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VI.
VII.
VIII.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
. Clover, A. M. The Terpene Oils of Manila Elemi
. Cox, Alvin J. The Proximate Analysis of Philippine Coals..........
. Cox, Alvin J. A New Comparator
CONTENTS.
No. 1, February, 1907.
Figs. 1-2.
. Bacon, Raymond Foss, and Freer, Paul C. The Action of Sodium
COPD. SN CCON NY Ste a Ra ayo ene BEE wR er ce ee
Horn, Walther. A New Subspecies of Philippine Cicindelidae
. TYGITTGRUEE Gah sesh oc, amet 8 S08 ae 7 et ea i eta cea
No. 2, May, 1907.
Richmond, George F. Philippine Fibers and Fibrous Substances:
Their Suitability for Paper Making. Part III (Conclusion)....
Plate I.
Bacon, Raymond Foss. The Crater Lakes of Taal Volcano
Plates I-VI.
Bacon, Raymond Foss. Catalysis by Means of Uranium Salts in
the Sunlight
Plate I, fig. 1.
No. 3, June, 1907.
. Smith, W. D. The Asbestos and Manganese Deposits of Ilocos
Norte, with Notes on the Geology of the Region
Plates I-XI and 3 figs. in text.
Merrill, Elmer D. The Ascent of Mount Halcon, Mindoro
Piate I.
No. 4, August, 1907.
Hyeland, A. J. Notes on the Geology and Geography of the
Baguio Mineral District
Plates I-IX, maps 2.
Smith, Warren D. Petrography of Some Rocks from Benguet
Province, Luzon, P. I
Plates I-V.
Reviews
a1 D>
-~I =]
©
129
139
145
179
207
XV.
XVI.
XVI.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXIT.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXYV.
XXVI.
XXVIT.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXII.
CONTENTS.
No. 5, October, 1907.
Shufeldt, R. W. Osteological and Other Notes on Sarcops calvus
of the) Phillippimesya% cee oe See Se eee ene ee er he Rls eee
Plate I.
Worcester, D. C. On a Nesting Specimen of Caprimulgus
SFY USC Eu LUaS VNU Ce Ma coe ee cep A cere eer ee eee eee
Plates I-II.
Worcester, D. C. On a Nesting Place of Sula sula (Linnzus)
SLING SHO TETD ELy en SSG LLC Lea CO OL epee ee ee nn
Plate I.
McGregor, R. C. Notes on a Collection of Birds from the Island
of Basilan with Descriptions of Three New Species...................-
McGregor, R. C. Descriptions of Four New Philippine Birds........
McGregor, R. C. The Occurrence of Blyth’s Wattled Lapwing
and the Scaup Duck in the Philippine Islands.........-..........
McGregor, R. C. Note on a Bird Unrecorded from Mindanao........
McGregor, R. C. Notes on Specimens of the Monkey-Eating Eagle
(Pithecophaga jefferyi Grant) from Mindanao and Luzon........
McGregor, R. C. Notes on Birds Collected in Cebu......................-
McGregor, R. C. Birds Observed in Bantayan Island, Province
OF “Ce Ue: osc che ance se ee ee oo ce RE ere ee ne
Plate I.
McGregor, R. C. The Birds of Batan, Camiguin, Y Ami and
Babuyan: Claro; Uslamds (North of Wuzomee sce eee ee
Plates I-V.
Mearns, E..A. Two additions to the Avifauna of the Philippines.
Mearns, E. A. Descriptions of a New Genus and Nine New
Species ok GP hills pure eB i CS ese wee a rae ae cee a ee
Schultze, W. New Lepidoptera of the Philippine Islands............
Plate I.
No. 6, December, 1907.
Smith, Warren D. The Geology of the Compostela-Danao Coal
BION: 2 one scceecbes tao et as eee a ae eg a ee ae ce
Plates I-XIV, maps 1 and 2.
Ferguson, Henry G. Note on the Occurrence of Rhyolite in Cebu..
Plate I, 1 fig. in text.
Cox, Alvin J. The Occurrence, Composition and Radioactivity of
the Clays from Luzon, Philippine Islands........-.-......--...----------------
(eles diy ths ake
Richmond, George F. and Vivencio del Rosario, Mariano. Com-
mercial Utilization of Some Philippine Oil-Bearing Seeds:
Preliminaazy, Paiper 22sec cee ere fe ees ee J ie
407
413
FEBRUARY, 1907 : No. 1
~ THE PHILIPPINE
RNAL, OF SCIENCE
?
"EDITED BY
PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D.
- Co- EDITORS
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
E. D. MERRILL, M. S.
PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
OF THE
Nee OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
.
“
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES.
No, 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.—Preliminary Report of the Appearance in the Phil-
ippine Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P. Strong, M. D.
No. 2, 1902, Chemical Labor atory.—The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acetyl Peroxide and Its
Use as an Intestinal Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
c. Freer, M. D., D.
No. 3, 1908, Bi ooscat Laboratory.—A Preliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
. 4, 1908, Serum Laboratory.—Preliminary Report on the Study of Cattle and Cara-
baos in the Philippine Islands. By James W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 5, 1908, Biological Laboratory.—Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, with Special
Beene to Surra in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and: Moses T.
egg.
No. 6, 1903.—New or Noteworthy Plants, I. The American Element in the Philippine
Flora. "By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1908, Chemical Laboratory.—The Gutta Percha and Rubber of the Philippine
Islands. By Penoyer L. Sherman, jr., Ph. D.
No. 8, 1908.—A Dictionary. of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. By Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
No. 9, 1903, Biological and Serum Daburiionen —A Report on Hemorrhagic Septicemia
in Animals in ‘the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Two Cases of a ‘Peculiar Form of Hand Infection
(Due to an Organism Resembling the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. MeDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M. D. F
No, 11, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 1: Prelimi-
nary Bulletin on Insects of the Cacao. (Prepared Especially for the Benefit of Farmers.) ~
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No. 12, 1908, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by
the Bacillus of ‘Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
‘ No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed
Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Foetidus. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D.~
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories. —Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera:
An BPxperimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 17, 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, ‘Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—l. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologic Sig-
nificance. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of Intes-
tinal Amebiasis (Amcbie Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D.
No. 19, 1904, Binegicat Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Cholera
Spirillum. By W. Wherry, M. D.
No. 20, 190 eBiclon scat Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where
the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus.
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia:
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands, By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory——Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro- Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P. Strong, M. D.
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories —1I. A Description of the New Build-
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caialests. of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk,
ibrarian 2
No. 28, 1904, Biological Laboratory. —Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and His-
topathology ae a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
erzog, M.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders : Its Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on
Ge eds a and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry,
No. 25, 1904.1—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By
Richard C. McGregor.
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratéry—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora
de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. i
No. 28, 1904.—1. The Polypodiaceze of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philippine
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D.
No. 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. iI. The Source of Manila
Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory: —I. Autoéatalytic Decomposition of. Silver Oxide.
Il. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D.
No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—I. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (Together
with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna).
By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, ’P. I. II. A Search.
Into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “Peptone, » with Special Reference to Its
Influence on the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera-Red Reactions. By William B.
Wherry, M. D.
(Concluded on third page of cover.)
THES PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
Vou. II FEBRUARY, 1907 No. 1
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI.
By A. M. CLover.
(from the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science.)
INTRODUCTION.
The name elemi is commonly applied to a number of resinous prod-
ucts obtained from different countries and having a different botanical
origin. The species from which most of the varieties are derived is un-
known, but there appears to be little doubt but that they are all to be
referred to the general order of Burseracew.1_ From Mexico, Central
America, Brazil, Guyana, Africa, and the Philipine Islands, products
known as elem find their way into European markets. A common char-
acteristic of the different varieties is that they all contain a good propor-
tion of volatile oil. Further, from the incomplete data to be found in the
literature, it appears that nearly all, if not all, yield a good proportion
of crystalline substances when they are treated with alcohol, in which
the crystalline portion is only sparingly soluble.
According to Gildemeister and Hoffman,’ elemi was known in Europe
in the fifteenth century and used for medicinal purposes. It is still
used in Europe medicinally in the preparation of ointments and
plasters and is also said by different authors to have a limited use in
the manufacture of lacs and varnishes for imparting toughness to these
1 Merrill: The Source of Manila Elemi, Publ. Bur. Govt. Labs., Manila, (1905),
29, 51-55.
2Die Aertherischen Oele. Berlin (1899), 642.
51214
2 CLOVER.
products. Wiesner® states that it has recently come into use in the
preparation of lithographic inks. The total consumption of the product
is not large, and the greater part of the world’s supply is at present
derived from the Philippine Islands, this product being commonly known
as Manila elem.
Manila elemi.—The resin is derived from the species Canariwm luzo-
nicum. This fact has positively been determined from an abun-
dance of botanical material obtained by myself and reliable collectors
and submitted to Mr. Merrill, the botanist of the Bureau of Science.
A. Tschirch and J. Cremer * have recently arrived at the definite conclu-
sion that Manila elemi is derived from Canarian commune L. Their con-
clusion is the result of an examination of samples of Manila elemi and
resin obtained by one of the authors in India from the species Canarium
commune, and is based upon a comparison of the general properties of
the two products as well as of the crystalline substances isolated there-
from. So far as their work went they were unable to note any differences
between the two products.
The tree Canariwm luzonicum is quite widely distributed in the.
Philippine Islands and is known by the Tagalogs as pili. There are
two closely related species designated as pili. Canarium luzonicum bears
a small nut, while the other, which has been identified by Mr. Merrill as
Canarium pachyphyllum, bears a much larger one, produces resin in only
very small amounts, and is never used by the natives as a source of the
latter.
Pili resin is commonly known by the Spanish term brea which is applied
by the natives indiscriminately to all similar products. The resin is
obtained by removing a narrow strip of bark horizontally about the
trunk of the tree in four or five different places. A thin, transparent
fluid soon appears about the exposed part and in time becomes somewhat
viscous and opaque. The amount of resin increases for a month or so,
gradually falling several inches below the cut and in time taking on the
appearance of a cataract. If the resin is not frequently removed it hard-
ens on the outside and generally takes on a yellowish color. I have seen
several good-sized trees upon which had accumulated at least 10 pounds
of resin, probably within a few months. For commercial purposes the
resin is required to be as soft, clean, and colorless as possible, so with
this in view it is carefully removed from the tree at definite intervals and
not allowed to accumulate. When a tree is continuously used for resin
it is customary about once a year to remove the bark for a couple of
inches above the last cut. Many trees are to be found which have
evidently been long employed in this manner and which give evidence
of this gradual removal of the bark for several feet up and down the
* Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches. Leipzig (1903), 1, 242.
*Arch d. phar. (1902), 240, 313.
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. 3
trunk. The resin finds considerable use among the natives as an
illuminant, for which purpose it is rolled in a palm leaf, or better,
in the fibrous part of the trunk of the young coconut tree. For such
purposes it behaves very similarly to pine pitch, and a large torch of it,
used especially by fishermen, gives a light which can be seen at a great
distance and which burns for many hours.
As ordinarily gathered for commerce, the resin is soft, sticky, and
opaque, has a slightly yellow color, and a very agreeable odor. It has a
spicy, somewhat bitter taste. If left exposed to the air for some time,
it gradually hardens throughout and finally becomes brittle. The resin
dissolves readily and completely in ether, chloroform, and benzene, except
for the separation of a small amount of water which it contains and also
a very small amount of a white, granular substance. In acetic ester,
acetone, ligroin, methyl and ethyl alcohol it does not dissolve completely
unless sufficient solvent is used. With these solvents a white, crystalline
residue remains which, with the use of alcohol in limited quantity,
amounts to about 25 per cent of the total. This insoluble, crystalline
portion of elemz resin has been the subject of considerable study and will
be referred to again briefly in this paper. Very soft Manila elemi contains
a considerable amount of water, less than 5 per cent however, while that
which has collected on the tree for a length of time contains very little.
Elemi oil.—The volatile portion of elemi resin designated as elemi
oil has long been known to chemists. It is generally obtained by steam
distillation of the resi. Gildemeister and Hoffman state that the com-
mercial product is prepared from Manila e/emi exclusively, although in
most cases where this oil has been used in chemical investigation there
-seems to be much doubt as to its origin. At present it has little use.
The oil was first studied by Stenhouse,® who prepared it by distilling the hard
resin with steam. The variety of resin employed is not given. He obtained a
yield of only 3.5 per cent of oil and gives its boiling point as 166° and its
specific gravity as 0.852 at 24°. His analysis showed the oil to be oxygen-free.
Deville ® found that the percentage of oil obtained from the resin depended upon
whether it was fresh and soft or had become hardened by long contact with the
air. From resin of good quality he obtained 13 per cent of oil. He describes
the oil as having a specific gravity of 0.849 at 11°, an index of refraction of
1.4719 at 14°, and a rotation of —90°.5. The product boiled very constantly at
174° and analysis showed it to contain no oxygen. By treating the oil with
hydrochloric acid gas he obtained a crystalline substance which was optically
inactive but concerning which he obtained no further data. No statement is
made concerning the origin of the resin which he used.
. In 1888, Wallach“ detected phellandrene in elemi oil but does not mention the
source of the oil. Shortly afterwards Wallach § studied the oil more carefully, and
in this case also does not state the origin of the oil with which he worked. It
> Ann. Chem. (Liebig) (1840), 35, 304.
® Ibid. (1849), 71, 352. :
TIbid. (1888), 246, 233.
SIbid. (1889), 252, 102.
4 CLOVER.
was dextro-rotatory and showed a specific gravity of 0.900 and an index of refrac-
tion of 1.48592 at 20°. After fractionation, a good quantity of the nitrite of
dextro-phellandrene was obtained from that portion boiling below 175°. In the
portion boiling from 175° to 180° he isolated a large amount of dipentene tetra-
bromide by treating it with bromine in acetic acid. He recommends the use of
the oil for the preparation of dipentene derivatives. He points out that the crystal-
line hydrochloride obtained by Deville was dipentene dihydrochloride. Wallach
detected no other substances in the oil, but states that it contained a good portion
of higher-boiling matter which split off water during the distillation. During
the rectification of the oil he frequently noted the appearance of fine, needle-
like crystals. These he connected with the crystalline constituents of elem.
These crystals will be referred to later in connection with my own results.
From the data given by Wallach it appears that the oil with which he
worked was distilled from the resin at a temperature much above 100°,
for it will be shown later that Manila elemi contains a good proportion of
high-boiling, oxygen-containing oil, having a higher specific gravity and
refractive index than the low-boiling terpene-containing portion. This
high-boiling oil is not removed from the resin except at higher temper-
atures. The oils worked with by Stenhouse and Deville, as they are
described, contained none of this high-boiling oil and were probably
removed from the resin at 100°.
Schimmel & Co., in their semiannual report of October, 1896, publish some
observations concerning the higher-boiling portions of elemi oil. They isolated
a product most of which pased over from 160° to 161° at 10 millimeters. At
ordinary pressure it boiled from 279° to 280°. It was optically inactive and had
a specific gravity of 1.043 at 15°. They did not make an analysis. The April,
1897, report of the same firm gives the folowing data concerning elemi oil as
determined by them:
Yield of oi] from raw material, 15 to 30 per cent.
Specific gravity at 15°, 0.87 to 0.91.
Optical rotation, +-45°.
Tschirch and Cremer® have distilled VE eleni as well as other varieties
of elemi with steam and obtained oils, but the very meager data which they give do
not enable one to decide what differences, if any, exist in the different oils. The
oil from Manila elemi constituted nearly 20 per cent of the original, soft resin.
The major portion of it boiled from 170° to 175°, this distillate showing the
remarkably high specific gravity of 0.955, which figure seems almost incredible.
Beyond 175° a thicker oil passed over. The fraction from 175° to 210° deposited
white, needle-like crystals on standing; these crystals melted at 170°.
EXPERIMENTAL.
The following work concerns only the volatile constituents of Manila
elemi; that portion consisting of terpenes and sesquiterpenes and their
derivatives, which can be removed by distillation from the resin without
decomposition of the latter. In a preliminary examination of a sample
of elemi sent to the Bureau of Science from outside of Manila, it was
found that the low-boiling constituent of the oil obtained therefrom was
® Loc. cit.
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. 5
phellandrene, boiling in vacuo almost completely within one degree and
pure so far as it was possible to determine. To be able to obtain this
substance so pure and in considerable quantity would be of especial
advantage in studying the constitution of this terpene and it was decided
to take up this problem. It was thought that the oil employed by previous
workers, which evidently was only partly phellandrene, had become al-
tered on account of the age of the resin or was derived from a different
variety of resin. A good quality of commercial elemi was obtained
from a dealer in Manila and the oil removed from a portion of this by
steam. When redistilled twice in vacuo it boiled from 88° to 90° at
50 millimeters and from 173° to 175° at ordinary pressure. The optical
rotation was as follows: a A as 582 Its boiling point was a little
higher than that of the previous oil and was not so constant. The oil
gave a precipitate of phellandrene nitrite when it was treated with
nitrous acid in the cold; on filtering, this product was somewhat gummy.
On treatment with bromine in cold acetic acid, a crystalline bromide was
obtained which, after recrystallizing, melted at 120°. The oil was
evidently not pure phellandrene and appeared to be a mixture of phel-
landrene and dipentene.
A new quantity of elem was then obtained from another dealer and
the oil derived from this in the same way as the last, boiled from 92°
= o. 5 at 51 millimeters and from 175° to 177° at ordinary pressure,
0 +96°.2. The oil gave a precipitate of phellandrene nitrite,
small in amount. With bromine in acetic acid, a crystalline bromide was
obtained which, after recrystallizing, melted at 103° to 104°, and was,
accordingly, hmonene tetrabromide.
A fresh sample of resin sent from the Province of Tayabas yielded an
oil boiling from 80° to 81°.5 at 38 millimeters, accordingly about 3°
below the boiling point of limonene, ae =-+122°. It gave a heavy
precipitate of phellandrene nitrite and no crystalline bromide when
treated with bromine in acetic acid. It appeared to be almost, if not
quite, pure phellandrene.
Later, two small fresh samples taken from single trees and sent to
the laboratory, with botanical material for identification of the species,
were examined. ‘The oils were removed and purified as before. One of
these gave no phellandrene nitrite but a crystalline bromide having a
melting point of 104° to 105° was obtained. The other gave a very heavy
precipitate of phellandrene nitrite and no crystalline bromide when
treated with bromine in acetic acid. Owing to these results it was thought
that the great variation found in the different oils was probably due to a
_ difference in the resin obtained from different trees of the species. In
10This form of expression will be used throughout this article to represent te
optical rotation in a 10-centimeter tube at the temperature indicated.
6 CLOVER.
order to study this matter further I decide to collect samples of resin from
single trees, for separate examination. Accordingly I went to the Proy-
ince of Tayabas and from different places in that province I gathered
seven samples of from one to two kilos each from pili trees differing in
size and sex. At the same time leaves taken from these trees were
preserved and also fruit where it was possible to obtain it. All the trees
appeared to the writer to be of the same species and all the botanical
material gathered was assigned by Mr. Merrill to the species already given.
The samples were obtained as fresh as possible, considering the fact that
the resin must have remained on the trees for a month or so in order to
allow of the production of a good-sized mass. The different samples
were well wrapped in palm leaves and were all worked up within four
months after being gathered. The results developed by their examination
not only confirmed what had been suspected in regard to variation, but
showed that in the majority of cases, in each individual sample, a definite
terpene of the limonene series occurred in a pure condition.
In order to obtain larger quantities of these pure terpenes and to
extend the results already obtained; also with the hope of isolating one
or more of the unknown terpenes of this class, another collecting trip
was made and 14 more samples gathered just as in the previous case. All
of these latter were worked up within four months after they were
collected. As a result of the complete examination of these 21 samples,
it has been possible to isolate the terpenes dextro-limonene, dextro-
phellandrene, terpinene and terpinolene in a pure condition and to study
the behavior of these substances in a number of ways; to render certain
the presence of an unknown terpene in several products; to establish
regularities in the occurrence of certain mixtures where the terpene
product is not homogeneous; to isolate in a pure condition from single
samples, two of the constituents of the high-boiling portion of the oil
and to show the composition of the mixture which constitutes the high-
boiling oil obtained from most samples. The high-boiling oil occurring
in elemi and which can be most conveniently and completely removed
by distillation in vacuo, will be seen to be a mixture of at least three
substances. Here also a great variation has been found in the different
samples but no connection appears to exist between the terpene oil and
the corresponding high-boiling one. No connection can be traced be-
tween the age or sex of the tree and the constituents of the oil.
The following relates to the method of procedure followed throughout
in working with the resin. It is difficult to remove all of the terpene
oil by distillation with steam, and very little of the high-boiling portion
goes over except at quite an elevated temperature, because of the increas-
ing viscosity of the residue as the oil is removed. It was desired to
remove all the terpene oil possible and, in order to prevent any change in
the oil, at as low a temperature as could be used. With this end in view
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. fi
it was found much better to distill the resin in a vacuum. It was also
found that the high-boiling oil could almost completely be removed from
the resin at a pressure varying from 8 to 15 millimeters, with practically
no decomposition of the latter. The resin, to introduce it into the distill-
ing flask, was first placed in a beaker and immersed in an oil bath which
was kept at a temperature of from 100° to 125°, depending on the ease
with which the resin became fluid: The latter was then poured into the
flask and the terpene oil distilled over in vacuo, the pressure being
- gradually decreased to 10 or 15 millimeters as the water in the resin
passed over; the oil bath was kept between 125° and 150°. The distilla-
tion was always made as quickly as possible and in no case was purified
terpene oil ever taken from a product which had been heated higher than
150°. Frequently a second distillate was then taken by heating to 200°,
at which temperature practically all of the terpene, but only a portion of
the high-boiling oil may be removed. If the resin is quite fresh, most of
the heavy oil will have passed over before the oil bath reaches 230°, but
with an old product it is difficult to maintain a high vacuum, so that the
oil bath must be heated to 250°. At this temperature, with fresh mate-
rial there is very little if any decomposition of the resin, but with that
which is old it is possible to remove only a small portion of the high-
boiling oil because of the increasing difficulty of maintaining a vacuum as
the temperature is raised beyond 200°. In several instances, the purified,
high-boiling oils derived from fresh resin at a temperature of 200° were
found to be identical with those obtained from the same samples when,
in some cases, it was raised as high as 250°; so that it is quite certain
that no changes have been brought about in these oils by the high
temperature.
