. For instance, it usually happens that no account is taken
of atomic weights and valencies. An investigator may make
solutions of aluminium chloride and sodium chloride and com-
pare results obtained by the same percentage concentrations
of each, and yet aluminium chloride contains a much higher
percentage of chlorine than does sodium chloride. Likewise
in comparing the relative effects of calcium chloride and calcium
sulphate the percentage basis is not the proper one.

It is apparent that much progress cannot be made in this
field of investigation until the results of various workers can
be connected by certain generalizations. The points of basic
importance are: i

1. Does the effect of an electrolyte depend on the negative ion,
the positive ion, or on both?

2. Is the degree of solubility of the corresponding calcium
salt important?

3. Can the effect of an untried electrolyte be predicted from
results obtained with others?

4. Can the observed effect be traced to any particular constit-
uent of the cement?

When 1 and 2 have been determined for a large number of
electrolytes, it should be possible to predict the effect of an un-
tried electrolyte—at least qualitatively—on many cements.
Number 4 is of great practical importance. Such data could
be used as a factor in determining the cement best suited for
construction that is to be exposed to certain conditions. This
has been already taken advantage of in the study of the effect

‘

XIII, A,1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 37
of sea water on cement. It has been shown for some cements
that the iron content is one of the factors which determines
the effect of sodium sulphide.®

» This paper presents experiments that have been undertaken
in an effort to correlate investigations in this field of research.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Two barrels each of foux brands of cement were chosen.
Each barrel was carefully sampled, and the cement was then
preserved in suitable containers during the progress of the
work. The results of the chemical analysis and the physical
tests of the cements as received in the lakoratory are given in
Tables II and III.

TABLE II.—Chemical analysis of cements.

[Numbers give percentages. ]

| * Lie | II. Ill. IV. |
SIRIEIONTIULON eee ee. St ae 5 BSE ee 2.43 2.15 2.17 3.24
Sri, SOD eT 8 eS ee eee ee ea eee ee 22.60 21.40 21.26 20. 62
nei (UAT) i ee a ees ae eee Seen 7.72 7.58 8.54 6. 62
prc mI eM e208) is ssn see ean ne oe ee CL 1.76 1.70 2.08 2.56
Malev Oxide (CaQ)) v= -- 6s. os ee ene ane eee es cased 61.32 62. 94 62. 82 63. 50
ERDTICs TaN UO) ee Sun ree se ese eee et ee Oe Lee 1.08 1.37 1.138 1.48
Sulphuric anhydride (SOs) ---.-------------------------- 1.45 1.61 1.02 0. 82
Sodium and potassium oxides (Na20, K20) ____-___-____ 1.63 1.14 1.17 | 1.33 |

TABLE III.—Physical tests of cements as received.

| Tensile strength in Tensile strength
Fineness. kilos per square in pounds per
Spe Initial centimeter. square inch.
Brand. ea | ats Final set.
200- | 100- | it¥- 28 | 180 28 | 180
mesh. | mesh, T days. days. | days. T days. days. | days.

48 | 18.7] 25.3] 25.6 267 359 | 365
44) 19.7| 24.6] 26.2 280 351 | 373

6

5
Pes 85.7 | 98.2] 3.12 3 36 6 12} 22.5) 27.4] 29.0 321 389 | 413
) ee 88.7| 89.4] 3.10) © 3 46 6 47} 15.4] 20.9] 26.2 218 297 | 373

The following electrolytes were chosen:

Sodium chloride. Sodium sulphate.

Zine chloride. Zine sulphate.

Copper chloride. - Copper sulphate.
Sodium nitrate. Sedium bicarbonate.
Potassium nitrate. Potassium bicarbonate.

Ammonium nitrate.

* Op. cit.

88 The Philippine Journal of Science + 1918

If a cement is gauged with solutions of several chlorides, con-
taining the same amount of chlorine per liter, it should give the
same results, aside from the experimental error, as far. as the
chlorine ion is concerned. In the same way, if we gauge a ce-
ment with solutions of several salts of sodium, for example,
having the same amount of sodium per liter, we have a basis
for comparing the effect of the negative ion. Further, by using
a number of salts that form soluble calcium compounds and
a number of others that produce difficultly soluble calcium com-
pounds, we should be able to obtain data on the question of
whether or not there is any relation between the effect of
electrolytes and the solubility of the calcium compounds which
they produce.

A stock solution of each electrolyte was first made and stand-
ardized. This was normal on the basis of the negative ion.
Various dilutions were then made as needed. Care was taken
to choose no electrolyte that contained the principal metallic
elements found in cement, such as calcium and aluminium, or
any that contained metals that might assume the same rdle,
such as iron and magnesium. The data on all solutions employed
are given in Table IV.

Mortar briquettes were made from each cement, using water
and four concentrations of each of the eleven solutions men-
tioned; also setting time® and soundness tests were made on
each cement with each solution. The approximate average tem-
perature was 30°C., and the average relative humidity was
about 80 per cent. All the tests were made in accordance with
United States Government specifications for Portland cement.*°
The normal consistency of each cement was determined with
the various solutions. The results are shown in Table V, VI,
and VII.

*Each cement used in this investigation contains calcium sulphate.
Consequently when a cement is gauged with a solution of an electrolyte, the
observed setting time may be included the resultant of the effect of the two
substances.

* See Circular 33, United States Bureau of Standards, Washington, Govy-
ernment Printing Office (1912).

XIII, A, 1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 89

TABLE IV.—Data on solutions employed.

Gramsof| Centi- Parts by weight per 100
pale vex poe of grams of cement.
cubic | solution
Salt: : Roel: centi- | required
. meter | for nor- Of posi- | Of nega-
(by anal-| mal con-| Of salt. | tive rad-| tive rad-
ysis). |sistency.a ical. ical.
a) =
0.05 0. 0029 0. 0640 0.0252 | 0.0388
Besodiciitchiloride meee eae te 0.10 0. 0058 0. 1339 0.0527 | 0.0812
0.50 0. 0291 0. 6695 0.2634 | 0.4061
1.00 0. 0582 1.2810 0.5040 | 0.7770
0.05 0. 0034 0. 0753 0.0361 | 0.0392°
Tio citi ae ee 0.10 0. 0068 0.1575 0.0756 | 0.0819
0.50 0. 0342 0. 7874 0.3779 | 0.4055

1. 5065 0.7226 | 0.7839
0. 0741 0.0351 | 0.0390
0. 1549 0.0732 | 0.0817
0.7745 0.3663 | 0.4082
1. 4824 0.7011 | 0.7813
0. 0937 0.0253 | 0.0684
0. 1959 0.0530 | 0.1419 _
0. 9796 0.2650 | 0.7145
1.8739 0.5069 | 1.3670
0. 1116 0.0432 | 0.0684

1.00] 0.0685
0.05] 0.00384
0.10! 0.0067
0.50| 0.0337
1.00} 0.0674
0.05} 0.0043
0.10 | 0.0085
0.50} 0.0426
1.00] 0.0852
0.05} 0.0051
0.10} 0.0102 23} 0.23884! 0.0904| 0.1480

SSSSSRSSRRBSSRBSSLK

| 0.50 | 0.0508 23} 1.1670} 0.4520 | 0.7150
1.00} 0.1015 22| 2.2382 | 0.8646 | 1.3686
0.05 | 0.0040 22,| 0.0888 | 0.0199 | 0.0684
BenpiiieGiivats <= | 0.10] 0.0080 23 | 0.1846 | 0.0416 | 0.1480
0.50} 0.0401 23} 0.9230} 0.2079] 0.7151
1.00} 0.0803 22| 1.7659) 0.3978} 1.3681
0.05 | 0.0036 22| 0.0785} 0.0254 | 0.0581
DrchASH ee | 0.10} 0.0071 23| 0.1643} 0.0532 | 0.1111
0.50} 0.0857 23] 0.8215] 0.2661 | 0.5554
1.00} 0.0714 22] 1.5719) 0.5091 | 1.0628
0.05} 0.0040 22} 0.0886} 0.0359 | 0.0527
22 | 0.10} 0.0081 23 | 0.1852 | 0.0751| 0.1101
0.50} 0.0403 23} 0.9260) 0.8753 | 0.5507
1.00} 0.0806 23| 1.7721/ o.71a1| 1.0540
0.05 | 0.0040 22| 0.0881} 0.0351} 0.0530
cea eee a ae ae | 0.10 | 0.0080 23} 0.1843 | 0.0784 | 0.1109
0.50} 0.0401 23] 0.9215) 0.3672} 0.5543
1.00} 0.0801 22| 1.7628} 0.7025 | 1.0608
0.05 | 0.0020 22] 0.0447! 0.0125] 0.0316
eine Ricarbanate 21. | 0.10} 0.0041 23} 0.0985 | 0.0262 | 0.0661
0.50} 0.0203 22| 0.4472| 0.1259] 0.3163
1.00} 0.0407 22| 0.8947} 0.2509] 0.6327
0.05 | 0.0024 22| 0.0538} 0.0185 | 0.0318

Ethanon hiewrtenate.. 0.10} 0.0049 23} 0.1126 | 0.0449 | 0.0663. |
|} 0.50} 0.0245 23 | 0.5629} 0.2246) 0.3319

1,00} 0.0489 22| 1.0769| 0.3706 | 0.6365 |

® The normal consistency values given in this column are averages for the four cements.
In nearly every case the variation was only 1 or 2 per cent. Im gauging cement IV with 0.50 N
copper sulphate and with 0.50 N potassium bicarbonate, however, the normal consistency was
unusually high, being 26 and 28 per cent, respectively. These two values were not counted in
the averages given here,

> The concentrations of these solutions are based on the amount of CQ, present. They are
only half the indicated concentrations with respect to alkalinity.

1918

Journal of Science

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Cement and Concrete

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A6 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .

Tensile strength.—The general tendency of all the solutions
is to decrease the tensile strength. Of the 352 results here -
recorded (which represent 1,056 briquettes), only 44 show an —
increase in strength, and as a rule, this increase is small. The
greatest number of such cases occurs with the sulphates. The
increases occur mostly with cements I and II and with the 1.0
and the 0.5 normal solution.

The decrease in tensile strength is most prominent with the
7-day briquettes, and the principal ones are with the maximum
concentration of each solution employed. Cement IV is the
most sensitive to the effect of the solutions in lowering the
tensile strength. With this cement, every solution used causes
one or more series of briquettes to fall below the specified limits.
This cement is highest in calcium content.

Setting time.—Apparently there is no relation between the -
effect of the solutions on’ the set and on the tensile strength.
On the basis of their effect on the set, the salts may be divided
into two groups:

1. Sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, ammo-
nium nitrate, sodium sulphate, sodium bicarbonate, and potas-
sium bicarbonate.

» 2. Zine chloride, copper chloride, zinc sulphate, and copper
sulphate.

When a member of the first group is added to a cement, a
small amount of the salt causes a retardation of the set. After
a maximum point is reached, the set is accelerated by further
additions of the substance, until the original setting time is
reached or even passed. Within the limits investigated, the
behavior of these electrolytes is, in general, similar to many
others that have been investigated from time to time, such as
sodium sulphide and calcium sulphate.‘ The second group
shows .a retardation with the lowest concentration of each
solution employed. The retardation increases with increasing
concentration. For the ranges studied the time-concentration
curves of these salts rise indefinitely. This is contrary to the
corresponding curves of group 1, which pass through maximum
points.

Though it was expected that the results would tend to, divide
the salts into groups, the basis of division indicated by this
work was somewhat surprising. This basis is not the solubility

“Witt, J. C., and Reyes, F. D., loc. cit.

XII, A,1 Witt: Cement and Concrete 47

of the resulting calcium compounds nor the negative ion.
It is chiefly the positive ion. Both zinc salts and both
copper salts show similar effects, whereas the other chlo-
rides and sulphates behave differently. Since calcium sulphate
is difficultly soluble and calcium chloride is readily so, no division
can be made on that basis. There are one or two exceptions to
this effect of the zinc and copper compounds which are difficult
to explain. These are the effect of copper chloride on sample
III and the effect of zinc sulphate on sample J. However, in
most cases all the cements are affected similarly by the same
substances.

A number of statements appear in the literature which attempt
to account for the effect of electrolytes on cements, but usually
there can be found as many exceptions as there are instances
of agreement. For instance, Dobrzynski * found that the nor-
mal consistency of cement, when gauged with solutions of various
chlorides, varied with the solubility of the salt. In the present
work, cements gauged with sodium, copper, and zinc chlorides,
which differ widely in solubility, showed the same normal con-
sistency (Table IV). Kallauner is of the opinion that all soluble
calcium salts decompose cement. This is not in conformity with
other work with calcium salts (Table I). Though many believe
that the major effect of an electrolyte is due to the effect of the
negative ion, especially in so far as this may be able to affect
the solubility of the calcium compounds in the cement, the pres-
ent results do not indicate this. The statement of Rohland in
various papers that cement is affected by catalizers positive and
negative is not an adequate explanation. There are instances
in which the great change in the setting time of cement caused
by electrolytes seems to be catalytic, but in most cases the rela-
tion between the effect and the amount of the electrolyte present
suggests some physical or chemical influence which is not
catalysis but which has not as yet been explained.

SUMMARY

Investigation of the effect of certain: substances on cement
is becoming more important because of new industrial uses
for concrete. The practical importance and the theoretical in-
terest of the subject have led to the publication of a number
of papers. Pi

A study of these papers reveals that, while a number of them
have individual merit, the results are not comparable and the

* References are given in Table I.

48 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

subject as a whole shows little progress. One reason for this
is that in carrying out investigations no definite plan of attack
has been followed.

Because of the complex nature of cements and the great dif-
ference in physical and chemical properties, it is believed that
complete uniformity of results is not possible, but that qualitative
agreement may be hoped for.

The general effect of all the electrolytes studied is to lessen the
tensile strength and to modify the set.

On the basis of their effect on the set, the electrolytes may
be divided into two groups. The members of one group cause
a retardation of the set up to a certain concentration and then
cause an acceleration. The members of the other group cause
a retardation of the set which increases with the increase of the
concentration, until the set is practically destroyed.

With the salts investigated in this paper the positive ion is

more important than the negative in determining the effect of ~

an electrolyte on cement. There is no well-established rela-
tionship between this effect and the solubility of any calcium
compounds that may be formed. More extensive work will be
necessary before the effect of an untried electrolyte can be
predicated.

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THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

A, CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

VoL. XIII MARCH, 1918 No. 2

THE RADIUM CONTENT OF WATER FROM THE CHINA SEA*

By J. R. WRicHT* and G. W. HEISE
(From the Bureau of Science, Manila)

TWO TEXT FIGURES i AIIC
}
u (T

The importance of accurate determinations of the radi
content of sea water in different parts of the world is just begin-
ning to be fully appreciated. A knowledge of the radium
content of the waters of the sea is necessary in a study of such
distantly related problems as geological processes and the ioniza-
tion of the atmosphere with all the consequent questions, such
as cloud formation, atmospheric electricity, and transmission of
electromagnetic waves around the earth’s surface.

Determinations of the radium content of sea water have been
made by several investigators, but the determinations have been
for the most part limited to the Atlantic Ocean or to the Pacific
Ocean in the immediate neighborhood of South America. This
is the first record of a determination of the radium content of
the water of the China Sea in the vicinity of the Philippines.
Throughout this discussion, unless otherwise specified, all results
will be expressed in grams < 10-” per liter of water.

The first attempt to obtain an idea of the amount of radium
contained in sea water was made by Strutt,? who determined
the radium content of a sample of sea salt. His result reduced

* Received for publication October 22, 1917.

* Professor of physics, University of the Philippines.

?On the distribution of radium in the earth’s crust, Proc. Roy. Soc.
London, A (1907), 78, 150-153.

154603 49

\ -
WU

@Ttign 2

——

50 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

to the above unit gives a value of 2.3. This method, however,
is open to objection, and the result obtained is rather uncertain,
although valuable as showing the order of magnitude of the
quantity to be determined.

Eve,* in 1907, made a determination of the radium content
of Ignau sea salt and also of a sample of sea water from the
middle Atlantic and obtained values of 0.3 and 0.6, respectively.

The first extensive series of determinations on sea water was
made by Joly* in 1908. His method is described as similar
to that used by Strutt with the exception that he boiled his
sample under a partial vacuum and finally filled with distilled
water in order to drive over all the gas containing emanation
into his collecting chamber. In the course of his determinations
he found that in order to liberate all the emanation generated
in the sample within a given time it was necessary to acidify
with hydrochloric acid. Especially was this the case with cer-
tain samples. This is probably due to the fact that during con-
centration any precipitates of barium or of sulphates that
may form will tend to carry down with them some of the radium
and that the emanation is liberated therefrom with difficulty.
He also found that his first determination on a given sample
generally gave a value considerably lower than subsequent tests.
Consequently in making up his mean for any given sample his
first determination was omitted. In a later paper’ Joly gives
the results for twenty-five samples from the north Atlantic
and Indian Oceans. His highest values were obtained for sam-
ples collected off the coast of Ireland, the mean value for five
different samples being 34. His lowest value was 2.2 for a
sample from the Mediterranean. His mean value for the twenty-
five samples is given as 16.

Eve,® in 1909, published the results for determinations on six
samples of sea water collected at different points in the north
Atlantic between Liverpool and Montreal and obtained a value
of 0.9 as the mean radium content, the maximum range being
from 0.5 to 1.5.

Satterly 7 made several determinations on sea water from

* The ionization of the atmosphere over the ocean, Phil. Mag. (1907), 13,
248-258.

*The radioactivity of sea-water, ibid. (1908), 15, 385-393.

* On the radium content of sea-water, ibid. (1909), 18, 396-407.

*On the amount of radium present in sea-water, ibid. (1909), 18,
102-107.

7On the radium content of various fresh and sea-waters and some other
substances, Proc. Cam. Phil. Soc. (1912), 16, 360-364.

xu, a,2 Wright and Heise: The Radium Content of Water: 51

regions near the coast of England. He obtained a mean of 1.0,
' with a maximum range of 0.2 to 1.6. Contrary to Joly’s ex-
perience Satterly found that his first determination on any given
sample was always higher than succeeding tests and concluded
that the most probable result was the mean after the first reading
had been eliminated.

Lloyd,* in 1915, made three determinations on a sample from
the Gulf of Mexico, his mean result being 1.7. Like Joly he
also found that the first reading was slightly lower than suc-
ceeding ones and consequently omitted it in the determination
of his mean value.

On a voyage across the Atlantic from Spain to Chile Knoche °
made several determinations by what is commonly called the
shaking method. The water was collected from the surface in
buckets and tested immediately for the emanation content, an
Engler and Sieveking electroscope being used. Unfortunately
his results are expressed in maches. As a mean of twelve deter-
minations on the Atlantic he obtained 0.12 mache. Joly, in a
summary of Knoche’s work, attempts to express Knoche’s results
in terms of the radium content per liter in grams * 10-" and
calculates that 0.12 mache would be equivalent to 17 « 10”
grams radium per liter, or, expressed in the unit used throughout
this discussion, the mean radium content found by Knoche for
the Atlantic would be 17. The value for Knoche’s mean as
given by Joly is probably much too low. The only satisfactory
way of converting from the one unit to the other is to make
a direct calibration of the particular instrument by introducing
a known quantity of radium emanation. For the electroscope
with attached ionization chamber that we used in most of our
determinations on the radium content of waters, one mache
equals 285 x 10 grams radium per liter, and on this basis
0.12 mache would be equivalent to 34.6 « 10°82 grams. The
conversion factor is dependent, however, on the constants of
the particular instrument and varies rapidly with variation in
the capacity. The factor that we obtained for our instrument
is lower than that given for most instruments, which inclines
us to the belief that the mean value of Knoche’s results for the
Atlantic Ocean, expressed in grams radium, is much higher than
that given by Joly. In estimating the value of Knoche’s results

* The radium content of water from the Gulf of Mexico, Am. Journ. Sci.
(1915), 189, 580-582.

* Hinige Bestimmungen der aktiven Emanation des Meerwassers auf dem
Atlantischen Ocean, Phys. Zeitschr. (1909), 10, 157-158.

52 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

in terms of grams radium, Joly made certain assumptions, which,
as he states, are all on the side of reducing the final result.
Knoche *° has also made something like thirty determinations
for a region in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Chile and
obtained a mean value of 0.048 mache.

Mialock 1" has recently made some determinations of the radium
content of sea salt in the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. We have not been able to obtain access to his original
article, and our knowledge of his results is dependent on a brief
review appearing in the Chemical Abstracts. His results, how-
ever, seem to agree fairly well with those of Knoche.

It is hard to account for the variation in the results of the
different investigators. One can easily assume that the radium
content varies considerably in different parts of the world, but
it is hardly to be expected that there should be a wide variation
in any given region. In measuring such minute quantities as
the radium in a few liters of sea water, errors in measurement
or method are inevitably large, but the large variation noted
cannot be accounted for on this basis. In order to get results
for widely separated regions that can be directly compared with
a fair degree of certainty, it is highly desirable that a standard-
ized method be adopted and even that a uniform type of instru-
ment be used whenever possible.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Thus far our determinations have been confined to one sample
of sea water from the China Sea. The sample was taken from
a depth of about 2 meters in the open sea at a distance of
approximately 8 kilometers from the entrance to Manila Bay.
About forty liters were collected in two large glass bottles, which
had been carefully cleaned. Thirty liters were then taken and
evaporated to 15 liters on the water bath, pure redistilled
hydrochloric acid being added from time to time, so that a slight
excess of acid was present during the entire process of concen-
tration. About 25 cubic centimeters of pure hydrochloric acid
were then added, and the entire quantity was sealed in a large
glass bottle.

* Bestimmungen des Emanationgehaltes im Meerwasser und der indu-
zierter Aktivitat der Luft zwischen der chilenischen Kiiste and der Oster-
insel, ibid. (1915), 13, 112-115.

4 Determination of the radioactive content of the salts in the waters of
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans between Montevideo and El Callao, Anal.
Soc. cient. Argentina (1915), 79, 267-275.

xuLa,2 Wright and Heise: The Radium Content of Water 53

Since we were dealing with several times the quantity of sea
water used in similar tests by previous investigators, we decided
to try the charcoal absorption method. This method is fully
described in an article by Wright and Smith ” on the emanation
content of atmospheric air. After the water had remained
sealed in the flask for a period of thirty days or longer, the
flask was placed in a water bath and heated to about 80° C.,
when the tips of the tubes leading into the bottle were broken,
and emanation-free air was pulled through at the rate of 1
liter per minute. The air was then passed through a bottle con-
taining sulphuric acid and a tube containing calcium chloride
and finally through two tubes in series, each of which contained
70 grams of finely granulated coconut charcoal. At the same
time air was bubbled through an identical system, except that
in place of the bottle containing the sea water there was sub-
stituted a small bottle containing 615 » 10°" grams .radium
from a standard solution furnished by the Bureau of Standards
at Washington, D. C. The portion of solution used had been
sealed up, after having been freed from all emanation, for a
period of exactly twenty-six and one-half hours, so that the
emanation obtained from our standard was equivalent to that
in equilibrium with 110.7 « 10 grams of radium. Air was
bubbled through the boiling solutions until we were certain that
all the contained emanation had been transferred to our charcoal
tubes. Since in a previous work by Wright and Smith on
the quantitative determination of the emanation content of at-
mospheric air it had been shown that these same charcoal tubes
absorb approximately 99 per cent of the emanation passing
through them even for much larger quantities of emana-
tion, it was assumed that by this method we would obtain at
least as great accuracy as by the more direct method. More-
over this method has the advantage of being a comparative one,
so that any errors that are due to inaccuracy of observation
will cancel in the final calculations. The arrangement of the
apparatus in the collecting system is shown in fig. 1.

After the emanation had been collected in the charcoal tubes,
they were heated in an electric furnace, and the gas was driven

“The variation with meteorological conditions of the amount of radium
emanation in the atmosphere, in the soil gas, and in the air exhaled from
the surface of the ground, at Manila, Phys. Rev. (1915), n. s. 6, 459-482.

* A quantitative determination of the radium emanation in the atmos-
phere and its variation with altitude and meteorological conditions, Phil.
Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1914), 9, 51-76.

54 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

a off and collected over

Sas water in an aspirator bot-

SBS tle. It was then passed

5 into the ionization cham-

ber of a Spindler and

ey or Hoyer electroscope and

i | ote tested in the usual man-

(Hl i ner, allowance being made
Ws for the decay of emana-
i | tion in the period elapsing
al i | l between time of collecting
| | and time of testing. The
aig arrangement of the. ap-
paratus in the testing
system is shown in fig. 2.

Three separate tests
were made by this method.
The determinations gave
0.27, 0.16, and 0.17, re-
spectively. The mean of
these results is 0.2, a
value considerably lower
than that obtained by most
of the previous investiga-
tors. Although the quan-
tity per liter is extremely
small, the total quantity,
since we were using 30
liters of sea water, was
sufficiently large for accu-
rate measurements. On
one test the ionization cur-
rent was observed for
four days, and the electro-
scope readings in volts less
the natural leak followed
accurately the decay curve
for radium emanation,
diminishing to one-half
value in approximately
3.85 days.

In order to check the
charcoal absorption meth-

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Y,

ah i

= ih
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Apparatus used in charcoal absorption method.

Fic. 1.

5d

xi, A,2 Wright and Heise: The Radium Content of Water

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56. The Philippine Journal of Science

od, one direct test was made on the same sample. Previous to
sealing up, the sea water was again acidified with approximately
20 cubic centimeters of pure hydrochloric acid. The method
used in this test was, as nearly as possible, a duplication of Joly’s,
the sample being boiled under a partial vacuum and the flask
finally filled with distilled water in order to force all the emana-
tion given off into the aspirator bottle. The determination on
the activity of the gas was then made in the usual manner, ex-
treme care being taken to flush thoroughly all the tubes between
the aspirator bottle and the ionization chamber.

The value obtained by this gmethod was 0.1, or just half the
mean value obtained by the charcoal absorption method. In
dealing with large quantities of water, we are inclined to believe
that the charcoal absorption method will give the more accurate
results. In previous work we found that merely boiling a solu-
tion from fifteen to twenty minutes was not sufficient to remove
all the emanation from even a weak radium solution, but that
bubbling air through the boiling solution was much more effec-
tive. For this reason, if no other, the charcoal absorption
method ought to be slightly more reliable.

Sufficient data are not at present available to permit the draw-
ing of conclusions regarding the radium content of the oceanic
waters of this part of the earth compared to such regions as the
northern Atlantic Ocean. But in the light of our results deter-
minations from different parts of the Pacific Ocean are much to
be desired.

¥.

ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT FIGURES

bik
paratus used in charcoal absorption method.

nization chamber; C, gas collector; D, drying tubes; E, elec-
oscope; F’, electric furnace; M, manometer; 7, charcoal tubes.

etic i ne } Keiy): ‘ ef
oe ; Ke > ; rviy SSS Wei nay anita"
r erm AN 3 eo chara

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: é
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j

7
y
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1
i
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i j ?
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uy
i
*
‘

METHODS OF BURNING POTTERY IN THE VICINITY OF MANILA
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT’

By J. C. WITT

(From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila)

TWO PLATES AND ONE TEXT FIGURE

Throughout the Philippines there are groups of small establish-
ments for the manufacture of clay products in localities in which
the necessary raw materials can be easily obtained. Often
brick, tile, and pottery of various sorts are manufactured in
the same district. Although the small equipment and limited
output of the individual manufacturer is likely to give one the
impression that the industry is of relatively small importance,
the census report ? shows that even fifteen years ago the annual
production was valued at 66,499 pesos. No recent data are
available, but the indications are that the output is increasing.

In the potteries in the vicinity of Manila the principal articles
manufactured are flower pots (paso), large jars (banga), often
used as containers for water or sugar, round-bottomed bowls
for cooking rice (palayok), and small wood-stoves (calan).
The raw materials and processes of this district are similar. A
clay from the rice fields and a sand from deposits along Pasig
River are used. The clay is spread out, allowed to dry, and then
pulverized. The sand is passed through a screen made of split
bamboo that corresponds to a laboratory sieve having about 8
meshes per centimeter, and the part retained on the screen
is rejected. Two parts of clay and one of sand are mixed, water
is added, and the material is kneaded to the desired consistency.
Apparently there is no uniformity in the time this mixture is
allowed to ‘weather. Often some of it is molded the same day
it is prepared, while ‘the remainder is allowed to stand until it
is all used.

The molding is accomplished by the aid of very crude potter’s

* Received for publication May 14, 1917.
* Census of the Philippine Islands. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton (1905), 4, 522.
* One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos, equals 50 cents United
States currency.
“Cf. Adams and Pratt, This Journal, Sec. A (1910), 5, 143.
59

60 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

wheels. These are usually disks of wood about 50 to 75 centi-
meters in diameter and 8 to 10 centimeters thick. The wheel
is given several revolutions by the feet of the potter and thus
acquires ‘sufficient inertia to continue in motion for perhaps
thirty seconds. Most of the operators are skillful in the use of
these wheels, and much of the ware possesses considerable
beauty. The molding of some of the articles is completed on
the wheel, but the rice bowls are afterward beaten with a flat
wooden paddle. This is done to increase the density for the
prevention of leakage and to produce walls as thin as is con-
sistent with the necessary strength. I have often seen these
pots with walls less than 0.5 centimeter in thickness, and so
uniform that the eye could detect no variation.

When the molding is completed, the pottery is allowed to dry
in the shade for several weeks and is then burned by one of
two methods:

1. A kiln is employed. There are several types. ‘The com-
monest is long and horizontal and somewhat cylindrical in shape.
Wood is the common fuel. As a rule, high temperatures are
not obtained in this type of kiln; because of imperfect construc-
tion and the quantity of fuel used. However, in some of them

‘. the temperature often exceeds 1,200° C.

2. Much of the pottery, especially the rice bowls, is burned
without the use of a kiln. The ware is piled on the ground,
even in the street, and is covered with straw, pieces of bamboo,
rubbish, and the like. After the fuel is fired, it is allowed to
burn slowly until all is consumed. The condition of the ware
is observed from time to time through small holes in the straw,
and when it has reached a dull red heat, the burning is con-
sidered finished. The ash and partly burned fuel are gradually
removed, and finally the ware is completely uncovered and
allowed to cool. This whole operation usually does not require
more than an hour or two. iG

It is largely imperfect burning that has held back the develop-
ment of Philippine pottery and has prevented a really well-
developed technic (in other respects) from producing ware of
excellent quality. From tests made in this laboratory, it is
apparent that the raw materials used in the district are of
satisfactory quality. Experiments have also shown that the
proportions in which the two substances are mixed are right
and that the methods of molding and drying certain kinds of

°See data for clay No. 2, Witt, J. C., This Journal, Sec. A (1916), 11,
203.

IIL, A, 2 Witt: Pottery in the Vicinity of Manila 61

ware are almost above criticism. However, most of the Philip-
pine ceramic products that I have seen lack strength. This
is true of bricks as well as of most pots and jars, and it prevents
the manufacture of a really durable product. In the kilns de-
scribed a few of the articles are burned very well. However,
those nearest the fire doors are usually overburned and fuzed
out of shape, and many more are not sufficiently burned to
develop the maximum strength of the material. The ware manu-
factured without the use of a kiln is all underburned. This
was verified by experiments.

Some of the mixture in daily use at one of the potteries
was brought to the laboratory, and several experimentai
bricks were molded and dried. These were divided into two
lots: the first was taken back to the pottery and burned with
some ware in the regular way—not in a kiln. A pyrometer
was installed, and readings were taken every five minutes during
the operation. The other set was burned in an experimental
kiln at the Bureau of Science. The temperatures in the latter
were determined by Seger cones, because they were too high
for the thermocouple.

TABLE I.—Temperature record of burning in an experimental kiln and
in a pile of straw at pottery.

At pottery. At pottery. | In experimental kiln.
i

| i | | a

| Time. | Hemmer Time. Temeer 1 Time. | ‘perature,

| aa | | indicated

i by cones.

————| Hapa

| a.m. °C. } a.m. OG: | a.m. (61

1.45 30) 2.40 | 355 4.00 | 230

| 1.50 90 2.45 PEs he ci |e

1.55| 250 |) 2.50 240 | 1.00 | 970

2.00 515) 3.00 | 200)! 1.20) 1,010

| 2.05. 675 | 3.05 | 160;| 1.45] 1,050
| 2.10 745 |} 3.10 | 130} 2.05 1,090 |
|i aa mpm 8.15 | ato! «| | 410. |
2. 20 725 | 3.20 | 70 | 3.25 1,190 |
2.25 665 | 3.85 | TN ue Be sett Mie /
2.30 555 || 3.30 | i |e are a |
285 i) | Saas beers deed | Moe ee Aeon abe ee RS |
: |

4 Jnitial temperature.

The temperature-time curves were plotted and are shown in
fig. 1, where the contrast in burning operations is readily seen.
At the pottery the burning was completed in one hour and thirty-
five minutes. The temperature rose to the maximum point, or
over 700°, in thirty minutes, and the first stage of the cooling

62 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

was almost as rapid. The curve shows that this system does
not conform to established methods of burning pottery, which
involve heating the ware gradually until the maximum tempera-
ture is reached, maintaining that temperature as nearly constant
as possible for some time, and then annealing by slow cooling.

Time in minutes.

100 200 300 409 500 600 700

800

Temperature.

Fic. 1. Rate of burning pottery ; a, in pile of straw; b, in experimental kiln.
The bricks burned at each place were tested for compressive
strength.

TABLE II.—Compressive strength of test bricks.

1

| H
\Burned at pottery.4 Burned in experimental kiln.»
Kilos per, Pounds | Approxi- Kilos per! Pounds

square _ per mate square | per

centime-| square | tempera-'centime-| square |
ter. | inch >| ‘tureze) |) ter: inch.

: oc, | /
| 252 | 3,696) 1,010 | 262} 3, 885
| 207| 2,959 1, 050 260} 3,709
203 2, 896 1, 090 261 3, 733
223 | 3, 192 1, 150 420 5, 993
193 2, 754 1, 190 428 6, 118

! 1

a All bricks were removed at end of operation.
> One brick was removed when each cone fused.
© Temperatures were determined by Seger cones.

XII, A, 2 Witt: Pottery in the Vicinity of Manila 68

The average compressive strength of the bricks burned at
the pottery is 213.6 kilograms per square centimeter, or less than
the strength of any one of the specimens burned in the
Bureau of Science kiln. While the test at the pottery is a single
instance and connot be regarded as an average, the general
procedure of burning is always the same, and it is doubtful if
results very much higher than these would be ever obtained.

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ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE I
Fic. 1. Finishing a calan.

2. Making a palayok.
3. Shaping a banga on a potter’s wheel.

PLATE II.

Fic. 1. A typical kiln of the Philippines.
2. Burning pottery without the use of a kiln.
3. Pottery on sale in a Manila market.

TEXT FIGURE

Fic. 1. Rate of burning pottery; a, in pile of straw; b, in experimental kiln.
154608——2 65

‘1 4aLV 1d
*]39YM S,Ja}}0d eB UO eBbueg e BuldeyS ‘¢ ‘“bi4 *yoARjed & Bulyey *g “Ol4 ‘uejeo e Bulysiuliy “TT “Bly

‘

"2 ON ‘V ‘IITX “IOS “Nunor “"1HG] [AYGLLOG DNINYNG 40 SGOHLAW *°O “f£ “ILIM

Witt, J. C.: METHODS OF BURNING POTTERY.] [Pui. Journ. Sct., XIII, A, No. 2.

Fig. 3. Pottery on sale in Manila market.

PLATE ll.

TESTS OF SOME IMPORTED GARDEN LEGUMES

By JosepH A. COCANNOUER
(From the College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Bajos)

The legumes taken collectively form a part of the diet of most
peoples. Of the very large number of plants belonging to the
legume family, there are few that possess greater economic im-
portance than do beans and peas. Besides furnishing nourish-
ing food for men and animals, they provide the agriculturist
with a means of securing from the store of nitrogen in the air -
a sufficient amount of this element to replenish that removed by
other crops. For this reason these legumes are not only valuable
as food crops, but they are of special value when properly used
in a garden rotation.

STANDARD LEGUMES OF THE WORLD

Kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).—According to de Can-
dolle(5) the kidney bean had its origin in South America. It
was unknown in Europe or Asia until the discovery of America.
This bean has been excavated from Peruvian tombs in South
America and has been found growing wild in several places in
the same continent. These are mostly climbing plants, the bush
group of P. vulgaris having been developed through cultivation
and selection. Under each group there are the green and wax
pods, but the latter are much less common than the former.
The kidneys are the common beans of American and European
gardens.

Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus)—For some time the Lima
bean was believed to have had its origin in southern Asia. (5)
De Candolle never considered that there was any foundation for
this belief. Like the kidney bean, the Lima has been excavated
from Peruvian tombs and has been found wild along the Amazon.
According to de Candolle this bean has never been found wild
in any part of the Old World.

The Lima is a rank climbing vine and is divided into two
very distinct classes:(4) First, the sieva, which is a slender
grower, aS compared with the large Lima, and which is com-
paratively hardy. It is a true annual, producing numerous small
papery pods; secondly, the large Lima (var. macrocarpus),
often called the true Lima, is a tall rank grower, but less hardy
than the sieva. The pods are large and fleshy and contain very
large flat beans. In the tropics macrocarpus is perennial. Bush

67

68 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

types of both classes of Limas have been developed and are
rapidly taking the place of the climbing types. These are all
annuals.

iablab or batao (Dolichos lablab) —The history of the lablab
is rather obscure.(5) It is grown extensively in both Asia and
Africa, and de Candolle believed that it grew wild in India.
The lablab is cultivated more in southern Asia than perhaps any
other legume. The batao is one of the commonest legumes in
the Philippines and is found both cultivated and “in a wild
state.” (8)

The lablab is a glabrous, twining vine whose stems are often
purplish. The flowers may be pink, purple, or nearly white.
The pods are oblong, wide, and flattened and may be reddish
purple, dark green, or white. There are several types,(7) most
of the differences occurring in the color and size of the pods.

Cowpea or paayap [Vigna cylindrica (V. unguiculata, V.
catjang) |—While the cowpea is not a true bean, it may be
classed with the latter because of the close relationship. It is
a native of India(2) and was introduced into America during
the latter half of the seventeenth century. In India the cowpea
is a rank-growing vine, but in Europe and America the bush
types are practically the only ones grown.

The cowpea is readily recognized by its long, slender, cylin-
drical pods. These are usually pale green, but one (V. sinensis)
produces red pods.

While the cowpea is a coarse legume, it is usually productive,
and the young, tender pods are very palatable if properly pre-
pared. The points in favor of the Vigna group are their hardi-
ness and ability to produce a remunerative crop in almost any
type of soil.

Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata).—Though the sword bean
is not a native of the Philippines, four species of the genus,
according to Merrill, occur here; Canavalia gladiata is the only
one considered to be a food legume. MacMillan(7) quotes Fir-
minger as stating that the sword bean is considered by some
Europeans to be the “nicest of native vegetables in India.”

The edible sword bean (Canavalia gladiata) is a climbing vine
with very large leaves and flowers. The pods are long, broad,
and flat, and each contains several large red beans. The pods
are used when young and tender, being cut into slices and used
as a vegetable. This bean is supposed to have been described
first from Brazil, though there are many species scattered
throughout the tropics of the world.

xuia,2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 69

Winged bean or calamismis (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) .—
The winged bean, according to MacMillan, is a native of Malaysia.-
It is a glabrous twining vine with light blue flowers. Its pods
are square and 4-winged. The crisp, tender pods when properly
prepared make one of the best vegetables found in the Philip-
pines. This legume readily produces 150 well-formed pods per
plant. The calamismis produces a tuberous root, which is very
palatable. In Burma these beans are grown almost entirely for
their roots, which yield 2.5 to 4.5 tons per hectare. (7)

Broad bean (Vicia faba) .—The broad bean is one of the oldest
known members of the bean family. It is a native of the Old
World,(5) the exact spot of its origin still being questionable.
This bean does well only in very cool climates and, so far as
I am aware, has never been found a satisfactory legume for
tropical gardens. The pods are long and broad, each containing
from seven to nine large beans. The broad beans belong to the
bush type.

Mungo [Phaseolus aureus (P. mungo)].—The mungo is a
native of India(7) and has been cultivated there as one of the
leading food crops as far back as history goes. It is an erect
“history” must be a lobster plant and produces narrow, straight,
cylindrical pods averaging from 5 to 6 centimeters in length.
The entire plant, including the pods, is covered with hairs.

The mungo is common in the Philippines, being one of the
crops that can be grown during the time of the year when it is
too dry for most other crops. The young pods are sometimes
used for food, but it is the dry bean that is especially prized.
The beans are prepared as a vegetable in various ways and
are very palatable.

Chick pea (Cicer arietinum).—The chick pea is an annual
plant about 30 centimeters high. The seeds are pealike and
angular. This is a common legume in southern Europe and
is grown to some extent in India and Ceylon.(7) The chick pea
is a favorite legume for use with other vegetables, and in some
localities it is very popular, being served in curries.

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) .—The pigeon pea is a shrub from
1.5 to 2 meters high. It is a native of India,(3) but is now cul- .
tivated in most tropical countries. The pods are small and ©
semiflat. Each contains from 2 to 4 smooth, spherical peas.
The dry peas are excellent when served as a vegetable or when
used in soups and curries.

Garden pea (Pisum sativum) .—The garden pea, according to
de Candolle, is a native of the Old World. It has never been

70 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

found in a wild state, and there is considerable disagreement as
to whether this pea has been developed from the field pea (Pisum
arvense) or was distinct in nature. It is believed that the
garden pea first existed in a wild state between the Caucasus
and Persia. The Aryans are supposed to have first introduced
it into Kurope.

Garden peas are divided into two very distinct types: the
wrinkled and smooth-seeded. The latter are hardier than the
former, but on the other hand are considered much inferior
in flavor. There are tall and dwarf varieties under each type,
the former usually being much later than the latter.

The pea is distinctly a cool-season crop and it is grown exten-
sively in northern Europe and America. However, in India
the pea has been acclimatized, until good crops are now secured
in that country.

Lentil or lens (Ervum lens).—The lentil is the standard
legume of both Palestine and Egypt. It is also a leading crop
in India during the cool months.(6) The Hindoos consider the
lentil the ‘most nutritious of pulses.” The plant is a much-
branched, tufted annual, ranging from 30 to 50 centimeters in
height. The pods are short, broad, and very flat and contain
two flat seeds. The seeds are rounded and convex on both sides.
The ancient astronomers named them “telescope glasses,” i. e.,
lenses, because they were shaped like the seeds of Ervum lens.
The dry seeds are eaten.

Soy bean [Glycine max (G. hispida) ].—The soy bean is a
native of China and Japan.(5) It is an erect annual varying from
50 to 100 centimeters or more in height. The pods are short and
hairy and contain from 2 to 4 pealike seeds. The seeds vary
in color from white to black. These are prepared for food in
various ways, being roasted, ground into flour, or boiled. The
soy bean contains little or no starch.

Velvet bean (Mucuna nivea).—The velvet bean is a strong
climber that produces clusters of hairy pods about 6 centimeters
long and 1.25 centimeters in diameter. This bean is grown
extensively in China, where it probably originated. The pods
are either green or black and contain beans that correspond to
the pods in color. Each seed is covered by a tough coat, which
must be removed before the beans are edible. In China the
beans are used extensively for food, and in India both the beans
and the young pods are eaten.

Of the fourteen species of legumes discussed, a goodly number
are now successfully grown in the Philippines on a commercial
scale.. These are the Lima, the lablab, the cowpea, the winged

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 71

bean, the mungo, and the pigeon pea. Others have been in-
troduced during late years and are now established in a few
parts of the Islands. These are the garden pea, the velvet
bean, the soy bean, the sword bean, and the kidney bean. The
broad bean has received little consideration in the Philippine
tropics, but has been given severe tests in other tropics of the
world, and so far as I have been able to learn has never been
found a success. The lentil also has received little attention
in the Philippines, although it is a standard legume in certain
other tropical countries. The chick pea is imported into the
Philippines in rather large quantities, and several efforts have
been made to produce it here, but with little success. While I
was in charge of the farm school at Indang, Cavite Province,
-I made several attempts to grow chick peas, but was never able
to secure any crop whatever. The plants grew vigorously and
in some cases blossomed freely, but no seed ever developed.

Garden peas are now grown extensively in some localities of
the Philippines, and they give promise of soon becoming one
of the leading products in several sections. Kidney beans of
an excellent quality are also slowly but surely making their
way into the local markets. These, too, promise to be exten-
sively propagated on a commercial scale soon. Just how these
beans and peas were first introduced is not known. The peas
were probably brought in by Chinese market gardeners, and the
beans very likely came through the schools.

Of the numerous legume projects carried on by the College of
Agriculture during past years, the work with soy beans will
probably stand out as being the most valuable. A legume that
previously had been considered impossible of culture in the Phil-
ippines has been developed through careful study and selection,
until it ranks among the most productive legumes grown on the
college farm. Other legumes, such as the cowpea, the mungo,
and several varieties of Limas, have received special study, and
in some cases very encouraging results have been secured.

OBJECT OF THESE EXPERIMENTS

The object of these experiments was twofold: First, to test
several varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris, Phaseolus lunatus, and
Pisum sativum, which are ranked as “leaders” by American
market gardeners, in order to find out whether a profitable yield
could be secured from these legumes in the Philippines under
ordinary garden conditions and what season or seasons of the
year were best suited to their production; secondly, to secure
seed for pedigree-selection work with the view of establishing

72 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918
some of the most promising varieties as garden legumes in the
Philippines.
TABLE I.—List of varieties.
| Variety. Species. Group. | Type. elec
ion No.
= ft eaten . 2S Sie —| = 3 F = sea Se
Beans: | |
Black Valentine ________ Phaseolus vulgaris) Bush _____________ Green'"pod=- === 4700
Long Yellow Siac |-—--- doen es eee Goj2 122 seeeasat eas dole es 4687
Weeks.
Mexican, Pinks 3.2 sees eeee G0) 22 oe tiee pee Cs (o}ne ae oe a [aS SR ene ment e 4938
Longfellow -------------|_-___ GG eal a Co al pal dome ne semen 4695
Extra Early Refugee___|_____ do)23 hee (ee 3 doce ee ees do Ass Sai 4701
Canadian Wonder -_____|_____ Goa =. 5 eee doaa ire StS dorte veto 4948
French Mohawk________|_____ (Cee een es ESE 2 oe eee meres toyiack Meee | 4946
Dwarf Horticultural ___|_____ doc eee eee | Lee Clete Ee aid 0.2. eee 4696
Extra Early Red Va- |_____ AG tees. BF 1 SO (6 Loe ree ea feed EE ido 2235. 2eeh 4697
lentine. | |
Hodson’s Green Pod____|_____ OO a ee: | Yaeeee Pecan do 4570
OREYY: cere eee 4945
| Michigan White Wax __ 4571
Prolific Black Wax __-_- 4937
| Southern Creaseback__- 4952
Kentucky Wonder_____- 4685
Lady Washington _____- 4953
| Southern Prolific _______ 4769
Henderson's’ Bush 4956
Lima.
Challenger Lima ______-_ 4957
King of the Garden ____ 4960
Peas: | |
Advancer-_.__-.-.------ Semidwarf -_____- | Half-late ________ 6154
Stratagem 2255s s rs. Ran ee Ree | eee Gor eee eee
Mott's Excelsior Dwarf .7..2 2 Early
| DeanstOrss. os ee of Hn) (ites Se eles oy es Late
Little Gem -____- wart eno casea- Early
BloeiBantam nse) doe eee Cs (ef Seeee epee See ess
British Wonder TEA ag eke ES | Late
Workehite esses cere e Semidwarf _-__.--- Half-late
Extra Early, o> 2-- 2-2] Medium-tall _.____ | Early
Laxtonia': -25) 5c)" Semidwarf -------|_____
Alaskan oS ed ea eee ec S| et
Prosperity ses m ape ea OO eee eee (re Half-late
American Wonder-____- ee Oss Sa ee Semidwarf -___..- | Barly ____
Little Marvel_<26.. 22 522\ Cs (ae ee warts 3.- 5. oe ee
| NF 42) eee ae ae eee aS ey I ov fae. eee alseses 22 2. 5 see ©
| Alderman, = euanceee es eee i i Sere oe ORS (: eee = ae Late
| A’blindance=---- 0 )--- / aot : (De eee eee Semidwarf -__--_- Half-late _._______
Telephone ----2.. = 2: {ee do. Es Mall 22 2 2o 22s Late
| Champion of England __, Steer dois 22am: Buspiet. 4 lb Sete ne do
Large White Marrow- |_____ ts (sere) oe iWery. talllo:-- -=>=- eee do
fat. |
’ Horsford’s Market poe Coe Re eee Galles wees iW Half-late 2302.62 6353
Garden. |

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 73

All plantings were carried on as projects. The year was
divided into three seasons, namely, the cool, which includes Oc-
tober, November, December, and January; the dry season, which
includes February, March, April, and part of May; and the wet
season, which usually begins about the middle of May and in-
cludes June, July, August, and September. Naturally no keen
line of demarkation can be drawn between the three seasons,
but they are sufficiently well marked as to have distinctly
different effects upon plant growth.

PROJECT 1. COOL SEASON

*

Project 1 was started early in November, 1915. Owing to
weather conditions during November, it was not possible to
make all of the plantings on the same day. The extremely heavy
rains made the replanting of most varieties necessary, and
many had to be replanted the second time. However, climatic
conditions were so nearly the same during November and part
of December, 1915, that the variance in the planting dates prob-
ably had little effect on the ultimate results.

The soil on which all of the beans were planted was a heavy
clay loam underlaid with a stiff adobe subsoil. The surface
soil ranged from 30 to 70 centimeters deep, and owing to the
prevalence of cementing materials, it had to be continually
stirred to prevent baking. No crop was grown on the land dur-
ing the previous rainy season. The soil was dug up with the
spading fork and then worked into a mellow consistency with the
hoe and rake. All plats were 5 by 10 meters, with a 30-centi-
meter path between the plats. The seeds were planted in rows
70 centimeters apart, and the plants stood 50 centimeters apart,
with one plant in the hill, excepting the large Limas, which were
planted 1 meter each way. Cultivations were given two or three
times each week during the entire growing period.

Table II shows the varieties in order of their rank, which
were considered worthy at the first harvest.

74 The Philippine Journal of Science 198

TABLE II.—Varieties, in order of rank, considered worthy of the
first harvest.

Weight | Days
Variety.a Rank. evenes of edible ee How used.
pods. | food per Hilltsene=
plant. iceable.
— — — — | ~—
Grams. Days.
Southern'Proliticysss se es ees eee 1 23 146 54 | Green.
Henderson’s Bush Lima ----__- ----------------- 2 13 21 66 | Shell.
Kentielky Wonder ee to eee 3 20 182 54 | Green.
Tepary css. fae 5 eae ee, eS 4 51 8 61 | Dry.
| "MexicandPink 22/2: 0 e 4 oe ee ee ee | 5 17 97 53 | Green.
| (Ganadian\ Wonder: 22s oseee ee | 6 14 91 40| Do.
Thady Washing tone eee ee ae | 7 15 87 42 Do.
Michigan’ White Waxes ee 8 20 134 38 Do.
|* Prolific (Black: Waxwees Sash? sess eee 9 21 140 38 Down
| Southern Creaseback --.----_-_--- pipe ee ce! 10 19 118 64 Do. |
| “ExtralMarly Valentine -1+ 5) ease ee ll 14 80 40 Do.
| Long Yellow Six Weeks -______-_-_-- eee te 12 7 44 48 Do.
Hodson's iGreen) Podie*i<: 2... s9ass eee 13 4 33 69 Do.
xtra Marly semieeec:.. 2... Shee 14 5 38 42 Do.

a The Black Valentine, the Longfellow, the French Mohawk, the Dwarf Horticultural, the
Challenger Lima, and the King of the Garden Lima were almost complete failures. A very
few seeds were saved with which to continue the varieties in later projects.

SUMMARY OF PROJECT 1

1. The experiment showed that most of the kidney beans will
give a fair yield if the plantings are made during the cool season.
With the exception of the last three varieties listed in the table
above, the yields were practically equal to what is ordinarily
secured from the same varieties in the United States. ma

2. In some cases there was a marked lessening of the ordinary
time from planting until a serviceable product could be secured,
while with other varieties the time was not materially changed.

3. Some varieties proved themselves entirely unable to resist
the attacks of the leaf hopper and the bean maggot. Some
started out vigorously, but soon began to show signs of weak-
ness. A few varieties showed almost no effect of climatic con-
ditions. The varieties of Phaseolus lunatus were entirely
resistant to the bean maggot and leaf hopper.

PROJECT 2. HOT SEASON

The plantings of the second project were made in the college
gardens during March, 1916. The object of this project was to
discover what results could be secured by growing beans during
the dry season under irrigation. F, seed from all of the original
varieties was used, and the soil was worked into a “quick” con-
dition as was done in project 1. The seed germinated well, and

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 75

when the plants first appeared above ground, they were es-
pecially promising.

After about the third day very marked changes could be seen

‘taking place in all of the varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris. There
was a general yellowing of the leaves, and the small hopper
perforated them until they appeared like sieves. The ravages
of these insects were materially checked by spraying with a
very weak solution of kerosene emulsion. It seemed for a while
as if a partial harvest might be secured, but the leaf hopper
was no sooner checked than the beans began to show the
signs of the bean maggot. Isolated plants died here and there,
and within a few days every plant had succumbed. A very
special effort was made to save even a few plants of the most
promising varieties, but the plats planted to the kidney beans
were wiped absolutely bare, and not a seed was saved.

An experiment similar to this was carried.on by me at the
farm school at Indang, Cavite Province, during the hot months
of 1918. The same pests were almost as prominent, and al-
though partial crops were secured, there did not result a profit-
able yield. ;

The varieties of P. lunatus planted in project 2 were entirely
resistant to both the leaf hopper and the bean maggot. The
plants grew well from the outset and blossomed freely. There
were at first promises of a satisfactory production, but the old
habit of shooting the pods was evident as soon as the latter began
to appear. The vines grew vigorously during the entire hot
season and until they were finally removed in June. Almost no
pods reached maturity.

This experiment showed that the growing of kidney beans
during the dry season under irrigation is not practicable in
this locality.

PROJECT 3. DRY SEASON

Project 3 was carried on in my home garden. Two plats
were laid off, each 10 meters wide and of sufficient length to
contain twelve varieties of beans, allowing one variety to each
row. A 1-meter patch separated the two plats. The land was
new and was worked into a mellow consistency by means of
spading fork, hoe, and rake. F, seed of the following varieties
of beans was planted: Tepary, Kentucky Wonder, Canadian
Wonder, Henderson’s Bush Lima, Mexican Pink, Southern Pro-
lific, French Mohawk, Long Yellow Six Weeks, Prolific Black
Wax, Hodson’s Green Pod, Michigan White Wax, and Longfellow.

Plat A.—This plat was planted March 11, 1916. The rows

76 The Philippine Journal of Science "1918

were 50 centimeters apart, and the distance between the hills
was 40 centimeters. Two or three sceds were planted in a hill,
and when the young plants were well established, they were
thinned out so as to leave only one plant in a hill. When the
plants were about 5 centimeters high, the plat was covered with
a heavy mulch of grass. The mulch was well tamped down
with the feet, and special care was iaken to see that the grass
fitted snugly around the bases of the plants. The mulch was
not removed during the entire life of the plants, and naturally
the plat was not cultivated after the mulch was put on.

Plat B.—This plat differed from A in that no mulch was used
and that the plants received a good cultivation once each week
by the hoe. The plants were not irrigated.

Some very interesting facts were brought out in project 3,
as the tables will show. Most of the varieties gave a far greater
yield in the plat that was mulched than in the unmulched plat.
However, it will be noted that a few varieties did not respond
with a satisfactory yield in either case. The Limas were se-
verely attacked by the blight and did not mature any pods,
although they blossomed profusely.

Perhaps the most noticeable feature connected with project
3 was the great difference between the fruiting seasons of the
plants in the two plats. Most of the mulched plants were green
and fresh for some time after the plants in the other plat had
dried up. Light showers frequently occurred after the plants
were fruiting, and these revived those in the unmulched plat, so
that they gave a fair, late yield.

There was almost no difference in the sizes of the pods pro-
duced in the two plats, and after the weighing of a definite
number of pods taken at random, it was necessary to conclude
that the mulch increased the number of pods rather than the size.

Neither the bean maggot nor the leaf hopper gave much
trouble in project 3, which was radically different from what
happened to project 2, which was planted at about the same
time. It is believed that this was due rather to the rapidity
with which the plants grew than to the absence of the insects.
The soil was rich in nitrogen, which soon forced the plants
beyond the danger of the pests.

Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes vig

XIII, A, 2

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XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 79

SUBPROJECT 1. DRY SEASON

At the time of planting of project 3 a subproject was run,
which consisted of the planting of 150 square meters of Tepary
beans. The plat was located in the college gardens and was
prepared by means of spading fork, rake, and hoe. The rows
were 70 centimeters apart, and the hills stood 50 centimeters
apart with two plants in a hill. The entire plat was cultivated
regularly once each week.

The object of subproject 1 was to find out just what produc-
tion could be secured from Tepary beans grown on a commercial
scale during the time when there is little or no rain. The records
kept were only those directly related to yield. Promising indi-
vidual plants were marked, and a careful record was made of
the individual production of each of these.

The results secured from this proiect were very interesting.
The plants remained green and continued to produce when even
the native beans were suffering for water. No doubt by working
with selected individuals the yield of these beans can be very
materially increased and the Tepary established as a very valu-
able dry-weather bean for the Philippines. Experiment has
shown that the plants will shoot practically all of their pods
during the rainy season, and those that do hang on mature
almost no seed.

Very special precautions must be taken in carrying the Tepary
beans over from one season to another. Even the slightest mois-
ture will readily cause the beans to lose their vitality. The
Tepary is distinctly a dry-weather legume, and the seeds should
be dried and sealed during the dry months before the rains begin.

TABLE V.—Showing the number of pods and the weight of ripe beans secured
in subproject.*

| | | | | |
gee] ron | Bis | Ryze | on. [ee | Rae) wot | ibe | Rote | S|
bay a eee aml aie cee
Grams.|| Grams.\| | | Grams.\ | Grams.
| 1 27| 12.45 i} 6 24) 15.11 | 11 | 23 | 11.04 || 16 | 25 | 10.80 |
| 2 25 | 11.26 i 7 | 23 | 11.12 | 12 29 | 12.68 |} 17 | 36 | 18.62
| 3 25 | 10.79 i 8 26 11.00 | 13 | 27 10.03 i 18 | 25 | 11.20 |
| 4 28 | 10.09 | 9 22; 10.07 14 | 33 | 16.34 19 | 31 | 13.00 |
| 5 27| 11.04 | 10 24 | 12.24 I 15 | 21} 11.16 }} 20 28} 9.93 |

2 These yields are about two-thirds of what are secured from the Tepary in southern
California.

PROJECT 4. WET SEASON

Project 4 consisted of the plantings of sixteen varieties of
beans in the college gardens in a plat 15 meters wide and of

80 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

sufficient length to contain all of the varieties. The rows were
70 centimeters apart, and the hills stood 50 centimeters apart
with two plants in a hill. The soil was first plowed and then
worked into a mellow consistency by means of hoe andrake. The
plants were cultivated regularly twice each week. The plant-
ings were made on May 11, 1916, and there was sufficient rain
so that irrigation was not necessary. FF, seed secured from the
first plantings was used. |

The results obtained from project 4 were disappointing. Only
six of the sixteen varieties of beans matured any seed what-
ever. Neither the Tepary nor the Henderson’s Bush Lima pro-
duced any pods. Both of these varieties shot their pods when
young, because of fungus attacks.

Practically all of the varieties of P. vulgaris were severely
attacked by the bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas phaseoli.
The pole varieties were much more resistant, and a few seeds
were saved from a few of those that were apparently free from
the disease. It was not possible, however, to save any mature
seed from any of the bush varieties. The Hodson’s Green Pod,
the Longfellow, the Extra Early Refugee, and the Lady Washing-
ton all failed because of the attacks from the bean maggot.

The yields were in all cases much below what would be a satis-
factory garden production. The Kentucky Wonder, the Cana-
dian Wonder, and the Southern Creaseback gave mediocre yields,
but the Southern Prolific came near failing entirely. In most
cases there was a slight decrease in the size of pods and in
some cases in the size of the ripe bean.

PROJECT 5. WET SEASON

Project 5 consisted of the plantings of fifteen varieties of
beans in my home garden, all being Phaseolus vulgaris. One row
was given to each variety, the rows being 10 meters in length.
The rows stood 50 centimeters apart, and the hills were 40 centi-
meters apart with one plant in a hill. All varieties except two
were planted on May 8, 1916, the two exceptions being planted
on May 21. F, seed secured from the first plantings was used.

Every variety experimented with project 5 started out very
promisingly. The bean maggot gave very little trouble, and
even with a bacterial disease severely attacking every variety,
each gave a fair yield. The disease attacked the pods of all
varieties to such an extent that it was practically impossible
to secure any ripe seeds whatever.

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 81

TABLE VI.—Data of project 5."

| ‘ Flow Maxi- | Aver-
Variety. Planted. aed Served. | Mature.| mum age | Rank.
: pods. | pods.
Kentucky Wonder -___-_-----__- May 8| June 17! June 28 | July 14 | 15 9 0
French Mohawk -_-------------- .--do -___-; June 7] June 21 | July 15 | 23 12 8
Extra Early Refugee -___-_. -__- .--do -__-| June 5} June 18 | July 13 26 19 3
Extra Early Valentine__________ .--do ____| June 6] June 15 | July 12 | 44 15 6
Hodson’s Green Pod -_____-____- ._.-do ___.| June 9}; June 20} July 14 | 28 23 0
Canadian Wonder---__-__-_-__-- __.do _..| June 6| June 18 | July 13 | 26 | 19 4
miiexicanvPink: 2-5-2922 __.do____| June 5|June17| July 12 | 23 | 12 7
Lady Washington_______._______ ._.-do ..__.| June 6/ June 19| July 11 | 34 23 if
Dwarf Horticultural____________ -.-do _..-|---do ___-] June 18 | July 14 | 29 16 5
REDHAT VHS es inc oe Soe ee _--do. 22-2 Jhane? 2; (2) ae ee ae ee | Sas eae | cee eee OS
poubhernverolific ---— ese ---do -__-) June 19 | June 30 | July 18 | 41 21 2
Michigan White Wax______--__- May 21/} June 17 | June 24! July 20 26 9 9
Wonrtellowi. 25-45. 22. Se -.do_..-| June 19) July 1 | July 15 | 8 4 0

aIn ranking the different varieties in project 5, the weight of pods was not recorded
because there was still no noticeable change in their size. In the tabulations of the data
for this project no weights were recorded, also for this same reason. The amount of edible
food material produced for each variety in the different projects will vary as the number
of pods.

> Plants shot their pods owing to rain.

Table VII aims to show the results from the first plantings
made during each of the three seasons: the cool, the hot and
dry, and the wet. The original plantings were made during
the cool months, and the results secured from these plant-
ings are shown in the first columns. The plantings made during
the dry and wet seasons were duplicated, one series being run
in the college gardens and one series in my home garden. The
dry season plantings in the college gardens were irrigated and
cultivated regularly, while those run in the home garden were
not cultivated nor irrigated, but were thickly mulched with dry
cogon grass. As is shown in the table, the results secured from
the mulched cultures for nearly all of the varieties were excep-
tionally good, while the irrigated crops were a complete failure.
Of course, there were features other than heat or moisture that
entered in to cause the great difference in the results secured.
The soil in the home garden was richer, and although the bean
maggot and leaf hopper were present, they were not so numerous
as in the college gardens. But notwithstanding these factors,
there is a very decided balance on the side of the mulch. The
soil is always kept cool and moist, irrespective of how high the
temperature above the ground may be. A cool soil is a very
essential factor in growing crops during the hot season, and this
is not always possible where irrigation is used.

154603——3

_ 1918

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Journal of Sci

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The Ph

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‘sunoq fo Buyunjd ysuuf fo Rummung—IIA Tah

XIIL, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 838

Perhaps the strongest point brought out in all of the plantings
recorded in this table is the great fluctuation in length of time
from planting until the product becomes serviceable for food.
Various reasons have been assigned for this. With the plantings
made the latter part of May in the college gardens the number
of days from planting till serviceable was very materially length-
ened for nearly all varieties. This is believed to be due to the
fact that after the few light showers in May there was a dry
period in June sufficient to check the growth of the plants just
before they began to flower. The plants remained in a seem-
ingly dormant condition for several days, when on the arrival of
the heavier showers they started into vigorous growth again.
While ordinarily dry weather has a tendency to hasten maturity,
it seems that in this case a general rule has been broken.
It is possible that some other reason may exist, but I have been
unable to discover it.

Occasionally the plants will shoot all of the first flowers either
because of excessive moisture or disease, and this will materially
lengthen the time until the first pods become serviceable.

PROJECT 6—A. WET SEASON

In project 6—A an effort was made to grow the two leading pole
varieties of kidney beans, the Kentucky Wonder and the South-
ern Prolific, in a large plat on a market-garden scale. The soi!
was first plowed and then worked into a mellow condition by
means of hoe and rake. F, seed from the original plantings was
used, and the hills stood 50 by 70 centimeters apart with two
plants in-a hill. The plan was to cultivate the plat once each
week with the garden cultivator, but the rains were often too
severe to permit this.

While the plants in this project started fairly well, much
replanting was necessary owing to the bean maggot and other
causes, and the final outcome was that not more than 5 per cent
of the plants reached the podding stage. Scattered plants here
and there gave a fair production, but nothing approaching what
would be considered a market-garden yield.

PROJECT 6—B. WET AND COOL SEASONS

Project 6—B consisted of 25 square meters of Kentucky Wonder
pole beans planted in the college gardens. F, seed harvested
from project 3 was used, and the planting was made on August
2 O16,

The object of this project was to give the Kentucky Wonder
a severe test during the time when the rains were heavy. The

B4 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

soil was prepared as well as practicable under existing condi-
tions, but it was not possible to work it into a mellow state be-
fore planting, owing to the excessive moisture. The plat received
little cultivation other than keeping down the weeds.

This planting gave rather unexpected results. The average
number of pods produced per plant was fifteen, which is low for
this variety; yet taking into account the heavy rains and the
small amount of cultivation that it was possible to give, the
results were satisfactory.

At the same time that this project was run there was also
planted a plat each of the Southern Prolific and Southern Crease-
back pole beans, but both of these varieties were unable to endure
the severe weather conditions and finally succumbed without
giving any production whatever.

PROJECT 6—C. COOL SEASON

Project 6—-C consisted of a large plat each of the Southern
Prolific and Lady Washington pole beans and a small plat of
the Long Yellow Six Weeks bush beans, the first two varieties
planted on September 2, and the last planted on September
9, 1916. F., seed was used, and the hills stood 50 by 70 centi-
meters apart with one plant in the hill.

The plat of Southern Prolific was more promising at the
outset than any planting of this variety previously made. The
plants were very uniform, and very few of them succumbed ‘to
the ravages of the bean maggot. The vines were strong and
vigorous until podding time, when they began to show signs of
weakness. What at first promised to be a good production
turned out to be a very mediocre one. The plants ceased blos-
soming after producing the first pods. The maximum number
of pods secured from any one plant was twelve with an average
per plant of eight pods. This yield was very disappointing
and much below what would be expected of this variety.

The Lady Washingtons were much inferior to the Southern
Prolifics. A few of the plants struggled along and produced
a few green pods, but a bacterial disease caused all of these
to drop before maturity, no ripe beans whatever being saved.
In some cases the plants died while still producing flowers and
pods for no apparent reason. The Lady Washington might be
well considered a complete failure in this project.

The Long Yellow Six Weeks did surprisingly well. The plants
grew vigorously and gave a fair production. While the number
of pods produced was below what would be considered a good
yield, yet for this season it could not be considered unsatisfactory.

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 85

The maximum number of pods secured from any one plant was
eleven, with an average of seven for each plant.

TABLE VIII.—Data for project 6-C.

=e
| | } A Maxi
< Flow- | Service- a4 fa CRazS | mum
Variety. | Planted. erodk AINE Mario ES nodeicen
| 2 plant
Southern Prolifie._..-..-.--_.-___... Sept. 2] Oct. 2 | Oct. 22] Nov. 10 g 12
Eady Washington... .=.--.-....<.-.|_=- do ----| Oct. 6] Oct. 16 (ae =e Son Sere aed
Long Yellow Six Weeks_______-____- Sept. 9] Oct. 7] Oct. 20] Nov. 13 7 ll |

® No harvest secured.
PROJECT 6—D. COOL SEASON

Project 6—D consisted of an area of the Henderson’s Bush Lima
5 by 7 meters, planted in my home garden on September 2, 1916.
F, seed from the original planting was used. There was little
trouble from the bacterial disease, and even the lightest bearing
plants gave a good yield of pods. The maximum number of
pods produced on any one plant was forty-two, with an average
production of thirty-five pods for each plant. The experiment
shows that this is a good bean for this locality, providing it is
grown during the cool season. The Henderson’s Bush is an early
Lima, and even a small area will give a satisfactory production
with ordinary care. The yield secured from this variety was
practically the same as that secured under ordinary conditions
in the United States.

PROJECT 6—E. COOL SEASON

Project 6—E was one of the most satisfactory of the entire
set of experiments.

It consisted of the planting of a plat each of the Challenger
Pole Lima and the King of the Garden, the latter also a large
Lima of the pole type. Both of these plats were planted on
August 16, 1916. The King of the Garden became serviceable
on November 21, ’and the Challenger on November 23.

The results of this project were a great contrast to what were
secured from the original plantings. All of the plants made a
vigorous growth and seemed-to adapt themselves to conditions
almost as well as the local varieties, which were growing near
by. Most of the flowers produced pods that were well filled with
large beans conforming in both size and shape to the original seed.

It was not possible to secure an exact production record from
either of these plats owing to the fact that the hills and rows
stood the same distance apart as is common with such Limas
in the United States, and consequently the vines intertwined so

86 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

that it was not practicable to count the pods on individual plants.
The experiment showed conclusively that the distance between
individual plants in the tropics should not be less than 1.25 meters
each way.