Sample I was collected in July near Unisan, 'Tayabas Province, Luzon,
from a relatively young tree about 40 feet in height, having a diameter
of about 2 feet near the base. There was no fruit on the tree and its
owner said it never had borne any fruit. The resin, of which 1,035
erams were used, was drier than most of the samples.
The first distillate (I,A) was taken at 140° and amounted to 54 grams; the
second up to 210° (I,B) amounted to 75 grams; and the third up to 250° (1,C)
was 45 grams. The terpene oil was distilled from I,B im vacuo and the residue
added to I,C. The total terpene oil amounted to 110 grams or 10.6 per cent, and
the total high-boiling oil to 64 grams or 6.2 per cent.
I1,A was redistilled twice at 54 millimeters; it passed over completely
the second time from 93° to 94° (1,A, purified). a 20 +99°.6. The
oil gave no test for phellandrene and it was found that on the addition
of even 1 per cent of an oil known to be nearly pure phellandrene it
responded plainly to the test when the solution was kept very cold.
In the proportion of 1 to 200 no test could be obtained. With bromine
in acetic acid, limonene tetrabromide was obtained; melting point,
8 CLOVER.
104°-105° after recrystallizing twice from alcohol. The oil treated
with hydrochloric acid gas in glacial acetic acid, gave a good yield of
dipentene dihydrochloride; melting point after recrystallizing from al-
cohol, 49°-50°. I,A, purified, gave a granular nitrosyl-chloride when
treated according to the method of Wallach. The odor of the oil was
plainly that of commercial carvene. Metallic sodium when heated with
the oil had very little effect on it and after having been distilled from
sodium it was found to boil completely at ordinary pressure from 176°.5
to 177°.5. The oil appears to be pure dextro-limonene.
I,C was allowed to stand nearly a year before it was purified. It was re-
distilled twice at reduced pressure and on the second fractioning the major portion
of it was obtained as a yellowish-green product, boiling completely between 165°.5
and 168°.5 at 33 millimeters (1,C, purified).
Sp. gr., y= 1.0247, 2 W—0. n =1.5148.
Sample II was collected near Atimonan, Tayabas, from a tree having
a diameter of about 3 feet near the base and laden with unripe nuts.
The sample, of which 815 grams were used, was softer than the previous
one.
The first distillate at 125°, amounted to 50 grams (II,A); the
second at 210° (I1,B), was 123 grams; the third at 250° (II,C), was 30
grams. The terpene oil was distilled from II,B at reduced pressure and
the residue added to II,C. The total terpene oil was 132 grams or 16.2
per cent; the high-boiling oil, 71 grams or 8.7 per cent.
IJ,A was decanted from a small amount of water which collected with
it. It was then distilled twice at 36.5 millimeters, passing over the second
time almost completely between 82°.5 and 83°.5; three-fourths of it
distilled at almost a constant temperature or at most within 0°.25 (II,A,
purified). a Des 100°. The product gave no test for phellandrene
With bromine in acetic acid the 104° to 105° melting hmonene tetra-
bromide was obtained and a granular nitrosyl-chloride was also readily
formed. It also gave dipentene dihydrochloride melting at 50°. It
was distilled from metallic sodium, after which it boiled completely
between 176° and 177°, accordingly at a slightly lower temperature than
L,A, purified; however, it possessed the same odor and, so far as could
be determined, was identical in all other respects.
II,C stood for over a year and was then fractionated twice at reduced pressure,
whereupon about one-half of it was obtained as a light, yellowish-green product,
boiling completely from 167° to 169°.5 at 35 millimeters (II,C, purified).
Sp. gr., P—=0.9522, a 9.7, m9) --1.4973,
Sample III, which was quite soft, was obtained from a young tree, .
smaller than that from which Sample I was taken, and standing very
close to the latter tree. It was first distilled at 125° for the terpene oil
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. 9
(IIT,A) and then at 210° (III,B). Im all, 186 grams of distillate were
obtained from 900 grams of resin. A further distillation was not made.
III,A was separated from a little water and redistilled three times
im vacuo. On the third distillation it passed over completely from
89° to 90° at 47 millimeters, « = -+- 100°.7. The purified oil had the
same odor, boiling point, and optical rotation as the two previous terpene
products.
I1I,B was fractionated once at reduced pressure and the high-boiling portion
was preserved for over a year. On redistilling, the major part was obtained as
an oil boiling completely from 166°.5 to 169° at 34.5 millimeters (III,B, pur-
ified). It was light yellow in color.
Sp. er., 0.9887, « 37 —2°.5, n 291.5055.
Sample IV was collectedmear Unisan, Tayabas, from a good-sized tree,
nearly 3 feet in diameter near the base. The tree, which at the same time
bore no fruit, contained 8 or 10 pounds of soft resin.
One thousand and eighty grams of the sample were distilled, first
at 125° (IV,A), then at 210° (IV,B), and finally at 250° (IV,C).
The total terpene oil obtained from this sample was 152 grams or 14
per cent, and of high-boiling oil, 145 grams or 13.4 per cent.
IV,A was redistilled twice at 65.5-millimeters and on the second dis-
tillation it passed over completely at this pressure from 95°.5 to 97°.5
(IV, A, purified). It was almost optically inactive, a +4°. It gave
no test for phellandrene and in a check experiment in which a very small
proportion of phellandrene was added to the oil, this was easily detected.
No crystalline hydrochloride could be obtained on treatment with hydro-
chlorie acid gas in cold, glacial acetic acid, nor could a crystalline bromide
be separated on saturation with bromine, either in acetic acid or in a
mixture of amyl alcohol and ether, as has been recommended by Baeyer
‘and Villiger.1t No solid nitrosyl-chloride could be formed. A good
quantity of terpinene nitrite was obtained by using the method recom-
mended by Wallach, the crystals appearing in a short time. When
recrystallized from alcohol, this substance melted at 155°, softening a
little below that temperature. The oil was distilled over metallic sodium,
after which it boiled completely from 174° to 176°. It stood nearly a
year in a partially filled, glass-stoppered bottle; it was then redistilled with
steam, separated from water and dried over solid caustic potash.
Boiling point, 174° to 175°.5. Sp. gr., 70.8358. a W=+4°.3.
n = t756. The product still gave a good yield of terpinene nitrite
and in all other respects it behaved as it had one year previously. It
appears to be almost pure terpinene.
1-Ber. d. chem. Ges. (1894), 27, 448.
10 CLOVER.
IV,B was distilled under reduced pressure and the low-boiling portion
was refractioned three times under the same conditions. On the third
distillation it passed over completely within a range of 2°.5 or 3° and was
evidently not so pure a product as that obtained from IV,A, although
it gave a good yield of terpimene nitrite. It appears that in this case,
as well as with the samples containing phellandrene, there is some altera-
tion in the terpene when it is removed from the resin at higher
temperatures.
IV,.C stood for nearly a year; it was then redistilled twice im vacuo and a
product obtained which constituted the major portion of the original material
and which passed over completely between 171° and 174° at 39 millimeters
(IV,C, purified). It was of a light yellowish-green color and had a mild,
pleasant odor. It was much less viscous than any of the high-boiling oils pre-
viously isolated and also had a much higher specific gravity. It had very little
optical activity. Sp. gr., °)/=1.0815. «3’=—19.2, n 31.5159.
Sample V, which was moderately soft, was obtained from a tree stand-
ing close to that from which Sample II was taken. The tree was laden
with unripe nuts.
One thousand grams of the resin were distilled, first at 125° and,
excluding 3 or 4 grams of water, the distillate amounted to 61 grams
(V,A). The second distillate was taken at 210°and weighed 124 grams
(V,B) ; the third was taken at 250° and was 70 grams (V,C). The total
terpene oil was 97 grams or 9.7 per cent and the high-boiling oil was 158
grams or 15.8 per cent.
V,A was separated from water and redistilled twice at 43.5 millimeters.
On the second distillation it boiled almost completely from 82°.7 to 84°
at this pressure (V,A, purified). Its odor was very pleasant and mark-
edly different from that of any of the terpene products previously
obtained, a De -+-122°.6. It yielded a very heavy precipitate of phel-
landrene nitrite. Neither a solid bromide nor a nitrosyl-chloride could
be obtained by the methods ordinarily used. The product appears to be
almost pure phellandrene. Its boiling point can be seen to be 3° or 4°
below that of the limonene oils and about 2° below that of the terpinene
oil. On standing in a partly filled, glass-stoppered bottle, a small amount
of a good-sized, colorless, prismatic crystals appeared about the walls of
the bottle.
V.B was distilled at reduced pressure, but after the removal of the terpene
oil the higher-boiling portion passed over gradually, indicating that only a
minor part of it could be isolated as a constant-boiling product. Unfortunately,
most of this high-boiling distillate was lost in an accident, but a small quantity
of it, on standing, deposited crystals similar to those found in V,A.
Sample VI was obtained near Atimonan, Tayabas. The tree was an
unusually large one, being 5 or 6 feet in diameter near the base. A
large quantity of soft resin had accumulated from a number of cuts.
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. a
The tree bore no nuts and a native familiar with it declared that it had
never produced any.
The first distillate (VI,A), obtained at 125° from 1,085 grams of
resin, amounted to 140 grams, neglecting a few grams of water; the
second (VI,B) was taken to 225° and was 150 grams, and a small ad-
ditional quantity, 20 grams, was obtained at 245°. The total terpene oil
amounted to 183 grams or 16.9 per cent; high-boiling oil, 127 grams or
11.7 per cent.
VILA was separated from a little water and redistilled twice at 55
millimeters pressure. It passed over completely from 93° to 94° on
the second distillation (VI,A, purified). The product possessed the same
characteristic odor as that obtained from the previous samples of li-
monene which had been isolated and its boiling point is also the same,
a | 9g°.9 . In rotation, its agreement is seen to be remarkable.
Pure limonene tetrabromide was obtained from it and it was also tested
thoroughly, just as the oils from Samples I and II had been, and it
showed exactly the same behavior. By comparing the terpene oils ob-
tained from Samples I, II, III, and VI, especially as to rotation, it ap-
pears that when dextro-limonene is encountered in the resin from a single
tree, it is found in a pure condition.
VI,B was redistilled once and, after the terpene oil had passed over, the
remainder was found to be almost constant boiling, leaving as usual a small
amount of a viscous residue. After standing for nearly a year it was redistilled
at reduced pressure and most of it obtained as a product showing a nearly
constant boiling point (VI,B, purified). Sp. gr, 30.9621, n N=. 4995.
Sample VII was obtained near Atimonan, Tayabas, from a tree about
2 feet in diameter, laden with unripe nuts. The sample was a little
hardened, but only on the outside.
Nine hundred and sixty grams were distilled, first at 125° yielding 57
grams of distillate, excluding 3 or 4 grams of water (VII,A). Ann. Chem. (Liebig) (1885), 227, 283.
324 CLOVER.
deemed sufficient to undertake the problem. Preliminary experiments
showed that a considerable proportion of a crystalline acid was formed
by oxidation with 4 per cent permanganate in the cold. The product
obtained appeared to be a mixture.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE TERPENE OILS.
(1) Of the 21 samples examined, 10 gave pure dextro-limonene.
(2) Nine of the remaining oils, including all but the two optically
inactive ones, contained more or less phellandrene. The nine phellan-
drene-containing oils fall into two classes.
(a) Those showing an initial boiling point decidedly lower than that
of phellandrene and possessing a peculiar, indefinable odor. These are
the oils from Samples VII, X, and XV, and all are dextro-rotatory.
The oil from Sample X has the lowest initial boiling point and its rotation
is decidedly the smallest. The data obtained upon the physical constants
of these oils do not lead to any decided conclusion, but it appears ex-
tremely improbable that any body like pinene is present in them. From
the marked regularities which are found to exist in the different samples,
it seems very probable that we have present in these three cases one of the
unidentified terpenes of the limonene series.
(b) Of the remaining six phellandrene-containing oils from Samples
V, XI, XIV, XVI, XVII, and XVIII, one was levo-rotatory and the
others, although they were all highly dextro-rotatory, showed a consider-
able variation in rotation. The two giving the greatest variation also had
a slightly higher boiling poimt, while the others, to judge from their
boiling point, appeared to be pure phellandrene. As has already been
brought out in the discussion of Sample XJ, this oil consisted largely of
lzevo-limonene.
In summing up this work it was suspected that the variation in the
rotation of the other phellandrene containing oils was due to the presence
in them of small amounts of layo-lmonene which could not be detected.
As shown in the experimental work which is detailed just below, the pres-
ence of levo-limonene could readily be proved by the addition of a small
portion of dextro-limonene to the oil and the subsequent isolation of
dipentene tetrabromide. The presence of levo-limonene was prove
in oils XVII,A, purified, and XVIII,A, purified. XIV,A, purified, had
been used up in previous work. In V,A, purified (a = leaky
and XVI, A, purified (a »—129°.8), it can not be definitely concluded
whether or not levo-limonene was present and it can be readily seen
that if present at all it was in very small amounts.
Detection of levo-limonene-——A portion of XVII,A, purified, was added to
one-fifth its weight of dextro-limonene and 3 grams of the mixture treated
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. Be
in a freezing mixture with bromine in amyl alcohol and ether. Crystals began
to separate very quickly and after two or three hours they were filtered and
washed with a small amount of alcohol. Yield, 0.8 gram. When recrystallized
from alcohol the melting point was 118° to 121°. The latter was not altered
much by recrystallizing twice from a mixture of alcohol and acetic ester. The
final melting point was 118° to 120°. The product was apparently a mixture
of dipentene and limonene tetrabromides. A sample of pure dipentene tetra-
bromide was then mixed with about 10 per cent of pure dextro-limonene
tetrabromide and the product, after being recrystallized onee from a mixture
of aleohol and acetic ester, melted at 117° to 119°. This confirmed the previous
conclusion.
As too great a proportion of dextro-limonene appeared to have been added
in the last experiment, it was repeated, using just about one-half the amount.
From 0.45 gram of the mixture there was obtained, after three hours, 0.65 gram
of dry erystals which, after having been recrystallized once from a mixture
of alcohol and acetic ester, melted at 124° to 125° and the substance was ac-
cordingly dipentene tetrabromide.
Four grams of XVIII,A, purified, were mixed with 0.4 gram of dextro-limonene
and treated with bromine as before. After the product had stood over night,
0.2 gram of crystalline bromide was obtained, this being only about one-third
of the amount isolated in the previous case. After recrystallization from a
mixture of alcohol and acetic ester the body melted at 124° to 125° and was
accordingly pure dipentene tetrabromide. ,
Both V,A, purified, and XVI,A, purified, the former at least presumably con-
taining a very small proportion of levo-limonene, were treated with 15 per cent
of their weight of dextro-limonene and brominated in the usual manner. In
neither case had a trace of the crystalline product separated after twenty-four
hours but in each instance after two or three days, a small quantity of crystals
appeared which, after recrystallization, melted at about 124°. No great sig-
nificance is attached to this for tt was found that XVII,A, purified, when it
was brominated without the addition of limonene after standing for several
days yielded a very small amount of crystals which had about the same melting
point; the appearance of dipentene tetrabromide in these cases is possibly due
to tlie continued action of hydrobromic acid upon limonene tetrabromide.
(3) The two remaining samples of resin gave almost optically in-
active oils which were found to be terpinene and terpinolene.
HIGH-BOILING OILS.
The data obtained from the purified, high-boiling oils are placed in the
table below, in order to make plain the relations existing between them.
The boiling points at reduced pressures have already been given under
the different samples. These different boiling points were taken at some-
what different pressures, as it was not possible to obtain the same pressure
from day to day. However, the variation in pressure was not great and
it may be seen that the boiling points of the many different constant-
boiling products isolated were almost the same, the differences not being
over 2° or 3° when referred to a common pressure. These oils did not
512143
34 CLOVER.
boil as constantly as the pure terpene oils which were isolated, but they
passed over completely within a range of from 2°.5 to 3°.5.
Approximate
Sp. er, 30 go | ‘tad partes
Designation of oil. (@) a ty ny ae on,
alcohol (by
yolume).
fe]
TVG; purified: <2: Sue - ese eee eee ee 1.0315 —1.2 1. 5159 16
IC; purified ==. Sse a eee 1, 0247 +0.0 bls Se
XT Bi puuified = S22 ee ee . 9969 —0.5 5068 | 52a ee ee
TB. puriiied 22 aes eae ae eee . 9887 —2.5 1.5055 7.5
Vil; Cxpuritied sie ra ee ee eee . 9689 —2.5 D000) eae
VB spunitied) 2 pes eee a eee ae . 9621 (2) A995 ,| 2. See aaa
WAU IB purified ae eee Sa ee . 9559 —2.4 1, 4985 4
SkV DUB Spuritiedice 2 aoe ees oa acee s Se aee . 9559 +2 U4 9504 eee ee ee
LCa purified 223s 2 eee a eee . 9522 —2.7 |- W4973" [ta 2 seo
SVB purified: = ees ae ree . 9482 —2 1)49577| ee eee
RMVB purified eS a | e "9461 —0.8 1.4944 3
XID Bypuritiedto-2s2 Fs. eee SE eee . 8677 +71.6 1. 4757 3
1 Not determined.
In this table every measurement which has been made is recorded. In
two or three cases, as already stated, it was found impossible to obtain a
constant-boiling product from the crude distillate and in other instances
no high-boiling distillate. was taken.
The oils are arranged in the order of their specific gravities and it will
at once be seen that the indices of refraction arrange themselves in
precisely the same way, with the exception of XVIII,B, purified, which
has an index about 0.0035 lower than it should have. This same oil
is also exceptional in that it is shghtly dextro-rotatory, while all the
others are slightly levo-rotatory. All the oils are practically optically in-
active excepting XII,B, purified, which stands apart in all respects from
the others. ,
Analyses of XII,B, purified, are as follows:
(1) 0.1455 gram substance gave 0.4309 gram CO, and 0.1503 gram H.O.
(2) 0.1490 gram substance gaye 0.4405 gram CO, and 0.1534 gram H,O.
Required for C,,H..O Found
(1) (2)
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
C=81.08 80.77 80.63
SSI. 11.48 11.44
The analyses are in tolerably good agreement with the formula assigned.
The substance, which had remained as an oil for three months after
purification, become solid when the inside of the bottle was scratched with
a glass pipette. It dissolved in all the organic solvents in any proportion
and when an attempt was made to recrystallize it from dilute alcohol in
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. 35
the cold, it separated as an oil. The body is almost colorless and possesses
a mild, pleasant odor. It is moderately viscous. At ordinary pressure
it distills at 270° to 280° with the formation of water.
A half dozen or more oxygen-containing substances, mostly crystalline,
have been isolated from the high-boiling portions of different essential
oils. They have, in general, the same properties as this body and to
most of them the same chemical formula has been assigned. They are
sometimes known as sesquiterpene alcohols. To judge from the data
given in the above table, the body is radically different from any of the
other constant-boiling product isolated from different samples and as will
be seen later, it is not a constituent of any of these oils. It is evidently
practically a pure substance and its occurence in this single sample is
most remarkable.
All of the other oils given in the table are closely related and are
grouped together. In addition to the regular variations already noted,
there is a constant increase in viscosity from the first oil to the last.
The first, 1V,C, purified, is very mobile, while the last, XVI,B, purified,
is very viscous. All of these regularities at once suggest that we have
in these different products a mixture of two substances in varying
proportions and this is undoubtedly the case. The following analyses
tend to confirm this view. The numbers obtained for XVI,B, purified,
are:
(1) 0.1911 gram substance gave 0.5533 gram CO, and 0.1934 gram H.0O.
(2) 0.1630 gram substance gave 0.4721 gram CO, and 0.1637 gram H,0.
Found
(1) (2)
Per cent. Per cent.
C=78.96 79.00
ee 11.16
The analysis of XIV,B, purified, gave the following results:
'(1) 0.1482 gram substance gave 0.4286 gram CO, and 0.1460 gram H.O.
(2) 0.1580 gram substance gave 0.4547 gram CO, and 0.1589 gram H.O.
(3) 0.2116 gram substance gave 0.6132 gram CO, and 0.2137 gram H,0.
Found
(1) (2) (3)
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
C=78.87 78.49 79.03
H=10.95 Wy E22:
The figures obtained for ITI,B, purified are as follows:
(1) 0.1683 gram substance gave 0.4629 gram CO, and 0.1533 gram H.0O.
(2) 0.1714 gram substance gave 0.4709 gram CO, and 0.1500 gram H.0O.
Found
(1) (2)
Per cent. Per cent.
C=75.01 74.93
H=10.12 9.72
36 CLOVER.
IV,C, purified, gave the following numbers :
(1) 0.1504 gram substance gave 0.3917 gram CO, and 0.1163 gram H.0O.
(2) 0.1887 gram substance gave 0.4917 gram CO, and 0.1420 gram H,0O.
(3) 0.2388 gram substance gave 0.6245 gram CO, and 0.1850 gram H.O.
Found
(1) (2) (3)
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
O71) 083 71.07 (Okey,
H== 8.59 8.36 8.79
Analysis (3) was made of a middle fraction of the substance, redistilled in
a vacuum.
If we consider that these oils belong either to the terpene or sesqui-
terpene class, and are composed of the substances having the formula
C,,H,,, C,,H., or their oxygen derivatives, then taking the boiling point
into consideration we have in general three posibilities, namely, (1) a
sesquiterpene or (2) a dioxygen derivative of a terpene or (3) a mono-
oxygen derivatives of a sesquiterpene may be present. The sesquiter-
penes are almost insoluble in dilute alcohol; the solubilities in 55 per cent
alcohol (by volume) respectively of pure cadinene prepared from the
hydrochloride and pure cedrene, distilled from oil of cedar, were deter-
mined and found to be practically nil. The different, high-boiling oils
from elemi were then tested with the result that they showed a consider-
able solubility in 55 per cent alcohol; this solubility which in several
instances is given in the table, varied just as do their other properties.
In a few instances there was evidence of a trace of sesquiterpene, but
the amount was inconsiderable. That the soluble constituents of the oil
would have no great effect upon the solubility of a sesquiterpene, if such
a substance were present, was shown by adding a small amount of the
latter to several of the clear solutions.
The solubility of oil XVI,B, purified, the last one of the series, is very
close to that of the pure sesquiterpene alcohol XII,B, purified (see
p. 34), so that the assumption that we have here a substance similar
to the latter seems to be verified. Moreover, the analysis of XVI,B,
purified, shows that its composition is close to that of a sesquiterpene
alcohol. On the other hand, the member at the other extreme of the series
IV;C, purified, has a much greater solubility in 55 per cent alcohol, this
property being remarkable. Considering the analysis and the boiling
point, the latter substance is a dioxygen derivative of a terpene and is
nearly pure; all of its properties are in accord with this assumption. The
numbers obtained on analysis show too great a difference from any formula
which can be calculated for the oil for it to be considered as being pure.
C,,H,,0, requires 72.28 per cent for carbon and 8.44 per cent for hy-
drogen. This oil is shghtly yellow in color, of a very mild, pleasant
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. a
odor and is perfectly miscible with all the solvents. It redistilled from
275° to 279° at ordinary pressure, with the formation of water.
The other oils are all more or less yellow in color. Because of the
great viscosity of the oils in the lower part of the series and also because
of their lack of optical activity, it seems certain that the sesquiterpene
derivative contained in them is quite different from the optically active
substance XII,B, purified.
AMYRIN.
The crystalline residue obtained from elemi by treating it with alcohol
has been worked with by many chemists and has long been known as amy-
rin. Banp,** who appears to have employed Manila-elemi in his work,
gives 174° as the melting point of the substance. Vesterberg ?§ who also
used Manila-elemt was unable to obtain a constant melting point and
showed that the substance is a mixture of two very similar bodies, which
were separated by means of their acetyl derivatives; these bodies are
a-amyrin, melting point 180° to 181°, and B-amyrin, melting point
193° to 194°. Tschirch and Cremer give 170° to 171° as the melting
point of amyrin from Manila-elem, after repeated crystallization.
I wished to note if there was any variation in the amyrin obtained
from individual samples of elemi; it was thought that possibly a-amyrin
or B-amyrin might be found in a pure condition, when derived from the
resin of a single tree.
Two samples, VIII, from which had been isolated pure limonene, and
XVIII, which had yielded almost pure phellandrene, were examined.
In neither case could a body of constant and sharp melting point be ob-
tained ; the products resulting from several recrystallizations behaved as
mixtures, although compartively, they melted at about the same tem-
perature.
CHANGES IN THE RESIN ON STANDING.
Portions of three of the samples of resin used in this work were
allowed to stand for about fifteen months in covered jars, at the end of
which time they were still moderately soft.
(1) Sample IV yielded much less terpene oil when heated to 150° than it
had formerly. The oil, after having been purified in the usual manner, distilled
almost completely from 82° to 84° at 38.5 millimeters, this being the same as
the boiling point of the pure oil isolated from this sample fifteen months before.
Essentially it had undergone considerable change. Its physical constants are given
in comparison with those of 1V,A, purified, previously isolated. The oil obtained
from the old resin when treated with nitrous acid, yielded only a very small
7 Jahresb. f. Chem. (1851), 528.
* Ber d. chem. Ges. (1887), 20, 1243; (1890), 23, 3187.
38 CLOVER.
amount of terpinene nitrite, whereas the oil IV,A, purified, which had stood
in a bottle for fifteen-months still gave a very rich yield of the nitrite.
|
| Sp. er
30 30 P.8t-, |
| a n 30
D D ( 4
|
| fe}
{UN iN TEES ee ee sees +4.3 1. 4756 0. 8358
|) ‘Oil obtained after:standinp oss ee ee + .6 1. 4800 8425
(2) Sample V was distilled, by heating it to 135°. The terpene oil was
purified in the usual manner and boiled completely within about 2°. It was
found still to be largely phellandrene although it differed somewhat from V,A,
purified, which had been previously isolated from this sample. The refractive
index had increased by about 0.0030 and the rotation had fallen from +122°.6
to =+-81°.2:
(3) Sample VI was heated to 150° and the terpene oil removed. The purified
product was found to be dextro-limonene, practically unchanged, 7 30 1.4679.
a + 100°.3.
According to these results limonene is unchanged by reason of the
continued standing of the resin containing it, whereas phellandrene and
terpinene are both largely altered. For reasons already given it was
impossible to remove and purify the high-boiling oils of these samples.
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF THE RESIN.
When elemi is distilled at ordinary pressure, nearly all of the terpene
oil, accompanied by the free water in the resin, first passes over with
practically no decomposition in the latter. By increasing the heat, a large
amount of the high-boiling oil may be driven off, but at the same time
the resin undergoes some decomposition. Finally, by continuing the
heating, the residue may be decomposed and largely converted into volatile
products, including water, gases, low-and high-boiling oils; the final res-
idue is a yery, viscous, black tar, constituting about 15 per cent of the
original resin. The total amount of products which may be condensed,
including 5 or 10 per cent of water, is nearly 70 per cent of the weight
of the resin.
A total distillate of 300 grams of oil obtained in one experiment was
redistilled and gave the following fractions: (1) To 250°, 155 grams;
(2) 250° to 300°, 75 grams; (3) 300° to 360°, 45 gram. The residue
was very viscous and dark colored.
In another experiment the original distillate was separated into 3
fractions: (1) Twelve per cent of the resin, that portion taken until
a thermometer placed in the neck of the flask had reached 210°; (2) 15
per cent of the resin, from 210° to 270°; (3) 37 per cent of resin,
that part formed by a slow, destructive distillation of the residue; in
THE TERPENE OILS OF MANILA ELEMI. 39
this case the temperature recorded by the thermometer depended very
largely upon the rapidity of the distillation. The different fractions
were redistilled with the following results:
(1) 170° to 180° almost completely; residue added to (2); 25 per cent
to 200°.
(2) 30 per cent from 200° to 260°; 40 per cent from 260° to 280°; residue
added to (3).
(3) 10 per cent below 200° beginning very low; 30 per cent from 200° to
250°; 30 per cent from 250° to 300°; 15 per cent from 300° to 350°.
The separations made in the above experiments are naturally incom-
plete, but they give an approximate idea of the composition of the crude
distillate. It will be seen that a product boiling below 300° constitutes
over one-half the weight of the original resin, which product may be
separated into about equal parts of low-boiling and high-boiling oils, the
point of separation being between 200° and 225°. - A smaller portion of
a more viscous oil, having about the consistency of rosin oil, is also
obtained. The low-boiling oil resulting from the decomposition contains
a small proportion of very volatile constituents. All of the oils obtained
in these experiments were colored and, except the terpene oil removed
before decomposition of the resin had begun, possessed on offensive odor.
The colored products when redistilled are almost colorless, but change
again on standing.
ELEMI OIL IN THE AGGREGATE.
The combined results obtaimmed by a careful examination of the oils
obtained from 21 individual samples of resin establish the true composi-
tion of elemi oil so far as these samples may be considered as representative
of the aggregate product. In several cases, notably in the last sample
examined, substances were obtained which were not encountered in any
other ; it seems possible, therefore, that were the investigation continued,
still others would be found in which new constituents would appear,
although such cases would be rare and the substances themselves would
constitute so small a proportion of the aggregate oil that they would
scarcely need to be taken into account.
It is obvious that in considering Manila-elemi or the oil obtained there-
from as products of a species, we must deal with an aggregate sample of
these products; a sample derived from so great a number of individual
trees that the peculiarities of the individuals disappear. If the native
gatherer of resin untilizes a large number of trees and regularly removes
the resin from them in small portions, the product which he places
upon the market will be nearly homogeneous and a representative sample ;
but if he obtains his resin from a limited number of individuals his
product will not be representative and, if he utilizes resin which has
accumulated upon the trees in large quantity, it will not be homogeneous.
40 CLOVER.
The great variation which I found at different times in the oil obtained
from commercial elemi is readily explained. It is plaim what the com-
position of elemi oil is when considered as an aggregate product; it
should be remembered that to the levo-limonene which accompanies
phellandrene should be added an equal amount of dextro-limonene and
the whole considered as dipentene.
Granted that we have a representative sample of resin, the composition
of the oil will also be influenced by the following factors:
(1) The age of the resin.
(2) The temperature of the distillation. This factor will largely
determine the proportion of the high-boiling part of the oil and will
influence the composition of the terpene portion, because some of the
terpenes suffer a change at higher temperatures.
(3) The length of time used in the distillation. This factor will
influence only the proportion of high-boiling oil.
Yield of oil—In the first seven samples examined considerable dif-
ference was found in the oil content. While there may be a certain
amount of variation shown by the individual samples in this respect,
it is thought that the differences found are more directly connected with
the age of the resin. As previously noted, Schimmel & Co. state that the
yield of oil is from 15 to 30 per cent. Im several cases where I have
examined samples of fresh, soft, resin purchased in Manila, I have always
found the total yield to be from 25 to 30 per cent of the weight of the
resin.
THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF PHILIPPINE COALS.
By Atvin J. Cox.
(From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science.)
Very few data exist on the relationship between the external ap-
pearance and the properties of coal; although we know that a dull coal
is apt to be much higher in ash than a lustrous one, and shale, clay frag-
ments and similar impurities are readily detected and removed. Still-
man* says, regarding the mechanically inclosed earthy matter or other
ash-forming material: “It is found in practice that coal from the same
vein varies in composition with the size of the coal, the percentage of
ash increasing as the size of the coal diminishes.” He gives analyses
of samples collected from the Hanto Screen building of the Lehigh Coal
and Navigation Company, Pennsylvania, from which he formulated this
general tendency. A corresponding change in specific gravity would
probably also have been noted had attention been given to this fact.
Perhaps in time some more closely drawn lines of comparison may be
forthcoming, but as yet we do not know enough about the connection
between the other external characteristics and the composition of a coal
to find these factors of much practical value. At present, nothing short
of an analysis will satisfy coal investigators.
An elementary analysis of a coal is of very great importance for
scientific purposes, but it shows us little with regard to its value as a
fuel. For practical purposes a proximate analysis—that is, the determina-
tion of moisture, volatile combustible matter, fixed carbon, ash and
sulphur—is of more importance. The figures so obtained give us a very
good idea of the real nature of the coal. The moisture and ash are
diluents, but more than that, the vaporization. of the water entails a
considerable loss of heat and the ash hinders complete combustion. The
latter fact is shown clearly by the test of Polillo coal? at the Insular
Cold Storage and Ice Plant, where an analysis of the ash showed it
to contain 62.6 per cent of combustible matter. The heat which the
ash contains when dropped through the grate constitutes another loss;
clinkers formed from the iron and silica of the ash hinder the draft;
1Stillman, T. B.: Hngineering Chemistry, Haston, Pa. (1900), 25.
2 The Far Eastern Review, Manila and Shanghai (1906), Jan. —
41
42 Cox.
sulphur has very little heating value and will in time ruin the grate bars
and the boiler. The estimation of volatile combustible matter and of
fixed carbon is of great importance, for the relation which exists between
these is a means of classification® and a criterion for judging the steaming
quality of a coal. The percentage of volatile combustible matter gives
us some idea of the gas-producing power of the coal and from the residual
fixed carbon we are able to know whether the coal is coking or non-coking.
It remains for us to seek out the best method of estimating these factors.
The coals of the Philippine Islands which have thus far been discovered
are all non-coking. They belong to a class which was of less importance
when the directions for coal analysis recommended by the committee
appointed by the American Chemical Society * were made. These direc-
tions are in general use throughout the United States and as they embody
the best factors of all previous research upon the proximate analysis of
coal, no further discussion of the literature will be entered into. However,
since the appearance of these directions non-coking coals have come much
to the front and an accurate and uniform method for their analysis is
now necessary. The point where the suggestions of the committee are
least applicable is in the estimation of the volatile cpmbustible matter.
The method outlined by them for this determination is as follows:
Place 1 gram of fresh, undried, powdered coal in a platinum crucible weighing
20 to 30 grams and having a tightly fitting cover. Heat over the full flame
-of a Bunsen burner for seven minutes. The crucible should be supported on a
platinum triangle with the bottom 6 to 8 centimeters above the top of the burner
The flame should be fully 20 centimeters high when burning free, and the determi-
nation should be made in a place free from drafts. The upper surface of the
cover should burn clear, but the under surface should remain covered with carbon.
To find volatile combustible matter subtract the per cent of moisture from the
loss found here.
In a recent paper® on “Philippine Coals and their Gas-Producing
Power,” when discussing certain analyses the following paragraph, which
shows that the above directions give uncertain results in the determination
of volatile combustible matter in Philippine coals, appeared :
The coal analyses were made according to the directions recommended by the
committee appointed by the American Chemical Society. -In the determination
of volatile combustible matter, it has been found that in following these very
inaccurate results were obtained. The committee states that the most serious
objection brought against their method is that the rapid heating causes mechanical
$ Hilt, C.: Jahresb. ueber die Fortshritte d. Chem. (1873), 1086. “It is neces-
sary for the present at least that the classification of our coals be made on a
basis involving the relation of the volatile and the fixed combustible matter, since
we have no data other than proximate analyses.”
4 J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 1116; The Coal & Metal Miner’s Pocket Book,
7th ed. (1902), Seranton, Pa., 173.
> Cox, A. J.: This Journal (1906), 1, 890.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 43
loss in the case of certain non-coking coals; that no evidence has been given as
to the amount of such loss, while in the light of certain experimental determina-
tions which are described, they state that the loss can only have been insignificant.
It has been observed in this laboratory that the error from this source on our
coals is very large, possibly amounting to a few per cent in some eases. It has
also been found that this error could be largely if not entirely eliminated
by expelling the moisture and most of the volatile matter at a low heat
before subjecting to the full flame of the Bunsen burner for seven minutes. Four
to five minutes gentle heating are sufficient to do this. With this exception the
official method has been followed in detail.”
Since the above article went to press, a paper® entitled “Some Experi-
ments on the Determination of Volatile Combustible Matter in Coals and
Lignites” has reached us, in which the modification used by the fuel-
testing plant of the United States Geological Survey in the analysis of
lignitic and sub-bituminous coals is described. It is almost identical with
the one we have used in the analysis of the coals occurring in these Islands
when the official method is inapplicable. The modification which we have
heretofore employed is substantially as follows:
The sample of coal to be analyzed is placed in a platinum crucible of twenty
or thirty cubic centimeters capacity and subjected to a low heat, just enough
to expel the volatile combustible matter at such a rate that it will burn in
a very small flame at the edges of the crucible lid.. The heat is regulated by hold-
ing the burner in the hand and directing it upon the bottom of the crucible. The
flame is slowly moved back and forth under the crucible, the heat is gradually
increased as the escaping gases burn lower and lower and finally the crucible
is heated for seven minutes over the regulation Bunsen flame."
This method is obviously an improvement in certain cases and was
used as a provisional or tentative one until time could be found to
investigate the subject thoroughly.
My data do not agree with the statement of the Committee on Coal
Analysis that the error due to rapid heating is insignificant. They show
that there is a very large mechanical loss when the official method is ap-
plied to certain Philippine Coals, confirming the results of experiments on
American non-coking coals. It is not even necessary to have analytical
data to prove that there are mechanical losses from some non-coking
coals when the volatile matter is rapidly expelled, as it is by the official
method, for it is amply indicated by the shower of incandescent carbon
particles which are driven off during the first one or two minutes heating.
It is hoped that this paper will demonstrate how these losses can be
avoided.
Somermeier,® in referring to the modified process of the fuel-testing
plant, says: “The difference in results obtained by three, four and five
® Somermeier, E. E.: J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1906), 28, 1002.
* By the regulation Bunsen flame I understand one which, when nonluminous
and unobstructed, burns 20 centimeters high. :
8 Loe. cit.
44 COX.
minutes’ preliminary treatment is small and in all subsequent experi-
mental tests the time of the preliminary heating was four minutes.” The
experiments which follow will show that with some Philippine coals a
longer period of preliminary treatment is necessary to give very accurate
results. In the coals tested, the determinations of the volatile combustible
matter are given as ascertained by the official method and two others,
with are intended to avoid the quick application of heat and therefore the
loss which ensues in some Philippine coals. The two methods are the one
above described, which I have called our transition method, and another
which consists in a smoking off process; that is, one which subjects the
sample to a low heat, which is regulated by slowly moving a small
flame back and forth under the crucible, the flame being just enough to
keep a visible amount of smoke risimg from the crucible but not sufficient
to cause the smoke to burn at the edges of the crucible. It is important
that the crucible should not be allowed to cool after the operation has
been begun, as in that case air would be drawn in to the coal, which would
cause the oxidation of a part of the fixed carbon. The most delicate
stage is the one when the hydrocarbons have practically all been expelled
and only hydrogen is still being hberated. At this point it is very
difficult to drive off the gas slowly enough to prevent its ignition, for the
smoke then no longer serves as a gauge. If the gas ignites, it is usually
coming off fast enough to carry with it some of the solid carbon particles,
as will at once be seen by the sparks; however with care and practice this
can be controlled. Since the eye of the operator is the only criterion, no
definite time is prescribed for this preliminary treatment, but seven to
nine minutes are ordinarily necessary for its completion; in one extreme
case sixteen minutes were required. However, it is not a question of an
extreme amount of time but of putting the time in the right place. The
volatile matter should be smoked off as fast as allowable so as not to
produce sparks, but not fast enough for the gases to burn. When this
process is completed, without disturbing the crucible, the platinum triangle
and crucible are quickly placed over the regulation Bunsen flame and
gradually lowered until they are finally in position. These conditions
should be maintained as nearly as practicable.
There are times when it is very difficult to make the gas of this labo-
ratory conform to the requirements of the regulation flame. It has been
the writer’s practice to use a shield to protect the flame of the Bunsen
burner from air currents, since the condition of the Committee on Coal
Analysis, that “the determination should be made in a place free from
drafts,” is not easily attained in a laboratory in the Tropics. ‘That this is
of minor importance when the regulation flame is carefully maintained is
shown by the following experiment. Four samples of thoroughly mixed,
non-coking coal were weighed out and carefully smoked off. Nos. 1 and 2
were finally heated for seven minutes over the full flame of a Bunsen
burner in a place free from drafts, while 3 and 4 were heated for the
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 45
same length of time over the flame inclosed in a cylindrical asbestos shield.
With this exception the samples received the same treatment in detail.
The results are as follows:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Total volatile matter, per cent 50.27 50.22 50.26 50.21
A very satisfactory shield is that shown in the figure. It is 12 centi-
meters long and 6 centimeters in diameter. The platinum triangle is
placed on top of the shield so that only about half of the crucible is
surrounded. The height of the crucible from the top of the burner is
controlled by the cubical blocks.
Fie. 1.
In all of the following experiments, platinum crucibles of 20 cubic
centimeters’ capacity and weighing 20 grams were used. The crucible
covers must fit perfectly, but this is always possible since the edges of a
crucible can be hammered smooth and round on a cone and the lids can
be pressed into shape by placing the top down on a flat ground surface.
The coal was pulverized to pass a sixty-mesh sieve. Where determina-
tions of the ash are given, they were made on the same portion of the
coal as was used for the volatile matter, consequently mechanical losses
are indicated by variations in the percentage, for determinations of the
ash admit of great accuracy if performed with due care.
The first sample, an air-dried coal from the southeastern end of Batan
Island, No. 4, gave the following results:
By the official method: Per cent.
Moisture 15.41 15.42 (15.42) (15.42)
Volatile combustible matter 41.52 41.83 43.05 41.73
Fixed carbon 38.95, Bf:
Ash 3.80 3.78
100.00 100.00
46
COX.
By the transition method:
Moisture (15.42)
Volatile combustible matter 40.50
By the smoking-off process:
Moisture (15.42)
Volatile combustible matter 39.12
Fixed carbon 41.35
Ash 4.11
100.00
(15.42) (15.42)
40.26 40.38
(15.42) (15.42)
39.46 39.45 —
41.00 - 41.02
4.12 (4.11)
100.00 100.00
In choosing the next sample with which to experiment, one very
high in impurity was selected, so that extremely small mechanical losses
could be noted by a variation in the percentage of ash.
This, an air-dried
coal from Negros, No. 21, gave the following results:
By the official method:
Moisture
Volatile combustible matter
Fixed carbon
Ash
By the transition method:
Moisture
Volatile combustible matter
Fixed carbon
Ash *
By the smoking-off process :
Moisture
Volatile combustible matter
Fixed carbon
Ash
Per cent.
18.19 18.29 (18.24) (18.24)
38.73 39.13 40.45 41.91
26.57 25.90 25.54
16.51 16.68 15.77
100.00 100.00 100.00
(18.24) (18.24) (18.24)
32.56 32.66 32.64
31.39 31.39
17.81 iil
100.00 100.00
(18.24) (18.24) (18.24) (18.24)
32.03 31.98 32.02 31.97
Bea 31.74
17.96 18.04
100.00 100.00
There are a great many factors which influence the amount of volatile
matter driven off from a sample of coal, namely the size of the grains,
the weight of the sample, the condition of the coal—that is, the quantity
of moisture, etc—and the degree and duration of the heat.
Notwith-
standing these considerations it is generally conceded that under uniform
conditions the same operator has little trouble with duplicates in ordinary
coal analysis and I wish to show that in the analyses of Philippine coals
this is true when the modification methods are used. Even different
operators working under prescribed conditions obtain insignificant varia-
tions in results.
My records show that on June 21 of this year this
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 47
Negros coal was analyzed by our transition method and the routine
results obtained were as follows:
Per cent.
Moisture 4 18.95 (18.95)
Volatile combustible matter 32.39 32.66
Fixed carbon 31.07
Ash 17.59
100.00
After making due allowance for the variation in the moisture content,
these analyses are almost identical with those given above, obtained by the
same method. Furthermore, portions of this sample were given to
Mr. P. J. Fox (1) and Mr. L. A. Salinger (2) of this Bureau with
directions to determine the volatile combustible matter by the official
method and also by the smoking-off process.
A 30 cubic centimeter platinum crucible was used in making these
determinations in (1). The variation between a crucible of 20 and one
of 30 cubic centimeters hardly affect the process noticeably, except where
a mechanical loss is involved.
The results are as follows:
By the official method: °
Per cent. :
(1) (1) (1)
Moisture (18.24) (18.24) (18.24)
Volatile combustible matter 34.67 36.49 33.44
As one would anticipate, when a larger crucible is used the mechanical
losses are not quite so large as in the foregoing determinations ; however,
about the same variations in the percentage of volatile combustible
matter are observed here as in the analyses given above, namely, 3 per cent.