The King of the Garden proved to be a better yielder than the
Challenger. The pods ranged from 10 to 12 centimeters in length
and from 2 to 2.5 centimeters in width. Practically every pod
contained four large uniform white beans, 2 centimeters wide,
2.25 centimeters long, and about 0.625 (five-eighths) centimeter
thick. The pods of the Challenger ranged about 8 centimeters
in length and 2.5 centimeters in width, but the bean was con-
siderably thicker than that of the King of the Garden.

Nothing could be more discouraging than these Limas were
in the previous plantings. The few seeds that it was possible
to save at the first harvest brought forth very unexpected results,
and the general condition of the plants left little doubt that
both Limas were able to adapt themselves to tropical conditions.

PROJECT 7. COOL SEASON

Project 7 consisted of the plantings of all of the varieties
of kidney beans grown at the first planting, excepting those that
were run in special projects. F, seed secured from the first
harvest was used, and all the plantings were made from October
15 to November 6, 1916. This season was very much the same
as that of October, November, and December, 1915, the time
when the first plantings were made.

Project 7 was run in my home garden rather than in the college
gardens for the reason that the soil in the home garden is much
richer and mellower than that in any of the college gardens. It
was considered essential to give the F, seed every opportunity to
show what it could do by being planted at exactly the same season
as were the original plantings. Those seeds that proved them-
selves too weak to come through with the best possible care
could be hardly expected to withstand a severer treatment.

Unfortunately most of the varieties proved to be weaklings
from the beginning, and some of them were very disappointing.
Something was expected of the Extra Early Refugee and the
Long Yellow Six Weeks, yet they proved themselves unable to
endure the slightest adverse conditions. The French Mohawk,
the Dwarf Horticultural, the Extra Early Red Valentine, the
Hodson’s Green Pod, and the Longfellow did not have so much
expected of them, and there was consequently little surprise at
the results secured. The Red Valentine, however, most unexpect-
edly gave a fair yield, and was the only one that reached the

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes Q7

podding stage. The maximum number of pods produced on any
one plant was thirteen, with an average of four pods per plant.
The average was lowered because many plants produced only
one or two pods. However, the pods were all of a good size,
and the plants were surprisingly vigorous.

Most of the varieties run in project 7 were discarded as being
unworthy. The Canadian Wonder, the Extra Early Valentine,
and the Long Yellow Six Weeks were considered worthy and
were carried further.

PROJECT 8. COOL SEASON

Project 8 was the culminating bean project of the entire series
of experiments. It consisted of the plantings of all of the pro-
mising varieties of both Phaseolus vulgaris and P.. lunatus.
These were the Canadian Wonder, the Long Yellow Six Weeks,
the Extra Early Red Valentine, the Black Valentine, the Southern
Prolific, the Kentucky Wonder, the Tepary, the Henderson’s Bush |
Lima, the King of the Garden Lima, and the Challenger Pole |
Lima. In part of the cases F, seed was used, and in part F, ,
seed was used.

The plantings of this project were made from the middle of '
November, 1916, to a little beyond the first of January, 1917.
The season was cool, with constant light showers during the
growth and development of all of the short-lived varieties, no
irrigation being required excepting for the varieties that con- |
tinued to grow well to the middle of March. It was possible to |
give ideal garden treatment to the cultures at all times, and
whatever production was secured was obtained under the most |
favorable conditions.

TABLE I1X.—Data for project 8."

(es west pe en faa de hI. acs
Vari Flow- | Service- Maxi- Average |
ariety. Planted. eae Ale. Seed. me pods
| Canadian Wonder _---...________.___| Nov..19 | Dec. 14} Dec. 28 Fs 16 6
| Long Yellow Six Weeks____.__-____- ..-do ___.| Dee. 16 | Dec. 29 F3 23 11
Extra Early Red Valentine _-_______ Jan. 1) Feb. 2} Feb. 16 Fs 17 9 |
| OLIGO er ee ee Dec. 10| Jan. 11| Feb. 9 Fs 34 21
| Kentucky Wonder) ----.--_.--_ 2 = | Dec. 24} Jan. 26 | Feb. 20 Fs 13 vi
Southern Prolific ---..---------------| Jan. 6] Feb. 11! Feb. 24 | Fs 36 17
Black Valentine ss 44— 2 = 5-45. 2228 beedovs--.| Heb: 10 | Heb: (26 Fs 21 11
| Henderson’s Bush Lima ee Dec. 21] Jan. 26 | Feb. 22 F2 29 18 |
le Kone of the! Gardeni-2--- 222-2 ans Lado =22 (2) Mar. 29 Fe 86 27
Whallenper tee ee ea ee Gore (2) April 3 Fe 108 34

4 The two large Limas, the Challenger and the King of the Garden, succeeded remarkably
well at this planting. The plants were strong and vigorous, there was little sign of disease,
and the yield was entirely satisfactory.

88

The Philippine Journal of Science

TABLE X.—Summary of successful beans.

{[C, H, W refer to cool, hot, and wet seasons, respectively; O, a failure.

cates that the variety was not run.]

1918

A blank space indi-

] ]
Planting 1. Planting 2. Planting 3.
aim. a slit a EB lon. a
Soe) oO | & | xe us) a) uo]
Variety. 3 ao] B o | Ss) a Ba) 2 |
& 3 | 9o , w | Pol @ : = Salo
LN et ees ee ees ye ee as
Heo a's s i] nS os | nS $s
) >i 3 & 3) mh 5 a Sy) mh 5 5
a ae 5 3 = ao > ) Rol ee > 3
= /a at) ee Ne © ens Wh <a |
oS nasa =| 7 a ;
Henderson's Bush Lima, C | 66| 13| 2; H | 0 | O;0; W}] 0} O|/0
Tepary ste! eee Cc 61 51 4, H 56 44 9| W Oo oO oO
Southern Prolific ________ Cc 54 23 1} H 57 139) 1! W 53 ot p
Long Yellow Six Weeks_| C 48 7 Bin ET 42| 16 | 5| W oO oO Oo
Extra Early Red Va-| C | 40| 14| 11] H | 0 | 0 | 0| wi 38| 15] 6
lentine. | |
King of the Garden ____- Callao |e Ae S| H oO oO 0) Cc Ob Hie 1
Challenger == 25-2 50-255 el neon fo Pee 3 H Oo oO Oo Cc 98 ? 2
Black Valentine_-____--_- Gr peor eeseealeese= H r@) | Oo Oo WwW 44 50} 1
Canadian Wonder --____- Cc 40 14 6) 42 14 6| W 41 81/5
Kentucky Wonder ---_-.-- Cc 54 20 3| H 39 28} 2) W 51 STi gt
i |
Planting 4, Planting 5.
. ~ . | . _ -
c - . a | -m . n
ro uo) Yo no]
: Variety. Bl Bailie B|en| 8
& | >S] o : Bee oul 1a :
) to ad 2 bo as
r=] a's 2 6 aS =|
o tall oO 5 o mh oO 8
A} a 2 > os so s 2 > a
Esa qe | 5 is <j} em
Henderson's Bush Lima --___--_----_------------ Cc 61 35 AS Hie 83 61 18 1
pt fs) a cx lt a, RA A Ee ate Hele as Ps Cc 59 13 1 Cc 61 21 2
Southern Prolific 22252. 222. 25, See eee Cc 48 11 | 1 Cc 50 rh i ied)
Long Yellow Six Weeks ---_--.-----.-------___-- Cc 41 | 7 0 Hae © 40 ll 4
Extra Early Red Valentine_-_.____-.-----_------ Cc 40 4 1 Cc 45 9 5
King of the Garden - 3. o-oo eee ee Cc 85 ? 6) ones] ene Pee eee
Challenper’= 02 3. oe. 3.02 BS see eee Cc 90 ? ya eee Ue of) eS eee
Black Valentine 25 2.03.6 es Se Cc 45 7 8| C Bile) aang
Canadian) Wonder: 22022525. 55 5-eeee Cc 39 6 ge See (ee oA ie SEC ea RE SaaS:
Rentueky Wonder -.-22.-2--.---2 2). eee Cc 66 | 15 1} Ghee bS ht.) 10

In most cases the crops ran into two seasons, but the season when the greatest growth

and development occurred is the one recorded.

The rank given under each planting refers to the rank that the variety received in the
This last rank is the rank

project in which it was run, except the rank given in planting 5.

held by the yariety at the close of the experiments.

PROJECT 9.

COOL SEASON

Project 9 consisted of the planting of ten varieties of kidney

beans on the same ground and at the same season of the year
as the first original plantings. Exactly the same treatment was
given these varieties as was given those planted the previous year.

The object of this project was twofold: to check the results

XII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 89

secured from the first plantings with those grown under the same
conditions a year later and to compare the yields from a number
of new varieties with the yields of the old standard varieties.
The old varieties grown as checks on the original plantings were
the Tepary, the Extra Early Red Valentine, the Dwarf Horti-
cultural, the Michigan White Wax, and the Southern Creaseback.
The new varieties run were those that are considered good
yielders by American market gardeners. These were the Golden
Wax, the French String, the Improved Rustproof Golden Wax,
Morse’s Stringless Green Pod, and Burger’s Pole.

All of the new varieties gave very satisfactory yields for first
plantings. There was little sign of disease of any kind, and the
plants made fully as vigorous growths as they would make in the
temperate zone. Table XI shows all data secured from this
project, together with the average production secured from the
first plantings of the five old varieties.

TABLE XI.—Data for project 9.

| i] |
| | | Pods. ct
|
Variety. | Planted. Flower- | Service- eens Aver- Colles |
ae Bie ver- | Maxi- face Now
| | age. | mum. | pjant- |
| | ing
Golden Wax -___-----_-- Nov. 17| Dec. 14| Dec. 25 | Jan. 23 | 10 Tie ea te | 6373 |
French String-__-_-____- ..-do _...| Dec. 15 | Dec. 26] Jan. 24 7 36 |__.-._-_| 6374
Rust Proof Wax--_-_-_--- __-do ____| Dec. 16 | Dec. 27] Jan. 26 | 8 PI poe eels 6375 |
Extra Early Red Val- |_..do ____/ Dec. 17 | Dec. 25 | Jan. 24 | 7 18 14} 6370 |
entine. | | |
Michigan White Wax -__|__-do --__| Dec. 16 | Dec. 24 | Jan. 28 6 18 20 | 6371 |
Stringless Green Pod___|-__do ____! Dec. 15 | Dec. 25 |__.do ____| 9 3 (i) | Ea Be 6376 |
White Creasebrack_____ ..-do ....| Dec. 23 | Dec. 30! Jan. 31| 17 37 19] 6379 |
Dwarf Horticultural -._|...do -.__| Dec. 15 | Dec. 24} Feb. 1, 8 35 | ys
Burger's Pole _.____.__- __.do .__-| Dec. 23 | Jan. 4| Feb. 6! 12 Dele ue. ee 6378
EVI EW 7 tee eh ee eee L-xdoi----| Dee. 15.) Jan. 21 | Jan. 21 | 21 17 s1| 6372 |

It is interesting to note that of the five old varieties run in
this project the Tepary and the Red Valentine gave yields twice
as great at the first plantings as were those secured in this pro-
ject, the Creaseback and the Horticultural gave almost the same
production, while the Michigan White Wax gave a yield that was
insignificant compared with the first. It would be difficult to
assign a reason for these differences in production, owing to the
fact that some varieties greatly increased their yields, while
others fell back. As stated elsewhere, these last plantings were
all made on the same land as were the first plantings and re-
ceived exactly the same treatment. The seasons were much the

90 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

same in both years, although that of 1916-17 was somewhat
cooler and more suited to the growing of legumes than was the
season of 1915-16.

PEAS: PROJECT 1, DRY SEASON

Project 1 consisted of the plantings of several varieties of
garden peas in the college gardens. F, seed, produced in 1914 by
Mr. José Q. Dacanay, a senior student in the College of Agricul-
ture, was used,-and the plantings were made during the latter
part of March, 1916. The soil was worked into a mellow condi-
tion before planting, and the plants were cultivated and irrigated
two or three times each week.

The seeds of practically all of the varieties germinated well,
and unlike the beans planted at the same time, there was no
trouble from insect pests or fungous diseases. But on the other
hand the peas were unable to endure the extreme heat during
March and April, and notwithstanding the fact that irrigation
was used, the majority of the varieties took on a sickly yellowish
appearance and died before blossoming. A few varieties re-
mained alive for a good while and produced a few flowers. An
occasional pod was produced, but the pods were not in sufficient
abundance to be considered a yield of any sort.

This experiment shows that the garden pea is more easily
injured by the tropical heat than are the majority of garden
beans. It is probable that the pea will have to be cultivated dur-
ing the cool months only, if satisfactory results are to be secured.

PEAS: PROJECT 2, WET AND COOL SEASONS

Project 2 consisted of the planting of eighteen varieties of
peas in my home garden, the plantings being made on September
30, 1916. The varieties were selected so as to include those
most popular with American market gardeners and were the
following: Prosperity, Alaska, Blue Bantam, American Wonder,
British Wonder, Extra Early, Laxtonian, Little Marvel, Mott’s
Excelsior, Little Gem, Thomas Laxton, Alderman, Abundance,
Advancer, Senator, Telephone, Stratagem, and Yorkshire. The
plats were arranged side by side, and each plat contained about
10 square meters. The peas were given the same treatment that
they are commonly given in the temperate zone, that is, the rows
standing about 50 centimeters apart and the seeds drilled thickly
in the row.

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 9]

The heavy rains during October and November proved disas-
trous, and in spite of the fact that the very best care was given
the plants, very few of the varieties produced any crop worth
mentioning. The following were complete failures: Alderman,
Advancer, Alaska, Stratagem, Telephone, Extra Early, American
Wonder, Abundance, Little Marvel, Senator, Little Gem, British
Wonder, Blue Bantam, Yorkshire, and Mott’s Excelsior. A very
few seeds were saved from the Laxtonian and the Thomas Lax-
ton, but not a sufficient quantity to be called a harvest. I believe
that the results secured from this project are sufficiently con-
clusive to show that the pea is unsuited to a season when the
rains are heavy.

PEAS: PROJECT 3, COOL SEASON

Project 3 consisted of the original plantings of twenty varie-
ties of garden peas in my home garden. The plantings were
made during November and December, 1916, and consisted of
the following varieties: Laxtonian, Little Marvel, Mott’s Excel-
sior, Prosperity, Thomas Laxton, Alaska, Blue Bantam, American
Wonder, British Wonder, Extra Early, Alderman, Abundance,
Advancer, Senator, Stratagem, Horsford’s Market Garden, Cham-
pion of England, Telephone, Yorkshire Hero, and Large White
Marrowfat.

This project gave an excellent opportunity to find out just
what each variety of pea would do under good conditions.
There was not too much rain, and the atmosphere was cool and
moist during the entire growing period of all of the varieties,
excepting a few of the latest. The soil was kept in good condi-
tion, and good garden treatment was given at all times.

But in spite of the good weather conditions and the excellent
care given, most of the varieties proved unsatisfactory. These
were in almost all cases the dwarf, early varieties. The follow-
ing varieties succeeded and were promising at all times:
Champion of England (tall and late), Senator (tall and late),
Alderman (tall and late), Prosperity (tall and medium early),
Stratagem (semidwarf and half-late), American Wonder (semi-
dwarf and early), Thomas Laxton (tall and early), Large White
Marrowfat (very tall and late), Horsford’s Market Garden (tall
and half-late), Alaska (tall and early), Extra Early (medium-
tall and early), and Laxtonian (medium dwarf and early).
Table XII shows the data secured.

92 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE XII—Data for project 3.

era | Aver- Maxi- | Average
Variety. | Planted. | See | age mum | peas per
| pods. | pods. pods.
eee 26 a
|. Champion of Pngland..-.-.-!-4.4.-_-.- | Nov. 19 | Jan. 22 | 4 6 | 4
Men ator: Ser aoe eee pees Sees eee er ae 1. ido __--|- Jani, 26 4 11 3.4 |
Mllderm sn ssh eeenh Ae See Ble eee (0 Pee Co do. 2- 5.6 7 4
IPrOsHPINGy sete eee ne se ee | Nov. 8| Dec. 16 1 2 ae
Strata wen oe ee ee oe eee _-de).-_)' Dec wi 1.6 | 2 2
| aunerican i Wonder) S Sere ssh = anes acer ---do .---| Dec. 18 1.6 | 2 1.8
| homas Paxton ose. =o eee ee. Seen Sadie es do.a< 28 2 1.5
|, Large White MarnowsLat------¢--- 42... Dec. 19 | Feb. 26 7 12 4.3
Horsford’s Market Garden -------_----.....----|---do ----| Feb. 22 5 ll 4
| Allaskaé .2o5 5-00 =... -So Bee eee oe ns Nov. 2]/ Feb. 4 1 2 2
| (ischa Bang: csc. ata eee ee Al see eee do ___.| 1.4 3 2,2
DLaxtoniano..- 2.4 - oe eee eee Bees (ej, coop eek do ~-=+| 1 2 3

All of the tall, late varieties gave a fair yield. If the plants
had not stood so close together in the row (the distance between
plants being about 6 centimeters), no doubt the average produc-
tion for each plant would have been materially greater. The Sen-
ator, the Alderman, the Marrowfat, and the Horsford’s Market
Garden produced very strong, vigorous vines that left little doubt
as to their being able to adapt themselves to tropical conditions.
The results of the first plantings were such as to leave no doubt
that the tall late varieties are the ones to be developed for the
tropical garden.

PEAS: PROJECT 4, COOL SEASON

Project 4 consisted of the plantings of F, seed secured from
several varieties, mostly early, run in project 2. All of these
plantings were made in January; they consisted of the following
varieties: Alaska, Extra Early, Laxtonian, Prosperity, Strata-
gem, American Wonder, and Thomas Laxton.

It was possible to notice a slight difference in the hardiness
of all of these varieties at the second planting, but this was
probably due to the favorable weather conditions more than to
any other one thing. However, there was one variety, the Strata-
gem, which in vigorous growth and general hardiness stood so
far superior to all neighboring varieties that it was easily notice-
able at some distance. The leaves and the stems remained dark
green for some time after the weaker varieties had succumbed.
The Stratagem did not continue to blossom and produce pods
longer than those in the neighboring plats, but its ability to re-
sist the heat and to grow vigorously for some time after the first

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 93

pods became serviceable was sufficient to give it an acceptable
rank. The pods were fully a third larger than those secured
at the first planting and were well formed. The plants were
semidwarf, and the stems and leaves were thicker and sturdier
than even the very late varieties.

Table XIII shows the data secured from this planting, with
a repetition of the yields made from the first planting.

TABLE XIII.—Data for project 4.

= Ta 1
| : Maximum pods. Average pods. |
| Variety. Planted. Seite: r y "i

4 First Second First Second
’ planting.) planting.| planting.| planting.
| ENE EO re es Soa Jan. 1] Feb. 3 2 3 1 2
LEG) LOE gd (og ae na ee a gaa | 0) 2255 \no- dola-- 3 4 1.4 2.6
UA 00 Ce ee eee | Be G6) 2.5222 doj:=-. 2 3 1 1.8
| POS NERC SS taki ison oc ee ed Jan. 14] Feb. 23 2 4 1 1.5
BEUDATA OEM te ee ee fee dolce. cae-: doe 2 4 1.6 2.5
Wmierican Wonder: .--------..- -2=-2-|+_- do .-_-| Feb. 21 2 3 1.6 2
| tomas Maxton: 4 5--ty uss 22252 -us}eS- Gomes dow 2) 3 1.3 1.5
i

While the data secured from these various plantings of peas
are in no sense conclusive—nor are they intended to be so—
they are suggestive of possibilities.

In plant-breeding experiments and acclimatization trials a
certain variety of plants will turn out almost a complete failure
at the first planting and then burst forth with amazing success
from the plantings of the F, seed; on the other hand, a success
at the first planting is not a guarantee of future successes.
No doubt the strong, vigorous plant at the first planting has many
advantages over the weaklings. The object of this paper was
not necessarily to find out whether or not peas would grow in
the tropics, for this problem has been conclusively solved for
the tropics of America, India, Ceylon, and other points of the
East Indies and also conclusively for the Philippines; the object
was rather to discover if possible which types and varieties of
peas would respond most readily to the climatic conditions in
the Philippines and, as stated elsewhere, to secure foundation
stock for individual selection work. From more than twenty
varieties we have found five that are more or less promising,
which will be run in future cultures with the object of establish-
ing them in the Islands. These are the Stratagem, the Senator,
Horsford’s Market Garden, the Large White Marrowfat, and
the Alderman.

94 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

From the data we summarize and draw the following con-
clusions:

1. Kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) will usually give a satis-
factory yield from newly introduced seed if planted during the
cool season.

2. Seeds of the kidney bean lose their vitality readily in the

tropics; consequently all seeds should be thoroughly dried and
sealed in order to preserve this vitality. Only seeds that are
strongly vital will ever be able to resist the attacks of the
bean maggot, the worst enemy of the growing of kidney beans
in the Philippine Islands.
_ 8. The growing of kidney beans during the dry hot months
even under irrigation is not likely to prove worth while. The
plants are too tender to endure the intense heat that is reflected
from the hot soil during parts of the day.

4. Rich soil, thickly mulched, will produce a fair crop of kidney
beans in this locality even during the hotter months.

5. The number of days from planting beans until the crop
is serviceable will vary with the different seasons.

6. There is a close correlation between production and the
vigor of kidney beans.

7. The bush group of kidney beans is more subject to the
bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas phaseoli during the
rainy season than is the pole group.

8. The kidney beans, as a general rule, are not suited to the
rainy season. Hither bacterial disease or the tendency to shoot
the pods, owing to excessive moisture, will render the crop too
small to come within the bounds of economy.

9. Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) are likely to be less pro-
mising at the first planting than are the kidney beans. However,
F, seed is likely to respond with a favorable production.

10. The Limas are entirely resistant to the bean maggot.

11. Pole Limas have the tendency to take on the perennial
habit in the tropics. Individual plants should be trained on
trellises 1.25 meters each way for best results.

12. The Limas require much less care than do the kidney beans.
They will yield fairly well during the rainy season and may be
made to produce crops during the dry season with slight irriga-
tion. However, plants grown during the cooler months will give
the best results.

13. There appears to be no correlation between the production
and the vigor of peas.

XIII, A, 2 Cocannouer: Imported Garden Legumes 95

14. A strong, vigorous variety of peas will produce a strong,
vigorous growth from the F, seed if grown under the same
conditions.

15. Peas are not suited either to the dry season or to the wet
season.

- 16. Peas are little affected by insects or fungous pests if grown
during the cool months.

17. The tall late varieties respond more favorably to tropical
conditions than do the early dwarfs.

18. Peas do not seem to lose their vitality as readily as beans,
yet the seeds should be thoroughly dried and sealed in order to
have them as vital as possible at planting time.

In the preparation of this work I received valuable aid and
suggestions from Dr. E. B. Copeland, dean of the College of
Agriculture; Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, associate professor of den-
drology and chief of the School of Forestry; and Prof. C. F.
Baker, chief of the department of agronomy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Barney. Principles of Vegetable Gardening. MacMillan & Co., New
Works (1912):

(2) IpEM. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. The MacMillan Co., New
York (1914). d

(3) CorBETT. Beans. Farmers Bull., U. S. Dept. Agr. (1915), No. 289.

(4) Dacanay, Jose Q. Acclimatization of garden peas. Phil. Agr. &
Forest. (1916), 5, No. 7.

(5) DE CANDOLLE. Origin of Cultivated Plants. Kegan Paul, Trench,
Tribner and Co., London (1904).

(6) KINMAN and MCCLELLAND. Experiments of the Supposed Deteriora-
tion of Varieties of Vegetables in Porto Rico, with Suggestion for
Seed Preservation. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
(1916).

(7) MAcMiILLAn. Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting. H. W.
Cave & Co., Colombo (1914).

(8) Merritt. Flora of Manila. Bureau of Science publication, Manila
(1912)5 No. 5:

Sa
ity

REVIEWS

Preliminary | mathematics | by | Prof. F. E. Austin, B. S., E. E. | Hanover,
N. H. | [7 lines]. | Copyright 1917, pp. 1-169—i-iv. Cloth, price $1.20.

In the introduction the author seems to be greatly in favor
of the English system of units and tries to show that it is more
convenient to use it than the metric system. This question of
units has been thoroughly discussed by engineers and scientists
for some time in the past, and each system has its own followers.

The subject matter in the book is arranged in the most logical
order, and the practical applications of the theories discussed
are clearly shown.

The problems and examples seem carefully chosen and well
worked out and should furnish a guide to students who are be-
ginning to study algebra to enable them to develop the process
of correct and logical thinking.

The book will prove valuable to students and teachers and
will be a great help for those intending to take examinations
in algebra.

As a whole, the book admirably responds to the purpose for
which it is intended, and its use is greatly recommended.

F. V. VALENCIA.

The Application of | Physico-Chemical | Theory to technical processes and |
manufacturing methods, | by | Prof. Dr. R. Kremann | (Graz) |
Translated from the German by | Harold E. Potts | M. Se. (Liverpool)
| and | edited by Albert Mond, Ph. D. | [ornament] | New York |
D. Van Nostrand Company | Twenty-five Park Place | 1915 | Pp.
i-xv—1-212. Cloth, price, $2.50 net.

“Physical chemistry used to be considered a somewhat theore-
tical branch of study, but it has recently developed in such a
way as to explain many of the empirical observations of tech-
nology and to prove extremely suggestive of many new methods,
etc.”

Besides the discussion of theory the author has taken up the
special topics of: The ideal efficiency of the steam engine; the
gas engine; producer gas; water gas; colloidal solutions; the
catalytic action of ferments; the drying of linseed oil; vitrifi-
cation and devitrification; the Deacon process; the contact pro-

1546034 97

98 The Philippine Journal of Science

cess for sulphuric acid; the manufacture of nitric acid and ether;
the manufacture of soap; the caustification of sodium carbonate
with alkaline earths; lime burning; Nordhausen sulphuric acid;
roasting lead; the Pattinson process; the iron-reducing method
and the formation of matte; nickel matte; puddling; plaster
of Paris; the setting and hardening of Portland cement; the
weathering of clay; dyeing; vulcanization of rubber; the Parkes
process; the ammonia-soda process; the formation of saltpeter
from Chile saltpeter and potash.

The bcok has been well reviewed in the Journal of the Amer-
ican Chemical Society (1914), 36, 1065, and in the Journal of
Physical Chemistry (1914), 18, 457.

The author has covered a great deal of ground and, in general,
very well, and the book will greatly aid in making a closer con-
nection between physical and industrial chemistry.

A. J. C. and G. W. H.

218 Gt

itely essential ta ‘athe syetemiatit fonda

y
r BACT

RAIA 0 LEPANTO reonor ; AB 18 SORES 4 ar Bato

ivision of ; ‘Stannber
cans coer oe. ‘for the

\¥
THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

es CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

Vou. XIII MAY, 1918 No. 3

PRACTICAL OPERATION OF A PRODUCER-GAS POWER PLANT +
By FRANCISCO R. YCASIANO and FELIX V. VALENCIA
(From the Bureau of Science, Manila)

NINE TEXT FIGURES

Systematic investigations of the fuel resources of the Philip
pine Islands have shown that coal is of abundant occurrence,?*%,.
Extensive studies of the calorific values, proximate analyses, ha }
physical characteristics, and steaming qualities of coal fuels have
been made by Cox.’ In opening up new Philippine coal mines,

* Received for publication February 26, 1918.

* Dalburg, F. A., Coal resources of the Philippines, Min. Res. P. I. for
1911 (1912), 54-62; Coal mining in 1912, ibid. for 1912 (1913), 38—40.

Ferguson, H. G., Coal in the Cagayan Valley, This Journal, Sec. A
(1908), 3, 535-537.

Ferguson, H. G., and Clark, R. N., Coal in the Cagayan Valley, Min.
Res. P. I. for 1909 (1910), 41-42.

Smith, W. D., The coal deposits of Batan Island, Bull. P. I. Min. Bur.
(1905), 5, 1-56; The nonmetallic minerals, Min. Res. P. I. for 1907 (1908),
11-12; The geology of the Compostela—Danao coal field, This Journal, Sec. A
(1907), 2, 877-405; Philippine coal, Min. Res. P. I. for 1909 (1910), 36-40;
The coal resources of the Philippine Islands, ibid. for 1910 (1911), 37-56.

*Cox, Alvin J., Philippine coals and their gas-producing power, This
Journal (1906), 1, 877-902; The proximate analysis of Philippine coals,
ibid., Sec. A (1907), 2, 41-66; The relationship between the external ap- -
pearance and the ash content of Philippine coal, ibid., Sec. A (1908), 3,
91-93; Philippine coals as fuel, ibid., Sec. A (1908), 301-355; Calorimetry,
and the determination of the calorific value of Philippine and other coals
from the results of proximate analysis, ibid., Sec. A (1909), 4, 171-204;
Chemical and physical characteristics of Philippine coal, ibid., Sec. A
(1912), 7, 1-18; The oxidation and deterioration of coal, ibid., Sec. A
(1912), 7, 229-316.

155444 ' , EK)

100 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

the outcrop coal and the slack must be disposed of. It was
believed that these would give excellent results in a producer-gas
plant and if so would greatly help the industrial development
of the country. Low-grade coals when converted into gas for
internal-combustion engines give relatively high thermal effi-
ciency. These facts led to a careful study of the various types
of producer-gas apparatus and to installation of a suction pro-
ducer-gas plant in the power house of the Bureau of Science for
an additional power unit and for the trial of Philippine fuels
in such a plant. In discussing these tests, many details are pur-
posely included, because this is the only plant of its kind in the
Philippines, and any data that may be obtained in operating
it will serve as a guide in the operation of producer-gas plants
that may be installed in the future.

SOURCES OF POWER IN THE PHILIPPINES

A comparison of different types of prime movers involves a
consideration of many variable factors such as availability and
transportation facility, quality and price of the fuel consumed,
availability and price of general supplies, the use of the power,
type of the unit, capital invested, interest, depreciation, and
location of the machinery. When the power plant is large, the
advantages of a given unit are frequently expressed only from
the viewpoint of the fuel consumption cost per horsepower hour
and include only a statement of the size and type of the prime
mover. It is evident that such a statement is inaccurate, but
on account of the large number of variables, it is impossible to
make a general statement applicable to all types of prime movers
' included in a given class. The same variables render it possible
to make only approximate calculations of power costs and the
economy of the performance of various prime movers and, there-
fore, of the advantages or disadvantages of different types of
engines.

As a source of energy in the Philippine Islands there are
many waterfalls and streams of large capacity that are entirely
undeveloped. At present prime movers are operated exclusively
by (1) coal, (2) liquid fuel, or (8) miscellaneous fuels such as
rice husks, sugar cane bagasse, saw mill waste, coconut shells
or husks, etc. The general practice with regard to the use of
these is as follows:

Coal.—The general practice is to fire coal directly under the
boiler. .The only instance in which it is converted first into pro-
ducer gas for an internal combustion engine is in the plant of
the Bureau of Science, which it is the purpose of this paper to

XIII, A, 3 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 101

deseribe. No coal is converted into gas for use in boiler fur-
naces. A small quantity of briquetted coal is used from time
to time in large plants. There is one cement rotary kiln that
pulverizes coal for fire in powdered form. Pulverized coal is
neither used in locomotives nor in any boiler installation in the
Philippine Islands.

Liquid fuel.—Liquid fuel is commonly used for internal-com-
bustion engines. There is no instance in which liquid fuel is
fired under a boiler or converted into producer gas.

Miscellaneous fuels.—Rice husks are in extensive use in rice-
mill furnaces with automatic stokers. Sugar cane bagasse is in
general use in sugar-mill furnaces with or without automatic
stokers. Saw dust, shavings, etc., are in general use in lumber-
mill furnaces with automatic stokers. Coconut shells and husks
are seldom used under boilers, but find extensive use for drying
coconuts.

All of the fuels above enumerated offer possibilities of econ-
omical use in gas producers. However, they should not be sub-
stituted for coal or other satisfactory fuel, until it is shown by
actual experiment that they cannot be used more economically
for other purposes. For example, it might be more profitable
to market portions of rice husks to be ground for use in mixed
stock food than to burn them under a boiler.

DESCRIPTION OF BUREAU OF SCIENCE PRODUCER-GAS
POWER PLANT

The gas producer of the Bureau of Science is of the up-draft
suction type. It is designed, primarily, for lignite and sub-
bituminous coal, which contain a high percentage of moisture
and volatile hydrocarbons. This producer is especially suited
for the use of Batan coal, which with most other Philippine coals
falls into the above-mentioned class. However, with proper
manipulations and regulations, the gas producer can be well used
with any coal that does not cake sufficiently to obstruct the
formation of gases. The plan of this producer-gas plant is
shown in fig. 1.

Gas producer:—The Bureau of Science gas producer has a
rated capacity of about 226 cubic meters per hour (8,000 cubic
feet). The gas is used to run a four-stroke cycle 69- to 75-horse-
power Otto gas engine direct coupled with a 50-kilowatt con-
tinuous-current dynamo, which supplies light and power to the
Bureau of Science, the Philippine General Hospital, and some of
the buildings of the University of the Philippines. ,

The producer proper, or gas generator, consists of an auto-

102 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

genously welded cylindrical iron shell, lined with asbestos fiber
and fire brick. The contour, dimensions, and cross section of
the producer are shown in fig. 2.

Furnace oor

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Plan of the producer-gas plant.

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Fig. 1.

Se SS

Starting from the grate surface the inside contour of the producer is
formed by a cylinder, A, 75 centimeters in diameter and 85 centimeters
high, by an inverted truncated cone, B, 48.8 centimeters high and 130 and
75 centimeters in diameter at the top and bottom, respectively, and by
another cylinder, C, 130 centimeters in diameter and 54.3 centimeters high.
The upper part is as shown in the figure. The distance from the grate
surface to the cover plate of the producer is 211 centimeters, and the

103

-Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant

XIII, A, 3

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104 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

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Fic. 3. Side elevation of the gas generator. The air and
steam connection is fitted with a four-way cock C, by
which connection can be made with the blast pipe D,
with the opening EZ to the atmosphere, or with the pipe
F, which carries a steam supply pipe G, with reducing
valve, steam gauge, separator, and steam trap. The pipe
_F opens to the atmosphere by means of a regulating
valve H.

height of the producer -
from the floor to the
cover head, just beneath
the charging platform,
is 284 centimeters.
The total height of the
producer, including the
hopper, is 460 centime-
ters.

Doors.—The pro-
ducer is provided
with two furnace
doors (A, fig. 3),
50 centimeters by
12 centimeters, lo-
cated at the level
of the grate surface
on opposite sides of
the furnace. Di-
rectly below one of
the furnace doors
and having the
same dimensions is
the ash pit door
(By

Air and steam
supply.—Air and
steam are supplied
through a connec-
tion in the ash pit
wall on the side
opposite the gas
delivery pipe (fig.
3).

Water supply in
the ash pit.—The
ash pit can be
flooded with water,
up to a depth of
4 centimeters, if
necessary (fig. 4).

Grate.—The grate
consists of seven-
teen stationary bars
shown at D, fig. 2.

xmn4,3 Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 105

The width of each bar is 15 millimeters, and the distance
between any two consecutive bars is also 15 millimeters. The
grate has a total area of 3,096 square centimeters, with a ratio
between air space and grate surface of one to two.

Fic. 4. Front elevation of the gas generator. For the purpose of flood-
ing the ash pit, the water is supplied by the pipe B, in which the
rate of flow may be regulated by the two valves C. The water
supply pipe has an exit into the ash pit wall opposite the air
intake and also through the U-pipe A, which constitutes the overflow
O to the sewer.

106 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

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Fic. 5. Hopper. The essential parts of the charging hopper consist of the coal holder A,
the cover B, and the valve C. The locking device D prevents the opening of the valve C
when the cover B is open, and vice versa. This arrangement avoids the escape of gases
when the producer is being charged. The extension of the hopper or the funnel FE
prevents filling the gas generator up to the cover plate, which would choke the gas outlet
F. By means of this simple device, also, a supply of fuel sufficient for a considerable
length of time is maintained in the chamber G in the top of the producer.

Hopper.—The coal is fed centrally into the producer by means
of a charging hopper (fig. 5), which is bolted on the cover plate
of the generator.

xuia,3 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 107

Gas outlet.—The gas outlet FE’ (fig. 2) is a rectangular opening,
14.4 centimeters by 34.4 centimeters, controlled by the three-way
cock D (fig. 4), which opens either to the chimney F' or to the
gas pipe F’.

Cleaning machinery.—The vertical gas delivery pipe J (fig. 3),
the inside diameter of which is 17.5 centimeters, is water-sealed
at the lower end. The gas is forced through the pipe downward,
and large quantities of dust, small particles of coal, and flaky
ashes are removed. The direction of flow of the gas is changed
abruptly by the short horizontal pipe J, 17.5 centimeters inside
diameter, and by the vertical scrubber K, 30 centimeters in dia-
meter. This scrubber, as is shown in the cross section (fig. 6),
is provided with two spray nozzles of the umbrella type and
with a water seal at the bottom. The water box is provided
with an overflow to the sewer. The water spray from the nozzles
meets the upward-going gas and removes most of any remaining
dust or other residual solid matter in suspension. The water
spray also serves the purposes of cooling the gas and of con-
densing the tar.

The gas, mixed with a certain amount of water that is fed and
kept in circulation by a small pump, is next passed through the
first centrifugal machine, revolving at a rate of about 2,800 per
minute, where the heavy matter, consisting mostly of tar, is
largely removed. In the machine the water is mixed intimately
with the gas, and they are discharged together. The gas is
separated by being collected in a vertical holder, and the water
and impurities go into the separating tank. The tar floats on
the water and runs through an opening in one side of the tank.

The holder, into which the gas is delivered by the first centrifuge,
consists of a cylinder 65 centimeters in diameter by 110 centimeters in
height, provided with an opening in one side to fit the discharge pipe.
The center of this opening is located 17.5 centimeters above the bottom of
the gas holder. A vertical pipe, open at both ends, passes through the
bottom of the gas holder. The upper end of this pipe reaches slightly
above the discharge pipe, while the lower is water-sealed. Another opening
is in the cover of the gas holder and connects with the intake pipe of the
second centrifuge.

On leaving the gas holder, the gas passes to the second cen-
trifuge, where again it is mixed intimately with water, introduced
as in the first centrifuge. This operation causes the further
separation of residual tar in the gas.

The gas is then delivered under pressure to the condenser or
moisture separator (fig. 7). This consists of seven perforated
plates of equal dimensions, placed vertically on top of packed

108 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

ROO gy
Yl

Fic. 6. Serubber.

excelsior. The perforations are such as
to facilitate aggregation of moisture par-
ticles, and the water that collects on the
plates trickles into the excelsior. The ap-
paratus is incased in a chamber, which
has a removable cover and a water-sealed
drain for discharging the water that is
separated from the gas. After this treat-
ment the gas is passed through a small
gas holder. The diameter of the gas
holder is greater than the supply pipe,
and the pressure and velocity of the
gas are considerably reduced in passing
through it. This variation in pressure
and velocity causes a further deposition
of water, which from time to time is
blown off through a drain cock in the
bottom of the holder. Finally the gas
is passed through the last separator,
consisting of six baffles, constructed in
such a way as to reverse the direction
of the flow of the gas six times and
practically to eliminate any moisture or
tar that is still carried in the gas. This
is the final purification, and the gas is
delivered into the mixing chamber of the
gas engine. The gas holder distributes
the effect of the engine suction so as to
produce a steady supply of gas to the
engine.

Gas engine.—The action of the 4-stroke cycle
engine driven by the gas is as follows:

1. Suction or first stroke, which begins as
soon as the piston leaves its position nearest the
cylinder head and which ends when it reaches
its position nearest the crank. During this in-
terval the suction valve is open, while the ex-
haust valve is closed.

2. Compression or second stroke, which begins

as soon as the piston leaves its position nearest
the crank and which ends when it reaches its

position nearest the cylinder head. During this interval both the suction
and exhaust valves are closed.

8. Working or third stroke, which begins when the explosive fuel is
fired and as soon as the piston again leaves its position nearest the cylinder

XIII, A, 8 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 109

head and which ends when it reaches
its position nearest the crank. Dur-
ing this interval both the suction and
exhaust valves are closed.

_4, Exhaust or fourth stroke, which
begins as soon as the piston again
leaves its position nearest the crank
and which ends when it reaches its
position nearest the cylinder head.
During this interval the suction valve
is closed, while the exhaust valve is
open.

Manner of governing, the
engine.—The governor of the
engine belongs to the class that
is called “precision” method of
governing. Fic. 7. Condenser.

The mixture of gas and air has a constant proportion at all loads of
the engine. This mixture of constant quality is throttled to suit the load
by the action of a fly-ball governor, which shifts the position of the fulerum
about which the lever of the mixture inlet valve of the engine turns, thus
increasing or decreasing the lift of the valve.

Dynamo.—The gas engine drives directly a 50-kilowatt com-
pound-wound direct-current 110-volt dynamo manufactured in
Germany.

This is wired in parallel with two 37.5-kilowatt compound-wound direct-
current 110-volt dynamos made in the United States, which are driven
directly by two high-speed steam engines provided with Rite’s inertia
governors. Fig. 8 gives the details of connections of the dynamos to the
main switchboard.

Auxiliary motors—The power plant of the Bureau of Science is run
continuously and gives an available electric power supply, at any time, of
110 volts direct current. In choosing the type of motors to run the auxi-
liary machinery of the producer-gas power plant, it was decided that
electric motors were most suitable. A 9-horsepower motor drives the air
blower, the centrifuges, and the water pump, and a 2-horsepower motor
drives the air compressor, which is used only to fill the compressed-air
tank for starting the gas engine.

METHOD OF OPERATION

Starting the producer.—When the producer is empty, ascer-
tain first that the grate is clean and the wall free of clinkers.
Open the three-way cock in the gas flue to the chimney. Build
a good wood fire on the grate, close the doors, and start the air
blower. Feed enough coal through the charging hopper, about
30 kilograms at intervals of about ten minutes, but be careful

1918

DYNAMONO,Z SOK.W.
DRIVEN BY GAS ENGINE.

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DYNAMO NO. 374 K.w.
ORIVEN BY STEAM EN:

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DRIVEN BY STEAM ENGINE.

not to smother the fire. See that the gas purge valve near the
exhaust of the engine is open to the atmosphere. Test the gas
in the burner connected to the three-way cock; if it is ignited,
stop the blower, turn the four-way cock to admit air directly
from the atmosphere, and put the three-way cock in the gas flue
in position to discharge gas into the delivery pipe. Never stand
directly in front of the air intake of the producer, as back firing

xmi4,3 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant Lit

may occur during these operations. Introduce water in the
ash pit at the rate of about 6 liters per hour; open the water
supply of the spray nozzles in the scrubber, the discharge valve
of the water pump, and its relief valve located in the discharge
pipe; and open also the water supply of centrifuge 2 and start
the motor that drives the centrifuges and the water pump. See
that this motor is clean and that there is sufficient oil in all bear-
ings. Close the relief of the water pump. The gas is still dis-
charging into the atmosphere, but is ready for use in the gas
engine.

When the plant is in operation, the gas producer must be
charged up to a permanent level for each particular fuel. The
charging must be done at sufficient intervals to keep the quality
of the gas practically constant. An interval of every two hours,
which takes about ten minutes of the time of one fireman, is
usually sufficient.

The starting of the producer is simpler if a fire has been
previously built. There is no need of using the air blower; all
that is required is to clean the fire and draw the ashes and clinkers
out, to open all the necessary valves, and to start the motor
that drives the centrifuges and the pump for circulating water.
Within ten minutes or less the quality of the gas is good enough
to start the engine.

Starting the gas engine——The gas engine is started by means
of compressed air with a pressure of about 12 kilograms per
square centimeter.

When the engine is in operation, the time of explosion and the air
throttle valve should be regulated to suit the amount and composition of
the gas. All moving parts that require lubrication should receive the
proper amount of oil. The water in the cooling jacket should not exceed
a temperature of about 60° C., and its temperature should be maintained
as uniformly as possible.

The proper amount and the kind of oil to be used in an internal com-
bustion engine are very essential in its successful operation. The rate of
feed of oil in the most important moving parts of the gas engine in the
Bureau of Science is as follows: Eleven to 14 drops per minute in the
cylinder; 15 to 20 drops per minute in the piston pin; and 60 to 90 drops
per minute in the crank pin. The cylinder oil should be used only once.
If the rate of feed of this oil is properly controlled, there will be very
little waste. Surplus oil is not only wasted, but forms carbon deposits on
piston, valves, and cylinder head, which should be avoided as much as
possible.

Stopping the operation.—In stopping the operation of the
producer-gas plant, the load of the gas engine should be gradually
decreased before disconnecting it completely.

12 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The purge valve should be opened, and the gas throttle of the engine
should be closed. Immediately after this operation the motor that drives
the auxiliary cleaning machinery should be stopped, the three-way cock
in the discharge pipe of the producer left in communication with the
chimney, and all water supply stopped. The valve for admitting air in
the ash pit should be entirely closed, if the producer is to stand idle less
than sixteen hours; otherwise the air intake must be regulated to give
just sufficient draft to keep the fire alive. All these manipulations should
be performed as quickly as possible, so there is time to return to the gas
engine before it slows down too much. The engine should be stopped at
the right position for starting. This can be easily done with practice.

RECORDS OF TESTS

The tests were made under actual running conditions without
interfering with the regular supply of light and power. The
results obtained have been duplicated day after day in ordinary
practice. No special preparations were made to obtain excep-
tionally high records, because we believe that a plant should be
judged on what it can ordinarily perform rather than on what
it can perform under the most favorable conditions.

Fuel used.The fuels used were Batan and Fushon coals;
the former is black lignite mined in the Philippines, and the
latter is Manchurian bituminous coal. The analyses of these
fuels are shown in Table I.

TABLE I.—Analyses of Batan and Fushon coal."

Batan coal: Per cent.
Moisture 14.63
Volatile combustible matter 39.09
Fixed carbon 38.73
Ash 7.55

Total 100.00
Total calories 5,150
Available calories 4,753

Fushon coal:

Moisture 4.66
Volatile combustible matter 39.94
Fixed carbon 48.01
Ash 7.40

Total 100.00
Sulphur (separately determined) 0.89
Coking quality semicoking
Color of ash grayish white
Total calories 7,133
Available calories 6,633

8 Analyzed by A. S. Argiielles, inorganic chemist, Bureau of Science.

xm,a,3 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 113

The Batan coal used in firing the producer had been stored
for several years.*

The size of coal used varied from a powder to about 4 centi-
meters, and the Fushon coal contained an especially high per-
centage of slack. Preliminary trials were carried on for several
weeks, during which time care was used to determine the in-
fluence of different sizes of fuel. The uniformity of size has
little influence, and now the coal is used as delivered, either
directly or after being screened, for charging the producer.
Large lumps are broken into pieces about 3.5 centimeters in
diameter.

The data given in Tables II and III are the averages of twenty
tests ranging from six to fifty-five hours in duration. In each
test readings were taken every fifteen minutes, except during the
night shifts. The fuel used in tests 1 to 16 was Batan coal, and
in tests 17 to 20 it was Fushon coal.

Table IV shows the results of tests for the entire power plant.
These results were computed from data shown in Tables II
and III.

Table V gives the analyses of intake and exhaust gases of the
gas engine. The numbers of analyses correspond to those shown
in the previous tables.

Analyses marked “‘A” and “‘B” show very low content of carbon
monoxide. These were made on producer gas from a Chinese
coal. The coal caked very considerably, and the engine was
run only for about four hours, when the producer was clogged,
stopping the formation of gas. An attempt was made to over-

“It is interesting to compare its analysis with that made by Cox [This
Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 52] of a fresh sample from the same coal seam
secured many years before, whose results are as follows:

Batan Island, Bett’s.

Official | Smok-

ing-off
method. method.

Per cent. | Per cent.

Winters eeees tee co ee Stu ee Be ae ae 15.41 55. 41
15. 42 15. 42

Wolatiletcombustiplejna sane sae een aeee oe ee eee aoa ea ceeca sce 41.74 39. 46
41.83 | 39.46

MN Peqncar On sees ee ee ens Sac ae ee ene ee ees ae eee eee 39.05 41.02

4 38. 97 41.00

DON Oe, oe a EE eee Ee 3.80 4.11

| 3.78 4,12

UNGVIT TL EVER VO) eis Speers," STS RA Se Pe oS ee 0, 22
1

114 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

come this difficulty by mixing different quantities of ashes with
the coal to prevent caking, but it was unsuccessful.

In one case the hydrogen content of the gas reached 20.2 per
cent. This had a marked effect on the gas engine, causing pound-
ing when it was loaded to about 50 per cent of the rated capacity.
Under continuous heavy load the engine does not operate well
when the hydrogen in the gas exceeds 14 per cent.

The lower calorific values of the gas per cubic meter as con-
sumed are given in Table VI. The test numbers correspond to
the numbers in the previous tables. A Junker gas calorimeter
was used in making the determinations. The results were cal-
culated by the formula :®

: i) G

where C=calories per cubic meter.
G=—liters of gas consumed as registered in the meter.
Tow=—temperature of outlet water.
Tiw—temperature of inlet water.
Tg—temperature of gas at meter.
Teg—temperature of escaping gases.
W=water passed through the calorimeter in liters.
K,K’=constant calculated by Bates from the specific heats of
the average quality of gases, equal to 0.0089 and
0.470 calorie, respectively.

*Latta, Nisbet, American Producer Gas Practice and Industrial Gas
Engineering (1910), 451.

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a Obie P20 4) ses om Orsliy|e sae aes ovr | o'L8 | O-0Z | 2e°82 |------~- Ene USF te | BE AUR lo (ol Re Ohms 9 | Or
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8 Org |seacher|t sae Okie) a GG88 i) 40Gh a) 8 Gate Qeigy [eta 7s | seo = "ae CEE (Zoe ASS AES Pe ela Q)eFor genie
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S 0°9 2 | OsSe i OTer | ter | OGLE OvOh OTe trees, \iecd0t, S97 «| aes0n || On:2 | 0o'e |ogh = | Gpreese g |9
> 0°8 12 | 60°98 | T'80r|6'eh | O'e8e | 9°6F | GT | Tor |Q‘oIT | F'9h | o'st | 99° |ae-ar | 968 |----- sapere Paces ayaa 8 |F
re 9°8 ze, | vee | QOL | ath | ove | Oy | OTE | 28°62 | T:90r | s*ey | gar |ot:2 |astr | gee 9 |-----otntmnonno--- aircon gz'9 | 8
S 06 aq | ge | ge6 |8'zm j ores | oes | It | F'9e | z'90r | o'er |eear |see fest | te 9 |------7ctcctcoo ype a nliz
S "9 Iii Pea EPID lecua can G.G0P || EEko | ron | Gch) |= a oos ee LEST aeRO ell bny Cre Gat oe aoe uneg| 9 1
ws *SsO]ty “80)7 "Oo "Oo “Do "Um “UU “MUU “UL ND | "Und “UuL"nd Ty | “84 |
5 ab ee! = poe pe |
“J0[2N0 | "4Je]3nO | “yu *99][3N0 | ‘jolqno 5 “sino y GON Ons
Pf se any [ome] ek [7H [tas] Sank | | SRR A | TE | | la 28 on
-yuyg | “48V t oq |yse 10,9 qysIEM je09 oe 482],
Sy ‘aInzeIedusy, ‘omnes 1948 MM *"10}0UT ALS yxy “19, BM
= 1)
1 “$7801 10JDLAUAb-sDH)— JJ ATAV

1554442

116 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE III.—Data sheet of gas-engine tests.

Temperature.
Water. l
Water jacket.
Dura- | Kilo-
Test | ;- Am-
No. Hones pat Volts. meres! \ Outlet.
. . Cylin Cylin- | Ex- | Room.
der a haust ae
: ea pipe e. Xi in- =
Jacket. | 5) cket. | jacket. eae Cyn ae
€r- | head. | pipe.
Ars.

to
or

CHOAIARKN RONDE

I
a
ow

_
o

xmr,a,3 Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 117

TABLE 1V.—Results of tests of entire power plant.

Total.
neat Power Water |
Ne. ‘ton es Coal con-| Power ascd hiker | genera: | er cea:
sumed. erated by auxi-| gener- eG ing the
Bee ated. ing the | ¢M#ine.
gases.
Hrs. Kilos. k.w.h.| k.w.h. | kew.h. | cu.m. cu. Mm.
1 6 Batanicoals 2-2) =. 296 205 32. 60 172. 40 16.70 23.30
2 Shee bee” Gols ee Re 317 278 36. 40 241.60 15. 28 25. 80
3 (era ee om dare ee be 328 238 29.37 208. 63 13. 50 20. 25
4 fee ees (1G Sai eeeleeee ae een 396 298 40. 10 257.90 18.00 28.05
5 ici! 3 eee Gs) fe ee oe Oe 396 320. 8 39. 44 281. 36 10. 90 27.10
6 iy) eae Gl) e3 eee. eee 242 210 24, 45 185. 55 6.00 16. 40
ff (ch | eae Goes <2. eee oe 391 312 41, 28 270. 72 11.40 26. 70
8 Sipe esaee (Wie -sseees eee 389 301 37. 60 263. 40 13.25 25.35
9 Sie |e-= 8 (3 (ai Sted ee ge ae 416 303 39. 20 263. 80 11.70 28.90
10 Gi sea GO) See ee 323 233 28.32 204. 68 9.50 20. 50
11 ch Fl Seer dopa. Ss. ee 400 320 39. 44 280. 56 10. 90 31. 50
12 Che a er dots... = eee 380 287 39. 76 247.24 11.10 32.80
13 [6 7G) Beer (yes ees See oe eee 428 250 36. 10 213.90 11.00 34.10
14 Cy a eee (GS eee Fe ae 417 275 39. 85 235.15 11.80 32.00
15 ea es = Oia kes 301 236 42.91 194. 09 17.70 31.10
205 [ioe Rie eee dojes2 =. eee 2,321 | 1,607 275. 73 | 1,331.27 75.93 | 166.70
17 7, Fushon coal] --__-----_- 210 255 35.50 219. 50 16.60 28. 40
18 Sa oe Ona So es So 222 270 44.80 225. 20 16. 40 32. 50
19 Siete (O) est Se ee ey ee 220 236 39.60 196. 40 20. 80 34. 70
20) oo 0h. |e. OG 2 Se ee 1,955 | 1,816 291.06 | 1,524.94 83.05 | 250.20

118 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918
TABLE IV.—Results of tests of entire power plant—Continued.
Hourly quantities.

|

| | Power Wales

‘No. ee Coal con-| Power Eien ae zenera- for ceeds

| sumed. eaeg by auxi-| gener- or ene ing the
jliary ma-| ated. ing the | engine.

| chinery. SERGE. | ‘|

| |
| Kilos. | k.w.h.| k.w.h.| ko w.h. | cu.m. | cu. m.

; 1 | Batan coal 2. 2.2042. 2238 2s. | 49.33 34.16 5.43 28.73 2.783 3. 883
Dee 5 oot 2. St Se. Se. 2 39. 62 34, 75 4.55 30. 20 1.910 3.225
Salas doe! 2. se ee | 52.48 38. 08 4.69 33. 38 2.160 3. 240
Ce oe do-2>.... 2 oe 49. 50 37.25 5. 01 32. 23 2.250 3.506
5a Moke. 2 eee | 49.50 40. 10 | 4.98 35.17 1.362 ) 3.387
Gill coe8 Go? «.-- JA SSeS eee eS : 48. 40 42. 00 4.89 37.11 1.200 3. 280
| ee lo Soe net = Seeeres on 5 | 48. 87 39. 00 | 5.16 33. 84 1. 425 3.337
Sees Gott 2th ee Cees 48.62 | 37. 62 | 4.70 32. 92 1. 656 3.165
Cy ine |S SPSS LS. oe 52. 00 | 37. 87 4.90 32. 97 1. 462 3.612

DOR... < Mdoe a A eel eo AS 53. 93 38. 83 4.72 34.11 1.585 3. 416

Te eee Gost ne Ns oS | 50. 00 40. 00 4.93 35. 07 1.362 3. 937

fe, WPA eee SE EE ae Se A | 47.50 | 35. 87 | 4.97 30. 90 | 1.387 4, 100
aS} eae os Gort ess. 26. sos 2 | 53. 50 31. 25 4.51 26.73 | 1.375 4. 262
Laut. 22 Gob s.- Jes eee A 52.12 34, 37 4.98 30. 39 1.475 4.000

pe aay OS BOM se Se. he ee 43. 00 33. 71 6.13 27. 58 2.528 4, 442
16 }----- Cee oe eS eee 46. 88 32. 46 | 5.57 26. 89 1.533 3. 367

fig) inahon coal. 62.5225 25 28 22-20 30.00 | 36.43 | 5. 07 31.36 2.371 4, 057
27.75 33.75 | 5. 60 28.15 2.050 4. 062

27.50 29. 50 4.95 24, 55 2. 600 4.337

Bb. 54 | 33.01 | 5.29 27. 12 1.510 4.549

Economic quantities.

| |
Water _ Water
Fuel. Coal per | Coal per for zene; fone
kilowatt | net kilo- ator and engine
hour gen-| watt Saye ERIE per kilo-
erated. hour. per kilo wabehour
of coal. lneapent
|
Kilos. Kilos Cu.m. | CU.™m. |
0.0564 0.1131
| 0.0482 0, 0928
0.0400 0. 0850
0.0454 | 0.0941
0.0275 0. 0844
0. 0247 0.0780 |
| 0.0291 | 0855 |
0. 0366 | 0.0812
0. 0283 | 0. 0953
| 0.0299 | 0.0879
| 0.0272 | 0.0984
0.0292 0.1108
0.0257 | 0.1364
0.0282 | 0.1163
0. 0588 0.1317
} 0. 0327 | 0.1161 |
0.0790 | 0.1118
0.0738 | 0.1208
0. 0900 0. 1470
| 0. 0424 | 0. 1872

Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant

Water
for cool-
ing the

engine

per net
kilowatt

hour.

TABLE 1V.—Results of tests of entire power plant—Continued.

Total
water
used per
net kilo-
watt
hour.

120 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE V.—Analyses of producer and exhaust gases.”

|
Carbon) :
Test | Kind of gas.| Coal. Hour. ioxide OR 52") MgnO= vanes | ecu eee
d (COz2). | (oO). (CHa).| (He). | (Ne).
PS Che | cea Che Pe eb. WP: Céa| Pach eice
Intake_____- 3.6] 21] 248 1.7| 7.5] 60.3
Exhaust____ 15.1 oO eee oe Sele JF celle Ae 82.0
1 kIntake_____- 5.7 ik) 2a ALE 8.3 | 56.0
Exhaust--_-| 14.3 DLS Gay Sages ole Sale es 84.2
Intake___-_- Ieee .30 p. Ra WO Semel eu Sous aR!
ee fib |_---do 3.6| 0.8| 27.7] 3.2] 10.9] 54.3
AA) idopeeee |...--do , 42] 0.5| 28.4] 2.0] 8.1] 56.8
PR see 15.7 O36 2 eee Jn--2-">- 83.7
: (ite ees 3.71 | 4058). 28c6nl) e228 jeuiae I ubes0
Exhaust--__- 15.8 B22 ns ele ee eel | Eee ee 81.0
7 |[Intake-—---- 4.9] 0.7) 286.0) 27) 9:94) Se
\exhaust___- TERGal? HE 2UL (We 2s Ogee oe | Reememee 80.3
: ae re! 4.3 1.0] 27.4] 27] 10.6] 540
Exhaust-____ 16.6 1B ye |e Se | eee | eee 81.8
g |[Intake____- 4.3 5.9| 20.0] 0.6] 2.2] 67.0
a Bol) AG, 25.Gq) oe 8:0)|)) dasd es eoes
a Ibex. eae 4.6] 2.2] 265) 25] 7.9] 56.3
Exhaust-____! 14.8 BAR Aa) eee || Sac eee eee gs 84.0
1 |[Intake-..... ANT ad ets B1.1| 2.6] 10.0) 52.2
ekons yep es Bae 30.3} 19] 10.4] 53.7
we | jean ee 5.1] 0.2] 28.4] 2.8] 10.9] 52.6
ieedores. —- 4.7 19| 27.0] 26] 146] 49/2
- ae lee 5.0| 0.3| 33.8] 26] 5.5] 52.8
pridopers 4.5] 0.4] 28.2] 3.1] 12.2] 51.6
ii? beach ee 10.8} 0.2] 23.4] 238) 19.5] 44s
| i eeedahe 4.7 1.0| 23.5 1.9] 13.1] 55.8
| Sg eeeedoeee 4.1 0.6| 23.9 1.3] 20.2] 49.9
| AA ero eee 7.7) 25) 2.1) 28] 13.2] 612°
Baio eee 6.3| 33] 186| 2.7] .13,8\| 5b.8

® Analyzed by A. S. Argiielles, chemist, Bureau of Science.

XIII, A, 3

Test
No.

Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant

TABLE VI.—Calorific values of producer gas.

Coal used in gas generator.

Time of test.

121

Lower

calories per
cubic meter
of gas
under ordi-
nary tem-
perature
and baro-
metric
pressure.

1. 25-1.29 p. m
1, 48-1.52 p. m
3.17-3.21 p. m
8.52-8.56 p. m
9.24-9.28 a. m

2.19-2.23 p. m
2.52-2.56 p. m
10. 06-10.10 a. m
11. 06-11.10 a. m
11.33-11.37 a. m
10. 23-10.27 a. m
11. 35-11.39 a. m
2.04-2.08 p. m
3. 06-3.10 p. m
2. bb-2. 59) p. mu---

1,373.4
1, 409. 9
1, 407.2

958.3
1, 190.6
1, 226.9
1,347.4
1, 362.8
1, 418.1
1, 106.0
1, 222.6
1, 473.4
1, 362.2
1,348.7
1, 223.7
1, 298. 6
1,396.2
1, 333.0
1,352.5
1,376.9
1, 264.5
1, 565.6
1, 055.9
1, 089. 0

122 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Since the preceding tests were made, Uling, Yoshinotani, Ho-
koku, and Chaoko Chwang coals, a mixture of coconut husks and
shells, and copra cake have been successfully used to operate the
producer.

The results obtained from the mixture of coconut husks and
shells and from copra cake bear a direct important relation to
the improvement that can be introduced in the process of drying
copra and in the use of these fuels in the copra-oil mills. The
results are given in Table VII.

TABLE VII.—Results of tests of mixture of 1 volume of coconut husks to 2

volumes of shells and of copra cake alone used as fuel in a producer-
gas generator.

| Lower
calorific
value of te |
producer ota net Fuel per
Test 2 anne Gel Lower calorific Rhisaet er| otal kilowatt net kilo-
No. ain value of fuel. wails Oe fuel. gener watt
dinary ated. our
pressure
and tem-
perature.
Hours. Kilos. Kilos.
1 6 : 589.0 154.0 3.80
2 | hectare OF huge Vy eta 87a eae Per 684.0} 208.0] 3.26
3 gyf Shell 1:2 by vol- || spetl—4)060_-___|\ 714.0] 286.5] 3.19 |
4 8 ume. 677.5 237.0 2.85
5 LON «Copra'cake:----- 22 8 | 3, 855 1455.6 996. 0 308.6 3. 22

The mixture of husks and shells gave the best result in test 4,
which can be accounted as due to the experience acquired by the
operators in firing the fuel before this test was performed. The
amount of husks and shells on hand was not sufficient to make
a series of tests of varying proportions in order to establish
beyond doubt the most economical mixture of husks and shells
for this particular producer. However, in the preliminary trials
this was done during short intervals, and it has shown that
pure husks can be burned in this producer only when the load
is very light, because its design is adapted for relatively dense
fuels. The shells when used alone behaved much like lignite
with regard to their load-carrying capacity. The standard
charge adopted in the tests was one volume of husks to two
of shells, and this mixture was capable of responding to the
maximum load of the engine. The fuel was fired as received—
the shells in hemispheres and each husk in from four to six pieces.
The depth of the fuel was maintained at the full capacity of

xu,4,8 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 123

the producer. The tests have shown conclusively that mixture
of husks and shells can be successfully burned in a suction pro-
ducer. The design of a producer in which husks are to be used
should provide a volume in proportion to the quantity of husks
to be used in the mixture; the less this amount, the smaller the
producer. When shells alone are to be burned, the producer
will conform very closely in design to one for lignite.

Walker ® has shown the average weights of husks and shells
from 1,000 seashore and 1,000 inland coconuts to be 800 and
286.5 grams, respectively. Based on these figures and on the
consumption of 2.85 kilograms of fuel per net kilowatt hour as
recorded in test 4, the use of the shells alone from ten nuts
to produce 1 kilowatt hour is a very conservative estimate.
Therefore a copra plant that uses 10,000 nuts in ten hours’ opera-
tion will be capable of generating 1,000 kilowatt hours during
the same period or 100 kilowatts in one hour. This means that
there is a possibility of designing a copra drier that could be
either gas or electrically heated, the temperature control of,
which would be ideal. Besides, there would probably be surplus
power for coir or other industries.

On account of the excessive rise in the price of coal copra cake
was tried in order to obtain sufficient data to enable us to
compare its value with coal. The ash of copra cake is useful
as a fertilizer, and its value for such purpose should be deducted
from the cost of copra cake. Tables VII and VIII give, re-
spectively, the results of the use of copra cake as fuel and its
analysis.

TABLE VIII.—Analysis of copra cake.*

Oil in cake (per cent) 10.86
Moisture (per cent) 11.00
Ash (per cent) 4.70
Potassium oxide (K:O) in ash (per cent) 22.51
Loss on ignition of ash (per cent) 29.02
Lower calorific value of copra cake (calories) 3,855
Higher calorific value (calories) 4,350

8 Analyzed by Messrs. Wells, Pena, and Argiielles, chemists, Bureau of Science.

The results of commercial tests of Uling coal mined in Cebu,
P. I., are shown in Table IX.

Table X gives the cost data of the producer-gas plant under
discussion.

*This Journal (1906), 1, 79.

1918

The Philippine Journal of Science
|
|
|
|
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JaMod a11}Ua 9Y} FO) DYIIO]¥o JOYSIFZ | Jo on[eA oyIA0[eD

AQUIIOWJs [BULIEYT,

‘aouews fo nnaing ay fo 7unjd samod sph-saonpoud ayy ur (‘I ‘d ‘NQaQ) 1n09 buy fo 8182} jpvsawauoa fo szjnsay— XT] ATAV IL,

XII, A, 3 Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 125

TABLE X.—Cost of installation and operation.

[Net capacity of the plant, 44 kilowatts.]

Pesos.
Total investment, including transportation, founda-
tion, and installation 17,945.00
Fixed charges per annum:
Interest at 8 per cent 1,435.60
Depreciation at 7 per cent 1,256.15
Maintenance and repairs 3 per cent 538.35
Total 3,230.10
Operating cost (8 hours’ daily run): °
Fuel at 8 pesos per ton 927.28
Wages of one power engineer and one fireman 1,825.00
’ Oil and waste 91225
Total 2,843.53
Total kilowatt hours for 300 days 74,400
Fixed charges per net kilowatt hour 0.0434
Operating cost per net kilowatt hour 0.0382

Total cost of operation per net kilowatt hour 0.0816
Operating cost (24 hours’ daily run), 300 days:

Fuel at 8 pesos per ton 2,781.84
Wages of three power engineers and three fire-
men 3,475.00
Oil and waste 205.30
Total ; 6,462.14
Fixed charges per net kilowatt hour 0.0144
Operating cost per net kilowatt hour 0.0289
Total cost of operation per net kilowatt hour 0.0433

In the calculations in Table X the number of days in a year
was taken as three hundred. Both the maintenance and repairs
were included in the fixed charges as so much percentage of the
capital invested. The water used for cooling the engine and
cleaning the gases was not included in the calculation—its cost
per kilowatt hour is insignificant.

SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES AND MEANS OF AVOIDING THEM

Clinkers.—The Batan coal, which contains a high percentage
of moisture, was formerly used in the producer without any endo-
thermic agent except the natural moisture. At that time the
longest safe run was sixteen hours. This was due to the for-
mation of clinkers on the wall of the producer and to a thin but

126 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

tough layer of clinker that continuously deposited on the surface
of the grate. The removal of this deposit was extremely diffi-
cult. The heat evolved by the coal was so intense that it caused
the grate bars to burn out. To counteract the excessive heat
of the fire bed and the formation of clinkers, water was intro-
duced into the ash pit. This had to be stopped at once, as it
produced pounding of the engine caused by premature ignition,
on account of the sudden formation of a large percentage of
hydrogen in the gas fuel.

The logical means to overcome the excessive heat and the con-
sequent formation of a large amount of clinker and destruction
of the grate bars was to use in the fire bed another endothermic
agent that would not liberate hydrogen. This could have been
obtained by diverting part of the exhaust gases of the engine
into the fire bed of the producer. However, the engine exhaust
is situated at a considerable distance from the producer, and
there was not at hand the necessary piping, so that the introduc-
tion of water in the ash pit was tried again and this time was
very successful. It was known from the start that Batan coal
contains a very high percentage of moisture, which liberates a
corresponding high percentage of hydrogen in the gas. The
problem was then reduced to establishing the safe limit of water
evaporated in the ash pit. For this purpose the small water-\
supply pipe leading to the ash pit was provided with two valves
in series, the lower one was regulated to suit the necessary
evaporation and the upper one was left wide open; the lower
valve once regulated was left in its position, and the upper one
was used only as a service valve for starting or stopping the
water supply. Through these valves a very small amount of
water was introduced into the ash pit at first. Very slowly this
was increased, and at the same time the effect produced in the
engine by the gas explosion was carefully noted. It was found
by experiment that the evaporation of 6 liters of water per hour
was sufficient to protect the grate and the wall of the producer
without causing pounding of the engine, even when under full
load.

The Fushon coal does not form bad clinkers as long as a small
amount of steam is blown into the fire bed with air. The steam
is obtained from the boiler that supplies steam to the laborato-
ries. In independent installations the necessary steam can be
obtained from a small boiler heated by the gas-engine exhaust.
Usually steam is not necessary when the ash pit is kept flooded

XIII, A, 3 Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 127

with water, which evolves sufficient sea ee to protect the grate
and the wall of the producer.
Giildner’ says:

An ample supply of steam to the generator is of advantage from a
practical standpoint, since it tends to decrease clinkering and to prevent
the rapid burning away of lining and grates. Too high a percentage of
hydrogen in the gas, however, leads to heavy explosions in the cylinder
of the engine. Only a few engines can stand from 7 to 10% of hydrogen
in the mixture, i. e., from 15 to 20% in the producer gas; in most of them,
under continued heavy load, a troublesome knocking appears as soon as
the gas contains more than 10% of hydrogen. The composition of the
producer gas should therefore not be made entirely dependent upon the
efficiency of the gasification process.

Disturbing the fire—When there is necessity of performing
an operation that will disturb the fire, if Batan coal is being
used, the ash pit should be dried first, as the glowing particles
of coal and hot ashes falling in the water will cause a large
liberation of hydrogen and consequent pounding of the engine.

‘Once the ash pit is dry, the necessary stoking should be done
as quickly as possible so as not to leave the grate unprotected
by the cooling action of the water vapor for a long time.

After finishing the operation of stoking, the water supply
of the ash pit should be immediately opened after removing any
hot refuse consisting of ashes and small particles of coal and
broken clinkers that have fallen through the grate. When
Fushon coal is used, these precautions are not necessary.

Cleaning the fire——In cleaning the fire when Batan coal was
used, there was no appreciable alteration in the action of the
gas engine, even when the period of cleaning lasted as long as
twenty minutes. Unfortunately this was not the case with
Fushon coal, for, after three minutes of stoking, the gas engine
usually slowed down and stopped. The cause of it was found to
be due to the formation of a gas very rich in hydrocarbons result-
ing in a mixture too rich for ignition. Therefore the air throttle
valve of the engine was widely opened during the process of stok-
ing, and the gas valve was left at about 20 per cent of its full
opening. At these positions of the valves the engine worked
well, and the period of stoking could be prolonged even to twenty
minutes, affording ample time thoroughly to clean the fire. A
few minutes after cleaning the fire the gas and air throttle valves
should be returned to their original positions.

*Gitildner, Hugo, The Design and Construction of Internal-Combustion
Engines. Translation by Herman Diederichs (1910), 521.

128 The Philippine Journal of Scrence 1918

Clogging of the gas flue and the delivery pipe-——When the
producer is not fully charged there is considerable deposition
of dust and small particles of impurities in the gas flue and in the
delivery pipe, necessitating a cleaning about every two weeks.
Under this condition the distance from the hopper valve to the
surface of the fuel bed is considerable. The gas flue, which
is under suction all the time, is located between these two levels.
Naturally when the coal is fed into the producer through the
hopper valve, it falls in front of the gas flue, and small particles
of coal and dust are sucked in and deposited in the flue and in
the delivery pipes. Running the producer full prevents the
serious clogging of the pipes, and a more uniform gas is obtained.

As another means of avoiding clogging of the flue and the
delivery pipe a hole was made in the center of the three-way
cock fitted with a removable plug. Through this hole a scraping
rod can be inserted, even when the producer is in operation, to
remove any deposit in the flue. The vertical and the short
horizontal delivery pipes were also provided each with a nozzle.
for water supply, which can be kept in operation when a long
run of several months without stop is desired.

Centrifugal separators.—The circulating water in centrifuge
1 was found to contain ammonia from the gas and tar. The
ammonia present attacked the brass blades of the centrifuge to
such an extent that complete renewal within about four weeks
was necessary. Iron blades were substituted, and from that
time no more trouble from this source was experienced.

Hopper.—The hopper used for coal and lignite (fig. 6) was
found to be unsuited for the mixture of coconut husks and shells
due to its small opening and capacity. A special hopper for
this fuel was designed, as shown in fig. 9.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE

The care necessary in a producer-gas plant is less than that
required in a steam plant of the same capacity. In the producer
plant there is no boiler. This obviates the need of the continuous
attention of at least one fireman, who is required to throw small
amounts of coal into the boiler furnace at short intervals, dis-
tributing it evenly over the grate surface in order to attain high
efficiency in operation. The only attention required in such a
producer-gas plant as that at the Bureau of Science is to charge
the gas producer full or nearly so every one or two hours when
coal is the fuel, which takes about ten minutes of the fireman’s
time, and to draw out the ashes and clinkers about every ten
hours, or requiring in each operation about fifteen minutes.

XII, A, 3 Yeasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 129

Sometimes it is necessary to
break the clinkers on the grate
surface, which is done by pass-
ing the hook bar underneath
between the grate bars. This
operation takes about five min-
utes every three hours, accord-
ing to the condition of the fire
bed. Add to this the time
required for poking the fuel
when the fire has a tendency
to hang, say four minutes about
every four hours, we have a
total of less than about five
hours in twenty-four of time
expended. Or the total time of
actual stoking necessary in a
69- to 75-horsepower producer
is only about 20 per cent of that
required in a boiler of about the
same horsepower rating.

Besides the fireman, there is
usually an operating engineer, Fic. 9. Special hep ie: coconut husks
as in the steam plants, but his
time is not wholly taken up, since there are no steam boilers,
steam pipes, or auxiliaries under high steam pressure. The
routine duty of the engineer in a producer-gas plant is to see
that the engine and auxiliaries are properly lubricated, that the
water jacket has a uniform correct temperature, and that the
quality of the gas is practically constant and of the highest
obtainable calorific value. The operating engineer must also
know how to judge whether the fire bed needs stoking or not
without actually seeing it. He should make a periodical five-
minute inspection at intervals depending on the skill and trust-
worthiness of the fireman. The rest of the time of the engineer
can be given to other work.

It must not be implied that what has been enumerated above
constitutes the only care necessary in a producer-gas plant. The
purifying apparatus, piping, and auxiliaries must be cleaned
about once a month, depending on the quality of the fuel; the
valves of the engine must be also cleaned and, if necessary,
ground from time to time; the gas engine must be thoroughly
cleaned about once every month, depending on the number of
hours of use and the purity of the gas. The producer can be

130 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

successfully run for many months without any trouble if it is
properly handled, but it is advisable to empty it for inspection
whenever the gas engine is stopped for general cleaning and to
overhaul and clean it thoroughly if necessary. Still the necessary
work in a producer-gas plant is far less than that required in
cleaning the boiler, steam engine, and auxiliaries in a steam
plant of similar capacity.
CONCLUSIONS

1. The operation of the producer-gas plant at the Bureau of
Science is very simple, and almost any solid combustible may be
used. So long as the engine is properly lubricated and cooled,
the necessary attendance is practically reduced to charging the
producer from every one hour to two hours and to cleaning the
fire once or twice a day. 4

2. The producer-gas plant of the Bureau of Science is very
reliable. It has been in daily operation for nearly five years,
and since 1914 has been operated continuously for twenty-four
hours each day, except for the necessary short stops for clean-
ing at intervals of from two weeks to two months. The brick
lining of the producer has not been renewed; it has required
small repairs only from time to time, and there is no evidence
of its being badly deteriorated.

3. At the Bureau of Science the parallel oper tion of the 50-
kilowatt dynamo driven by the producer-gas engine and the two
37.5-kilowatt dynamos coupled to the steam engines is very satis-
factory. Both the gas and steam engines respond quickly to
any change in load.

4. With the same fuel, the load necessary to generate one kilo-
watt hour in the Bureau of Science producer-gas plant is only
about a third of that required to produce the same energy in a
steam plant of approximately the same capacity.

5. All the fuels experimented with were satisfactory, but the
advantages in regard to minimum attendance of the producer
and simplicity of operation are in favor of them in the following
order, namely, Batan (Philippine) coal, Hokoku (Japanese) coal,
coconut shells, Fushon (Manchurian) coal, Uling (Philippine)
coal, copra cake, Chaoco Chwang (Chinese) coal, and Yoshinotani
(Japanese) coal.

6. The results of the tests of coconut shells and husks described
in this paper indicate the possibility of using the producer gas
or the electric energy derived from it for copra drying and for
driving machinery in connection with the copra industry and for
extracting husk fibers.

xm,4,3 Ycasiano and Valencia: Producer-gas Plant 131

7. A producer-gas plant of the type used in the Bureau of
Science is well adapted for, and can be exceedingly econom-
ically and satisfactorily operated in, the Philippine Islands. The
continuity of its operation is assured, since the producer can
burn not only Philippine fuels, but also any one of several
imported coals that are available in the local market.

8. A producer-gas plant solves the problem of smoke nuisance.

9. The installation of producer-gas plants in the Philippine
Islands will greatly help in the conservation of fuels and in
solving the fuel problem.

1554443,

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Text FIGURES

Plan of the producer-gas plant.
. Section of the gas generator (dimensions in millimeters).
. Side elevation of the gas generator. The air and steam connection

is fitted with a four-way cock C, by which connection can be
made with the blast pipe D, with the opening # to the atmos-
phere, or with the pipe F', which carries a steam supply pipe
G, with reducing valve, steam gauge, separator, and steam trap.
The pipe F opens to the atmosphere by means of a regulating
valve H.

. Front elevation of the gas generator. For the purpose of flooding

the ash pit, the water is supplied by the pipe B, in which the
rate of flow may be regulated by the two valves C. The water
supply pipe has an exit into the ash pit wall opposite the air
intake and also through the U-pipe A, which constitutes the
overflow O to the sewer.

. Hopper. The essential parts of the charging hopper consist of

the coal holder A, the cover B, and the valve C. The locking
device D prevents the opening of the valve C when the cover B
is open, and vice versa. This arrangement avoids the escape
of gases when the producer is being charged. The extension
of the hopper or of the funnel # prevents filling the gas generator
up to the cover plate, which would choke the gas outlet F. By
means of this simple device, also, a supply of fuel sufficient for
a considerable length of time is maintained in the chamber G
in the top of the producer.

. Serubber.

. Condenser.

. Switchboard connections.

. Special hopper for coconut husks and shells.

133

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FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR CANE +

By JOSE MIRASOL Y JISON
(From the College of Agriculture, Los Banos)

TWO TEXT FIGURES

Sugar cane is an exhausting crop on any soil. According to
Maxwell,” a ton of sugar, when the trash of the cane is returned
to the soil, removes from it 12.7 pounds (5.77 kilograms) of
nitrogen, 35.3 pounds (16.45 kilograms) of potash, and 8.2
pounds (3.72 kilograms) of phosphoric acid. An 8-ton sugar
crop per hectare would then remove 46.2 kilograms of nitrogen,
131.5 kilograms of potash (K,O), and 29.8 kilograms of phos-
phoric acid (P,0.). The common practice in the Philippines
is to plant cane after cane on the same field without restoring
the plant food removed by the crops. The world’s experience
is that no one crop can be continuously and profitably grown
on the same unfertilized soil, no matter how rich it was at the
beginning. In Queensland, Maxwell analyzed some virgin soils
and some that were continually cropped with cane. A com-
parison of his results showed a loss of 31 per cent of nitrogen,
42.2 per cent of potash, and 37.2 per cent of lime. Considering
that the sugar produced in the Philippines in one year (1916)
amounted to 374,000 tons from 179,761 hectares of land,* it is
apparent that the question of maintaining the fertility of our
sugar lands is of national importance.

The use of commercial fertilizers for cane was recently in-
troduced into the Philippines. But the failure of some farmers
in their attempt to increase the yield of cane by the use of
commercial fertilizers has created an atmosphere of prejudice
against their use among local cane growers. This condition is
rather unhappy. As a general proposition there is nothing
_wrong about the use of commercial fertilizers. The failure of
the farmers who tried to use them was due to a lack of infor-
mation regarding the manurial requirements of their soils, to be

* Portion of graduation thesis for the degree of Master of Science, No. 3.
Received for publication January 31, 1918.

* Sugar Cane. Published by German Kali Works.

* This figure was obtained from the Bureau of Agriculture booth stand

at the February, 1917, Philippine Carnival.
135

136 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

obtained by carefully controlled tests and trials. To fill this
deficiency and to develop a system of fertilization trials that
could be followed elsewhere in the Islands, I undertook the
present experiments.

METHOD AND TIME OF APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS

Deerr,* speaking of the proper application of various artificial
manures, says that readily soluble forms of fertilizers such as
nitrate of soda and ammonium salts should be applied as top
dressings. Organic forms of nitrogen requiring the action of
soil organisms must be buried 5 or 6 centimeters in the soil.
Superphosphates are applied either as top dressings or are
buried at a slight depth. Basic slag and mineral phosphates
must be incorporated in the soil. . Potash salts should be also
incorporated.

Most investigators agree that the best time for application is
during the early growth of the cane. They differ as to the
advisability of a second application. Watt’s ° experiments in the
Leeward Islands led him to conclude that the one-application
system is better. In Hawaii, however, the application of nitrate
of soda at the second growing season is found beneficial. The
two-time application is practiced in Barbados.

THE AMOUNT OF FERTILIZERS TO BE APPLIED

For the stiff clay of Demerara, Harrison ° recommended the
application of 50 pounds (54.24 kilograms per hectare) of
nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia, with 500 to 600
pounds of ground phosphate slag per acre (543.12 to 654.48
kilograms per hectare). In Barbados the planters use from 40
to 80 pounds of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda and
ammonium sulphate, combined (43.44 to 86.88 kilograms per
hectare), and 80 to 100 pounds (87 to 109 kilograms per hec-
tare) of sulphate of potash per acre. In Louisiana the amount
of fertilizer used is from 400 to 700 pounds per acre (486.32
to 872.64 kilograms per hectare). In Hawaii as much as 2,400
kilograms of fertilizers are applied per hectare." The amount
of fertilizers to be applied is a question that should be determined
for each locality.

“Deerr, Noel, Cane Sugar (1911).

* Thid.

*Sugar Cane. Published by German Kali Works.
™Deerr, Noel, Cane Sugar (1911).

XII, A, 3 Mirasol y Jison: Fertilizer Experiments 137

PRESENT EXPERIMENTS

The present experiments were carried out on a clay-loam soil
from which a crop of sweet potato had been harvested. The
land was first thoroughly plowed, and then fifteen plots of 450
square meters each were laid off. The Los Banos white cane
was used. It had been previously found that this variety of
cane would yield 5.86 tons of 96° sugar per hectare. The seeds
were all selected, as to size, from a field of plant cane. The
rows were 1.5 meters apart, and the seeds were laid 25 centi-
meters from end to end at the bottom of furrows 30 centimeters
deep. Planting began May 8, 1916, and was finished May 10,
1916. On May 16 the canes were nearly all above the ground.
On July 15 the stools in each plot were counted. The percentage
of success in each plot is shown in Table I.

TABLE I.—Los Banos white cane planted in a clay-loam soil.

Seeds | Stools Seeds | Stools :
Plot.| plant- | count- Suc- Plot. | plant- | count- Suc- |
ed. ed. ene ed. ed. CERe |

Pets | P. ct.
1 600 483 | 80 || 9 600 507 84
2 600 472 | 79 || 10 600 529| 88
3 600 405 | 68 11 600 469 78
4 600 496 | 83 12 600 502} 83
5 600 499 | 83 13 600 544 90
a 600 433 | 72 || 14 600 517 86
7 600 BAT | g1 |) 15 600 433 72
8

600 458 | 76 |,

On July 22 the fertilizers were applied. The cost of fer-
tilizers, as computed from the Manila prices for 1916, and their
composition (as determined by Doctor Deming, formerly of this
college) are given.

TABLE II.—Composition and cost of fertilizers.
Peso per kilo.

Lime 0.02
Dried blood, 14 per cent nitrogen 0.10
Sulphate of ammonia, 20 per cent nitrogen 0.23
Nitrate of soda, 15 per cent nitrogen 0.20
Sulphate of potash, 40 per cent potash (K:.O) 0.23
Double superphosphate, 20 per cent phosphoric acid
(P:0;) 0.22

Table III shows the plan and the corresponding cost of fer-
tilization per hectare.

* Phil. Agr. & Forest. (1915), 4, Nos. 5-6.

138 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE IIIl.—Rate of applications and cost of fertilizers per hectare.

Cost of
| Rate of | fertilizers
Plot. | Fertilizers. ‘ea eee
hectare. per
hectare.
Kilos. Pesos.
1) (Controls: --s8t ess. ood. ese ne oe at se ae ee eee oe ee eee eee aa | ae eee
2! Tome a2 2 ee eR ee ee ee ee 1, 000 20. 28
8i/| Dried! blondigt... 2. ts 98s bs. et tee Sal © te od ee 320 34.10
AL| Nitrate. oF sada oe Ae ee Se ee ee 320 66. 41
b | Sulphate of potash) = 2cesee eee te a eee ee rele 320 75. 96
6 | Sulphate gt ammoniale. 2222255 252-22 oat ee ae 5 ee 320 75. 96
7 | Sulphate of potash and double superphosphate _____________________ 640 75. 96
8 | Sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of potash _______________________ 640 144. 58
9) |"Comtrales <5 2 eae een ae or ee Oe ere ee spear fg eh
10 _ Nitrate of soda and double superphosphate ___________-__-__________ | 640 134. 80
11 | Sulphate of ammonia and double superphosphate_________. ___-____- 640 144. 36
12 | Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia---_---------------_---- Lae 640 149. 14
13 | Sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of potash, double superphosphate, |
|' sandiniteateof soda. tes 2 we 5.2 2 ee See ee | 1, 000 280. 41
14 | Sulphate of potash, nitrate of soda, and double superphosphate __-_- 1, 000 219. 78
15 | Sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of potash, and double |
puperphosphate. =. - 22-5 2-2 eke dee en See ne Pee 1, 000 216. 78

Nitrate of soda at the rate of 320 kilograms per hectare was
added to plot 138 two months after the first application.

The complete fertilizers were mixed according to the formula
8-6-8, that is to say, the ratio between the nitrogen, potash,
and phosphoric acid was as 8:6:8.

The variety used in these experiments, according to a previous
investigation by me, matures in about nine months. The canes
were analyzed from March 5 to 16 and were harvested from
March 13 to 22. The results of the analyses are shown in Table
IV, and the field data are shown in Table V.

Table IV shows that the complete fertilizer plot (plot 14) with
nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda gave the highest purity
in the juice; next comes plot 5, to which sulphate of potash
alone was applied; and then follows plot 13, which was treated
with complete fertilizers and given a subsequent application of
nitrate of soda.

XIII, A, 3 Mirasol y Jison: Fertilizer Experiments 139

TABLE 1V.—Showing results of experiments with fertilized plots.

= 5 ane
Juice (determined). (a eee a), | Cane (calculated). 3 = 5 : : |
—eEeEeEeEeEe—————————————— g E ue =I
Plot.| = 6 5 >. a >. : a ee as aoe a = 2
ee Meemeia | eee Seo BMeR oe | Se) Be} B
Rel at EE a) Ee NC EU ein Ste ees 3
SP | ct beter yea le tale la = jel A= eal li =
a craWicis |pprcha| ee wer. |iaicts Cra nell acer Ee chal Pacts hors.
1} 15.47 | 12.64 | 81.70) 1.18} 7.08] 0.14 32 | 10.90 | 0.82 | 10.13 | 68.8 | 9.82 1:10. 2
2 | 15.68 | 13.11 | 83.60 | 0.95 | 7.26] 0.03 35 | 11.25 | 0.65 | 11.01 | 68.4 | 10.26 1:9.8
3 | 16.15 | 18.86 | 85.82 | 0.70 | 8.76] 0.07 27 | 12.16 | 0.49 | 9.20 | 66.6 | 11.25 1:8.9
4 | 14.68 | 11.96 | 81.60} 1.34] 7.60; 0.16 84 | 10.68 | 0.92 | 10.00 | 70.5 | 9.60 1:10. 2
B | 16.22 | 14.52 | 89.52 | 0.49! 8.05] 0.04 26 | 12.43 | 0.34 | 8.82 | 67.8 | 11.72 1:8.5
6 | 15.55 | 12.68 | 81.54 | 1.381) 6.73] 0.18 36 | 10.90 | 0.95 | 9.15 | 70.2) 9.81 1:10. 2
7 | 16.24 | 18.79 | 84.29 | 0.76 | 13.21} 0.08 34 | 13.61 | 0.55 | 10.45 | 69.8 12. 50 1:8.0
8 | 14.87 | 12.08 | 81.30 0.83 ; 11.42 | 0.10 39 ; 11.90 | 0.61 | 11.83 | 70.3 ; 10.70 HESS)
9} 15.82 | 18.08 | 82.68 | 0.98, 6.66] 0.11 35 | 11.34 | 0.75 | 10.08 73.0 | 10.30 ISL Y/
10 | 14.78 | 11.68 | 79.29} 1.30} 6.96} 0.15 40 | 10.12 | 0.85 | 11.73 | 70.0) 9.00 1:11.0
11 | 12.50) 9.82 | 78.56 | 1.67] 4.25] 0.19 82 | 8.21) 1.24) 8.96 | 71.2] 7.24 1:14.0
12 | 17.30 | 14.97 | 86.53 | 1.64; 8.96} 0.12 34 | 18.10 | 1.16 | 10.61 | 69.0 | 12.15 1:8.2
16.48 | 87.38 | 0.72 | 12.05 | 0.09 39 | 15.22 | 0.54 | 12.16 | 71.7 | 14.21 1:7.0
17.78 | 90.16} 0.53 | 9.95 | 0.06 38 | 15.22 | 0.37 | 12.20 | 67.4 | 14.43 Nga)
15.12 | 84.90} 0.89 | 9.43] 0.08 29 | 18.32 | 0.47 | 9.48 | 68.4 | 12.25 1:8.0

TABLE V.—f eld data of sugar cane in fertilized plots.

Plot results. Hectare basis.
ul n |
a SS Canes to Cane measure- 2
a @ | the stool. ments. 3
So) s z — % a Gain or
Plot.) §-6 > & 4 S) = : 2 g loss over
os & & Ge) ir mie 3 3 33 Yield of cane. wen
3 a = 2 gluale ee Bp 28 ian é checks.
See le eee) 2 Be | Ok fo ee Em Lg |
8 8 Sulns z mw) S fe Pax 3 3
a alel|<4/almala4 |< eo et =
P.ct. | cm. | m. ! Kilos. | Kilos. |P.ct.| Kilos. Tons. | |
1} 483} 471) 2 5! 1] 14] 3.02 | 2.41 | 181.06 | $3,283 | 2 gi 844. 4470.84 |os eek
2) 472) 470) 0.4) 6 | 1) 18} 3.12)\|.2.25 | 120.27 | 3,535.) 2 | 78,555.55 | 78.55 | + 0.76
3| 405 | 405 | 0 6| 2{| 14} 2.77 | 1.74 | 117.04] 8,085) 1 67, 444.44 | 67.44 | —10.33
4|{ 497| 441) 9 7) 1] 18) 3.04 | 2.38 | 121.26 | 3,889 | 3 86, 422.22 | 86.42 | + 8.63
5 | 499 | 499; 0 6) 2} 17 | 8.09! 2:69!) (97.92)| 8,156 | 2 70, 138.33 | 70.13 | — 7.66
6 | 483 | 429 | 9 7) 1/17} 2.96 | 2.18 | 126.32 4,043 | 2 89, 844.44 | 89.84 | +12.05
7| 547) 547) 0 6 1] 19; 3.05 | 2.51 | 125.77] 4,128] 3 91, 733.33 | 91.78 | +13. 94
8| 458 | 456] 0.4) 7] 1/1 21] 2.92 |°2.68 | 126.86 | 4,310 | 4 95, 777.77 | 95.77 | +17.98
9} 507; 507) 0 7| 11] 18 | 2.56 | 2.51 | 108.80 | 38,769 | 1 83, 755,55 | 83.75 |----._____
10} 529} 514] 2 6{ 1) 16) 2.77 | 2.51 | 107.29 | 8,736 | 4 84, 425.33 | 84.42 | + 6.94
11 | 469} 467) 0.4| 7) 1) 20) 3.50 | 2.69 | 128.07, 4,288) 3 95, 288. 88 | 95.28 | +14.50
12| 502; 497/ 0.8} 6| 1] 23) 2.84 | 2.77 | 125.42 | 38,710 | 2.5 | 82,444.44 | 82.44 | + 4.65
18 | 544) 543/0.1] 6| 1) 18 | 3.24 | 2.72 | 128.66 | 4,142 | 2 92, 044.44 | 92.04 ; +14.25
14| 517} 486/6 7| 14| 25 | 8.27 | 2.67 | 108.40} 3,981] 3 88, 466.66 | 88.46 | +10.85
15 | 483) 395) 0.9) 7} 1/] 22/ 3.14} 2.48 | 106.98 | 3,861 | 2 85, 800.00 | 85.80 | + 8.01

140 The Philippine Journal of Science | - 1918

The combination of nitrate of soda with superphosphate (plot
10) and that of the latter with ammonium sulphate (plot 11)
show the lowest purity. The plots with nitrate of soda (plot
4) and sulphate of ammonia (plot 6) are below the check plots
1 and 9 in purity. Plot 11 gave the lowest percentage of
sucrose in the cane, while the two plots with complete fertilizers
with nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda show the highest
sucrose content. With the exception of plots 8, 10, and 11, all
of the fertilized plots show a higher percentage of sucrose than
either check.

The effect of fertilizers on the purity of the juice and the
sucrose content of the cane can be best understood with the aid
of fig. 1, in which curve 1 represents purity and curve 2 sucrose
content of the cane. It will be noticed with interest that the
rise and fall of the purity is accompanied by a similar course
of the percentage of sucrose in the cane, with the exception of

t&
Ss

>
S

Percentage of
purity juice
SS

| ed [ee a
aaah t ao os Sema *
eel rare | Aso
7 Sif ail oa aT
| |

|

| |

Sat

rie SE

Percentage of sucrose in

os bk |
Pac

Tic. 1. Curve 1, effect of fertilizers on the purity of juice; curve 2, sucrose content of
the cane.

plot 4, where the increase in purity is not accompanied by any
increase in the sucrose content as compared with plot 13.

The effect of manuring on the saccharine content of the cane
is a subject that up to the present time is not satisfactorily
known. Eckart,? in Hawaii, found that unmanured cane was
higher in purity than manured cane. Harrison and Bovel,’°
of Barbados, say that they have no definite information as to
the specific effect of the different mineral constituents of fer-
tilizers on the saccharine content of the cane. While Geerligs
is in the same position, Deerr believes that cane manuring affects
the tonnage of the cane rather than its saccharine content.

* Deerr, Noel, Cane Sugar (1911). * Thid.

a

XI, A, 3 Mirasol y Jison: Fertilizer Experiments 141

Table V indicates that the different fertilizers and combinations
used had a varying effect on the yield of cane per hectare. Plots
3 and 5, the first fertilized with dried blood and the second with
sulphate of potash alone, gave yields less than either check. The
rest of the fertilized plots show an increase over the average
yield of the controls. Plot 2 fertilized with lime alone and plot
12 fertilized with nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia are
above plot 1 and below plot 9, which are the two control plots.
All the others are above either control. These observations can
be best understood with the aid of curve 1, fig. 2.

A table is given to show the relation between the yield of
each plot in tons of cane and the yield calculated as 96° sugar
per hectare. It is very interesting to note that while the plots

Tons of 96° sugar per ha.

Tons of cane per ha.

Fic. 2. Curve i, etfect of fertilizers on the yield of 96° sugar; curve 2, tonnage of cane
per hectare.

from 1 to 6 and 9 to 11 show noticeable differences in the yield
of cane per hectare, when compared as to their yield as 96°
sugar, they show hardly any difference at all. Plots 7 and 8
show a decided increase over the control both in yield of cane and
96° sugar per hectare. While plot 12 is below control plot 9
in the yield of cane per hectare, it is above it in the yield of
96° sugar per hectare. Plots 13 and 14 gave almost the same
yield of 96° sugar per hectare, and their yields are the highest
obtained in these experiments. They are, however, below plots
8 and 11 in the yield of cane per hectare. Curve 2, fig. 2, shows
the above observation plainly.

142 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

TABLE VI.—Relation between yield of each plot in tons of zane and yield
calculated as 96° sugar per hectare.

i ] |
96° sugar Plot yield. Hectare yield. Gain Or Ret pyiee Cost of ea &
Plot. Tro sugar over, eared ar _ fertil-_ [toapplica-

cane. | average | lost per |"huvtare.| fertile

Cane. | Sugar. | Cane. | Sugar. | control. | hectare. ENE,

| |

Tons. Kilos. Kilos. Tons. Tons. Tons. Pesos. Pesos. Pesos.

i 9. 82 38, 233 317. 48 71. 84 7.05 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 10. 27 3, 535 363. 04 78. 55 8. 06 0. 22 33. 44 20. 28 13.16
3 11.25 3, 035 341.50 67. 44 7.59 —On2o —38.00 |}. 34.10 | —72.10
4 9.60 3, 889 373.34 86. 42 8.29 | 0.45 68. 40 64. 44 1.99
5 11.72 3, 156 370. 00 70. 13 8.22 0.38 59.76 75: 96))) —16, 20
6 9.81 4, 043 397. 00 89. 84 8. 20 0.36 55. 00 75.96 | —20. 96
" 12.50 4,128 516.00 91.73 11. 48 3. 64 550. 00 75.96 | 474.04
8 10.70 4,310 461.17 95.77 10. 24 2.40 364. 80 144. 58 140. 40

9 10. 30 3, 769 388. 10 88.75 8.63 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
10 9.00 3, 813 344.17 84. 42 7.62 —0. 22 —8$3. 44 134.80 | —168. 24
11 7.24 | 4,288 | 318.00 95.29 6. 90 —0.94 | —143.00 144.36 | —287.36
12 12.15 3,710 | 450.10 82. 44 10. 02 2.18 332.00 | 149.14 182. 86
13 14.21 4, 142 588. 00 92.04 13. 08 5.24 795. 00 280.41 | 514.59
14 14. 43 3, 981 575. 80 88. 46 12.79 4.95 753. 00 219.78 | 538.22
15 12.25 3, 861 486. 67 85. 80 10. 81 259% 451.44 | 216.78 234. 66

|

Table VI also shows which of the plots would produce the
greatest returns. It is evident, judging from the results of these
experiments, that the application of lime (plot 2), of a com-
bination of sulphate of potash and double superphosphate (plot
7), of sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of potash (plot 8), of
nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia (plot 12), of sulphate
of ammonia, sulphate of potash, and double superphosphate with
a subsequent application of nitrate of soda (plot 13), of sulphate
of potash, nitrate of soda, and double superphosphate (plot 14),
or of sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of potash, and double super-
phosphate (plot 15) will all more than pay for the cost of fer-
tilizers and of their application. Plot 14 would give the highest
return, although it is below plot 13 in the amount of 96° sugar
that it would be possible to produce per hectare. This fact
shows that it is better to use nitrate of soda at the very start
than to use two forms of nitrogen in the combination. The
superiority of nitrate of soda to sulphate of ammonia as a source
of nitrogen for cane is indicated by a comparison of plots 13,
Aang wis:

CONCLUSIONS

1. Sulphate of potash alone and a complete fertilizer with
nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda gave the highest purity
in the juice. Double superphosphate in combination with either

XIII, A, 3 Mirasol y Jison: Fertilizer Haperiments 143

form of nitrogen lowered the purity of the juice to a large
extent.

2. The effect of fertilizers on the percentage of sucrose in
the cane runs parallel with that on the purity of the juice,
although it is more pronounced in the latter than in the
former.

3. Sulphate of ammonia in combination with sulphate of
potash or with double superphosphate produced the greatest
yield of cane. Dried blood and sulphate of potash apparently
lowered the yield of cane.

4. Increased yield in tons of cane per hectare does not neces-
sarily mean increased production of 96°' sugar.

5. The complete fertilizer with nitrogen in the form of nitrate
of soda would give the highest return in pesos and centavos if
used on this soil.

6. It is not claimed that the results of these experiments will
be directly applicable even at separated points near the college,
and it is doubtful whether the same results would be obtained
if the fertilizers used were tried on a different field in the college
itself. However, it is concluded that the complete fertilizer with
nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda would in all probability
give good results on an ordinary soil.

3 re
NS DREW }
mo

ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT FIGURES

Curve 1, effect of fertilizers on the purity of juice; curve 2, sucrose
content of the cane. —

urve 1, effect of fertilizers on the yield of 96° sugar; curve 2,
_ tonnage of cane per hectare.

i. ' 145

4

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by the late Shares Budd -

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| index and he title-page:

THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

VoL. XIII JULY, 1918 No. 4

THE SOLUBILITY OF PORTLAND CEMENT AND ITS RELATION
TO THEORIES OF HYDRATION *

By J. C. Witt and F. D. REYES

(From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.)

ONE TEXT FIGURE

In connection with some previous work in this laboratory,’
occasion arose to treat a few grams of cement with a solution
of sodium sulphide and then to filter, wash, and examine the
filtrate. It was found impossible to wash the residue free from
soluble calcium compounds, for the wash water invariably showed
a test for that element. Moreover only a portion of the calcium
compounds dissolved came through the filter, because calcium
carbonate was formed from contact with the air. The same
behavior was noted when water was substituted for the sulphide
solution. It was found that many times the original quantity of
water could be added without resulting in a residue free from
soluble calcium compounds. This suggested an investigation to
determine just what constituents of cement will go into solution
and the proportion of the total amount of each present in the
sample. A review of the literature revealed that, while a num-
ber of writers mentioned the solubility of constituents in water,
there were few reliable quantitative data available.’

It is common experience that water in which cement test pieces
are stored soon contains substances in solution. It becomes
soapy to the touch and has an alkaline reaction, and a qualitative
test will reveal the presence of the calcium ion. That calcium
hydroxide is among the products of the hydration of cement

* Received for publication April 10, 1918.

* Witt, J. C., This Journal, Sec. A (1916), 11, 278.

*Compare, however, Winkler, A., Journ. prakt. Chem. (1856), 67, 444.
156254 147

“ahsonia
gt" : Inger
ly

pT

?al Musev®
be

cee eel

148 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

has been well established. Le Chatelier+ observed crystals of
calcium hydroxide in examining sections cut from hardened
cement specimens. Winkler® says that cement is hydrolyzed
into free lime and some compounds of lime, silica, and alumina.
Stern * found that calcium aluminates were decomposed by water,
forming gelatinous alumina and calcium hydroxide. Reed?
made some interesting microscopic studies of hydrated cement.
He says:

When Portland cement is gauged with water, lime goes into solution
and a thin skin of calcium carbonate is formed on the moist surface which
protects the interior mass more or less completely from the action of
the air.

His method is to treat cement with water on a microscope slide
and then to protect the mixture from the air by paraffin. Two
kinds of crystals are formed—calcium aluminate and calcium
sulphaluminate. Hart * mixed cement with water and then fil-
tered rapidly. The filtrate contained sulphates, silicates, free
lime, and caustic alkali. On letting a fresh mixture stand two
and one-half hours and then filtering and examining the filtrate,
he found the chief constituent to be potassium sulphate, which
he concluded was formed by the double decomposition of the
soluble potassium compounds and the calcium sulphate present.

PRELIMINARY WORK

The term solubility as employed in this paper signifies the
mass dissolved per gram of cement present in the system under
given conditions and not the mass dissolved by a unit weight
of water—as in most solubility measurements. The proportion
of water has been kept considerably in excess of the amount neces-
sary, and no effort was made to keep the temperature constant.
All the experiments were made at room temperature in Manila,
which averages about 28° to 30°C. The factors that influence
the results have been found to be fineness of grain, quantity of
water present, absence of carbon dioxide, method of agitation,
and time.

Four brands of cement, which we shall designate as I, II, III,
and IV. were used in the work. The analyses are shown in
Table I.

‘Cf. West, C. H., The Chemistry and Testing of Cement. London,
Edward Arnold (1911), 113.

* Loc. cit.

°Stern, E., Chem. Zeitg. (1908), 32, 1029.

"Reed, E. J., Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1910), 29, 7385.

* Hart, Tonind. Zeitg. (1908), 32, 754. [Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1908),
27, 568.]

xm, 4,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 149

TABLE I.—Analyses of cements.

[Numbers indicate percentages.]

x = oh A ke ae
Brand.
te Il. Ill. IV.

MAGABIOUN SE NILION een sae 2 he ee See ok. 2.48 2.15 PAGE| BADL!
SOONG 2 cae ee ae Se ee ee 2 et ee ee 22.60 | 21.40 21.26 | 20.62
PAIN AACA 2 OS) Stern eee ee ee Bl I sass ee 7.72 7.58 8.54] 6.62
eM ClOxIGe (Mex Op)ieers se: se. Sk ey ee Se 1.76 1.70 2.08 | 2.56
Palouimoxide (Ga O) neces nce. 22 sa enae se eee Roos maces 61.32 | 62.94 | 62.82 | 63.50
WS KCRIEN (NYO) = eee St ee eee Me BO Bs eee ee eee 1.08 S37 1,.184\\1.48
Banat clanuvy drid Gis Os) seca. oa 2 Sane ee = ce ose eS 1.45 1.61 1.02 | 0.82
Sodium and potassium oxides (Na2O, K2O) --_--_-_-------------- 1.63 1.14 1.17 | 1.33

Five hundred cubic centimeters of water were placed in each
of four 800 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks, fitted with a
rubber stopper with two holes. Through one of these holes was
inserted a reflux condenser; the other carried a glass tube bent
at right angles, the end of which projected beneath the surface
of the water. The water was boiled for an hour or two by
means of a Bunsen burner, until all the dissolved gases were
expelled. The flame was then removed, and a current of air
free from carbon dioxide ® was passed through the tube into the
liquid, until the flask.and contents had assumed room tempera-
ture. In the meantime two grams of cement were weighed into
a small glass bulb. While the current of air was still passing,
this bulb was dropped into a flask. The two-hole stopper was
replaced with a solid stopper and the contents vigorously shaken
to prevent the cement from caking. The flask was then placed
in a mechanical shaker and vigorously agitated for twenty hours.
Of the several types of shakers available for this work, the
most satisfactory may be described as follows: A small platform
was mounted on grooved wheels, which were supported by a
small track. This platform was rapidly driven back and forth
by a crank shaft, having a stroke of about 12 centimeters. The
flasks were clamped in a horizontal, longitudinal position. The
flask was then removed and allowed to stand for twenty-four
hours, when the solid matter completely settled, leaving a clear
supernatant liquid. The stopper was partly removed, and the
tube was inserted in the neck of the flask, through which a

°The air was passed through two wash bottles containing potassium
hydroxide solution and then through one containing barium hydroxide
solution. The last named acted as an indicator. If a trace of carbon
dioxide escaped from the first two bottles, it was caught in the third and
produced a turbidity. The contents of all of the bottles were then changed.

150 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

current of air free from carbon dioxide was passed. A pipette
-was then inserted, and portions were withdrawn for analyses.

The solids in the bottom of each flask consisted of two layers.
The upper was white and flocculent, consisting partly of alum-
inium hydroxide. The lower was much larger and evidently con-
sisted partly of cement which had not been decomposed by the
action of the water. Analysis of the supernatant liquid showed
it contained in solution considerable calcium, a trace of iron and
aluminium, and no silica. The shaking was repeated for another
period to see if any more calcium went into solution. Analysis
showed there was an appreciable increase. This was repeated
until the flasks had been shaken for a total of four hundred
twenty-six hours. Numbers II and IV had become constant, and
number I practically so, but number III still showed a gain. The
lower layer of solid in the flask had almost entirely disappeared,
only a few particles remaining. During the experiment it was
necessary to add more water from time to time to keep the
solution from reaching saturation. It was decided to stop the
work at this point and start a new series after making a number
of changes that the work had suggested. The results of the
first series of tests are given in Table II. It will be noted that
from 35 to 38 per cent of the total calcium of each cement went
into solution.

TABLE II.—First series. Calciwm dissolved from original cements during
various periods of shaking with carbon dioxide free water.

[Numbers indicate weight of calcium, in grams, per gram of cement.]

Brand |
| ——_—__——
| I II Ill he SD Ve

: fats || Ae
| a me E aa a af Ty i
| Total calcium (Ca) in cement __._------------------------ 0.4388 | 0.4499} 0.4490 | 0.4589
| ——————— 5 eR
Calcium (Ca) dissolved during each period:
Birgit period, 20hours 2222 5-2e Sse eecen eee 0. 0665 0. 0808 0.0843 | 0.0681
Secondimenod. 96 Dornrs sess eee eee ena 0. 0071 0. 0125 0.0089 | 0.0259
| Third period, 20 hours.._ 2-222. ----seee- =~ enn 0.0129} 0.0245 | 0.0172 |..___.-__-
| Fourth period, 40 hours .. ...-------------------=----- 0.0086 | 0.0114} 0.0115 | 90. 0288
Wifth period, bb honrsss= 22 sense 0.0168 0.0130 0.0114 | 0.0129
Sixth periods 45 HOURS. =n Sone eee 0. 0255 0. 0208 0.013 0. 0184
Seventh period. co NOUYS =sa eee a= ane eee 0. 0071 0. 0038 0.0063 | 0.0053
Eighth period, 41 hours -_--------.------------------- 0. 0106 0.0066 | 0.0052, 0.0000
/ Ninth period, 54 hours ------------------------------- 0. 0032 0. 0007 OL00L0s153- eee
Tenth period. 45 HOUTS eee an ea 0.0041 | 0.0000 0:0029) 1) See
Eleventh period, 65 hours---------------------------- 0. 0020 |---------- 0:0104;)|- <2 aes
Total, 426 hours 2: 2324552 see 0.1644 | 0.1741 0.1729 | 0.1594
lees calcium dissolved (per cent) ----------------------- 37.51 | 38.69 / 38.50 | 85.12

8 This value represents the amount dissolved during both third and fourth periods.

x,a,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 151

MANIPULATION

Since it was likely that the larger particles of cement were
the last to be affected by the water, these were eliminated hbe-
fore starting the second series. An air separator essentially
similar to the Goreham flourometer * was utilized. No attempt
was made to obtain quantitative results nor to measure the size
of grain. The air pressure corresponded to 20 millimeters of
mercury. The air was passed through suitable solutions to re-
move both moisture and carbon dioxide, before coming into
contact with the cement. Since cement dust is likely to be
slightly different in chemical composition from the original
cement after such a separation, the cements were again analyzed,
with the results shown in Table III. All the work hereafter
described was done with this material.

TABLE III.—Analyses of cements after air separation.

[Numbers indicate percentages. ]

| Brand.
ey | il
| i |

|

=|

cae II. Ill. EV

a ee = —|--— ke ee

PIRAUO Nu G LONE os ee ee ee gS ee | 3.91 3.73 3.55 | 5.00 |

Splice (SM 0b) | =-2) eee ees Sh Es Soo ee ee ee Se eee oa | 20.48 | 20.22 18.96 | 18.40 |

EMITTED ANE [PES Ss Se a oe ae eee et ee eel 7.81 Cee 9.58 | 8.95 |

COT CRC OAINE OS) i Ss ee a es a a ee ee 2.37 2.11 2.32} 2.03 |

CHiteiiteae as ats Gy (CF 10) Ee eee eee See See ee een ioe eee 61.14] 62.88 | 61.84 | 62.20 |

i sera (NYG) RSS ae, WEI Ne Oe ee eb ae Weeeieezalmteg0)|| | deaDlll aioed) |)

Sodium and potassium oxides (Na2O, K20) ____-__._-_-_---__----_ 1.07 0. 64 0.63 | 0.87 |
Pn dC ANN VOTIGe US Op een neta ce enero ee el one 1.97 2.43 1.62] 1.27

Some other changes also were found advisable before starting
the next series of determinations. It was found that the Erlen-
meyer flasks did not stand the continued rough usage in the
shaking machines. It was also desirable to increase the actual
amount of water for each experiment as well as the quantity
per gram of cement. Therefore the new manipulation was as
follows:

A 20-liter bottle was filled with water free from carbon dioxide
and protected by a soda-lime bulb. A special automatic pipette
was made with an approximate capacity of 850 cubic centimeters.
When this was standardized, it was found to deliver 863.5 cubic
centimeters. This value was constant and was sufficiently close
to the desired volume, so it was not changed. The pipette was
mounted and then connected with a siphon in the 20-liter bottle.

* Cf. Tech. Paper, U. S. Bur. Standards (1915), No. 48, 8.

152 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The air inlet was protected by a soda-lime bulb, so that the
water could be easily and quickly measured and delivered without
exposure to carbon dioxide. Narrow-mouthed glass-stoppered
bottles were substituted for the Erlenmeyers.

To start one of the new series of experiments, it was only
necessary to wash out a bottle with air free from carbon dioxide,
place therein a pipetteful of water, and quickly add a glass cap-
sule of cement previously weighed. Only a trace of carbon
dioxide was present in the system. For each gram of cement,
431.75 cubic centimeters of water were present. At 30° C. 400
grams of water are sufficient to dissolve 0.612 gram calcium
hydroxide,'! which is equivalent to 0.462 gram calcium oxide,
or 74.06 per cent of the total calcium oxide in the cement con-
taining the most calcium oxide. As will be shown later, the
highest percentage of calcium going into solution in this series
was 40.89 per cent.

Table IV shows the calcium in solution for each sample of
fine cement during fifteen days’ shaking, or until each sample
had reached a constant value.

TABLE IV.—Second series. Calcium dissolved from fine cement by shaking
with carbon dioxide free water.*

fs ees 3. B as
| Brand.
i Il. Ill
g. 9. 9. g.
Total calcium (Ca) present per gram of cement --------- 0. 4869 0. 4458 0.4419 | 0.4445
Calcium (Ca) dissolved per gram of cement:
Mirsinpenodliday 22.5 ae. So eee eta ee 0. 1282 0. 1482 0.1519 | 0.1585
Secondiperiod, Uiday so. secan cso bce ee ce 0. 0072 0.0147 0.0091 | 0.0118
Phirdiperiod,:2 days 2222 ssc sass Uae ee eee ae 0. 0078 0.0131 0.0076 | 0.0025
Bourthsperiod))2 daysin2s-saseekees seen see ee 0. 0034 0. 0056 0.0018 | 0.0088
Witthipemod Vidays).s2-..8 see sen eee eee es 0. 0058 0. 0013 0.0014 | 0.0017
Sixth peniod, 2daysi_s.< cepecessenp ene woe ee one 0. 0104 0. 0026 0.0081 | 0.00381
Seventh period; b:\ days 2). -2e-e See ee eee 0. 0041 0.0000; 0.0000} 0.0000
Total Mbdays: ace sence wees ese ah. we ee eee 0. 1664 0. 1805 0.1749 | 0.1759
Percentage of total calcium that goes into solution -__-_- 38.09 | 40.49 39. 58 39.57

&® At the end of the sixth period three of the cements showed constant results. At the
end of the seventh period the other one was constant. The total Ca(OH)» in solution at the
end of the operation was well below the saturation point, showing that the constant value
was not due to a saturated solution.

The main difference between this series and the first is the
much greater amount of calcium going into solution during the

4 Seidel, Atherton, Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances.
D. van Nostrand Co., New York (1907), 99.

xm,a,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 158

first period—about double. The time necessary for completion
was shorter, and the percentage of the total calcium present
was higher.

The total amounts of other elements in solution are negligible
in comparison with the calcium. The complete analysis of the
liquid after twenty-four hours of shaking is shown in Table V.
The first column under each number shows the amount of each
constituent dissolved per gram of cement. The second column
shows the percentage of the total amount of each constituent
in solution (compare with Table III).

TABLE V.—The weight of each constituent (per gram of cement) that goes

into solution during the first twenty-four hours. Also the percentage
of the total amount of each constituent present that is dissolved.

=

I II Ill. IV
g Pict g P. ct. g P. ct g P. ct
SHH COE S(O) Ni nn ere trace |________ trace) ||pn-2 a4 (trace. |=..." trace: ii2-5--—
Iron and aluminium oxides
(6208, Al2Os)) -22-.- 2-522 2-2. 0. 0088 8.64 | 0.0065 7.00 | 0.0037 3.11 | 0.0064 | 5.82
Calcium oxide (CaO) _---___--_- 0.1797 | 29.39 | 0.1998 | 32.03 | 0.2185 | 384.51 | 0.2147 | 34.52
Magnesium oxide (MgO) -_-____- 1 ta er trace Seo 8 trace: |S2a5-2 PACS) esses cas
Sodium and potassium oxides
CNeaeOmikeO) ie lene ets 0.0045 | 42.06 | 0.0041} 64.06 | 0.0044} 69.84 | 0.0057 | 65.52
Sulphuric anhydride (SOz)____- 0.0131 | 66.50 | 0.0183 | 75.31 | 0.0111] 68.52 | 0.0096 | 75.59

There is no important increase in the amounts of these consti-
tuents in solution after the first period of shaking. The per-
centage of each constituent in solution is interesting. We should
not expect to find any soluble silicates under these conditions,
and the small amount of iron, aluminium and magnesium in
solution is not surprising when such a large concentration of
calcium hydroxide is present. The absence of magnesium may
be partly due to the slowness with which magnesium compounds
hydrate. The slight solubility of calcium sulphaluminate ex-
plains the small amount found in solution.

After the series of experiments had reached completion, and
no further calcium went into solution, the precipitate remaining
in each flask was collected and washed. (It was not possible to
wash completely free from soluble calcium compounds.) The
residues were then analyzed as a check on the analyses of the
soluble portion. In Table VI the first line shows the loss on
ignition, after the material had been dried to constant weight at
110° C. The other results were calculated to the after-ignition
basis, in order that they might be more comparable with the
cement before water was added.

154 The Philippine Journal of Science - 1918

TABLE VI.—Analyses of residue after completion of solubility determi-
nations.

[Numbers indicate percentages.]

as | Brand. |

V5 Il. III. Iv.
Hoxssionipnitione>22%. 245.5... 3 ee eee ee ee eee 25.52 | 28.64] 25.26 | 26.24
Silica \(SiQ2) = "8. 32. . ha ee ee ee eee eee 35.56 | 34.57] 382.36 | 33.10
(Alumina ‘(AIOs) 2 sen 2c one ee 14.26 | 18.40} 10.30 | 10.12
Iron ioxide \(WesO3)! £2252.: 25 ee ee ee 2.36 3.17 5.16 | 4.80
Calcium,oxide: (CaO) == 22. 5 ee ee ee 45.12 | 45.45] 49.00 | 48.90
Marnesium oxide;(MeO))22 os ee ee 1.86 2.65 PAPA | PAPAL
Sulphuric anhydride GOs) sees ne nee a ee eee 0.35] 0.18} 0.53] 0.25
Sodium and potassium oxides (Na2zO, K20) ______-__.-_-__-_____- 0. 44 0.50 0.32 | 0.54

Comparing this with Table III it may be noted that the re-
moval of calcium by solution has considerably raised the per-
centage of aluminium, silica, and magnesium in the residue.
The percentage of iron remains about the same, but the per-
centage of sulphuric anhydride and alkalies is less because of
the high percentage of each of these going into solution.

The next point investigated was the effect of a larger volume
of water per gram of cement. Would this affect speed of solu-
tion or the final quantity of constituents in solution? The same
volume of water was taken in each case, but less cement—
2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.1 gram, respectively. The volume of water
present per gram of cement was then calculated and, neglecting
the decimals, the values are shown in Table VII.

TABLE VII.—Effect of the volume of water on velocity of solution and total
amount of calcium dissolved in twenty-four hours.*

Volume Time re-
of water quired
per gram I. Il. Ill. IV. for con-

of ce- stant re-|
ment. sults.
Per
c.c. g. Per cent. g. Per cent. 9. none g. Per cent.| Days.
432 0. 1282 29.34 0. 1482 $2. 12 0.1519 | 34.37 0. 1535 84.52 12
864 0. 1537 85. 14 0. 1857 41.63 0.1816 | 41.07 0. 1816 40. 84 12

1, 727 0.1993 45. 60 0.2407 53. 96 0.2444 | 55.27 0. 2334 52. 48

1
8,454 0.2707 | 61. 92 0. 2934 65.79 0. 2934 | 66.36 0. 2690 60. 48 1 |
86.65 1

8, 685 0. 4038 92. 41 0.3907 87. 68 0.4088 | 91.36 0.3855

8 The first column under each number shows calcium dissolved per gram of cement; the
second shows the percentage dissolved of the total calcium present (in 1 gram of cement).
With 432 and 864 cubic centimeters of water, respectively, the solution continued to increase
for a number of days, but with the other three volumes, the results were constant after the
first twenty-four hours.

xu,4,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 155

Table VII shows that from 87 to 92 per cent of the calcium
in a cement will go into solution in twenty-four hours, provided
the volume of water present is sufficiently large. Further it
seems probable that all of the calcium would dissolve if a still
greater volume were used, providing the cement were sufficiently
fine and the last trace of carbon dioxide had been removed both
from the cement and from the water. We can now see why
such results as those of Hart #2 are misleading. Both the potas-
sium and the sulphate ion may be found in solution, but, in place
of being the chief constituent, they are negligible in quantity
as compared with the calcium.

On plotting the percentage calcium dissolved against the vol-
ume of water present for each cement in Table VII, it may be

Liters of water.

Percentage of calcium.

Fig. 1. Percentage of calcium dissolved in relation to volume of water present. In order
to facilitate comparison, curve II is drawn 10 points above its true position;
Ill, 20 points; and IV, 30 points.

seen that the curves agree very closely (fig. 1). This is some-
what surprising in that all the cements are of different manu-
facture. It will be noted on comparing Tables III and VII that
the two cements having the highest percentage of calcium in
solution are lowest in calcium. There seems to be no relation
between the percentage solubility and the amounts of other
constituents present.

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS IN TERMS OF VARIOUS THEORIES
OF HYDRATION

Unquestionably the most important recent advances in our
knowledge of the constitution of cement have been accomplished

* Loe. cit.

156 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

by methods of microscopy and physical chemistry. However,
we believe that the usefulness of methods of analytical chemistry
has not been exhausted in this field and that such methods still
offer points for attacking these problems, either alone or in
conjunction with other methods. Although this work was under-
taken simply with the object of learning what constituents of
cement would dissolve in water under favorable conditions—and
in what quantities—the results obtained are closely related to
hydration phenomena. The amount of calcium hydroxide found
in solution in presence of varying volumes of water can be hardly
explained by the laws of solubility. The solution never reaches
the point of saturation. This cannot be due to the other sub-
stances in solution, because the amounts are relatively too small.
The nature of the solvent, the method of agitation, the kind of
solute, and the temperature (within certain limits) all have
been kept constant. Therefore the determining factor is evi-
dently the formation of calcium hydroxide, by the hydration of
the various compounds present in cement. Or it is the inhibi-
tion of hydration caused by calcium hydroxide in solution. This
effect may be said to be twofold. It diminishes the speed of
hydration and also the total amount of hydration possible under
given conditions. Or, the speed of hydration is diminished until
the amount taking place in twenty-four hours is too small to
be detected by the methods of analysis employed.

The conditions under which cement is hydrated in this work
are, of course, abnormal, as compared with conditions in prac-
tice. This comes about through the use of a large volume of
water and through agitation, which keeps the granules separated
and keeps a large surface exposed to the water. The exclusion
of carbon dioxide probably does not constitute such a great varia-
tion from normal conditions as at first appears. Over the sur-
face of newly placed concrete or mortar, a thin film of calcium
carbonate forms almost immediately, and this protects the in-
terior from further contact with this gas. Keeping these facts
in mind, let us now try to interpret the results in terms of results
that have been obtained by various investigators of the question
of hydration of cement. In general, the agreement is striking,
though there are some important differences. It may be also
stated that not sufficient work has been done along these lines to
justify the formulation of any new theory of hydration.

The theory of Richardson 7° is that—

On addition of water to the stable system made up of the solid solu-

* Cf. Meade, Richard K., Portland Cement. The Chemical Publishing
Co., Easton, Pa. (1911), 22.

xm, 4,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 157

tions which compose Portland cement, a new component is introduced, which
immediately results in lack of equilibrium, which is only brought about
again by the liberation of free lime. This free lime the moment that it
is liberated is in solution in the water, but owing to the rapidity with
which it is liberated from the aluminate, the water soon becomes supersa-
turated with calcic hydrate and the latter crystalizes out in a network
of crystals, which binds the particles of undecomposed Portland cement
together.

The results of the present work show that one of the products
of hydration is undoubtedly calcium hydroxide and that the
water present contains some of it in solution. Further it is
well established that crystals of this compound are found in
hardened cement. There is a question, however, whether or
not these crystals are as important as the writer intimates and
also as to the mechanism of their formation. Considering the
amount of water that is ordinarily mixed with cement and the
low solubility of calcium hydroxide, it is evident that if at a
given instant all the water were saturated with this compound,
and then all the calcium hydroxide should crystallize out, the
percentage of the total calcium in the cement so affected would
be small. For example, let us consider that one kilogram of
cement is mixed with sufficient water to produce a paste of nor-
mal consistency. The average amount of water required is from
20 to 25 per cent of the weight, or say 250 cubic centimeters.
Now cement will contain on an average of 62 per cent calcium
oxide, or 620 grams—which is equivalent to approximately 819
grams of calcium hydroxide—per kilogram. Disregarding the
portion of the water that enters into combination with calcium
oxide and is unavailable for other reasons, the 250 cubic centi-
meters present would dissolve only 0.41 gram of the solid at
a temperature of 20°C. according to Seidel..* This is, of
course, on the assumption made previously that the relative
amounts of other substances in solution are not sufficient mate-
rially to affect the solubility of calcium hydroxide. It can be
seen that this amount of the substance is not sufficient to bind
the cement together.

It is possible to consider that the crystallization occurs pro-
gressively, that is, when the solution becomes saturated, some
of the dissolved hydroxide crystallizes out, more goes into solu-
tion as a result of further hydration, and so on. However, a
number of facts are opposed to such a view. If the water is not
saturated at a given time, and crystals of calcium hydroxide are
present, it is more likely that some of these would dissolve than

* Loe. cit.

158 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

that more of the calcium compounds in the cement would be
hydrated. This is on the basis of the results presented in this
paper, which show that the presence of calcium hydroxide in
solution tends to inhibit further hydration. Further, it is known
that if an imperfect crystal is suspended in a saturated solution
of the same substance, it does not change in weight, though it
may change in form sufficiently to become again regular.

The principal components of cement are compounds of calcium
with aluminium and of calcium with silicon. Indeed, according
to Rankin :*®

Microscopical examination of commercial Portland cement clinker shows
it to be made up largely (over 90 per cent) of the three compounds,
2CaO.SiO., 3CaO.SiO. and 3Ca0O.Al.0;. It would therefore appear that
the value of Portland cement as a cementing material when mixed with
water is largely due to one or more of these compounds.

Now since about 90 per cent of the total calcium in a cement
is found in solution after treating with water under given con-
ditions, with indications that still more could be dissolved, it
follows that (1) all the important compounds may be rapidly
hydrated under favorable conditions and that (2) one product
of the hydration is always calcium hydroxide.

The colloid theory for the setting of cement was advanced by
Michaelis.*° His idea is that the most important step is the
formation of a gelatinous mass containing calcium oxide, silica,
and water. Later this colloid dries and hardens, and to it is
due the principal strength of the cement. Considerable work
has been done by others on the basis of this theory, using cement
itself or one of the calcium aluminates.

Schott ?7 and Keiserman '*’ found that, when certain calcium
aluminates are hydrated, aluminium hydroxide is split off.
Stern *° found that aluminates were decomposed by water form-
ing the hydroxide of calcium and aluminium. Later he dialyzed
the filtrate and found that calcium passed the membrane, but
with only a trace of aluminium. Klein and Phillips *° repeated
the work of Stern, taking great care to exclude carbon dioxide
during the operation. They used tricalcium aluminate and found

* Rankin, George A., Journ. Franklin Inst. (1916), 181, 770.

* Michaelis, W., Cement & Eng. News (1909), 21, 298, 338.

* Schott, O., ibid. (1910), 22, 515.

* Keiserman, ibid. (1911), 23, 10.

* Stern, E., loc. cit.

* Klein, A. A., and Phillips, A. J., Tech. Paper, U. S. Bur. Standards,
(1914), No. 43, 18.

xu, 4,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 159

that the liquid passing the membrane contained aluminium and
calcium in about the original proportions. They conclude from
this that no colloid is formed and that the substance is not broken
up by hydration.

The work in this laboratory favors Stern’s results, though it
must be remembered that commercial cement was used in every
case and not an aluminate alone. It may be also said that
if a colloid forms according to Michaelis’s theory it is broken
up by a large excess of water, as the presence of such a large
amount of dissolved calcium with only a trace of silicon (in any
form) shows. Or the explanation may be that the colloid does
not form because the concentration of the calcium hydroxide
solution is not sufficiently high.”?

It is generally conceded by cement investigators that the
strength of a test specimen depends to some extent on the
fineness of grinding; in fact there is no doubt that, other
factors being equal, the finer a cement is ground the greater
strength it will give mortar briquettes. A proof of this is
that if specimens of hardened mortar or paste are reground
the powder may be again mixed with water, and a fair
degree of strength obtained.?? The mass may be again ground,
and water added, with a like result. The usual explana-
tion offered for this is that during the first gauging the water
cannot penetrate the larger particles of cement and that the
cores of these remain unchanged. When reground and regauged,
these parts become active, and there is sufficient new paste
to cement the whole together and so on. The present work
supports this explanation, but indicates that there are other
factors to be considered. By referring to Tables IV and VII
it may be seen that, although only about 40 per cent of the
total calcium in the cements was hydrated and dissolved when
agitated for fifteen days in the original experiment with fine
cement, approximately 90 per cent of the calcium went into
solution in only twenty-four hours, when the relative volume
of water was increased twentyfold. Since the cement was of
the same fineness in both cases, it may be seen that the volume
of water is of importance as well as the size of the particles.
Further it is probable that if the finest cement flour obtainable
were gauged with water it would not be completely hydrated—
not because of size of grain, but because of reasons already ex-

7 Michaelis, loc. cit.
72 Michaelis, loc. cit.

160 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

plained—and that if this material after hardening were reground
another set could be obtained.

This leads us to the conclusion that the presence of more water
when cement is gauged facilitates hydration and should, there-
fore, result in greater strength. This last is contrary to the
general opinion on the subject. As a rule, especially for short
periods, the addition of more water means lower strength *° for
briquettes. In concrete practice, very wet mixes are not recom-
mended.”*

Here again are other factors to be considered. The water
that remains mixed with the concrete or mortar until setting
is complete reduces the strength, because it decreases the density
of the material and consequently the cohesion. The water that
separates, either by leaking through the forms or rising to the
top, carries calcium hydroxide, one of the products of hydration,
in solution. Previous work by one of us”. has indicated that
an agency that removes dissolved calcium hydroxide or inter-
feres with the cohesion will lower the strength. Therefore we
believe that, although the strength is increased by the use of
a higher percentage of water, other factors have a still greater
tendency to lower the strength, and consequently the latter is
the net result. A series of experiments just started indicates that
this conclusion is correct, although sufficient data have not been
obtained to justify any definite statement as yet. A series of
mortar briquettes was made with gradually increasing amounts
of water, starting with the amount calculated from normal con-
sistency tests. There was a decrease in strength with increase
of water. A second series was made with the same amounts
of water, but, before a given mix was molded, it was placed in
a metal vessel, and the water was evaporated until the weight
showed that the amount indicated by the normal consistency tests
was reached. It was assumed that the extra water temporarily
present would facilitate hydration and dissolve more calcium
hydroxide and that this hydroxide would remain in solution even
after a portion of the water was evaporated, because the solu-
tion was not near the saturation point, even though the solubility
of this compound decreases with a rise in temperature. After
the evaporation each mix was immediately regauged and placed
in molds. In general, the strength increased as the water in-
creased, contrary to the first series.

* Cf. Larned, E. S., Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat. (1908), 3, 401.

* Cf. Taylor and Thompson, A Treatise on Concrete. John Wiley and
Sons, New York (1917), 251.

* Witt, J. C., This Journal, Sec. A (1916), 11, 288.

xm, 4,4 Witt and Reyes: Solubility of Portland Cement 161

SUMMARY

When cement is shaken with water in a closed vessel large
amounts of calcium with relatively small amounts of most of
the other elements present go into solution.

The factors that effect the results have been found to be (a)
absence of carbon dioxide, (b) method of agitation, (c) fineness
of grain, (d) volume of water, and (e) time. Of these, volume
of water is the most important. The effect of temperature has
not been studied.

As the volume of water is increased, the amount of calcium
going into solution in a given time increases rapidly. When
cement is treated with approximately eight thousand times its
weight of water, 90 per cent of the calcium present goes into
solution in twenty-four hours, with indications that still more
would dissolve in a greater volume.

Though the work was not undertaken as a study of hydration,
the results obtained are closely related to the theories of hydrs-
tion that have been formulated from time to time.

Since all the important compounds in cement contain calcium,
and 90 per cent of all calcium present goes into solution, it may
be stated that under favorable conditions the hydration of all
important compounds results in the formation of calcium
hydroxide.

It has not been found possible to obtain a saturated solution
of calcium hydroxide by shaking cement in water. This may
be due to the fact that presence of dissolved calcium hydroxide
inhibits further hydration, or it may be that when the concen-
tration of the calcium hydroxide solution reaches a certain value
a colloid is formed, according to Michaelis’ theory.

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ILLUSTRATION

TEXT FIGURE

163

the PAR ce
nadia As Nevins cama A ‘sai

Gral

PHILIPPINE ECONOMIC-PLANT DISEASES

By Otto A. REINKING
(From the College of Agriculture, Los Banos)

TWENTY-TWO PLATES AND FORTY-THREE TEXT FIGURES

CONTENTS
Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merr. (A.| Areca catechu Linn.—Continued.
sativas Schultes f.). Pine- Gloeosporium palmarum Oud.
apple. Guignardia arecae Sacce.
Asterinella stuhlmanni (Henn.) Peroneutypella arecae Syd.

Theiss. Pestalozzia palmarum Cooke.
Diplodia ananassae Sace. Phellostroma hypoxyloides Syd.
Lembosia bromeliacearum Rehm. | Phomopsis arecae Syd.
Steirochaete ananassae Sacc. | Phomopsis palmicola (Wint.)

Andropogon sorghum Linn. (Sor- | Sacce,

ghum vulgare Pers.). Sor-, Zygosporium oscheoides Mont.

ghums, kaffirs, milos. Artocarpus communis Forst. (A. in-
Coniosporium sorghi Sace. cisa Linn. f.). Breadfruit.
Didymosphaeria anisomera Sace. | Cercospora artocarm Syd.
Fumago vagans Pers. Cycloderma depressum Pat.
Helminthosporium caryopsidum Diplodia artocarpi Sacc.

Sacc. | Marchalia constellata (B. et Br.)
Phyllachora sorghi v. Hohnel. | Sace.

Puccinia purpurea Cooke. | Rhizopus artocarpi Rac.

Sooty mold. Artocarpus integra (Raderm.) Merr.

Ustilago sorghi (Lk.) Pass. (A. integrifolia Linn. f.).
Annona muricata Linn. Soursop, Jack fruit, nangea.

guanabano. Dichotomella areolata Sacc.

Phyllosticta insularum Sacc. Diplodia artocarpina Sacce.
Apium graveolens Linn. Celery. Rhizopus artocarpi Rac.

Cercospora apii Fr. | Beta vulgaris Linn. Chard.
Arachis hypogaea Linn. Peanut, | Cercospora.

mani. | Brassica oleracea Linn. Cabbage.
Sclerotium. | Pseudomonas campestris. (Pam-
Septogloeum arachidis Rac. mel.) Erw. Smith.

Areca catechu Linn. Bunga, betel| Brassica pekinensis (Lour.) Skeels,
palm. Pechay.
Anthostomella arecae Rehm. Cercospora armoraciae Sacc.
Colletotrichum arecae Syd. Cercospora brassicicola Henn.
Diplodia arecina Sacc. Canavalia gladiata DC., and Canava-
Elfvingia tornata (Pers.) Murr. lia ensiformis DC. Horse
Eutypella rehmiana (Henn. et beans, sword beans.

Nym.) v. Hohnel. Cercospora canavaliae Syd.
Exosporium hypoxyloides Syd. Didymium squamulosum (Alb. et
Exosporium pulchellum Sace. Schw.) Fr.

Gloeosporium catechu Syd. | Elsinoe canavaliae Rac.

165

166

Canavalia gladiata DC.—Continued. Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.—Cont.

Capsicum frutescens Linn.

Carica papaya Linn.

Citrus spp. Oranges, lemons, limes, |

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (C.|

Gloeosporium canavaliae Syd.
Physalospora guignardioides
Sace.

Capsicum annuum Linn. Red pep-

per.

Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
Smith.

Erysiphaceae.

Phomopsis capsici (Magnaghi)
Sace.
Vermicularia capsici Syd.

per.

Vermicularia capsici Syd.

Papaya.

Aspergillus periconioides Sacc. |

Colletotrichum papayae (Henn.)
Syd. |

Didymella caricae Tassi.

Diplodia caricae Sace.

Erysiphaceae.

Fusarium.

Fusarium heveae Henn.

Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. et Maubl.

Mycosphaerella caricae Syd.

Penicillium.

Phytophthora faberi Maubl.

Pythium debaryanum Hesse.

Rhizoctonia.
Rhizopus.

pomelos.
Bark rot.
Chlorosis, nonparasitic.
Die-back, lack of nutrition.
Pseudomonas citri Hasse.
Rhizoctonia.

decumana Linn.).
Aschersonia sclerotoides Henn. |
(On coccids.) |
Colletotrichum
Penz.
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. et '
Broome.
Butypella citricola Speg.
Eutypella heteracantha Sacc.
Gloeosporium intermedium Sace. |
Gummosis.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. et Maubl.

glocosporioides |

Cocos nucifera Linn.

The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Lichens.

Loranthus philippensis
(Epiphytes. )

Meliola.

Micropeltis.

Mottled leaf, nonparasitic.

Nectria episphaeria (Tode.) Fr.

Penicillium.

Phyllosticta circumsepta Sace.

Sealy bark.

Spiny mold, imperfect fungus.

Cham.

Red pep-| Citrus nobilis Lour.

Cytospora aberrans Sacce.

Diaporthe citrincola Rehm.

Diplodia aurantii Catt.

Eutypella citricola Speg.

Hypoxylon atropurpureum Fr.
(On coccids.)

Massarina raimundoi Rehm.

Tryblidiella mindanaensis Henn.

Tryblidiella rufula (Spreng.)
Sace.

Valsaria citri Rehm.