By the smoking-off process: Per cent.
(1) (1) (2) (2)
Moisture (18.24) (18.24) (18.24) (18.24)
Volatile combustible matter 32.16 32.21 32.00 32.00
Fixed carbon 31.45
Ash 18.15
100.00
Here there is almost exact duplication of the previous results obtained
by this method.
For the third sample, Negros coal, No. 23 was chosen, one very high
in ash and the one in which the official and smoking-off methods showed
the greatest discrepancits in the percentage of ash.
°The average of my own duplicated water determinations has been used. In
a single determination Mr. Fox obtained 18.37 *per cent.
48 COX.
The analyses are as follows:
By the official method: Dep aan
Moisture 15.81 15.92
Volatile combustible matter 55.92 54.08
Fixed carbon 18.60 19.76
Ash ; 9.67 10.24
100.00 100.00
By the smoking-off process:
Moisture (15.86) (15.86)
Volatile combustible matter 35.48 35.56
Fixed carbon 34.42 34.36
Ash 14.24 14.22
100.00 100.00
From the foregoing experiments it is possible to point out the mechan-
ical losses. We will assume the ash obtained by the smoking-off process
to be correct, for in these determinations no escaping particles of solid
carbon were at any time visible. The averages of the analyses, studied
comparatively, are as follows:
SaMPte I.
By the smoking-off By the official
process. method.
Per cent. Per cent.
Ash 4.11 shyly)
Fixed carbon 41.13 38.35
F i 4.11 41.1 .
From these we get the ratios 379 — 1-08 an ee = 1.07 which show
that the variations in the percentage of ash and fixed carbon are ap-
proximately proportional. The ash content however is too small to be
an indicator of small differences.
Sampre IT.
By the smoking-off By the transition By the official
process. method. method.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Ash 18.00 17.76 16.60
Fixed carbon 31.75 31.39 26.24
2 : 18.00 31.75
The first two columns give the ratios Tie ee and 3-99 — 1-01
which show that the variations between the ash and fixed carbon in the two
processes are exactly proportional. The first and last columns give the
18. 00 31. 75
LOS ———= == nd 2~—~—1.21. Here the ratios are not exactl
ratios 56g — 1.08 and 2694 e y
proportional.
Samere III.
By the smoking-off By the official
process. method.
Per cent. Per cent.
Ash 14.23 9.95
Fixed carbon 34.39 19.18 |
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 49
14. 23 34. 39
These give the ratios ne AS and ——= Te
also the variations in the percentage of ash and fixed carbon are not
exactly proportional.
In the determinations made by the transition method the escape of
some of the incandescent particles was noticeable but it has been thought
that this was negligible. The above experiments show this to be a
false supposition; that for very accurate work more care must be exer-
cised than is outlined for that method. Since the variations between the
percentages of ash and fixed carbon as determined by the smoking-oft
process and the transition method are exactly proportional the cause
must be solely mechanical loss.
As previously stated, the shower of sparks driven off when the official
method is used is proof of a large mechanical loss; the analytical data
which corroborate this, show that it is several per cent. The variations
in ash and fixed carbon as determined by the smoking-off process and the
official method in samples I, IT, and III are always in the same direction,
but are not exactly proportional and hence can not be accounted for solely
by the theory of mechanical loss. Other factors prevent proportional
variations. It has been suggested 1° that this-may be partially due to a
different breaking down of the hydrocarbon compounds when expelled
under different conditions of heat treatment, in the presence of variable
amounts of moisture, etc. This is true in the case of coking coals for it
has often been observed that both the qualitative and quantitative compo-
sition of coke depends not only on the nature of the coal used but also on
the conditions of the distillation that is, the temperature, pressure in the
retort, the time, the size of the coal, etc. However, in lignities and non-
coking coals, where the gases given off are mostly of comparatively very
_ simple composition, the variation between the official and the modified
methods is to a greater extent due to mechanical loss.
Comparisons of a number of samples will show more clearly just how
much difference really exists in the breaking down of the hydrocarbon
compounds of the coal. The difference shown in the breaking down
between the transition method and the official one is the same as between
the smoking-off process and the official method, since the variations
in the percentage of fixed carbon and of ash as determined by the transi-
tion method and the smoking-off method are exactly proportional. The
transition method is an improvement over the official one in certain
cases but as there still are mechanical losses by its use, it is set aside
as less satisfactory than the smoking-off process.
=1.79, and show that here
Somermeier BE. B.: Loc. cit.
512144
COX.
0
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51
OF COALS.
E ANALYSIS
PROXIMA
uo
SUL}STXO SUJOJ 901} 94) UO ssuLyaeut 9} 0} LB[LUNIS sjuRTd Avy
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‘IBI[NOEd OSB ST dINQOBIT OUT,
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COX.
52
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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS.
C6L T
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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. aD
Leaving out of consideration those coals in which there is a discordance
in the percentage of ash as determined by the two methods, we can draw
some conclusions from the analyses.
By a selection there are fourteen samples which show no or only very
slight mechanical losses when analyzed by the official method. In these
the deviation in the percentage of volatile combustible matter and there-
fore of fixed carbon is due entirely to the difference in the breaking down
of the volatile constituents of the coal. When arranged in the order of
the decreasing variation of the percentage of fixed carbon as determined
by the official method and the smoking-off process they fall into two
groups as follows:
TABLE 3.
= 7
Differ-
Number and group. Source of coal. ence in
; per cent.
Group I
26 Polio meee coeenes ae ees 4. 87
bees Australia ______ 4,57
BVES Zamboanga 4.16
Sean Japricn cll Erne Ul. eS eee 4,12
CO al eS ee ee ee 27%) Gall (ee SS ae eee,
DE ee Si es See Cebu sai Sac ate ee
IR Sea ree eS WENT AUS tralia =Saae= = 255-8 > a
1 ene ee Pa ee [meer 1d Ojsee eee ne ee e d
ie eae A eee Se Ce ee Polillozesce 228-2 2 ee
Group II:
CT Se eee es ee oe Batan Island"
Ooo ea ee SE yooh ese ee en
Oe nee e nes Beene eae a doe eee
DX; So Se eee eee Philippines
SA ee Seen Fe ss BS ava pase sea eS
The difference in the amount of fixed carbon depends both on the
amount of the volatile ingredients in the coal and on the nature of these
volatile compounds. The first factor is approximately the same in Phil-
ippine coals,’* and therefore the cause of the variation is to be sought in
the nature of the volatile compounds. We well know that volatile in-
gredients of similar composition may differ to a considerable extent in
volatility and afford entirely different products on destructive distillation
and that it is impossible chemically to formulate this change; never-
theless, judging from the analyses of some of the gases we should expect
the difference in the breaking down of the volatile ingredients under
the different heat treatments of the two methods to be about as it is.
The more complex the volatile matter, the greater the disparity to be
'4This was taken from the southeastern end of the, island. It is a well-
known fact that the coals from this region are of a much poorer grade than those
from the western end where the military reservation claims are located. «
? Cox, A. J.: Loc. cit.
56 Cox.
looked for in the results of analyses by the official and the smoking-off
methods.
The official method of analysis is applicable to almost all of the coals
of the class of Growp I. They give a volume of dense smoke when sub-
jected to the influence of heat. The gas produced by destructive distilla-
tion from three of the coals of Growp J has been analyzed as follows:
TABLE 4.
[The figures give percentages. ]
Heavy Carbon ; .
Carbon Sey Ba -_| Meth- | Hydro-| Nitro-
No. Source of the coal. dioxide | pea Voge ender ane gen gen
(COs). | (GO. Ho,). (co). | (CH4)- | (He). | (Ne).
Gil || “Ahan oYoysh aketsy 10.1 6. 2 0. 65 9.5 35.5 36.4 1. 65
Daw POLO LE Zo See. 8 eae PRS 8.4 8.1 0.7 8. 95 By 40.5 0. 65
La PAIS TET a eee = eee nee ane 6. 24 6. 34 0.73 5.08 42.05 37.34 2.17
Be
The official method of analysis is only rarely applicable to the coals
of the class of Group II. Even the result given for the Batan Island
sample which heads the column is too large, owing to mechanical loss
of fixed carbon and ash in the estimation of the volatile matter by the
official method. Practically all of the coals in Table 2 not included in
Group I would be incorporated in Group II except for the large mechan-
ical losses. In the extreme case of Negros No. 23 these amount to 10
or 12 per cent. The volatile matter which is expelled by the quick ap-
plication of heat is in general of a light color and in certain cases colorless.
The gas produced by destructive distillation from two coals of Group IT
has been analyzed as follows:
TABLE 5.
[The figures give percentages. ]
- Heavy Carbon ;
Carbon -._| Meth- | Hydro-| Nitro-
N Source of the coal. dioxide Ss On rece prae ane gen gen.
0. Oy) (Guo | Oe | Ae ey). | Geigy. ||
(CO2)- |(¢, Hon)- (CO). 4 : 2)-
45 \)Batan island asses 26. 04 2. 31 0. 43 14.15 16.9 35. 4 4.77
DANG STrOSee Ve eae eae een 17.44 3. 21 0. 05 7.15 34. 43 34, 48 3. 24
—
Tables 4 and 5 show that the heavy hydrocarbon content of the gases
produced from the coals of Group J is about three times as large as that
from the coals of Growp IT; Table 3 shows that the difference in the
results for fixed carbon obtained by the official and the smoking-off
methods in the analyses of the coals is much greater in Group I than in
Group II; hence it is evident that this difference varies with the com-
plexity of the volatile constituents of the coal—that is, that the varia-
tion as due largely to the difference in the breaking down of the volatile
ingredients. The data given in Table 3 indicate that the difference in
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 57
the results obtained by the two methods on coals of the Negros and Cebu
type ** (Group II) for fixed carbon average about one and a half per
cent; as a matter of fact however, the numbers given are undoubtedly
larger than the average would be were it possible to eliminate the factor
of mechanical loss and obtain a larger and more.representative number
of coals.
Table 2 and the tables of analyses of Philippine coals which have
. already been published ** show that the content of water varies from
5 to 20 per cent. In a number of cases this does not represent water
of constitution only, but since the samples are direct from the mine it
includes a considerable percentage of loosely held water. This latter
is a varying factor and within wide limits is not definite for any partic-
ular coal. Attention has already been called to the absurdity of trying
to classify coal according to its water content.*° It might perhaps be
said that the more lignitic the character of the coal, the greater the pos-
sibility of its including a large percentage of water, but in general the
percentage varies with the exposure of the coal, the season of the year,
and the state of the weather. It, then, is very important to know what
influence, if any, the presence of water has upon the accurate estimation
of the volatile combustile matter. To ascertain this the following series
of determinations were made by the smoking-off process, with the three
samples. To the weighed samples of Batan Island coal and of the
Negros coals definite amounts of water were added and thoroughly mixed
in with a fine plantinum wire. The results are as follows:
TABLE 6.
Total volatile matter, per cent.
Grams _ : ;
; water :
added egg re coal Negros coal No. 21. 2
| pergram re | Negros
of coal. | | coal
| No. 23,
bree 2. 1 2 |
0.00} 54.82| 54.87| 50.22] 50.26 | 51.34 |
| NUS) eRe ae a ee as )
0.10} 54.96 | 1655.15 50. 22 50.27 51.42
| [5 2 (3 [Fae ae pes SU br A Se ee 32 a
0.20 | 54. 95 a4. 97 | 50. 34 LF OSC (ft na ea
0.30 | D4.83 | 1955.27 | 50. 22 50.27 | boats Se ee
!
3 The striking similarity in both the physical and the chemical behavior of
coals from Negros and Cebu has been constantly in evidence throughout this inves-
tigation. Mr. W. D. Smith informs me that all the geology indicates that these
two islands are anticlines and that the separating Strait of Tafion occupies the
synchine.
- 4 Cox, A. J.: Loc. cit. 880-884.
%Tdem: Loc. cit., 885.
16 A 30 cubic centimeter crucible was used in making these determinations and
the results are slightly higher owing to the larger surface on which carbon was
deposited.
58 COX.
Still another sample of Negros coal No. 21. was dried at 107° for. one
hour and the total volatile matter determined to be 50.22 per cent.
These results show that owing to the very gradual expulsion of the
moisture by the smoking-off process, the presence of water in these coals
has no influence on the percentage of volatile combustible matter. The
only effect noticed was that the presence of the water very much reduced
the tendency of the fine particles to fly off in sparks. The loss by the
official method was eliminated in some cases when a small amount of
water was mixed with the coal.
The analyses by the official method of Negros coal No. 21, given on
page 46, show an ayerage of the total volatile matter of 57.68 per cent,
and at the same time a great discordance due to mechanical loss, as is
indicated by the low percentage of ash. When water in the amounts
given in the following table is added and thoroughly mixed with a plati-
num wire or spatula the results are as shown below. It was thought that
there might be a difference in the results if a spatula were used instead
of a wire, owing to the fact that with the former the water could be
more perfectly introduced into the interstices of the coal.
TABLE 7.
When the mixing was done with a wire.
Average.
water | Total volatile
| added | matter, per | 4S, PeT| Total
per gram cent. Cent. volatile | Ash, per
of coal. matter, cent.
per cent.
0. 00 56 16.51 57.68 16. 32
0. 05 52. 2 17. 63 52. 30 17. 66
17.76 52. 64 17. 82
0.2 53. 71 17.98 53. 85 17.98
53. 90
0.3 52. 85 17. 80 52. 85 17, 80
When the mixing was done with a spatula.
Total volatile
matter, per Average.
Grams cent.
added eee Total
Dene eace ‘| volatile | Ash, per
of coal. |Sers. 1.| Sers. 2. matter, nea,
: per cent.
51.39 17.71
OD 2 (aes 52. 74 17.78 51. 64 17.78
O53 eee 52.59 17. 94 52. 01 17. 94
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 59
The results with Negros coal No. 23 when analyzed by the official method are
as follows:
TABLE 8.
Average.
Grams
Total
water z A
ated Sia pci | ota
per gram per erin per cent.| volatile Ash,
of coal. matter, | per cent.
per cent.
0. 00 71.73 9. 67 70. 86 9.99
70. 00 10. 22
0.1 54.13 13. 28 54.13 13. 28
0.2 52.53 14, 28 52.53 14. 28
0.3 53. 62 14,19 53. 62 14.19
The cause of variation in these averages when the amount of water is
changed can be resolved into two opposing factors. First, the water
serves to dampen and hold together the solid particles, thereby preventing
mechanical loss. The percentage of ash after the first addition of water
increases until, with the addition of about 20 per cent, the value is
very close to that obtained by the smoking-off process. Secondly, the
water exerts an influence on the decomposition of the coals tending
to increase the percentage of volatile matter. Tables 6 and 7 show that
as water is added, the apparent total amount of volatile matter rapidly
diminishes until mechanical losses, as shown by the fact that the percent-
age of ash agrees with that obtaimed by the smoking-off process, are
overcome. On the further addition of water the percentage of volatile
matter does not remain constant, as would be the case if the dampening
effect were the only factor, but it increases while the percentage of ash
does not change. In the beginning and until about 20 per cent of water
has been added, the first factor predominates; after this the second is
made evident. In order further to show the extent of the action of water,
experiments were made with two coals as follows:
TaBLE 9.—Analyses of coals.
Smoking-
Official method. off
method.
No. Source of the coal. ;
Tota A
volatile pee Ash, per | Ash, per
matter, |_“* | cent. cent.
percent. INEIELANe
Age OU OR ee =e 48.53 44,92 5.99 6.00
1 | Australia 38. 63 48.98 12.39 12, 54
60 COX.
The duplication in the percentages of ash by the two methods shows
that the official method of analysis is accurate when used here. The
effect of water in varying amounts on the decomposition of the coal
when this method is used is shown by the following numbers:
Taste 10.—Polillo coal, No. 24.
|
| | Average.
Grams | rgeai | | eee
| addea | yoletle | Ash per) nota |
| pergram per cent. | * | yolatile | Ash, per
of coal. | | matter, | cent.
| percent. |
| | | | |
| | |
0.0) 48.52 5.99] 48.53] 5.98
| 48.54] 5.98
| /
0.1 49°77 | 5. 90 49. 69 5. 85
49.61 | 5. 80
0.2 HOM) ee Seo ad Ae eee
D038 4o) 2 ee
| |
0.3) 50.32 5.89 | 50.32 | 5.89
1 i |
TaBLe 11.—dAustralia coal, No. 1 (coking).
38. 62 12.40 ,
0.0 38
erase:
0.05 40 40.09 |
0.1 40 40.24} 12.38 |
‘ 0.2 40. ACA) | ese
Oh) ae 40.99 |
| 40.77
0.4 | 41.60 2.3: 41.60 12.33
These samples represent widely different kinds of coal, but the results
show that loosely held water in the coals increases the value of the
volatile combustible matter by about one and a half per cent. Nearly
all of this increase results from the addition of the first 5 per cent of
water. : ;
The results shown in Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 give the following
figure when expressed as curves:
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 61
}—Wegros_boz
Be
Grams water added per gram of coal.
Fig. 2.
62 COX.
It will be noticed in the above curves that the differences a and b
represent the sum of two factors, the change in results due to the
different heat treatment and the deviation due to the presence of loosely
held water; c and d represent only one factor, the deviation due to the
presence of water. The alteration of a single condition in the method
used in the analysis of coals to which the official method is applicable,
as represented by ¢ and d produces more variation than the combined
changes in the method of the analysis of coals which give large mechanical
losses by the official method. I have already shown that the effect of
water when the official method is used is to increase considerably the
percentage of volatile combustible matter in Negros coals; hence it must
be concluded that the factor represented by a or 6 minus this increase—
that is, the change in results due to the difference in the breaking down
of the hydrocarbons of the coal under the varied heat treatments of the
official and the smoking-off methods—is reasonably small.
On the other hand, direct data have been given to show that there
is a positive difference. My results give discrepancies between the fixed
carbon and ash as determined by the two methods which are not directly
proportional and therefore are not due wholly to mechanical losses.
Fortunately, this difference due to the varied heat treatments of the two
methods is smallest in the case of coals which can only be inaccurately
analyzed by the official method; it is also in these coals where large
variations in the percentage of moisture are apt to take place. Moisture
has no influence on the fuel ratio calculated from results obtained by
the smoking-off method, while large variations by the official method in
case it were applicable—that is, barring mechanical losses—would be
anticipated. Therefore, the variation produced by the altered breaking
down of the coal by the different heat treatments in the two methods
is probably not greater and perhaps even less than that which would be
possible with the official method alone;'* while with the smoking-off
method the mechanical losses are overcome.
In describing the coke ovens of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company
at Segunda, Colorado, Mr. Hosea says:1* “The larry cars hold 54 to 6
tons of disintegrated washed coal, and each weighs 12 tons loaded. This
is the customary charge for ovens of this pattern, and the charge is
coked in forty-eight hours, producing from 34 to 32 tons of coke, or a
yield of from 60 to 65 per cent.” It is evident from the above that the
coal in the furnace is more slowly heated than it is by the official method,
although the latter is intended to approach the actual conditions in
* The results of Zable 10 show that the greatest change in the percentage of
fixed carbon is produced by a variation of the loosely held water by not more
than 5 per cent. Unless care is exercised such variation may occur while the
sample is being taken and during its transportation to the laboratory. Cf. Som-
ermeier, E. E.: J. Am., Chem. Soc. (1906), 28, 1630.
*S Hosea, R. M.: Wines and Minerals Denver, Colorado (1904), 25, 8.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 63
a coke oven. Probably, by the smoking-off method this is more nearly
attained, since seldom more than seven to nine minutes are required
to expel the volatile matter. The curves demonstrate clearly that the
smoking-off method is more reliable for general use than the official
method. Varying quantities of water have no effect with the former
while the curves obtained by the latter under similar conditions are more
or less variable; therefore, I heartily recommend the smoking-off method
for general adoption.
In order to ascertain how much of the entire “seyen minutes over
the full heat of a Bunsen burner” is necessary in the analysis of coal
by the official method, the following experiment was made on Australian
coal No. 1. About one and a third minutes were required to expel the
gases which came off at a rate fast enough to burn. The results indicat-
ing the influence on the percentage of total volatile matter when the
crucible and sample were subjected to the regulation flame for varying
lengths of time are noted below.
Time over Total
the full flame volatile matter,
in minutes. per cent.
3 38.65
4 38.50
ue 38.65
Furthermore, to determine with the smoking-off process, whether or
not the subjection to the full heat of the Bunsen burner for seven minutes
is necessary or to what extent essential, a number of experiments were
made on Negros coal No. 21. The samples were carefully smoked off and
then heated over the regulation flame for varying lengths of time as
noted below, with the following results:
Time over Total
the full flame volatile matter,
in minutes. per cent.
1 48.53
3 49.46
4 50.27
BB”) 94
@ Bike Constant.
6 50.21
i 1950.24
It has already been shown *° that heating until all gases apparently
cease issuing from the crucible is not sufficient. In the experiments with
finely powdered coal such a sufficiency was most nearly attained. My
results show that by either method the gases are all expelled after four
minutes of heating, also that there is no loss on further heating. In the
analyses of these particular coals considerable latitude might be allowed.
=
1 The average of four results, the greatest variation of wliich is 0.06 per cent.
» Wright, L. T.: J. Soe. Chem. Ind. (1885), 4, 657.
64 cox.
A qualitative experiment will show in a few minutes whether or not
a coal suffers mechanical loss by the official method. It has been demon-
strated that the latter is thoroughly applicable in the analysis of some
of the Philippine coals—that is, to bituminous coals which sinter together
and to non-coking coals where there is no mechanical Joss—while it is not ~
at all tenable and is just as thoroughly inapplicable in the analysis of
certain other native coals. Therefore, the problem of establishing an
entirely satisfactory method is not nearly so simple as it was at first
thought to be. Any method where a correction is involved is not satis-
factory, but it would necessarily have to be used if an attempt were made
to formulate a method applicable alike to all the coals of the Archipelago.