Zignoella nobilis Rehm.

Coconut.

Anthostomella cocoina Syd.

Bacillus coli (Escherich).

Bud rot, bacterial.

Capnodium footii Berk. et Desm.

Chaetosphaeria eximia Sace.

Coniosporium dendriticum Sace.

Coprinus fimbriatus B. et Br.

Coprinus friesii var. obscwrus
Pat.

Cytospora palmicola B. et C.

Diplodia cococarpa Sace.

Diplodia cococarpa var. malac-
censis Tassi.

Diplodia epicocos Cooke.

Diplodia epicocos Cooke var. mi-
nuscula Sace.

Elfvingia tornata (Pers.) Murr.

Eutypella cocos Ferd. et Winge.

Exosporium durum Sace.

Ganoderma incrassatum (Berk.)
Bres. var. substipitata Bres. —

Gloeoglossum glutinosum (Per.)
Durant.

Hormodendron
(Fr.) Sace.

Palawania cocos Syd.

Peroneutypella cocoes Syd.

cladosporioides

xm,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 167
Cocos nucifera Linn.—Continued, Dolichos lablab Linn.—Continued.
Pestalozzia palmarum Cke. et Septoria lablabina Sacc.

Grey. Septoria lablabis Henn.
Phyllosticta cocophylla Pass. Vermicularia horridula Sace.
Rosellinia cocoes Henn. Woroninella dolichi (Cke.) Syd.
Sterility of nuts. Ficus carica Linn. Fig,

Coffea spp. Coffee. Kuehneola fict (Cast.) Butl.
Aithaloderma longisetum Syd. Phyllachora. On wild figs.
Coniothyrium coffeae Henn. Uredo fici Cast.

_ Foot rot. Glycine maz (Linn.) Merr. (G.
Hemileia vastatrix B. et Br. hispida Maxim.). Soy bean,
Micropeltis mucosa Syd. soja.

Rhizoctonia. Peronospora.
Sclerotium. Rhizoctonia.

Colocasia esculentum Schott (C. anti- Trotteria venturioides Sacc.
quorum Schott). Gabi. Uromyces sojae Syd.
Phytophthora colocasiae Rac. Gossypium spp. Cotton.
Cucumis sativas Linn. Cucumbers. | Bacterium malvacearum Erw.

Cercospora.
Plasmopara cubensis (B. et C.)
Humphrey.

Cucurbita maxima Duch. Calabaza,

squash.

Erysiphaceae.

Plasmopara cubensis (B. et C.)
Humphrey.

Daucus carota Linn. Carrot.

Rhizoctonia.

Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill.

Yams.
Cercospora pachyderma Syd.
Cercospora ubi Rac.
Ellisiodothis rehmiana Theiss et
Syd.
Gloeosporium
Sace.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. et Maubl.
Mycosphaerella dioscoreicola Syd.
Phoma oleracea Sace.
Phomopsis dioscoreae Sace.

macrophomoides

Hevea brasiliensis (HBK)

Smith.

Kuehneola desmium (B. et Br.)
Syd.

Uredo desmium (B. et Br.)
Petch.

Muell.-
Arg. Para rubber.

Eutypella heveae Yates.

Fomes lignosus (K1.) Bres.

Helminthosporium heveae Petch.

Megalonectria pseudotrichia
(Schw.) Speg.

Physiological Trouble.

Phytophthora faberi Maubl.

Spotting of prepared plantation
rubber, saprophytic fungi.

Tryblidiella mindanaensis Henn.

Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. Roselle.
Phoma sabdariffae Sacc.
Ipomoea batatas Poir. Sweet potato.

Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. ét Maubl.
Rhizopus.

Phyllachora dioscoreae Schwein. |! Lactuca sativa Linn. Lettuce.

Phyllachora rehmiana Theiss. et
Syd.

Phyllosticta graffiana Sace.

Rhizopus.

Uredo dioscoreae (Berk. et Brm.) |

Petch.
Uredo dioscoreae-alatae Racib.

Dolichos lablab Linn. Lablab bean.

Cercospora.
Didymella lussoniensis Sacc.
Diplodia lablab Sacc.

Tipburn, nonparasitic.

Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. To-

mato.

Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
Smith.

Erysiphaceae.

Pythium debaryanum Hesse.
Rhizoctonia.

Mangifera indica Linn. Mango.

Cercospora mangiferae Koord.
Endoxyla mangiferae Henn.

168

Mangifera indica Linn.—Continued.
Leptothyrium circumscissum Syd.
Meliola mangiferae Earle.
Pestalozzia funerea Desm.
Pestalozzia pauciseta Sacc.
Phyllachora sp.

Manihot dichotoma Ule.
ber.

Phyllosticta manihoticola Syd.

Manihot utilissima Pohl. Cassava,
camoting cahoy.

Cercospora henningsii Allesch.
Cercospora manihotis Henn.
Colletotrichum lussoniense Sacc.
Diplodia manihoti Sace.
Guignardia manihoti Sacc.
Guignardia manihoti Sacc. var.
diminuta Sacce.
Phoma herbarum Westd.
Steirochaete lussoniensis Sacc.

Morus alba Linn. Mulberry.

Botryodiplodia anceps Sacc. et|
Syd.

Diplodia mori West.

Kuehneola fici (Cast.) Butl. var.
moricola Henn.

Phyllactinia suffulta
Sacce.

Traversoa dothiorelloides Sacc.
et Syd.

Twig fungi.

Valsaria insitiva (de Not.) Ces.
et de Not.

Mucuna deeringiana Merr. (Stizolo-
bium deeringiana Bort). Vel-
vet bean.

Cercospora stizolobu Syd.
Uromyces mucunae Rabh.

Musa sapientum Linn. Banana.

Bacterial stem rot.

Diplodia crebra Sace.

Fruit blast.

Macrophoma musae (Cke.) Berl. |
et Vogl.

Mycosphaerella musae Speg.

Plicaria bananincola Rehm.

Sporodesmium bakeri Syd.

Musa textilis Née. Abaca.

Bacterial heart rot.

Macrophoma musae (Cke.) Berl.
et Vogl.

Mycosphaerella musae Speg.

Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Tobacco.

Ceara rub-

(Reb.)

The Philippine Journal of Science

1918

Nicotiana tabacum Linn.—Cont.

Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
Smith.

Bacterial blight.

Cercospora nicotianae Ell. et Ev.

Chlorosis.

Curing and fermenting troubles.
Leaf spotting.

Fusarium.

Heterodera radicicola Greef et
Miller. (Nematodes.)

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda
de Haan.

Pythium debaryanum Hesse.

Rhizoctonia.

Sclerotium.

Oryza sativa Linn. Rice.
Bacterial leaf stripe.
Calonectria perpusilla Sacce.
Cercospora.
Clasterosporium

Sace.
Coniosporium oryzinum Sacce.
Entyloma oryzae Syd.
Haplographium chlorocephalum

(Fres.) Grove.
Helminthosporium.
Leptosphaeria (Leptosphaerella)

oryzina Sacc.
Myrothecium oryzae Sacc.
Oospora oryzetorum Sacc.
Ophiobolus oryzinus Sacc.
Phyllosticta glumarum Sace.
Phyllosticta miurai Miyake.
Rhizoctonia.
Sclerotium.
Septoria miyakei Sacc.
Sordaria oryzeti Sacc.
Spegazzinia ornata Sacc.
Straight or sterile head.
Ustilaginoidea virens

Tak.

Pachyrrhizus erosus (Linn.) Urb. (P.

angulatus Rich.). Sincamas.
Phakospora pachyrhizi Syd.

Phaseolus spp. Beans.

Cercospora lussoniensis Sacc.

punctiforme

‘

(Cke.)

Erysiphaceae.

Phyllachora phaseolina Syd.
Pseudomonas phaseoli Erw.
Smith.

Rhizoctonia.

Sclerotium.

XII, A, 4

Phaseolus spp.—Continued.
Sooty mold.
Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.)
Lk.
Phaseolus lunatus Linn.
Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.)
Lk.
Diplodia phaseolina Sacc.
Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.
Asteroma phaseoli Brun.
Diplodia phaseolina Sacc.
Piper betle Linn. Icmo, betel pepper.
Oospora perpusilla Sacc.

Pisum sativum Linn. Pea.
Erysiphaceae.
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.

Winged bean, calamismis.
Woroninella psophocarpi Rac.
Raphanus sativus Linn. Radish.

Bacillus carotovorus Jones.

Saccharum officinarum Linn. Sugar
cane.
Aeginetia indica Linn. (Broom
rape.)
Apiospora camptospora Penz. et
Sace.
Bakerophoma sacchari Diedicke.
Cercospora.

Coniosporium extremorum Syd.
Coniosporium vinosum (B. et C.)

Sace.
Dictyophora phalloidea Desvaux.
Haplosporella melanconioides

Sacc. forma.
Heterodera radicicola Greef et
- Miiller. (Nematodes.)
Marasmius.
Melanconium lineolatum Sacc.
Melanconium sacchari Massee.
Meliola arundinis Pat.
Phyllachora sacchari Henn.
Puccinia kuehnii (Krueg.) Butl.
[Uredo kuehnii (Krueg.) Wakk.
et Went].
Rhizoctonia.
Sereh disease.
Stem rot, bacterial.
Ustilago sacchari Rabh.
Saccharum spontaneum Linn.
sugar cane.
Haplosporella
Sace.

Wild

melanconioides

Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases

169

Saccharum spontaneum Linn.—Cont.
Phyllachora sacchari spontanei
Syd.
Ustilago sacchari Rabh.

Sesamum indicum Linn. Sesame,

linga.

Cercospora sesami A. Zimm.

Erysiphaceae.

Gloeosporium macrophomoides
Sace.

Helminthosporium sesameum
Sace.

Phoma sesamina Sace.
Vermicularia sesamina Sace.

Solanum melongena Linn. Eggplant.
Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
Smith.

Diplodina degenerans Diedicke.
Gloeosporium melongenae Sace.
Phoma solanophila Oud.
Sarcinella raimundoi Sacce.
Solanum tuberosum Linn. Potato.
Bacillus phytophthorus Appel.
Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
Smith.
Phytophthora infestans (Mont.)
de Bary.
Theobroma cacao Linn. Cacao.
Aspergillus delacroixii Sacec. et
Syd.
Botryosphaeria minuscula Sacc.
Canker.
Cyphella holstii Henn.
Die-back.
Fusarium theobromae App.
Strunk.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. et Maubl.
Lichens.
Mycogone cervina Ditm.
theobromae Sacc.
Nectria bainti Massee var. hypo-
leuca Sace.
Nectria discophora Mont.
Oospora candidula Sace.
Ophionectria theobromae (Pat.)
Duss.
Physalospora affinis Sacc.
Phytophthora faberi Maubl.
Vigna spp. Cowpeas.
Cercospora.
Erysiphaceae.

et

var.

170 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Vigna spp.—Continued. Control of plant diseases.
Fusarium. General discussion.
Phoma bakeriana Sace. Plant sanitation.
Rhizoctonia. | Crop rotation.
Uredo vignae Bres. Cultural methods.
Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott. | Disease-resistant varieties.
Yautia. | Soil sterilization.
Vermicularia aanthosomatis | Direct-heating method.
Sace. | Formalin disinfection.
Zea mays Linn. Corn, maize. Fungicides.
Acerbia maydis Rehm. Standard Bordeaux mixture.
Broomella zeae Rehm. | Burgundy mixture.
Clasterosporium maydicum Sacc. | Soda Bordeaux mixture.
Dry rot, sterile fungus. Ammoniacal solution of copper
Fusarium. | carbonate.
Helminthosporium curvulum Resin-salsoda sticker.
Sace. Sulphur.
Helminthosporium inconspicuum Lime-sulphur spray.
C. et E. | Seif-boiled lime-sulphur spray.
Leptosphaeria orthogramma (B. Formalin spray.
et Br.) Sace. Formalin.
Physalospora linearis Sacc. Corrosive sublimate.
Sclerospora maydis (Rac.) Butl. Spraying apparatus.
Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) Ung.

INTRODUCTION

Fungous diseases are found on practically all cultivated and
wild plants in Laguna Province, Philippine Islands. From this
local abundance it is to be presumed with a great degree of as-
surance that they are equally prevalent in most, if not all, the
other agricultural regions of the Islands. They are often the
limiting factors in the raising of many agricultural crops.
Climatic conditions of the Philippines account for the great
number and destructiveness of plant diseases, for the growth
and development of fungi are enhanced by warmth and moisture.
During the rainy season both of these factors are present, there-
by aiding the large destruction during this period of the year.
Plant diseases are seasonal; that is, they are more numerous and
severe during the wetter months of the year, extending from
July to November. A person going through the Islands during
the dry season will not be impressed with the number and des-
tructiveness of plant diseases, but during the rainy season the
reverse will be found true. No complete estimates of losses due
to plant diseases have been prepared in the Philippines, but it
would be safe to say that in this section of the country at least
10 per cent of agricultural crops are destroyed by fungi.

Certain articles on phytopathology in the tropics give an en-

xur4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases” 171

tirely wrong impression of the number and destructiveness of
the diseases.1 In the Malayan regions, at least so far as the
Philippines are concerned, there are represented all the groups
of fungi that are present in temperate regions. Extremely
destructive diseases are produced by some members of each group.
Forest pathology has never been really investigated, but there
are many important and destructive timber fungi. The pow-
dery mildews, Erysiphaceae, may be very abundant and often
destructive during the cooler, drier months of the year. The
perfect stage has been only observed with a powdery mildew
growing on the leaves of a forest tree, Premna cumingiana Schau.
This ascigerous stage is of the genus Uncinula. Leaf-spotting
fungi are very common and some are extremely destructive.
Destructive rusts are present on coffee, sugar cane, and sorghum.
Bacterial diseases are present in abundance, many being highly
destructive. Certain diseases caused by Phycomycetes and im-
perfect fungi may be very severe. There are as many destruc-
tive plant diseases in the Philippine Islands as there are in
the United States, if there are not more.

The seriousness of some of the diseases can be judged by the
fact that the coffee industry of the Islands was wiped out by
a fungus, that the coconut industry suffers severely in certain
sections from destruction of trees in all stages of growth due
to bud rot, that the abaca industry sustains great losses due
to bacterial attack, that one-half of the cacao fruit is destroyed
by fungi, and that rice culture is seriously hampered by fungus
attacks. This is also true of the sugar and citrus industries and
the culture of all vegetables.

The great factors in the spread and destructiveness of fungi
are the lack of proper culture, of sanitation, of pruning, and
of spraying. The Filipino farmer plants his crops and allows
Providence to do the rest. Ignorance concerning plant diseases
and disease control, together with lack of foresight of the people,
along general cultural lines, accounts for a good deal of loss. In
some few instances growers know that the plants are diseased
and that they ought to be removed, but still they do nothing.
They figure that as long as they are getting fair returns from
their crops they need not worry about the future. There is
great need of education among the mass of Filipino farmers with
regard to the spread of plant diseases and their prevention
as well as for providing properly educated inspectors to safe-

* Westerdijk, Phytopathology in the tropics, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gardens
(1915), 2, 307-318.

172 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

guard the interests of the thrifty and foresighted farmer who
does know how to spray and who puts his knowledge into prac-
tice. As it is, practically no spraying is carried on in the Islands.

This paper has been written in order to give some idea of
the prevalence of plant diseases, their causes, mode of attack,
plant hosts, amount of damage, and methods of control. While
the list of diseases is by no means complete and while it takes
into consideration primarily those diseases found in Laguna and
near-by provinces in Luzon, it will demonstrate that practically
all agricultural crops have their fungous enemies. Many of these
diseases are due to fungus species new to science. The con-
tribution of these new species has been largely due to the collec-
tions of Prof. C. F. Baker, professor of agronomy in the College
of Agriculture.

ANANAS COMOSUS (LINN.) MERR. (A. SATIVUS SCHULTES F.).
PINEAPPLE

LEAF SPOT: ASTERINELLA STUHLMANNI (HENN.) THEISSEN

Symptoms.—The lower leaves of the pineapple are frequently
and sometimes seriously attacked by this superficial leaf-spotting
fungus. The black mass of mycelium produces spots that extend
rapidly and often cover the entire leaf. Older spots are fre-
quently elevated, due to the shrinkage of the surrounding tissue,
and they have dark gray centers covered with minute black
specks, the perithecia. The fungus causes the premature death
of the lower older leaves.

Causal organism.—The perithecia are usually seen with the
naked eye. They appear as minute black specks in the grayish
diseased portion. The asci within the perithecia are sack-shaped
bodies and usually contain eight ascospores. The latter are two-
celled and elongated, with a large vacuole in each cell. The
fungus is a superficial grower, but feeds on the cells by the
production of haustoria, and in this way it weakens the leaves.

Control.—Sanitation methods are advisable, such as the collec-
tion and destruction of the older, badly diseased leaves. In
severe cases of infection crop rotation should be practiced.

Lembosia bromeliacearum Rehm. is also found growing superfi-
cially on the living leaves, parasitizing them by the production
of haustoria.

SOOTY MOLD

Symptoms.—Black felty masses of a superficially growing fun-
gus may be produced on the under surfaces of leaves. The

xuna,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases ee

fungus has not been prevalent enough to cause any serious
damage (Plate XIV, fig. 1). It has not been identified.

Steirochaete ananassae Sace. and Diplodia ananassae Sacc.
are found on dead leaves.

ANDROPOGON SORGHUM LINN. (SORGHUM VULGARE PERS.).
SORGHUMS, KAFFIRS, MILOS

GRAIN MOLD: HELMINTHOSPORIUM CARYOPSIDUM SACCARDO

Symptoms.—Grains are frequently covered with a dense black
or sometimes dark greenish mold. Generally little damage is
done, but in severe cases of infection seeds may be destroyed.

Causal organism.—The mold is made up of mycelium, coni-
diophores, and the many-celled, curved brownish conidia.

Control_—The seeds should be carefully dried and stored in
a well-ventilated dry place.

KERNEL SMUT: USTILAGO SORGHI (LK.) PASSARINI

Symptoms.—This disease though not serious is, however,
occasionally present. Individual grains of the panicle are
affected. Diseased heads appear normal except for the infected
grains. Smutted grains are much enlarged and have a black
smutty mass of spores protruding between the glumes (Plate I,
fig. 3).

Causal organism.—The smutty mass is composed of round,
smooth, brownish smut spores. These spores germinate by the
production of a promycelium, from which are produced hyaline
sporidia.

Control.—Only seeds free from smut should be planted. All
diseased heads should be collected and burned. Crop rotation
will check the disease.

LEAF SPOT: PHYLLACHORA SORGHI V. HOHNEL

Symptoms.—Leaves are badly attacked by this fungus, which
produces thickly scattered black spots over the surface. Spots
are small, 1 to 4 millimeters in diameter, roundish, sometimes
elongated, raised, extending through the leaf on both surfaces,
and are made up of hard stromatic masses of the fungus (Plate
I, fig. 1). These black stromatic masses may be surrounded
by a dark reddish or yellowish ring, produced by the discolora-
tion of leaf tissue. The reddish spots frequently run together,
producing a much-reddened leaf. The disease is often serious
enough to destroy leaves for use as fodder, as well as to lower the
vitality of plants.

Causal organism.—Within the stromata are produced usually
one or two perithecia, which contain numerous asci, ascospores,

174 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Fic. 1. Phyllachora sorghi v. Hohnel. Cross section of stroma, showing perithecium, ostio-
lum, asci, and ascospores (X 75). Vascular bundles of leaf develop normally within
the mass of fungus mycelium.

and paraphyses. Sections through the stromata disclose the

interesting fact that the vascular bundles of the leaf are not at

all injured, for these bundles develop apparently normally with-
in the mass of fungus mycelium (fig. 1). The passage of food
and water is not inhibited by the fungus, but the vitality of the
plant is lowered, for the fungus absorbs food for the develop-
ment of its own body and also reduces the chlorophyll area of
the leaf. Asci are typical, club-shaped bodies containing usually
eight hyaline spores. The ascospores are elongated and gran-
ular, with the contents often collected in each end, which in some
cases makes them appear two-celled (fig. 2). The paraphyses
are slender, hyaline bodies and are produced in abundance.

Control.—No special control need be practiced. Crop rotation
and sanitation will check the disease.

RUST: PUCCINIA PURPUREA COOKE

Symptoms.—Leaves may ‘be
entirely covered with rust sori,
which lower the vitality of the
plants and render them worth-
less for forage. Sori are brown-
ish, at first closed, later rup-
tured, exposing the spores; are
raised, elongated, about 1 milli-
meter by 2 millimeters, and are
frequently surrounded by a dark
reddish to purplish discoloration
of the leaf surface. Badly in-
fected leaves are usually entirely
: spotted and are nearly covered
Fic. 2. Phyllachora sorghi vy. Héhnel. with a reddish to purplish dis-

a, asci with paraphyses (X 5
325); b, ascospores (X 325). coloration (Plate Ts fig. 2):

xur4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 175

Causal organism.—Within the
sori are produced in abundance
one-celled, yellow to brown, usu-
ally ovate, spiny uredospores.
They may in some cases retain
a stalk. Prominent pores are
developed. Teleutospores are
not produced in such abundance.
They may be developed along
with uredospores, but usually
predominate in sori within
which they are found. The
teleutospores are _ two-celled,
thick-walled, dark brown, and

itc. 38. Puecinia purpurea Cooke. a, te-

smooth and usually have a stalk leutospores (X 815); b, uredo-
(fig. 3). spores (X 315).

Control.—Crop rotation and the destruction of badly diseased
plants should be practiced.

SOOTY MOLD

Symptoms.—Frequently a dense sooty mold may be produced
on leaves attacked by aphids. The fungus grows superficially,
living on the exudate of the aphids. Little injury is done. The
fungus has not been identified.

Didymosphaeria anisomera Sace. has been identified from
languished and dead leaves. On dying leaves, Fumago vagans
Pers. may be found. Contosporium sorghi Sacc. is found in
dead and decaying stalks.

ANNONA MURICATA LINN. SOURSOP, GUANABANO
LEAF SPOT: PHYLLOSTICTA INSULARUM SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A common and sometimes destructive leaf dis-
ease. Spots are irregular and gray to whitish and start at
the margins.

APIUM GRAVEOLENS LINN. CELERY
EARLY BLIGHT: CERCOSPORA APII FRIES

Symptoms.—Irregular roundish spots, which often run to-
gether forming blotches, may cover the leaf surface. When
young the spots are light brownish, bordered with a yellowing
of the leaf. Older spots have ashen gray centers surrounded with

176 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

brown. On the surface in the
grayish portion is produced a
black powdery mass.

Causal organism.—This black
powdery mass is made up of
hyaline, many-celled tapering
conidia, which are produced on
brownish conidiophores. The
conidiophores are formed in
groups and are septate.

Control.—Diseased plants
should not be allowed to accu-
mulate in the soil. Crop rota-

tion should be practiced. In

Fic. 4. Septogloeum arachidis Rac. a, 5 .
cushionlike structure of conidio- severe Cases of infection, spray-
phores (X 860) 5 b, germinating ing Bordeaux mixture will have

conidia (X 350); e¢, conidia

(X 350). to be resorted to.
ARACHIS HYPOGAEA LINN. PEANUT, MANI

44)
rs (ir Lf hi

LEAF SPOT: SEPTOGLOEUM ARACHIDIS RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—This well-known and widely distributed leaf spot
may be extremely destructive on certain varieties of peanuts.
It affects the lower leaves of the plant, and complete defoliation
of this portion may result. From the lower portions the disease
spreads to the upper leaves. The disease is most severe during
damp weather, when both leaves and stems are attacked. Spots
on the leaves are usually circular, black to brown, with a yellowish
discoloration of the leaf tissue adjacent to the spot. The centers
of older spots, chiefly on the under leaf surface, are specked with
the raised masses of conidia and conidiophores. Spots on the
stem are similar, but are usually elongated lengthwise. Certain
varieties of peanuts show a marked degree of resistance.

Causal organism.—The more or less powdery, elevated bodies
on the under surface of the spot are cushionlike structures made
up of a mass of conidiophores and conidia (fig. 4). The elong-
ated spores are brown and usually consist of from three to four
cells. They germinate readily in water by the production of
germ tubes, most frequently from one of the end cells (fig. 4).
Inoculation experiments are easily carried out by spraying plants
with a spore suspension. Penetration into the tissue is by means
of the stomata (fig. 5). After gaining entrance, the mycelium
spreads in local spots throughout the leaf, causing the death of
the cells and the consequent browning of the tissue. The fungus

xui,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 177

threads accumulate usually at
the lower surface of the spots,
producing the cushions of coni-
diophores and conidia. In pure
culture it grows very slowly.
On potato agar a raised, more
or less leathery, dark brown
mass of mycelium is produced.
As yet no spores have been
observed growing in pure cul-
ture.

Control—The disease may
be held in check by the growth
of resistant and acclimatized
varieties. The leaf spotting is
most severe on the lower leaves,
indicating infection from spores
in the soil. Crop’ rotation

Fic. 5. Septogloeum arachidis Rac. Germi-

will eliminate this last source atie senate Oe) S50) <) erm

of infection to amar k e d tubes entering host tissue by way
of stomata.

degree.

ROOT ROT: SCLEROTIUM

Symptoms.—Frequently peanuts are attacked by a fungus
causing a rot of the root and the lower stems. Sclerotial bodies
are always associated with the disease. As a rule the disease
does not cause serious damage.

Causal organism.—The organism is a common soil fungus
attacking a large number of plants. It is similar to that dis-
cussed under coffee.

Control.—Crop rotation should be practiced.

ARECA CATECHU LINN. BUNGA, BETEL PALM

The’ betel palm is attacked by a large number of fungi.
Pestalozzia palmarum Cooke, Exosporium pulchellum Sacc., and
Exosporium hypoxyloides Syd. cause leaf spots similar to those
discussed under coconut. On dead leaves may be found Gwignar-
dia arecae Sace., Diplodiu arecina Sacc., and Phomopsis palmicola
(Wint.) Sace. On dead leaf sheafs may be found Colletotrichum
arecae Syd., Gloeosporium palmarum Oud., and Zygosporium
oscheoides Mont. On dead petioles may be found Phomopsis
arecae Syd. and Anthostomella arecae Rehm. On dead fruit
may be found Gloeosporium catechu Syd. On dead trunks may

178 The Philippine Journal of Science iat

be found Peroneutypella arecae Syd., Hutypella rehmiana (Henn.
et Nym.) v. Hohnel, Hifvingia tornata (Pers.) Murr., = Phel-
lostroma hypoxyloides Syd.

ARTOCARPUS COMMUNIS FORST. (ARTOCARPUS INCISA LINN. F.).
BREADFRUIT

FRUIT ROT: RHIZOPUS ARTOCARPI RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—The same fruit rot occurs on Artocarpus com-
munis Forst. as is discussed under Artocarpus integra (Raderm.)
Merr.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA ARTOCARPI SYDOW

Symptoms.—The common breadfruit tree is attacked by this
typical Cercospora spot-producing fungus. Spots are more or
less irregular with gray centers. Little damage is done.

Marchalia constellata (B. et Br.) Sacc. also causes a leaf spot.
_ Diplodia artocarpi Sacc. may be found on languishing leaves.
Cycloderma depressum Pat. may be found on the trunk.

ARTOCARPUS INTEGRA (RADERM.) MERR. (ARTOCARPUS INTEGRIFOLIA |
LINN. F.). JACK FRUIT, NANGCA

FRUIT ROT: RHIZOPUS ARTOCARPI RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—The male inflorescence and young fruit may be
attacked by this fungus. The blossoms are killed. Young in-
florescences, 5 to 10 centimeters long, are subject to attack.
On these the organism usually
starts at the stem end or in
wounds, causing a soft rot. The
entire rotted portion is even-
tually covered with a dense black

2,
Be pott)

characteristic mold sporangia
protruding. The fungus grad-
ually advances, until the entire
inflorescence becomes rotted and
drops (Plate XIX, fig. 6). Ex-
tensive damage may be produced.
Causal organism.—T y pical
Rhizopus sporangia and sporan-
giophores are produced. The
outer walls of the sporangia are
eae sere ge ss, Very delicate, breaking upon con-
b, rhizoid (X 330), from tissue tact with water and spreading

of fruit; c, bursted sporangium the spores (fig. 6). The fungus

showing columella, sporangio-

Phone, suid enone eenEDTe grows well in pure culture,

growth of the fungus, with the 4

xura,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 179

producing on potato agar a dense mass of sporangiophores with
their blackish sporangia. Inoculation experiments prove this
fungus to be highly parasitic. Young inflorescences on the
tree are completely covered with the black mass of spore-bearing
bodies three days after inoculation. The mycelium invades the
tissue with rhizoids and produces a soft rot. The disease spreads
rapidly during damp weather.

Control.—All diseased inflorescences should be carefully picked
from the tree and the ground and destroyed. Care should be
taken not to scatter the spores. In severe cases spraying with
Bordeaux mixture may be practiced. }

Dying leaves of the jack fruit may be attacked by Diplodia
artocarpina Sace. and Dichotomella areolata Sace.

BETA VULGARIS LINN. CHARD
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—The common leaf spot of the chard is often very
destructive. Leaves of Swiss chard may be entirely covered
with the characteristic spots. Spots when young are small and
brownish to black; as they get older, they become larger, some-
times increasing up to 5 millimeters in diameter. Older spots
are circular and brownish and may exhibit concentric rings, and
the very oldest spots have an ashen-gray center bordered with
a brownish ring. Spots may coalesce and cover nearly the entire
leaf surface (Plate II, fig. 3).

Causal organism.—Conidiophores and conidia are produced
in abundance in the ashen-gray center of the spots. Conidia
are long, tapering, and hyaline; conidiophores are yellowish and
in groups. The fungus grows readily in pure culture, producing
on potato agar a more or less feltlike mass of white fungus,
with a slight pinkish tinge.

Control.—The most satisfactory control consists in the collec-
tion and the destruction of diseased leaves and in crop rotation.

BRASSICA OLERACEA LINN. CABBAGE
BLACK ROT: PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL.) ERW. SMITH

Symptoms.—tThe disease is characterized by the yellowing of
the leaves at the margins and between the veins and the black-
ening of the veins. Cross sections of diseased petioles show
blackened fibrovascular bundles (Plate X, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—Pure cultures of the bacteria indicate that
the organism is the same as that attacking cabbage in the
United States, whence it was undoubtedly introduced on seed.

1562543

180 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The bacteria gain entrance into the plant through water pores
at the margin of the leaf and through injuries on the leaf sur-
face. After gaining entrance, the organism multiplies rapidly
and spreads primarily through the fibrovascular bundles, causing
them to blacken. The bacteria frequently ooze in a yellow mass
from the cut bundles. From the leaves the organism spreads
through the vascular bundles into the stem, causing a rot and
consequent death of the plant (Plate X, fig. 2).

Control.—The collection and destruction of infected leaves may
be effective as a control, if these leaves be picked before the
organism has spread into the stem of the plant. When once
the soil has become infected, crop rotation is the only method
of control. Care should be taken that only healthy, noninfected
seedlings are set out from the seed bed. The disease is spread
on seeds. Seed treatment with either mercuric bichloride, 1 to
1,000, for fifteen minutes or 1 to 2 per cent formalin for twenty
minutes is effective.

BRASSICA PEKINENSIS (LOUR.) SKEELS. PECHAY
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA BRASSICICOLA P. HENNINGS

Symptoms.—Frequently severe spotting of the lower leaves
occurs, making them unfit for food. Characteristic Cercospora
spots, with ashen-gray centers bordered with light brown, are
produced. These spots range from 1 to 15 millimeters in dia-
meter. The older, larger spots frequently have concentric rings
of gray and dark brown. The ashen-gray center of older spots
is covered with a black mass of
conidiophores and conidia (Plate
I, figs. Joands2).

Causal organism.—The coni-
diophores are produced in groups
arising from the stomata. They ~
are septate and light brown.
The conidia are hyaline, taper-
ing, and from five- to fifteen-
celled (fig. 7). Conidiophores
as well as conidia may germinate
and cause infection.

Control.—All diseased leaves
should be collected and burned.
Fic. 7. Cercospora brassicicola Henn. 4, Crop rotation should be a oe

group of conidiophores (X 340) ; ticed.
b, small conidia germinating Cercospora armoraciae Sacc.

(< 340); ¢, typical needlelike
eomtdin ( ain also has been found on Brassica

xu,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 181

pekinensis (Lour.) Skeels, where it produces a leaf spot similar
to the one described above.

CANAVALIA GLADIATA DC., CANAVALIA ENSIFORMIS DC. HORSE
BEANS, SWORD BEANS

These two beans may be attacked by Elsinoe canavaliae Rac.,
Gloeosporium canavaliae Syd., Physalospora guignardioides
Sacc., and Cercospora canayaliae Syd. On decaying leaves of
Canavalia gladiata DC. may be found Didymium squamulosum
(Alb. et Schw.) Fr.

CAPSICUM ANNUUM LINN. RED PEPPER
BACTERIAL WILT: BACILLUS SOLANACEARUM ERW. SMITH
The bacterial wilt, which is so destructive on other solanaceous
plants, attacks the peppers also. This disease is similar to that
on tomato and tobacco, under which it is more fully described.
FRUIT ROT: VERMICULARIA CAPSICI SYDOW

Symptoms.—A spotting of the fruit characterized by the pro-
duction of soft, often circular, sunken spots. The center of
spots may dry, forming concentric rings within which small
black spore-bearing bodies are produced. The disease is com-
mon, causing rotting: of the fruit (Plate XVIII, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—The minute black specks produced in the
depressed areas are the pycnidia of the fungus. They have
numerous slender pointed sete and produce elongated, hyaline
conidia.

Control.—The collection and destruction of diseased pods
should be practiced to check the disease. Spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture is effective when practicable.

On dried pods may be found the fungus Phomopsis capsici
(Magnaghi) Sacc.

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—A white powdery growth may be produced on the
surface of the leaves. At times the disease may be severe.

Causal organism.—The conidia are somewhat more elongated |
than the typical erysiphaceous spores, but they are produced in
chains on the typical conidiophores.

Control—Badly diseased plants should be dusted with sulphur
or sprayed with a standard fungicide. Crop rotation should be
practiced.

CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS LINN. RED PEPPER
FRUIT ROT: VERMICULARIA CAPSICI SYDOW

Symptoms.—A fruit rot similar to that found on Capsicum
annuum Linn. ;

182 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

CARICA PAPAYA LINN. PAPAYA
DAMPING OFF: RHIZOCTONIA AND PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM HESSE

Symptoms.—Frequently young seedlings are attacked by soil
fungi just at the surface of the ground. The stem first becomes
watery, then turns brownish, and shrivels up, resulting in the
falling over of the plant.

Causal organism.—Hither of two common soil fungi, Rhizoc-
tonia and Pythium debaryanum Hesse, may produce the dis-
ease. The Rhizoctonia grows well in pure culture, producing a
brownish mycelium and brown sclerotial bodies. Pythium may
be recognized in the plant tissue by its characteristic fruiting
bodies.

Control.—All soil used for the growth of seedlings should be
sterilized. Seed flats should be placed in a well-aérated place
and sunned from time to time.

FRUIT ROT: FUSARIUM

Symptoms.—Frequently a Fusarium causes the rotting of
mature fruit. The rot is similar in appearance to that caused
by Phytophthora, except that the surface of this rot is covered
with the dense growth of Fusarium. Spores are produced in
abundance. Often rots are accompanied by various mold fungi,
among them being a Rhizopus and a Penicillium.

FRUIT ROT: LASIODIPLODIA THEOBROMAE (PAT.) GRIFFON ET MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—A somewhat dry rot of papaya fruit is due to
the attacks of this fungus. The diseased fruits are characterized
by the production of a sooty black mass of fungus spores on
the surface.

Causal organism.—This fungus is the same as that producing
a dry rot of cacao pods, root crops, and other vegetables.

Control.—All fruit rots may be controlled by taking care that
no injuries are produced on the fruit during harvesting and that
the fruit is used before becoming soft.

FRUIT ROT: PHYTOPHTHORA FABERI MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—This fungus may cause a soft rot of the mature
fruit. The rot starts usually at some injury and spreads until
the entire fruit becomes involved. Diseased fruits are covered
by a white fungous growth.

Causal organism.—The organism producing this disease is
the same as that producing the black rot of cacao pods. Conidia
and odspores are developed in abundance by the fungus. The
fungus grows well in pure culture, being easily obtained by

xmu4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 1838

simple plating out methods. It is more fully discussed under
black rot of cacao pods.

Control_—The fruit should be handled so as to avoid injuries,
and it should be used before it gets overripe.

LEAF ROT: MYCOSPHAERELLA CARICAE SYDOW

Symptoms.—tThis is a common leaf spot which, at times, may
severely attack plants, causing a lack of vigor and a premature
dropping of the older leaves. Circular spots, from a few milli-
meters to a centimeter in diameter, are produced. Older spots
have an ashen-gray center surrounded by concentric light-brown
rings bordered with darker brown. In the center of the older
spots the minute black perithecia are produced.

Causal organism.—tThe peri-
thecia are produced under the
epidermal layer. They are more
or less globular and brown with
a distinct netted wall marking.
An ostiolum is present at one
end of the sack, protruding
through the epidermal layer of
the leaf (fig. 8). The asci,
borne within, are elongated,
club-shaped bodies containing
typically eight’ two-celled, hya-
line, vacuolated spores (fig. 8).

Control.—Since this disease is
of minor importance, no specific
control measure need be prac- ot Pa
ticed. The collection and burn- - 8 Mycosphaerella caricae Syd. a,
ing of all fallen or badly dis- See ae stoivions orouetion
eased leaves is beneficial in of asci (X 325); ¢ ascus with

i ascospores (X 325); d, asco-
checking the fungus. gout GL 895).

CEE

CSS

LY]

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—Under favorable weather conditions papaya seed-
lings may be covered with a white powdery mildew. The
disease is not severe.

Causal organism.—Typical erysiphaceous conidia and conidio-
phores are produced. No perfect stage of the fungus has been
observed.

Control.—The disease is seldom severe enough to warrant a
special control. Powdering plants with sulphur will check the
disease.

184 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Other fungi have been found on weakened and dead portions
of the plant. Aspergillus periconioides Sacc. is commonly found
on weakened and fallen leaves. Colletotrichum papayae (Henn.)
Syd., Diplodia caricae Sacc., and Didymella caricae Tassi. have
been found on dead and dying petioles. F’usariwm heveae Henn.
may be found on dead trunks.

CITRUS SPP. ORANGES, LEMONS, LIMES, POMELOS’

Citrus culture is carried on in certain sections of the Islands.
As is also true with the majority of the other fruit crops, little
care is given citrus trees in the way of cleaning up, pruning,
spraying, and cultivating. Consequently the trees are sickly,
and in many cases they are severely attacked by insects and
fungi.

BARK ROT

Symptoms.—Citrus trees growing in neglected and poorly kept
orchards may be seriously attacked with a bark rot. The first
indication of the rot is a slightly raised, sometimes cracked
portion, from which usually a drop of gum oozes. These portions
gradually increase in size; gum, in most cases, oozes out in more
abundance; and in the latter stages a froth is present, indicating
the presence of yeasts and other saprophytic organisms. These
older cracked and rotted portions may be 0.5 to 5 centimeters
wide and from 3 to 10 or 15 centimeters long, extending length-
wise with the trunk. In the older cases the bark gradually
sloughs off, producing an irregular rotted portion in the bark
down to the wood.

An internal symptom of new rots is a slight brownish watery
discoloration. Usually there is a green coloration produced just
below the rotted portion. This green coloration appears to be
due to the abnormal production of chlorophyll. Older rotted
portions may also show this greenish coloration, but the diseased
parts are more or less brownish and usually covered with a
watery frothy substance. A disagreeable odor is present in the
older cases of disease.

Causal organism.—No work has been done with the causal
organism. The disease appears to be produced by a definite
organism.

Control.—Since the cause is not known no definite control can
- be assigned. Trees that are neglected and given poor culture
seem to be more severely attacked. All badly diseased branches
should be removed and burned. This with proper culture meas-
ures will reduce the disease to a considerable extent.

xmr,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 185

CANKER: PSEUDOMONAS CITRI HASSE

This infectious and destructive disease is widely prevalent in
the Islands. On the commonly planted citrus fruit, Citrus nobilis
Lour. (Satsuma orange, Canton mandarin), the disease is only
slightly prevalent and does little damage. It is, however, severe
on certain species in the college plantation at Los Bafios, Laguna,
where test varieties are grown. These different varieties are
affected in the following order, the first-named being the most
severely attacked: Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (Citrus decu-
mana Linn.) (large pomelo, bitter pomelo, djersek boli), Citrus
sp. (Kusaie lime), Citrus (large orange), Citrus (Lisbon lemon),
Citrus (Washington navel), Citrus (rough lemon), Citrus medica
Linn. (citron), Citrus nobilis Lour. (Satsuma orange, Canton
mandarin), Citrus sp. (small orange), Citrus hystrix DC. (wild
lime), Citrus mitis Blanco (calamondin), and Citrus japonica
Thunb.

This list is based on young plantings, and the order of attack
will probably change somewhat as observations continue. A
great variation occurs in the susceptibility of different varieties
in the same species.

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (Citrus decumana Linn.) is
most severely attacked when young. Older trees of native varie-
ties grown by the Filipinos in the neighborhood of the college
are attacked, but as with Citrus nobilis Lour. little damage is
done.

Symptoms.—The characteristic appearance of the disease as
it occurs on citrus is as follows:

Spotting is produced on leaves, stems, and fruit. At first the
spots on leaves are small, round, watery, slightly raised dots.
These dots enlarge, turn brown, extend through the leaf, become
raised on one or both surfaces, and have ruptured surfaces. Con-
centric, irregular rings may be produced in the brown portion
of the spots. A light yellow border is produced around the
brown center. Frequently spots run together, producing an
elevated, elongated, ruptured, brownish blotch (Plate III, fig.
2). In many cases a leaf-mining insect carries the infection
through its winding gallery, or mine, in the form of a chain of
canker spots (Plate III, fig. 3). This miner is the larva of a
small moth, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, and is common
throughout the Orient, being especially injurious to nursery
stock.

On the twigs the spots are somewhat different. At first they
are similar to those on the leaf, but later become irregular,

186 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

raised, spongy brown spots, often with a dark brown border.
Spots are cankerous and persistent, but are only formed in the
outer layers of the bark tissue. Frequently twigs are entirely
encircled by cankers, but do not seem to be killed outright in
all cases (Plate IV, figs. 1 and 2).

In the first stages of the disease the spots on the fruit are
similar to those on the leaf. They may be scattered, but fre-
quently run together, forming irregular, raised, brown cankerous
blotches. The surface of the fruit is depressed or slightly
wrinkled in the neighborhood of large blotches (Plate IV, figs.
2 and 3). Cankers do not penetrate deeply below the surface
and seem to do little harm other than producing an unsightly
appearance. Gumming of the fruit is associated with the disease
in some cases, but this is not general.

Causal organism.—The bacteria causing this disease gain
entrance to the host primarily through injuries. Citrus leaves,
especially those of the highly spiny species, have many injuries
due to the whipping of the leaves against the spines. The or-
ganism is spread throughout the tree primarily by rain. The
bacteria grow well in pure culture, producing a yellow pigment.

Control.—The control of citrus canker is rather difficult. The
orange, Citrus nobilis Lour., is the most commonly cultivated
species in the Philippines and is relatively free from the disease;
so no control measure need be applied for this species. Other
species are, however, severely infected. For these control mea-
sures should be practiced. In order to obtain an effective control
for citrus canker, persistent efforts must be used. This is true
of the majority of bacterial diseases of fruit trees. A combina-
tion control of spraying and pruning out of the diseased por-
tions will produce beneficial results. It is necessary, however,
to be on the lookout for new infections, and these must im-
mediately be removed. Monthly sprayings with Bordeaux mix-_
ture, to which a sticker has been added, is the most beneficial.
Lime-sulphur must be applied in place of Bordeaux from time
to time, in order to combat aphids and scale insects. In severe
cases of infection it is advisable first to remove diseased leaves
by spraying with a strong formalin spray (0.4 to 0.5 per cent),
which will cause them to drop off.

CHLOROSIS: NONPARASITIC

Symptoms.—Frequently leaves on certain trees show a general
yellowing in contrast to a definite mottling as produced in mot-
tled leaf. In some cases this yellowing may cover the entire
leaf, while in others large yellow blotches are produced. A

XIII, A, 4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 187

uniform yellowing of the leaves seems to be due to malnutrition,
probably a lack of nitrogen. The yellowing in blotches may be
due to the attacks of mites.

Control.—The disease may be avoided by using healthy stock
and by the practice of proper culture methods. In case of insect
attacks, these must be controlled by entomological methods.

DAMPING OFF: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—Seedlings grown in unsterilized soil and in poorly
aérated places may be severely attacked, just at the ground sur-
face, by this fungus, which first causes a browning of the stem
and later a shrinking and weakening of the tissue, causing the
plants to fall over and die. The disease is somewhat similar
to, but more prevalent than, that produced by a Sclerotium.

Causal organism.—This organism is a common soil fungus
causing a large amount of destruction to tender plants during
periods favorable to its spread. It grows well in pure culture,
first producing a coarse white mass of mycelium, which later
turns brownish and produces a large number of brown sclerotial
bodies. No spores have been observed. The fungus penetrates
the plant tissues, causing the weakening and death of the cells.

Control_Seedlings should be grown in sterilized soil and
should be placed where there is plenty of chance for air.

DAMPING OFF: SCLEROTIUM

Symptoms.—Seedlings growing in damp and poorly aérated
places are frequently attacked by a fungus that causes a rot
resulting in damping off. The stem is attacked near the ground
and becomes browned, shrunken, and weak, due to cell destruc-
tion. Plants in the latter stages of the disease fall over and die.

Causal organism.—Isolation and inoculation experiments show
this disease to be due to a fungus that produces sclerotia. The
fungus invades the tissues from the ground. Upon death of
the plant small, round, smooth brown sclerotial bodies are pro-
duced. These bodies germinate directly by the production of
mycelium. No spores have been observed. The same fungus
may cause a damping off of coffee seedlings, cacao seedlings, and
other plants. In pure culture a dense white growth is first
produced, which later gives rise to a large number of round,
smooth brown sclerotial bodies.

Control.—The disease is easily controlled by growing plants
in well-aérated places, free from too great humidity. If the
soil be heavily infected with the fungus, soil sterilization must
be practiced.

188 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

‘DIE-BACK

Symptoms.—Die-back is common in poorly kept orchards and
appears, in the main, to be due to a lack of nutrition. The
symptoms are a gradual dying back of the branches, starting
from the tip.

Causal organism.—No definite causal organism has been as-
signed. Many fungi are found on dead and dying twigs, in-
cluding the following: On Citrus nobilis Lour.; Zignoella nobilis
Rehm., Cytospora aberrans Sacc., Eutypella citricola Speg., Hy-
poxylon atropurpureum Fr. (on coccids), Valsaria citri Rehm.,
Massarina raimundoit Rehm., Tryblidiella rufula (Spreng.)
Sacc., Diaporthe citrincola Rehm., Diplodia aurantii Catt., and
Tryblidiella mindanaensis Henn; and on Citrus maxima (Burm.)
Merr. (Citrus decumana Linn.) ; Eutypella citricola Speg. and.
Eutypella heteracantha Sace. Growing on the latter fungus has
been observed another fungus, Nectria episphaeria (Tode.) Fr.

Control.—Citrus culture in the Philippines is practiced in a
slipshod manner. Die-back may be largely avoided by the use
of correct culture methods. All dead and dying branches should
be pruned out and burned.

EPIPHYTES: LORANTHUS PHILIPPENSIS CHAMISSO

Symptoms.—Epiphytes are sometimes found growing on trees
in poorly kept plantations. They can be easily removed by
pruning.

FRUIT ROT: LASIODIPLODIA THEOBROMAE (PAT.) GRIFFON ET MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—A dry rot of citrus fruit may take place due to
the attacks of this common dry rot organism. Diseased fruits
are characterized by a shriveled, dry appearance and are covered
with a dense black sooty mass of spores.

. Causal organism.—The organism gains entrance into the fruit
through injuries. A series of pycnidia is produced just under
the surface of the fruit, and from there, through openings ex-
tending to the surface, the spores are expelled in large numbers.
The spores are,- when immature, single-celled, hyaline, very
granular, oval bodies. Upon reaching maturity, they become
two-celled and dark brown. Germination takes place readily
within a few hours in water. The spores may germinate before
reaching the two-celled stage. The fungus grows well in pure
culture, producing, on potato agar, a heavy growth of dark
greenish to black mycelium. No spores have been observed in
these cultures.

Control_—Care should be used in handling the fruit so as to
keep it free from injuries.

xm,a,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 189

FRUIT ROT: PENICILLIUM

Symptoms.—Fruit rots are present on fruit kept for some
time out of storage. The Penicillium rot is characterized by
the production of a green powdery mass of spores over the soft,
rotted area. The rot starts at some injury and gradually spreads
until the entire fruit is involved.

Causal organism.—The fungus penetrates the tissue of the
fruit, causing a soft rot. It produces an abundance of typical
Penicillium spores on the surface of the fruit. These spores
blow from diseased to healthy fruit, thereby causing infection.

Control.—tThe fruit should be kept free from injuries. It
should be used as soon as possible, and if stored it should be
kept in a well-aérated place so as to avoid excessive moisture.

Phyllosticta circumsepta Sace. has been found on the dying
rind of fruit.

GUMMOSIS

Symptoms.—A gumming of the trunk, stem, and fruit occurs.
Whether this is due to unfavorable climatic conditions, to lack
of cultivation and care, or to parasites has not been fully deter-
mined. The disease of the stems is more severe in poorly kept
orchards. Insect:punctures in the fruit have been observed to
result in a gumming; mechanical or fungus injuries, as in the
case of citrus canker, may also cause a gumming. It appears
that gummosis of stem and fruit here is not caused by any
one definite organism or factor.

LICHENS

Symptoms.—Lichens are found in abundance, growing over
all woody parts and even upon the leaves of trees, producing
greenish gray blotches. The damage done appears to be slight;
however, the normal physiological activities of the plant must
be disturbed thereby.

Control.—Lichens can be reduced by the use of a spray or wash
of 6 per cent copper sulphate solution or by judicious spraying,
as discussed under citrus canker.

MOTTLED LEAF: NONPARASITIC

Symptoms.—Leaves thus diseased are characterized by a dis-
tinct yellowing of the leaf mesophyll between the large lateral
veins. The tissue adjacent the midvein and the larger lateral
veins is of a healthy green. Entire trees may be affected, but
often only leaves on special branches are diseased. When the
entire tree is affected, it is much dwarfed and may later die,
due to secondary agencies. Badly diseased trees commonly show

190 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

witches’-broom effects and a more or less complete rosette of
the leaves (Plate III, fig. 1).

Causal organism.—The disease is a nonparasitic one,’ being
due to some disturbance of the normal physiological activities
of the plant. It is not transmitted from one plant to another.
Sometimes in marcotting, the disease is produced on branches
the bases of which have been encircled with a bamboo tube or
a coconut husk containing earth.

Control.—Since the disease is little understood, no definite
control can be given. Badly affected trees should be removed,
for they are stunted and will never produce healthy fruit.

PINK DISEASE: CORTICIUM SALMONICOLOR BERK. ET BROOME

Symptoms.—This disease may be severe during the rainy sea-
son in poorly kept orchards. The fungus is a common one,
producing disease on other woody plants. Infection starts on
the trunk or branches usually in some damp pocket. It is first
noticed by the production of cracks and by an exudate of gum.
As the fungus penetrates into the bark, it spreads under the
surface and causes a more or less cankered condition. In the
latter stages the bark cracks and dries up. The fungus may
penetrate through the bark into the cambium and wood. When
a branch or trunk of a small tree is girdled by the fungus and
the xylem is invaded, the upper parts of the plant gradually
die, due to starvation. Diseased trees are easily discovered by
reason of the dead branches. The diseased area in certain stages
of development, especially during the rainy season, is covered
with a mass of pink mycelium that often extends over the bark
in strands. During drier weather the mycelium dries consider-
ably and is not so evident, as it changes to a dirty white or gray.

Causal organism.—No detailed work has been done with the
fungus. It grows in pure culture, producing a matted mass
of pinkish mycelium. The complete life cycle of the fungus
has not been worked out.

Control.—Since healthy, vigorous trees are less liable to attack,
proper cultural methods should be practiced. Spraying healthy
trees as in the case of citrus canker will exclude the fungus.
Once the fungus has gained entrance into and under the bark,
spraying will do no good. Young infections may be removed
by cutting out all the diseased portions well down into the healthy
wood and painting the wound with a creosote paint or white lead.
All badly diseased branches should be pruned out and destroyed
by burning. These branches should be cut out 15 to 20 centi-
meters below the visible extent of the disease, for the mycelium

xua,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 191

s

often penetrates farther than can be seen with the naked eye.
All large wounds should be painted with a creosote paint or
white lead. Severely infected trees should be cut down and
burned immediately.

SCALY BARK

Symptoms.—A disease characterized by a scaling of the bark
is common, but the causal factors have not been determined.
The attacks of an insect just below the bark cause a sloughing,
but this does not appear to be the only factor.

SOOTY MOLD: MELIOLA

Symptoms.—Frequently this sooty mold is found growing over
leaves, stems, and fruit. It is
superficial, growing on the sug-
ary exudate of aphids. The
fungus has been observed on
Citrus medica Linn., Citrus no-
bilis Lour. and on Citrus maxima
(Burm.) Merr. (Citrus decuma-
na Linn.) and undoubtedly oc-
curs on other Citrus species.

Causal organism.—A _ dense
mass of brown mycelium, with
its characteristic hyphopodia, is
produced over the affected area.
Setz and dark brown spherical
perithecia are produced from
the mycelium (fig. 9). Within
the perithecia are found the ™°% Lae aera io ah a
hyaline globular asci with from (X 810) ; e, ascospores (X 810) ;
two to four typical, five-celled d, mycelium with hyphopodia
brown ascospores (fig. 9). Se mbit ee

Control.—The disease may be controlled by spraying with
lime-sulphur, which will keep the aphids under control as well
as destroy the fungus.

SPINY MOLD: IMPERFECT FUNGUS

Symptoms.—A spiny mold niay be produced on leaves, stems,
and fruit. Black tufted masses of fungus appear in spots or
frequently in masses, covering the entire affected portions. The
fungus grows primarily on the exudate from aphids.

Causal organism.—A dense mass of brown mycelium, with
numerous set, is produced. The sete are septate and much
elongated and they give the tufted appearance. Hyaline, elong-

192 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

ate, sometimes crescent-shaped granular spores are produced
among the sete. The fungus has not been identified.

Control.—The control is similar to that discussed under sooty
mold of citrus.

WITHER TIP: COLLETOTRICHUM GLOEOSPORIOIDES PENZIG

Symptoms.—A gradual dying of twigs and branches is fre-
quently produced by this fungus. Not only the twigs, but the
leaves and the fruit may be infected. The leaves wither, and
the twig is killed and shrinks, leaving a definite line of demarca-
tion between healthy and diseased wood. On the leaf, dark
brown spots are produced. The fruit beneath a withered tip
branch often becomes infected, which is evidenced by a russet
appearance. Minute black specks are produced over the diseased
surface.

Causal organism.—The organism is evidenced by the acervuli,
produced in the form of black specks over the diseased parts.
The acervuli are formed under the surface, but later rupture it.
Sete are produced, and from a dense mass of short conidiophores
are produced the minute, cylindrical, granular hyaline spores.
The fungus grows well in pure culture, producing scanty myce-
lium, from which arise many small black fruiting bodies.

Control.—All diseased portions should be removed by pruning
out well below the visible advance of the disease. Spraying with
Bordeaux mixture as discussed under citrus canker is effective.

Gloeosporium intermedium Sacc. is found on injured citrus
leaves, where it produces minute black specks in the gray injured
portions. Aschersonia sclerotoides Henn. may be found growing
parasitically on coccids that are on the leaves. A Micropeltis
also may be found growing on leaves.

COCOS NUCIFERA LINN. COCONUT
BUD ROT: BACTERIAL

This is the most serious coconut disease in the Philippine
Islands, if not in the world. Fortunately it is severe only in
a few localities of the coconut regions, chiefly in Laguna, Batan-
gas, and Tayabas Provinces. These coconut sections are some
of the most extensive in the Islands and, unless control measures
are carried out, the disease will spread.

Symptoms.—The first symptom is a withering of the youngest
unfolded leaf, followed by the leaf’s turning brown. Gradually
other leaves wither and turn brown, until the entire central
group is affected. At this stage the disease is easily recognized
by the group of dead young leaves of the central bud, which has

xuia,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 1938

become brown. Often some of the largest leaves of the bud
fall over (Plate V, figs. 1, 2, and 3). This diseased central
portion is surrounded by older leaves, on the outside, which are
perfectly healthy and remain upon the tree until they drop off
naturally. Trees are more commonly affected when they first
come into bearing. The young nuts, on bearing trees attacked
by the disease, remain small and fall off prematurely. Trees
are affected most generally in regions of great moisture and
in overcrowded areas.

Internal symptoms of diseased trees are very characteristic.
A longitudinal section of the bud shows, in new cases, that the
disease may start in the young leaves, at a point where they
begin to unfold (Plate VI, fig. 1). At this point a spotting of
the leaf is first noticed, then the organism works downward,
causing a soft rot and browning of the group of unfolded leaves.
The upper exposed portions of these leaves die and turn brown,
due to the rotting beneath. The rot advances downward through
the young leaves to the growing point and then spreads into
the soft tissue below. From here it invades the woody tissue,
usually not penetrating farther than from 5 to 10 centimeters.
In the early stages of the disease no discoloration is produced
in the growing point and cabbage, but a dark red to brownish
ring always limits the advance of the disease in the wood on
‘bottom and sides (Plate VI, fig. 4). The disease does not
penetrate readily into the old leaf sheaths surrounding the young,
tender, developing leaves (Plate VII, figs. 1, 2, and 3).

The rot is checked, as a rule, when it reaches the firmer tissues
of the trunk, penetrating, in advanced cases, about 20 centi-
meters (Plate VI, figs. 2 and 3). The softness of the affected
portion in the trunk is shown by the fact that the finger can
be pushed into the diseased part. A vile, somewhat sour odor
accompanies the disease. The most advanced stages of the dis-
ease are characterized by the white cabbage changing into a,
semiliquid mass with an ill-smelling odor. The diseased portion
of the trunk becomes a mass of fibers and a semiliquid.

The disease spreads very rapidly from tree to tree, but the
manner of spread is not fully understood. Insects are undoubt-
edly one of the factors to be considered in its transport from
infected to healthy trees. In one barrio under observation,
fifty-eight new infections appeared within one year after an
inspection in which all trees found with the disease were cut
down and burned. Infection must have started from one or a
few trees unobserved during this first inspection. These trees
are located in the upper extremity of the coconut region on the

194 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

slopes of Mount Banahao, where it is very damp. The trees are
also planted too thickly. Both these factors are favorable to the
development and spread of the disease.

Causal organism.—Microscopic examination of diseased tis-
sues taken from typical young cases of bud rot showed no evi-
dence of mycelium, but an abundance of bacteria. Diseased
pieces collected under sterile conditions in the field and placed
immediately into sterile vials developed no fungi; however, they
were completely invaded with bacteria. Many fungi would de-
velop from older diseased portions when placed in a moist
chamber, but under no conditions was one specific organism
always produced.

Careful inspection was made of over thirty typical cases of
diseased trees. These trees were cut down and the bud opened
for observation. In all cases the disease appeared to be due
to bacteria. Isolations were made from sixteen different typical
cases.

Cultures were obtained by cutting and plating out, under
sterile conditions, small pieces from all parts of infected trees,
from the tip of the unfolded infected leaves down to the growing
point and into the wood below. Poured plates from these cul-
tures showed that in the majority of cases a mixed culture of
bacteria was present. In very young cases of infection, however,
only one organism is present. The latter cases are hard to
obtain, because saprophytic bacteria find a favorable place for
development in the infected portion, and they are soon washed
down into these parts. In order to prove the virulence of the
bacteria isolated, a large series of inoculations was carried out.

These inoculations were made chiefly with seedling coconuts.
The plants were from 60 to 180 centimeters tall. They were
carefully prepared for inoculation by stripping off the outermost,
older leaves. Then the portion to be inoculated was washed with
mercuric bichloride, 1 to 1,000. With sterile scalpels, stabs were
made into the growing point, and the pure cultures of bacteria
were introduced. The injuries were then covered with paraffin.
Over two hundred inoculations have already been carried out in
this fashion and typical cases of bud rot produced (Plate VI,
figs. 5 and 6). The first inoculations were not repeatedly posi-
tive, because they were made outside during the excessively dry
season, under which condition the organism is not extremely
virulent. In later inoculations made in a specially constructed
damp chamber, the disease could be produced at will with the
correct organism. By this method all the saprophytic bacteria
were eliminated. Inoculations with fungi also proved negative.

xu,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 195

After this eliminating process, there was left one distinct or-
ganism that would produce the disease. At least 75 per cent
of positive infections can be obtained under proper conditions.
This one organism has been carried through a series of three
different plants by inoculation, reisolation, and reinoculation.

The organism produces white colonies with a bluish tinge.
Since Bacillus coli (Escherich) has been associated with the
disease in Cuba and since the organism isolated here in the
Philippines appears to be somewhat similar to Bacillus coli
(Escherich), inoculation experiments were carried out with the
latter organism.

Authenticated cultures. of
' Bacillus coli (Escherich) ob-
tained from the United States
and also cultures obtained from
the Philippines were used. The
cultures from the United States
were isolated from man, those
from the Philippines were iso-
lated from man and horse. A
bud rot was produced with each
of these cultures. The rot pro-
duced from the first inoculation
was very slight, but the organ-
ism reisolated and then reino-
culated produced a rapid and
severe case of rot. The initial
inoculation was rather difficult
to obtain, except in cases where F%6. 10. Bud rot of coconut. a, cross sec-

tion of infected portion of young

the tissues of the coconuts were Gatoldedieae! phowine andes of
severely injured. This indicates i ee HE CN ea) ale

a cross section of infected portion
that these bacteria must first pass Bec anet anroliied Tear Valois
through a weakened host before mass of bacteria in xylem tubes

: of a vascular bundle (X 330).
they become extremely virulent.

As yet culture studies have not progressed far enough to as-
sign a definite name to the organism isolated from coconuts here
in the Philippines, but investigation has shown that there is a
bacterium that causes the bud rot of coconuts. A complete and
detailed acount of these investigations will be soon published.

Cytological studies show only the presence of bacteria. Sec-
tions from a typical case of bud rot were made from diseased
portions obtained from the young leaves leading to the growing
point, from portions of the growing point, from the cabbage,
and in the wood. These sections show that the organism is not

1562544

196 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

only present in the parenchymatous tissue, but also that the
chief means of spread in the plant is through the vascular system.
Xylem tubes in the young leaves and in all portions down to
the woody tissue are infected (fig. 10). This accounts for the
rapid advance of the disease in the tissue.

Control.—Trees when once affected never recover. The mode
of growth of the palms and the nature of the disease make it
impossible to cure trees already infected. The only control so
far determined is one of prevention of spread. All diseased
trees should be cut down, and the diseased portions should be
completely burned or deeply buried after sprinkling with lime.
If this precaution of burning all infected trees be carried
out under strict supervision, the danger of spread is largely
eliminated.

The greatest factors in the severity of the disease are the
growth of coconuts in excessively damp places and in extremely
thick plantings. New plantings should be made only in those
localities that are best suited for coconut growth and develop-
ment. Plantings should not be too thick. The recognized dis-
tance for plantings for the best production and at the same
time for the best control against bud rot is 10 meters each way.?

LEAF SPOT: EXOSPORIUM DURUM SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A spot that is not common and causes little dam-
age. It is characterized by the production of black tubercular
or wartlike bodies, the sporodochia, on the surface of leaves.
These spots are scattered, sometimes densely, over the leaf sur-
face. In some cases the sporodochia may be surrounded by a
light yellowish discoloration of the leaf (Plate VIII, fig. 4).

Causal organism.—The wartlike bodies, or sporodochia, have
no spines. The conidia are borne on conidiophores and are
yellowish to brown and septate.

Control.—Since the disease is not severe, no special control
need be practiced. All fallen diseased leaves should be collected
and burned, so as to avoid a.spreading or an epidemic.

LEAF SPOT: PESTALOZZIA PALMARUM COOKE ET GREVILLE

Symptoms.—This disease is common throughout all coconut
regions. As a rule, it is not severe and causes little damage.
The vitality of the tree is lowered, and in a few cases, especially
on younger trees, the spotting may become severe. Spots often
are scattered over the entire leaf surface. Young infections are
characterized by small brown to black, elevated, circular spots a

* See Copeland, E. B., The Coco-nut. London, Macmillan and Co. (1914).

xm 4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 197

few millimeters in diameter.
Older spots are irregular-cir-
cular to slightly oblong, may
run together, and are from 1.5
centimeters to 2 or 3 centimeters
long. These spots have a light
brown to ashen-gray center and
are bordered with a narrow dark
brown ring (Plate VIII, fig. 3).

Causal organism.—In the gray
parts are produced the charac-
teristic minute black acervuli,
which contain the spores.
Spores are septate, with central
brownish cells and hyaline end
cells. Two to four hyaline 1c Fig. 11. Pestalozzia palmarum Cke. et
pendages are produced at one Grev. Conidia, showing charac-
end of the spores and usually eee As ai
only one at the other end (fig.
11). The fungus grows well in pure culture, producing, on
potato agar, at first a felty mass of white mycelium, which later
becomes studded with the black spore bodies. The agar in old
cultures turns brownish.

Control.—in severe cases of infection of young trees, spraying
with Bordeaux mixture is effective. Sanitation in the form of
burning dead and diseased leaves is the usual control.

SOOTY MOLD: CAPNODIUM FOOTII BERKELEY ET DESMAZIBRES

Symptoms.—A sooty mold is often developed on the under
surface of the leaves. This is produced by the fungus growing
on honey dew of coccids; this mold is not at all serious.

STERILITY OF NUTS

Symptoms.—Frequently nuts are found that are entirely com-
posed of husk. No meat or shell is developed within the husk
(Plate VIII, fig. 1). The disease is undoubtedly a nonparasitic
one, being due to some abnormal physiological condition of the
plant.

OTHER FUNGI

Other fungi found upon the coconut include the following:
Chaetosphaeria eximia Sacc. and Phyllosticta cocophylla Pass. on
dying leaves; Anthostomella cocoina Syd., Diplodia: epicocos
Cooke, and Coprinus fimbriatus B. et Br. on dead petioles; Pala-
wania cocos Syd., Hormodendron cladosporioides (Fr.) Sacc.,

198 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

and Coniosporium dendriticum Sacc. on dead spathes; Coprinus
friesti var. obscurus Pat. on dead sheaths; Rosellinia cocoes Henn.
on dead peduncles; Eutypella cocos Ferd. et Winge., Diplodia
cococarpa Sacc., Diplodia epicocos Cooke var. minuscula Sacc.,
Diplodia cococarpa var. malaccensis Tassi., Cytospora palmicola
B. et C., and Peroneutypella cocoes Syd. on husks; Elfvingia
tornata (Pers.) Murr. and Ganoderma incrassatum (Berk.)
Bres. var. substipitata Bres. on dead trunks; and Gloeoglossum
glutinosum (Per.) Durant. on base of living tree.

COFFEA SPP. COFFEE
DAMPING OFF: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—A damping off and stem rot of seedlings similar
to that discussed under citrus is found on coffee. Diseased plants
have browned stems, which shrink and cause the plant to fall
(Plate XIII, fig. 1).

Causal organism.—The causal organism is the same as dis-
cussed under citrus stem rot.

Control.Seedlings should be grown in sterilized soil and in
well-aérated places.

DAMPING OFF: SCLEROTIUM

Symptoms.—Coffee seedlings are frequently attacked on the
stem just at and above the ground by a Sclerotiwm that causes
a damping off. Infected stems are blackened and somewhat
shrunken. The fungus may also spread to the leaves, causing
an advancing black rot. Spherical brown sclerotial bodies may
be produced on infected portions. The disease is most severe
during the rainy season and on seedlings kept in damp places.
Young plants are killed by the attack.

Causal organism.—lIn pure culture the fungus produces numer-
ous small, smooth, spherical brown sclerotial bodies. Infection
experiments have proved the virulence of the fungus isolated,
but as yet all attempts to produce spores have failed. This
fungus is the same as that which may cause a stem rot and
damping off of citrus seedlings.

Control.—The disease is only severe when plants are grown
in poorly aérated places. Seedlings should be grown in sterilized
soil and well-ventilated locations. —

FOOT ROT

Symptoms.—A rot of the trunk of older coffee trees may take
place at the surface of the ground. The entire trunk of the
plant is girdled, resulting first in a yellowing of the leaves and
then in a gradual wilting and death.

xu, 4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 199

Causal organism.—No organism has as yet been associated
with this disease. Consequently no definite control can be given.

LEAF SPOT: MICROPELTIS MUCOSA SYDOW

Symptoms.—A leaf spotting that is found on Coffea excelsa
Cheval. and is only of slight importance. Minute, scalelike,

Fic. 12. Micropeltis mucosa Syd. Immature perithecium (x 335). The fungus does not
penetrate leaf tissue.

raised black spots are scattered over the upper and lower leaf
surface. They are usually more abundant on the lower surface.
Causal organism.—T hese
scalelike black bodies are peri-
thecia, within which are borne
the asci and ascospores. The
asci are clubshaped and contain
six to eight hyaline three- or
four-celled ascospores. T he
fungus is a superficial grower
and does not penetrate into the
leaf tissue (figs. 12 and 13).
Control—The disease does
little or no damage; consequent-
ly no control measures need be ; F :
= Fic. 18. Micropeltis mucosa Syd. Asci
practiced. with ascospores (X 340).

RUST: HEMILEIA VASTATRIX BERKELEY ET BROOME

Symptoms.—This widely distributed and destructive disease
has wiped out the coffee industry in various sections of the
Islands. Circular or subcircular orange-red spots cover the
under surface of leaves. Infected leaves wilt and drop, repeated
attacks causing death to the entire plant. Young spots appear
as transparent slightly yellowish discolorations. As the spot
becomes older, the yellow increases, until finally a yellow dust,
which turns to orange, is produced on the under surface of
the leaves. The disease is most severe and evident during the
rainy season.