For the present, in order to facilitate direct comparison with coals
from other sources we shall continue to use the official method in this
laboratory wherever it is applicable, but in those cases where it entails
large losses we shall employ the smoking-off process, followed by seven
minutes over the full flame. The experiments show that less than seven
minutes would suffice, but since no loss is entailed by the seven-minute
treatment it is well to maintain uniformity. The means of estimating
moisture, fixed carbon and ash as outlined by the committee are satis-
factory in these non-coking coals, provided the volatile matter is carefully
smoked off from that portion on which the ash is determined. The
recommendations for the determination of ash are to “burn the portion
of powdered coal used for the determination of moisture, till free from
carbon. If properly treated, this sample can be burned much more
quickly than the dense carbon left from the determination of volatile
matter.” In the case of non-coking coals there seems to be no difference
in the time required, whether the sample used for the determination of |
moisture or that left from the determination of volatile matter is em-
ployed. In fact there is this to be said in favor of the latter that it
is all ready to burn; if the former is used it must first be carefully
‘smoked off with the crucible hd on tight to prevent mechanical loss
of ash.
If the smoking-off method is used only when the official method shows
mechanical loss, it will suffice for commercial work to neglect the
difference in the breaking down of the hydrocarbons of the coals by dif-
ferent heat treatment, as is indicated by the data from Negros coals
Nos. 21 and 23, and to consider the results obtained by the smoking-off
process directly comparable with the analyses of coking coals analyzed
according to the directions of the Committee on- Coal Analysis. If coals,
the volatile matter of which is high in heavy hydrocarbon compounds,
are analyzed by the smoking-off method then the factor of the difference —
in the breaking down of these compounds is of sufficient magnitude to
demand consideration.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS. 65
SUMMARY.
(1) The directions for coal analyses recommended by the committee
appointed by the American Chemical Society are inapplicable to certain
Philippine coals.
(2) These coals are easily detected by the shower of incandescent
carbon particles which are driven off when the sample is subjected to
rapid heating.
(3) This mechanical loss can be overcome by expelling the volatile
matter with sufficient slowness so that the escaping gases do not ignite.
This is demonstrated by the fact that when the fixed carbon is burned
to ash, the percentage of the latter is much higher than that obtained
by the official method.
(4) An increase in the amount of moisture in a coal increases the
percentage of volatile combustile matter when the official method is
used.” When the smoking-off method is applied—that is, when the gases
are expelled very slowly—a variation in the amount of water produces
no change.
(5) A comparison of the official and the smoking-off methods shows
a difference in the breaking down of the volatile ingredients of a coal.
This discrepancy is least in those coals where there is mechanical loss
by the former method. It varies with the complexity of the volatile
constituents and is probably due to the variation in the heavy hydrocarbon
content, for those coals to which the official method is inapplicable are
deficient in illuminants.
(6) If the smoking-off method is employed only when the official
method gives inaccurate results, the. difference in the breaking down of
the volatile constituents is less than that produced by a variation in the
amount of water in a coal analyzed by the official method. Under these
conditions it will suffice for commercial purposes to neglect the variation
in the breaking down of the volatile ingredients by the different heat
treatments and to consider the results as directly comparable to those
obtained by the official method.
(7) The official method is assumed to approach the conditions exist-
ing in a coke oven. In actual practice the coal is charged in large bulk
and the distillation necessarily begins slowly. In the smoking-off method
furnace conditions are more nearly attained.
512145
THE ACTION OF SODIUM ON ACETONE.
By Raymonp Foss Bacon and Paut C. FREER.
(From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science.)
A number of years ago one of us* described the action of sodium on
acetone, showing that in the presence of absolute ether a white sodium
derivative is obtained which has 30.17 per cent of sodium (calculated
for sodium acetone 28.75 per cent) and which, on being added to dilute
hydrochloric acid, regenerates acetone. Subsequently,” in a second discus-
sion of the subject it was demonstrated that hydrogen is evolved when
sodium acts on acetone, and the resulting sodium derivative is again
described as being white, but turning red rapidly on exposure to air and
moisture. It was also shown that when this sodium derivative is added
to dilute hydrochloric acid and repeatedly extracted with ether, no con-
densation products of acetone (or at least only traces) could be isolated.
The sodium derivative therefore does not contain these condensation prod-
utes to any great extent. The mother liquors from a number of opera-
tions in the preparation of sodium-acetone were carefully retained, united,
washed with water, extracted with ether, and the residue distilled, a very
small quantity of mesityloxide and some higher condensation products
of acetone being isolated. Again, in another discussion of the subject.*
by acting on sodium under xylene, with acetone, 62.7 per cent of the theo-
retical amount of hydrogen was obtained (this observation was subsequently
confirmed by Beckmann and Schliebs *), and in the same paper, in discus-
sing the preparation and analysis of the sodium derivative of acetone,
it was shown that delay during the preparation of this derivative always
resulted in increasing the percentage of sodium. A large number of
samples of acetone-sodium were prepared, decomposed by dilute, ice-cold
acetic acid and united until a sufficient amount had been collected to study
the reaction products; acetone (isolated as the sodium-bisulphite com-
pound), isopropyl and ethyl alcohols were indentified among these ; under
favorable circumstances as much as twice the quantity of acetone, as
1Am. Chem. Journ. (1890), 12, 355.
2Tbid. (1891), 13, 320.
3 Ibid. (1893), 15, 585. Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 278, 116.
*Ann. Chem. (Liebig) (1896), 289, 86.
68 BACON AND FREER.
compared with isopropyl alcohol was isolated. The high-boiling frae-
tions from the separation of the above substances gave pinakone, a small
quantity of phoron and, presumably, reduction products of the latter.
Mesityloxide could not be isolated. A portion of the reaction product
of sodium on acetone was found to be soluble in ether, this on careful
evaporation gave a yellow powder,® which oxidized in the air with remark-
able readiness. This residue, on acidifying, separates some oil, which
was isolated, and the presence of acetone was afterwards proven in the
solution. The high-boiling portion of the residue was phoron. These
high-hoiling oils react rapidly with phenyl hydrazine. No isopropyl
alcohol and but very little pinakone can be found among the products
of decomposition of this soluble portion obtained by the action of sodium
on acetone, but by far the greater part of the condensation products
produced by the action of sodium on acetone are found in this residue-
In proportion as such condensation products are produced, the percent-
age of sodium in sodium acetone will be increased.
In a recent number of the Journal of the Chemical Society ° Millicent
Taylor has returned to the subject and comes to the remarkable conclu-
sion that acetone-sodium “consists chiefly of caustic soda mixed with a
small proportion of the sodium derivatives of alcoholic reduction and
condensation products of acetone.”
Apart from the fact that in her discussion Miss Taylor completely
ignored the careful description given by one of us of all of the products
obtained by the action of sodium on acetone, the statement which she
makes that “so-called sodium acetone contains 50.4 per cent of sodium”
would in itself be sufficient to cause some doubt as to the accuracy of
her results. In our opinion the fact that the product of the action of
sodium on acetone, when all acetone and solvent have been removed, on
acidifying regenerates acetone in large amount is conclusive enough
evidence of the existence of sodium acetone, and this fact was repeatedly
emphasized in the first series of papers on this subject, but ignored by
Miss Taylor in her discussion. Nevertheless, we have deemed it neces-
sary to repeat the work, and here it may be said that at no time, even
with the absence of all of the usual precautions, were we able to encounter
as much as 50 per cent of sodium in the derivative of the action of
sodium on acetone; in ether we obtained 29.2 to 30.9 per cent of sodium
and the highest determination (in petroleum ether) gave us 35.5 per cent,
these results being in accord with those previously obtained by one of us.
In carefully reading Miss Taylor’s paper it becomes evident that she
always had a red substance present after the action of sodium on acetone,
both in her experiments on the determination of the amount of sodium
*Our work shows that, under proper conditions, this residue is white.
® Journ. Chem. Soe. (1906), 89, 1258.
ACTION OF SODIUM ON ACETONE. 69
in the insoluble precipitate and in the soluble portion. It has in the
past been expressly stated that sodium-acetone, when prepared with all
precautions, is white and that reddening is due to decomposition in the
air.or by reason if moisture.
EXPERIMENTAL.
Sodium acetone is a very delicate substance. When properly prepared
and when air and moisture are rigidly excluded it is a snow-white, floc-
culent solid. On exposure to the air and to moisture it becomes pink,
then red and brown, an oil at the same time separating, the color changes
representing the formation of sodium hydroxide and condensation prod-
ucts of acetone. Of course, as had previously been shown, sodium
acetone also contains sodium isopropylalcoholate, and some sodium pina-
konate and, in the reactions performed under ether, some sodium ethylate.
All ether which we used in these experiments was repeatedly dried and
distilled from sodium wire until this wire would remain perfectly bright
under the solvent. The acetone was from the bisulphite compound and
was dried four times over phosphorus pentoxide, each time being poured
off and distilled. Dry hydrogen was run through the acetone for some
hours to remove any air or carbon dioxide and it was then kept over fused
sodium sulphate and protected from moisture and carbon dioxide by tubes
containing phosphorus pentoxide and soda lime.
Experiment 1—The apparatus used was that described by Freer.‘
About 1.6 grams of sodium, cut under coal oil and then washed with
absolute ether, were quickly squeezed as a very fine wire into about 50
cubic centimeters of absolute ether in the reaction flask, and the apparatus
quickly closed. Dry and pure hydrogen was now run through the ap-
paratus for three hours. The reaction flask was then surrounded by ice
and 10 cubic centimeters of acetone, dissolved in 50 cubic centimeters
of absolute ether, gradually added through a dropping funnel. Bubbles
of hydrogen were given off and the separation of a white, gelatinous
precipitate soon commenced. When all of the sodium had disappeared,
the ether and precipitate were sucked into a filtering tube, the latter
washed eight times with absolute ether, using 50 cubic centimeters each
time and always sucking as dry as possible. The precipitate was then
dried to constant weight in a current of hydrogen, weighed, and decom-
posed with dilute, ice-cold sulphuric acid. Only a minimal amount of
acetone-condensation products was obtained, as the sodium salt was prac-
tically completely soluble in water. In no instance, if the sodium deriv-
ative had been properly prepared, was there more than a drop or two
of insoluble oil. When small amounts of air or moisture gain access to
the sodium derivative, or when the decomposition by acids is not carefully
TAm. Chem. Journ. (1893), 15, 588.
70 BACON AND FREER.
conducted, then these condensation products result, the greater the decom-
position, the greater their amount.
2.65 grams pure, white sodium acetone were obtained, containing
0.8052 gram sodium.
Required
for C,H;ONa
Sodium. Found.
Per cent. Per cent.
28.75 30.3
The acid solution resulting from the decomposition of the product of
the action of sodium on acetone was now rendered alkaline with ammonia,
and iodine, dissolved in ammonium iodide, added until the color of
iodine no longer disappeared. There resulted 6.5 grams of iodoform,
equal to 1 gram acetone or 53 per cent of the amount calculated for
pure sodium acetone.* Undoubtedly, some loss of iodoform occurs in
evaporating its etherial solution and all acetone is not converted into
iodoform, so that the percentage of acetone is probably really higher
than given above.
Hepermment 2—About 1.5 grams sodium wire were dissolved in an
excess of acetone diluted with absolute ether, the whole bemg m an
Ehrlenmeyer flask having a very small neck. The flask was not sur-
rounded by ice, the heat generated by the reaction evidently volatilizing
enough ether to exclude air, the sodium derivative remaining white. The
sodium compound was now rapidly filtered on a Hirsch funnel with
strong suction, quickly washed six times with ether and then dried in
a vacuum desiccator over sulphuric acid and paraffine. The salt was
somewhat pink, but as soon as it was dry it was weighed to a tenth of a
gram as quickly as possible and then thrown into ice-cold, dilute acid.
The acid was now saturated with potassium carbonate and the low-boiling
portion distilled on a water-bath. The distillate was saturated with a
solution of sodium bisulphite and the whole cooled in ice for one hour.
The acetone sodium-bisulphite (4.5 grams from 3.8 grams sodium com-
pound) was filtered and decomposed with sodium carbonate, the acetone
being distilled. There resulted 1 gram of acetone boiling at 54° to 57°.
Experiment 3.—This was carried out exactly as was Experiment 2,
with the difference that a sodium determination was made by using an
* We have once more tested this method of determining acetone in the presence
of isopropyl or ethyl alcohol, and can substantiate the former statements of Freer
that it is sufficiently accurate for the work in hand, the results being wnder rather
than over the amount of acetone. Denigés very convenient method of acetone
determination is unsuitable as both isopropyl alcohol and mesityloxide give precipi-
tates with his reagent. Denigés, Compt. rend. Acad. d. sc. Par. (1898), 127, 963;
Ann. Chim. Phys. (1899), VII, 18, 400; Bull. d. la Soc. chim. (1899), III, 21,
241. Oppenheimer; Ber. d. chem. Ges. (1899), 32, 986; Chem. Centrbl. (1899),
II, 888.
ACTION OF SODIUM ON ACETONE. 71
excess of standard acid (found 30.9 per cent). This experiment gave
. 4.2 grams of iodoform, corresponding to somewhat less than one-half the
theoretical yield of acetone for pure sodium acetone.
As will be seen, even in the above two experiments, when air was not
rigidly excluded and where the sodium derivative was not handled with
particular care, no such high percentage of sodium as that obtained by
Miss Taylor, was found. Indeed, in a long series of experiments we
have never been able to obtain her results, which could only be accounted
for by a profound decomposition of her sodium derivative and the wash-
ing out of the acetone condensation products which would be formed.
If this decomposition were allowed to go far enough, then practically
nothing but sodium hydroxide mixed with the sodium derivatives of’
alcoholic reduction products would remain.
Experiment 4—This was performed as was Experiment 1, with the
exception that petroleum ether was substituted as a solvent. The reaction
in this case is not so clean cut as with ether, the resulting compound is
somewhat pink and the sodium percentage higher.
1.745 grams of the sodium derivative gave 0.6203 gram Na and 3.4
grams iodoform, equivalent to 35.5 per cent sodium and 0.52 gram ace-
tone, 41 per cent, respectively.
Experiment 5.—The apparatus was the same as in Experiment 1.
8.515 grams of the sodium compound was obtained, giving 2.567 grams
of sodium, equivalent to 30.14 per cent. After the sodium salt had
been decomposed, the acid solution was divided into four parts. One of
these was saturated with sodium acetate, then made very slightly alkaline
and the theoretical quantity of semicarbazid hydrochloride was added.
A precipitate of crystalline needles rapidly formed. After the mixture
had stood for 12 hours in the ice chest the precipitate was filtered and
it gave 1.2 grams of acetone semicarbazone, melting point 186°. This
was identical in all respects with a specimen of the same body prepared
for comparative purposes. One-eighth of the original acidified solution
gave 1.3 yrams of iodoform..
Experiment 6—The conditions were the same as in Experiment 1.
8.25 grams of sodium derivative were obtained, from one-half of this,
acidified, etc., 2.9 grams acetone semicarbazone, melting at 186°, were
separated, and from one-quarter, 2.2 grams iodoform were precipitated.
One other sodium determination gave us 29.2 per cent of sodium.
The above experiments render it practically certain that a sodium
derivative of acetone exists among the products of the action of sodium
on acetone, as acetone is obtained by their decomposition with acids.
However, it might possibly be true that the reaction product is sodium
isopropylate together with some caustic soda and that the acetone which
is found is held by the sodium isopropylate in a combination somewhat
similar to alcohol of crystallization. That this is unlikely is proved by
12 BACON AND FREER.
the fact that the sodium derivative formed by the action of sodium on
acetone, after filtering and washing, was dried m vacuo to constant
weight, while at the same time it was warmed to beginning decomposition.
If acetone were present in a condition such as the above, it certainly
would be driven off by this treatment; nevertheless, the sodium derivative
behaved as usual when it was added to dilute acid. That sodium iso-
propylate does not behave as does sodium acetone even when it is mixed
with acetone is shown by the next experiment.
Eaperiment 7.—2.5 grams of sodium were dissolved in an excess of
isopropyl alcohol and diluted with absolute ether. The white color did
not change in the least when the derivative was allowed to stand for
three hours in an open beaker, whereas the product of the action of
sodium on acetone, placed beside it under the same conditions, decom-
posed and completely changed in five minutes. When acetone was
added to sodium-isopropylate under ether, the resulting mixture remained
unchanged for a long time when exposed to the air, although after one
hour it had assumed a slightly pink tinge. It was now filtered, washed
three times with absolute ether, dried and thrown into dilute sulphuric
acid. The usual acetone test gave no trace of iodoform. Acetone is
therefore not retained by sodium isopropylate.
Miss Taylor suggests that the reaction first observed by one of us
may be due to the formation of the sodium salt of diacetone alcohol
(CH,),. COH. CH,. CO. CH,. This compound is formed from acetone
in the cold under the influence of hydroxyl ions. Koelichen ® has shown
that in the presence of hydroxyl ions there is an equilibrium between the
amounts of acetone and of diacetone alcohol, thus with a concentration
of hydroxyl ions represented by a 10 per cent solution of sodium hy-
droxide, the quantity of diacetone alcohol is 3 per cent of the total
acetone, and smaller in quantity for a lower concentration of the
ions. The sodium compound of this body would contain 14.37 per
_cent of sodium. We have prepared diacetone alcohol according to the
method of Koelichen and subjected it to the action of sodium. The -
alcohol was diluted with absolute ether and in an open beaker dissolved |
sodium very rapidly, with marked reddening of the resulting compound,
the action resembling closely that observed when acetone is similarly
treated in the open air, but on acidifying the product, mesityl oxide and
other condensation products of acetone are separated and acetone could
be demonstrated in the solution by the formation of its semicarbazone,
melting at 185° to 186°.
A different result is obtained in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen. In
the apparatus used in Experiment 1, and under absolute ether, diacetone
alcohol is only very slowly attacked by sodium, giving a yellowish sodium
* Koelichen: Ztschr. f. physikal. Chem. (1900), 33, 129. Heintz: Ann. Chem.
(Liebig) (1873), 169, 114.
ACTION OF SODIUM ON ACETONE. te
derivative. Over four hours were consumed in dissolving 0.5 gram
of sodium in 5.5 grams of the alcohol. The precipitate was filtered,
dried in a current of hydrogen and dissolved in diiute acid, a considerable
quantity of condensation products of acetone separating. 0.74 gram of
the sodium derivative gave 1.067 grams sodium sulphate or 46.8 per cent
sodium. It seems evident, therefore, that sodium acting on diacetone
alcohol really does give sodium hydroxide and the condensation products
of acetone; the reaction is, however, so radically different from the
action of sodium on acetone, and the condensation products so prominent
(there are scarcely any when pure sodium acetone is dissolved in dilute
acids) that the theory that diacetone alcohol is first formed, subsequently
to be acted on by sodium, must be abandoned. There remains only the
question then of whether sodium acetone could not react with acetone
to give the sodium derivative of diacetone alcohol, aJthough in this event
the percentage of sodium found should be very much less than it really
is. However, apart from this, in the absence of condensation products
of acetone on acidifying, it must be presumed, to account for the acetone
which is always found in the acidified solutions of sodium acetone, that
the diacetone alcohol would promptly be reconverted into acetone during
this process. Rigidly to exclude this supposition we performed the
following experiment. j
Experiment 8.—Four grams of diacetone alcohol were dissolved in
20 cubic centimeters of ethyl alcohol and 20 cubic centimeters of water.
The solution was saturated with sodium acetate and 4 grams of semicar-
bazid hydrochloride were added. The solution was then rendered very
faintly alkaline and placed in ice-water for one hour, being vigorously
scratched with a glass rod. No precipitate appeared. To be sure that
the conditions were correct for the formation of a semicarbazone, the
solution was divided into two equal portions. To portion number two,
2 grams of acetone were added, whereupon a precipitate of crystalline
needles immediately appeared. Four grams of semicarbazid hydrochloride
were now added to this portion of the original solution, so that a suf-
ficiency of the reagent should be present to precipitate all acetone and all
diacetone alcohol, should it form a semicarbazone. Both the original,
unchanged portion and the second one were kept in the ice chest over
night. In the morning, portion number one, to which no acetone had
been added, contained a very faint precipitate (0.01 gram melting at
185° to 186°, it being acetone semicarbazone) so that a very small amount
of acetone had been separated by hydrolysis. From portion number two,
2.5 grams of acetone semicarbazone were isolated, melting at 186°.
From the above result it is evident that the acetone semicarbazone
obtained in the preceding experiments could not have originated in the
sodium derivative of diacetone alcohol as the hydrolysis of the latter
body is a time reaction which proceeds slowly.
1A BACON AND FREER.
The above results confirm the previous work in every way and estab-
lish the fact that the action of sodium on acetone gives a sodium
derivative which can only be sodium acetone.
In view of the above conclusions it is not deemed necessary further
to discuss Miss 'Taylor’s results as, apparently, she had not reproduced
the conditions under which Freer worked. A very short review of some
of the chief facts established in the earlier literature and which Miss
Taylor appears not to have considered may not be out of place, as
it will serve to recall some of the arguments which were not discussed in
Miss Taylor’s paper. The portion of the product of the action of sodium
on acetone which is insoluble in ether was shown by Freer ?° to consist
of acetone sodium, sodium isopropylate, and disodium pinakonate, the
soluble portion, of a sodium derivative of acetone, no sodium isopropylate
was isolated from this soluble portion and, if it is not carefully acidified,
mesityloxide and phoron are to be obtained. In studying the products
of the action of chlorcarbonic ether on sodium acetone, Miss Taylor sug-
gests that a mixture of ethyl isopropyl carbonate and diethylearbonate
would yield 34 per cent of carbon dioxide, whereas Freer found 33.89
per cent on decomposing the oil boiling between 128° and 129° and pro-
duced by the interaction of sodium acetone and chlorcarbonic ether
(calculated CO, for C,H,,0;, 33.84 per cent), but Miss Taylor ap-
pears to have overlooked the statement** that Freer also proved the
presence of ethyl alcohol and acetone in the products left after sapo-
nification. If acetone had been present as mesityl-oxide, the percent-
age of carbon dioxide would have fallen very much. It was further
shown by Freer that the fraction boiling at 128° yielded a sufficient
amount of acetone on decomposition with dilute acid to allow of its
being separated as the acetone sodium-bisulphite compound. (Found
carbon dioxide 33.7 per cent; the quantity of ethyl alcohol was less than
one-half the organic liquid isolated, it boiled at 78°.) We would, there-
fore, if we were dealing with a mixture of diethylearbonate, ethyl isopropyl
carbonate and mesityloxide, need to assume a large proportion of the
latter substance to be present, and this would inevitably -have lowered
the carbon dioxidé very markedly. Furthermore, the oil boiling between
132° and 137° yielded 30 per cent of acetone (calculated, 48.8 per cent)
and this figure, because of the difficulties in quantitative estimation, is
undoubtedly too low. It does not seem reasonable to assume that an oil
which would contain a sufficient quantity of mesityloxide to yield so
much acetone would not further react with phenylhydrazine, but on the
other hand this percentage would correspond to a total of 62 per cent
10 Amer. Chem. Journ. (1893), 15, 592.
Li Tbid. (1891), 13, 325.