Coffea arabica Linn., the best commercial coffee in this section,

200

is severely attacked by the rust and has been practically wiped
out in most regions. A few favorably situated districts, in high
altitudes, still produce Arabian coffee successfully. Qwing to
Hemileia, Coffea arabica Linn. is now of relatively slight impor-
tance in Java. Many plantations have been uprooted and re-
planted to C. robusta or hybrid varieties.
Causal organism.—The orange dust on the under surface of
leaves is made up of the single-
celled irregular uredospores and
few single-celled teleutospores.
The uredospores are irregularly
obovate, bilateral, with short,
blunt spines on the dorsal sur-
face and with the ventral side
smooth. They are produced on
the leaf surface from stalks pro-
jecting through the stomata (fig.
14). The uredospores germi-
nate readily in water. Penetra-
tion takes place by way of the
stomata. The mycelium grows
in abundance in the air spaces
and in the intercellular spaces
of the leaf tissue. Teleuto-
- spores are not produced in
abundance. They are_ small,
pale yellow, and smooth and
have a short, slender, hyaline
pedicel. They germinate often
on fallen leaves by the produc-

The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Fic. 14. Hemileia vastatrix B. et Br. a,
infected coffee leaf, showing tion of a promycelium with
mycelium in tissue and produc- ate
tion of uredospores some of sporidia (fig. TAN
which were cut in sectioning Control.—Control consists in
(X 825); 6, teleutospores (X 5 5 Siiigie
325): ¢, germinating teleuto. Selecting resistant varieties and
spores, promycelia, and sporidia jy spraying with Bordeaux mix-
(X 825); d, uredospores (X 5 5
395). ture. As yet no resistant strain
of Coffea arabica Linn. has been
developed. In the Philippines, as shown by the College of Agri-

culture plantings, Coffea robusta is only slightly attacked and
Coffea arabica Linn. is severely attacked. The liberica varieties
need a special pulper, and the robusta coffee is of relatively poor
quality and commands a lower price. The arabica coffee, Coffea
arabiea Linn., is the most easily handled and is very productive;

xu,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 201

therefore, for the Philippines, the best control measure for this
variety is spraying. Spraying experiments have shown that
the disease can be controlled with Bordeaux mixture at a cost
of 10 centavos * a tree per year.

SOOTY MOLD: AITHALODERMA LONGISETUM SYDOW

Symptoms.—A black sooty mold may be produced over the
surface of leaves. Little injury is done, as the organism is
not abundant. f

STEM DISEASE

No important stem diseases on older plants have been observed.
Coniothyrium coffeae Henn. has been found on twigs of Coffea
arabica Linn.

COLOCASIA ESCULENTUM SCHOTT (COLOCASIA ANTIQUORUM
SCHOTT). GABI

° BLIGHT: PHYTOPHTHORA COLOCASIAE RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—Gabi, which is extensively grown in the Philip-
pines, suffers severely from the attacks of this fungus. Leaf ©
blade, petiole, and corms are attacked. Leaf spots appear at
first as small, roundish dark brown spots. They rapidly increase
in size, may be circular, oval, or often running together, until
finally the entire leaf is diseased. Spots are not confined to the
portion of the leaves between main veins, but readily cross the
latter. Spots 2 to 3 centimeters in diameter are dark and
rather watery and produce drops of a yellow liquid. Older and
larger spots have yellowish brown centers bordered by broad
watery rings. Frequently the margins have concentric brown
or yellow rings (Plate XV, fig. 1). When spots coalesce, cover-
ing the entire leaf, a soft, watery, disintegrating leaf is produced.

In severe cases the petioles may become infected. The fungus
gradually invades the petiole, which becomes blackened, shrunken,
and watery and finally collapses. The entire diseased leaf then
decomposes into a watery mass.

Infection of the corm may occur in severe attacks and during
damp weather. Diseased corms disintegrate with a wet rot.
The disease is most severe during the rainy season.

Causal organism.—A downy mass of spores is not produced
on the diseased spots, but only a delicate white growth can be
detected. This is made up of the conidia produced on short

* One peso Philippine currency equals 100 centavos, equals 50 cents United
States currency.

202 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

conidiophores. The conidia are
large, thin-walled, smooth, and
colorless and have short, broad
papille (fig. 15). No odspores
have been observed. Infection
takes place by the conidia, which
are scattered chiefly by water.

The fungus grows readily in
pure culture and can be easily
isolated by the simple method
of plating out diseased portions
Fic. 15. Phytophthora colocasiae Rac. ON potato agar. A downy mass

Some Ce ea of white mycelium develops on
potato agar slopes, and conidia are formed in abundance. Sex-
ual spores are produced in pure culture.

Inoculation experiments, in a damp chamber, produce typical
leaf spots in two to three days.

Control.—Control consists in the growing of disease-resistant
varieties. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is effective.

Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott, a heavy-yielding yautia, is
not attacked by the Phytophthora and should replace the
ordinary gabis.

CUCUMIS SATIVUS LINN. CUCUMBERS
DOWNY MILDEW: PLASMOPARA CUBENSIS (B. ET C.) HUMPHREY

Symptoms.—Yellow spots are at first produced on leaves.
The whole leaf then turns yellow, shrivels, and soon dies. Cen-
tral parts of older spots become: dead and brittle and are a
light brown. The disease starts with the older leaves and ad-
vances to the younger ones. Few cucumbers are produced on
diseased plants.

Causal organism.—The typical branched conidiophores are
produced singly or in small clusters from the stomata. Conidia
are oval and light brown to violet-tinted.

Control__Spraying with Bordeaux mixture should be done in
severe cases of infection.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—Irregular to angular light greenish leaf spottings
are found upon cucumbers. The spotting is not severe.

CUCURBITA MAXIMA DUCH. CALABAZA, SQUASH
DOWNY MILDEW: PLASMOPARA CUBENSIS (B. ET C.) HUMPHREY

Symptoms.—This disease is similar to that discussed under

Cucumis sativus Linn.

-

xmia,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 203

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—A white powdery mass may be produced on the
leaves. The disease is similar to that discussed under papaya
and tomato.

Causal organism.—Typical conidia and conidiophores of the

Erysiphaceae are produced.

Control.—Powdering with sulphur in severe cases of infec-
tion will check the disease.

DAUCUS CAROTA LINN. CARROT
STEM ROT: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—During damp weather a stem rot of the carrot
may be abundant. The stems are attacked just at and above
the ground. Infected stems become brown, shrivel up, and
cause the death of the leaf by cutting off the water supply.

Causal organism.—Isolations and pure culture work showed
the causal organism to be a Rhizoctonia.

Control.—Avoid planting during the excessively rainy season.

DIOSCOREA ESCULENTA (LOUR.) BURKILL. YAMS
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA UBI RACIB., CERCOSPORA PACHYDERMA SYDOW

Symptoms.—Leaves may be moderately spotted with spots of
the Cercospora type. Little injury is done.

LEAF SPOT: ELLISIODOTHIS REHMIANA THEISS ET SYDOW (PHYLLACHORA DIOS-
COREAE SCHWEIN, PHYLLACHORA REHMIANA THEISS ET syDpow)

Symptoms.—Shiny black stroma are scattered over infected
leaves. Little damage is done.

RUST: UREDO DIOSCOREAE (BERK. ET BRM.) PETCH., UREDO DIOSCOREAE-ALATABD
RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—A common leaf trouble, which at times is serious.
Characteristic yellowish rust pustules are developed on the under
surface of leaves.

STORAGE ROTS: LASIODIPLODIA THEOBROMAE (PAT.) GRIFFON ET MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—Storage rots are present in abundance. This rot
is characterized by the production of a sooty black mass of
spores on the surface of dry-rotted roots.

Causal organism.—The organism causes a dry rot of a large
number of root crops. It is more fully discussed under dry rot
of cacao.

Control.—Avoid injuries in digging. Store in a well-aérated
place. All diseased roots should be sorted out and burned.

A Rhizopus may also cause a rot.

Phoma oleracea Sacc., Gloeosporium macrophomoides Sacc.,
and Phomopsis dioscoreae Sacc. are found on dead stems.

204 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Phyllosticta graffiana Sacc. and Mycosphaerella dioscoreicola
Syd. are found on leaves of Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill.

DOLICHOS LABLAB LINN. LABLAB BEAN
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—Round gray-centered spots with purplish borders
may be scattered over the surface of leaves. Little damage is
done.

Causal organism.—Typical, elongate, septate, tapering Cerco-
spora spores are produced on light brown conidiophores. The
latter are formed in groups from the stomata.

Control.—Crop rotation will reduce the prevalence of the
disease.

ORANGE GALLS: WORONINELLA DOLICHI (CKE.) SYDOW

Symptoms.—This disease is similar to that discussed under
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.

Septoria lablabis Henn. and Septoria lablabina Sacc. may be
produced on weakened mature leaves. . Diplodia lablab Sacc. is
produced on the stems.

On dead Kultha beans, Dolichos uniflorus Lam., may be found
the following: Vermicularia horridula Sace. and Didymella
lussoniensis Sace.

FICUS CARICA LINN. FIG

RUST: KUEHNEOLA FICI (CAST.) BUTL. (UREDO FICI CAST.) »

Symptoms.—A disease that may be very severe, causing defo-
liation, especially during the rainy season. Raised brownish
sori are produced on the under surface of the leaf. Often the
under surface is covered with a rusty powder composed of spores.
Small yellowish spots are produced on the upper surface of the .
leaf above each sorus on the under surface.

Causal organism.—Usually cushion-shaped, light brown, spiny
uredospores only are produced. Teleutospores are smooth, in
chains, and with the germ pores apical.

Figs are not grown commercially in the Philippine Islands.
Wild figs, of which there are many species in the Islands, have
the leaves commonly spotted with the characteristic stromata
produced by the genus Phyllachora.

GLYCINE MAX (LINN.) MERR. (GLYCINE HISPIDA MAXIM.). SOY
BEAN, SOJA
BLACK MILDEW: TROTTERIA VENTURIOIDES SACCARDO

Symptoms.—Frequently entire patches of soy beans appear
yellowish and sickly. This may be due to a fungus that makes

xu,4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 205

itself evident by the production of numerous, small black specks
on the under surface of the leaves. Serious damage may be
produced.

Causal organism.—The pycnidia are brown, with conspicuous
wall markings, and they bear spines. Conidia are elongate,
somewhat tapering, often curved, five- to seven-celled, and
hyaline.

Control.—Crop rotation should be practiced.

BLIGHT: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—During the rainy season entire fields may be
wiped out, due to this common soil fungus (Plate IX, fig. 1).
The disease is most severe in close plantings. Soy beans are
not the only plants attacked. All other beans and apparently
every plant growing in a matted condition may be attacked.
Aside from being found on beans, the disease has been observed
on African peanuts, Voandzeia subterranea Thou., and on weeds
growing among infected plants. Beans and other plants that
can be grown on trellises, so as to keep them off the ground,
and plants grown where they are not crowded, thereby per-
mitting of sufficient aération, are less subject to the disease.

Stems, leaves, and pods are all severely affected. The disease
starts from the ground, growing up the older hardy stem to
the tender portions or attacking the tender portions directly
if they touch the ground. The mycelium of the fungus can be
easily seen growing over the plants in a whitish mass and
spreading from plant to plant. Infected leaves are at first some-
what yellowed in blotches, and gradually they turn black and
disintegrate into a soft mass. Diseased plants touching healthy
plants will afford a means of spread. From infected leaves the
disease spreads to the tender stems and even to the more mature
stems, causing them to decay and to turn into a watery
mass. As the leaves and stems disintegrate, and especially dur-
ing drier weather, countless numbers of sclerotial bodies are
produced (Plate IX, fig. 3). These sclerotial bodies at first are
white and soft, but soon turn brown and hard. They are some-
times roughly spherical, from 1 to 3 millimeters in diameter,
or they may be somewhat flattened and elongated, often 6 milli-
meters in length (Plate X, fig. 3). The diseased leaves and
sclerotial bodies fall to the ground, whence the latter produce
mycelia during favorable weather and attack plants as before
described. The disease is not severe during the dry season nor
during the drier weather in the rainy season. It spreads with
remarkable rapidity during damp weather.

206 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

~

FiG. 16 Rhizoctonia. Mycelium from pure
culture of fungus (xX 340), iso-
lated from Glycine max (Linn.)
Merr. (G. hispida Maxim.).
Note characteristic branching.

diseased plants. The advance

Causal organism.—The fun-
gus mycelium penetrates to all
diseased portions, undoubtedly
producing an enzyme, which
aids in disintegration. Numer-
ous inoculation experiments have
been carried on, using different
beans as hosts. Sclerotial bod-
ies from pure cultures were
merely placed on leaves or tender
stems, and the plants were
put under bell jars. Within
two days infection and blight
were produced. Sclerotial bod-
ies produce mycelia direct and
infect injured or uninjured
portions. Within one week the
entire plant is blighted and
falls over in a soft mass (Plate
IX, figs. 2 and 3). Later sclero- .
tial bodies are formed on these

of the fungus can be retarded
or completely stopped by remov-
ing the bell jars and putting
the plants in the sun. Reisola-
tion from infected plants pro-
duced the same fungus used
for inoculation. At no time
in diseased fields or on pure
cultures have spores been ob-
served. Attempts to produce
spore-bearing bodies and spores
from sclerotial bodies have thus
far failed. The mycelium is
typical of Rhizoctonia (figs. 16
and 17).

In the cross inoculations cul-
tures obtained from Glycine
max (Linn.) Merr. (Glycine
hispida Maxim.), Voandzeia
subterranea Thou., and Phaseo-

Fic. 17. Rhizoctonia. Mycelium from scle-
rotial body, growing in pure
culture (X 340); a, formation
of sclerotial body; 6b, portions
of sclerotial body. Isolated
from Glycine max (Linn.)
Merr. (G. hispida Maxim.).

xm, 4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 207

lus calcaratus Roxb. all produced typical disease on Phaseolus
lunatus Linn., Phaseolus vulgaris Linn., and Phaseolus calcara-
tus Roxb., which shows that the organism causes a general
blight of beans under suitable conditions.

Further inoculation experiments show that under suitable con-
ditions this organism may attack and kill a large number of
succulent plants (Plate X, fig. 1). A pure culture isolated from
soy beans killed the following seedlings in an experiment carried
out in a damp chamber: Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (Glycine
hispida Maxim.), Voandzeia subterranea Thou., Zea mays Linn.,
. Capsicum spp., Carica papaya Linn., Citrus maxima (Burm.)
Merr. (Citrus decumana Linn.), Coffea arabica Linn., Anona
squamosa Linn., Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn., Nicotiana tabacum
Linn., Saccharum officinarum Linn., and the woody seedlings
Passifiora quadrangularis Linn., Lonchocarpus sp., and Caesal-
pinia sappan Linn. Seedlings only slightly attacked were Huge-
nia uniflora Linn. and Tamarindus indica Linn.

A coarse, dense mass of whitish mycelium is at first produced
in pure culture. Later whitish bodies of mycelium develop,
which enlarge and become hard brown sclerotial masses. The
sclerotial bodies are connected by fibrils.

Control.—Since the disease is only severe during excessively
damp weather, in thick planting and where plants form a mat
over the ground, control consists in avoiding these conditions.
Planting should be done so as to escape the heavy rainy season.
Inasmuch as sclerotial bodies fall to the ground and remain alive
for a long period, crop rotation will have to be practiced. In
this crop rotation plants should be grown that do not form a
mat over the ground. Care should be taken that no sclerotial
bodies are sown with the seed.

DOWNY MILDEW: PERONOSPORA

Symptoms.—Light green blotches may be produced on the
leaves. These spots are due to the destruction of the chlorophyll
by the presence of the fungus. Young leaves are often wrinkled
because of the more rapid growth of the cells about the points
of infection. A light purplish to white downy growth is pro-
duced on the under surface of diseased leaves.

Causal organism.—This purplish growth is made up of large
numbers of much-branched conidiophores at the tips of which
the spores are produced. The conidia are somewhat ovoid and
hyaline (fig. 18).

Control.—Crop rotation should be practiced.

208 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

RUST: UROMYCES SOJAE SYDOW

Symptoms.—Frequently soy
beans may be severely attacked
by this rust fungus. Character-
istic brown rust sori are scat-
tered thickly on the under sur-
face of leaves. Spots are at first
circular, raised brown blisters,
but later burst open, exposing
the spores. The upper surface
of diseased leaves is yellowed
above the sori on the lower
surface.

Causal organism.—tirregular,
short, spiny brown uredospores

are produced in the rust sori
Fic. 18. Peronospora, on Glycine maz
(Linn.) Merr. (G. hispida (fig. 19). 4
Maxim.). a, portion of typical Control.—Crop rotation

branched conidiophore (X .
320) ; b, conidia (xX 320). should be practiced.

GOSSYPIUM SPP. COTTON
ANGULAR LEAF SPOT: BACTERIUM MALVACEARUM ERW. SMITH

Symptoms.—The disease is present on leaf, stem, and fruit.
On the leaf the characteristic spots are from 1 to 4 millimeters
in diameter; they are angular, with brownish centers bordered
with light brown to yellow. Young spots are smaller and have
a water-soaked appearance. They can be more easily detected on
the lower surfaces of the leaves. Spots may run together form-
ing brownish blotches which later become brittle. The dead
brown tissue may fall out of the spots. Badly attacked leaves
wither, die, and fall to the ground. The disease may be evident
on the tender stalks in the form of blackened cankerous patches.
On the bolls, at first, minute water-soaked spots are produced,
which later may run together, producing sunken brownish or
reddish brown blotches. If the
bolls are young when attacked,
the contents may be consumed;
but on older bolls only the outer
layers are invaded, producing lit-
tle injury to the fiber. Young
seedlings may be attacked first

Fic. 19. Uromyces sojae Syd. Uredospores
on the leaf from where the (X 315).

xur4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 209

disease may spread to the stem, causing a blackened, water-
soaked, weakened stem which finally falls over. In some cases,
on older seedlings, only blackened blotches are produced. These
may run together and girdle the stem, resulting in the falling
over of the seedling.

Causal organism.—The causal organism is a bacterium that
produces a yellow pigment in pure culture. It gains entrance
into the plant through stomata and injuries. The organism may
live over on the seed and lint for at least four months. It may
also live in the soil for a considerable period.

Control.—The chief control consists in killing the organism
on the seeds before planting. The seeds should first be delinted
in sulphuric acid and then treated in hot water at 72° C. for
eighteen minutes. In severe cases of plant infection, spraying
with Bordeaux mixture will reduce the number of infected
plants.

RUST: KUEHNEOLA DESMIUM (B. ET BR.) SYDOW [UREDO DESMIUM (BERK. ET
BR.) PETCH]

Symptoms.—A common leaf rust found at the College of Agri-
culture on Gossypium herbaceum Linn. and on Gossypium brast-
lense Macfad. Infected leaves are entirely covered on both
surfaces with the minute brownish to black pustules. Little
damage is done.

HEVEA BRASILIENSIS (HBK.) MUELL.-ARG. PARA RUBBER
BLACK ROT OF FRUITS: PHYTOPHTHORA FABERI MAUBLANG

Symptoms.—Diseased fruits are blackened, with a more or less
watery discoloration, and rot upon the tree. The outer layer
of the fruit shrivels, splits and dries up without maturing the
seeds. Older diseased pods with matured seeds are shrivelled
so that the seeds cannot be liberated. The disease is most
severe during excessively damp periods and may cause the
loss of the entire fruit crop. The fungus often grows from
diseased fruits into the twigs causing a die-back. Usually the
disease does not advance far down the twig. Diseased fruits
serve as a source of infection for the stem canker.

Causal organism.—The causal organism is the same as dis-
cussed under Hevea and cacao canker and the black rot of cacao
pods.

Control.—All diseased fruits should be collected and burned.
Proper distances for planting and the sanitary precautions as
discussed under the canker of Para rubber serve equally well
in reducing the black rot of the fruits.

210 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

CANKER: PHYTOPHTHORA FABERI MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—The canker of Para rubber may be rather hard
to detect in its early stages. In the Philippines the disease
is similar to that discussed by Petch in Ceylon. External symp-
toms usually consist in a darkening of the bark, and in older
cases there may be a definite demarcation of the diseased area.
Most frequently the-diseased area is smooth, but it may be
cracked and scaly. During damp weather a reddish or purplish
liquid sometimes exudes from the larger diseased areas. On
older trees the disease cannot always be noticed from outward
appearances, for a true cankered condition may not be produced.
Internal symptoms are then the only indications of disease. Dis-
eased trees cease to yield latex. The cortex, instead of its
healthy white, yellowish, or clear red appearance, is characterized
by a black layer produced under the outer brown bark and
underneath this the cortex is discolored, in young cases gray,
and in older cases a purplish red. In young cases only the
outer layer of the bark may be diseased. This can be detected
by carefully scraping the areas that do not produce latex to
determine whether the cortex is blackish instead of being a
healthy color.

When diseased trees have been cut down and piled ready for
burning, they may be attacked by Megalonectria pseudotrichia
(Schw.) Speg., which is characterized by a dense reddish mass
of raised bodies, the perithecia, produced on the surface of the
trees. This fungus is regarded as a saprophyte and is only
found on the dead or weakened portions of trees. It may, how-
ever, gain entrance into diseased areas of living trees, conse-
quently it should be guarded against.

Causal organism.—The Para rubber canker is produced by the
same fungus that produces the black rot of Hevea fruits and
also the black rot of pods and canker of cacao. The organism
is more fully discussed under cacao. On rubber, so far as has
been observed, only the conidial or sporangial stage is produced.
Generally the asexual spore bodies are roundish or egg-shaped.
Conidia germinate directly by the production of a germ tube
that develops into the mycelium. These same spores under
favorable damp or rainy conditions may germinate by the produc-
tion of zodspores. The spore body is then called a sporangium
or a zodsporangium. The zodspores swim about for a time,
then come to rest and germinate as ordinary conidia by the
production of a germ tube, which penetrates into the host pri-
marily through injuries. The mycelium is almost always in-
ternal, spreading through the bark and is seldom found growing

xu, 4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 211

over the surface. The fungus grows well in pure culture, pro-
ducing on sterile potato cylinders, a dense white mycelium with
conidia, sporangia, and chlamydospores.

Control.—All diseased portions should be carefully cut out,
down to the healthy tissue, and burned. Disinfection of the
knives used for cutting with a 2 per cent formalin solution
is recommended. A careful inspection of the plantation should
be kept up so that the cankers can be cut out when they first
appear. All wounds made by cutting out the diseased cortex
should be painted with a coal-tar preparation, care being taken
not to paint the cambium layer at the edges of the cut surface.
Cacao should never be planted with or near Hevea rubber. In
severe cases of the disease it might be advisable to spray the
trunks of young trees with Bordeaux mixture. This cannot
be done with tapping trees. The humidity of the plantation
should be lessened by admitting air and sunlight through the
removal of intercrops, thinning out by pruning and planting
‘according to the regulation distance, which will permit a ready
aération. All diseased trees and rubber trash should be burned
as soon as possible to avoid the spread of Phytophthora spores.
It might be advisable to obtain a large blast torch for this
purpose, >

LEAF SPOT: HELMINTHOSPORIUM HEVEAE PETCH

Symptoms.—Leaves of nursery plants a meter or more high
may become spotted, but no serious damage has been observed.
The spots may be thickly scattered over the leaf surface. When
" young they are minute, having purple centers with a lighter
purple haze about the edges; older spots are circular, 3 to 5
millimeters in diameter, with white semitransparent centers
bordered with a purplish ring. The disease has been observed
on seedling plants only.

Causal organism.—The spores are produced on both surfaces
of the leaf, but are more abundant on the lower surface. They
are cymbiform, brown, and from eight to eleven septate. The
conidiophores are scattered, simple, brownish, and septate.

Control.—Since the disease is not serious and never has been
observed to cause defoliation, no control has been found necessary.
If severe cases of infection should arise, spraying with Bordeaux
mixture would control the disease.

PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLE

Symptoms.—This diseased condition is sometimes spoken
of as brown bast. The external appearance of such trees is
usually normal. Internal characters may be normal, but fre-

156254——5

212 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

quently a gray to dark brown discoloration appears in the vicinity
of the bast. The chief internal symptom is the stoppage of
latex flow, due to some abnormal condition of the latex tubes.

Causal organism.—No causal organism has been associated
with the disease. It appears to be due to some abnormal physio-
logical condition, which may be inherent in certain trees; how-
ever, in certain cases trees appear to recover.

Control.—Tapping should be discontinued for a period of years
on infected trees. Seeds for propagation should never be selected
from diseased trees.

ROOT DISEASE: FOMES LIGNOSUS (KL.) BRESADOLA

Symptoms.—The disease is most severe upon young trees from
1 to 3 years old. Frequently diseased patches are produced
in plantations. Diseased trees at first show a yellowing of the
leaves, which is followed by a wilting and death. Dead trees
can be easily pulled up or pushed over. The diseased roots
are characteristically covered with a white mycelium, which
may be in the form of strands spreading over the root or in
the form of a sheet covering the entire surface. The white
strands of mycelium spreading over the roots are the charac-
teristic symptoms. These strands may be 0.5 to 1 centimeter
broad and may be divided into finer strands that spread to the
lower portion of the trunk and to the extremities of the roots.
The diseased roots and lower trunk are not discolored, but
become soft, like punk. The fungus also develops well on a
number of jungle trees and stumps where it produces the same .
symptoms.

Causal organism.—The mycelium growing over the surface
of the roots penetrates into the tissues, thereby causing death.
The cortex and wood are completely invaded by the mycelium.
From diseased roots the mycelium can spread through the ground
to the roots of healthy trees. This is one of the chief methods
of spread and accounts for the disease appearing in patches
throughout the plantation. Fruiting bodies of the fungus are
not usually produced on rubber trees, because the diseased trees
are usually burned as soon as found. If diseased stumps are
left standing, the characteristic fruiting bodies will be produced.
They are more commonly found on stumps of jungle trees and
are always produced above ground.

The fruiting bodies are at first orange yellow cushions, which
later develop into flat, somewhat semicircular plates. They are
usually 8 centimeters long, 4 centimeters wide, and 1 centimeter
thick behind, but may attain a width of 30 centimeters. They are
perennial and woody, belonging to the “bracket fungi.” At first

xu A,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 213

the upper surface is red-brown with concentric dark brown lines.
It is smooth with concentric grooves parallel to the outer edge.
The lower surface is covered with minute pores, the spore-
bearing surfaces, and at first is orange; but later, when old,
is red-brown.

Control.—The disease as a rule cannot be detected until the
tree is about to die; consequently remedial measures must be
practiced that will prevent the fungus attack. Land cleared
for rubber plantations should have the old jungle stumps removed
and burned as completely as possible down to a depth of at
least half a meter. Preferably the land should be cleared,
cleaned, and planted to a cultivated crop two years before planting
the rubber. This will give time for the complete removal and
burning of all stumps.

Dead rubber trees must be dug up with all roots and burned.
Since the disease frequently occurs in patches, these patches
may be isolated by digging a trench, about 45 centimeters deep,
around the affected trees. Quicklime should be scattered over
the ground and in the trench. This will prevent the fungus
from spreading through the ground to healthy surrounding
trees. All dead stumps should be removed and the infected
spot dug up so as to destroy as many of the roots as possible.
Frequently newly infected trees near affected spots can be saved
by removing all dirt from the tap roots and cutting out the
affected portions. If the roots are too severely diseased, the
tree must be dug up and burned. It is absolutely necessary to
remove all dead stumps so as to prevent the spread of the disease
by the mycelium growing through the ground, and to prevent
the production of fruiting bodies, which produce spores that
spread the disease. An efficient drainage system should be
provided for poorly drained regions.

SPOTTING OF PREPARED PLANTATION RUBBER: SAPROPHYTIC FUNGI

Symptoms.—Prepared plantation rubber when produced under
improper conditions may, during drying, become spotted with
bright red, pink, reddish yellow, dark blue, bluish green, bright
yellow, black, or clear spots. The colors can be more easily ob-
served by holding the sheets of rubber up to the light. These
spots may extend through the entire sheet, or they may be con-
fined to the upper or the lower surface. They range from mere
specks, 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter, to blotches, 15 centimeters
in width. When the spots are abundant, a mottling of red or
yellow may be produced. The color usually fades slightly after
several weeks, but it has been observed to last for an indefinite
period.

214 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Causal organism.—The organisms causing the trouble in the
Philippines have not been studied. In the Federated Malay
States the following common saprophytic fungi have been as-
signed as the cause: Penicillium maculans sp. n., Fusarium, Chro-
mosporium crustaceum sp. n., Trichoderma koningi (Oud.)
Oudemans et Koning, Hwrotium candidum Speg., and Bacillus
prodigiosus (Ehrenb.) Fluegge. Oil and dirt are other sources
of discoloration. The latex becomes primarily infected in the
field due to improper field cultural methods, the use of contami-
nated water for washing out jars, and to contaminated pails.

Control.—_Ordinary sanitary measures are sufficient for control.
General cleanliness in tapping, collecting of latex, and prepara-
tion of rubber should be observed. The plantation should be
kept free from all dead decaying matter which harbors sapro-
phytes. The pails used for the collection of latex should be
thoroughly scalded after using each day. Water used in cleaning
the cups should be obtained from a source free from contamina-
tion. Collectors should never be allowed to obtain water for
washing from contaminated streams. The factory and drying
shed should be constructed according to the best accepted methods.
The drying sheds should be located in a well-aérated place so as
to provide for plenty of circulation, for rapid drying lessens
the chances of spotting. Thin crépe is less apt to become spotted,
due to its quicker drying. Spotted rubber should never be packed
with clean rubber. Usually these precautions are sufficient to
prevent the trouble. In severe cases of infection it is advisable
to sterilize the latex with 1 part of formalin to 400 parts of
latex. Lightly spotted rubber may be somewhat cleared by
rerolling the dried rubber and washing thoroughly with water.

OTHER FUNGI

A large number of apparently saprophytic organisms appear
on the dead branches of Para rubber. Among these Tryblidiella
mindanaensis Henn. and Eutypella heveae Yates have been iden-
tified.

HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA LINN. ROSELLE Ps

BLIGHT: PHOMA SABDARIFFAE SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A stem blight that is rather severe on roselle,
often killing entire plants. Diseased stems are attacked chiefly
at the bases of small branches, at the nodes. Internodes also may
be attacked. The spots spread until they entirely encircle the
twigs. They are black with gray centers and are specked with
minute black bodies. The disease is most severe on nearly
matured plants.

xu, 4,4 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 215

Causal organism.—The minute black bodies are pycnidia.
Upon crushing the pycnidia, a mass of small, one-celled, some-
what elongated, slightly olivaceous spores is expelled. The fun-
gus grows well in pure culture, producing at first a growth of
white mycelium, which later becomes studded with black
pycnidia.

Control.—All diseased stems should be collected and burned.
Crop rotation should be practiced.

IPOMOEA BATATAS POIR. SWEET POTATO
STORAGE ROT: LASIODIPLODIA THEOBROMAE (PAT.) GRIFFON ET MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—A common dry-
storage rot, which is character-
ized by the production of a sooty
mass of spores on the outside of
infected potatoes. This disease
is the same as that found upon the
cacao fruit and other root crops
and fruits (Plate XIX, fig. 5).

Causal organism.—The organ-
ism causing the disease is iden-
tical with that described under
cacao. Cross inoculations from
the fungus on cacao fruit to the
sweet potato or vice versa can
be easily carried out. The my-
celium penetrates throughout the
root and accumulates under the
surface to produce a series Of re. 20. Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)

pycnidia, from which the mass SEES Ou OE ORC

. through diseased sweet potato,
of black spores arises (fig. 20). Eanes enididmeie-tiolan
The organism is more fully dis- paraphyses, and immature

spores (X 270).

cussed under cacao.

Control._Care should be used in digging the potatoes, so as
to avoid injuries. The surface of the potatoes should be allowed
to dry before storage. Storage should be in a well-ventilated
place. All infected potatoes should be taken out and burned.
Cacao fruits and root crops diseased with Lasiodiplodia must
be kept away from stored sweet potatoes.

STORAGE ROT: RHIZOPUS

Symptoms.—A soft rot is frequently produced by this fungus.
Diseased roots are soft and are covered with a black felty mold.
Causal organism.—This felty mass is made up of large num-

216 The Philippine Journal of Science

bers of sporangiophores and sporangia. The sporangia contain
numerous black spores.

Control—sSweet potatoes should be stored in a dry, well-
aérated place. All rotted potatoes should be destroyed.

LACTUCA SATIVA LINN. LETTUCE
TIPBURN

Symptoms.—A nonparasitic disease that is common during
the dry season. Leaves turn brown at the tip and gradually
shrivel up.

(To be concluded.)

} : 8 te
Ta NA ig
4

BA

THE PHILIPPINE

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES

VoL. XIII SEPTEMBER, 1918 No. 5

PHILIPPINE ECONOMIC-PLANT DISEASES

By OTto A. REINKING
(From the College of Agriculture, Los Bajos)

(Concluded.)

LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM MILL. TOMATO
BACTERIAL WILT: BACILLUS SOLANACEARUM ERW. SMITH

This bacterial wilt may be the limiting factor in the produc-
tion of tomatoes. It is impossible to grow tomatoes in soil
that is thoroughly infected with the organism.

Symptoms.—The first evi-
dence of disease is a wilting of
the plant. Later the plant
shrivels; it turns yellowish and
then brown to black. A dis-
coloration of the vascular bun-
dles is observed in cross section.

Causal organism.—Microspic
examination shows the xylem
tubes of vascular bundles to be
entirely clogged with bacteria,
thus stopping the flow of water
and causing the wilt (fig. 21).
In advanced stages the organism
may invade the parenchyma.

Control.—It is practically im-
possible to control the disease
in heavily infected soil. Care
should be taken to keep the

z al 2 Fic. 21. Bacillus solanacearum Erw.
disease-producing organism out Smith. Cross section of tomato
of noninfected soil by planting stem, showing -ylemi tubes com-

pletely filled with bacteria (x
only healthy plants produced 350).

156257 217

218 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

from seeds of healthy plants. Seedlings should be grown in
sterilized soil. Injuring of plants should be avoided during
transplanting. All diseased plants should be pulled up and
burned. When once the soil becomes infected, a 5-year crop
rotation in which no solanaceous plants are grown will have to
be practiced. Insects attacking tomatoes undoubtedly are fac-
tors in the spread of the disease, so the control of these would
be beneficial. The production of disease-enduring varieties
would possibly be a means of avoiding the disease.

DAMPING OFF: RHIZOCTONIA AND PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM HESSE

Symptoms.—Damping off of seedlings is common with plants
grown in unsterilized soil. This is true of all vegetable seed-
lings. Plants are attacked just at the surface of the ground.
The stem at first is browned, later it shrivels, and then it be-
comes black. Diseased plants fall over.

Causal organism.—A Rhizoctonia and a fungus similar to
Pythium debaryanum Hesse are associated with the disease,
invading the stem and causing shrinking and death.

Control.Seedlings should be grown in sterilized soil.

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—Plants are frequently, during the cold drier sea-
son in December, January, and February, entirely covered with
a white powdery mildew. The disease may be very severe,
causing first the browning and death of the lower, older leaves
and finally the death of the plant. The production of fruit is
inhibited.

Causal organism.—The powdery mass is made up of typical
conidia and conidiophores of species belonging to the family
Erysiphaceae. The mycelium is superficial and only penetrates
into the plant by means of haustoria. In no case has the as-
cigerous stage been observed. This is true with all powdery
mildews studied on economic plants, and it seems to be a general
observation throughout the tropics that only the conidial stage
is usually produced.

Control.—Dusting with sulphur or spraying with any standard
fungicide will control the disease.

MANGIFERA INDICA LINN. MANGO
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA MANGIFERAE KOORDERS

Symptoms.—This is a common leaf spot, characteristic of the
Cercospora type. It is often abundant and does some damage.

xmas Reimking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 219

LEAF SPOT: LEPTOTHYRIUM CIRCUMSCISSUM SYDOW

Symptoms.—A leaf spot that is not abundant, but may de-
_stroy leaves by attacking the whole leaf surface.

LEAF SPOT: PHYLLACHORA

Symptoms.—Shiny black stromatic masses may be produced
on leaves. Little damage is done.

Other leaf fungi are Meliola mangiferae Earle, which produces
a superficial growth on the leaves; and Pestalozzia funera Desm.
and P. pauciseta Sace., which are found on weakened leaves.

Endoxyla mangiferae Henn. has been found on dead limbs.

MANIHOT DICHOTOMA ULE. CEARA RUBBER
LEAF SPOT: PHYLLOSTICTA MANIHOTICOLA SYDOW

Symptoms.—A common and sometimes severe leaf spot found
upon the leaves of Ceara rubber trees. Minute black specks
are produced in the center of the gray spots.

MANIHOT UTILISSIMA POHL, CASSAVA, CAMOTING CAHOY
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA MANIHOTIS P. HENNINGS

Symptoms.—Leaf spotting of the cassava is present, but not
abundant enough to cause any great damage. Diseased spots
are irregularly circular and brown. Cercospora henningsit
Allesch. also appears in Philippine literature as occurring on
cassava.

Other fungi found on dead and dying branches are Diplodia
manihoti Sacc., Guignardia manthoti Sacc., Guignardia manihoti
Sace. var. diminuta Sacc., Colletotrichum lussoniense Sacc., and
Steirochaete lussoniensis Sacc. Phoma herbarum Westd. is
found on dead leaves. ~

MORUS ALBA LINN. MULBERRY
POWDERY MILDEW: PHYLLACTINIA SUFFULTA (REBENT.) SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A more or less common disease, producing a white
powder on the under surface of leaves. Little damage is done.
RUST: KUEHNEOLA FICI (CAST.) BUTLER VAR. MORICOLA P. HENNINGS

Symptoms.—This rather common fungus of many of the
Moraceae produces the characteristic, raised brownish sori and
rusty powder of spores on the under surface of leaves, as de-
scribed for the rust of fig (Plate XIV, fig. 3).

TWIG FUNGI

Dead and dying twigs yield a variety of fungi, among them
being the following: Traversoa dothiorelloides Sacc. et Syd.,

290 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Botryodiplodia anceps Sace. et Syd., Valsaria insitiva (de Not.)
Ces. et de Not., Diplodia mori West.

MUCUNA DEERINGIANA MERR. (STIZOLOBIUM DEERINGIANA BORT.)
VELVET BEAN

The velvet bean may have its leaves attacked by Cercospora
stizolobu Syd. and by a rust, Uromyces mucunae Rabh.

MUSA SAPIENTUM LINN. BANANA
BACTERIAL STEM ROT

Symptoms.—A stem rot occurs on weakened bananas. The
disease is not very serious and probably is due to bacteria.
None of the true bud rots have been yet observed in a destructive
form on banana.

FRUIT BLAST

Symptoms.—A blasting of the young fruit occurs frequently,
but is undoubtedly due to causes other than fungi. A fungus,
Diplodia crebra Sacc., has been found associated with the
diseased fruits.

LEAF SPOT: MACROPHOMA MUSAE (CKE.) BERLESE ET VOGLINO

Symptoms.—Older leaves with lowered vitality are frequently
severely attacked by this fungus. Leaves whipped by wind are
more subject to attack. The disease is characterized by the
formation of blackish to brownish stripes extending from the
midrib to the edges. The surface of diseased leaves is rough-
ened, due to the numerous thickly produced black spore-bearing
bodies of the fungus. These pycnidia are rather large and are
produced in enormous numbers. They are frequently com-
pacted, forming circular, raised blackish spots. Since only the
older leaves, with lowered vitality, are attacked, the disease is
not a serious one.

Causal organism.—Within the pycnidia are produced large,
oval, hyaline, one-celled spores containing numerous oil droplets.

Control.—Burning of infected fallen leaves is advised.

Another fungus, Sporodesmium bakeri Syd., may be found
associated with the Macrophoma leaf spot. It is, however, of
little importance. Plicaria bananincola Rehm. is found on dead
plants.

LEAF SPOT: MYCOSPHAERELLA MUSAE SPEGAZZINI

Symptoms.—A common leaf spot found in almost all planta-

tions. The disease is not destructive and consequently is of
little importance. It is characterized by the formation of rather

xur,a,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 221

definite spots, usually somewhat elongated, from 5 millimeters
to 2.5 centimeters in length (Plate XI, fig. 2). Spots may have
a grayish center surrounded by a black ring, or they may be
entirely blackened with a darker border. In the center of the
grayish portion are minute black specks, the perithecia. Spots
may coalesce and, if the leaf be badly infected, a general brown-
ing may occur.

Causal organism.—tThe ,perithecia are produced under the
epidermis, are brown with definite wall markings, and have
ostiola. Within are produced the asci, containing typically
eight, hyaline, two-celled spores similar to those produced by
Mycosphaerella on papaya.

Control.—All fallen leaves should be collected and burned.

MUSA TEXTILIS NEE. ABACA
BACTERIAL HEART ROT

Symptoms.—The disease is characterized by the rotting of
the central group of rolled young leaves. Rot starts usually
at the tip and advances downward until the entire young central
portion of the plant is attacked. The diseased portion is at
first yellowed, then turns black, and rots. A slight odor may
accompany the rot. Frequently the central group of diseased
leaves near the tip is pushed upward in a folded mass. In early
stages the disease is confined to the young central heart and
does not penetrate into the surrounding older sheaths. In
advanced stages the entire central portion becomes diseased and
the plant dies (Plate XI, fig.
7). The disease is most severe
in thick plantings where there
is a high humidity and a lack of
aération. It may also be severe
in excessively damp _ locations.
From these seats of infection
the disease may spread to sur-
rounding plants. A large
amount of destruction is done in
infected areas.

BS an. : - 5
Causal organism.—M 1CYO-_ Fic. 22. Section through diseased abaca

scopic examination shows only leaf, in heart/of plant, ‘showing
: mass of bacteria in tissue (X
the presence of bacteria. They 330).

advance through the plant tissue

by mass action (fig. 22). Isolations from diseased stems have
produced pure cultures of bacteria. The bacteria, when inocu-
lated into healthy plants, produce the typical disease. The study

223. The Philippine Journal of Science: 1918

of the causal organism is still in progress, but has not advanced
to a stage where a definite name can be given.

Control.—Abaca should be planted 3 meters apart each way.
Plantings in excessively damp, poorly aérated pockets should be
avoided. All diseased plants should be cut and destroyed by
burning. Care should be taken that the cuts are made well
below the advanced portion of the disease. Knives used for
cutting should be sterilized after each cut by wiping off with
a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 to 1,000.

LEAF SPOT: MACROPHOMA MUSAE (CKE.) BERL. ET VOGLINO

Symptoms.—This fungus causes a spotting of the leaf similar
to that discussed under banana.

LEAF SPOT: MYCOSPHAERELLA MUSAE SPEGAZZINI

Symptoms.—Another leaf spot is found on abaca, being similar
to that produced by Mycosphaerella musae Speg. on the banana.
Spots may be definite and circular, or they may be irregular.
The center of each spot is grayish and is bordered by a dark
ring. The disease is not serious and causes little damage.

NICOTIANA TABACUM LINN. TOBACCO
BACTERIAL BLIGHT

Symptoms.—A bacterial leaf spot has been observed during
the rainy season. Lower leaves are severely attacked. The
disease has been evident only during exceptionally moist weather.
Spots are irregularly circular, from 5 millimeters to 3 centi-
meters in diameter, have brownish gray centers, with watery
parchmentlike borders, 3 to 6 millimeters wide. Concentric
rings of light and darker brown may be produced in the spots.
Smaller spots seem to be limited by the larger veins. Larger
spots run together, often covering the entire leaf. In the latter
case the leaf is shrunken, somewhat curled, dried up like parch-
ment, and opaque.

Causal organism.—Isolation experiments indicate that this
disease is due to bacteria. Cultural and inoculation studies have
not progressed sufficiently to permit the assigning of a name.

Control.—Plants should not be set too thickly, thus allowing
for plenty of air.

BACTERIAL WILT: BACILLUS SOLANACEARUM ERW. SMITH

Symptoms.—Tobacco may be badly infected with this common
bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants (Plate XII, fig. 1). Plants

xmr,4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 9923

15 centimeters to 1 meter in height are visibly affected. Wilting
is the first indication of disease; later a brown stripe is produced,
usually from the petioles and extending down the stem. A slight
shrinkage in the brown-striped portion may take place. Dis-
eased plants die (Plate XII, fig. 2).

No serious epidemics in tobacco plantations have been re-
ported; however, they may occur at any time, unless the organ-
ism be kept in check.

Causal organism.—The organism is the same as that causing
wilts of all solanaceous plants. The bacteria gain entrance into
the plant chiefly through mechanical and insect injuries. Nema-
tode root galls are frequently found on wilted plants. The bac-
teria clog up the xylem tubes, stopping the flow of water and
causing the wilt. In later stages of infection the parenchyma
may be invaded.

Control.—lIt is practically impossible to control the disease in
heavily infected soil. The organism should be kept out of new
soil by planting only healthy plants produced from seeds of
healthy plants. Soil should be sterilized when used for seedlings
grown in flats. During transplanting care should be taken to
avoid injury of the roots of young plants. Insect enemies and
nematodes should be held in check. All diseased plants should
be burned. If the soil be heavily infected with bacteria, a five-
year system of crop rotation, in which no tomatoes, potatoes,
eggplants, pepper, or other solanaceous plants are grown, should
be practiced. The production of disease-resisting or enduring
plants would hold the disease in check.

CHLOROSIS

Symptoms.—A chlorotic condition or yellowing of plants is
frequently found, but this is not considered a serious affection.

CURING AND FERMENTING TROUBLES: LEAF SPOTTING

Symptoms.—During fermenting of the leaves, leaf spotting
frequently takes place. The spots are greenish and circular,
from 3 to 15 millimeters in diameter. Infected leaves cannot
be used as wrapper.

Causal organism.—Isolation experiments indicate that this
disease is due toa fungus. As yet no spores have been observed.
Mycelium is produced in abundance in the spots. The fungus
grows well in pure culture, producing a thick dark gray growth.

Control.—Infected leaves should be sorted out, so as to keep
the disease from spreading.

294 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

DAMPING OFF OF SEEDLINGS: RHIZOCTONIA, PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM HESSE,
PHYTOPHTHORA NICOTIANAE BREDA DE HAAN

Symptoms.—Tobacco seedlings are extremely susceptible to
damping off. All the plants in a given flat may be damped off.
The young tender plants are attacked just at the surface of the
ground. The stem shrinks and becomes rather watery, and the
seedlings fall over (Plate XIII, figs. 2 and 38).

Causal organism.—A study of

| the fungi causing this condition

revealed the presence of a Rhi-

zoctonia, usually associated with

Pythium debaryanum Hesse.

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda

de Haan has been also proved to

cause damping off of tobacco
(fig. 23).

Control.—All soil used for the
growth of seedlings should be
thoroughly sterilized by heating.
The seedlings should be grown
in well-aérated places, free from
excessive moisture, and should
be placed in the sun from time
to time.

Damping off is very general
and severe with flower and vege-
table seedlings. In the major-
ity of cases a Rhizoctonia was
found, and the latter was usually

associated with a fungus sim-

Bio, 28. Paatophihera micotinae Brete ilar to Pythium debaryanum

stem of tobacco, showing mye Hesse. A Sclerotiwm was also

Fam Denetrating throughout ‘he found to cause a damping off or

stem rot of coffee seedlings

and other plants. Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan and

a Fusarium also have been determined to cause damping off.
These troubles can be easily avoided by soil sterilization.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA NICOTIANAE ELLIS ET EVERHART

Symptoms.—The common “frog eye” of tobacco is found
generally in tobacco-growing regions. Serious and extensive
damage may be done to the lower leaves, especially where the
plants are crowded. The disease is characterized by the pro-
duction of irregularly circular spots, which are from 1 to 5

xur4,5 Reinking: Philipipne Economic-Plant Diseases 9925

millimeters in diameter. The center of each spot is ashen gray
and is bordered with a brown ring (Plate XII, fig. 3). In the
ashen gray portion of older spots is a blackish dust.

Causal organism.—The black-
ish dust is made up of conidio-
phores and conidia. The coni-
diophores are produced in groups
from stomata and are light brown
and septate. They may ger-
minate under suitable conditions,
producing hyaline germ tubes
that infect the plant. The coni-
dia are typical Cercospora coni-
dia. They are hyaline, much
elongated, thick at one end,
tapering to the other. Spores
frequently contain as many as:
fifteen cells (fig. 24). Germi-

Fic. 24. Cercospora nicotianae Ell. et Ev.

nation usually takes place by the a, group of conidiophores, two
production of from two to four Seg alo acum aS

40); b, germinating conidia
germ tubes from the same (x 340).

number of cells.

Control.—Badly diseased lower leaves should be collected and
burned or used for a low-grade tobacco. Diseased leaves should
not be left in the soil. Open planting should be practiced where
possible. Crop rotation is effective in checking the disease.

ROOT GALLS: NEMATODES, HETERODERA RADICICOLA GREEF ET MULLER

Symptoms.—Root galls are frequently produced by nematodes;
however, no serious damage has been reported. The galls may
be formed on the smaller or larger roots and sometimes they
are produced in abundance. Plants severely attacked are stunted
or may be killed (Plate XII, fig. 4). The nematodes seem to
make way for the entrance of the bacteria, causing the tobacco
wilt.

Control_—Rotation of crops will help to keep the organism at
a minimum.

ORYZA SATIVA LINN. RICE

BACTERIAL LEAF STRIPE

Symptoms.—A striping of the leaves of certain varieties of
upland rice may be serious. In the young stages the stripes
are from 0.5 to 1 millimeter wide and from 3 to 5 millimeters
long, run lengthwise, and have a watery, dark green, translu-
cent appearance. In this stage the disease is usually confined

296 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

to the portion between the larger veins. These spots enlarge
lengthwise and may advance over the larger veins producing
more or less of a blotch. Older diseased portions may be 4 milli-
meters wide and from 2 to 20 centimeters long. These stripes
still have a watery appearance, but change to a light brown.
Amber-colored droplets of bacteria ooze from these diseased
portions. As the leaf dries out these droplets of bacteria harden
producing small roundish amber-colored beads. The disease
appears to be most prevalent on succulent plants.

Causal organism.—Microscopic examination and cultures in-
dicate that the disease is due to bacteria. Under the micro-
scope, bacteria can be observed to stream from the vascular
bundles. A detailed study is now in progress.

Control.—No control can be given until the disease has gare
carefully studied.

FALSE SMUT OR LUMP SMUT: USTILAGINOIDEA VIRENS (CKE.) TAKAHASHI

Symptoms.—This conspicuous disease is found in practically
all rice-growing sections. Only a few grains in each panicle
are attacked. Diseased grains are characterized by the pro-
duction of large masses of sclerotia. Infected grains are en-
larged, oval to spherical, from 2 to 6 millimeters in shortest
diameter. The enlargement is due to the production of a sclero-
tial mass, which in its early stages has a bright yellow covering,
but later is coated with a dark green powder (Plate VIII, fig. 2).
During damp weather the dis-
ease may be severe and seems to
be more prevalent on certain
varieties of rice.

Causal organism.—This dark
green powder is composed of
spores. No perithecia or asco-
spores have been observed in the
sclerotial mass. The spores are
small and brown and covered
with short stout spines or echinu-
lations. Germination takes
Fic. 25. Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Tak. place by the production of a

See a eens germ tube with an enlarged
knoblike end (fig. 25).

Control.—The disease may become epidemic, due to the ac-
cumulation of sclerotial bodies that are allowed to fall upon
the ground. All diseased heads should be collected and burned.
Crop rotation should be practiced.

xur,4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 2

GLUME SPOT: PHYLLOSTICTA GLUMARUM SACCARDO

Symptoms.—Dead and weakened plants are subject to the
attacks of numerous fungi. Minute black specks on the glumes
are the pycnidia of this fungus. The fungus apparently attacks
the plant as a saprophyte and causes little damage.

Other fungi found on dead glumes are Leptosphaeria (Leptos-
phaerella) oryzina Sacc., Calonectria perpusilla Sacc., Haplogra-
phium chlorocephalum (Fres.) Grove, Clasterosporium puncti-
forme Sacc., Myrothecium oryzae Sacc., Helminthosporium, and
Septoria miyakei Sace. What relation, if any, these fungi have
to disease production has not been determined.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—Hlongated brownish spots are frequently pro-
duced on the leaves (Plate VIII, fig. 5). These spots,, when
older, have ashen-gray centers and yield Cercospora spores.
Little injury is caused.

LEAF. SPOT: PHYLLOSTICTA MIURAI MIYAKE

Symptoms.—Dead and weakened leaves are frequently spotted
with the minute black pycnidia of this fungus. The fungus
appears to be saprophytic and consequently does little damage.

STEM ROT: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—The common soil Rhizoctonia may attack the base
and outer older leaf sheaths of upland rice plants. Under cer-
tain conditions, such as in thickly planted fields during damp hot
weather, severe injury may be produced. Severely attacked
plants may have the entire outer group of leaves killed. The
fungus mycelium can be seen on the dead leaves, which are
frequently cemeted together by the mycelial strands. Plants
attacked in this manner are stunted and bunchy due to the
abnormal production of stools. Heads produced by such plants
are frequently sterile. In less severe attacks spots are produced
on the outer older leaf sheaths. These spots are from 1 to 2
centimeters long by 1 centimeter wide. Often they run together
producing large blotches. Spots have straw-colored centers
with wide borders of dark brown.
Causal organism.—The organism producing this disease is

similar to that described under blight of soy beans and that
causing stem rots and damping off. No spores have been ob-
served. The mycelium spreads over and through the leaves and
in advanced stages produces brown sclerotial bodies on diseased
parts.

228 _ The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Control.—Fields should not be planted too thickly, so as to
allow for plenty of aération.

STEM ROT: SCLEROTIUM

Symptoms.—Rice seedlings under certain conditions in the
seed beds may be attacked by a Sclerotiwm. When there is a
lack of water in seed beds, the disease appears to be at its worst.
The attack takes place near the ground on leaf sheath and stem.
Affected seedlings at first are yellowed and stunted, later they
turn brown and die. On the lower portions of attacked plants
usually a coarse dirty white mycelium is produced with round-
ish, brown, smooth sclerotial bodies. The stems of older plants
may be attacked, resulting in the production of sterile heads.

Causal organism.—The organism causing this trouble is a
common Sclerotium discussed before as producing stem rots
and damping off of various seedlings. It attacks the lower
portions of the plants just above the ground. The fungus is
more severe during damp weather and in seed beds that are
only partially flooded. It is also found within the stems of older
plants.

Control.—Seed beds should be kept flooded. If the disease
is severe, all soil used for the growth of seedlings should be
sterilized. Fields should not be planted too thickly.

STRAIGHT, OR STERILE, HEAD

Symptoms.—Certain varieties of rice are severely attacked
by a disease of the panicle. From a half to the entire head
may be affected. The kernels shrivel, and from a distance the
heads can be seen to stand straight. The cause of this sterile
condition, of from 50 to 100 per cent of the grains, has not been
determined. It appears to be due to a lack of vigor in the plants.
The lemma and palet of infected grains are discolored.

Causal organism.—Bacteria and fungi are associated with
diseased grains. Oospora oryzetorum Sacc. is frequently found
on diseased heads. Stem borers are usually associated with dis-
eased plants. Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium attacking the base of
stems often cause straight or sterile head. Certain varieties
appear to be immune.

Control.—No definite control can be given.

Other fungi found on rice are Entyloma oryzae Syd., on weak-
ened leaves; and on rotting straw are found the following:
Ophiobolus oryzinus Sacc., Spegazzinia ornata Sacc., Sordaria
oryzeti Sacc., and Coniosporium oryzinum Sacc.

xur4a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 229

PACHYRRHIZUS EROSUS (LINN.) URB. (PACHYRRHIZUS ANGULATUS
RICH.). SINCAMAS

RUST: PHAKOSPORA PACHYRHIZI SYDOW

Symptoms.—The under surface of the leaves is covered with
small, raised brown rust sori. Frequently a brownish white
dust of spores is produced over the leaf surface. The disease
may be severe, causing defoliation.

PHASEOLUS SPP. BEANS
BACTERIA BLIGHT: PSEUDOMONAS PHASEOLI ERW. SMITH

‘Symptoms.—This well-known disease is common and destruc-
tive on Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. and on Phaseolus lunatus Linn.
Leaves, stems, and pods are attacked. Characteristic, irregular
brownish spots with water-soaked edges are produced on the
leaves. These spots may spread rapidly, killing the entire leaf.
During dry weather spots become papery and brittle. The or-
ganism attacks pods, forming a characteristic watery spot, and
also works down into the seed, thus infecting the latter. Entire
fields of beans, especially those not acclimated, may be destroyed
(Plate XIV, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—The bacteria causing this disease gain en-
trance primarily through injuries. They are found in great
abundance in the leaf veins, from which they can be seen to
exude in large numbers when the leaf is sectioned and examined
under the microscope.

Control_—_The disease is spread by the use of diseased seed.
Since it is difficult to detect all cases of seed infection, only seed
collected from healthy pods should be planted. Crop rotation
should be practiced in severe cases of infection.

BLIGHT: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—Beans may be severely affected with a blight dis-
cussed under soy beans. Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. and Doli-
chos uniflorus Lam. are especially susceptible when planted too
thickly and allowed to spread over the ground. Thin planting
and training vines to poles, when possible, will reduce the disease
attacks.

BLIGHT: SCLEROTIUM

Symptoms.—A dense white growth of mycelium may be pro-
duced on the stems of plants. As the mycelium spreads to the
leaves, the latter are killed, after showing the same character-
istic symptoms as discussed under the Fhizoctonia blight.

230) The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Round, smooth brown sclerotial bodies may be produced on dead
plants.

Causal organism.—The causal organism is a common soil fun-
gus attacking a large number of plants and has been discussed
under citrus and coffee.

Control.—The disease is not generally severe. Crop rotation
should be practiced. In infected fields, planting should be timed
so as to avoid the excessive rainy season.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA LUSSONIENSIS SACCARDO

Symptoms.—This common spot is widely distributed on field, |

garden, and Lima beans. Spots are irregularly roundish, usually

3 millimeters to 1.5 centimeters

in diameter. The smaller spots

\ are reddish brown; larger spots

have ashen gray centers bor-

dered with reddish brown rings.

Spots may run together, thereby

covering large portions of the

leaf surface.

Causal organism.—Spores and

conidiophores are of the char-

ea, acteristic Cercospora type. The

Fie Cote en tn conidia, ate _slonsater aime

a, group of conidiophores (x hyaline; conidiophores are in

egg Tian dai conidia ~roups and brownish (fig. 26).

Control.—The disease is mod-

erately destructive, but not enough so to warrant any definite
control except general sanitation and crop rotation.

LEAF SPOT: PHYLLACHORA PHASEOLINA SYDOW

Symptoms.—Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. is frequently attacked
by this fungus. The disease is characterized by the production
of black spots scattered over the leaf surface. Spots are black,
bordered with a straw-colored ring, roundish, sometimes elong-
ated, raised, extending through the leaf to both surfaces, and
made up of hard, shiny, stromatic masses of fungus mycelium.

Causal organism.—The stromata are roundish bodies extend-
ing through the leaf. Within the stromata are the perithecia,
in which are produced the asci and ascospores. Each stromatic
mass usually has one, or sometimes two, perithecia.

Control.—The disease is not serious on cultivated varieties.
Crop rotation should be practiced to prevent epidemics.

xm,a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 931

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—A powdery mildew may be produced on the sur-
face of leaves of Phaseolus mungo Linn. Little damage is done.
Causal organism.—Conidia and conidiophores of the Erysi-
phaceae type are produced. No perfect stage has been observed.
Control.—Rotation of crops.

RUST: UROMYCES APPENDICULATUS (PERS.) LINK

Symptoms.—This rust is commonly found on Phaseolus mungo
Linn. Minute, slightly powdery, raised brownish pustules are
produced on the lower surface of the leaves. The disease is
not often serious, but may cause the loss of a considerable amount
of foliage.

Causal organism.—Brown uredospores and black teleutospores
are produced in the sori.

Control.—Crop rotation should be practiced.

SOOTY MOLD

Symptoms.—Frequently Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. as well
as other beans may be covered with a black mold. The fungus
is superficial and does little damage. It grows on the exudate
of aphids.

Causal organism.—The organism has not been identified.

Control.—No special control need be practiced, since the
disease is not serious.

Other fungi of more or less importance have been observed
on beans. On the ripened pods of Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.
are found Diplodia phaseolina Sacc. and Asteroma phaseolt Brun.
Phaseolus lunatus Linn. may be attacked just at the time of
maturity by two fungi—Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Lk.
and Diplodia phaseolina Sacc.

PIPER BETLE LINN. ICMO, BETEL PEPPER

On dead leaves of Piper betle Linn. may be found Oospora
perpusilla Sacc.
PISUM SATIVUM LINN. PEA

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—The powdery mildew may be very destructive,
covering leaves, stems, and fruit. It is similar to that discussed
under tomato.

Causal organism.—As yet no perfect stage of the fungus has
been observed. Conidia and conidiophores are produced in
abundance as on tomato.

232 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Control.—Dusting with sulphur or the use of any standard
fungicide is recommended.

PSOPHOCARPUS TETRAGONOLOBUS DC. WINGED BEAN, CALAMISMIS
ORANGE GALLS: WORONINELLA PSOPHOCARPI RACIBORSKI

Symptoms.—The leaves, stems, and pods are seriously at-
tacked. Leaves may be entirely covered with the yellowish to
orange rustlike pustules. They are more abundant on the lower
surface, but are also found on the upper. Growth of the younger
leaves is retarded, and they may assume abnormal shapes or
become thickened. The characteristic, rustlike pustules are pro-
duced on the stems. The growth of stems may be entirely
stopped. They often become gnarled, twisted, and abnormally
enlarged. Large pods may be entirely covered with the yellow-
ish to orange pustules, making them undesirable for use.
Growth of smaller pods may be checked or they may grow
abnormally, producing malformed, unsalable pods (Plate XV,
fig. 2).

Causal organism.—A section through galls in the plant shows
the abnormal formation of the host tissue. In the center of the
galls is a cavity with the orange-
colored spores, sporangia (fig.
27). These sporangia may ger-
minate in one hour. The con-
tents break up into small proto-
plasmic masses, which issue from
an opening in the wall of the
sporangia as free-swimming
swarm spores. They are pear-
Shaped, rounded below and
pointed above, and 6 to 8 microns
long by 3 to 3.5 microns wide
See eerie ua, (ig. 21). ‘Two short flagellay b

showing production of os to 8 microns long, are fastened

rangia (X 80); b, sporangia 4 little below the middle of the

Re eae were swarm spore. After a time the
swarm spores come to rest and infect the host plant, producing
roundish protoplasmic bodies, which displace the host cell proto-
plasm. This protoplasmic mass contains an orange pigment. It
develops and grows in the infected region, finally dividing into
many cells. After a second division these cells produce a thick
yellow membrane. These bodies are the sporangia of the para-
site (fig. 27). They are usually roundish, 20 to 25 microns in

xuia,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 233

diameter, but may be irregular with corners, 16 microns wide
by 50 microns long.

Control._—In severe cases of infection spraying may be highly
desirable. Plants should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture at
the slightest indication of the disease. Spraying should be car-
ried on at intervals of a week. Crop rotation also should be
practiced. Badly diseased plants should be collected and burned.

RAPHANUS SATIVUS LINN. RADISH
BACTERIAL SOFT ROT: BACILLUS CAROTOVORUS JONES

Symptoms.—A bacterial rot of the root frequently occurs.
The rot starts while the radishes are still in the ground, and
in advanced cases the entire roots disintegrate into a soft mass.

Causal organism.—The rot is due to bacteria, being similar
to the root rots produced by Bacillus carotovorus Jones. Cul-
ture characters have not been worked out, so no definite identity
of the organism can be given.

Control.—Diseased carrots should not be allowed to disin-
tegrate in the field, but should be collected and burned. If the
field be infected with the bacteria, crop rotation will have to
be practiced. When carrots are stored, care should be taken
to avoid injuries. The surface of the root should be allowed
to dry in the sun, and storage should be in a well-ventilated
place.

SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM LINN. SUGAR CANE

BLIGHT: RHIZOCTONIA

Symptoms.—During excessively damp weather and in thick
plantings sugar cane may be attacked by a Rhizoctonia, which
kills the young leaves and eventually the entire plant. The in-
fected portions assume at first a watery appearance, then turn
brown, and fall over. Brown sclerotial bodies are produced
over the old infected parts (Plate XVI, fig. 1).

Causal organism.—The fungus spreads over the tender leaves
and penetrates and causes the death of the cells. No spores
have been observed; however, sclerotial bodies are formed in
abundance. Good growth is produced on potato agar. In young
cultures a rather coarse mycelium is produced, and in older
cultures the sclerotial bodies are formed. They are white
masses at first, but turn brown and hard when older.

Control.—Infected plants should be destroyed. Plantings
should not be too thick.

156257——2

234 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

LEAF SPOT: BAKEROPHOMA SACCHARI DIEDICKE

Symptoms.—This is a very common and widely spread spot,
affecting the physiological function of the plants and thereby
undoubtedly lowering the sugar content of the cane. The base
of the leaf blade and the upper portion of the sheath on each
side of the ligule are affected. Spots are confined on the lower
leaf blade chiefly to the midrib. They are elongated, parallel
with the margin, from 1 to 4 millimeters in length, and have
a minute whitish center bordered with red or often with black.
The whitish center is usually rounded and slightly raised, being
made up of the spore-bearing body. The spots are found on
both surfaces of the midrib of the leaf, being more abundant
on the upper surface, and a few may be found outside of the
midrib. Spots on the upper portion of the leaf sheath are

similar to those on the leaf blade and are found on both sur-

faces. As a rule, they do not spread to the lower portion of the
pycnidium is found in the center
of each spot. Within the pycni-

Fic. 28. Bakerophoma sacchari Diedicke.

F ance types of conidia ae (fig. 28).
special control. General sanitation methods will keep the disease
at a minimum.

sheath or far out on the blade (Plate XVI, fig. 4).
Causal organism.—An _ oval
dia are numerous small, elong-
: ated, hyaline, one-celled spores
1,000). Control.—The disease is not
serious enough to warrant any

_LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—A common leaf spotting, most injurious during
the rainy season, is caused by several species of this genus in
the Philippine Islands. Generally not a great deal of damage
is done to the cane. The vitality of plants is lowered, and the
green sugar-forming portion of the leaf is reduced, thereby
lowering the sugar content of the cane. Outer or older leaves
are most severely attacked, while the inner young leaves are
free from disease. Leaves infected by the common, Cercospora
are at first spotted with an irregularly circular yellowish spot.
On the lower surface of the spot is a light-colored gray to
brownish dust made up of conidia and conidiophores. Spots,
as they grow older, become spotted with deep red to purple, or
the center becomes deep red to purple surrounded with yellow.
In extreme cases spots run together, enlarge, forming irregular,
long deep red to purple blotches usually bordered with yellow.

xu,a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 935

and may cover a large portion of the leaf. On the under sur-
face of these spots is developed the light gray to brownish
dust, which contains the same
spores as found on the younger
spots (Plate XVI, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—The coni-
dia are produced in abundance
on the lower surface of the
leaves. Conidia are typically
elongated with tapering ends,
hyaline, and four- to five-celled
(fig. 29). The conidiophores
are produced in groups from the
stomata. They are rather ir-
regular, brownish, and septate.

Fic. 29. Cercospora. On Saccharum offi-

Control.—_The disease is not cinarum Linn. a, group of

“I conidiophores (X 320); 6, coni-
serious enough to warrant a Ae RAPER eS chem aaa
specific control. General sanita- 640).

tion and the growth of resistant

varieties are usually sufficient. The native cane is generally
attacked less than the Hawaiian cane. In severe cases of infec-
tion all infected leaves should be burned after harvest.

LEAF SPOT: PHYLLACHORA SACCHARI P. HENNINGS

Symptoms.—This is a rather uncommon and nondestructive
leaf spotting. The disease is characterized by the production
of a black stromatic mass extending through the leaf. Stromata
are sparingly scattered on the leaf surface. Phyllachora sac-
chari spontanet Syd. is found in greater abundance on the wild
sugar cane, Saccharum spontaneum Linn.

Other leaf spottings are present, do little or no damage, and
as yet have not been identified.

RIND DISEASE: MELANCONIUM SACCHARI MASSEE

Symptoms.—This stem disease is common in many fields.
It does most damage among plants that lack vigor, due to poor
cultural methods. In well-kept fields the disease is only slightly
in evidence, and little damage is done. Entire fields of weakened
cane may be killed by the fungus. Diseased canes at first are
prematurely yellowed and later the leaves dry, followed by
the death of the plant. In the later stages tips of infected
shoots shrivel. Finally the entire cane shrivels and turns brown
to black. During the early stages no fruiting bodies have been

236 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

observed, but in later stages at first minute, raised black specks
are produced under the surface at the nodes and internodes.
These spots then burst open, exposing a mass of black spores.
Under favorable conditions the ruptured black spots produce
curved, mucilaginous, threadlike masses of spores, from 1 to 4
millimeters in length. At first the interior of diseased canes
may be reddened; later it is browned.

Frequently only injured tips of stalks become infected. These
diseased tips shrivel up and produce the characteristic spore
formation. Secondary shoots often arise below the diseased
tip, producing a much-branched cane (Plate XVII, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—The hair-
like strands are made up of
thousands of one-celled, elong-
ated olivaceous spores (fig. 30).
No ascigerous stage has been
observed.

Control—The chief control
consists in proper cultural meth-
ods, which will produce a
Fic, 30. Melanconium sacchari Massee. a, healthy vigorously growing

re en te ae cane that will withstand disease.

conidia (X 900). ’ As far as possible both mecha-

nical and insect injuries should

be avoided. Only cuttings from healthy plants should be used.

In severe cases of infection the cuttings should be disinfected

by dipping in Bordeaux mixture before planting. All diseased

cane should be collected and burned, since the fungus lives

readily as a saprophyte and produces millions of spores to re-
infect the newly planted cane.