2 Toid. (1895), 17, 11-
ACTION OF SODIUM ON ACETONE. 75
of the isoacetone ester in the oil. Miss Taylor’s supposition is that
this acetone comes from mesityloxide present in the mixture. If enough
mesityloxide occurred in the mixture to yield 30 per cent of acetone,
then the carbon dioxide found would be reduced by 11 per cent, to say
nothing of the change brought about in the analytical results. A mixture
which consists of ethyl isopropylcarbonate, diethylcarbonate and sufficient
mesityloxide to yield 30 per cent of acetone and which will also give
33.7 per cent of carbon dioxide, can not be calculated. Miss Taylor
allowed her reaction product to stand over phenylhydrazine for four days.
It is possible that, if isopropenylethylcarbonate was present at all, it
would by that time have reacted: with phenylhydrazine; it is also possible
that, owing to some variation in her work Miss Taylor never had the
body in the oil she prepared. Attention is further called to the fact
that Freer obtained enough 2-chlorpropene by the action of phosphorus
pentachloride to isolate this very low-boilimg substance. The reaction
product also absorbs bromine in the cold, without yielding hydrobromic
acid.
Miss Taylor did not use benzoyl chloride in studying the composition
of sodium acetone, substituting p-nitrobenzoy! chloride therefor. Again,
in her reaction she does not seem to have had a sodium derivative which
acted like the one described above, for she obtained none of the addition
products described by Freer as a result of the action of benzoyl chloride
on sodium acetone. That p-nitrobenzoyl chloride might not form an
isoacetone ester is conceivable, but in that event it should give addition
products. Freer, in studying the action of benzoyl chloride on sodium
acetone separated the reaction products into two parts, one soluble in
alkalies, the other insoluble. In this instance, the insoluble oil (12
grams) boiling at 120° (39 millimeters pressure) added bromine in
the cold, gave acetone in sufficient quantity to be isolated from the sodium-
bisulphite compound, isopropyl alcohol, and ethyl alcohol. The organic
liquid containing the acetone was twice as great in volume as the remainder.
The portion of the reaction product which was soluble in alkalies yielded
acetophenon, mono- and dibenzoyl acetone. Here we are not dealing with
a mixture of oils, but with crystalline solids which can be isolated in the
pure state. It is difficult to see how mono- and dibenzoyl acetone could
result from a mixture of condensation products of acetone, sodium
isopropylate and caustic soda. Sodium acetone must have taken part in
the reaction.
It should also be remembered that Freer and Lachman ** studied the
action of sodium on methyl propylketone, obtained 22.1 per cent of
sodium in the derivative (calculated 21.3 per cent), isolated dibenzoyl
methyl propylketone, and from 2 grams’ of the alkali insoluble portion
33 Amer. Chem. Journ. (1897), 19, 878.
76 BACON AND FREER.
obtained 0.9 gram benzoic acid, 1 gram methylpropylketone, some haloge-
nated oil, and some hydrochloric acid. The entire 2 grams is therefore
accounted for. Intermediate halogenated addition products were also
demostrated.
Pure mesityloxide reacts so energetically with sodium that the products
may even take fire with explosive violence, the sodium compound is so
unstable that it can not be isolated. :
From the above considerations it is evident that the original descrip-
tions of sodium acetone remain unaltered.
“Since the above was written an article by Levi and Voghera (Gazz. chim.
Ital. (1905), 35, I, 277) has come to our attention. These investigators studied
the electrolysis of KSCN, KI and Nal in acetone solution, water being rigidly
excluded from their solutions. At the cathode sodium-acetone respectively
potassium-acetone separated as white substances. With water these gave acetone
and sodium or potassium hydroxides. The potassium-acetone gave 40.70 per cent
of potassium (calculated 40.62 per cent), and it dissociated, when placed in
water, into acetone, potassium and hydroxyl ions, the correct lowering of the
freezing point for a molecular weight of 96 was obtained (found 95.3).
A NEW SUBSPECIES OF PHILIPPINE CICINDELID~.
By WALTHER Horn.
(Berlin, Germany.)
Family CICINDELIDA.
CICINDELA.
Cicindela clara Schaum, rugothoracica, subsp. nov.
Differt a Cic. clara suavissima Schaum, fronte antica et vertice paullo,
pronoto multo grossius rugatulis (his rugis plus minusve transversis) ;
pronoto subopaco, multo minus convexo, disco ipso paullulum deplanato,
antice magis dilatato; elytris evidenter minus gibbosis, postice minus
declivibus neque micantibus; signatura testacea ( 2 macula apicali sutu-
rali albescente) : maculis omnibus minoribus, puncto subhumerali magis
a margine distante. Corpore supra viridi ( 2 capite prothoraceque plus
minusve violaceo-aeneis, elytris nigroviolaceis), subtus (et 4 primis anten-
narum articulis) coeruleo-viridi, episternis 2 purpureo-violaceis. Long,
7.5-8 mm.
Differt a subspecie aenula mihi vertice prothoraceque evidenter crassio-
ribus, fronte antica et vertice et pronoto grossius rugatis; hoc antice
magis dilatato, disco minus convexo, basim versus non declivi sed sat
gradatim descendente; puncto subhumerali magis a margine remoto,
elytris aut nigro-violaceis aut viridibus, episternis aut clarius purpureo-
violaceis aut viridibus.
1012, Ins. Philipp. (Coll. R. C. McGregor) BEencuer, Ivisan.
Specimen alterum in coll. Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I., alterum
in mea.
Type 2, No. 1515 in Entomological Collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila.
The pronotum bare, with only a few white bristles at the anterior and
posterior angles. Lateral portions of the under side of the body sparingly
pilose, disc of the abdomen bare. Trochanters brownish, maxillary palpi
dark-metallic. The coloration of the body and that of the pattern may
be individual. ;
=
‘
7
78 HORN.
The new species resembles, in some features, Oic. swavis m., but the
latter has the disc of the abdomen pilose, the lateral portions of the
under side and the whole lateral margin of the pronotum denser pilose,
head and pronotum finer sculptured (especially the wrinkles near the
eyes much finer), the transverse impressions and strangulations of the
pronotum less deep, the last one less dilated at the front; elytra longer,
more nearly parallel and (especially behind) flatter, the spot below the
shoulder just a little nearer the border; maxillary palpi and base of
femora pale-yellow.
REVIEWS.
Surveying and Levelling Instruments Theoretically and Practically Described:
for Construction, Qualities, Selection, Preservation, Adjustments, and Uses;
with Other Apparatus and Appliances Used by Civil Engineers and Surveyors
in the Field. By William Ford Stanley. Cloth; 372 illustrations in the
text. Pp. xv-+562. Price, 7s. 6d.. London: E. & F. N. Spon. 1901.
This is perhaps the only book in the English language, with the ex-
ception of surveying text-books and trade catalogues, which treats of
the manufacture, use, and adjustment of mathematical instruments. For
the purposes for which it is intended it is more valuable than either
of the above classes, being far more comprehensive than text-books and
more impartial than catalogues.
With an experience of about fifty years in the manufacture of scien-
tific instruments, the author must certainly be well qualified to treat of
his subject, both from the practical and the theoretical standpoint, but
in regard to its impartiality, the book is perhaps open to criticism. It
is not surprising when we consider that all engineers have habits of
their own, that the author should have his own prejudices, and quite
natural that they should be favorable to instruments of his own manu-
facture. It is not intended to convey the impression that the book is
merely an elaborate exposition of the author’s manufactures, a sort of
catalogue in text-book form. It is far more than that, for other systems
and other makes are frequently mentioned and compared; simply, that
the author dwells longest on his own and does not devote as much space:
to other instruments, with which the American engineer at least, is more
familiar. Yet, if this is a fault, it must be considered a pardonable one,
for it would be plainly impracticable to describe in detail all the dif-
ferent kinds of surveying instruments which are in use in different
countries, so if the author must choose, he selects those with which he
is most familiar.
The book is of value not only to those interested in the manufacture
of surveying instruments, but especially to men in the field who in
emergencies may be compelled to make their own repairs. It contains
much useful information and many practical hints on the preservation,
testing and repair of instruments which can be found in no other book.
Older men as well as the less experienced will therefore find it useful for
reference. .
M. G.
79
80 REVIEWS.
Mathematical Drawing and Measuring Instruments. Their Construction, Uses,
Qualities, Selection, Preservation, and Suggestions for Improvements; with
Hints upon Drawing, Colouring, Calculating Sun- Printing, Lettering, etc.
By William Ford Stanley. Seventh edition. Cloth; 247 illustrations in the
text. Pp. vii+370. Price, 5s. London: E. & F. N. Spon. 1900.
On the subject of impartiality, this book is open to eriticism. For
instance, an entire chapter is given up to various improvements and
modifications of the pantagraph manufactured by the author, while the
suspended pantagraph, which is an improved form very commonly used
in America, is not even mentioned. Thus also, the ordinary triangular
scale receives a brief mention to the effect that it is not much used
and not much recommended. The patented triangular scale, in which
the graduations are raised from the drawing surface, is not mentioned,
although it has been one of the most commonly used drafting instruments
in America for more than ten years. While the book may properly be
described as a desirable reference book for the draftsman, we would by
no means classify it as an essential. The majority of the instruments
described are those with which every draftsman is, or at least should be,
perfectly familiar, while the others such as odgraphs, cymagraphs, and
odontographs, the descriptions of which occupy a good portion of the
book, are instruments which probably not one draftsman in fifty will
ever see or ever possess. While these, which may be called special instru-
ments, have their peculiar uses, the work of most of them can usually
be performed, perhaps less conveniently, by other simpler and more
generally useful appliances. In large establishments such instruments
may occasionally he the most economical and desirable, and the drafts-
man should, therefore, at least be aware of their existence. This
purpose the book serves admirably, not only describing them in consider-
able detail but also telling the particular work for which each is best
adapted.
M. G.
Vou. dis me MAY, 1907 No.
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
EDITED BY
PAUL @. FREER, M..D., Pu. D.
CO-EDITORS
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
E. D. MERRILL, M. S.
PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES.
a
No. 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.—Preliminary Report of the Apa alias in the Phil-
ippine Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P. Strong, M. D.
No. 2, 1902, Chemical Laboratory.—The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acety] Peroxide and Its
Use as an Intestinal Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D.
No. 3, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—A Pteliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
No. 4, 1903, Serum Laboratory.—Preliminary Report on the Study of Rinderpest of
Cattle and Carabaos in the Philippine Islands. By James W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 5, 1903, Biological Laboratory.— Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, with Special
Reference to Surra in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave; M. D., and Moses T.
e -
No. 6, 1903.—New or Noteworthy Plants, I. The American ‘Element in the Philippine
Flora. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1903, Chemical Laboratory. Pare, Gutta Percha and Rubber of the Philippine
Islands. By Penoyer | L. Sherman, jr., Ph.
No. 8, 1903.—A Dictionary of the Plant usice of the Philippine Islands. By Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
No. 9, 19038, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—A Report on Hemorrhagic Septicemia
in Animals in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
Noa. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory—Two Cases of a Peculiar Form of Hand Infection
(Due to an Organism Resembling the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. McDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M.-
No. 11, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 1: Prelimi-
nary Bulletin on Insects of the Cacao. (Prepared Especially for the Benefit of Farmers. )
By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 12, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by
the Bacillus of Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 13, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed
Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Fetidus. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D.
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 1904, Biological and»Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera:
An Experimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 17, 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—I. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologie Sig-
nificance. By W. HE. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment at Intes-
tinal Amebiasis (Amcbic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M.
No. 19, 190s peoryscal Laboratory.—Some Observations on the ey of the. Cholera
Spirillum. y W. Wherry, M. D.
20, 190% ed Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant. Plague Exist Where
ma. eigen is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus.
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia :
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro-Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P, Strong, M. D.
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories—1. A Description of the New grees
ings of the Bureau of Goyernment Laboratories. By Paul C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. II.
Cataleene of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polke,
ibrarian.
No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and His-
AOR Oey Aone eee a Consideration of InSects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
erzog, M.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on
ther Bacteria ves, and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry,
No. 25, 1904.1—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By ~
Richard C. McGregor.
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’ s Flora
de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiaceze of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philippine
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D. ‘ ;
No. 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila
Hlemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory: —I. Autocatalytic Decomposition of Silver Oxide.
ING Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D.
No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—l. Notes on_a Case of Hematochyluria (Together
with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna).
By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. MeDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search
Into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “Peptone,” with Special Reference to Its
Influence me the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera-Red Reactions. By William B.
Wherry, M. D
(Concluded on third page of cover.)
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
Won: EL MAY, 1907 No. 2
PHILIPPINE FIBERS AND FIBROUS SUBSTANCES: THEIR
SUITABILITY FOR PAPER MAKING. PART III
(CONCLUSION).
By GEORGE F, RicuMonp.
(From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.)
INTRODUCTION.
The gradual but certain decrease in the available supply of the leading
paper makers’ raw material at the present time is further emphasized,
by recent compilations concerning the American pulp wood industry.
Some of the more important considerations brought out in a circular
report on wood used for pulp * in 1905 are:
First. The increase in the quantity consumed, 3,192,223 cords being
used during 1905, or a gain of 60.7 per cent over the corresponding
figures for 1899. -
Second. The increased use of chemical processes for the reduction of
wood to paper pulp. In 1905 the proportions were approximately 66
per cent of chemical and 34 per cent of mechanical pulp; these percent-
ages representing a gain of 74.7 per cent for the chemical process as
against one of 39.4 per cent for the mechanical during ‘six years.
Third. The greatly increased use of woods other than spruce and
poplar, and a more general utilization of waste products from lumbering
industries. Such wood species as hemlock, fir, southern, pitch and
1 Hale, H. M.: U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Forest Service Cire. (1906), No. 44.
54329 81
82 RICHMOND.
jack pines and even the hardwoods such as beach and maple, are now
being employed, while slabs, sawdust and veneer cores are also being
considered.
Fourth. An increase of approximately 75 per cent is also shown in
the amount of pulp wood imported. This importation consists of
645,428 cords of Canadian spruce and poplar.
Fifth. The estimated length of time during which the supply will be
available is given as twenty-one years.
The United States Forest Service has established a laboratory at
Boston, Massachusetts, for a further investigation of the woods men-
tioned above as well as of other varieties and also of the waste materials,
and the following quotation serves to explain the reason for its existence.
To supply the enormous demand for the sulphite product more than 1,500,000
cords of wood are used annually. Nearly four-fifths of this amount is spruce.
A rapid diminution in the supply of standing spruce and a consequent marked
increase in its cost are the results of this great and growing demand. Therefore,
the principal object of the laboratory is to experiment on the pulp-making possibil-
ities of other woods.?
The experiments to be conducted in the Boston laboratory are intended
to include the investigation of a large number of American woods and
waste products; their applicability to the sulphite process of treatment ;
a microscopic study of the fibers and the distribution of cela of pulp
and handmade sheets of paper made therefrom.
Generally speaking, the species of woods best suited me paper pulp
should possess the following characteristics:
First. They should be soft, but of a resistant nature, and they should
possess long, fine, parallel fibers.
Second. They should be light in weight and colorless or nearly so.
The species which have the distinct heart- and sap-wood may be employed,
if the distinction is not too pronounced.
Third. They should be but moderately resinous with a comparatively
thin bark, and they souls be relatively free from knots and unsound
portions.
The above requirements seem to be met by a sufficient number of
Philippine forest trees to warrant a study of their pulpmaking possibil-
ities. Authentically identified specimens of the different woods, together
with data as to their distribution, description and physical properties,
were furnished by Dr. H. N. Whitford of the Philippine Bureau of
Forestry and by Dr. Foxworthy of the botanical section of the Biological
Laboratory, and the botanical identifications were made by Elmer D.
Merrill, botanist of the Bureau of Science.
? Forestry and Irrigation, Wash. (1906), 12, 8.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 83
TaBLe No. 1.—Tree species proposed.
| Botanical name. gone my Sea per cubic Ash. Remarks.
Kilos.» | Per cent.
Shorea contorta__________ White lauan__ 0. 446 12.56 0.89 | Moderately resinous.
Parkia roxburghii -_-____ Cupang__-___- . 285 8. 03 2.08 | Non-resinous.
Anisoptera vidaliana ____| Mayapis_---_- 399 11. 24 . 83 Do.
Alstonia scholaris________ Dita eres eres awe) so 12.72 mo) Do.
Sandoricum vidalianum_} Santol __.-____|__________ 16. 36 Het, Do.
a] kilo = 2.2 pounds.
PHILIPPINE WOODS.
LAvuAN (Shorea sp.).
Structural qualities—Lauan is a light and soft wood which takes a fair polish;
the pith rays are fine but distinct, in radial section they are very prominent as
horizontal lines or patches of a darker color than that of the surrounding wood;
this dark color is due to resin contained in the pith-ray cells. The vessels are
of medium size, often filled with gummy material; wood parenchyma is present,
but of irregular distribution. The resin canals are small and scattered, often
forming distinct, white, concrete lines.
Appearance, color and grain.—Both heart-wood and sap-wood of lauan are of
a light-brown to whitish shade. The wood is straight, but of rather coarse grain.
Uses.—Lauan wood is employed in light and temporary construction. It is
also used in cabinet making, in inferior furniture, and for small boats.
Provinces leading m production.—Negros Occidental, Bulacan, Bataan, Leyte
and Zambales.
Remarks.—Vhis is the most widely distributed tree in the Philippine
forests. It is found in limited numbers in every type of lowland forest
excepting the swamps, and it is also present in the foothills. Lauan has
a tall and regular bole. The young trees are but slightly buttressed, but
the old ones often show this development to a great degree. Several
different kinds of wood are marketed under the name of lauan, the
classification being as red and white. The red lauans are undoubtedly
distinct in species from the true white lauan (Shorea contorta Vid.).
There are at least two white lauans found in the Provinees of Mindoro,
Bataan and Zambales, and another species (Shorea squamata ¥.-Vill.)
is obtained from Negros, this variety is also locally known as almon. The
tree designated as malaanonang (Shorea malaanonan Blume) and found
scattered through the forests of Rizal and Bulacan Provinces also greatly
resembles the poorer grades of lauan both in appearance and structure.
It is much lighter in color than any of the commercial red lauans, and
from its structure it should be considered as being useful for fiber
production in the same manner as is the true white-lauan.
84 RICHMOND.
Cupane (Parkia roxburghii Don.).
Cupang is a light and soft wood. It is not durable and rots quickly; there
is no distinction between sap- and heart-wood; its color is white or whitish. It
is coarse grained, splitting more or less regularly; its odor is pronouncedly
mephitie when it is fresh or when it is partially rotted, it is less pronounced
when the wood is dry.
The vessels are of medium size, each surrounded by a collar of whitish cells;
the pith rays are small but distinct, they are lighter in color than the surrounding
tissue.
Distribution—Cupang is probably found in lowland forests in every province
of the Archipelago; it also occurs in India and throughout Malaysia.
Uses.—Cupang has no commercial use at the present time. It was formerly
employed in the manufacture of matches, but its use was discontinued because
of its odor.
Remarks.—Both lawan and cupang are free from knots from base to
crown. Cupang grows to large diameter, with a smooth, straight cylin-
drical bole, which is often quite short. Usually a clear length of 40
to 55 feet terminates in a much branched crown.
Mayapis (Anisoptera sp.).
Structural qualities—Mayapis is a light, soft wood and is not durable. In
structure it very much resembles lauan, however it is distinctly coarser grained.
Its vessels are slightly larger and more numerous and its pith rays are rather
more distinct. ;
Appearance, color and grain.—Mayapis is yellowish-white in color and coarse
grained.
Uses.—It is used in light and temporary construction.
Provinces leading in production.—Laguna, Tayabas, Bataan and Cagayan.
Common names.—Mayapis, palosapis, ete.
Remarks.—Vhe tree which yields most of the lumber known as mayapis
is probably Antsoptera vidaliana Brandis, although some other closely
related species may also be known as mayapis or palosapis. This tree
has a long, straight, clean bole with a-small taper, the clear lengths
varying from 50 to 80 feet. Its average diameter is about 20 inches.
Dita (Alstonia scholaris R. Br.).
Dita is a light and soft wood weighing 28 pounds per cubic foot; it seasons
badly arid it rapidly becomes moldy if seasoned in the log.
Appearance, color and grain.—There is no distinction between sap- and heart-
wood; it has a white, even grain which is fine and straight. The pores are
medium sized; the pith rays fine and irregularly distributed, with numerous
intermediate extremely fine rays; there are many fine, wavy concentric lines at
unequal distances. The wood has a very bjtter taste; it is easy to work and is
used for light furniture of various sorts and for the manufacture of matches.
Alstonia scholaris is a very large, evergreen tree, with smooth bark and straight
clear bole. It is found in old clearings.
Distribution —Dita is widely distributed throughout the Archipelago and also
extends from India to the Philippines.
Remarks.—Dita is furnished by Alstonia scholaris R. Br. and by no
other species.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 85
SantoL (Sandoricum sp.).
A moderately hard and heavy wood, weighing 16.4 kilos (36 pounds) per
cubic foot. The sap-wood is gray, the heart-wood faintly reddish, resembling the
color of hemlock. It is close and straight grained, very easy to work and it
takes a fine polish. The wood has a camphor-like odor when first cut. The
pores are small and the medullary rays fine.
Distribution.—The tree is very common in cultivation and in old clearings,
also in lowland forests; it is found throughout the Philippines and in the Indo-
Malayan region.
Remarks.—Vhe scientific designation is Sandoricum indicum Cav.,
but the very similar wood malasantol is_common in the forest and is
furnished by the closely related Sandoricum vidalii Merr.