ROOT DISEASE: DICTYOPHORA PHALLOIDEA DESVAUX

Symptoms.—Stinkhorns have been observed growing at the
base of plants or on the roots. This fungus is not common
and is chiefly found during the rainy season. Little damage
is done.

ROOT DISEASE: MARASMIUS

Symptoms.—A species of the fungus Marasmius has been
observed growing from the roots near the base of plants and
also as a saprophyte on the lower portion of stems. The disease
is more abundant during the rainy season. Little damage is
done. Small whitish spore-bearing bodies of the family Agari-
caceae are produced on infected portions.

xmr,4,56 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 237

ROOT GALLS: NEMATODES: HETERODERA RADICICOLA GREEF ET MULLER

Symptoms.—Root galls formed by nematodes are found, but
little damage has been reported. The galls produced are similar
to those discussed under tobacco.

ROOT PARASITE: AEGINETIA INDICA LINNAEUS

> Symptoms.—This flowering plant, one of the broom rapes,
may cause destruction of cane. The plant is a root parasite,
sapping the vitality of the sugar cane.

RUST: PUCCINIA KUEHNII (KRUEG.) BUTLER [UREDO KUEHNII (KRUEG.)
WAKK. ET WENT. |

Symptoms.—This rust may be abundant on the leaves of sugar
cane and cause damage by lowering the vitality of the plants.
Sori are produced in greatest numbers at the base of the leaf
blade near the ligule, but sori may be produced on any part
of the leaf blade and on either
side. Characteristic bursted,
slender, brownish rust pustules
from 2 to 5 millimeters in length
are produced (Plate XVI, fig. 3).

Causal organism.—The spores
are produced in groups under-
neath the epidermis, which later
bursts, due to the growth of
spores. The uredospores are
produced in abundance. They
are large, more or less ovate, oe :
yellowish and with numerous Fic. 31, Puccinia kuehnii (Krueg.) Butl.

thick spines. Germination takes a, uredospores (X 320); b,
A 3 germinating uredospores (X
place readily in water over- 320).

night (fig. 31).
Control.—General sanitation and cultural methods will keep
this disease at a minimum.

SEREH DISEASE

Symptoms.—This serious cane disease seems to have made
its appearance in the Philippines, and great care should be
exercised that it does not spread. The symptoms vary according
to the stage of the disease, and have been fully described in Java;
the same characters are present in the Philippines.

Plants slightly attacked show little or no external disease
characters. In some cases the internodes at the top of the plants
are somewhat shortened. The internal characteristics are a

238 The Philippine Journal of Science be A mons

reddening of the fibrovascular bundles that arise from the leaf
sheaths at the nodes and a gumming of these bundles, which
can be observed only under the microscope. The reddening may
extend for some distance down the cane.

A medium attack of the disease is characterized by a produc-
tion of many buds and sprouts from the upright stems. Such
plants have a more or less bushy appearance, due to the short-
ened internodes and the abnormal production of shoots. Dis-
eased stems are somewhat shorter than the normal ones.
Frequently a mass of adventitious roots is developed from the
nodes under the leaf sheaths.

The worst stage of the disease is the most characteristic. Few
or no upright stems are produced in a field that is entirely
diseased. Other fields may have diseased plants scattered here
and there. This condition is due to the shortening of the in-
ternodes and a consequent lack of production of upright stems.
Leaves arising from these close nodes are necessarily produced
in a bunch and such a plant has the appearance of a fan. Shoots
also may arise from these diseased and stunted plants, which
make them appear like a bunchy grass. A grass in Java, Andro-
pogon schoenanthus Linn., called “‘sereh” is similar in appearance
to these diseased canes, consequently the name “sereh” has been
used for diseased cane. Severely diseased plants also may have
an abundance of adventitious roots produced from the nodes
under the leaf sheaths.

In the Philippines the disease has been observed to be more
abundant in ratoon fields. It is often spread by cuttings. Cut-
tings of a plant showing only the first symptoms of the disease
will produce plants that exhibit the disease in its medium stage.
Cuttings from plants with medium attacks produce plants that
show the severe case of disease. The disease may in this way
become more and more severe.

Causal organism.—Investigation of this trouble has just been
started in the Philippines. As yet no organism has been as-
sociated with the disease in other countries. In some cases it
appears that the disease is infectious, for it seems to spread.
It may be spread by planting cuttings from diseased plants, but
it has not been shown that a healthy plant can contract the
disease from a diseased plant. In Java the disease is assigned
to a deterioration of the cane.

Control.—No cane should be imported from countries in which
the disease exists. Care should be taken that the disease is
not spread from infected plantations to noninfected ones. Cut-

xua,s5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 239

tings should be made only from healthy canes. All diseased
plants should be dug up and burned. After the cane has been
cut in diseased fields, these fields should be burned over. In se-
verely infested sections of Java, healthy cuttings are obtained
for plantings from fields that have been planted at an elevation
of 610 meters. Conditions at this elevation are such that per-
fectly healthy and vigorous canes are produced. At the age
of 6 months such canes are used for cuttings. This is done to
avoid all possibilities of deterioration of the cane. It does not
appear that such methods are necessary as yet for plantations
in the Philippines. Sanitation measures, such as burning over
diseased fields after digging up and burning all diseased plants
along with the strict selection of cuttings from healthy, vigorous
plants, ought to hold the disease in check.

The growth of resistant varieties will also aid in controlling
the disease.

SMUT: USTILAGO SACCHARI RABENHORST

Symptoms.—This is a smut that seems to be epidemic in its
attacks. During seasons favorable to its growth much damage
has been done. The disease does only slight damage in
well-kept plantations. The tips of young shoots are more
usually attacked. They develop into long, slender, curved,
shrunken, dusty, blackened
masses. These shoots are often
from 30 to 60 centimeters in
length and are covered with
spores. The diseased portion
may extend downward in the
shoot inside the mass of leaf
sheaths (Plate XVII, fig. 1).

The disease also occurs, often”
in abundance, on the wild sugar
cane, Saccharum spontaneum

Linn. Fic. 32. Ustilago sacchari Rabh. a, spores

Causal organism.—Spores are (840) 5 8, germinating spores

2 fe A with promycelia (X 340); e¢,
single-celled, spherical, smooth, sporidia (X 340).

and dark brown. They ger-
minate readily in water overnight, producing a hyaline promy-
celium with elongate hyaline sporidia. The promycelium is
frequently branched (fig. 32).

Control.—Strict sanitation methods consisting in the destruc-
tion, by burning, of all infected portions should be practiced.
All diseased material found on wild sugar cane also should be

2A0 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

destroyed, for the disease spreads from wild to cultivated cane.
Only cuttings from healthy plants should be used. In severe
cases of infection crop rotation will have to be practiced.

SOOTY MOLD: MELIOLA ARUNDINIS PATOUILLARD

Symptoms.—Leaves and even whole plants of sugar cane may
be frequently covered with a superficial black mold. This mold
is produced on the sugary excretion produced by aphids and
mealy bugs. The fungus is not parasitic, but causes some
damage by shading the chlorophyll of the leaves, thereby reduc-
ing their full working capacity.

Causal organism.—The mycelium is dark brown with charac-
teristic hyphopodia. The perithecia are produced among the
mycelial strands, and within the perithecia are globular, hyaline
asci with brown septate ascospores.

Control.—The control of aphids and mealy bugs will entirely
check this disease.

STEM ROT: BACTERIAL

Symptoms.—Young weakened cane may rot from the tip of
the stem downward. The disease is only present in poorly kept
plantings and seems to be most prevalent on the ratoon cane.
It appears to be due to bacteria.

Other fungi found on weakened and dead leaves are Coniospo-
rium vinosum (B. et C.) Sace., Coniosporium extremorum Syd.
Apiospora camptospora Penz. et Sacc., Melanconium lineo-
latum Sacc. and Haplosporella melanconioides Sacc., forma, are
found on dead stalks of cultivated cane. Haplosporella melan-
conioides Sacc. is found on dead stalks of wild cane.

SESAMUM INDICUM LINN. SESAME, LINGA
LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA SESAMI A. ZIMMERMAN

Symptoms.—A common and destructive spot-producing fun-
gus, affecting leaf, petiole, stem, and capsules. Spots are scat-
tered over the leaf surface and are from 1 to 4 centimeters in
diameter. They are irregularly circular, and have gray centers,
bordered with brownish to purplish rings. Frequently older
spots may have concentric rings of purplish brown. Spots
often run together, until finally the entire leaf is covered with
a brownish blotch, with the gray-centered spots bordered with
purplish scattered through the brown. The spots on petiole and
stem are similar to those on the leaf, except. that they are
somewhat more elongated and slightly sunken. Spots on the
capsule are usually distinctly circular and are sunken and have
gray centers bordered with brown.

au14,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 241

Causal organism.—The blackish dust in the center of the
gray is made up of conidiophores and conidia. Conidiophores
are produced in groups; they are septate and light brown. The
conidia are typical Cercospora spores, hyaline, tapering, and
much elongated, often being ten-celled.

Control_—The disease may be controlled by ordinary crop

rotation.
POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—During the cool season of the year leaves may
be attacked by a powdery mildew. The upper, and sometimes
the lower, surface of the leaf presents the characteristic powdery
appearance.

Causal organism.—Conidiophores and conidia of the Erysipha-
ceae type are produced in abundance. No perithecia and asci
with ascospores have been observed.

Control.—The disease is seldom serious enough to warrant
any special control. In severe cases of infection, dusting with
sulphur or spraying with any standard fungicide will control
the fungus.

- Other fungi found on dead and dying stems are Phoma sesa-
mina Sacc., Gloeosporium macrophomoides Sacc., Vermicularia
sesamina Sacc., and Helminthosporium sesameum Sacc.

SOLANUM MELONGENA LINN. EGG PLANT
BACTERIAL WILT: BACILLUS SOLANACEARUM ERW,. SMITH

Symptoms.—This bacterial wilt is common on all solanaceous
plants in the Philippines. It is often the limiting factor in
the production of eggplants. The disease is similar to that
of tomato and is more fully described under that heading.

LEAF SPOT AND FRUIT ROT: GLOEOSPORIUM MELONGENAE SACCARDO

Symptoms.—This disease is found upon the leaf and fruit.
On the leaf the characteristic irregular spots with brownish
gray centers bordered with dark brown are formed (Plate XVIII,
fig. 1). Within the center of spots, in the brownish gray, are
produced numerous minute black specks, the fruiting bodies of
the fungus. Diseased fruits have large, irregular, sunken light
brown areas bordered with a darker brownish ring. Within
these sunken spots black specks are produced in large numbers.
Fruits may be entirely rotted, due to the attacks of the fungus
(Plate XVIII, fig. 3). The disease is most severe during the
rainy season.

242 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Causal organism.—The minute black specks produced in the
diseased parts are pycnidia. They are dark brown, spherical,
and contain a mass of one-celled, somewhat elongated, olivaceous
spores. In pure culture, at first, a growth of white mycelium
develops. Later this white mass changes into a dotted mass of
black pycnidia. Characteristic diseased lesions may be produced
by inoculation with a pure culture.

Control._The most important control consists in the destruc-
tion by burning of all the diseased leaves and fruit followed by
crop rotation. If severe cases of infection have been experi-
enced, more drastic control measures must be practiced. These
consist in the treatment of seed with formalin, 1 to 2 per cent
for fifteen minutes, dipping of seedlings in Bordeaux mixture
or a weak solution of copper sulphate before planting, and
finally by spraying with Bordeaux mixture at intervals of from
two weeks to one month.

LEAF SPOT: SARCINELLA RAIMUNDOI SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A leaf spot frequently found on dying leaves of
eggplant, but doing little damage. Small irregular blackish
spots are produced on the surface of dying leaves. Dzplodina
degenerans Diedicke and Phoma solanophila Oud. are found on
decaying fruit.

SOLANUM TUBEROSUM LINN. POTATO
BACTERIAL WILT: BACILLUS SOLANACEARUM ERW. SMITH

Symptoms.—The common bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants
is particularly severe on potatoes, often limiting their produc-
tion. The Irish potato is not acclimatized in this country except
in the higher altitudes; consequently in its weakened condition
it is subject to the attacks of soil bacteria.

Diseased plants first wilt and then fall over. In advanced
cases the lower portion of the stem may be discolored. The
stem end of diseased tubers, when sectioned, shows a blackened
ring in the vicinity of the vascular bundles just below the sur-
face. In advanced stages the tuber rots. In severe cases the
entire crop may be destroyed.

Causal organism.—The organism producing this disease is
the same as that attacking other solanaceous plants. The wilt-
ing is produced by the bacteria clogging up the vascular bundles.
The bacteria pass from the vascular system of the stem into

xm,a4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 243

the tubers, resulting in the production of the characteristic
blackened ring and the consequent rotting.

Control.—_tIn newly developed sections where potatoes can be
grown, the chief precaution to be taken is to keep the bacteria
out of the soil. Once the soil becomes heavily infected, it is
practically impossible to grow potatoes as a regular crop. Care-
ful seed selection will reduce the chances of their introduction.
Avoid using seed potatoes from fields or crops known to be
diseased. If the source of the seed be not known, all seed
potatoes should be carefully examined by cutting a slice from
the stem end. If a black ring be found just under the surface
or if a rotting have started, such potatoes should be discarded.
All wilted plants should be dug and burned as soon as discovered.
Insects attacking potatoes should be controlled, since they spread
the disease. In cases of severe infection, a crop rotation of
five years must be practiced. During this rotation no tomatoes,
eggplants, peppers, tobacco, or other solanaceous plant should
be grown. Diseased tubers should never be stored with the
healthy.

BLACKLEG, OR POTATO STEM ROT: BACILLUS PHYTOPHTHORUS APPEL

Symptoms.—This disease is probably present in the Philip-
pines. The characteristic symptoms of wilting and yellowing
of leaves, the blackened rotten stem, and the rotted tubers have
been frequently observed. It may be that this disease, as de-
scribed here, is the same as the bacterial wilt, only in a different
state of development.

Causal organism.—No work has been done with the organism.
' Control.—The control is similar to that discussed under bac-
terial wilt.

BLIGHT: PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS (MONT.) DE BARY

Symptoms.—This disease has been observed only in the
mountain provinces, where it was probably introduced on
seed potatoes. Black blotches are produced on the’ leaves.
These spots may have a downy fungus mass growing on the
under surface. Diseased stems turn black and rot. A soft
ill-smelling rot may be produced in the tubers.

Causal organism.—The downy growth is made up of much-
branched conidiophores with hyaline, lemon-shaped conidia.

Control.—Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will have to be
practiced in severe cases of infection. Crop rotation also should
be practiced.

2A4 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

THEOBROMA CACAO LINN. CACAO
BLACK ROT OF PODS: PHYTOPHTHORA FABERI MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—This destructive disease causes a loss of one-half
of the cacao fruit in certain sections of the Philippines. The
fungus attacks the fruit at any
stage during its growth; how-
ever, the greatest damage is
done to the young fruits. At
the point of entrance of the fun-
gus a.minute black spot is first
developed. This spot gradually
enlarges, until the entire pod
becomes blackened. At this
stage, during damp weather, a
Fic. 33. Phytophthora fabert Maubl. a, danse mass of mycelium is

Rete pe Se Are ee formed on the surface, the

pee: Aoagt a {ete ae latter producing conidiophores

of diseased fruit. and conidia (Plate XIX, fig. 4).

A section of diseased fruit

shows that the mycelium invades the rind, passing into the

seed. Finally both rind and seed become rotted with a more

or less dry rot. The diseased pods may fall or remain upon

the tree, drying up and be-

coming mummified. Flowers

and stems also may be attacked
and killed by the fungus.

Causal organism.—tThe oval,
hyaline, much-granular conidia
are produced in abundance from
the conidiophores (fig. 33).
These spores are produced on
the surface of the fruit, whence
they are blown to other fruits,
causing new infection. Micros-

G> GD ce

Fic. 34. Fusarium theobromae App. et

copic examination of the inte- Strunk. a, portion of conidio-
rior of diseased pods shows an phore (X 815); b, microconi-

= dia (X 815); c, macroconidia
abundance of mycelium and (X 815).

chlamydospores (fig. 33). An-

theridia and odgonia have not been observed. The chlamydo-
spores are resting spores and are capable of producing disease
after the pod disintegrates. The fungus grows well in pure
culture, producing a white, downy growth. Inoculation experi-

xmr,4,6 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 245

ments have been very successful. Typical disease was produced
on pods and their peduncles.

- Control.—The disease can be easily and economically con-
trolled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Hight to ten sprays
during the season are sufficient. Of these sprays, five to seven
should be applied during the rainy season and three during the
dry season. It is best to add a sticker of resin and salsoda
during the rainy season. The cost of spraying is 2 centavos
per tree for each spray. Sanitation should be practiced along
with spraying. This consists in collecting and burning all
diseased pods hanging on the tree and those on the ground.
All diseased branches should be removed. Cacao plantings
should not be too thick nor

should the shade be too dense, 8 p Q 8 6 8
so that there will be plenty of b

aération.

The rotting of diseased pods
may be hastened by the entrance
of other fungi. These fungi
found on decaying fruits are

Fusarium theobromae App. et a

Strunk (fig. 34), Nectria bainii ric. 35. Nectria bainii Massee var. hypo-

Massee var. hypoleuca Sace. RSMO Bees Weta) AeA (REO
= n = spores (xX 325); b, ascospores

(fig. 35), Lastodiplodia theo- (X 650),

bromae (Pat.) Griff. et Maubl.

(Plate XIX, figs. 1, 2, and 3), Oospora candidula Sacc., Physalo-
spora affinis Sacc., Aspergillus delacroixti Sace. et Syd., and
Mycogone cervina Ditm. var. theobromae Sacc.

CANKER: PHYTOPHTHORA FABERI MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—tThe cacao canker may be found on young twigs,
older branches, and the trunks of trees. Diseased twigs are
characterized by a dying of the tips, browning of the leaves,
and a shriveling of the diseased wood. A definite line of
demarcation is usually produced showing the limits of the disease.
On larger branches and on the trunk more or less blackened
cankered areas are produced. These are characterized by a
shrinking of the diseased area which may have a definite line
of demarcation at the extremities of the diseased portion. Often
a cracking and a scaling of the bark are produced in these dis-
eased areas. The infection may spread from diseased pods into
the branches or trunk. A true cankered condition is not always
produced.

246 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Causal organism.—The causal organism is the same as dis-
cussed under the black rot of cacao pods. The mycelium devel-
ops primarily internally in the diseased tissues. Little mycelium
is produced on the surface, except under excessively damp con-
ditions and when diseased portions are put into a damp chamber.
The fungus grows well in pure culture and the disease can be
readily produced by inoculation.

Nectria discophora Mont. may be found growing saprophy-
tically on dead stems and it may in some cases follow the
Phytophthora attack.

Control_—aAll diseased stems should be removed well back of
the limit of infection. Cankered spots on the trunk should be
cut out down to the healthy wood. It is advisable to paint the
larger wounds with a coal-tar preparation or with a good white-
lead paint. Badly diseased trees should be cut down and burned.
The control measures discussed under black rot of cacao pods
are equally effective in combating this disease.

DIE-BACK

Symptoms.—A die-back of young twigs and limbs is found,
but the causal organism has not been determined. Dead twigs
and limbs often bear the following fungi: Botryosphaeria minus-
cula Sace., Cyphella holstti Henn., and Ophionectria theobromae
(Pat.) Duss.

DRY SOOTY ROT: LASIODIPLODIA THEOBROMAE (PAT.) GRIFFON ET MAUBLANC

Symptoms.—This fungus frequently follows the attack of
Phytophthora. It may produce a rot of older fruits without
the presence of any other fungus attack. The first sign of
disease is a blackening about an injury. This blackened area
spreads, until the entire pod is diseased. In this stage the
disease appears somewhat like the early stages of the Phytoph-
thora rot. In the later stages a black sooty mass of spores is
produced over the diseased fruit. At first only one portion of
the fruit shows this black mass of spores, but finally the entire
fruit is covered. Diseased fruits shrivel and become hard
(Plate XIX, fig. 2).

Causal organism.—The black sooty mass is made up of dark
brown two-celled spores. Before maturity these spores are
one-celled, hyaline, and much-granular. Spores germinate
readily in water overnight (fig. 36). A cross section of the
diseased pod shows, just below the surface, a series of pycnidia
produced in a mass of brown mycelium. The conidia are

xm,4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 247

formed in abundance among the paraphyses. The fungus grows
well in pure culture, producing a thick black growth of mycelium.
It is omnivorous, causing dry
sooty rots of a number of root
crops and fruits. Inoculations
with a pure culture obtained
from a rotted cacao pod pro-
duced the typical disease on
cacao, cassava, gabi, and sweet
potato. Inoculations with a
pure culture obtained from a
rotted sweet potato produced : e
the typical disease on sweet jc. 36. Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)

potato, cacao, cassava, and Griff. et Maubl. from cacao. a,
young conidia (X 350); b,
papaya. germinating young conidia (x
Control.—The disease gains 350); ¢, mature conidia (x
Geet . 350); d, germinating mature

entrance through injuries on cobidiaW<ae0) |

mature fruits and consequently

all injuries should be avoided. Diseased pods and other diseased
fruits and root crops should be burned. Spraying as discussed
under black rot of cacao pods will prevent infection.

LICHENS

Symptoms.—Lichens are common on the trunk and branches
where they produce grayish green blotches. Their presence
is not considered extremely harmful, although they do stop up
the lenticels and natural openings of the affected portions,
thereby interfering with the natural physiological functions of
the plant.

Control—A 6 per cent copper sulphate wash will remedy
this condition. Spraying as practiced for the control of the
black rot of pods will also be effective in killing the lichens.

VIGNA SPP. COWPEAS
BLIGHT: RHIZOCTONIA
Symptoms.—Discussed under soy beans.
CURLY TOP: FUSARIUM

Symptoms.—Diseased New Era cowpeas are characterized by
having shriveled, curled leaves. The plants are stunted, and
the flowers are produced in great abundance in a bunched
condition. The upper parts of the plants are green and healthy,
but the portion of the stem just at and a little above the ground

248 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

is attacked by a fungus. The root system is healthy. Isola-
tions from a large number of stems gave a Fusarium that
produced a pinkish growth in pure culture.

LEAF SPOT: CERCOSPORA

Symptoms.—Leaves may be
spotted with definite circular
spots from 1 to 8 millimeters
in diameter. Spots have gray
centers with purplish borders.

Causal organism.—Typical
Cercospora conidia and coni-
diophores are developed (fig.
37). The conidia are tapering
and usually have from four to six
cells. Germination takes place
in water overnight. Conidio-
phores are produced in groups
Fic. 87. Cercospora on Vigna _ sinensis and are light brown and septate.

Endl. a, group of conidi-s They also may germinate and

phores with immature conidia

attached (3, 860) = 6, conidia Produce Infection:

‘
E
A

(X 850); ¢, germinating coni- Control.—Crop rotation will
dia (X 850); d, germinating 4 Rae
conidiophores (X 350). keep the disease at a minimum.

POD SPOT: PHOMA BAKERIANA SACCARDO

Symptoms.—This fungus is found growing on mature pods,
where it produces minute black specks.

POWDERY MILDEW: ERYSIPHACEAE

Symptoms.—A white powdery
mildew may cover all parts of
the plant. This disease is not
serious and appears during cool
dry weather. It has been ob-
served in abundance on Vigna
catjang Walp.

Causalorganism.—Conidiaand
conidiophores are produced in
abundance, but as yet no perithe-
cia have been observed (fig. 38).

Control.—The disease is not : =
serious enough to warrant any fic. 38. A species of Erysiphaceae, on
special control. Crop rotation Vigna catjang Walp. Myce

5 lium and conidiophores with
should be practiced. chains of conidia (x 326).

xuia,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 249

RUST: UREDO VIGNAE BRESADOLA

Symptoms.—This is a rust that may do severe damage to the
plants. Usually it is not common enough to be very destructive.
Characteristic, brown rust sori are produced on the under leaf
surface.

XANTHOSOMA SAGITTIFOLIUM SCHOTT. YAUTIA
LEAF SPOT: VERMICULARIA XANTHOSOMATIS SACCARDO

Symptoms.—A small leaf spot sparingly scattered over the
leaves. Little damage is done.
_ Yautia was mentioned before as a plant to replace the common
Philippine gabi, the latter being badly infected with disease.
Yautia is entirely free from the attacks of Phytophthora.

ZEA MAYS LINN. CORN, MAIZE
BLAST OF KERNELS: FUSARIUM

- Symptoms.—Individual mature kernels will frequently swell,
burst open, and expose the starch. The starchy blasted area
is usually covered with a pink growth of mycelium (Plate
PR, fie: 3):

Causal organism.—A Fusarium is associated with the disease.
The mycelium penetrates the grains and produces spores on
the surface.

Control.—The disease is usually not severe. Planting should
not be too thick, so as to allow for plenty of aération.

DOWNY MILDEW: SCLEROSPORA MAYDIS (RAC.) BUTLER

Symptoms.—This is a serious corn disease found in India,
Java, the Philippines, and undoubtedly in other tropical
countries. In Java recent work has shown that the disease is
due to Sclerospora javanica Palm. which is not identical with
Sclerospora maydis (Rac.) Butl. In the Philippines we have the
same fungus described by Butler of India, Sclerospora maydis
(Rac.) Butl. There appear to be in the East two mildew dis-
eases, identical in appearance, but caused by two different fungi.

Downy mildew of corn is a serious disease in the Philippines,
often killing entire portions of fields. It is most severe during
the rainy season. Young plants, from 10 to 60 centimeters
in height, first exhibit the disease. Upper younger leaves are
the first to become affected. Lower outer leaves are normal.
Diseased leaves are characterized by the production of white
stripes running parallel with the margin (Plate XX, fig. 2).
Frequently the entire young leaves are whitened. This diseased

1562573

250 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

condition is a chlorotic one, due to the disappearance of the
chlorophyll. On both surfaces of diseased leaves, more abund-
ant, however, on the lower surface, a downy appearance is
produced by the mass of conidia and conidiophores. At a
distance, affected plants look pale. They are stunted and have
a bunchy growth, due to the checking of growth and fre-
quently a shortening of the internodes. Such plants produce
the male inflorescence prematurely. As a rule, no grain is
produced. Badly diseased plants wither and die before the
normal plants are ready for har-
vest. In severe cases of infec-
tion from 60 to 70 per cent of
the crop may be destroyed.

The disease has also been ob-
served on teosinte, Reana luxu-
rians Dur.

Causal organism.—Conidio-
phores and conidia are hyaline.
Conidiophores are thick, short,
unbranched at the base, with
short branches near the tip.
They are produced in abun-
dance, arising from the stomata
(fig. 39). On the end of the
short branches are produced
sterigmata, each of which
bears a single conidium. Coni-
dia are hyaline, thin-walled,
spherical when young, but oval
when mature (fig. 39). Coni-
dia germinate readily by the
Fic. 39. Sclerospora maydis (Rac.) Buti. production of one or two germ

oe ee tubes. Germinating conidia are

(x #20); B, contain (6 san) ;, ,Loumd. drequently “on... mtecped

¢, germinating conidia (x 320). leaves. Odspores have not been
found.

Control.—The method of infection and spread of the disease
is unknown; therefore, no control can be indicated except to
suggest sanitation by burning all infected plants and by crop
rotation.

DRY ROT: STERILE FUNGUS

Symptoms.—Kernels on the ear are destroyed by a dense
felty mass of mycelium. The ear is attacked before maturity

xm,4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases

and during damp weather. Dis-
eased ears may be entirely
covered with the fungus growth
er only partially covered in
blotches. Infected kernels do
not mature, and the starch is
partially consumed and becomes
powdery.

Causal. organism.—No spores
are. developed. A sterile mass
of mycelium covers the grain.
The fungus grows readily in
pure culture, producing a thick

woolly mass.

Control.—The disease is only

} : Fic. 40. Helminthosporium inconspicuum
severe during damp, hot weather. Ge Gh ah, wrote omrennidicn
Corn should not be planted too phores (X 320); b, conidium

closely, so as to allow for plenty

of aération.

from tassel of corn (X 320); e,
conidia from leaf of corn (x
320).

LEAF SPOT: HELMINTHOSPORIUM INCONSPICUUM COOKE ET ELLIS

Symptoms.—This is a common disease in the Philippines,
which at times may be extremely destructive. At the College

Fic. 41. Helminthosporium inconspicuum
C. et E. a, germinating coni-
diophores (X 320); b, germi-
nating conidia (X 320).

of Agriculture entire plots of
field and sweet corn have been
destroyed. The: disease is es-
pecially severe on newly intro-
duced corn that is not accli-
mated and is in a weakened
condition. It is present on the
native corn, but generally does
little damage. Leaves and tas-
sels are attacked. On the leaves
are produced at first minute,
roundish brown spots, which
gradually increase in size, be-
coming somewhat oval, the long
axis of the spot being parallel
with the veins (Plate XX, fig.
1). Spots may increase in size,
elongating into stripes, or may
run together, covering large
surfaces of the leaf. Old spots
and stripes have a lighter yel-

252 The Philippine Journal of Science # Ah 1918

Fic. 42. Helminthosporium inconspicuum
C. et E. Direct penetration of
host tissue (x 325).

|

lowish, to gray center, bordered
with brown. In the center of
old spots is produced a black
mold made up of conidiophores
and conidia. A black mold is
produced on the tassel.

Causal organism.—Conidio-
phores are brownish and produce
large, septate, curved brown
conidia (fig. 40). The conidia
germinate readily in water, pro--
ducing from one to two germ
tubes. Conidiophores may also
germinate and produce infection
(fig. 41). Penetration into the
leaf may be either by way of
the stomata or by direct penetra-
tion into the leaf tissue (figs.
42 and 43).

Control.—Crop rotation should
be practiced. Compost made of

diseased plants should not be put, the same year, upon fields

to be planted with corn.

Helminthosporium curvulum
Sacc. has been reported from
the tassels of corn.

SMUT: USTILAGO ZEAE (BECKM.) UNGER

Symptoms.—This disease has
been reported in the Is-
lands. It is characterized by
the production of conspicuous
black masses on the ear and
tassel of corn. The disease
may be present also on the
leaves. These swollen masses
are at first covered with a
white membrane, which later
becomes. black, owing to a
maturing of the spores. When
this membrane breaks, a pow-
dery black mass of spores is
exposed. Payee

Fic. 48.. Helminthosporium inconspicuum
Cc. et. E. Germinating spore
(X 845), germ tube about to
enter stomata.

xiu,a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 258

Causal organism.—The spores are brownish and _ usually
spherical and are covered with blunt spines. They germinate
readily in water, producing a promycelium with sporidia.

Control.—Collect and burn all diseased parts. Crop rotation
should be practiced.

Clasterosporium maydicum Sacc. is found on leaves and is
often associated with Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. et E.
Leptosphaeria orthogramma (B. et Br.) Sacc., Broomella zeae
Rehm., Physalospora linearis Sacc., and Acerbia maydis Rehm.
are found on corn trash during decomposition.

CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES
GENERAL DISCUSSION

The control of plant diseases involves primarily a prevention
of infection by the fungus. Before the method of prevention
can be fully understood, the true nature and cause of a disease
must be clear. The Filipino farmer must realize that plant
diseases are caused by specific organisms and that these
diseases can be communicated from one plant to another. The
‘discussion of these various diseases has been taken up to point
out their nature, to show how to recognize them, to indicate
the damage they do, and to give the means of controlling them.

PLANT SANITATION

Many of the diseases discussed need no specific control meas-
ures. One of the most important general control measures is
that of plant sanitation. This term includes the destruction of
the diseased parts, together with the organism, and other allied
practices. It must be remembered that the organism producing
disease is present on the infected portions and that most of these
organisms are capable of living in the soil for some time. Con-
sequently in cases where it is practicable, all badly diseased plants
should be destroyed by burning. This will reduce the number
of spores and spore-bearing bodies that would have accumulated
in the soil. If the fungus be allowed to accumulate in the soil
from year to year and especially if the same crop be grown con-
tinuously on one piece of land, serious epidemics of disease are

apt to take place.
CROP ROTATION

The majority of fungi can develop only upon specific hosts and
live in the soil only for a short period of years. This brings up
the second and possibly most important sanitation measure, that
‘of crop rotation. Since a crop may be attacked by a definite

254 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

fungus that will not attack other plants, this fungus can be
largely kept out of the soil by a system of starvation brought
about by crop rotation. As a rule, the majority of the fungi can
only live in the soil without their host plant for from one to three
years. There are exceptions to this rule, but generally speaking
a systematic, two- or three-year, crop rotation will reduce the
fungus pests of a specific crop to a minimum and in this way
keep the disease at a point where little injury is done. The
first consideration from a control viewpoint, therefore, is sanita-
tion, which includes the destruction of diseased plants and fungi
by burning, and the second is a systematic system of crop
rotation.
CULTURAL METHODS

Another very important consideration is that concerned with
the culture of the various crops. By culture methods is meant
the proper preparation of the soil, the proper method of planting,
the proper distance between plants, the proper amount of shade,
the proper soil and locations adapted to crops, and the proper
methods of cultivation, pruning, and other practices that will
produce a healthy and vigorous plant and one that will give
the greatest yield. A healthy, vigorous plant will, to a marked
degree, withstand disease; therefore any practice that will
produce such a plant will, in the majority of cases, reduce
the prevalence and severity of the disease. In the Philip-
pines, on the whole, very poor culture methods are practiced.
A large number of cases may be cited, but as examples
the culture of coconuts, abaca, cacao, and citrus are suffi-
cient. These plants are usually planted entirely too thick.
This thick planting produces humid conditions and a lack
of aération, both of which are highly favorable to disease pro-
duction. Once a disease becomes established in a thickly planted
area, it spreads rapidly from plant to plant. These conditions
are true in regard to coconut bud rot, abaca heart rot, and the
black rot of cacao. New plantings should be made according
to the best-accepted and approved methods of planting. It is
usually true that those conditions that will induce a crop to
produce at a maximum will also provide conditions that are
unfavorable for the production of disease. In proper culture
methods trash, consisting of dead portions of plants and other
‘refuse, should never be allowed to accumulate under the plants,
for this material affords a favorable place for the hibernation
and sometimes the development of many fungi causing plant
:diseases. Clean culture methods will necessarily reduce the

xua,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 255

amount of trash in fields. This practice will greatly lessen the
conditions that are favorable for the hibernation and reproduc-
tion of fungi and insects. Clean culture is little practiced in
the Philippines. It is one of the essentials of good agriculture
and should be practiced in the culture of coconuts, abaca, citrus,
cacao, coffee, and all other crops when possible. Plantations
in which this method of agriculture is practiced obtain higher
yields due not only to better culture, but also to the reduction
of fungus and insect attacks.

DISEASE-RESISTANT VARIETIES

Certain varieties of plants are less affected by disease than
are other varieties. Control of plant diseases by the use of
disease-resistant varieties is the cheapest and best method, if
such varieties can be obtained. It is not always possible to
produce varieties that will resist disease, but the grower should
select those varieties that are least subject to attack. Different
species of coffee show marked degrees of resistance to rust.
Coffea arabica Linn. is severely affected, while the robusta and
liberica types are less attacked. Resistance of other plants has
been pointed out, and whenever possible these varieties should
be planted.

SOIL STERILIZATION

For the control of a large number of fungi specific measures
can be carried out on a practical basis. The soil of the tropics
contains many soil fungi, some of which are highly destructive
to young, tender plant growths. These fungi, as before dis-
cussed, include the following: Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora nico-
tianae Breda de Haan, Pythiwm debaryanum Hesse, Sclerotium
and Fusarium. All may cause large destruction by damping off
seedlings grown in seed beds. This trouble can be easily avoided
by soil sterilization. The soil used for the production of seed-
lings should be sterilized. No practical method of soil steriliza-
tion for large areas of soil has been devised. Soil sterilization
consists primarily of two methods, namely, by heating the soil
directly and by the use of disinfectants.

DIRECT-HEATING METHOD

For the Philippines the best method of soil sterilization by
heat consists merely in heating the soil on a piece of sheet iron
(Plate XXI, fig. 1). A piece of sheet iron 95 centimeters by
160 centimeters is raised about 50 centimeters above the ground
by means of iron posts. Moist garden soil is shoveled on the
sheet iron, and a fire is built underneath. In this way the soil

256 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

should be thoroughly heated for from thirty minutes to one
hour, taking care that the humus is not removed by burning.
It is not necessary to burn the soil, but a temperature from 60° C.
to 100° C., that is, just high enough so that a person cannot pick
up the soil in his hands is sufficient. The sterilized soil should
then be shoveled into seed flats that have been thoroughly dried
by placing them in the sun or better still those that have been dis-
infected with a 2 per cent formalin solution. The soil is ready
for planting as soon as it cools.

FORMALIN DISINFECTION

Formalin may be used for soil disinfection, but it is not to
be preferred to heating, since the soil cannot be used for planting
for at least one week after the application. The soil to be dis-
infected should be thoroughly prepared and placed in seed flats.
It is then drenched with a formalin solution composed of 1
part of commercial formalin (40 per cent formaldehyde) to 150
to 200 parts of water. The flats should be covered with cloth
or banana leaves for one to two days to retain the fumes. The
soil is then aired for one week before sowing the seed.

FUNGICIDES

Certain diseases may be economically controlled by the applica-
tion of fungicides. It must be remembered that in the majority
of cases the fungicides are applied as a preventive. They
protect the plant against infection. Once a fungus has gained
entrance to a plant tissue, the application of a fungicide will
be of no avail. In the control of superficial-growing fungi such
as the powdery mildews and sooty molds the fungicide will kill
the fungus directly. Spraying must be thoroughly done, so that
every part of the plant surface is covered with a film of the
preparation. This can be done only by the use of a proper
spraying apparatus that will produce a fine mist and thereby
cover the plant without drenching. The standard Bordeaux
mixture is the best universal spray for the Philippine Islands.
For special purposes other sprays may be used.

The cost of spraying cacao trees for the black rot of pods,
based on the materials and cost of labor at 10 centavos per
hour, is 2 centavos per tree for each application. With ten
applications a year the cost would be 20 centavos per tree,
or the value of four cacao fruits. Coffee spraying against rust
can be satisfactorily done for 20 centavos per tree for the year’s

spraying.

xu,a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 257

STANDARD BORDEAUX MIXTURE

Materials.
Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), kilos 1.8
Stone lime, kilos 1.8
Water, liters 190

The amount of copper sulphate can be varied according to the
formula given. The weight of stone lime should be equal to
or exceed the weight of copper sulphate. The important point
to consider in regard to the materials is that good unslaked
stone lime must be used. Bordeaux mixture cannot be prepared
with air-slaked lime.

APPARATUS

Two half-barrels with a capacity of about 115 liters, made by sawing in
two a 280-liter barrel. i
One 230-liter mixing barrel.
Two or more wooden pails.
One strong paddle, about 2 meters long.
One pair of hand scales.
PREPARATION

1. Dissolve 1.8 kilograms of copper sulphate in hot water, place in half-
barrel, and add water to make 96 liters.

2. Slake 1.8 kilograms of stone lime in the second half-barrel and add water
to make 95 liters,

3. Mix solutions by having two operators, each provided with a bucket.

Dip up equal amounts of the copper sulphate and lime solutions and

pour them together, at the same rate, at a height of 60 to 90 centi-
meters above a mixing barrel (Plate XXI, fig. 2).

. Mix the whole thoroughly by stirring vigorously.

. Strain the mixture when putting into the spray tank.

. Apply to the plants with a good pressure spray pump. Use as soon
as made.

aon >

If other than the above formula be given, take respective
pounds as indicated in formula. For example, to make a pre-
paration containing 1.8 kilograms of copper sulphate, 2.25 kilo-
grams of stone lime, to 190 liters of water, take 1.8 kilograms
of copper sulphate and dissolve in 95 liters of water, slake 2.25
kilograms of stone lime, and add water to make 95 liters. Mix
the two as before indicated.

The two solutions may be mixed by pouring the dilute solu-
tion of copper sulphate into a strong solution of lime and then
thoroughly mixing the two and making them up to 190 liters.

BURGUNDY MIXTURE

This preparation may be used in place of the Bordeaux mix-
ture, if it is impossible to obtain good stone lime. Burgundy
mixture will not color the foliage and fruit to such a great extent

ea

258 _ The Philippine Journal of Science - 1918

as the Bordeaux mixture. The results obtained with this spray
are about on a par with Bordeaux mixture.

Materials.
Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), kilos 1.4
Sodium carbonate (salsoda), kilos 1.65
Water, liters 190

PREPARATION

1. Dissolve each chemical separately in 95 liters of water.

2. Mix by pouring the two solutions into a third container as in making
Bordeaux mixture.

3. Apply with a good pressure spray pump as soon as the solution is
prepared.

SODA BORDEAUX MIXTURE

It may be impossible in certain sections to obtain good stone
lime. If this be the case, soda Bordeaux mixture can be
used. Soda Bordeaux mixture will not color the foliage and
fruit to such an extent as the Bordeaux mixture. The soda
Bordeaux mixture is more expensive and should be used only in
cases where it is impossible to prepare the real Bordeaux.

Materials.
Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), kilos 1.8
Commercial caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), kilos .6 to 1
Water, liters 190
APPARATUS

The same as that used in the preparation of Bordeaux mixture.
PREPARATION

1. Dissolve 1.8 kilograms of copper sulphate in hot water, place in half-
barrel, and add water to make 95 liters.

2. Dissolve the caustic soda in the proportion of 0.6 kilogram to 4 liters
of water.

3. Gradually pour the caustic soda solution into the copper sulphate
solution, stirring continuously, until the solution becomes alkaline.
The exact amount of caustic soda to use cannot be given because
of the great variation in strength of the commercial product. The al-
kalinity of the solution can be determined by dipping a piece of red
litmus into the solution. The red litmus will turn blue when the
mixture is alkaline.

4, Add enough water to make 190 liters and stir vigorously.

5. Strain the mixture into a spray tank and apply as indicated under
Bordeaux mixture,

AMMONIACAL SOLUTION OF COPPER CARBONATE
In cases where it is desirable to prevent staining the foliage

or fruit of plants, the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate
is recommended. ;

xur,a,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 259

Materials.
Concentrated ammonia (26° Baumé), liters 1.5
Copper carbonate, grams 168
Water to make, liters 190

APPARATUS
One 190-liter mixing barrel.
Two or more wooden pails.
One strong paddle, about 2 meters long.
One pair of hand scales.
One strainer, of cloth.
PREPARATION

1. Measure 1.5 liters of concentrated ammonia into a wooden bucket and
dilute to 10 liters.

2. Add to this 168 grams of copper carbonate and stir until all is in
solution.

3. Dilute this stock solution to 190 liters before spraying.

4. Strain the mixture into a SEray tank and apply as directed under Bor-
deaux mixture.

Never use metal vessels in the preparation of this mixture.
Use only wooden or earthenware utensils. The spraying ap-
paratus should be thoroughly rinsed after spraying.

RESIN-SALSODA STICKER

In spraying during the rainy season especially on those plants
the foliage of which has waxy surfaces, it is highly desirable
to add a sticker to the spray mixtures.

Materials.
Resin, kilo 0.9
Salsoda (sodium carbonate), kilo 0.45
Water, liters 3.8
APPARATUS

A kerosene tin or similar utensil for boiling the solution.
A paddle.

A pair of hand scales.

PREPARATION

1. Dissolve 0.45 kilogram salsoda in 3.8 liters of water and boil.

2. Add 0.9 kilogram of powdered resin and continue boiling, until all is
dissolved and the contents are a clear brown. Care should be taken
that the mixture does not boil over.

For a medium adhesive add 1.9 liters of this sticker to 190

liters of the spray.
SULPHUR

For the control of powdery mildews and other superficially
growing fungi, flowers of sulphur, or sulphur flour, may be used
to the best advantage.

The sulphur is dusted on affected plants, preferably when the
plants are wet with dew or rain.

260 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY

In spraying operations it is often highly desirable to employ
a spray that will control sucking insects and fungi at the same
time. The lime-sulphur spray should be used under these cir-
cumstances. Very tender foliaged plants will not withstand
this highly concentrated spray mixture.

Materials.
Stone lime, kilos 16.2
Flowers of sulphur, kilos 36
Water to make, liters 190

APPARATUS

An open kettle large enough to hold 190 liters.
A strong paddle.
A pair of hand scales,
A cloth strainer.
PREPARATION
1. Slake the lime in a convenient amount of water, adding the sifted sul-
phur and stirring vigorously during the process.
2. Make up to 190 liters with water.
3. Boil for one hour, adding water as necessary to prevent evaporation
below 190 liters.
4. Stir from time to time.
5. Strain off the clear liquid into a spray tank, dilute and spray in the
usual manner as discussed under Bordeaux mixture.
6. Storage. Concentrated lime-sulphur solutions keep well when stored in
tight, filled, stoppered barrels, at the ordinary temperature.

The solution prepared in this manner is reddish brown and
is too concentrated for direct application. It must be diluted
with water at the rate of 1 liter of the concentrate to from 10
to 20 liters of water, according to the strength of the solution.
For most accurate dilutions it is best to consult dilution tables
after determining the specific gravity of the concentrate.

A commercially prepared lime-sulphur solution may be ob-
tained on the market. This solution should be used as directed.
It is much more expensive than the home-boiled preparation.

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY

Some tender-foliaged plants cannot withstand the toxic effects
of the copper sprays or the concentrated lime-sulphur spray.
For these cases the self-boiled lime-sulphur spray will have
to be employed.

Materials.
Stone lime, kilos 14.4
Flowers of sulphur, kilos 14.4
Water to make, liters 760

xuia,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 261

In this preparation four times the usual formula is used, be-
cause it has been found that these quantities give more satisfac-
tion and convenient conditions for cooking than when smaller or
greater amounts are used. When smaller amounts are desired,
fractions of this formula may be used.

APPARATUS

One strong 190-liter barrel.
One strong paddle, about 2 meters long.
One sifter (flour sifter).
Two or more buckets.
One pair hand scales.
One strainer, of cloth.
PREPARATION

1. Weigh out 14.4 kilograms each of lime and sulphur, having first sifted
the sulphur.

2. Place lime in barrel and add about 15 liters of water.

3. Add sulphur as soon as the lime begins to slake vigorously.

4. Stir preparation vigorously with the paddle, adding enough water from

~ time to time to avoid “burning,” and still not enough to “drown” the
lime.

5. Add at least 95 liters of cold water with vigorous stirring as soon as
the lumps of lime are thoroughly slaked. It is very necessary to cool
the preparation at this time by adding the water as indicated.

6. Make up to 760 liters in spray tank, or dilute fractions of the stock
solution correspondingly.

7. Strain before putting into spray tank by running the solution through
a cloth strainer. Work through any lumps of sulphur with a small
paddle.

8. Apply the spray with any good pressure spray pump.

FORMALIN SPRAY

This spray is only used for special purposes, such as spraying
badly diseased citrus trees in order to defoliate them of all leaves
attacked by citrus canker and to help kill sucking insects.

PREPARATION

A solution of formalin should be prepared that contains be-
tween 0.4 and 0.5 per cent of formaldehyde.

This percentage of formalin may be used in combination with
the standard Bordeaux mixture, using the latter mixture as a
diluting agent.

: FORMALIN

A diluted solution of formalin is used for disinfection of seeds,

vegetative reproductive parts, and soil.

Materials. Nonpoisonous to animals.

Formaldehyde (40 per cent), also called formalin, liter 0.5
Water, liters 150

262 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The above is the usual formula for formalin. The amount of
water used varies with the use to which the solution is put and
with the length of treatment. Use as directed in special cases.

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE

Corrosive sublimate is a strong disinfectant that is used for
treatment of seeds or of vegetative reproductive parts and the
disinfection of agricultural implements used in the eradica-
tion of diseased plants. Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison
to man and animals and should be labeled poison. Plants treated
with this solution should not be used for human food or be fed
to animals.

Materials. Deadly poisonous to animals.

Corrosive sublimate crystals, grams 112
Water, liters 114

PREPARATION

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in from 2 to 4 liters of hot
water and dilute this strong solution with water to make 114
liters.

Seeds treated should be thoroughly washed after applying the
preparation and planted at once.

SPRAYING APPARATUS

For spraying operations conducted on a small scale a bucket
pump or a knapsack pump will serve the purpose (Plate XXII,
figs. 1, 2, and 3). Pumps of this character cost from 7 to 10
pesos for bucket pumps and from 20 to 40 pesos for knapsack
pumps. Where extensive spraying operations are undertaken
it will be necessary to employ a good pressure barrel pump
(Plate XXII, fig. 4). The latter spraying outfit does the work
more efficiently and in less time. The cost varies from 45 to
100 pesos, including hose and nozzle.

A good nozzle is essential in order to obtain the best results.
Such a nozzle will produce a fine mist and cover the plant evenly
over the portion sprayed. There are many spray outfits on the
market. In purchasing a particular outfit, one should be selected
which is simple, with accessible parts, and one which will pro-
duce a good pressure and a fine even mist of spray.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am deeply indebted to Professor C. F. Baker for access to
recent new publications of his collections, for checking up various

xuia,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 263

fungi, and for valuable suggestions; to Dr. H. 8. Yates for his
assistance in checking up various fungi; to Dr. Otto Schébl for
cultures of Bacillus coli (Escherich) ; to the Bureau of Agricul-
ture for valuable assistance in obtaining coconut bud rot and
abaca heart rot material; to the following among my students
for preparing drawings: D. S. Baybay, D. Divinigracia, F. P.
Lago, S. Marquez, G. S. Posadas, G. M. Reyes, J. L. Reyes, F. B.
Santos, F. Serrano, G. G. Yap; to the following students for
aiding with inoculation work: F. D. Luistro, G. O. Ocfemia, and
T. I. Vista; and to Mr. L. B. Uichanco for his help in connection
with some of the photographic development.

264

The Philippine Journal of Science

1918

INDEX TO NAMES OF PLANTS AND OF PLANT DISEASES

Abaca, 221.
Acerbia maydis Rehm., 253.
Acknowledgments, 262.
Aeginetia indica Linnaeus, 237.
Aithaloderma longisetum Sydow, 201.
Ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, 258.
Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merr., 172.
sativus Schultes f., 172.
Andropogon schoenanthus Linn., 238.
sorghum Linn., 173.
Angular leaf spot, 208.
Annona muricata Linn., 175.
Annona squamosa Linn., 207.
Anthostomella arecae Rehm., 17
cocoina Syd., 197.
Apiospora camptospora Fenz. et Sace., 240.
Apium graveolens Linn., 175.
Arachis hypogaea Linn., 176.
Areca catechu Linn., 177.
Artocarpus communis Forst., 178.
incisa Linn. f., 178.
integra (Raderm.) Merr., 178.
integrifolia Linn. f., 178.
Aschersonia sclerotoides Henn., 192.
Aspergillus delacroixii Sacc. et Syd., 245.
periconioides Sacc., 184.
Asterinella stuhlmanni (Henn.) Theiss., 172.
Asteroma phaseoli Brun., 231.
Bacillus carotovorus Jones, 233.
coli (Escherich), 195, 263.
phytophthorus Appel., 243.
prodigiosus (Ehrenb.) Fluegge, 214.
solanacearum Erw. Smith, 181, 217, 222,
241, 242.
Bacterial blight, 222, 229.
bud rot, 192.
heart rot, 221.
leaf stripe, 225.
soft rot, 233.
stem rot, 220, 240.
wilt., 181, 217, 222, 241, 242.
Bacterium malvacearum Erw. Smith, 208.
Bakerophoma sacchari Diedicke, 234.
Banana, 220.
Bark rot, 184.
Beans, 229.
Beta vulgaris Linn., 179.
Betel palm, 177.
pepper, 231.
Blackleg, or potato stem rot, 2438.
Black mildew, 204.
rot, 179.
rot of fruits, 209.
rot of pods, 244.
Blast of kernels, 249.
Blight, 201, 205, 214, 229, 288, 248, 247.
Botryodiplodia anceps Sace. et Syd., 220.
Botryosphaeria minuscula Sace., 246.
Bracket fungi, 212.
Brassica oleracea Linn., 179.
pekinensis (Lour.) Skeels, 180.
Breadfruit, 178.

q

(i.

Broomella zeae Rehm., 253.
Bud rot of coconut, 195.
Bunga, 177.
Burgundy mixture, 257.
Cabbage, 179.
Cacao, 244.
Caesalpinia sappan Linn., 207.
Calabaza, 202.
Calamismis, 232.
Calonectria perpusilla Sacc., 227.
Camoting cahoy, 219.
Canavalia ensiformis DC., 181.
gladiata DC., 181. ’
Canker, 185, 210, 245.
Capnodium footii Berk. et Desmaz., 197.
Capsicum annuum Linn., 181.
frutescens Linn., 181.
spp., 207.
Carica papaya Linn., 182, 207.
Carrot, 203.
Cassava, 219.
Ceara rubber, 219.
Celery, 175.
Cercospora, 178, 179, 180, 202, 208, 204, 218,
225, 227, 230, 234, 241, 248.
apii Fries, 175.
armoraciae Sacc., 180.
artocarpi Sydow, 178.
brassicicola P. Hennnigs, 180.
ecanavaliae Syd., 181.
henningsii Allesch., 219.
lussoniensis Sacc., 2380.
mangiferae Koorders, 218.
manihotis P. Hennings, 219.
nicotianae Ell. et Ev., 224, 225.
pachyderma Sydow, 203.
sesami A. Zimmerman, 240.
stizolobii Syd., 220.
ubi Racib., 203.
Chaetosphaeria eximia Sacce., 197.
Chard, 179.
Chlorosis, 223.
nonparasitic, 186.
Chromosporium crustaceum sp. n., 214.
Citrus, 191.
decumana ‘(Linn.), 185.
hystrix DC., 185.
japonica Thunb., 185.
maxima (Burn.) Merr., 185, 188, 191, 207.
medica Linn., 185, 191.
mitis Blanco, 185.
nobilis Lour., 185, 186, 188, 191.
(rough lemon), 185.
spp., 184.
(Kusaie lime), 185.
(small orange), 185.
(Washington navel), 185.
Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Lk., 231.
Clasterosporium maydicum Sacce., 2538.
punctiforme Sacc., 227.
Coconut, 192.
Cocos nucifera Linn., 192.

xu,4,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 265

Coffea arabica Linn., 199, 200, 201, 207, 255. | Diplodina degenerans Diedicke 242.

excelsa Cheval., 199. Direct-heating method, 255.

liberica, 200, 225. Disease-resistant varieties, 255.

robusta, 200, 255. Dolichos lablab Linn., 204.

spp., 198. uniflorus Lam., 204, 229.
Coffee, 198. Downy mildew, 202, 203, 207, 249.
-Colletotrichum arecae Syd., 177. Dry rot, 250.

gloeosporioides Penzig, 192. Dry sooty rot, 246.

lussoniense Sacc., 219. Early blight, 175.

papayae (Henn.) Syd., 184. Egg plant, 241.
Colocasia antiquorum (Schott), 201. Elfvingia tornata (Pers.) Murr., 178, 198.

Ellisiodothis rehmiana Theiss. et Syd., 203.

Elsinoe canavaliae Rac., 181.

Endoxyla mangiferae Henn., 219.

Entyloma oryzae Syd., 228.

Epiphytes, 188.

Erysiphaceae, 171, 181, 183, 203, 218, 231, 241,
248.

Eugenia uniflora Linn., 207.

esculentum Schott, 201.
Coniosporium dendriticum Sacc., 198.

extremorum Syd., 240.

oryzinum Sace., 228.

sorghi Sacc., 175.

vinosum (B. et. C.) Sacc., 240.
Coniothyrium coffeae Henn., 201.
Control of plant diseases, 253.

Coprinus fimbriatus B. et Br., 197. | Burotium candidum Speg., 214.
friesii var. obscurus Pat., 198. Eutypella citricola Speg., 188.
Corn, 249. cocos Ferd. et Winge., 198.
Corrosive sublimate, 262. heteracantha Sacc., 188.
Corticium salmonicolor, B. et Br., 190. heveae Yates, 214.
Cotton, 208. rehmiana (Henn. et Nym.) v. Hohnel,
Cowpeas, 247. , 178.

Crop rotation, 253.
Cucumbers, 202.
Cucumis sativus Linn., 202.
Cucurbita maxima Duch., 202.
Cultural methods, 254.
Curing and fermenting troubles, 223.
Curly top, 247.
Cycloderma depressum Pat., 178.
Cyphella holstii Henn., 246.
Cytospora aberrans Sacc., 188.
palmicola B. et C., 198.
Damping off, 182, 187, 198, 218.
of seedlings, 224.
Daucus carota Linn., 203.
Diaporthe citrincola Rehm., 188.
Dichotomella areolata Sacc., 179.
Dictyophora phalloidea Desvaux, 236.

Exosporium durum Saccardo, 196.
hypoxyloides Syd., 177.
pulchellum Sacc., 177.

False smut or lump smut, 226.

Ficus carica Linn., 204.

Fig, 204.

Fomes lignosus (KI.) Bresadola, 212.

Foot rot, 198.

Formaldehyde, 261.

Formalin, 261.
disinfection, 256.
spray, 261.

Fruit blast, 220.
rot, 178, 181, 182, 188, 189, 241.

Fumago vagans Pers., 175.

Fungicides, 256.

Fungi, other, 197, 214.

S_———————

Didymella caricae Tassi., 184. Fusarium, 182, 214, 224, 247, 249, 255.
lussoniensis Sacc., 204. heveae Henn., 184.

Didymium squamulosum (Alb. et Schw.) Fr., theobromae App. et Strunk 244, 245.

isi Gabi, 201.

Didymosphaeria anisomera Sacc., 175. Ganoderma incrassatum (Berk.) Bres. var.

Die-back, 188, 246. substipitata Bres., 198.

Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill, 203, 204. | General discussion, 253.

Diplodia ananassae Sacc., 173. Gloeoglossum glutinosum (Per.) Durant, 198.
arecina Sacc., 177. | Gloeosporium canavaliae Syd., 181.
artocarpi Sacc., 178. catechu Syd., 177.
artocarpina Sacc., 179. intermedium Sacc., 192.
aurantii Catt., 188. macrophomoides Sacc., 203, 241.
earicae Sacc., 184. melongenae Sacc., 241.
cococarpa Sacc., 198. palmarum Oud., 177.
cococarpa var. malaccensis Tassi., 198. Glume spot, 227.
erebra Sacc., 220. Glycine hispida Max., 206.
epicocos Cooke, 197. max (Linn.) Merr. 204, 206, 207, 208.
epicocos Cooke var. minuscula Sacc., 198. Gossypium brasiliense Macfad., 209.
lablab Sace., 204. herbaceum Linn., 209.
manihoti Sacc., 219. spp. 208.
mori West., 220. Grain mold, 173.
phaseolina Sace., 231. ; Guanabano, 175. Ht

156257-——4

266 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Guignardia arecae Sacc., 177. Marchalia constellata (B. et Br.) Sacc., 178.
manihoti Sacc., 219. Massarina raimundoi Rehm., 188.
manihoti Sacc., var. diminuta Sacc., 219. | Megalonectria pseudotrichia (Schw.) Speg.,
Gummosis, 189. 210.
Haplographium chlorocephalum (Fres.) | Melanconium lineolatum Sacc., forma, 240.
Grove, 227. sacchari Massee, 235, 236.
Haplosporella melanconioides Sacc., 240. Meliola arundinis Pat., 240.
Helminthosporium, 227. mangiferae Earle, 219.
caryopsidum Saccardo, 173. Micropeltis, 192.
curvulum Sace., 252. ; mucosa Syd., 199.
heveae Petch, 211. Milos, 173.
inconspicuum Cke. et Ell., 251, 252, 253. | Moraceae, 219.
sesameum Sacc., 241. Morus alba Linn., 219.
Hemileia, 200. Mottled leaf: nonparasitic, 189.
vastatrix, B. et Br., 199, 200. Mucuna deeringiana Merr. (Stizolobium de-
Heterodera radicicola Greef et Miiller, 225, 237. eringiana Bort.), 220.
Hevea, 210. Mulberry, 219.

i Musa sapientum Linn., 220.
textilis Née, 221.
Mycogone cervina Ditm. var. theobromae Sacc.,
245.
Hermeiieann tse seen 221.
Hypoxylon atropurpureum Fr. (on coccids), caricae Syd., 183.
188. dioscoreicola Syd., 204.
musae Speg., 220, 222.
Myrothecium oryzae Sacc., 227.

brasiliensis (HBK) Muell. et Arg., 209.
Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn., 207, 214.
Hormodendron cladosporioides (Fr.) Sacc.,

197.

Iemo, 231.
Ipomoea batatas Poir, 215.

Jack fruit, 178. Nengess “U7e
Nectria bainii Massee var, hypoleuca Sace.,
Kaffirs, 173. 245

Kernel Smut, 173.

Kuehneola desmium (B. et Br.) Syd., 209.
fici (Cast.) Butl. 204. ’
fici (Cast.) Butl. var. moricola P. Hen-

nings, 219.

Lablab bean, 204.

Lactuca sativa Linn., 216.

Lasiodiplodia, 215.

discophora Mont., 246.
episphaeria (Tode.) ; Fr., 188.
Nematodes, 225, 237.
Nicotiana tabacum Linn., 207, 222.
Oospora candidula Sacc., 245.
oryzetorum Sacc., 228.
perpusilla Sacc., 231.
Ophiobolus oryzinus Sacc., 228.

theobromac )(Fat-) , st aubl. 182, Ophionectria theobromae (Pat.) Duss, 246.
188, 208, 215, 245, 246, 247.
Orange galls, 204, 282.

Leaf rot, 183. | Oranges, 184, 185.
spot, 172, 178, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 196, Oryza sativa Linn., 225.
199, 202, 203, 204, 211, 218, 219, 220, / Pachyrrhizus erosus (Linn.) Urb., 229.
222, 227, 280, 283, 234, 285, 240, 241,] Palawania cocos Syd., 197.

242, 248, 249, 261. Papaya, 182.
Lembosia bromeliacearum Rehm., 172. Para rubber, 209.
Lemons, 184, 185. Passiflora quadrangularis Linn., 207.

Leptosphaeria (Leptosphaerella) oryzina| peg 931.
Sacc., 227. Peanut, 176.

orthogramma (B. et Br.) Sacc. 258. Pechay, 180.
Leptothyrium circumscissum Sydow, 219. Penicillium, 182, 189.
Lettuce, 216. maculans sp. n., 214.
Lichens, 189, 247. Peroneutypella arecae Syd., 178.
Limes, 184. cocoes Syd., 198.
Lime-sulphur spray, 260. Peronospora, 207, 208.

Linga, 240.
Lonchocarpus sp., 207.
Loranthus philippensis Chamisso, 188.
Lycopersicum esculentum Mill, 217.
Macrophoma, 220.
musae (Cke.) Berl. et Voglino 220, 222.
Mangifera indica Linn., 218.
Mango, 218.
Mani, 176.
Manihot dichotoma Ule., 219.
utilissima Pohl, 219.
Marasmius, 286.

Pestalozzia funera Desm., 219.
palmarum Cooke, 177.
palmarum Cooke et Grev., 196, 197.
pauciseta Sacc., 219.
Phakospora pachyrhizi Syd., 229.
Phaseolus calearatus Roxb., 206, 207, 229, 280,
231.
lunatus Linn., 207, 231.
mungo Linn., 231.
spp., 229.
vulgaris Linn., 207, 229, 281.
Phellostroma hypoxyloides Syd., 178.

xm, a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases

Phoma baderiana Sacc., 248.
herbarum Westd., 219.
oleracea Sacc., 203.
sabdariffae Sacc., 214.
sesamina Sacc., 241.
solanophila Oud., 242.
Phomopsis arecae Syd., 177.
capsici (Magnaghi) Sacc., 181.
dioscoreae Sacc., 203.
palmicola (Wint.) Sacc., 177.
Phycomycetes, 171.
Phyllachora, 204, 219.
phaseolina Syd., 230.
sacchari P. Hennings, 235.
sacchari spontanei Syd., 235.
sorghi v. Hohnel, 173, 174.
Phyllactinia suffulta (Rebent.) Sacc., 219.
Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, 185.
Phyllosticta circumsepta Sacc., 189.
cocophylla Pass., 197.
glumarum Sacc., 227.
graffana Sacc., 204.
insularum Sacc., 175.
manihoticola Syd., 219.
miurai Miyake, 227.
Physalospora affinis Sacc., 2465.
guignardioides Sacc., 181.
linearis Sace., 253.
Physiological trouble, 211.
Phytophthora, 182, 202, 211, 246, 249.
colocasiae Rac., 201, 202.
faberi Maubl., 182, 209, 210, 244, 245.
infestans (Mont.) de Bary, 243.
nicotianae Breda de Haan, 224, 255.
Pineapple, 172.
Pink disease, 190.
Piper betle Linn., 231.
Pisum sativum Linn., 231.
Plant sanitation, 253.

Plasmopara cubensis (B. et C.) Humphrey,
202.

Picaria bananincola- Rehm., 220.

Pod spot, 248.

Pomelos, 184.

Potato, 242.

Powdery mildew, 181, 183, 218, 219, 231, 241,
248.

Premna cumingiana Schau, 171.

Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel.) Erw.
Smith, 179.

Pseudomonas citri Hasse, 185.

Pseudomonas phaseoli Erw. Smith, 229.

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC., 204, 232.

Puceinia kuehnii (Krueg.) Butl., 237.

Puccinia purpurea Cooke, 174, 175.

Pythium, 182.

Pythium debaryanum Hesse, 182, 218, 224, 225.

Radish, 233.

Raphanus sativus Linn., 233.

Reana luxurians Dur., 250.

Red pepper, 181.

Resin-salsoda sticker, 259.

Rhizoctonia, 182, 187, 198, 203, 205, 206, 218,
224, 227, 228, 229, 233, 247, 255.

267

Rhizopus, 178, 182, 203, 215.
artocarpi Rac. 178.
Rice, 225.
Rind disease, 235.
Root disease, 212, 236.
galls, 225, 237.
parasite, 237.
Rot, 177.
Roselle, 214.
Rosellinia cocoes Henn., 198. 4
Rust, 174, 199, 203, 204, 208, 209, 219, 229,
231, 2387, 249.
Saccharum officinarum Linn., 207, 233, 235.
spontaneum Linn., 235, 239.
Saprophytie fungi, 213.
Sarcinella raimundoi Sacc., 242.
Sealy bark, 191.
Sclerospora javanica Palm., 249. |
maydis (Rac.) Butler, 249, 250.

Sclerotium, 177, 187, 198, 224, 228, 229, 255.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur spray, 260.
Septogloeum arachidis Rac., 176.
Septoria lablabina Sacc., 204.
lablabis Henn., 204.
miyakei Sacc., 227.
Sereh disease, 237, 238.
Sesame, 240.
Sesamum indicum Linn., 240.
Sincamas, 229.
Smut, 239, 2652.
Soda bordeaux mixture, 258.
Soil sterilization, 255.
Soja, 204.
Solanum melongena Linn., 241.
tuberosum Linn. 242.
Sooty mold, 172, 175, 191, 197, 201, 231, 240.
Sordaria oryzeti Sacc., 228.
Sorghums, 173.
Sorghum vulgare Pers., 173.
Soursop, 175.
Soy bean, 204.
Spegazzinia ornata Sacc., 228.
Spiny mold: imperfect fungus, 191.
Sporodesmium bakeri Syd., 220.
Spotting of prepared plantation rubber, 213.
Spraying apparatus, 262.
Squash, 202.
Standard Bordeaux mixture, 257.
Steirochaete ananassae Sacc., 173.
lussoniensis Sacc., 219.
Stem disease, 201.
rot, 203, 227, 228.
rot: bacterial, 240.
Sterile fungus, 250.
Sterility of nuts, 197.
Storage rots, 203, 215.
Straight, or sterile, head, 228.
Sugar cane, 233.
Sulphur, 259.
Sweet potato, 215.
Sword beans, 181.
Tamarindus indica Linn., 207.
Theobroma cacao Linn., 244.
Tipburn, 216.

268

Tobacco, 222. y
Tomato, 217.
Traversoa dothiorelloides Sace. et Syd., 219.
Trichoderma koningi (Oud.) Oud. et Koning,
214.
Trotteria venturioides Sacc., 204.
Tryblidiella mindanaensis Henn., 188, 214.
rufula (Spreng.) Sace., 188.
Twig fungi, 219.
Uncinula, 171.
Uredo dioscoreae (Berk. et Brm.) Petch, 203.
dioscoreae-alatae Rac., 203.
vignae Bres., 249.
Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Link, 231.
mucunae Rabh., 220.
sojae Syd., 208.
Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Takahashi, 226.
Ustilago sacchari Rabenhorst, 239.
sorghi (Lk.) Passarini, 173.
zeae (Beckm.) Unger, 252.

The Philippine Journal of Science

Valsaria citri Rehm., 188.
insitiva (de Not.) Ces. et de Not., 220.
Velvet bean, 220.
Vermicularia capsici Syd., 181.
horridula Sacc., 204.
sesamina Sacc., 241.
xanthosomatis Sacc., 249.
Vigna catjang Walp., 248.
sinensis Endl., 248.
spp., 247.
Voandzeia subterranea Thou., 205, 206, 207.
Winged bean, 232.
Wither tip, 192.
Woroninella dolichi (Cke.) Syd., 204.
psophocarpi Rac., 232.
Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott, 202, 249.
Yams, 203.
Zea mays Linn., 207, 249.
Zignoella nobilis Rehm., 188.
Zygosporium oscheoides Mont., 177.

FIG.

FIG.

Fig.

Fic.

Fig.

Fic.

wre

wre

ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE I

. Leaf spot of sorghum caused by Phyllachora sorghi v. Hohnel.
. Rust of sorghum caused by Puccinia purpurea Cooke.
. Kernel smut of sorghum caused by Ustilago sorghi (Lk.) Pass.

PLATE II

. Leaf spot of pechay caused by Cercospora brassicicola Henn.
. Leaf spot of pechay caused by Cercospora brassicicola Henn.
. Leaf spot of chard caused by Cercospora.

PLATE III

. Mottled leaf of Citrus.
. Citrus canker on leaves of Citrus.
. Citrus canker. On leaves of Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (Ci-

trus decumana Linn.), showing spread of the disease by a leaf
miner, which is the larva of the moth Phyllocnistis citrella
Stainton.

PLATE IV

. Citrus canker. Stem canker on Citrus.
. Citrus canker. Fruit and stem of Citrus.
. Citrus canker. Fruit of Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (C. dec-

umana Linn.).

PLATE V

. Coconut bud rot. Old infection. Entire central group of leaves

killed and some fallen over.

. Coconut bud rot. Central leaves killed and some fallen over. Outer

older leaves healthy.

. Coconut bud rot. Diseased central bud fallen over.

PLATE VI

. Coconut bud rot. Young infection, showing unfolded tips of leaves

just starting with the attack. From this point the disease ad-
vances downward into the growing point and more woody portion.

. Coconut bud rot. Old infection. Entire cabbage and growing

point softened.

. Coconut bud rot. Old infection. Rotted portion just above growing

point.

. Coconut bud rot. Old infection. Characteristic brownish stripe,

showing limits of infection in the wood.

. Coconut but rot. Inoculated seedling, showing diseased portion.

Three days after inoculation.

. Coconut bud rot. Typical case of infection produced in seedling

three days after inoculating with a pure culture of bacteria
isolated from a bud rot tree. Entire growing point and sur-
rounding tissue rotted.

269

270

Fie.

Fig.

Fie.

Fic.

FIG.

Fie.

mem Ow

The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

PLATE VII

. Coconut bud rot. Young infection. Bacteria entered in young

leaves at top. Note brownish line of demarcation at bottom and
sides of farthest advance of the disease toward the base.

. Coconut bud rot. Young infection starting in at young unfolded

leaves at top.

. Coconut bud rot. Portion just below growing point in cabbage and

young wood. Young infection.
PLATE VIII

. Sterility of coconut fruit.
. False smut, or lump smut, of rice caused by Ustilaginoidea virens

(Cke.) Tak.

. Leaf spot of coconut caused by Pestalozzia palmarum Cke. et Grev.
. Leaf spot of coconut caused by EHxosporium durum Sacc.
. Leaf spot of rice caused by Cercospora.

PLATE IX

. Blight of beans, caused by Rhizoctonia. Note sclerotial bodies

of fungus on stems of plant.

. Blight of beans, caused by Rhizoctonia. Note sclerotial bodies

of fungus on stems of plant.

. Blight of beans, Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb., caused by Rhizocto-

niu,
PLATE X

. Blight produced on various seedlings inoculated with a pure culture

of Rhizoctonia isolated from soy bean.

. Black rot of cabbage caused by Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel.)

Erw. Smith. Note blackening of vascular bundles and bundle
scars, also rot at base of stem.

. Rhizoctonia. Sclerotial bodies. a, from pure culture of fungus-

producing blight of soy bean; b, from blighted soy bean plant.
PLATE XI

. Heart rot of abaca.
. Leaf spot of banana caused by Mycosphaerella musae Speg.

PLATE XII

. Bacterial wilt of tobacco caused by Bacillus solanacearum Erw.

Smith. Soil in foreground has been planted with tobacco for
two successive years. It is heavily infested with the bacteria.
The majority of plants have been killed.

. Bacterial wilt of tobacco caused by Bacillus solanacearum Erw.

Smith.

. Leaf spot of tobacco caused by Cercospora nicotianae Ell. et Ev.
. Root galls of tobacco caused by nematodes, Heterodera radicicola

Greef et Miiller.
PLATE XIII

Fic. 1. Damping off of coffee seedlings caused by Rhizoctonia.
Fics. 2 and 3. Damping off of tobacco caused by Phytophthora nicotianae

Breda de Haan. Inoculated and control seed flats.

xmr,a,5 Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 271

PLATE XIV

Fig. 1. Sooty mold of pineapple.
2. Bacterial blight of Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. caused by Pseudomonas
phaseoli Erw. Smith.
3. Rust of mulberry caused by Kuehneola fici (Cast.) Butl. var. mori-
cola Henn.
PLATE XV

Fic. 1. Blight of gabi caused by Phytophthora colocasiae Rac.
2. Orange galls of calamismis caused by Woroninella psophocarpi Rac.

PLATE XVI

. Blight of sugar cane caused by Rhizoctonia. Note sclerotial bodies.
. Leaf spot of sugar cane caused by Cercospora.

. Rust of sugar cane caused by Puccinia kuehnii (Krueg.) Butl.

. Leaf spot of sugar cane caused by Bakerophoma sacchari Diedicke.

PLATE XVII

Fic. 1. Smut of sugar cane caused by Ustilago sacchari Rabh.
2. Rind disease of sugar cane caused by Melanconium sacchari Massee.
3. The same as fig. 2.

Fic.

BOD

PLATE XVIII

Fic. 1. Leaf spot of eggplant caused by Gloeosporium melongenae Sacc.
2. Fruit rot of red pepper caused by Vermicularia capsici Syd.
3. Fruit rot of eggplant caused by Gloeosporium melongenae Sacc.

PLATE XIX

Fic. 1. Dry rot of cacao pods caused by Nectria bainii Massee var. hypo-

leuca Sacc.

2. Dry rot of cacao pods caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.)
Griff. et Maubl.

3. Dry rot of cacao pods caused by Fusarium theobromae App. et
Strunk. :

4. Storage rot of sweet potato caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae
(Pat.) Griff. et Maubl.

5. Black rot of cacao pod caused by Phytophthora faberi Maubl.
Pod inoculated with pure culture.

6. Rot of male inflorescence of jack fruit caused by Rhizopus arto-

carpi Rac.
PLATE XX
Fic. 1. Leaf spot of corn caused by Helminthosporium inconspicuum C.
et E.

bo

-. Downy mildew of corn caused by Sclerospora maydis {Rac.) Butl.
3. Blast of corn kernels possibly caused by Fusarium.

PLATE XXI

Fic. 1. Soil sterilizer. Direct-heating method.
2. Preparation of standard Bordeaux mixture. Mixing lime and cop-
per sulphate solutions.

272

The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

PLATE XXII

Fic. 1. Knapsack spray pump.
2. Knapsack spray pump.
3. Bucket spray pump.
4. Barrel spray pump.

Fig.

ue

10.

Ibs
12.

13.
14.

1b.
. Rhizoctonia. Mycelium from pure culture of fungus (x 340),

TEXT FIGURES

Phyllachora sorghi v. Hohnel. Cross section of stroma, showing
perithecium, ostiolum, asci, and ascospores (xX 175). Vascular
bundles of leaf develop normally within the mass of fungus
mycelium.

. Phyllachora sorghi v. Hohnel. a, asci with paraphyses (x 325);

b, ascospores (X 325).

. Puccinia purpurea Cooke. a, teleutospores (x 315); b, uredo-

spores (xX 315).

. Septogloeum arachidis Rac. a, cushionlike structure of conidio-

phores (xX 350); b, germinating conidia (x 350); c, conidia
(X< 350).

. Septogloeum arachidis Rac. Germinating conidia (x 350); germ

tubes entering host tissue by way of stomata.

. Rhizopus artocarpi Rac. a, sporangium with spores (x 3380);

b, rhizoid (x 330), from tissue of fruit; c, bursted sporangium,
showing columella, sporangiophore, and spores (x 3830).

. Cercospora brassicicola Henn. a, group of conidiophores (xX 340) ;

b, small conidia germinating (x 340); c¢, typical needlelike co-
nidia (x 340).

. Mycosphaerella caricae Syd. a, perithecium (xX 325); b, broken

perithecium, showing production of asci (xX 325); c, ascus with
ascospores (x 325); d, ascospores (x 825).

. Meliola. On Citrus nobilis Lour. a, perithecium (x 175); b,

ascus (x 3810); c, ascospores (xX 3810); d, mycelium with hy-
phopodia (x 310); e, sete (x 75).

Bud rot of coconut. a, cross section of infected portion of young
unfolded leaf, showing mass of bacteria in tissue (x 425); 5,
cross section of infected portion of young unfolded leaf, showing
mass of bacteria in xylem tubes of a vascular bundle (x. 330).

Pestalozzia palmarum Cke. et Grev. Conidia, showing character-
istic appendages (x 990); from pure culture.

Micropeltis mucosa Syd. Immature perithecium (x 335). The
fungus does not penetrate leaf tissue.

Micropeltis mucosa Syd. Asci with ascospores (x 340).

Hemileia vastatrix B. et Br. a, infected coffee leaf, showing
mycelium in tissue and production of uredospores some of
which were cut in sectioning (x 3825); 6, teleutospores
(x 325); c, germinating teleutospores, promycelia, and sporidia
(x 325); d, uredospores (xX 325).

Phytophthora colocasiae Rac. Conidia (x 380).

isolated from Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (G. hispida Maxim.).
Note characteristic branching.

xuna,s Reinking: Philippine Economic-Plant Diseases 273

17. Rhizoctonia. Mycelium from sclerotial body, growing in pure
culture (Xx 340); a, formation of sclerotial body; 6, portions
of sclerotial body. Isolated from Glycine max (Linn.) Merr.
(G. hispida Maxim.).

18. Peronospora. On Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (G. hispida Maxim.) .
a, portion of typical branched conidiophore (x 320); 6, conidia
(xX 320).

19. Uromyces sojae Syd. Uredospores (X 315).

20. Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. et Maubl. Section through
diseased sweet potato, showing pycnidium, ostiolum, paraphyses,
and immature spores (x 270).

21. Bacillus solanacearum Erw. Smith. Cross section of tomato stem,
showing xylem tubes completely filled with bacteria (x 350).

22. Section through diseased abaca leaf, in heart of plant, showing
mass of bacteria in tissue (xX 3380).

23. Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan. Section of damped-off
stem of tobacco, showing mycelium penetrating throughout the
tissue (xX 310).

24. Cercospora nicotianae Ell. et Ev. a, group of conidiophores, two
of which are germinating (x 340); 6, germinating conidia
(x 340).

25. Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Tak. a, spores (xX 1,800); b, ger-
minating spores (x 1,800).

26. Cercospora lussoniensis Sacc. from Phaseolus lunatus Linn. a,
group of conidiophores (x 3840); b, germinating conidia (x
340). ;

27. Woroninella psophocarpi Rac. a, cross section of gall from leaf,
showing production of sporangia (x 80); b, sporangia (xX SHO); 2
c, zoOspores (xX 325).

28. Bakerophoma sacchari Diedicke. Various types of conitiia (x
1,000).

29. Cercospora on Saccharum officinarum Linn. a, group of coni-
diophores (x 320); 6, conidia (x 320); c, conidia (Xx 640).

30. Melanconium sacchari Massee. a, mass of conidia, composing

: hairlike strand (x 300); 6, conidia (x 900).

31. Puccinia kuehnii (Krueg.) Butl. a, uredospores (x 320); b,
germinating uredospores (x 320).

32. Ustilago sacchari Rabh. a, spores (xX 340); 6, germinating spores
with promycelia (x 340); c, sporidia (x 340).

33. Phytophthora faberi Maubl. .a, chlamydospores (x 325) from
pure culture; 6, conidium (x 325) from pure culture; c, conidia
(Xx 325) from surface of diseased fruit. |

34. Fusarium theobromae App. et Strunk. a, portion of conidiophore
(x 315); 6, microconidia (x 315); c, macroconidia (x 315).

35. Nectria bainii Massee. var. hypoleuca Sace. a, asci with ascos-
pores (X 325); b, ascospores (x 650).

36. Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. et Maubl. from- cacao.
a, young conidia (x 350); 6, germinating young conidia
(xX 850); c, mature conidia (x 350); d, germinating mature
conidia (x 3850).

274

37

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

The Philippine Journal of Science

. Cercospora. On Vigna sinensis Endl. a, group of conidiophores
with immature conidia attached (x 350); 6, conidia (x 3850);
c, germinating conidia (x 350); d, germinating conidiophores
(x 350).

Erysiphaceae on Vigna catjang Walp. Mycelium and conidio-
phores with chains of conidia (x 325).

Sclerospora maydis (Rac.) Butl. a, conidiophore with conidia,
\arising from stomata of leaf (x 320); b, conidia (x 320);
c, germinating conidia (x 320). f

Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. et E. a, group of conidio-
phores (xX 320); 6, conidium from tassel of corn (xX 320);
c, conidia from leaf of corn (x 320).

Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. et E. a, germinating conidio-
phores (X 320); 6b, germinating conidia (xX 320).

Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. et E. Direct penetration of
host tissue (x 325).

Helminthosporium inconspicuum C. et E. Germinating spore
(x 345), germ tube about to enter stomata.

‘NNHSYOS 4O SASVASIG SNOODNNA “1 ALWI1d i

*g GNV } ‘SON ‘¥ ‘TITX “JOS ‘Nunor “1IHg] [‘SINVIg 40 SASVaSIq : INDINIGY

“SNONN4A AG GASNVO LOdS gval ‘il aLlWwi1d

*g GNV 7 ‘SON ‘Y ‘ITIX “IOS "Nuno “1IHg] [SUNVIg 40 SASvasIq : DNIMNIGY

i

el ee gf OLA

“SAAVAT SNHLIO 40 SASVASIG ‘Ill ALW1d

“g GNV > ‘SON ‘¥ ‘IIIX “10S “NunOf “TIHg] - [‘SINVIg 40 SASVaSIq : DNIMNIGY

‘HANNVO SNYLIO “Al ALVW1d

“9 GNV } ‘SON ‘Vv ‘IIIX “Ios ‘Nuno “11H g] [‘SINVIq JO SASVASIG : DNIMNIGQ

[PHIL. JOURN. Sct., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AND 5.

DISEASES OF PLANTS.]

.

REINKING

Fig. 3.

Fig. 2.
COCONUT BUD ROT.

Fig. 1.

PLATE V.

‘Lou Gna LNNODSOD ‘IA 3LV1d

*g GNV } ‘SON ‘¥ ‘JITX “IOS ‘Nunopr “mHg] [‘SINVIg 40 SASVaSIq : SNDINIGY

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS.] [Puit. Journ. Sci., XIII, A, Nos. 4 Anp 5.

Fig. 3.

PLATE VII. COCONUT BUD ROT.

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS ] [PuHIL. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 anp 5.

PLATE Vill. DISEASES OF COCONUT AND RICE,

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [ PHL. Journ. Sci., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AND 5.

PLATE IX. RHIZOCTONIA BLIGHT OF BEANS.

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [Puit. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AnD 5.

PLATE X. BLACK ROT OF CABBAGE AND RHIZOCTONIA BLIGHT.

“VNVNVG 4O LOdS 4V4a7 GNV YOVaV 4O LOY LYVSH ‘IX 3LV1d

*g GNV } ‘SON ‘VY ‘TITX “10S “Nunog “TIHG] [SEINVIg dO SASVaASIG : ONIMNIGY

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [Pum. Journ. Sctr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 anp 5.

Fig. 1. Bacterial wilt of tobacco.

Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Diseases of tobacco.

PLATE XIil.

REINKING: DisEASEs OF PLANTs.] [Pum. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AND 5.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

PLATE Xill. DAMPING-OFF OF COFFEE AND TOBACCO,

“AYYSAE INN GNV ‘NVAd “ATlddVANId 4O SASVSSIG “AIX ALW1d

*G GNV F ‘SON ‘VY ‘IITX “IOS ‘Nunor “‘1Hg] [‘SENVIg 40 SaSVvasIq : ONDINIGY

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTs.] [Pui. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AND 5.

PLATE XV. BLIGHT OF GABI AND ORANGE GALLS OF CALAMISMIS.

[PHiL. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AnD 5.

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS.]

DISEASES OF SUGAR CANE.

PLATE XVI.

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [PuHiu. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AND 5.

PLATE XVII. DISEASES OF SUGAR CANE,

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [Puru. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 Anp 5.

PLATE XVIII. DISEASES OF EGGPLANT AND PEPPER,

[Puiu. Journ. Scr., XIII, A, Nos. 4 ann 5.

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS.]

SWEET POTATO, AND JACK,

,

DISEASES OF CACAO

PLATE XIX.

‘NYOO 4O SASVASIG ‘XX 3LV1d

*g GNV 7 ‘SON ‘V¥ ‘IIIX “IOS “NuNoOr “IHg] ['SINVIg 40 SASvasIq : SNDINIGY

REINKING: DISEASES OF PLANTS. ] [PuHiL. Journ. Sci., XIII, A, Nos. 4 AnpD 5.

Fig. 1. Soil sterilizer. Direct-heating method.

Fig. 2. Preparation of standard Bordeaux mixture.

PLATE XxXI.

“SNLVEVddV ONIAVUdS: “IIXX 3LW1d

"g GNV > ‘SON ‘VW ‘IITX “IOS "Nunop “‘IHg] ”

[‘SINV1q 4O S&SVaSIG : DNIMNIGDY

PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE on
A TEN-YEAR INDEX © - a Acs oe ¥

CONTENTS AND INDEX OF THE PHILIPPINE TOURMAL OF SOrENCR,
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THE PHILIPPINE ie
OURNAL OF SCIENCE
A. CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND THE INDUSTRIES
VoL. XIII NOVEMBER, 1918 No. 6

MECHANICAL EXTRACTION OF COIR

By F. V. VALENCIA *
(From the Bureau of Science, Manila)

ONE PLATE

A valuable industry new to the Philippines can be established
in the extraction of fibers from coconut husks and in the use of
these husk fibers for the manufacture of brushes, door mats,
cordage, floor mats, mattresses, pillows, cushions, etc. The ex-
ploitation of such an industry would not only result in utilizing
. the husks but would at the same time tend to eliminate their
use as fuel in the grill drying of copra and thus obviate an
amount of smoke that produces a dark-colored copra of inferior
grade. The ash is generally used for fertilizer, and rejected
husks are frequently incinerated in large heaps for the manurial
value of the ash. The coir industry in Ceylon is well estab-
lished and gives household employment to many women and
children. There are also mills equipped with-modern machin-
ery. The best-grade fiber:is said to be made entirely by native
methods which have been described by D. S. Pratt.’

Prudhomme ® says that in Ceylon one thousand husks yield
an average of from 68 to 79 kilograms of fiber. These figures
may be taken to represent the average commercial yield of fiber
in India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, Java, and Indo-China. Sa-
leeby * has estimated that the husks of one thousand coconuts

* Testing engineer.
? This Journal, Sec. A (1914), 9, 195.
*Prudhomme, E., Le Cocotier. Augustin Challamel, Editeur, Paris
(1906), 374.
Phi Agr weve (192) 5, 278.
161175 275

276 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

will give an average yield of 75 kilograms of fiber, of which 65
kilograms are yarn fiber and 10 kilograms brush fiber. It has
been estimated ° also that the husk of each nut gathered in the
Philippines in 1916 would have yielded 0.1, kilogram (0.22 pound)
of coir, and that in the same year there were harvested in the
Philippines 735,000,000 coconuts. On the last two basic yields
55,025 and 73,500 metric tons, respectively, of total coconut fiber
could have been extracted from the husks in the Philippine
Islands in 1916. 4

Unquestionably one of the most important factors that has
prevented the development of the coir industry in the Philippines
is the large amount of manual labor required to extract a small
quantity of fiber that has a comparatively low market price. It
is. doubtful if hand extraction in the Philippines will ever be
largely developed. The fact that the coir industry flourishes in
India and other tropical countries outside of the Philippines is
largely due to very cheap labor. In those places the extraction
of the fiber is largely practiced by women and children at home
during their spare time. The establishment of a paying coir
industry in the Philippines resolves itself into the installation
of an efficient power-driven plant situated within easy reach of
an adequate supply of cheap husks. In tropical countries out-
side the Philippines a great deal has been done in the design and |
manufacture of power-driven extracting, cleaning, and baling
units, etc., for the extraction of coir on a large scale, in the
hope of increasing the production, lowering the cost, and ul-
timately becoming independent of the slow hand methods. Ma-
chines of several types have been built, altered, experimented
with, and offered to the public; yet much remains to be done
to perfect the most successful ones. Hamel Smith and Pape‘*
have described some of these together with their operation.
They say:

Fibre engineers, especially those working to perfect coir fibre machinery,
are the first to agree that, although great improvements have been
introduced during the last few years, perfection has not been reached,
and so they are devoting their energies to further improve the appliances
for treating coir fibre that have already been placed on the market.
We are very interested in their efforts to do so, and believe that the
scientific development of coco-nut estates, backed up by ample funds, and

"Commerce Reports, Washington, D. C., Saturday, July 14, 1917, No.
168, pp. 164-165.

°Hamel Smith, H., and Pape, F. A. G., Coco-nuts: The Consols of the
East. ‘Tropical Life’ Publishing Dept., London (1912), 250-462, describe
these machines and their operation.

XIII, A, 6 Valencia: Mechanical Extraction of Coir DHT

urged on by the necessity of dispensing with hand-labour in the factories
on estates as far as possible, will encourage the coir-fibre engineers
to further activity until finally, with the help of the estate owners, some-
thing entirely satisfactory to both sides will be evolved.

Meanwhile, we can truly state that during the last few years at least
one firm of engineers with whom we have been working, have devoted
untiring attention in adapting their machines to suit modern requirements,
and especially for the treatment of fibre from estates containing 1,000,000
trees or more, that is, estates having the fibre of from forty to fifty million
nuts to be treated every year. Those desiring information on the subject
_of the best machine to use must give the fullest information concerning
their requirements, both as regards the fibre to be treated, its output,
the class of finished article required, and so on. Once these come to
hand the makers of the various machines can give reliable advice on the
subject.

* * * * ok * *

We will conclude this section with details of the necessary plant for
treating 10,000 husks per day of ten hours, and converting them into fibre,
spinning and cabling the fibre into yarn, and manufacturing such yarn
into matting, cords, ropes, &c.

Quantity. Machine. Quantity. Machine.

2 Splitting. 2 Ballot press.

2 Husk crusher. 4 Hand frames.

8 Extractor (breaker). 4 *” looms.
4sets Spare lags. 2 Braider or plaiter.
2,000 ” pins. 72 ” bobbins.

8 Extractor (finisher). 1 Bobbin winder.
4sets Spare lags. 1 Combing.

2,000 ee pINs: 1 Shearing.
1 Extractor (special). 1 Cop winder.
500 Spare pins. 1 Calendering.

2 Willowing. 1 Measuring.

24 Brush combs. 1 Matting loom.

4 Fibre cutting. 1 Creel.

1 Hydraulic press. 1 Matting loom.

1 zB pump. 1 Creel.

1 Press stop. 1 Matting loom.

1 Milling. 1 Creel.

6 Hackles. 2 Compound rope.

8 Spinners (small). 2 0 uP

576 a bobbins. 2 Rope strander.

4 Cablers. 12 Selosine:

48 ” bobbins. 6 Bobbins.

6 Spinners (large). 2 Rope strander.

228 uy bobbins. 12 closines

4 Cablers (large). 6 Bobbins.

48 4 bobbins. 1 Rope baller.

2 Hanking. i> 2 coring:

The Brake Horse Power required is 1380.
The space required is 1,000 sq. yd.

278 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

In order to determine the capacity and power consumption
of some of the machines used in extracting coconut fiber, the
Bureau of Science conducted some tests on an available crusher,
a special fiber-extracting machine, and a willowing machine.
They are manufactured by an apparently reputable concern, have
been widely advertised during a score of years, and were in
operation at the Surabaya Fiber Exposition where they attracted
considerable attention and received favorable comment.

The husks used in the testing of these machines were obtained
from nuts used in making copra in Laguna Province, Luzon,
which is one of the most important of the coconut-producing
districts in the Philippines. They were water-logged when re-
ceived at the Bureau of Science which was apparently due to their
having been transported part of the way in rafts. Judging from
the pale, mottled green color they must have been taken from
slightly immature nuts.

After the nuts have been harvested, the first step in the ex-
traction process is the removal of the fiber-bearing husk, or
pericarp. In the Philippines, this husking operation is per-
formed by impaling the nut manually on a pointed iron blade
set vertically in a wooden base, after which the nut is given a
sharp twist which pries off part of the husk. These alternate
impaling and twisting operations are repeated until all of the
husk is removed. There is little simiarity in the shape of the
husk fragments separated by this method; at times the husks
may be separated in halves, at other times in thirds, and if the
husk adheres tenaciously the fibrous envelope may come off in
much smaller fractions. One man easily can husk one thou-
sand nuts daily by this method, and Prudhomme is under the
impression that in the Philippines’ three thousand nuts are
husked daily by one man.

In order to secure an increased output at lower cost, attempts
have been made to construct husking machines. Those that cut
husk, shell, and nut into fragmental wedges yield a husk less
satisfactory for the manufacture of coir, for in many cases
the cuts are across the fiber. The fiber can probably be ex-
tracted most satisfactorily from the hand-husked product.

After the husks have been removed from the nut they are
soaked in water in order to soften the outer skin and the cellular
tissue in which the filaments are embedded, which facilitates
the defibering process. The makers of the machines state that
the longer the husks are soaked the better the coir obtained,

* Prudhomme, E., Le Cocotier, p. 363.

XII, A, 6 Valencia: Mechanical Extraction of Coir 279

and that long soaking also reduces the fiber-extracting power
not a little. The minimum period of maceration is stated at
seven days. Some of the husks defibered at the Bureau of
Science were soaked in ordinary tap water at room temperature
for about ten days and the others were subjected to the cleaning
process as received. No appreciable difference was noticed be-
tween the especially soaked husks and those used as received
with regard to the ease of working and quality of product. This
was probably due to the fact that the husks were received so
moist that after pressing in the crusher they still appeared ‘wet.

The husk-crushing machine consists of a massive cast-iron |
frame upon which are mounted two cast-iron, fluted, gear-driven
rolls revolving in opposite directions. The clearance between
the rolls is adjustable by a hand wheel and, to prevent breakage
due to too heavy feed or to the accidental introduction of stones,
tools, or other hard bodies, one of the rolls is free to move away
against the reaction of two powerful helical springs. The husks,
after being torn into fifths to facilitate crushing, were fed
into the sheet-iron hopper located above, which has the same
width as the rolls. The crushing machine subjected the husks
to a kneading and flattening action that loosened the adhering
pulp from the filaments. It was necessary to pass the material
through the crusher several times before it was _ sufficiently
mashed for the fiber-extracting machine. At the first crushing
the clearance of the rolls was at a maximum in order not to
clog the machine. At each successive pass the roll clearance
was reduced. If the crusher were used in sets, each pair of
rolls having less clearance, it is believed that the crushing opera-
tion could be carried on more satisfactorily and with less labor.
In the manufacturers’ catalogue this machine is said to have a
capacity of from 5,000 to 8,000 husks per day according to their
size, with a drive-pulley speed of 80 revolutions per minute and
2 horse power.

TABLE I.—Test of crusher.

Husks fed:
Kilograms 1,523.5
Number 2,900
Husk capacity of machine:
Per hour 3 187
Per 10-hour day 1,870
Power required for driving:
Kilowatts i
Horse power 2

Time required when each husk is crushed four times: Total,
15 hours, 31 minutes; per husk, 19 seconds.

280 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Table I shows that the capacity of the crusher as operated
in these tests is much below that given by the makers, perhaps
due to the fact that the husks were fed in too large pieces. We
were unable to operate the machine with a full hopper. A full-
hopper feed invariably clogged the machine because insufficient
power was transmitted to the roll-drive pulley; the belt would
slip excessively, and finally jump the pulley. This of course
could never be tolerated when operating commercially.

The next operation recommended by the makers of the ma-
chines after crushing the husk sections is the extraction of the
fiber by means of extracting machines generally worked in pairs
in order to separate the brush fibers from the spinning fibers.
The machines are practically identical, except that the one
called the “Breaker,” into which the crushed husks are fed,
has a scutch wheel fitted with wider-spaced teeth than the other,
which is called the “Finisher.” The crushed husks are intro-
duced between slowly revolving, fluted feeding rolls that press
them against a wooden drum studded with steel pins that
scratch them to pieces. The partially disintegrated husk is
fed into the finisher, and this completes the extraction of the
fiber.

Neither of the machines was tested at the Bureau of Science.
Instead, these two machines were substituted by a special. fiber-
extracting machine that is recommended for defibering young
and immature husks, or husks of light growth, or when one does
not desire to keep the brush fiber separate from the spinning
fiber. This special fiber-extracting machine works on the same
principle as the breaker and finisher and, like them, consists
mainly of a drum studded with steel teeth, revolving within a
sheet-iron housing, and a feeding device for holding the husks
while pressed against the drum. The principal difference be-
tween this machine and the others consists in a lattice conveyor
apron upon which the husks are thrown and on which they are
slowly carried forward until seized by the feed rolls. Only a
small portion of the husks was completely defibered after the
first pass, and many had to be fed through the machine four or
five times in order to effect a fair degree of disintegration.
Even then there remained groups of filaments or husk frag-
ments, that were firmly held together by the pulp tissue or by
the tough epidermis. The fibers obtained by each pass were
kept separate. The coarse filaments particularly were frequently
injured by having their ends broken off or frayed, perhaps in
part due to insufficient preliminary soaking. The manufac-

XIII, A, 6 Valencia: Mechanical Extraction of Coir 281

turers state that this machine will defiber from 1,200 to 1,600
husks per day according to their size, with a consumption of
3 horse power at 160 revolutions per minute.

TABLE II.—Test of special fiber-extracting machine.

Husks defibered:

Kilograms 1523-5

Number 2,900
Husk capacity of machine:

Per hour 106

Per 10-hour day 1,060
Coir produced (kilograms) 473.1
Power required for driving:

Kilowatts 2

Horse power 2.7

Time required to defiber: Total, 27 hours, 13 minutes; per
husk, 338 seconds.

Table II shows that the capacity of the machine is only slightly
less than that given by the makers, and also that the power
consumption is somewhat below that recommended.

The final machine operation in the extraction of coir is a
willowing process which frees the filaments from loosely ad-
herent dust, short fibers, etc. The willowing machine consists
of a revolving cylindrical wire cage, in the center of which a
shaft, upon which are mounted iron beaters that shake the coir
free of dirt, rotates at a higher speed than the cage. The cage
may be adjusted at any pitch, depending upon the speed at
which the fiber is to pass through the machine, which in turn is
determined by the amount of dirt to be removed. The uncleaned
fiber is fed into the higher end of the cage, where it is seized
by the beater which twirls it about and causes the extraneous
matter to fall through the wire netting, and the cleaned coir
is eventually discharged at the lower end. When the crushed
husks were passed through the special fiber-extracting machine
for the first time, the product was composed of the finest fil-
aments with a high percentage of pulp, and each succeeding pass
yielded a coarser grade of fiber. The product of each operation
was separately cleaned in the willowing machine, thus preserv-
ing the grades.

TABLE III.—Test of willowing machine.
Husks defibered:

Number 2,900

Kilograms 1,523
Husk capacity of machine:

Per hour 211

Per 10-hour day 2,110

282 The Philippine Journal of Science

TABLE III.—Test of willowing machine—Continued.

Coir produced (kilograms) 473.1
Power required:
Kilowatts 2
Horse power 2a

Time required to willow: Total, 13 hours, 41 minutes; per
husk, 17 seconds.

The results recorded in Table III for the capacity of the wil-
lowing machine, like those of the crusher, are below those given
by the makers; the power consumption is slightly greater.
During this test the speed of the drive pulley was 308 revolutions
per minute, which is about 43 revolutions per minute higher
than recommended by the manufacturers, and it was so geared
that the beater shaft ran at 214 revolutions per minute and the
wire cage at about 5 revolutions per minute. Although the fiber |
was thoroughly freed from all loosely adherent dust, dirt, and
short fibers, it was badly tangled as the result of having been
stirred by the beaters.

The design of these machines should be improved, and they
should be made to operate with less noise.

ILLUSTRATION

PLATE [I

Fic. 1. Crushing machine through which the husks are passed before they
are defibered.
2. Coconut-husk defibering machine.
3. Willowing machine, used for cleaning the raw coconut fiber as it
comes from the defiberer.
283

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VALENCIA: MECHANICAL EXTRACTION OF CoIR.] (PHIL. JOURN. SCI., XIII, A, No.

la

Fig. 3. Willowing machine.
PEATE SE

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PHILIPPINE COIR AND
COIR CORDAGE COMPARED WITH ABACA (MANILA HEMP).*

By ALBERT HE. W. KING

(From the Laboratory of General, Inorganic, and Physical Chemistry,
Bureau of Science, Manila)

FOUR TEXT FIGURES

The information on coconut fiber found in current literature
and in reference books and handbooks is characterized by a

paucity of precise numerical data. Most of the articles are
limited to generalities which dismiss the subject of coir with
the statement that the fiber is very resilient, elastic, or tena-
cious. Usually no quantitative results are given, and many
authors have in certain respects misinterpreted the meager or
incomplete data at hand. Our present knowledge of the strength
and durability of coir cordage is mostly obtainable from the
work of Royle.2 The investigations of the Marine Board at
Calcutta,? of Roxburgh,‘ of Wight,’ and of others who have
studied the subject are not available in the original.

The work of Roxburgh on the comparative strength of twenty-
one fiber cords, one of which is coir, before and after macera-
tion in water for one hundred sixteen days is also cited by
Prudhomme,’ Lecomte,’ and Copeland,® but these writers quote
Roxburgh’s experiments in markedly different ways.

*Received for publication August 4, 1918.

* Royle, J. Forbes, Fibrous Plants of India Fitted for Cordage, Clothing,
and Paper. .Smith, Elder, and Co., London; Smith, Taylor, and Co.,
Bombay (1855), 116, 269, 310, 331-832.

* Through Royle, op. cit., 331-332.

““Observations of the late Dr. William Roxburgh, Botanical Superin-
tendent of the Honourable East India Company’s Garden at Calcutta, on
the various Specimens of Fibrous Vegetables, the produce of India, which
may prove valuable Substitutes for Hemp and Flax, on some future day,
in Europe.’ Edited by a Friend, and published at the expense of the
East India Company, for the information of the Residents, and the benefit
that may arise therefrom throughout the Settlements in India. London:
1815. [Cited by Royle, page 6. Roxburgh, first director of the botanical
garden at Calcutta, was born in 1759 and died in 1815.]

*Through Royle, op. cit., pp. 116, 310. Wight, director of the botanical
garden at Madras, was born in 1796 and died in 1872. None of the writers
who quote Wight give references.

*Prudhomme, E., Le Cocotier. Augustin Challamel, Editeur, Paris
(1906), 355-356.

* Lecomte, M., quoted by Prudhomme, p. 356.

‘Copeland, E. B., The Coco-nut. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London (1914),
183.

285

236 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Royle? gives the data in the following form:

Comparative Statement of the effect of Maceration 116 days in stagnant
water, comparing the strength by weights suspended to four-feet lengths
of the various cords therein mentioned, when fresh. *

Average Weight at which each sort of Line |
broke. |

NAMES OF THE PLANTS,
No. |And brief Remarks on the various Materials When fresh.
employed in these Experiments.

After 116 days’
maceration.

White. | Tanned|Tarred. | White. | Tanned Tarred.

rotten, as was also
an English log-line

1 | English Hemp, apiece of a new tiller-rope_-_ LOD) |S ee oe eee |
2 | Hemp, Cannabis, the growth of this season, 74 139 45 a]l rotten
from the Company's Hemp Farm near :
| Calcutta. |
| 8 | Coir, the fibres of the husk of the Cocoa- CHER [Been eee ee 54u. | Se
| nut. | | j
4 ! Ejoo, Saguerus Rumphii, Roxb. > | Ry Eee eens 94). ee
| Aaschinomene cannabina, Dansha of the | 88 101 84 40 56 65
| 5 | Bengalese. The fibres of plants that
| had nearly ripened their seed. |
6 | The fibres of the bark of No. 5, from 46 | 61 48 | rotten 68 45
| plants coming into blossom. 1
7 | Crotalaria juncea, Sunn of the Bengalese et 68 69 60 | rotten 51 65
8| Corchorus olitorius, Bunghi-Paat. The 68 69 | 61 40 49 60
| fibres of its bark called Jute. . |
9 | Corchorus capsularis, Ghee-Nalta-Paat. (yl eaeae fee ee ee 15{ tN (ies Sears] fe eee
The fibres called Nalta-Jute. | |
10 | Flax, Linum usitatissimum, the growth | 89 |2.-52.2_| ==. stimetten\|_2 =) |-aaeee
| of the Company’s Hemp Farm near | |
| Calcutta. |
il |(Ag@ave americana “oe eee). scepter | 110. 79 | 78 | rotten ! rotten 154
lie 12 Sanseviera zeylanica; in Sanscrit Murva - 120 | 73 | 48 30 | 26 34
| 13 | Abroma augusta. Woollet-comul of the | 74 | 58 44 | 38 | 54 50
| | Bengalese. (
| 14 | Guazuma ulmifolia, Bastard-Cedar. The | 52 | AT | 45 30) 39 eee
| fibres of the bark of some straight lux- . |
| | uriant young plants. | | |
15 | Hibiscus tiliaceus, Bola of the Bengalese __| 41 62 | 61 | 40 | 55 70
16 | Hibiscus strictus, from the Moluccas, a Cotas ee | sea <n 262 Grates ict 5 hee
tall, white-flowered variety of it. | |
17 | Hibiseus mutabilis..c2 2c 8ee 8. 45 Goes ee ees rotten 4B he ee |
18 | Hibiscus, from the Cape of Good Hope -___| DO otal Sle eee uly (a eg oe eee SS
19 | Bauhinia racemosa, Roxb., a large scan- 69). kee ee eee rotten:|s.: 2. |S eee |
| dent species. | | } |
| 20 | The same as No. 19, only maceration was BG eee eee eee oe Totteny|) Saeeeee
| used to help to take the bark off the |
twigs with more ease. | |
21 | éréuliaivillosaiccese ee we ee | pone (eae | 30) eae

* The values are apparently in pounds.—A. E. W. K.
b Arenga saccharifera (Wurmb.) Labill.

XIII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 287

As presented by Prudhomme only thirteen tests are included,
the English values having been converted into the correspond-
ing metric ones and, in addition, the title of the table changed
to read as if Roxburgh’s experiments had been conducted on
cords of the same size. The size of the cords is not mentioned
in the table quoted by Royle, from whom Prudhomme obtained
his data through M. Lecomte.

Copeland still further condenses Roxburgh’s data by omitting
thirteen of the twenty-one fibers and by dropping the tests on
tanned and tarred specimens. He fails to state that the fibers
were tested in the form of cords, and neglects to include the
lengths of the specimens tested; nor does he state where his data
were obtained.

Wight’s results on the comparative strength of coir rope are
quoted more frequently than Roxburgh’s, and often constitute ~
the only numerical data accompanying an article on coconut
fiber. The former results are cited in several different ways
by Spon,° Watt,'’® Vétillart,1: Mitchell and Prideaux,'* Dodge,’
and Matthews.* Royle? gives the following as the results of
Doctor Wight’s experiments:

Pounds.

Coir 224

Pooley Mungee (Hibiscus cannabinus) 290
Marool (Sanseviera zeylanica) 316
Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) 346
Cutthalay nar (Agave americana) 362
Janapa (Crotolaria juncea), Sunn, hindee 407
Yercum (Calotropis gigantea) 552

Some of the designations are in the Indian vernacular. Ac-
cording to this table coir is the weakest of the seven fibers tested ;
in another place Royle ** restates a part of the same data, but

*Spons’ Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, and Raw
Commercial Products, edited by Chas. G. Warnford Lock. E. & F. N. Spon,
London and New York (1882), 1, 940.

*” Watt, Geo., A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Govern-
ment of India Central Printing Office, Calcutta (1889), 2, 487.

4 Vétillart, M., Etudes sur les Fibres Végétales Textiles Employées
dans L’Industrie. Librairie de Firmin-Didot et Cie., Paris (1876), 244-245.

“= Mitchell, C. A., and Prideaux, R. M., Fibres Used in the Textile and
Allied Industries. Scott, Greenwood & Son, London (1910), 178.

* Dodge, Chas. R., A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of
the World. Government Printing Office, Washington (1897), 121-123.

“4 Matthews, J. M., The Textile Fibres, Their Physical, Microscopical and
Chemical Properties. John Wiley & Sons, New York; Chapman & Hall,
Limited, London (1913), 448-450.

= oe. ext.

B88 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

gives 190 pounds instead of 290 pounds as the strength of Hi-
biscus cannabinus. He says:

The comparative strength of Coir cordage is well known, but we may,
nevertheless, mention, that in some experiments made by Dr. Wight,
Coir cordage broke with 224 lb., when Hibiscus cannabinus bore only 190
lb., but the Moorva, [Sanseviera zeylanica] 316 lb.

The latter form puts coir in a more favorable light and is
the way in which Wight’s data are quoted by Matthews,’ Dodge,*"
and Vétillart..7 All of these authors misspell Wight’s name,
referring to him as “Wright.”

Spons’ Encyclopaedia ** reduces Wight’s results to a single
statement: “In Dr. Wight’s experiments, coir cordage broke at
224 Ib.” ,

Watt *° devotes about eleven pages to the discussion of coir
cordage, but his only reference to test data is the statement
already quoted from ‘Spons’ Encyclopaedia. Mitchell and Pri-
deaux pass over the tensile strength of coir by saying: “Ac-
cording to Wright [sic] its strength as compared with hemp
is as 224 : 190.” ;

The bare statement that a particular piece of coir cordage
broke at 224 pounds, unaccompanied by additional information
as to circumference, diameter, number of strands, or weight
per unit length, is of very little use. Owing to their incomplete-
ness it is evident that Roxburgh’s results as quoted by Royle
and others, also have little value for the purpose of comparison
with tensile-test data secured by other investigators along similar
lines. The changes in form that they have suffered at the hands
of certain writers have not increased their usefulness. Royle
is the only writer who mentions that Roxburgh’s specimens
were ruptured by weights suspended from them. Undoubtedly
the results were obtained under rather disadvantageous condi-
tions, such as difficulty in applying the load uniformly or in
adding sufficiently small increments, difficulties that the use of
modern testing machines have overcome. The quotations given
are typical of the published literature on the physical prop-
erties of coir cordage, and show that the data therein presented
do not justify the expressed opinions that coir is elastic;° that

* Op. cit., 116.

* Loe: cit:

* Loe. cit.

2 Op. cit., 426-437. ;

© Matthews, loc. cit.; Mitchell and Prideaux, loc. cit.; Dodge, loc. cit.;
Watt, op. cit.; Vétillart, loc. cit.; Copeland, loc. cit.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 289

it is exceptionally tenacious;?: that it is resilient; that it is
one of the best fibers for ships’ cables;** and that it is partic-
ularly suited to withstand jerks,** sudden heavy strains,?> and
mechanical wear.”°

The object of this paper is to present precise data on the
tensile strength, elongation, and elastic properties of Philippine
coconut fiber. Results given are on tests performed on single
filaments and on coir rope. It is believed that this is the first
time actual numerical data on the modulus of tensile elasticity
and on the tensile resilience of coir have been computed and
published.

Coir is obtained from the husk, or pericarp (called “bonot’
in many Filipino dialects), of the fruit of the coconut palm.
In the Philippines, up to the present time, most husks have been
either burned as fuel or allowed to rot. No figures are available
as to the number annually worked for fiber, but the quantity is
small, and the industry has no commercial importance, in spite
of efforts made to encourage it. It has been estimated that
735,000,000 coconuts were gathered in the Philippine Islands
in.1916, from the husks of which approximately 80,850 tons of
coir might have been realized, sufficient to make coir mats having
a wholesale value of 45,000,000 pesos. In southern India, Cey-
lon, Java, and the Malay Peninsula coir is the basis of a paying
industry. In these countries coir and coir products, in the form
of yarns, cordage, and mats, figure as articles of export. Java
and Singapore supply practically all of the coir doormats used
in the United States.”7

The fiber of commerce, when not discolored, is usually sorted
by hackling or combing into three grades according to length
and fineness. Brush or bristle fiber is composed of the coarsest
and stiffest filaments and, as the name indicates, is used for
making brushes. They are very stiff and decidedly woody. Mat
fiber consists of the finer, soft, fragile, and hairlike filaments
used for spinning mat and rope yarns. Coir tow is used for
stuffings in upholstery.

Extraction of the fiber—The Filipinos extract the coir from

** Matthews, loc. cit.; Dodge, loc. cit.; Vétillart, loc. cit.

™Fraker, Philippine Craftsman (1915-1916), 4, 596-600.

* Matthews, loc. cit.; Dodge, loc. cit.; Watt, loc. cit.; Fraker, loc. cit.

* Copeland, loc. cit.; Fraker, loc. cit.

* Fraker, loc. cit.

** Matthews, loc. cit.

* Commerce Reports. Washington, D. C. (July 14, 1917), No. 163,
pp. 164-165; Philip. Agr. Rev. (1918), 11, 7.

29() The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

the husks by hand, employing two different methods. In the one
the fresh husks are beaten on the convex side with a mallet,
stone, or club, until the fibers are freed from the corky cellular
tissue. This process is used by the school children and an insig-
nificant quantity is extracted, from which doormats and other
household articles are made. In the other process the husks as a
rule are split into segments, to facilitate the action of water and
of the retting bacteria, and they are steeped in either fresh or
brackish water, according to the locality, until sufficiently de-
composed to loosen the fiber. The filaments are then separated
from the pulp matrix by beating and by washing in water.
Generally no attempt is made to sort the fiber. After the fiber
has been dried in the sun, it is ready for use. In certain parts
of the Archipelago where the coconut palm abounds, extraction
of the fiber by this process is practiced to a limited extent as a
household industry. The coir thus secured is generally fabri-
cated into articles for personal use, and it seldom finds its way
into the market. It is sometimes used by the farmer and by
the owners of native sailing craft for fabricating inferior, rag-
ged-looking cordage. Both methods of extraction are slow and
tedious, particularly the one in which the husks are macerated in
water for periods varying from a few weéks to several months,
the time depending upon the practice in vogue in the particular
locality.

For the production of coir on a large scale there have been
manufactured power-driven machines of various sorts which,
together with their operation, have been described by Hamel
Smith and Pape.?® The Bureau of Science has made tests to
determine the capacity of some of these,”° the power required for
their operation, and the quality of the product.

Description of coir tested—Two different samples of coir
were tested. One was machine extracted at the Bureau of
Science, from fresh husks of coconuts grown in Laguna Province.
The other came from Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, in the form of rope
50 millimeters in circumference, the fiber having been extracted
by pounding husks that had been steeped in brackish water.

Most of the machine-cleaned filaments were smooth and free
from waste material. Owing to the violent shaking, fanning,
and tumbling action to which they had been subjected in the
willowing machine, the filaments were entirely free from loosely
adherent pulp, dust, and tow. Some were so smooth that it

** Hamel Smith, H., and Pape, F. A. G., Coco-nuts: The Consols of the
East. “Tropical Life’ Publishing Dept., London (1912).
* Valencia, F. V., Mechanical extraction of coir, antea, 275.

XIII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 291

seemed as though the surface had been polished. However, not
all of the fiber was so thoroughly cleaned. Some was contam-
inated with the tough epidermal tissue which was present in
sufficient quantities to bind the filaments together.

The retted fiber- was not so clean as that extracted mechan-
ically and therefore had a rough appearance. It was not only
contaminated with adherent pulp and leathery epidermal tissue,
which often bound the filaments into loose bundles, but was also
cluttered with appreciable quantities of loose waste material that
fell out largely in the form of dust on untwisting the rope.
This waste material, which consisted of pulp, dirt, short fibers,
and tow, increases both bulk and weight, but does not add to
the strength of the rope.

There is a marked difference in color between the two samples
of coir. The retted fiber is buckhorn brown and the machine-
cleaned fiber is hazel.*° Hazel is the true color of the filaments,
and the buckhorn brown color of the retted fiber is due to a
thin film of tissue from the husks that the cleaning process failed
to remove. Simply passing the filament several times between
the thumb nail and the tip of the index finger will remove this
coating of pulp, when the true hazel color appears.

Many of the machine-extracted filaments have frayed and
split ends, and sometimes the tips are broken off completely, ap-
parently due to the spiked drum that extracted the fiber from
the husks. These injured ends reduce the effective length of
the already short filaments, and must be cut off before they can
be subjected to tensile test, in order to avoid rupture which
would inevitably occur in the jaws of the testing machine.

Dimensions of coir filaments.—A series of measurements made
of thirty-nine representative machine-cleaned filaments shows
an average length of 245 millimeters, of which the minimum is
174 and the maximum 299 millimeters. Measurements of fifty-
three different retted filaments show an average length of 228
millimeters, of which the minimum and maximum lengths are
111 and 290 millimeters, respectively. Additional measure-
ments of retted and machine-cleaned filaments are given in
Tables I and II. The cross-sectional dimensions were obtained
by a micrometer caliper registering to the thousandth part of
aninch. In the case of the fine filaments that are comparatively
soft and yielding, especial care was exercised to obtain trust-
worthy measurements.

* Ridgway, R., Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. Published by
the author in Washington, D. C. (1912). Plates XIV and XV.
1611752

The Philippine Journal of Science. 1918

|

a
|
|
|

Remarks.

|Vers coarse filament.
Do.

Coarse elliptical-sectioned filament.

Coarse filament.

Coarse filament with a marked
taper.

Fine filament.

Very fine circular-sectioned fil-
ament.

Very fine filament.

292
nes I.—Dimensions of machine-cleaned coir plamnents Tite LE husks.

\Cross- sectional dimensions at twopoints

| that divide the filament into thirds.

Total length of |
filament. aoe = 7
Width. Thickness.

mm. in. mm. in. mm. in.
EO an | 0.989 0. 037 0. 482 0.019
0. 889 0. 035 0.584 | 0. 028
{ 0.888 0. 035 0. 609 0. 024
oe 8-08 1) o.660/ 0.026| 0.508] 0.020
Aa, ae 0. 685 0.027 0. 432 0.017
0. 609 0. 024 0.457 0.018
{ 0.558 0. 022 0.330 0.013
261) 10-28 110.588 | 0.021 | 0.381 | ~ 0.015
om | 10.67 |) O88] 9-021) 0.457 | 0,018
1 0.508} 0.020! 0.355] 0.014
Ser AE { 0.584 0. 028 0. 583 0.021
|. 0.457 0.018 0.330 0. 018
ote “= 0. 457 0. 018 0, 406 0.016
0.381 0. 015 0.279 0.011
959 { 0.254 0.010 0. 229 0. 009
it 0.178 0. 007 0.178 0. 007
ne vol 0.208 0. 008 0.178 0. 007
0.178 0.007 0. 152 0. 006
i e | An 3 || 0.178 0. 007 0.127 0.005
0. 162 0.006 0. 152 0. 006

pe
|ytedium filament.
|
J

ee Le ||

TABLE u pe erate of retted | coir lnnents (OD Ilocos Sur.*

Total length of

Cross-sectional dimensionsat two points
that divide the filament into thirds.

Rlaaients pac Sale = a Remarks.
| Width Thickness.
mm. in. mm. in. mm. in.
201 7.92 0. 838 0.033 0. 508 0.020 eee elliptical in cross
' 0. 787 0.031 0. 508 0.020 section.
0. 685 0. 027 0. 432 0.017
. 95 | Coarse fil it
i 0.584| 0.023 | 0.558) 0,022 | ct on: a
aan ihe ‘{ 0.685 0. 027 0. 533 0.021 |) Do
yt 0.381] 0.015] 0.881 | 0.016 || :
264 10.39 0. 635 0. 025 0. 432 0. 017 Nae si elliptical in cross
if 0. 584 0. 023 0.855 0)014 |) ) Bection-
235 9.25 { 0.634 0.025 0.381 0.015 } Do
3 | 0. 508 0. 020 0. 406 0.016 ‘
246 9.69 i 0. 406 0. 016 0.305 0.012 {Wine filament
- il 0. 127 0. 005 0.127 0.005 i
251 9.89 | 0. 305 0. 012 0. 254 0.010 [Ping filament, circular in cross
ae 0.178 0.007 0. 152 0. 006 section.
220 8.66 | 0. 203 0. 008 0.178 0.007 || Very fine filament, circular in cross
: 0, 102 0.004 0. 102 0.004 |} section.
0. 152 0.006 0.152 0. 006 |
g ; Vv fine fila: ibe
on ia G:a27 | 90,005" 0.227") » Joop [fi ere
161 5.95 0. 152 0. 006 0. 152 0. 006 eg fine filament, circular in cross
FB 0. 102 0. 004 0. 102 0. 004 section.

a Any pulp adhering to the filament was scraped off before calipering.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 998

Tables I and II show the diversity of the filaments in cross
section. They vary from specimens with fine circular sections
having a diameter of 0.152 millimeter to those with very coarse
elliptical sections having a width of 0.939 millimeter and a thick-
ness of 0.482 millimeter. Between these two extreme types are
filaments having a variety of irregular cross sections. In fact,
it is not uncommon to find differently shaped cross sections at
various points in the same filament. Fine and medium filaments
tend to have a circular section whereas the coarse ones, and par-
ticularly those that are very coarse, are invariably elliptical.
Most of the filaments of the two samples tested are slightly
tapered, as is clearly shown in Tables I and IJ. For the sake
of simplicity in calculation the cross-sectional areas of the single
filaments at the point of rupture were considered to be either
perfectly elliptical or perfectly circular. For all general pur-
poses the difference between the true area and the calculated
area is so small as to be insignificant. It will be seen that
most of the filaments are characterized by two principal cross-
sectional dimensions: (1) a maximum diameter and (2) a min-
imum diameter, which have been designated width and thickness,
respectively, in Tables I and II.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COIR FILAMENTS IN TENSION

Description of testing apparatus used.—For determining the
tensile strength, tensile elasticity, elongation, and permanent set
of single coir filaments, I devised a simple but accurate ap-
paratus. A sketch of the mechanism with a filament clamped
in place is shown in fig. 1. It consists of two paper-lined grips,
J-J*, for clamping the filament; a rigid stand, S, for supporting
the gripping elements; a cardboard scale, A, graduated in milli-
meters for determining the elongation of the test specimen; and
a device, H, K, V, T, for applying the load at a constant rate
and cutting it off at the desired instant. From the lower grip,
J*, is hung a pan, P, for receiving the small lead shot with which
the hopper, H, is filled and which flows through the spout, K,
when the valve, V, is opened. The device for applying the load
at a constant rate is an auxiliary shot-feeding reservoir used
in connection with a Michaelis cement-briquet testing machine.
It consists essentially of a smooth sheet-metal hopper, H, sup-
ported on a tripod, R, the bottom of the hopper terminating in
_ a spout, K, which is closed by an adjustable valve, V. A trigger,
T, located at the base of the tripod, automatically holds the valve
open and shuts off the flow of shot at the instant of rupture when

1918

The Philippine Journal of Science

294

a Co

Mechanical device for determining the elastic constants of coir and abacé filaments.

Fic. 1.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 995

the pan, P, falls. In these tests the valve was adjusted to the
smallest working aperture, so that the shot issued at the lowest
average rate, 33 grams per second.

Technic of testing.—In testing a filament the exposed length
was adjusted to 100 millimeters as shown on the scale, the spe-
cimen previously having been cut to a length of 150 millimeters to
provide 25 millimeters to be clamped firmly in each grip. Care
must be exercised that the filament will not slip in the grips.
Grips made of metal mash the filament, causing rupture in the
jaws; in order to prevent such injury the jaws were lined with
Bristol board. The final step before beginning the test was the
careful adjustment of the shot pan suspended on a hook on the
lower grip. While one operator started the flow of shot by
pushing up on the yoke to which the valve is fastened, another
snapped a stop watch the instant the valve opened. The first
operator, sighting at right angles to the length of the specimen
over the upper end of the descending lower grip, called aloud
the graduations of the scale at the instant they were uncovered,
and the second operator simultaneously recorded the corre-
sponding number of seconds in a table previously prepared in
blank. The elongation was read at 1-millimeter intervals.
When the filament broke, the loaded shot pan fell on the trigger,
thus instantaneously closing the valve, and at the same instant
the watch was stopped. The duration of the test and the weight
of the shot and pan were recorded. From these data the ten-
sile strength, elongation, and elasticity of the filaments were
calculated. For the purpose of comparison, similar tests were
performed upon abaca (Manila hemp) filaments. Since there
are no bearings, knife edges, or other points of contact in the.
device that might cause friction and so affect the results, the
values obtained are probably more accurate than could be se-
cured with most testing machines on the market.

Tensile strengthTables III and IV give the results of tests
made on the tensile strength of machine-cleaned and retted coir
filaments, respectively, and Table V gives results of tests with
abaca filaments.

The results show that the machine-cleaned coir filaments from
Laguna are considerably stronger than the retted filaments from
Ilocos Sur. However, when compared with grade “F” abaca
filaments, which are standard for cordage manufacture, the low
tensile strength of coir is evident. Whereas the maximum ten-
sile strength of coir is only 1,546 kilograms per square centi-
meter, abaca shows a tensile strength of 8,570 kilograms per

1918

.

Journal of Science

ippine

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The Ph

296

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297

Cordage

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: Philippine Coir and Co

King

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1918

Journal of Science

.

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The Ph

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XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 299

square centimeter. Still higher values for abaca are frequently
obtained.

These tensile strengths of Philippine coir filaments agree with
the results published by M. H. Lecomte. This work is quoted
by Prudhomme ®*' as follows:

“= * * Un filament de huit centimétres de long et de 250 u™ de
diamétre a supporté 650 grammes avant de se rompre. * * *” (A
filament eight centimeters long and 0.250 millimeter in diameter broke
under a load of 650 grams.)

Since a diameter for the filament is given it must be presumed
that the filament section is circular and, therefore, its area
would be

2
& ) < 3.1416=0.0490 square millimeter,

which is equivalent: to 0.000490 square centimeter. The ulti-
mate unit breaking stress is

0.650 « 0.000490 ~Pe2" kilograms per square centimeter.

This value agrees closely with the average values given in
Tables III and IV. It is slightly greater than the tensile
strength of the retted fiber, 1,208 kilograms per square centi-
meter; less than the ultimate resistance of the machine-cleaned
fiber, 1,526 kilograms per square centimeter; and practically
equal to the mean of the two values, 1,367 kilograms per square
centimeter.

Extensive comments occur in existing literature to the effect
not only that the filaments obtained from husks of overripe nuts
are characterized by dark color, stiffness, coarseness, weakness,
and brittleness, and that nuts having an age of between 9
and 10 months yield a finer and lighter-colored fiber, but also
that the varying strengths of coir depend upon a slight difference
in the age of the nuts. No authoritative data have been col-
lected as to the effect age has on the tensile strength of coir. In
as much as the tensile strength of coir is very low, were the
age of the nuts to determine its strength it is improbable that
this factor would be sufficient materially to increase its value
as a cordage material. I doubt if there is much difference be-

* Loc. cit.
* 1 »=0.001 millimeter.

300 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

tween the tensile strength of coir obtained from husks from
which copra has been made and that of coir obtained from
slightly immature nuts, so highly recommended. While it is
evident that the machine-cleaned filaments from Laguna husks
possess a higher average tensile strength than the retted fila-
ments from Ilocos Sur, no definite conclusions can be drawn as
to the cause of the difference. It may be due to any of a number
of causes; such as a difference in the age of the husk, the action
of salt water on the retted fiber, the variety of the coconuts, the
nature of the soil upon which the nuts were grown, climatic
conditions, etc.

Elongation.—Perhaps the most characteristic and striking
property of coir is its extraordinary elongation when subjected
to tension. There is little difference between the retted and
machine-cleaned filaments in this respect, the average being
about 30 per cent for each kind. Since extensibility is a measure
of ductility, the data given in Tables III and IV also show that
coir is a highly ductile fiber.

Burr ** says:

One of the most important and valuable characteristics of any solid ©
material is its “ductility,” or that property by which it is enabled to
change its form, beyond the limit of elasticity, before failure takes place.
It is measured by the permanent “set,” or stretch, in the case of a
tensile stress, which the test piece possesses after fracture; also, by the
decrease of cross-section which the piece suffers at the place of fracture.

Unfortunately most writers on coir have erroneously inter-
preted high ductility to mean high elasticity. Per se there is no
connection between the ductility and the elastic properties of a
material, and most writers confuse deformation with elasticity.

Elasticity Before proceeding with the detailed discussion
of the elastic properties of coir I desire to quote typical pass-
ages from the literature that show the misuse of the term
“elasticity” as applied to coir.**

Watt * states:

The merits of coir as a rope fibre are now fully appreciated throughout
the world, the ELASTICITY and lightness of the fibre making it eminently.
suited for this purpose. But to these properties has to be added its great
power of withstanding moisture even under continued actual submersion.

* Burr, Wm. H., The Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of
Engineering. Chapman & Hall Limited, London; John Wiley & Sons,
Ine., New York, 6th ed. (1918), 204.

** Small capitals are employed to emphasize the words misused.

* Watt, Geo., op. cit. 437.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 301

On these grounds it is in great demand for maritime purposes as hawsers,
although its roughness renders it unserviceable for standing riggings, its
ELASTICITY being for such purposes a disadvantage. It is, however, better
suited for running riggings, its lightness being taken advantage of. In
the British Manufacturing Industries (on Fibres and Cordage) it is stated,
“Coir is one of the best materials for cables on account of its lightness
ELASTICITY and strength. It is durable and little affected when wetted
with salt water. Numerous instances have been related of ships furnished
with this light, buoyant, and ELASTIC material riding out a storm in secu-
rity, while the stronger-made, though less ELASTIC, ropes of other vessels
have snapped in two * * *,”

Copeland ** says:

The chief peculiarity of coir rope is its ELASTICITY. The coco-nut fibre
will stretch fully 25 per cent without breaking. The amount which ropes
made of it will stretch depends upon the method of manufacture, but in
all cases they will stretch more than ropes made of any other of the
commercial fibres. This makes coir rope especially desirable where it is
subjected to jerks. * * *

From what has been said as to the qualities of the coir, it follows that
for ropes it is to be recommended where ELASTICITY or resistance to decay
are especially desired; * * *

Dodge *’ writes:

“The character of coir has long been established in the Hast, and is
now in Europe, as one of the best materials for cables, on account of its
lightness as well as ELASTICITY.” Ships furnished with coir cables have
been known to ride out a storm in security while the stronger made, but
less ELASTIC, ropes of the other vessels snapped like pack thread. Coir
cables were used extensively in the Indian seas until chain cables were
introduced. It is rougher to handle and not so neat looking as hemp
rigging, but it is well suited to running rigging where lightness and
ELASTICITY are desired, as for the more lofty sheets; it, however, is too
ELASTIC for standing rigging. In vessels of 600 tons it is generally used
for lower rigging.

A body is said to be elastic if, after being deformed by an
external force, it will spring back to its original shape and di-
mensions when the deforming force ceases to act. Tensile elastic-
ity is the resistance to an increase in its length exercised by a body
under tension. The results of representative tensile elasticity
tests of single filaments of both retted and machine-cleaned coir
fibers are given in Tables VI and VII. For purposes of com-
parison the results of similar tests on grade “F”’ abaca filaments
are given in Table VIII.

* Copeland, E. B., op. cit., 182-184.
7 Dodge, Chas. R., loc. cit.

1918

tence

Journal of Sci

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The Ph

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303

Cordage

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Philippine Coir and Co

King

XII, A, 6

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1918

The Philippine Journal of Science

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313

Cordage

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1918

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XIM, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 815

The moduli of tensile elasticity, HE, were computed from the
data given in columns 9, 10, and 11, Tables VI, VII, and VIII.
The notations used are:

S=Stress in kilograms per square centimeter or in pounds per square
inch.

L=Gauged length of the filament (100 millimeters).

1=Elongation in millimeters.

E=Modulus of tensile elasticity in either kilograms per square centi-
meter or pounds per square inch.

The typical tests as recorded in Table VIII show that abaca
filaments are almost perfectly elastic up to the point of rupture,
at a stress often as high as 8,000 kilograms per square centi-
meter, as shown by the modulus of elasticity.

Fig. 2 shows the stress-deformation graphs of an abaca 150-
millimeter filament section, grade “‘F”’ fiber, taken at random and
of a single filament No. 4 of machine-cleaned coir, which has
the greatest elasticity of any coir specimen tested. If a fila-
ment has no elasticity, the stress-deformation graph will be a,
curved line from the beginning of tension to the point of rup-
ture; on the other hand, if a filament has perfect elasticity, the
graph will be represented by a straight line. It will be noted
that the linear relationship between stress and deformation in
the abaca filament section is practically ideal, as shown by the
straight line in the graph, which persists to the point of rupture;
while the data on the coir specimen give a stress-deformation
graph having a very short, initial, straight-line portion. This
indicates that there was perfect elasticity where the stress and
deformation for a short period at the outset were directly pro-
portional as shown on the graph between 0 and 308 kilograms
per square centimeter. In other words, the straight portion of
this graph shows that the filament would spring back to its
original shape and length if it were unloaded at the point cor-
responding to the stress of 308 kilograms per square centimeter
and the elongation of 2 millimeters. When stressed beyond 308
kilograms per square centimeter the filament begins to elongate
rapidly, but the corresponding stress does not increase at the
same rate; and, if the load is removed, the filament will no
longer return to its original length, because it has become per-
manently set. Filament No. 4 is typical of only very coarse
filaments already classified as brush or bristle fiber rather than
as cordage fiber.

316 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Elongation (read as percentage or in millimeters).

4 6 12 /6 20 24

Tensile stress in kilograms per square centimeter.

Fic. 2. Comparative stress-deformation graphs of abaca and coir filaments, showing the
relative elasticity and resilience.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 317

The stress-deformation graphs of coir shown in fig. 3 are all
curved; that is, the value of # decreases rapidly after the first
millimeter of elongation. From this it may be seen that coir
belongs to the class of materials in which stress and deformation
while in tension are not directly proportional, and that even the
smallest stress permanently injures the fibers. Therefore, for
all practical purposes, coir is not distinguishably elastic, nor has
it a definite modulus of elasticity. Its lack of elasticity, together
with its comparatively low strength, condemn it for use in
cordage except of an inferior quality. These facts are entirely
at variance with the claims of “highly elastic properties” for
coir as discussed in preceding pages.

The only coir filament that gave an elastic modulus within a
definitely measurable range is that of which a graph is shown
in fig. 2. Assuming that coir has a definite elastic modulus for
immeasurably small deformations, the maximum value that can
be assigned is 27,000 kilograms per square centimeter obtained
in test 2 of the machine-cleaned fiber, which in this maximum
case is only one-fifteenth of the maximum value for abaca.

Resilience.—Elasticity is intimately connected with resilience,
or “jerk-resisting power,” inasmuch as the latter depends largely
upon the former. Resilience is the springing back of a de-
formed body after being relieved of the deforming load, it being
always understood that the stress must be within the elastic
limit. It is usually measured in kilogram-meters or in foot-
pounds, though smaller units such as kilogram-centimeters or
inch-pounds are sometimes used. It should be borne in mind
that the energy expended in permanently deforming a body can-
not be given back as resilient work, but appears as heat, and
is used to break down the structure.

Johnson ** says:

* * * the resilence, or energy, which can be absorbed, or stored, in
a body of a given material and form, up to a given fibre-stress, is no
function of the relative dimensions of the body, but only of its volume.

The method of calculating resilience is very simple. If the
initial force of tension of coir is zero, and the final one at the
limit of elasticity is 308 kilograms per square centimeter as
obtained in my test for machine-cleaned filament No. 4, the
value of the average stress is 154 kilograms per square centi-
meter. The elongation of the test specimen at the limit of elas-
ticity is 2 millimeters; then, since the average stress of 154

* Johnson, J. B., Materials of Construction. John Wiley and Son, New
York, 4th ed. (1912), 76.

318 The Philippine Journal of Science ioe

Elongation (read as percentage or in millimeters).

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 R/4

Tensile atress in kilograms per square centimeter.

Fic. 8. Stress-deformation graphs of single, machine-cleaned, coir filaments; values taken
from Table VI.

XIM, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage BS:

kilograms per square centimeter has acted through a distance
of 2 millimeters, the work done in stretching to its elastic limit
a coir specimen having a sectional area of 1 square centimeter
and a length of 100 millimeters is equal to 154 x 0.2 = 80.8
kilogram-centimeters, which is the resilient energy stored in 10
cubic centimeters of the sample. In this form the resilience of
coir can be compared with that of other materials.

When graphs have been prepared, the elastic resilience may
be calculated, with due regard to the scale employed, from the
area of the right-angled triangle ODE (fig. 2) formed by the
straight line of the stress-deformation graph, the abscissa, and
the perpendicular to the latter from the elastic limit. The com-
parative resilience of coir and abaca filaments is plainly shown
by the relative area of the two triangles ODE, and OBC, fig. 2.

It has already been indicated that most of the coir filaments
tested have no definite elastic limit or elastic modulus and that,
except with the first application of tension when work is spent
in deforming the specimen, they have little shock- or jerk-
resisting properties. Coir has practically no elastic resilience,
and the greater part of the tensional deformation of the fila-
ments is permanent. These deductions are confirmed by the
results of tensile experiments recorded in Table IX. In these
experiments test specimens were loaded at a constant rate to
various degrees of stress and the load allowed to remain constant
for five minutes. At the end of the five minutes, each specimen
had elongated considerably more than its initial elongation, the
* extension being represented by 5, 12, and 18, and 2, 6, and 10
per cent, respectively. The load was then removed and it will
be noted that, at the end of one minute’s rest, the specimens
in no case recovered any of their initial elongation, as shown
by the permanent set of 2, 7, and 11 per cent (or millimeters),
respectively.

As shown in Table IX abaca filaments, loaded to relatively
much higher stresses than coir, recovered completely after re-
moval of the load. The tests show that abaca has the property
of potentially storing comparatively large quantities of elastic
energy, these being returned in the form of useful work when
the load is removed. This indicates the origin of the expression
“ive and take” which in common parlance is used to designate
the valuable property of resilience possessed to so high a degree
by the best grades of abaca cordage. The average resilience
stored in 10 cubic centimeters of grade “F” abaca is 1,281 kil-
ogram-centimeters, which is forty-one times as much as that

1918

LENCE

Journal of Sei

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320

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322 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

for the most resilient coir filament. This high resilience and
elasticity, coupled with its extraordinary tensile strength, are
the chief factors in accounting for the fact that abaca is con-
sidered the premier cordage fiber of the world.

A COMPARISON OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COIR AND
ABACA (MANILA HEMP) ROPES

Three handmade, three-strand coir ropes of different sizes
were tested. Two of these made of coir from Laguna husks,
machine-cleaned at the Bureau of Science, had circumferences
of 24 and 44 millimeters, respectively. The other was a retted
coir rope 50 millimeters in circumference obtained from Caoayan,
Ilocos Sur. The machine-cleaned fiber was spun by hand into
strands at the Bureau of Science, and the Bureau of Agriculture
had the spun fiber laid into two ropes at a Pasig repewalk. The
rope had the ragged, rough appearance, due to the numerous
protruding filament ends, that is characteristic of untrimmed
coir rope, whether hand or machine laid.