Other woods worthy of mention, but upon which no work has been
done are taluto (Pterocymbium tinctorvum Merr.), malapapaya (Polys-
cas nodosa Seem.), papaya and balete and other species of the genus
Ficus, Grewia sp., ete. All of these are of common occurrence, are very
soft and light and are white or nearly so in color. They all mold very
quickly if allowed to cure in the log. -
DATA ON THE STAND OF CUPANG, LAUAN AND MAYAPIS IN BATAAN PROVINCE.®
On the west coast, the basin drained by the Binonangan River com-
prises approximately 6,120 acres. The topography of this area is such
that lumbering operations can easily be carried on. The distance from
the coast to the most remote timber in this basin is about 6 miles.
The area is well forested, except for a narrow strip on the seacoast where
the timber is small and scattered. The principal wood species found
on this area are panao, tanguile, lauan, guijo, mayapis and cupang. ‘The
cupang, among the pulp woods, covers only the lower elevations up to
900 feet, an area of approximately 3,900 acres, while the lauan and
mayapis are distributed over the whole region.
The estimated total stand of the three woods is given as—
Cubic feet.
rapa as ost ee eee Lee Se Se gen sue es ere ar tenes ie 1,870,720
IDEN DPA I Seep a sete coe Ne eet outs ee Snags my Ee 5 0 RE Ne ee eer eee aed 1,578,960
Mayapis ...... esis = ja hed 2s Bee pdt Rs ap AR SEE pee a Se 1,040,400
MING CRN ee oh ao oli k Ser locas cag soy Ua el al NO neces eA 4,490,080
These figures represent only the merchantable stand in the basin, of
trees of these species of 20 inches or more in diameter after making
an average deduction of 20 per cent for unsound timber ; hence 5,000,000
cubic feet of pulp wood may be obtained from this small area.
The yield tables* for the merchantable stand of timber on 4,590
hectares (11,339 acres) of public forest on the eastern coast of Mindoro
’ Bryant, R. C.: Rep. Bu. Forestry, P. I., (1901-1902).
*Merrit, M. L., and Whitford, H. N.: Phil. Bu. Forestry (1906); 6.
86 RICHMOND.
show a yield of 14,060,778 cubic feet, cutting to a diameter limit of 40
centimeters (16 inches); of this amount 6,453,368 cubic feet is white
lauan.
THE SHRINKING OF THE VARIOUS WOODS ON BARKING.
Experiments to determine the shrinkage of the various woods in
barking gave the following results:
TaBLe No. 2.—Green wood containing 30 to 40 per cent of moisture—blocks one-foot
in length varying 15 to 20 centimeters in diameter.
Weight. |
Kind of wood. | | Loss. |
Before | 322 ee ee eee 5. 430 4.800 11.6
| Mayapis.2.2 2.22 yo ec ee eee | 7.587] 6.740] 11.00 |
Dita Lies ae kt ee ee 8.061 6.670 | 17.25
Santol) . .. .2- 2 ee | 8. 969 8.012 10. 67
One cord of green spruce, contaiing 37 per cent of moisture and
cut in 4-foot lengths, weighed 2,001 kilos (4,440 pounds) ; after barking
it was 1,622 kilos (3,570 pounds) or 19.5 per cent shrinkage.”
TaBiE No. 3.—Dimensions of the ultimate fibers of some Philippine woods.
[Table by Dr. Foxworthy.]
| / Diameter.
} Length.
Seam Total. Lumen.
Maxi- Aver-| Mini- Maxi-) Aver- | Mini-| Maxi-| Aver-| Mini-
‘mum. age. |mum./mum.| age. mMum.|/mum.} age. | mum.
|
| / | |
| mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. / mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Lauan (Shorea contorta)______ 2.28 1.94 | 1.13 | 0.026 (0.022 | 0.017 |0.017 0.014 | 0.009
| ; i
| Mayapis (Anisoptera vida- | /
| PEN iV 2) Vee te, set oes Bee More | 2.62} 1.92] 1.16} .030] .
|
|
: 023 | .019 | .0092 | .0058 |. 0031
Cupang (Parkia roxburgii)___| 1.80 115) .86| .038 | .029 | .021 | .026 | 020 014
Dita (Alstonia scholaris)_--___ 1.85 | 1,27 - 80 | - 041 | 0355 | .025 | .025 | .016 - 010
| Spruce’ 22 ee ee 4.54 3.15 | Hes | 3) | -034 | .029 | .0195 | .003
° Griffin and Little: Chem. Paper Making (1894), 141.
* Sulphite pulp manufactured by Willamette Pulp and Paper Company, Oregon
City, Oregon.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS.
87
Tas ie No. 4.—Proximate analyses of Philippine woods and some commercial pulp woods.
PHILIPPINE WOODS.
Alcohol Incrust-
Kind of wood. Water. eee A caer oe ie ma sf Ash.
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Na ene ee es ee nae ee 11. 23 3. 85 2.72 61.71 19, 57 0. 89
IMenyapise === = Sie +. ees ae 11.50 4,50 1,20 55. 73 28, 24 . 83
Cupang re A ee a Rn oe 13. 33 3.45 1.17 60. 56 19. 41 2.03
PDT nets ee etd oS Se 10. 41 4,19 . 60 49, 94 33. 87 .99
SOME COMMERCIAL PULP WOODS.7
Scotehpine: 4 =~ = ee a 12. 87 4.05 1. 63 58. 27 2818) lee sae eee
IBlockspoplan wee ae-e een eee ee ee 12.10 2. 88 1.37 62.77 20808) beeen
Silvieriiinees ce ese ene Nee ee eee 13. 87 1.26 ob 56. 99 ONO eee
IBASs-WhOO dees Se 10.10 3.56 3. 93 53. 09 29532) juacuee we
11. 31 52. 96 35. 41 0. 32
STU Ce Sree a aye ay ee ee a 11. 48 4. 83 3.28 58. 08 35.19 125
11. 26 52. 98 35. 46 . 30
oaks
SODA WOOD PULPS.
One-kilo lots (2.2 pounds) of wood were barked, chipped and cooked
in the model digestor, washed, screened and molded into 7 by 10 inch
boards. These were first air-dried and weighed, then repulped and
beaten in a small hollander, bleached and formed into unsized handmade
sheets.
TasiEe No. 5.—Hexrperiments with lauan.
i Yield of pulp. ;
Exper-| Caustic eda cal: Duration | prassures i dened Beier
iment} soda j|culatedon| of di- cana done Bieta’
No. /| solution. welpbeel gestion. ALS Bencnas|l prananl ines
Per cent. | Per cent. Hours. | Atmospheres.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
1 10 25 9 6 AS) | Ean eee 8 eee ea afns Soe acu =
2 7.5) al 22.5 11 6 42,37 40 7/51 5. 69
3 5 20 5 5 (74) 45. 2 40.3 18.8 10.8
4 3.75 TE 10 6-8 AB SIR § | ibe rets a/R 2 Bates see ecee
5 3.5 12.5 10 6-8 ASG i | eseen. eee ee ee a Sse
7Miiller, Hugo: Die Pflanzenfaser, Leipz. (1873), 150.
§ Analyses by Griffin and Little.
88 RICHMOND.
Remarks.—The conditions of experiment 3, namely, a 5 per cent
(6° to 7° Baumé) liquor and five hours’ digestion at 7 to 8 atmospheres’
(105 to 120 pounds) pressure produced a well-boiled pulp, comparatively
free from screenings. In experiment 4, a weaker liquor accomplished
the same result in double the time, at a slightly increased pressure.
Experiment 5 produced a coarse pulp, very brown and badly contaminated.
with shive. Experiment 1 showed evidence of too caustic a treatment.
Taste No. 6.—Experiments with cupang,
Caustic Yield of pulp. : aa||
Exper-| Caustic | sodacal- | Duration Pree ples aus Oss O
iment |} soda |culatedon| of di- : Se ONCE HV aS tin
| No. |solution.| weight of | gestion. Copan Une Fer cneal cone b leach
material. bleached. : ; &-
|
Per cent.| Per cent. Hours. | Atmospheres.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
1 7.5 25 8 a GS Oil) = a en Ee eae et
2 6 20 10 6 43.71 | 40.3 16.5 7.8
3 4.7 20 8 7 44.97 | 40. 2 18.4 10.6
4 ~ 3.75 15 8 6-8 ‘48.4
5 3.5 12.5 8 6-8 50.4 |
|
Remarks.—Under similar conditions of treatment, cupang pulps more
easily than lauan and with a little better yield. The pulp resembles
poplar, in length of fiber and ease of treatment although it is somewhat.
harder to bleach.
TasLE No. 7.—Experiments with mayapis.
| i vi Ip.
Exper-| Caustic sete oa. Duration} pressures eae ES Bleaching Loss of
iment} soda j|culatedon| of di- . OCIS SII
No. |solution.| weight of | gestion. Commedia Ui Bleached Aenea bleach
material. | bleached. : : &-
Per cent.| Percent. | Hours. | Atmospheres.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
1 10 DEN EEG 5 S845 yah | er Ake eal eae |Seoses Ge
28 6. 25 20 10 6-7 41. 85 40.7 9.9 2.74
3b 5 20 5 6-7 42.5 41 12 3.53
4 4 17.5 5 6-7 44 41.19 15.4 2. 81
*Good white color. » Yellowish color.
Remarks.—Mayapis is one of the most promosing of the Philippine
pulp woods. It is even lighter in color than white lauan and has a con-
siderably longer fiber than cupang. A yield of 40 to 45 per cent of easily
bleached pulp may be expected by digestion with alkaline liquors.
Dita wood is too short fibered and weak to be of much value for paper
pulp. It is briefly considered here because of its wide distribution and
abundance in the Philippines and because it would yield the bark which
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 89
contains the most widely known and important Filipino drug as a
by-product. The alkaloids from dita bark are being investigated by Dr.
R. F. Bacon of this Bureau.®
Only two soda digestions on dita wood were made. ‘The wood is very
easily reduced, but its yields are 5 to 10 per cent lower than those of the
others under identical conditions of treatment.
Experiment 1.—Strength of liquor, 4.4 per cent; 20 per cent caustic soda used
calculated on the air-dried weight of the wood; pressure, 5 to 6 atmospheres;
time, 8 hours; yield, 35 per cent.
Experiment 2.—Strength of liquor, 3.3 per cent; 15 per cent caustic soda used
calculated on the weight of the wood; pressure, 5 to 6 atmospheres; time, 8 hours;
yield, 38 per cent.
SULPHITE WOOD PULP.
I have conducted a large number of sulphite digestions on selected
species of Philippine woods, under varying conditions of strength of
liquor, duration of boiling, temperature and pressure. An upright, steel
digester capable of holding several pounds of raw material was con-
structed for these experiments. The conditions obtained in practice
were thus closely approximated and they furnish reliable data which can
readily be calculated in terms of ton lots of raw materials and of
chemicals.
Considerable difficulty was encountered in constructing a gas-tight
digester and in protecting the iron shell from the corrosive action of
-sulphite liquors. After failing in several attempts to make sheet-lead
or silicate-paint linings which would hold, the following arrangement
suggested by the Director was adopted throughout all the poe
experiments.
A large stoneware chemical jar with ground stone cap and spring clip seal was
placed inside the steel digester shell and surrounded with water containing
sufficient alkaline bicarbonate to equalize the pressure produced by the free
sulphurous acid gas on the-inside of the jar. A drop tube carrying a thermometer
and dipping into the outside liquor between the stone and iron walls allowed of
perfect registration of the temperature conditions of the digestions.
In a small way, we were able to deposit a very smooth adherent lead
lining on iron by the Bett’s?° process for refining base bullion in
fluosilicie acid solution, but the proper current density and other condi-
_tions were not at hand for lining our large digester in this manner.
The woods were barked and chipped in the usual manner and cooked
by the quick-cook system, namely at high temperatures for a relatively
short time.
"This Journal (1906), 1, 1007.
0 Hlectro Chem. and Metallurgical Ind. (1905) 3, 272.
90 RICHMOND.
Tasie No. 8.—Sulphite digestions on Philippine woods (quick-cooking process).
' Composition of | Duration of ~e
liquor. digestion. | HASSE,
| Kind of Maxi- Bleach-
KR mu i
wood and Time to acer aie Sereen-
experunens Total | Com: | Avail- reach eee ature = con- | 1285.
No. otal | }~ maxi- ota ied. n- sumed.
SOs. pened aS mum | time. pay bleached. Bleached. <
2 2: | temper-
ature.
Per Per Per Per Per Per Per
Lauan: cent. | cent. | cent. | Hours. | Hours. °¢. cent. cent. cent. cent.
ewe 3.6 1.6 2.0 4 12 160 OR Ae ee eee | a 1.8
|
22 As85521 3.5 2 Qne 5s 11 1 44.4 43.3 13: Sales eee
Spy) «ehhh: UES) 42 11 155 AG i 8 3 ee Re ee Pee ee 1 7B)
3.52 1. 63 1.89 43 oe 154 BLU o\| re ee oe ca ee
3.45 | 1.35 | 2.10 5k 11 150 44.75 42.35 net pales See
SH pall Lees} |) IEG y! 42 11 155 46). |e oe sete |e 1.4
3.6 1 2.4 4 10 | 145-155 46.76 43.02 BUST Sees
VER Eanes Brie See a ee 4 16 160 AQN4c |e. ees ee ee 3.0
Sense ee 3.75 | 1.78) 1.97 4h 11 185 AD oo) sane eels le See 0
ees
The following conclusion are drawn from the experimental data which
have been tabulated and from the general appearance and feel of the
resulting pulps:
A certain excess of sulphurous acid over the amount necessary to
form the bisulphite of the base is desirable, first, because it tends to
prevent the formation. and separation of the monosulphite of calcium,
which is extremely hard to wash out and which is lable to cause specks
throughout the pulp; second, it is a more economical liquor to prepare.
However, too great an excess of free acid is sure to produce a brown pulp
similar to those resulting when sulphurous acid is used alone without any
base being present. The liquor should contain about twice as much
available acid—that is, acid combined as the bisulphite of the base and
acid absolutely free, as is combined in the form of the mono or normal
sulphite. Such a hquor will allow of digestions at the maximum
temperature of 160° and at even higher ones, without danger of burning
the chips if no gas is blown off during the cooking operation. A lquor
of this composition will complete the cook in from ten to twelve hours if
the charges have previously been thoroughly steamed and four hours are
consumed in reaching the maximum temperature ultimately carried.
Remarks.—The sulphite digestions were regulated entirely by the
temperature and no gas was blown off at any time. The chips were
invariably steamed before the sulphite liquor was run in, and just suf-
ficient liquor barely to cover the well-tamped charge was used. A heavy,
perforated lead disc placed on top of the wood kept all the chips sub-
merged. No device to induce circulation of the liquor during the boiling
PHILIPPIND FIBERS. 91
was employed. The heat was applied by direct flame and the charge was
always left in the digester after the completion of the cook until the
following morning. ‘The chips of all the experiments reported in the
above table were of a light, salmon color when discharged, and the liquor
was a clear brown and still contained free sulphurous acid. The pulp
washed and beat easily to nearly white, soft fiber. Analyses of the
unbleached fibers given in Table No. 9, page 93, serve to indicate the
extent to which the incrusting matters were removed, under the corre-
sponding digestion conditions.
SULPHITE PULP FROM FIBERS OTHER THAN WOOD.
Within recent years numerous attempts have been made to apply the
bisulphite or acid treatment to the manufacture of cellulose from the
cereal straws; this was pointed out in a previous paper ** but the siliceous
nature of straw has heretofore stood in the way of a satisfactory isolation
of the cellulose by this method.
Dietz’? proposes first to remove the greater proportion of the ash
content of the straw before submitting it to the action of the sulphite
liquor. He has shown that a preliminary treatment with the theoretical
quantity of hydrofluoric acid, calculated on the basis of the silica content
of the straw, in the form of a 0.5 to 1.25 per cent solution, is capable of
reducing the 1.5 to 3.7 per cent of silica normally present to less than
0.05. After such treatment, the straw is said to be quite suitable for
digestion with bisulphite liquors. The best conditions for boiling the
straw thus purified are given by an ordinary calcium bisulphite liquor con-
taining 3.6 per cent total sulphurous acid, of which 2.4 per cent is free
and 1.2 per cent combined. The boiling should be regulated so that
a pressure of 3.5 atmospheres is reached in an hour and maintained for
three hours. By this procedure the author obtained a 42 per cent yield
of pulp which bleached well with 13 per cent of bleaching powder.
Whether the partial removal of the silica in this manner will prove
to be economically practicable remains to be seen. The increased yield
of straw cellulose and the short time required to produce it, should
be considered to be very attractive on the continent, where this material
is quite highly prized for paper stock. In view of some results to be
described later, obtained in pulping bamboo by means of sulphurous acid,
I do not believe it to be necessary partially to remove the mineral constit-
uents from highly silicated materials, before their treatment with sulphite
liquors.
Other raw materials besides the Philippine woods already described,
from which sulphite pulp has been prepared in this laboratory are hemp
waste, old rope, jute gunny sacks and dwarf bamboo. The experiments
“This Journal (1906), 1, 437. .
“2 Ztschr. f. angew. Chemie. (1905), 28, 648.
9 RICHMOND.
Kw)
were conducted with the view of determining the exact conditions condu-
cive of the best results in yield, color, ease of bleaching and strength
of the resulting pulps; the conditions of the digestions; namely, strength
of liquor, proportion of free and combined acid, proportion of liquor to
material digested, temperatures employed and duration of the cooking
are given below.
SULPHITE BAMBOO PULP.
Preparation.mMature and seasoned culms of dwarf bamboo were
crushed between rollers and chopped into 3 to 4 inch lengths. Some
charges were thoroughly steamed before the sulphite liquor was added
and in others the liquor was run in upon the dry chips. Bamboo prepared
in the above manner forms dense, flat pieces which lie very close together
and which allow of beimmg covered with considerably less liquor than an
equivalent weight of chipped wood. In all the digestions the weight of
the bamboo to the weight of the liquor used was ,. to }—that is, 15.12
liters (four gallons) of lquor was the maximum amount employed in
any case for 4.5-++ kilos (10 pounds) of bamboo chips.
Haperiment 1—Unsteamed chips were gradually heated through a period of
four hours to a maximum temperature of 150° C. and maintained at this point
for four hours longer, giving eight hours for the entire digestion. The charge was
blown out under pressure; the chips were light, salmon-colored and apparently
digested. The yield of air-dry pulp was 56.6 per cent. The liquor carried 3.5
per cent of sulphurous acid, all combined as the bisulphite. é.
Experiment 2.—Five kilos of well-steamed bamboo were covered with 13.23
liters (3.5 gallons) of bisulphite liquor, containing 3.45 per cent of total sulphur-
ous acid, and heated up directly to a maximum of 155°, this temperature being
maintained for a total period of ten hours. The chips were soft, light-brown in
- color, and they bleached with difficulty. The yield of unbleached pulp was 51.7
per cent; the yield of bleached was 48.4 per cent, with a consumption of 22 per
cent of bleaching powder of 35 per cent available chlorine.
Experiment 3—Two and one-half kilos (5.5 pounds) each of steamed bamboo
and cupang wood were digested with 15.12 liters (4 gallons) of liquor of the
following composition :
German method: Per cent.
MotallysuilphnO Ws ia Cicl eee eee eee eee eee ee 3.6
HMree jSul ph ur O Us acl ea eee eee 2.4
Sulphurous acid combined as monosulphite of calcium........ 1.2
fyb ce (= al OF. 5 @ Varian ercatan ete Se eri oe WE A CE AAR oA ec iae Sucen ses 1.05
American method:
Total sulphurous acid 3.6
Free sulphurous acid 1.2
Sulphurous acid combined as bisulphite of calcium............ 2.4
Lime, CaO .........-------- Sb eccgea sas Nera SU RREN EO Ca ape cle eee en 1.05
The cook was heated up to 155° in four hours and maintained at 145° to
155° C. for a total period of ten hours. The yield of cellulose from the cupang
was 46.76 per cent, from the bamboo 47.32 per cent.
ss PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 93
Both the cupang and the bamboo fibers were of good appearance
throughout, soft and nearly as white as bleached pulp. ‘The bamboo pulp
consumed 16.8 per cent of bleaching powder in two treatments; the
yield of pure, bleached cellulose bemg 45.3 per cent. See Table No. 8
for the bleach consumption and yield of bleached cupang fiber. Analyses
of both pulps in the unbleached state are given in Table No. 9.
TaBLE No. 9.—Analyses of unbleached sulphite fibers prepared by the quick-cooking
process.
Hydrocel-
| < Resins lulose Non- ;
Moisture . . cellulose Mineral
(loss at Colter solution Cellulose. | (legrin) matter
100°C.). | aieohol). ya by differ- | (ash).
alkali. Ne:
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Mavens] tee oe ee 9, 20 0.91 5.77 81. 42 2.19 0.51
Mayapiss <0 2 8. 88 . 63 6.29 80. 57 3.31 32
Cupanpee a) hese eens 2 8.99 .50 4.16 82. 60 3.04 sift
2 ShOS) (i eee ee 9, 04 72.36 4.37 5.15
NA ater one ae H ye) | ee ed 6.94 78. 68 3.67 2.14
Jute (old bagging) ----__ SH OVI Eeeee a Sees 8. 93 79 3.47 | 208
Manila hemp (old rope)-_ Gr OGn Lee te Sor 12. 02 77.40 1.95 . 60
SP RUGe Ree oe Ao Gals G57/O)| Saami: 1, 52-4. 25 |81. 31-89. 74 . 73-9.37 | . 33-1
aThe figures for sulphite spruce fiber are the extremes found by Griffin and Little on analysis of
four samples of unbleached pulp prepared by the quick-cook process.
MANILA HEMP—OLD ROPE.
Very dirty, 3-mch cable rope cut down and well cleaned and dusted by
hand, lost 21 per cent in weight.
Experiment 1.—Digested with a straight bisulphite liquor containing 3.54 per
cent total sulphurous acid. A temperature of 140° ©. was reached in two hours
and held at 140° to 145° C. for four hours more. The fiber was nearly white,
clean and strong; the yield of air-dry, unbleached pulp was 72 per cent, calculated
on the cleaned material, and 56.88 per cent calculated on the original weight of
the rope.
Hapervment 2.—3.75 kilos (7.5 pounds) of rope prepared as above and 1.25
kilos (2.5 pounds) of new jute bagging were digested with 15.12 liters (4 gallons)
of calcium bisulphite liquor of 3.5 per cent total sulphurous acid content. A
maximum temperature of 145° C. was reached in less than two hours and
maintained for a total period of six hours. The pulp was clean, grayish and
long fibered.