The abaca specimens consisted of four sizes of Government
inspected, pure “‘F” and “G” grades, three-strand rope, 15, 16,
26, and 31 millimeters in circumference, respectively. The ropes
were machine laid with about 10 per cent of mineral oil added
to the fiber during manufacture for lubricating purposes, and for
its ultimate preservation. The test specimens of both abaca and
coir were prepared with eye-splices at the ends. The distance
between splices was either 50 or 100 centimeters as shown in
each case in the table. Each eye and splice measured about 15:
centimeters in length. Three tucks were made in each splice,
and the internal diameter of the eyes was 4.5 centimeters.

Circumference and diameter.—The measurements of the aver-
age actual girth, or perimeter, of the ropes given in Tables XI,
XII, XIII, and XIV were obtained by encircling each test speci-
men with a strip of tough linen paper about 2 millimeters wide
and marking it with a very sharp pencil at a convenient over-
lapping point. The strip was then straightened and measured on
a scale graduated in millimeters. As the irregular nature of the
cordage introduced appreciable variation in size, the readings
were taken to the nearest whole millimeter. The girth obtained
in this manner is less than the internal circumference of a ring
through which the specimen will just pass; but numerous meas-
urements show that for small ropes the difference is so slight
that the girth has been considered adequately approximate to
the true circumference of the rope.

XIII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 323

Fig. 4 shows actual profiles of transverse sections of the 50-
millimeter coir rope taken at nine different places, at intervals
of 2 centimeters. The diameter of a rope is equal to the diam-
eter of the circular opening through which the specimen will
just pass and, theoretically at least, forms the basis of other
cross-sectional dimensions. Although the circumscribing cir-
cumference is the true circumference of the rope and its diam-
eter that of the specimen, the position taken by the paper
strip used for measuring the girth of the rope represented by
line b, is an approximation of the true circumference. To obtain
the girth is an easy matter, whereas to obtain the true circum-
ference, especially with unskilled labor, involves greater un-

ey Os

Fic. 4. Sectional profiles of 50-millimeter coir ropes. Actual size.

certainties and requires numerous circular gauges with graded
apertures. Therefore, the diameters given in Tables XI, XII,
XIII, and XIV have been calculated by assigning the length of
the line b-b (the actual girth) to’a circumference, and the diam-
eter of this has been taken as the diameter of the rope.
Area.—What is meant by the area of the transverse section
of a rope is usually very indefinite. Unless information is
given as to how it is obtained, this dimension has little signi-
ficance, and values based on it are untrustworthy. In fig. 4
the sum of the areas representing the strands of a rope is less
than the area encompassed by the actual girth, and still less
than the area within the circumference. The values approach
each other as the size of the rope diminishes and, for small ropes
of 50 millimeters girth, the area calculated by assigning the
actual girth measurement to a circumference will average 15
161175——4

324 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

per cent larger than the true transverse area of the rope re-
presented in fig. 4 by the cross-hatched area.** The latter area
is a close approximation of the actual solid fiber area, but still
does not take into consideration the void spaces between the in-
dividual filaments constituting each strand. These smaller void
spaces depend upon the size and shape of the fiber; its clean-
ness; the method of manufacture; the degree of twist; the
presence or absence of grease, fat, oil, or adulterant, etc. No
attempt was made in this work to determine the actual void
space within the strands.

In order to determine the true transverse cross section of the
rope specimens, pieces of rope about 15 centimeters long were
soaked for about five minutes in melted paraffin heated to about
90° C., until most of the bubbles of entrapped air had escaped,
when the pieces were placed in test tubes which were then filled
with paraffin. Effort was made to avoid swelling the rope.
When the paraffin was solidified the tubes were cooled in tap
water and the glass broken off. The rope, which was now firmly
embedded in paraffin, was carefully cut by hand at right angles
to the longitudinal axis into sections 2 centimeters long by
means of a heavy razor. Each 2-centimeter section gave
two very clear profiles, which were brought into sharp contrast
by marking the boundary of the strands with India ink. Each
profile was then copied on tracing paper; a few of these profiles
are illustrated in fig. 4. The tracings of the outlines were care-
fully and accurately cut out giving three irregular pieces of
paper showing the exact contours of the three rope strands,
and necessarily having the same areas as the rope sections.
The paper profiles were then weighed on a Heusser button
balance, sensitive to 0.002 milligram, and compared with the
weight of 1-centimeter paper disks, obtained adjacent to the
profiles, having an area of 78.54 square millimeters. For cutting
the disks, a bow compass with a keen tool-steel cutter was used
in place of the usual graphite style. From the averages of these
data the areas of the irregular rope sections were calculated.
In order to show the accuracy that may be attained by this
method the data for the 50-millimeter coir rope from [locos
Sur are given in Table X.

™=The relative magnitude of areas computed by the two methods is
being further studied in conjunction with the mechanical properties of
Philippine bast-fiber cordage.

XII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 825

TABLE X.—Comparative weights of paper profiles of coir rope, 50 milli-
meters in circumference, and paper disks 1 centimeter in diameter.

[Weights of paper in grams.]

Profiles. Disks.
0.00962 0.00419
0.009138 0.00486
0.00932 0.00463
0.00893 0.00441
0.00856 0.00457
0.00864 0.00433
0.00888 0.00444
0.00921 0.00449
0.00902 0.00447
0.00931 0.00444
1 oes 0.00465
0.00906 * 0.00445 *
2 Mean.

‘The average area of the rope section is equal to

0.00906 i on
0.00445 < 78-54 square millimeters=159.8 square millimeters.
The values thus obtained for the various ropes closely approx-
imate the actual transverse areas of the ropes. This true mean
area was used in making the calculations of the ultimate tensile
strength per unit area of the ropes as given in Table XI.

Many commercial tests of ropes are intended to be comparable
only; therefore, the transverse cross section need not be the
actual but only the relative measurement. In the comparison of
ropes of the same numerical size the transverse cross sections if
determined by the same method are relative, whether the method
employed be the ring method, the girth method, the strand-area
method, or the absolute-area method. However, it must be
borne in mind that many published data of rope areas, while
accurate for the purposes they are intended to serve, are not
at all comparable with one another; and they should not be com-
pared unless the method of determining the transverse cross
section is given and the same method was used in obtaining the
results to be compared.

Breaking length.—Due to the difficulty involved in measuring
the cross-sectional area of ropes, fibers, and yarns, it is more
convenient to compare their strength by means of the so-called
“breaking length” instead of the strength per unit area. The
breaking length of a rope is the length which a specimen must
have to break of its own weight when suspended at one end.
It is computed by dividing the ultimate breaking load in kilo-

326 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

grams or pounds by the corresponding weight of the rope in
kilograms per meter or pounds per foot. The measurement and
the computation of difficult areas are not necessary and it is,
therefore, frequently used in testing fibers and fiber products.

Testing machines for determining elongation and tensile
strength.—The two larger rope specimens were ruptured in a
direct, motor-driven, 30,000 pounds capacity, four-screw, auto-
matic testing machine, manufactured by Tinius Olsen, of Phila-
delphia, Pennsylvania. This testing machine is of the screw-
gear and lever type and is graduated to read five-pound inter-
vals. The smallest rope specimens were tested in a Riehlé
Bros. (Philadelphia, Pa.) tension-testing machine of the elastic
resistor or helical spring type, having a capacity of 600 pounds,
graduated to read one-pound intervals. This machine is hand
operated by means of a fairly heavy crank-driven flywheel.
Both testing machines were compared and found to agree within
the limit of the sensibility of the larger machine. The varia-
tion in the strength of the rope was much greater than any
possible error in either of the testing machines.

Elongation.—Each test specimen was held vertically in the
testing machine by smooth steel pins that passed through the
eyes formed at the ends of the test piece, and was subjected
to a small preliminary tension not exceeding 5 pounds. Two .
points, 50 or 100 centimeters apart, were clearly marked on it
with chalk or pencil. A scale graduated in millimeters was
used for measuring the gauge-length. The load was then ap-
plied at the uniform rate of 1.3 millimeters’ stretch per second.
During the time the load was being applied, the elongation was
carefully noted on the scale. The total distance between the
index marks at the instant of rupture was noted. The difference
between this distance and the gauge-length gave the elongation
in centimeters. The elongation readings could not be measured
with an accuracy greater than 0.5 centimeter in 50 centimeters;
therefore, the average elongations are given only in whole per-
centages. Table XI shows that coir rope has a slightly greater
average elongation than the individual coir filaments as given
in Tables VI and VII, whereas abacd rope has several times
the elongation of the individual abaca filaments as given in
Table VIII.

Tensile-strength tests.—The specimens of coir and abaca were
tested air dry, and after exposure to fresh water, to salt water,
and to weather, as indicated in Tables XI, XII, XIII, and XIV,
respectively. The machines used in this work have already been

XIII, A. 6 King: Philippine Coir and Cow Cordage 397

described. The test pieces in Table XIV were exposed to usual
weather conditions for ninety days (from April 26 to July 25,
1918), on the black-painted, galvanized-iron, laboratory roof,
before being subjected to the tensile-strength test. The detailed
character of the weather is given by the Weather Bureau.**
During the first month of exposure the weather was clear. In
the second month there were frequent light rains in the after-
noon, but during the morning the weather was usually so clear
that the test specimens quickly dried. This alternate wetting
and drying subjected the fiber to a severe test. The third month
of exposure was characterized by two periods of stormy weather
and heavy precipitation.

Although the number of experiments conducted is small and
the relative duration of the exposure was short, nevertheless,
the tensile-strength tests of coir and abaca recorded in Tables
XI, XII, XIII, and XIV show that rope made from coir is more
susceptible to the destructive influences of fresh or salt water
as well as of atmospheric agencies than rope made from either
“F” or “G” grade abaca fiber.

The low tensile strength per unit area, the high elongation,
and the small breaking length of the coir specimens are evident
from Table XI. The rope made from the weaker retted fiber
gives a slightly higher ultimate resistance per square centi-
meter than that made from the stronger machine-cleaned fiber.
However, the difference in their comparative strengths is so
small as to be of little significance. The results in all three
tests emphasize the extreme weakness of coir rope. Abaca rope
is, roughly, five times as strong per unit area as coir rope and
has a breaking length approximately three times as great.

Table XII shows that submergence in fresh water for twenty-
four hours slightly increased the elongation and decreased the
tensile strength of coir rope. The decrease was greater in the
rope made of retted fiber than in that made of machine-cleaned
fiber. The loss in strength of the rope made of machine-cleaned
fiber is not much more after immersion for twenty-one days in
stagnant tap water than after twenty-four hours. There is
little change in the strength of the abaca-rope specimens tested.

Salt water seems to decrease the tensile strength of both coir
and abaca ropes slightly more than does fresh water, as shown
in Table XIII.

Table XIV indicates that coir rope loses in tensile strength

“Ann. Rep. P. I. Weather Bureau (1918).

1918

Journal of Science

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XIII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage Sat

much more rapidly under ordinary conditions of weather than
does abaca rope.

In order to give a general idea of the tensile strength of com-
mercial abaca rope, I have summarized in Table XV the routine
tests made in the Bureau of Science. Little information is
available other than the size and actual breaking strength of
many of the specimens. The purity of the fiber has not been
determined, and it seems probable that some of the samples
may have been adulterated with maguey and other abaca sub-
stitutes. However, the results indicate what may be expected
of commercial abaca ropes.

GENERAL

About fifteen years ago, machine-laid coir rope imported from
India was given a five years’ trial by a local construction concern.
It was recommended on account of its reputed light weight,
durability, and the fact that it floats. The latter was believed
to be an especially important consideration for tow lines, as
those of abaca submerge when in use. The cordage was prin-
cipally of the larger sizes and was used for towing and mooring
barges with a displacement ranging from 50 to 800 tons. Ex-
perience has amply shown that such rope when slightly worn
could not stand the loads to which it was subjected. It fre
quently happened that moored barges in surging back and forth
would snap their cables, or hawsers, thereby imperiling the
safety of valuable property. The use of coir rope finally had
to be abandoned in spite of its relatively low price, because it
was weak and unreliable.

Another report of a trial of machine-laid coir rope was that
it suffered gradual reduction in diameter and increase in length.
The results given in this paper, showing not only the extremely
low elasticity and resilience of coir, but also the tendency of the
fiber once it becomes stretched to remain so instead of springing
back to its original length after removal of the load, easily ex-
plain the gradual thinning of the rope. Every additional load
stretches the fiber more and more, its diameter decreasing cor-
respondingly. It may be also that the filaments, being short,
develop insufficient friction between them by the twist, and that
part of the permanent elongation may be due to the filaments
slipping past each other.

In Ilocos Sur coir cordage was discussed with several Fili-
pinos engaged in the coastwise trade. By experience they have
found that local handmade coir ropes, though weak, are ade-
quate to meet the demands imposed by the small sailing craft.
On the other hand, several sailing vessels that were moored with

1918

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XIII, A, 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 333

coir ropes broke their moorings during severe tropical storms
and were carried high on the beach. As a result the Filipinos
have learned that, while coir and other cheap ropes made of
maguey, bamboo, etc., may serve for everyday use, abaca rope
is the most dependable for emergencies.

Mr. Don Strong, fiber expert of the Bureau of Agriculture,
relates that in 1912 the small steamer Camiguin, 53 tons gross,
ran on a coral reef off the Masbate coast while loaded with abaca
fiber. Mr. Strong, who was on board, secured the assistance
of a lighthouse tender, whose captain first passed a new 12-inch
coir rope to the Camiguin. An attempt was made to pull off
the steamer, with the result that the coir rope began to stretch
excessively, visibly became reduced in diameter, and finally
parted at several places. During the attempt not the slightest
tremor passed through the reef-bound vessel. A T7-inch abaca
rope was then made fast to the Camiguin and after a single
attempt the steamer was successfully pulled off the reef into
deep water.

When a coir rope breaks there is very little reaction, for the
rupture occurs almost imperceptibly. On the other hand, an
abaca rope made of good grade fiber-gives a sharp report at the
instant of rupture and violent reaction occurs which, in the
case of ropes having a circumference of 75 millimeters or more,
jars and shakes the testing machines. This violent reaction is
due to the giving back of a relatively large amount of potentially
stored resilient energy. Coir is not used at all in Manila at the
present time, due to the unsatisfactory results that have been
obtained. Cordage made of abaca, of which there are numerous
grades, has supplanted the little coir that was once used. Even
though abaca rope costs considerably more than coir cordage,
the more expensive fiber is the more economical in the end.
Abaca is much stronger, less bulky, more reliable, and much
more elastic and resilient than coir. I have inquired for coir
cordage in several places in Manila, but was unable to get quo-
tations or even to see a specimen. Even the small Chinese
retailers who handle the most unexpected kinds of merchandise
did not have supplies of coir rope, though other nonstandard fiber
cordage was procurable. Among the latter, small coils of rope
made of the black stiff fiber locally called ‘‘cabo negro,” obtained
from a palm (Arenga saccharifera), were on sale in nearly all
of the Chinese stores dealing in fiber products. Unless the dif-
ference in price of coir and abaca rope is large enough to create
a demand for the former on the basis of price alone, coir cordage
will never find extensive sale.

304

The Philippine Journal of Science

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337

Cordage

: Philippine Coir and Coir

King

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338 The Philippine Journal of Science

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The data in the literature on the mechanical properties of
coir are very deficient and often have been misinterpreted.

Coconut fiber in the Philippines is extracted in small quantity,
entirely by the retting and beating process.

The results show retted filaments to average 228 millimeters,
and machine-cleaned filaments, 245 millimeters, in length. Most
filaments taper and have elliptical cross sections, the dimensions
of which are given. The finest filaments have a circular cross
section.

Tensile tests conducted on single filaments average 832 kilo-
grams per square centimeter for the retted, and 1,208 kilograms
per square centimeter for the machine-cleaned fiber. The dif-
ference in ultimate tensile strength is less marked when the
fibers are fabricated into rope. The strength of coir filaments
and coir cordage is very low, roughly, one-tenth that of single
abaca filaments (Government inspected grades “F” and “Q@’’);
the strength of coir rope is about one-fifth that of abaca rope
of the same size.

‘Immersion in tap water for twenty-four hours decreases the
strength of coir rope from 14 to 26 per cent, whereas there
is little change in the strength of abaca rope. Long immersion
of the coir in fresh water produces little further change, but
additional impairment is produced by the action of salt water and
weather.

Coir cordage and coir filaments are characterized by great
elongation, which in some cases attains 39 per cent. There’is
little difference between the ultimate elongation of the filaments
and that of the rope, though in the latter it is slightly greater.
Wetting increases the elongation of coir rope about 3 per cent.

Abaca filaments (grades “F” and “G’’) give an average elonga-
tion of only 3.6 per cent, but the ropes made from filaments of
these grades give an elongation of from three to four times as
much.

Coir has pronounced plastic properties and has no definite
modulus of elasticity.

Due to the small elastic tensile resilience of coir its “‘shock-
absorbing” power is relatively small, whereas abaca is a highly
resilient fiber and is eminently suited to absorb shocks.

The coir industry in the Philippines should be developed in
order to furnish a fiber for bristles, brushes, doormats, mat-
tresses, cushions, ship fenders, etc.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1. Mechanical device for determining the elastic constants of coir

and abaca filaments. .

2. Comparative stress-deformation graphs of abaca and coir filaments,
showing relative elasticity and resilience.

8. Stress-deformation graphs of single, machine-cleaned, coir filaments;
values taken from Table VII.

4. Sectional profiles of 50-millimeter coir rope (full size).

161175——5 339

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A RECALCULATION OF CERTAIN DATA ON STEAMING TESTS
OF PHILIPPINE COALS

By F. R. YcASIANO*

So far as known, the only trials of the steaming qualities of
Philippine coal of which engineering data were kept for publica-
tion were made in the Insular Cold Storage Plant? and in the
Bureau of Science.’ In the latter paper many tests were given,
and I desire to present certain of the computations in a way
which in my opinion will make them more available. Cox
points out that the tests ‘‘are intended to be comparable only,”
but this recalculation makes their direct comparison with
other similar results easier. Therefore, I will refer to the
various pages of that paper by using the letter “p’’ followed
by a number.

In computing the area of the heating surface of a water-tube
boiler the outside diameter of the tube should be used,‘ because
the exterior surface is the part that comes in direct contact
with the hot gases. Therefore on p. 304, where both external and
internal measurements are given, the heating surface of the tubes,
recalculated on the basis of the former, is 6,393 square deci-
meters; that of the drum, 839.3 square decimeters; and their
total area, 7,232.3 square decimeters; instead of 5,715.2, 748.8,
and 6,464.0 square decimeters, respectively, when the internal
measurements were used. This total area affects the ratio of
heating surface to grate surface (p. 304), which becomes 39.9:1
instead of 35.7:1.

In the calculation of the factor of evaporation the temper-
ature of the feed water as it enters the water heater was used,
whereas the temperature of the water as it enters the boiler
should be used in computing this factor. The temperatures of
the water as it enters the boiler are given, and using these data

*Mechanical and testing engineer, Bureau of Science.

*Donovan, J. J., McChesney, D., and Williams, W. P., Far Eastern
Review, (1906), 2, 223.

* Cox, Alvin J., This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, 301-356. |

*Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 19, 572.

341

342, The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

I have recalculated the factor in foot-note “f.” p. 317, which
then becomes:

658.9—79.2
an OTe (factor of evaporation) x 8.961.5

— 1.0786 < 8.9615. = 9,666.

These calculations of the heating surface of the water-tube
boiler and the factor of evaporation change the results of the
tests shown in Table II, pages 313, 314, 315, and 316; Table III,
pages 819, 320, and 321; and Table X, page 344. The recal-
culated values are shown under the respective headings in the
following tables, which are self-explanatory:

ie Dry coal consumed per | Combustible consumed per
square decimeter of water- | square decimeter of water-
| heating surface per hour. |! heating surface per hour.
Test Test
No | SSS ee i lL LN Os: || no ee
Former | Recalculated | Former | Recalculated
value. value. value. value.
Kilos. Kilos. | Kilos. Kilos.
1 0.0317 | 0. 0283 | ni! 0. 0277 0.0248
2 0.0821 0.0287 || 2 0. 0282 0.0251
3 0.0268 0.0289 || 3 0.0243 0.0217
4 0.0296 | 0. 0264 4 0. 0257 0. 0230
5 0.0299 0. 0267 5 0. 0260 0. 0282
6 0.0354 0. 0316 6 0. 0309 0.0277
7 0. 0827 0. 0292 7 0.0293 0.0262 ,|
8 0.0374 0. 0348 8 | 0. 0368 0. 0325
9 0.0893 0.0351 9| . 0.0882 0. 0341
10 0. 0381 0.0340 || 10 0.0346 0.0309 |
11 0.0326 0.0291 || 11 0. 0304 0.0271
12 0. 0325 0.0290 |} 12 0. 0308 0.0275
13 0. 0826 0.0291 13 0.0315 0. 0282
14 0.0299 0. 0267 14 0.0290 0. 0258
15 0.0359 0.0321 15 0. 0328 0. 0293
16 0.0416 0. 0371 16 0. 0364 0. 0826
17 0.0309 0.0277 lq 0.0290 0. 0259
18 0.0291 0. 0260 | 18 0.0272 0. 0241

XII, A, 6 Ycasiano: Data on Steaming Tests of Coals 343

From Table IJ, page $15.

(EO ey Factor of evaporation. |Horse power sevetopea punt areeniage ae
Test “~ developed.
No. eanra|
Former |Recaleula-| Former |Recaleula-| Former | Recaleula-| Former | Recalcula-
value. ted value. value. ted value. value. ted value. | value. | ted value.
1 10. 538 9. 666 1.1759 | 1.0786 96.2 88.2 | 128 117
2 10. 432 9. 566 1.1754 1.0779 95.2 87.3 127 116
3 * 9.453 | 8. 802 1.1750 1.0941 86.3 80.3 115 107
4 7. 862 7.336 1.1734 1. 0950 83.7 78.1 112 104
5 8.579 7.989 1.1724 1. 0918 81.2 15.5 108 | 100.6
6 8.055 | 7. 458 1.1769 1. 0898 78.5 68:0 | 98 91
iy 7. 169 | 6.703 1.1749 1.0986 91.6 85.6 | 122 120
8 9.734 8. 984 | 1.1742 1.0838 88.8 82.0 | 118 109
9 9. 505 8.769 1. 1757 1. 0848 ! Ot 83.9 121 112
10 9.058 | 8.309 1.1773 1. 0809 Utsal 70.8 108 94
11 6.853 6.311 1.1749 1. 0820 61.8 56.9 | 82 | 76 |
12 6.994 6. 441 1.1749 | © 1.0820 63.8 88.7 | 85 78 |
13 10. 064 9.399 1.1746 1.0971 | 91.8 85.8 | 122 114 |
4 9,384} 8. 740 1.1752 1.0946 | Seed | Side) vo as7 108 |
15 5.019 4,624 1. 1642 1.0730 80.2 73.8 | 107 98
16 10. 802 | 9.505 1.1757 1. 0848 94.0 86.7 | 125 115
17 7. 347 6.721 | 1.1780 1.0778 85.3 | 78.0 | 114 | 104
18 | 9.041 8.214 | 1.1785 1. 0708 77.0 | 69.9 | 108 | 93

From Table II, page $16.

Equivalent evaporation of water from and
at 100° C. per hour.
Test Kilos. Per square decimeter of
No. water-heating surface.
Former /Recalculated Former Recaleulated
value. value. value. value.
' — = = — ee ee =

1 1,505.4 1, 380.8 0. 232 0. 190

Vv) 1, 490.3 1, 366.5 0. 230 0. 188

3 1,350.4 1, 257.4 0. 209 0.173
4 1,310.3 1, 222.6 0. 203 0.169 |
5 1,271.0 1, 183.5 0.197 0.163 |

6 1, 150.7 1, 065. 4 0.178 0.147

1, 433.8 1,340.6 0. 222 0.185
8 1,390.6 1, 283. 4 0.215 0.177 |
9 1, 425.7 1,315.4 0. 220 0.181

10 1, 207.7 1, 107.8 0. 187 | 0. 153

11 967.5 891.0 0. 150 0. 123

12 999.1 920.1 5. 154 0.127

13 1, 437.7 1,342.7 0. 222 0.171
14 1,373.3 1, 279.2 0, 213 0.176 |
15 1,254.7 1, 156.0 0.194 | 0.159 !

16 1,471.7 1,357.0 | 0.227 0. 187

17 1, 335.8 1, 222.0 0.207 ‘ 0. 168

18 1, 205.5 1, 095. 2 0. 187 0.151
Ns 2 Sens ee eae eee ee Be

The Philippine Journal of Science

From Table Il, page 316.

ees

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1918

Equivalent evaporation of water from and at 100° C. per kilogram of—

Coal as fired. |
| Former | Recalculated
value. value.
7. 150 | 6.556
6.970 | 6.888
7.661 | 7. 132
6.694 | 6.247
6. 429 5.981 |
4,930 | 4.564 |
6. 682 | 6.246
5. 485 | 5. 015
5. 807 4.889
4. 650 4. 267 |
4.317 3.975
4.476 | 4. 122
6.400 | 5. 978 |
6. 682 6.224
4. 426 4.077
4, 453 4. 108
5. 985 5.474
5.775 | 5.245 |

omnnornanrk WN

ee
ar en Ke SC

tt
oa

Coal as fired.

|
'Recaleulated |

Former |
value. | value.

7. 446 6.828 |
7. 206 6.602 |
7. 894 7.347
7. 003 6.215
6. 684 6. 224
6. 157 | 4.774
7.058 6.598
5. 661 5. 213
5. 546 5.110
5. 148 4.724
5. 268 4. 852
5, 245 4.830 |
7. 225 6.749 |
7.370 6. 865

P 4.743 4.369
5. 040 4.649 |
6. 089 5. 570
5.907 5. 367 |

Dry coal. Combustible.
oe | :
Former Recalculated Former Recalculated |
value. value. value. | value. |
7.356 | 6.745 8.394 | 7.691
7.169 | 6.572 | 8, 182 | 7.545 |
7.798 | 7.269 8.601 8.008. |
6. 839 6.381 7.867 | 7.888 |
6.568 | 6.116 7. BB 7.086 |
5. 022 | 4.650 5.741 | 5.316 |
6.771 | 6. 332 7.568 | 7.074 |
5.747 5.308 | 5.914 | 5.459 |
5.611 5.178 | 5.775 | 5.327
4. 904 4.499 | 5.390 4.945 |
4. 586 4, 224 | 4.924 4.584
4. 156 4.379 | 5.015 4.618
6,815 | 6.363 | 7.041 | 6.575
7.118 6. 624 7.318 | 6.811
5. 400 | 4.974 5.910 | 5.445
5.471 5.010 | 6.241 | 5.758 |
~ 6.651 | 6.085 | 7. 106 | 6.500
6.411 | 5.813 6. 855 6. 226
~- = = ! =3 Ses = = a — i —
From Table II, page 316.
Equivalent evaporation of water from and at 100° C. per kilogram
actually consumed of—
Dry coal. Combustibie.
“ ima Se eee
Former Recalculated Former Recalculated
value. value. | value. value.
7. 661 7.0217 | 8,742 8.018
7.411 6.796 8. 460 7.876
8.034 | 7. 480 | 8. 862 | 8.252
7. 154 6.675 | 8.280 7.677
6.828 6.359 | 7.855 | 7.815. |
5. 253 4.864 | 6.005 5. 561
7.152 6.689 7.994 7.477 |
5. 986 5.523 6. 160 5.685 |
5. 865 5.412 6.035 | 5.568
5.431 4. 983 | 5. 969 | 5.476 |
5.597 | 5. 155 6.009 5.533 |
5.572 5. 181 5. 876 | 5. 412
7.698 7.190 | 7.948 7. 423
7. 845 8. 065 7.557 | 71. 363
5. 786 5. 880 6.333 | 5. 835
6.192 5.712 7. 063 | 6.516
6.766 6.191 | 7.230 6.613
6.560 | 5. 945 7.014 | 6.371

xm, a,6 + Yeasiano: Data on Steaming Tests of Coals 845

From Table II, page 316.

|

| | Efficiency of boiler, in-
| cluding grate, in per cent

based on the chemical
Tes analysis. |
No.
Former Recalculated

value. value.

1 57.99 53.17

2 56. 53 51.81

3 58. 86 | 53. 82

4} 51.40 47.96

5 49.36 | 45.96

6 39.53 | 36.61

7 60. 30 | 47. 03

8 43.75 | 40, 37

9 42.72 | 39. 42

10 41.04 | 37. 64

ll | 37. 62 | 83. 86

| 12 37.76 | 34.77

| 18 52.15 | 48. 68

| 14 54. 24 | 50. 51

15 51. 10 | 47. 07

16 52.40 | 47.98

17 52.89 48.39

18 | 51.04 | 46. 27

From Table III, pages 319-321.

Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and |
Heat absorbed by the boiler. hydrocarbons, to heating the moisture in
Test | the air, to radiation, and unaccounted for.
oO. i = 2 eS
Former value. Recaleulated value. | Former value. | Recalculated value. |
= : 2 |——— ——
Calories. \Per cent.| Calories. | Per cent. Calories. | Per cent. | Calories. | Per cent. |
1 4,604 57.99 4, 126 53.13 1,205 | 15.51 | 1, 583 | 20.37 |
2 4, 390 56.58 4, 048 62.12 1, 536 . 19.77 | 1, 878 24.18
3 4, 616 58. 86 4,296 54.79 738 | 9.32 1, 057 13. 49
4 4,221 | 61.40 8, 937 7h oY ee OR [eae eee ie ee | Regen
5 | 4,058 | 49.36 | 3, 775 COSC Ese See eee ae eee cies Sea
6 3, 080 39. 53 2, 852 36.59 2, 958 | 37.96 3, 186 40. 40
7 4, 060 50. 30 3, 7195 47.01 1,881 | 23. 29 2, 146 | 26. 58
8 3,178 43.75 2,929 40.39 2,248 © 31. 03 2, 492 | 34.39
9 | 3,098 | 42.72 | 2, 858 39. 41 2,416 38.30 2, 656 36.61
10 | 2,892 | 41.04 | 2, 653 | 37.65 | 2,025 | 28. 75 2, 264 32.14
ll ) 2,701 37. 62 2, 482 | 83.85 | 1, 370 | 19. 09 | 1, 639 22.86
12 2, 690 87.76 | 2, 478 34.77 | 964 13. 52 1, 216 16. 61
13 | 8,777 | 62.15 | 3, 627 | 48.68 730 | 10.09 | 980 13. 55
14 3, 928 54.24 3, 654 50.51 711 | 9.83 | 980 13. 56
15 3,171 | 51.10 | 2,921 47. 07 1, 882 | 22.28 | 1, 682 26. 81
16 3, 348 52. 40 | 3, 089 | 48. 34 924 | 14. 47 1, 183 18.53
17 | 3, 812 52.89 | 3, 487 | 48.37 1, 162 | 16.12 | 1, 487 20. 64
18 | 3,678 | 51.04 | 8,340 1s} | ee eee lesteeSeees a

346

The Philippine Journal of Science

Source.

Australian (Westwaldrend); average of tests

| Table II

Betts’; average of tests 15 and 16, Table II }
Cebu (Comansi); average of tests 17 and 18,

From Table V, page S44. 4
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8, 210

ANALYSIS OF NORMAL FILIPINO URINE

By ISABELO CONCEPCION

(From the Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Surgery,
University of the Philippines)

The main object of the present investigation is to study the
several constituents of Filipino urine in order to get reliable
standards of the different excretory products for comparison
with American and European standards, and with those of other
people living in the tropics. This is of extreme clinical impor-
tance, for it is evident that the standards of excretion of these
constituents for Europeans and Americans, as given in phy-
siological textbooks, cannot be accepted for Filipinos; there-
fore, any deduction of a clinical or practical nature based upon
them must be misleading. The results given in this paper have
been obtained from a series of analyses of the urine in different
classes of the Filipino population of Manila.

In carrying on this investigation a uniform procedure was
used throughout. The urine passed in each twenty-four hours
was collected for from three to seven consecutive days in clean
2-liter bottles, containing 20 drops of saturated alcoholic thymol
solution, and examined daily. The subjects of the experiments
were all adults; namely, students in the physiology department
of the university, laboratory helpers, Bilibid prisoners, and
hospital servants, all living on a diet commensurate with their
respective stations in life. All were allowed to choose their diet,
except the Bilibid prisoners, who have a special ration. There-
fore, these observations were made under ordinary conditions of
everyday life. The diet was not controlled, for the reason that
other investigators have shown that continued monotony of diet
affects the appetite.

Quantity of wrine—As shown in Table I there is wide varia-
tion in the quantity of urine passed. In the average of eacn
‘individual the lower and upper limits were 317 and 2,555 cubic
centimeters,- respectively, and the daily output showed even
wider variation, the lowest amount passed in any one day being
265 and the largest 3,120 cubic centimeters. This variability
for different individuals depends upon the kind of diet, the
amount of water drunk, the condition of the individual, and the
external temperature.

347

348 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

The average quantity found for the whole series of 236 daily
specimens is 935 cubic centimeters. This figure is lower than
the averages found for Americans or Europeans, and very much
lower than the finding of McCay(1) on the Bengalis, as shown
in Table II. This is probably explained by the high humidity
and temperature of the Philippine atmospheric air, which cause
excessive perspiration. These investigations were carried on
during the months of April, May, and June. - This deficiency
of excretion is corroborated by the findings of Young,(2) on
Europeans of long residence in the tropics, that during the hot
humid weather the urines are comparatively small in volume and
of high specific gravity.

Specific gravity.—tThe specific gravity was determined in all
cases by means of an ordinary urinometer and the reading was
corrected for the temperature by adding one unit of the last
order to the observed specific gravity for every 3° above 15°
C., the temperature at which the urinometer was calibrated.

In Europeans and Americans the average specific gravity of
normal urine is 1.020 and varies with the health of the individual
from 1.015 to 1.025. A very free use of beverages may often
cause it to fall below 1.010. Under ordinary conditions, with-
out regard to the amount of fluid ingested, so low a specific
gravity might point to diabetes insipidus or to Bright’s disease
with deficiency of urea. A density above 1.030 frequently de-
notes sugar in the urine. (3)

A comparison of these standards with the figures given in
Table I shows that the limits of variation in urine are very much
wider for Filipinos than for Europeans. The average specific
gravity of the Filipino cases varies between 1.003 and 1.081.
The average specific gravity over the whole series of 208 daily
specimens from laboratory helpers, hospital servants, and Bilibid
prisoners is 1.017, and from the students, 1.021; the average
for the whole series is 1.019. These results compare favorably
with European standards and are slightly higher than those
found by McCay on the Bengalis. This is to be expected on
account of the small volume of urine passed in twenty-four
hours. :

Total nitrogen.—Total nitrogen was determined in duplicate
by the original Kjeldahl method of estimation.(4) The total
nitrogen excreted in twenty-four hours affords a measure of
the total nitrogenous catabolism without regard to the specific
forms in which the nitrogenous waste products are eliminated.
In an individual of average size (70 kilograms) the total daily
excretion of nitrogen, according to the results found for Euro-

xin, a,6 Concepcion: Analysis of Normal Filipino Urine 349

peans and Americans, is usually between 14 and 18 grams. This
would correspond to from 88 to 112 grams of proteins catabo-
lized in twenty-four hours. It also means that, if nitrogen
equilibrium were being mantained, an approximately equal
quantity of assimilable protein food would be required. The
minimum average of nitrogen excreted by Filipinos is 3.05
grams, the maximum 12.63 grams. The average for 142 deter-
minations on prisoners, hospital servants, and laboratory helpers,
and for 60 observations on students, was 6.27 and 7.75 grams,
respectively. The average excretion over the whole series of
202 observations was 7.01 grams of nitrogen in twenty-four
hours. This approximates the finding of Aron and Hocson, (5)
but is very small, compared with European or American stand-
ards of nitrogen excretion. This means also that Filipinos
_ metabolize 43.81 grams of proteins daily, which is only 37 per
cent of Voit’s standard and is slightly higher than the metabol-
ism of the Bengalis, which averages 37.50 grams. The average
for four consecutive days in the series of hospital servants, who
gave the highest results, comes to only 79 grams of proteins me-
tabolized daily. The minimum is as low as 19.13 grams, which
is very much lower than the minimum, 23.25 grams, found by
McCay. (1)

Urea.—This was determined by the Van Slyke and Cullen
method.(6) It is generally recognized that the greatest pro-
portion of nitrogen intake is excreted by the kidneys in the
form of urea nitrogen, and is usually from 84 to 90 per cent
of the total nitrogen. The accepted American or European
standard for urea excretion is from 30 to 35 grams per diem.
The average excretion of urea over the whole Filipino series
of 196 determinations was 9.59 grams. The average for the
student series is 10.80 grams, and for the laboratory helpers,
prisoners, and hospital servants, 8.39 grams. The smallest
amount of urea excreted, found in the case of one prisoner (P.
10378), was 4.24 grams for an average of seven consecutive
days. The maximum quantity was that of a hospital servant
(M. M.), 21.10 grams, for an average of four consecutive days.
The average figure found in the student series is even smaller
than that given in McCay’s series, in spite of the fact that total
nitrogen in my series is higher.

It should be noted that the excretion of urea nitrogen in the
Filipino series is only 63.86 per cent of the total nitrogen ex-
creted in the urine. Ordinarily, when the protein intake is
high, about 90 per cent of the nitrogen of the urine is urea
nitrogen; but on a reduced protein diet, as shown by Folin, (7)

350 The Philippine Journal of Science 191s

the proportion of urea nitrogen falls to about 60 per cent of
the total nitrogen. Mathews’(8) explanation of this variation
of urea with the diet is that—

When more protein is eaten than is necessary to replace that decomposed
in the vital process in the body, the body does not restore the excess
since there is no provision for the storage of an excess of protein except
in relatively small quantities. Instead of storing the excess the nitrogen
is split off from the amino-acids converted into urea and excreted, while
the carbonaceous part of the amino-acid molecule is converted into glucose
or fat and stored in that form.

Uric actd—tUric acid was determined in all cases by the Folin-
Shaffer method.(9) The excretion of uric acid in a diet free
from nucleo-proteins is fairly constant for each individual; it
is then a product of endogenous metabolism. It can be increased
by taking large amounts of animal food rich in nucleo-proteins,
such as thymus gland, fish roe, etc. Healthy Europeans excrete
from 0.30 to 0.75 gram of uric acid daily. In Americans it
varies from 0.30 to 1.2 grams, with an average of 0.75 gram.
The increased uric acid catabolism during fever, or in any con-
dition when there is increased cellular destruction, has been
observed by several investigators.(10) The average total output
of the Filipino series of 214 determinations is 0.376 gram per
day. The average of 61 observations among the students was
0.441 gram per day, and the series of 153 observations on the
prisoners, laboratory helpers, and hospital servants, gave an
average of 0.311 per day. This is very much lower than the
European or American standards.

Creatinine.—Creatinine was determined in all cases by the
Folin colorometric method,(11) using purified picric acid, as
suggested by Folin and Doisy.(12) This is another product of ,
endogenous metabolism. Folin has shown conclusively that the
quantity of creatinine excreted on a low protein diet is prac-
tically the same as when the diet is rich in nitrogen. This con-
stancy of the excretion of creatinine indicates that it is an index
of the real metabolism of the vital machinery of the body proper
in distinction from catabolism which increases the free energy.
According to Folin the average excretion of creatinine in the
normal individual varies from 1 to 2 grams a day in tempe-
rate climates. The average creatinine output in the whole Fi-
lipino series of 235 determinations was 1.478 grams per day.
The average of 163 determinations on prisoners, laboratory
helpers, and hospital servants is 1.274.

Leathes (13) found that during fever the amount of creatinine

xm, 4,6 Concepcion: Analysis of Normal Filipino Urine 351

in the urine was increased; this is due to the increased destruc-
tion of tissues during pyrexia. The experiments of Myers and
Volovic(14) on rabbits have confirmed Leathes’ observation, and
have shown also that the output of creatinine was increased
whether the pyrexia was caused by infection or by confining the
animal in a hot atmosphere (39° to 40° C.). Young(15) made
a number of creatinine determinations, both in hot weather and
in the cooler seasons, on Europeans living in the tropics, and
found that the daily averages range from 0.47 to 0.11 gram of
creatinine nitrogen or from 1.26 to 1.91 grams of creatinine.
My results corroborate the conclusion of Young that in the
tropics there is no evidence of a greater creatinine output.

Shaffer (24) has found that the amount of creatinine excreted
in adults is proportional to the body weight and is about 7 to
11 milligrams of creatinine nitrogen per kilogram. This is
called the “creatinine coefficient.” Although the chief factor
determining the amount of creatinine elimination is the weight
of the individual, the proportion between the body weight and
the amount of creatinine in the urine is not very constant. Fat
or corpulent persons yield less creatinine per unit of body weight
than lean ones. The creatinine coefficient for Filipinos was
10.4 milligrams, which compares favorably with the standard
creatinine coefficient.

Ammonia.—Ammonia was determined by Folin’s original
method.(16) The amount of ammonia normally present in the
urine is about 0.7 gram a day. The amount and the relative
proportion it makes of the total nitrogen of the urine is increased
by the ingestion of mineral acids. It has been shown by several
investigators that ammonia is an indicator of acid formation,
that it is not due to physiologic disturbance of urea formation,
that its sole function is the neutralization of acid bodies, and
that it ceases to be formed in the presence of fixed alkali.
Folin(17) found that,

With pronounced diminution in the protein metabolism there is usually,
but not always, and therefore not necessarily, a decrease in the absolute
quantity of ammonia eliminated. A pronounced reduction of the total
nitrogen is, however, always accompanied by a relative increase in am-
monia nitrogen provided that the food is not such as to yield alkaline ash.

The average ammonia output in the whole Filipino series of
213 observations was 0.641 gram per day. The average of 54
observations among the students was 0.685 gram, and the
average for 159 determinations in the case of prisoners, labor-
atory helpers, and hospital servants was 0.598 gram.

352 The Philippine Journal of Science 1918

Undetermined nitrogen.—Undetermined nitrogen was calcu-
lated by subtracting from the total nitrogen the ammonia, urea,
uric acid, and creatinine nitrogen. Folin(7) has found that the
absolute quantity of undetermined nitrogen is indirectly propor-
tional to the protein intake and the total nitrogen. His average
figure for undetermined nitrogen on a high protein diet is 2.7
to 5.8 per cent of the total nitrogen, while in a low protein diet
it is 4.8 to 14.6 per cent of the total nitrogen. The average
undetermined nitrogen in the Filipino series was 1.271 grams
or 18.13 per cent of the total nitrogen. This high result on a
low protein diet is in accordance with the findings of Folin as
stated above.

Total phosphates.—The amount of total phosphates was de-
termined by means of the uranium acetate method.(18) Phos-
phates are present in the urine as monosodium and disodium
phosphates and free phosphoric acid. The total amount of phos-
phates as phosphoric anhydride (P,O,;) in the urine of Amer*
icans is given as from 3.44 to 4.50 grams a day (an average of
3.87), and in Europeans, from 2 to 3.5 grams. The relation
of phosphate to nitrogen excretion is from 1 to 5 or 6. The
average in the Filipino series of 210 determinations was 1.285
grams phosphoric anhydride, and the ratio of this to nitrogen
is 1 to 5.45. This figure is in comparatively close agreement
with Aron’s(5) finding for Filipinos, but is smaller than the
European ratio, and slightly higher than the American ratio
of 1 to 4.1. It is a well-recognized fact that the amount of
phosphorus excretion is proportional to the quantity of protein
diet. It is still more dependent upon the phosphate absorption.
In man from 50 to 60 per cent of the intake is found in the
urine, and 30 to 50 per cent in the feces. For this reason a
study of phosphorous excretion in the urine alone affords an
unreliable elimination index.

Total sulphates.—The total oxidized sulphur was determined
in the majority of cases by the Rosenheim and Drummond
method (19) and in a few cases by Folin’s gravimetric method. (20)
The sulphates found in urine are derived mostly from the oxi-
dation of sulphur of ingested protein molecules, and a relatively
small amount is due to the ingested sulphates. The greater
part of the sulphur is eliminated in the oxidized form; only a
small proportion is excreted in the form of unoxidized or neu-
tral sulphur compound. Under normal conditions the output
of sulphuric acid is about 2.5 grams daily. About 75 to 95 per
cent of this is in the form of oxidized sulphur, and about 90 per

xm, 4,6 Concepcion: Analysis of Normal Filipino Urine 358

cent of this oxidized sulphur is in the form of inorganic sul-
phate, and 10 per cent ethereal sulphate.

In Filipinos the average of 205 determinations was 1.475
grams of total sulphate, of which 1.169 grams is inorganic sul-
phate and 0.306 grams ethereal sulphate. As expected, the
total oxidized sulphur was found to be less than in the case of
Europeans or Americans. This figure for Filipinos is only
about one-half of the standard figure given by Hawk.(21) This
should be expected, since the sulphuric acid excreted in the urine
arises principally from the oxidation of protein material and,
normally, is directly proportional to the amount of protein
intake. Like urea, it is an index of total protein metabolism.

It was formerly believed that a ratio could be established be-
tween nitrogen and sulphuric acid. It has been suggested that
for an average diet this ratio is as 5 to 1. However, when
we come to consider that the percentage content of nitrogen and
sulphur present in different proteins varies, the fixing of a ratio
that will express the exact relation existing between the two
elements, as they appear in the urine, is practically impossible.
If we accept this ratio in a general way, and compare with it
the ratio for Filipinos, we see that it is only a trifle more than
three-fourths, since the ratio of nitrogen to sulphuric acid is
ato tol. .

The ratio of the total oxidized sulphur to ethereal sulphates
in an average American or European diet is from 10 to 1 to
12 to 1, while the ratio of Filipinos is only 5.45 to 1. This can
be explained by the vegetable character of the diet, as it is a
well-known fact that the usual ratio may be greatly reduced
by a rich carbohydrate or an exclusive milk diet. (22)

CHLORIDES

Chlorides were determined by the Volhard-Arnold method. (23)
Next to urea, chlorides constitute the chief solid constituent
of normal urine. The average daily output is about 10 to 15
grams, expressed as sodium chlorides; but the output is de-
pendent in great part upon the nature of the food ingested,
being high in a vegetable and low in a meat diet. It is also
greatly increased temporarily after copious water drinking and
with increased ingestion of salt in the food.

The average excretion over the whole series of 199 analyses
is 5.86 grams daily. It is to be expected that the total quantity
would be higher on account of the vegetable character of the
diet of Filipinos, and their high chloride ingestion.

1918

tence

Journal of Sci

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xm, 4,6 Concepcion: Analysis of Normal Filipino Urine 359

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Antonio Majialak, of
Bilibid Hospital, for his valuable codperation in securing spe-
_cimens of urine for me. My thanks are due also to the students
for the loyal way in which they carried out the collection of the
urine in every instance, and for the interest they took in the
investigation.

REFERENCES

(1) McCay. “Scientific Memoirs” (1908), No. 34.

(2) Youne, W. J. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasitol. (1915), 9, 91.

(3) HoLtLaANp. Medical chemistry. W. B. Saunders & Co., Philadelphia
(1915), 594.

(4) Hawk. Practical physiological chemistry. P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.,
Philadelphia, 5th ed. (1916), 483.

(5) ARoN and Hocson. Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1916), 6, 365.

(6) VAN SLYKE and CULLEN. Journ. Biol. Chem. (1914), 19, 141.

(7) Fortin. Am. Journ. Physiol. (1905), 13, 118.

(8) MatTrHEws. Physiological Chemistry. William Wood & Co. (1915),
689.

(9) Fotrn-SHarrer. Zeit. Physiol. Chem. (1901), 32, 552.

(10) Cited by von Fiirth. Chemistry of Metabolism, Translated by Smith.
J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia (1916), 619.

(11) Fourn. Described by Hawk, op. cit., 506.

(12) FoLin and Dotsy. Journ. Biol. Chem. (1917), 28, 349.

(18) LeatHes. Journ. Physiol. (1907), 35, 205.

(14) Myers and Votovic. Journ. Biol@Chem. (1913), 14, 489.

(15) Youne. Loc. cit. ;

(16) Fottn. Described by Hawk, op. cit., 499.

(17) Ipem. Am. Journ. Physiol. (1905), 13, 117.

(18) Hawk. Op. cit., 552.

(19) RosENHEIM and DrRuMMOND. Biochem. Journ. (1914), 8, 143.

(20) Hawk. Op. cit., 546. :

(21) IpeM. Ibid., 404.

(22) HAMMERSTEN and Hepin. Text-book of Physiological Chemistry,
John Wiley and Sons, New York (1915), 724.

(23) Hawk. Op. cit., 556.

(24) SHAFFER. Am Journ. Physiol. (1908), 23, 1.

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REVIEW

Plane Trigonometry | with Tables | by | Hugene Henry Barker | head of the
department of mathematics, Polytechnic | High School, Los Angeles,
California | with 86 illustrations | Philadelphia | P. Blakiston’s Son
& Co. | 1012 Walnut Street | Cloth, pp. i-vii + 1-172, including index.
Price $1 net.

361

a Lae es
ea?) Pry oy me i hry

} OUCNES iit EL 7), ane ated
we wore, tear hayley, bi, i

A
Abaca, 221.
Acerbia maydis, 253.
Aeginetia indica, 237.
Aithaloderma longisetum, 201.

Ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, 258.
Analyses of Batan and Fushon coal, 112.
producer and exhaust gases, 120.

Analysis of copra cake, 123.
norma! Filipino urine, 347.
Ananas comosus, 172.
sativus, 172.
Andropogon schoenanthus, 238.
sorghum, 173.
Angular leaf spot, 208.
Annona muricata, 175.
Anona squamosa, 207.
Anthostomella arecae, 177.
cocoina, 197.
Apiospora camptospora, 240.
Apium graveolens, 175.

Apparatus used in field assay of water, 19.

Arachis hypogaea, 176.
Areca catechu, 177. ;
Arenga saccharifera, 333.
Artoecarpus communis, 178.
incisa, 178.
integra, 178.
integrifolia, 178.
Aschersonia sclerotoides, 192.
Aspergillus delacroixii, 245.
periconioides, 184.
Asterinella stuhlmanni, 172.
Asteroma phaseoli, 231.
Austin, F. E., see Reviews (book).

B

Bacillus carotovorus, 233.
coli, 2, 15, 195, 268.
phytophthorus, 243.
prodigiosus, 214.

solanacearum, 181, 217, 222, 241, 242.

Bacterial blight, 222, 229.

bud rot, 192.

heart rot, 221.

leaf stripe, 225.

soft rot, 233.

stem rot, 220, 240.

wilt, 181, 217, 222, 241, 242.
Bacterium malvacerum, 208.

Baker, Eugene Henry, see Reviews (book).

Bakerophoma sacchari, 234.
Banana, 220.

Bark rot, 184.

Beans, 229.

INDEX

BERHMAN, A. S., Two field methods for the
determination of the total hardness of
water, 21; see also HEISE, GEORGE W.

and BERHMAN, A. S., 1.
Beta vulgaris, 179.
Betel palm, 177.
pepper, 231.
Bitter pomelo, 185.
Blackleg, or potato stem rot, 243.
Black rot, 179.
of fruits, 209.
pods, 244.
Blast of kernels, 249.
Blight, 201, 205, 214, 229, 238, 243, 247.
Botryodiplodia anceps, 220.
Botryosphaeria minuscula, 246.
Brassica oleracea, 179.
pekinensis, 180, 181.
Breadfruit, 178.
Broad bean, 69.
Broomella zeae, 253.
Bunga, 177.
Burgundy mixture, 257.

Cc

Cabbage, 179.
Cacao, 244.
Caesalpinia sappan, 207.
Cajanus cajan, 69.
Calabaza, 202.
Calamismis, 232.
Calonectria perpusilla, 227.
Calorific values of producer gas, 121.
Camoting cahoy, 219.
Canavalia ensiformis, 181.
gladiata, 68, 181.
Canker, 185, 210, 245.
Canton mandarin, 185.
Capnodium footii, 197.
Capsicum annuum, 181.
frutescens, 181.

spp. 207.
Carica papaya, 182, 207.
Carrot, 203.

Cassava, 219.
Ceara rubber, 219.
Celery, 175.

Cercospora, 179, 180, 202, 208, 204, 218, 227,

230, 234, 241, 248, 255.
apii, 175. ;
armoraciae, 180.
artocarpi, 178.
brassicicola, 180.
canavaliae, 181.
henningsii, 219.

363

364

Cercospora lussoniensis, 230.
mangiferae, 218.
manihotis, 219.
nicotianae, 224, 225.
pachyderma, 203.
sesami, 240.
stizolobii, 220.
ubi, 203.

Chaetosphaeria eximia, 197.

Chard, 179.

Chemical analysis of cements, 37.

Chick pea, 69.

Chlorosis nonparasitic, 186.

Chromosporium ecrustaceum sp. n., 214.

Cicer arietinum, 69.

Citrus, 185.

decumana, 185, 188, 191, 207.

hystrix, 185.

japonica, 185.

maxima, 185, 188, 191, 207.

medica, 185.

mitis, 185.

nobilis, 185, 186, 188, 191.

spp., 184, 185.
Cladosporium herbarum, 231.
Clasterosporium maydicum, 253.

punctiforme, 227.

Coal, 100.

COCANNOUER, JOSEPH, #A., Tests of some
imported garden legumes, 67.

Coconut, 192.

Cocos nucifera, 192.

Coffea arabica, 199, 200, 201, 207, 255.

excelsa, 199.
liberica, 255.
robusta, 200, 255.
spp., 198.
Colletotrichum arecae, 177.
gloeosporioides,
lussoniense, 219.
papayae, 184.
Colocasia antiquorum, 201.
esculentum, 201,

CONCEPCION, ISABELO, Analysis of normal
Filipino urine, 347.

Coniosporium dendriticum, 198.

extremorum, 240.
oryzinum, 228.
sorghi, 175.
vinosum, 240.

Coniothyrium coffeae, 201.

Control of plant diseases, 253.

Coprinus fimbriatus, 197.

friesii yar. obscurus, 198.

Corn, 249.

Corrosive sublimate, 262.

Corticium salmonicolor, 190.

Cotton, 208.

Cowpea or paayap, 68, 247.

COX, A. J., and HEISE, G. W., review of
Kremann’s The application of physico-
chemical theory to technical processes and
manufacturing methods, 97.

Crop rotation, 258.

Cucumbers, 202.

192.

Index

Cucumis sativus, 202.
Cucurbita maxima, 202.
Cultural methods, 254.
Curing and fermenting troubles, 223.
Curly top, 247.
Cycloderma depressum, 178.
Cyphella holstii, 246.
Cytospora aberrans, 188.
palmicola, 198.

D

Damping off, 182, 187, 198, 218.
of seedlings, 224.
Daucus carota, 203.
Description of Bureau of Science produeer-
gas power plant, 101.
Diaporthe citrincola, 188.
Dichotomella areolata, 179.
Dictyophora phalloidea, 236.
Didymella caricae, 184.
lussoniensis, 204.
Didymium squamulosum, 181,
Didymosphaeria anisomera, 175.
Die-back, 246.
Dioscorea esculenta, 203, 204.
Diplodia ananassae, 173.
arecina, 177.
artocarpi, 178.
artocarpina, 179.
aurantii, 188.
caricae, 184.
cococarpa, 198.
var. malaccensis, 198.
crebra, 220.
epicocos, 197.
var. minuscula, 198.
lablab, 204.
manihoti, 219.
mori, 220.
phaseolina, 281.
Diplodin degenerans, 242.
Disease-resistant varieties, 255.
Djersek boli, 185.
Dolichos lablab, 68, 204.
uniflorus, 204, 229.
Downy mildew, 202, 207, 249.
Dry rot, 250.
sooty rot, 246.

E

Early blight, 175.

Effect of electrolytes on cement as reported
by a number of investigators, 30.

Egg plant, 241.

Elfvingia tornata, 178, 198.

Ellisiodothis rehmiana, 208.

Elsinoe canayaliae, 181.

Endoxyla mangiferae, 219.

Entyloma oryzae, 228.

Epiphytes, 188.

Ervum lens, 70.

Erysiphaceae, 171,
241, 248.

Eugenia uniflora, 207.

Eurotium candidum, 214.

181, 183, 208, 218, 281,

Index - 365

Eutypella citricola, 188. Helminthosporium, 227.
cocos, 198. earyopsidum, 173.
heteracantha, 188. curvulum, 252.
heveae, 214. heveae, 211.
rehmiana, 178. inconspicuum, 251, 252,
Exosporium durum, 196. 253.
i hypoxyloides, 177. sesameum, 241.
pulchellum, 177. Hemileia, 200.
vastatrix, 199.
FE Heterodera radicicola, 225, 237.
Hevea, 210.
False smut or iump smut, 226. brasiliensis, 209.
Fertilizer experiments with sugar cane, 135.| Hibiscus cannabinus, 288.
Ficus carica, 204. sabdariffa, 207, 214.
Fig, 204. Hormodendron cladosporioides, 197.
Fomes lignosus, 212. Horse beans, 181.
Foot rot, 198. Hypoxylon atropurpureum (on coccids), 188.
Formaldehyde, 261. I
Formalin, 261. Iemo, 231.

disinfection, 256.
spray, 261.
Fruit blast, 220.

Imperfect fungus, 191.
Ipomoea batatas, 215.

rot, 178, 181, 182, 188, 189, 241. J
Fumago vagans, 175. Jack fruit, 178.
Fungi, 197, 214. K
Fungicides, 256. Kaffirs, 173.
Fusarium, 182, 214, 224, 247, 249, 255. Kernel smut, 173.
heveae, 184. Kidney bean, 67.
theobromae, 244, 245. KING, ALBERT E. W., The mechanical prop-
erties of Philippine coir and coir cordage
G compared with abaca (Manila hemp), 285.
Gabi, 201. Kremann, R., see Reviews (book).
Ganoderma incrassatum var. substipitata, 198. | Kuehneola desmium, 209.
Garden pea, 69. fici, 204.

Gas-generator tests, 115.

var. moricola, 219.
Gloeoglossum glutinosum, 198.

Gloeosporium canavaliae, 181. L
catechu, 177. Lablab bean, 68, 204.
intermedium, 192. Large pomelo, 185.
macrophomoides, 203, 241. Lasiodiplodia, 215. -
melongenae, 241. theobromae, 182, 188, 203, 215,
palmarum, 177. 245, 246, 247.
Glume spot, 227. Leaf rot, 183.
Glycine hispida, 70, 204, 206, 207. spot, 172, 1738, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180,
max, 70, 204, 206, 207. 196, 199, 202, 203, 204, 211, 218, 219,
Gossypium brasiliense, 209. 220, 222, 228, 224, 227, 230, 233, 234,
herbaceum, 209. 235, 240, 241, 242, 248, 249, 251.
spp., 20. Lembosia bromeliacearum, 172.
Grain mold, 173. Lemons, 184.
Guignardia arecae, 177. Lentil or lens, 70.
manihoti, 219. Leptosphaeria (Leptosphaerella) oryzina, 227.
var. diminuta, 219. orthogramma, 2538.
Gummosis, 189. Leptothyrium circumscissum, 219.
H Lettuce, 216.
Lichens, 189, 247.
Haplographium chlorocephalum, 227. Lima bean, 67.
Haplosporella melanconioides, 240. Limes, 184.

HBISE, G. W., see WRIGHT, J. R., and| Lime-sulphur spray, 260.
HEISE, G. W., 49; see also COX, A. J., and] Linga, 240.

HEISE, G. W., 97. Liquid fuel, 101.
HEISE, G. W., and BEHRMAN, A. S., Water | Lonchocarpus sp., 207.
analysis in the field, 1. Loranthus philippensis, 188.

266 . Index

Luetuca sativa, 216. Orange galls, 204, 232.
Lycopersicum esculentum, 217. Oranges, 184.
Oryza sativa, 225.
M
Macrophoma, 220. I ed
HEURES) AN) 2 Pachyrrhizus angulatus, 229. c
eee eh erosus, 229. ©
Mangifera, indica, 218. Paiawania cocos, 197.
been AE Papaya, 182.
Mani, 176.

Para rubber, 209.
Passarini, 173.
Passiflora quadrangularis, 207.

Manihot dichotoma, 219.
utilissima, 219.

Marasmius, 236. Pea, 231.
Marchalia constellata, 178. Peanut, 176.
Massarina raimundoi, 188. Pechay, 180.

Mechanical extraction of coir, 275.
properties of Philippine coir and
coir’ cordage compared with
abaca (Munila hemp), 285.
Megalonectria pseudotrichia, 210.
Melanconium lineolatum forma, 249.
sacchari, 235, 236.
Meliola, 191.
arundinis, 240.
mangiferae, 219.

Methods of burning pottery in the vicinity of
Manila and their influence on the quality
of the product, 59.

Micropeltis, 192.

mucosa, 199.

Milos, 173.

MIRASOL Y JISON, JOSE&, Fertilizer exper-
iments with sugar cane, 135.

Miscellaneous fuels, 101.

Moraceae, 219.

Morus alba, 219. sabdariffae, 214.

Mottled leaf, nonparasitic, 189. sesamina, 241,

Mucuna deeringiana, 220. solanophila, 242.

nivea, 70. |

Mulberry, 219.

Mungo, 69.

Musa sapientum, 220.

textilis, 221.

Mycogone cervina var. theobromae, 245.

Mycosphaerella, 221. phaseolina, 230.

earicae, 183. rehmiana, 203.

dioscoreicola, 204. sacchari, 235.

Penicillium, 182, 189.
maculans sp. n., 214.
Peroneutypella arecae, 178.
cocoes, 198.
Peronospora, 207.
Pestalozzia funera, 219.
palmarum, 177, 196.
pauciseta, 219.
Phakospora pachyrhizi, 229.
Phaseolus aureus, 69.
cealcaratus, 206, 207, 229, 230, 231.
lunatus, 67, 71, 75, 207, 230, 231.
mungo, 69, 231.
vulgaris, 67, 71, 80, 207, 229, 231.
spp., 229.
Phellostroma hypoxyloides, 178.
Philippine economic-plant diseases, 165, 217.
Phoma bakeriana, 248.
herbarum, 219.
oleracea, 203.

Phomopsis areeae, 177.
capsici, 181.
dioscorea, 203.
palmicola, 177.
Phyllachora, 204, 219.
dioscoreae, 203.

musae, 220, 222. spontanei, 235.
Myrothecium oryzae, 227. sorghi, 173.
Phyllactinia suffulta, 219.
Phyllocnistis citrella, 185.
Phyllosticta circumsepta, 189.
cocophylla, 197.
glumarum, 227.
graffiana, 204.
insularum, 175.
manihoticola, 219.
miurai, 227.
Physalospora affinis, 245.
guignardioides, 181.
linearis, 253.
Physical properties of coir filaments in ten-
sion, 293.
Physiological trouble, 211.

N

Nangea, 178.
Nectria bainii var. hypoleuca, 245.

discophora, 246.

episphaeria, 188.
Nematodes, 225, 237.
Nicotiana tabacum, 207, 222.
Normal Filipino urine, analysis of, 347.

0)

Oospora oryzetorum, 228.
perpusilla, 231.

Ophiobolus oryzinus, 228.

Ophionectria theobromae, 246.

Index

Phytophthora, 182, 202, 249.
colocasiae, 201.
faberi, 182, 209, 210, 244, 245,
246.
infestans, 243.
nicotianae, 224, 255.
Pigeon pea, 69.
Pineapple, 172.
Pink disease, 190.
Piper betle, 231.
Pisum arvense, 70.
sativum, 69, 71, 231.
Plan of the producer-gas plant, 102.
Plant sanitation, 253.
Plasmopara cubensis, 202.
Plicaria bananincola, 220.
Pod spot, 248.
Pomelos, 184.
Portland cement, the solubility of, and its rela-
tion to theories of hydration, 147.
Potato, 242.
stem rot, 243.
Powdery mildew, 181, 183, 203, 218, 219, 231,
241, 248.
Practical operation of a producer-gas power
plant, 99.
Premna cumingiana, 171.
Preparation and standardization of potassium
palmitate tablets, 23.
Pseudomonas campestris, 179.
eitri, 185.
phaseoli, 80, 94, 229.
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, 69, 204, 232.
Pucecinia kuehnii, 237.
purpurea, 174.
Pythium debaryanum, 182, 218, 224, 225.

R

Radish, 233.

Radium content of water from the China Sea,
49.

Raphanus sativus, 233.

Reana luxurians, 250.

Recaleulation of certain data on steaming
tests of Philippine coals, 341.

Red pepper, 181.

REINKING, OTTO A., Philippine economic-
plant diseases, 165, 217.

Resin-salsoda sticker, 259.

Results of commercial tests of Uling coal
(Cebu, P. I.) in the producer-gas power
plant of the Bureau of Science, 124.

REVIEWS (book) :

Austin, F. E., Preliminary mathematics,
97.

Baker, Eugene Henry, Plane Trigono-
metry with Tables, 361.

Kremann, R., The application of physico-
chemical theory to technical processes
and manufacturing methods, 97.

REYES, F. D., see WITT, J. C., and REYES,
F. D., 147.

Rhizoctonia, 182, 187, 198, 203, 205, 206, 218,
224, 227, 228, 229, 233, 247, 255.

Rhizopus, 178, 182, 203, 215.

artocarpi, 178.

367

Rice, 225.

Rind disease, 235.

Root disease, 242, 236.
galls, 225, 287.
parasite, 237.
rot, 177.

Roselle, 214.

Rosellinia cocoes, 198.

Rust, 174, 199, 203, 204, 208, 209, 219, 229, 231,

237, 249.
Ss

Saecharum officinarum, 207, 2338, 235.
spontaneum, 235, 239.
Saprophytic fungi, 213.
Sarcinella raimundoi, 242.
Satsuma orange, 185.
Sealy bark, 191.
Sclerospora javanica, 249.
maydis, 249, 250.
Sclerotium, 177, 187, 198, 224, 228, 229, 255.
Self-boiled lime-sulphur spray, 260.
Septogloeum arachidis, 176.
Septoria lablabina, 204.
lablabis, 204.
miyakei, 227.
Sereh, 238.
disease, 237.
Sesame, 240.

‘| Sesamum indicum, 240.

Sincamas, 229.
Smut, 239, 252.
Soda Bordeaux mixture, 255.
Soil sterilization, 255.
Soja, 204.
Solanum melongena, 241.
tuberosum, 242.
Solubility, the, of Portland cement and its re-
lation to theories of hydration, 147.
Some generalizations on the influence of sub-
stances on cement and concrete, 29.
Sooty mold, 172, 175, 191, 197, 201, 231, 240.
Sordaria oryzeti, 228.
Sorghum vulgare, 173.
Sources of power in the Philippines, 100.
Soursop, 175.
Soy bean, 70, 204.
Spegazzinia ornata, 228.
Spiny mold, 191.
Sporodesmium bakeri, 220.
Spotting of prepared plantation rubber, 218.
Spraying apparatus, 262.
Squash, 202.
Standard Bordeaux mixture, 257.
legumes of the world, 67.
Steirochaete ananassae, 173.
lussoniensis, 219.
Stem disease, 201.
"rot, 208, 227, 228.
bacterial, 220, 240.
Sterile fungus, 250.
Sterility of nuts, 197.
Stizolobium deeringiana, 220.
Storage rots, 208, 215.
Straight, or sterile, head, 228.
Sugar cane, 233.

368

Suiphur, 259.
Sweet potato, 215.
Sword beans, 68, 181.

Ay

Tamarindus indica, 207.

Tests of some imported garden legumes, 67.

Theobroma cacao, 244.

The radium content of water from the China
Sea, 49.

Tipburn, 216.

Tobacco, 222.

Tomato, 217.

Traversoa dothiorelloides, 219.

Trichoderma koningi, 214.

Trotteria venturioides, 204.

Tryblidiella, mindanaenis, 188, 214.

rufula, 188.

Twig fungi, 219.

Two field methods for the determination of
the total hardness of water, 21.

U
Uncinula, i171.
Uredo desmium, 209.
dioscoreae, 203.
dioscoreae-alatae, 203.
fici, 204.
kuehnii, 2387.
vignae, 249.
Uromyces appendiculatus, 231.
mucunae, 220.
sojae, 208.
Ustilaginoidea virens, 226.
Ustilago sacchari, 238.
sorghi, 178.
zeae, 252.
V
VALENCIA, F. V., review of Austin’s Pre-
liminary mathematics, 97; Mechanical ex-
traction of coir, 275; see also YCASIANO,
FRANCISCO R., and VALENCIA, FELIX
WAS ERE
Valsaria citri, 188.
insitiva, 220.
Velvet bean, 70, 220.

Index

Vermicularia capsici, 181.
horridula, 204.
sesamina, 241.
xanthesomatis, 249.
Vicia faba, 69.
Vigna catjang, 68.
sinensis, 68, 248.
unguiculata, 68.
spp. 247.
Voandzeia subterranea, 205, 206, 207.

5

Ww

Water analysis in the field, 1.

Winged bean or calamismis, 69, 232.

Wither tip, 192.

WITT, J. C., Some generalizations on the in-
fluence of substances on cement and con-
crete, 29; methods of burning pottery in the
vicinity of Manila and their influence on
the quality of the product, 59.

WITT, J. C., and REYES, F. D., The solub-
ility of Portland cement and its relation to
theories of hydration, 147.

Woroninella dolichi, 204.

psophocarpi, 282.

WRIGHT, J. R., and HEISE, G. W., The ra-
dium content of water from the China Sea,
AQ,

x
Xanthosoma sagittifolium, 202, 249.

Y

Yams, 203.

Yautia, 249.

YCASIANO, F. R., A recalculation of certain
data on steaming tests of Philippine coals,
341.

YCASIANO, F. R., and VALENCIA, FELIX
V., Practical operation of a producer-gas
power plant, 99.

4

Zea mays, 207, 249.

Zignoella nobilis, 188.

Zygosporium oscheoides, 177.

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