The yield unbleached was as follows: Rope, 71.5 per cent; jute, 62.6 per cent. .
Experiment 3.—3.75 kilos (7.5 pounds) of rope of good quality which lost
approximately 10 per cent in cleaning and 1.25 kilos (2.5 pounds) of very old
jute bagging were digested with a bisulphite liquor of the following composition:
Per cent.
pro tales unl pO US Clie lease Te ee Ea en 3.55
Sulphurous acid combined as monosulphite.................----—- 1.365
Available acid
94 RICHMOND.
A maximum temperature of 150° was reached in one hour and maintained for
three hours—a total of four hours for the entire cook.
The yield was as follows: Rope fiber, 66.5 per cent; jute fiber, 56 per cent.
The chief features of the sulphite pulps made from Manila and jute stock are
the light, gray color to be obtained direct from the washing engine.
ABACA WASTE—SULPHITH DIGESTIONS.
Baled waste from hand-stripped Manila hemp from Albay Province
was thoroughly hand sorted and dusted to free it from coarse husks and
sand; at least 50 per cent of the original weight of the waste being
removed by this treatment. It was then cut to a suitable fineness (about
4 to 5 inch lengths) and closely packed into the digester, strong pressure
being used to hold the charge submerged in a small volume of liquor.
Four to five times its weight of liquor proved sufficient to pulp the
material under the conditions of the respective experiments outlined
below.
TaBLE No. 10.—Sulphite digestion of abaca waste.
;
Composition of the liquor. Duration of digestion.
Maximum |,,-
Exper- _ | Yield of un-
iment Time to temper bleached
No. Total Combined | Available | reach max- Total eotarnecl pulp.
SOp. SO. SOo. imum tem- time. 2
perature.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Hours. Hours. °C. Per cent.
1 3. 57 1.76 1.81 2 7 150 - 48.9
3. 34 1.30 2.04 2 5 140-145 47
3a 3. 40 1.50 1.90 ils 6 145 48.75
4 3.6 TD 2.40 b) 150 50. 76
| 5a 3. 5d 1.36 2.18 1 4 140 59. 2
aThe charges for experiments 3 and 5 consisted of 8 pounds of hemp waste and 1 pound of
jute bagging.
Remarks.—An ordinary bisulphite of lime and magnesia liquor, such
as is generally used in the manufacture of sulphite wood pulp, is ap-
plicable to this material.
The state of subdivision and the extremely porous nature of the waste,
allows of the heating of the boiler to the maximum temperature it is
desired to maintain in the shortest possible time, without danger of
burning the pulp.
Three to four hours’ digestion at temperatures ranging between 140°
and 150° C. will produce a strong, gray-colored stock which washes and
beats readily by the usual methods, but these conditions of time and
temperature do not dissolve all of the chaff and cellular matter present,
and the result is a rather poor appearance when the pulps are molded
into boards or sheets. The cellular matter remaining in the pulps is
nonfibrous and has no felting power, but it does possess a cementing
nature which adds to the strength of paper made from such half-stuff
and I do not think that it will be necessary to attempt to remove all of
the nonfibrous portions from hemp waste for the production of colored
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 95
or coated papers such as are used in the manufacture of heavy bags
which are filled but once and where strength is the important charac-
teristic desired.
The bale of waste upon which the above experiments were made is not
considered to be as clean and well sorted as it is possible to obtain this
material in practice, in fact I am informed that a much better grade is
now being collected and baled in considerable quantities in the provinces.
An average yield of approximately 50 per cent of strong-fibered stock
- was obtained in the sulphite digestions outlined above, and this is about
what may be expected from the best grades of waste it is possible to
obtain, if the baled stuff is thoroughly deviled before it is subjected to
any kind of chemical treatment.
General conclusions—First. It is essential that the material should be
clean and as free from foreign matter as mechanical cleaning processes
will make it.
Second. A preliminary steaming of the charge in the boiler before the
sulphite liquor is run in is advantageous mainly because it allows the
material to be tamped down and covered with a much smaller quantity
of liquor. Most of the materials treated are very bukly in the dry state
and sufficient liquor to cover is greatly in excess of the amount necessary
to do the work. The running in of cold water and allowing it to
discharge answers the purpose.
Third. Because of the finely divided and porous nature of such mater-
ials, no gradual rise of temperature up to the maximum to be carried is
necessary, as is true in treating dense, wood chips, but the digester may
be heated up to full pressure at once, thus saving three to four hours
in time.
Fourth. The stock is more easily washed and its color, as it appears
when it is taken direct from the washing engines, is fully as light as the
partially bleached lime or soda pulps made from this class of fibers, and
this fact should be strongly emphasized not only because of saving in
cost and of the time of a bleaching operation, but also because lignified
fibers such as hemp, jute, etc., are very susceptible to chlorination during
bleaching, and this seriously impairs the strength of the resulting stock.
I am not aware that sulphite jute or rope stock have ever been made
commercially, but I see no reason why such stock would not be superior
to that made by the old process, particularly as this class of fibers is
invariably used in the manufacture of low-white or coated products, in
which strength is the most important consideration, Mills running
on jute, rope, straw, ete., will readily see the advantage of employing a
process which cooks and bleaches a fiber in one operation, thus eliminat-
ing the losses of fiber and time incident to extra handling and excluding
the solvent action on the fiber which alkaline liquors are known to possess,
as well as the liability to deterioration in strength caused by poorly
conducted bleaching.
96 RICHMOND.
COMPARISON OF THE ACID AND ALKALINE PROCESSES OF PULP
MANUFACTURE.
Some of the points of superiority claimed for the acid or bisulphite
method of treatment are: greater yields, stronger fibers and greater
economy in the cost of chemicals consumed. The adherents of the older,
or alkaline method of treatment claim applicability to a wider range
of raw materials, greater ease of manipulation and economy in cost of
chemicals and time. There is no doubt but that greater yields and
stronger stock are obtained by the bisulphite process, for as it is strictly
a hydrolytic chemical reaction performed in a reducing atmosphere, the
possibilities of oxidation are excluded, and therefore no loss of cellulose
or weakening of the fiber results from this cause.
White pine wood, which is pulped by both processes, invariably in
commercial practice yields about 10 per cent more sulphite than soda
cellulose. Sulphite cellulose, in the common practice of blending dif-
ferent pulps to produce papers of certain qualities required by the trade,
is relied upon for the property which it possesses of giving strength to
the materials. —
That alkaline solutions exert a solvent action on vegetable fibers is well
known. Taus** in a series of carefully conducted experiments has shown
that purified cotton cellulose is attacked by alkalies at the high tempera-
tures and concentrations frequently employed for isolating paper cellulose
by the soda process, and assuming that a soft wood (pime wood) contains
54 per cent of cellulose and 46 per cent of other matter, the latter or 46
per cent will be dissolved after three hours of digestion with 3 per cent
caustic soda solution at a pressure of five to six atmospheres, but 70 per
cent of the. total cellulose and other matter would be dissolved with the
same strength of liquor in the same period if the digestion were to be
carried on at ten atmospheres, and approximately the same solvent action
is effected if the time (three hours) and the pressure (five atmospheres)
remain unchanged, but the strength of the alkaline liquor increased to
8 per cent. Now 8 per cent (12° Baumé) liquor is the rule rather than
the exception in the actual practice of soda wood pulp production, and
for the purpose of facilitating the mechanical loosening of the fibers and
of effecting solution of the noncellular incrusting matters in the shortest
possible time, pressures which are more nearly ten than five atmospheres
are also adopted. In my opinion more thorough and better methods of
preliminary preparation of woody tissue or of other raw cellular materials
will accomplish the same purpose with an improvement both in quantity
and quality of the resulting product. In all the experiments I have
recorded on both soda and sulphite digestion of wood, the method of
preparation—that is, the barking and chipping which are employed in
8 Dingler’s Polyt. Journ. (1890), 276, 411-428.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 97
actual practice—was followed, but repeated trials on wood in various
states of subdivision conclusively showed that it was possible to produce
an equivalent yield with a considerably weaker liquor in the same
time, by doubling the number of chips per given weight. While there
undoubtedly is a minimum limit beyond which wood could not safely be
divided without impairing the length and strength of the fibers, that
limit is by no means reached in present practice. Even the passing of
the green, chipped wood under heavy crushing rollers, a procedure
worked in some sulphite mills, is a very efficient means of mechanical
disintegration.
The method of preparing wood for sulphite digestion and the im-
provements in the operation itself have resulted in a great saving of the
time required for the digestions. It was usual, when the process was
first applied, to boil the pulp for twenty hours or more, but now fourteen
to sixteen hours, dependent upon the kind of wood and the quality of the
pulp desired, is the more common practice.
Much has been written regarding the relative cost of the two processes
of manufacture under discussion. Many factors enter into a calculation
of the comparative cost of producing soda and sulphite cellulose. How-
ever, the problem is an important one in the event of the introduction of
the industry in a new country and therefore it deserves some considera-
tion. Leaving out the initial expense of installation, which is un-
doubtedly greater for a sulphite than for a soda plant, it is proposed
briefly to discuss the relative cost of producing a ton of sulphite and soda
pulp from white lauan or mayapis wood, the local market quotations on
the chemicals required alone being considered.
Calculations for the production of 1 ton of sulphite pulp, based on
the use of a straight bisulphite of calcium liquor of 3.5 per cent total
sulphurous acid content and 1 per cent of lime, Japanese sulphur and
native lime being used, are as follows:
Fifteen per cent of sulphur recovered; 2 cords of wood give 1 ton (2,000 pounds)
of pulp; 8,399.16 liters (2,222 gallons) of liquor contain 295.3 kilograms (650
pounds) sulphurous acid, or 155.4 kilograms (341.88 pounds) of sulphur.*
Sulphur is caleulated at 2.75 cents per kilogram (1.25 cents
TEER of OY EUG |) toe ke se ne a ee $4.27
And 84.08 kilograms (185 pounds) lime, at 1.1 cents per
Kalognamin (Ol: eeu pers PpOUMG) 28-222 ee steak 92,
5-19
15 per cent of sulphur recovered—that is, 23.33 kilos (513
pounds ) —at 2.75 cents per kilo (1.25 cents per pound) -..__. .64
4.55
4 Ninety-five per cent of the sulphur burned being rendered available in the
form of sulphur dioxide.
54329——_2
98 RICHMOND.
The calculations for the production of 1 ton (2,000 pounds) of soda
pulp are based on the use of caustic soda made from imported soda ash
and native lime. They are as follows:
7,960 liters (2,000 gallons) of caustic liquor of a specific gravity of 1.06
(8° Baumé, 5.25 per cent of caustic soda) contains approximately 400 kilograms
(880 pounds) of alkali, which in turn requires for its manufacture:
300 kilos (660 pounds) lime, at 0.22 cent per kilo (0.5 cent
per spoumid). s2ic.. see SE oe Peak ESEII PEIN ee Pen ares $3.30
534 kilos (1,176 pounds) soda ash, at 0.4 cent per kilo (1 cent
POY POW)! sles s Fence. en cc scan eo ate ree 11.76
75 per cent of soda ash recovered as such, 400 kilos (882
pounds), at 0.4 cent per kilo (1 cent per pound)... 8.82
6.24
While the above estimates are but rough approximations, they are
to be considered as fairly conservative and they: serve to indicate the
cost of the crude chemicals actually consumed in the production of one
ton of sulphite and soda pulp respectively. It will be noted that
estimates for the sulphite liquor call for a consumption of 8,399 liters
(2,222 gallons) for 2 cords of chips. In our sulphite digestions we were
able to cover 4.54 kilos (10 pounds) of well-packed chips, previously
steamed, with 18.90 liters (5 gallons) of liquor; this is equivalent to the
above volume for 2 cords of the wood. However, in practice 9,450 liters
(2,500 gallons) of liquor are usually employed. The sulphite liquor in
the estimate and the one which was found to produce the best results in
our experiments had the following composition:
Per cent.
FAR Gea! Sligo Vatu tns Sea C1 CLs ee 3.5
Sulphurous acid combined, bisulphite of caleium.........---....--.-..-..- 2.28
Sulphurous acid free (in excess of the amount necessary to
TVA CTA NAN Eo SUT py Tee 1.22
DisBa ©1225 occ Se ee ec ae 1.00
In Germany, all acid in excess of that which is necessary to form the
monosulphite of calcium (CaSO,) is termed free acid; hence according to
the German system of nomenclature, the above liquor would contain:
? Per cent.
Combined: atid. x: ssc: eo ee ee 1.14
Hree or available acid :xc 2s eae ee ee a anes eee 2.36
Potala endl ese cco: ects ease aces eee ee ee - 3.50
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 99
PULP- AND PAPER-MAKING CHEMICALS.
The following chemicals, lime, sulphur, caustic soda, soda ash, chloride
of lime, kaolin, talc, gypsum, alum, etc., are largely consumed in the
manufacture of paper pulp, their use being dependent upon the chemical
process adopted for the conversion of raw fibrous material into paper
stock and the particular grades of the finished product it is desired to
make. ;
Lime.—Calcium oxide (CaO), commercially known as quick or caustic
lime, is undoubtedly the most universally used reagent in the prepara-
tion of chemical pulp. Its source is the limestone deposits so widely
distributed throughout the world. In the alkaline process of digestion,
lime finds extensive use, either as such or in combination with soda
ash for the preparation of caustic soda, when a more active alkaline
reagent is required. =
In the acid or bisulphite method of treatment, lime is the base most
generally employed in the preparation of the sulphite liquors, here again
it may either be used alone to form unmixed bisulphite of calcium liquors,
or in conjunction with magnesia derived from the magnesian limestone,
called dolomite.
A further use for lime in the paper industry is in the manufacture
of bleaching powder (chloride of lime) and it may be employed in the
form of the sulphate, as pearl hardening or as gypsum to furnish a
mineral loading material in certain grades of paper.
SuLpHur.—The principal sources of the world’s supply of sulphur
are found in Sicily, in Louisiana and Utah in the United States, and in
Japan. In the form in which it is brought on the market it is classified
according to its degree of fineness. A second or third grade, containing
one-half to one per cent of foreign matter and ash, is usually employed in
the preparation of sulphite liquors. Sulphur comes to the mills in
sacks or barrels and it is burned as needed, the sulphurous acid gas which
is formed either being passed into water containing the lime in solution
or suspension, or through a long vertical column of coarse limestone or
dolomite, sprinkled with water.
CAUSTIC SODA AND SODA ASH.—Caustic soda (NaOH) and soda ash
(Na,CO,) appear on the market in different states of purity, their value
depending on the amount of alkali (Na,O) present. The grades which
find most general use among paper makers are 78 per cent caustic soda
and 48 per cent ash.
The present market quotations are as follows:
Caustic soda (78 per cent), per cwt......-2- ee $1.75-1.85
Soda ash (48 per cent), per cwt.. .75-_ .80
The duty on these chemicals on entering the port of Manila is 25 cents per
100 kilos (220 pounds) gross weight. (Philippine Customs Tariff, Par. 93.)
LOO RICHMOND.
BLEACHING PowDER (chloride of lime) is valued on its content of
available chlorine; it is somewhat unstable and it readily deteriorates in
strength on exposure to heat, air and moisture. When freshly prepared
it contains about 40 per cent of available chlorme. Analyses of several
samples of bleaching powder purchased in the Manila market have shown
a strength of less than 30 per cent in every instance. In view of this loss
which bleaching powder undergoes during long periods of transit, it is
questionable whether it would not be more economical to import the
liquid chlorine and manufacture bleaching powder here as needed.
The older method of gas bleaching, making use of chlorine in the
gaseous form, was displaced by the use of chlorine in combination with
lime because of the simplicity and ease of control of the operation with
the latter, but with bleaching powder at $1.25 per hundredweight and
because of its arrival in Manila at a point nearer 20 than 30 per cent in
strength, it could not compete with liquid chlorine at its present market
quotations.
About one-half of the world’s output of bleaching powder is prepared
from chlorine made by electrolyzing crude salt. Crude salt from sea-
water evaporation is both cheap and plentiful.
MINERAL FILLERS.—Nearly all kinds of paper contain varying amounts
of some form of mineral matter. These are added to the pulp in the
beating engines for the purpose of increasing the weight, filling up the
pores and imparting a better feel and appearance to the finished sheet.
The substances best suited for these purposes are certain grades of
‘clay, sulphate of calcium, talc, gypsum, barytes, etc. They should be
of light specific gravity, free from grit and should be white, showing a
low content of iron and organic impurities.
The Mining Division of the Bureau of Science submits the following
data concerning the local supply of crude chemicals, their cost and
availability :
Limestonr.—The sources of supply of burned lime for Manila are
(a) the limestone quarries near Binangonan on Laguna de Bay in
Rizal Province and (b) a coral limestone from marine shells burned
near Malabon on Manila Bay.
(a) The quarries at Binangonan have a present annual output of
about 600 tons, mostly of water-slaked lime which is sold in Manila for
making mortar. This lime can be obtained fresh burned when it is
needed, as is the general custom throughout the Archipelago. The
product is a very fat lime, which swells when it is slaked to about three
times its original volume. The lime is valued at Binangonan in propor-
tion to its content of calcium oxide. The present prices are as follows:
Quick lime, per cavan (about 80 pounds) .......--..---2..-.----2--------- 1.35
Slaked lime, per cavan (about 80 pounds) -......-..-..-2.-22-22----------- 45
The transportation charges from Binangonan to Manila are #0.15 per
cavan, which make the prices in Manila #1.50 and #0.60 per cavan for
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 101
the quick and slaked lime, respectively. As there is a profit in this of
about #0.60 per cavan for quick lime and #0.17 for slaked lime, it will
be seen that if the consumer were to burn his own lime, under present
conditions it would cost about #0.90 per cavan of 80 pounds in Manila.
This is one cent Philippine currency or one-half cent United States
currency per pound. This rate is.excessive, but it is obtained under
conditions of manufacture and transportation which are of the crudest
description. With a modern plant, running under favorable conditions
as regards quarrying, fuel and labor, I can see no reason why quick lime
should cost more that one-half of this figure.
-(b) At Malabon about 600 tons of slaked lime are also produced
annually. This, like other lime obtained along the shores of marine
waters, is derived from coral. It is produced at Malabon for #0.25 per
cavan, and it costs ®0.38 per cavan in Manila. The greater part of it
is used for mortar and whitewash. Other points near Manila where
lime is being burned are Malolos, Angat and Baliuag in Bulacan Province
and at Sexmoan and Guagua in Pampanga. In general, a limestone
belt extends from Binangonan in Rizal Province north through Bulacan
and into the Province of Nueva Ecija. The Cabanatuan branch of
the Manila and Dagupan Railroad runs nearly parallel to it and
through the towns where quarries are at present situated and it is firmly
believed that a practically unlimited supply of good lime will readily
be available for economic use when the occasion demands. Other local-
ities upon which definite information is at hand concerning the extent
of the deposits of limestone and their accessibility include the islands”
_ of Batan, Romblon, Cebu and Panay. The limestone deposits of Batan
Island are particularly of interest from the standpoint of their use in
the manufacture of paper, because of their proximity to the coal fields
and also because of their location with respect to the most promising
available supplies of raw material, namely the Manila hemp growing
districts.
An exceptionally pure lmestone is found in northern Panay, out-
cropping in large masses on both banks of the Badbaran River between
Dumarao and Maabutang and also about 4 miles from the former place,
which lies on the line of the proposed railroad from Iloilo to Capiz.
Old lime-kilns used by the Spaniards for burning this stone are near
by. This limestone is cream colored, compact and semi-crystalline,
with a low iron and silica content. A large deposit of very pure lime-
stone occurs near Pilar on the north coast of Panay, it is very similar
In appearance to the other Panay limestone which has just been described,
and it should prove well fitted for the manufacture of quick lime. It is
situated in the center of a large mangrove forest from which any quantity
of cheap fuel could be obtained, and being close to the sea the problem
of transportation is minimized.
102 RICHMOND.
The following table gives the results of analyses of some Philippine
limestones :
TABLE No. 11.—Analyses of some Philippine limestones (calculated to calcined material).
il, 2. 3. 4. }. 6. ie 8. os 10, 11.
Siliea (SiO.)_---- 1.06 | 2.19} 0.49] 1.55] 0.89] 2.49) 0.37] 0.57} 1.15] 0.62] 0.01
| Tron (Fe,O3) ----- 29 24 38 . 82 .39 -90 | 1.25 26 67 84 29
Lime (CaO) __--- 94.80 | 94.24 | 98.12 | 96.34 | 97.41 | 94.62 | S6.88 | 97.00 | 96.92 | 95.91 | 97.39
Magnesia (MgO)-_| 1.96) 2.44 798) | 127; -48 21 72 | 1.40} 1.24 -o1 | 2.39
Note.—Numbers 1] and 2 are from Anabang near Angat and from Santa Mar-
garita Springs respectively, both in Bulacan Province, Luzon; 3 and 4 are from
the quarries near Binangonan, Rizal Province, Luzon; 5 and 6, from Batan
Island near Legaspi, Albay Province, Luzon; 7 and 8 are taken from near
Dumarao and Pilar, Capiz Province, Panay; 9 is a coral limestone from Malabon
on Manila Bay; 10, a suitable causticizing lime; 11, a suitable liquor-making lime.
LOADING MATERIALS.
Kaolin.—While but little prospecting work has been done on the
clay deposits of the Philippines, there seems little doubt but that the
supply which may be obtained is so extensive that the question of
importing this crude chemical will never arise. A general inquiry con-
cerning Philippine clay deposits for the purpose of establishing a school
for pottery making has been begun by the Bureau of Education and a
systematic study of the physical and chemical properties of various clays
for different economic uses is under way in this Bureau at the present
time. Below is given the chemical composition of some clays from
Laguna Province and from the Island of Romblon:
Tas iE No. 12.—Chemical composition of some clays from Laguna Province and from the
Island of Romblon.
1 2 3 4 A. B Cc D
Moisture, loss at 100°-110°__} 0.30 10.15 7.09 | 9.10 1.60 1, 24 2.66 | 0.63
Loss on ignition__--_________ 12,27 10.77 11.27 | 12.79 12.56 | 12.67 | 138.50 | 13.78
Silica (SiO2)-----------__--_ 47,56 42.77 43.50 | 41.16 44.30 | 45.24 | 44.15 | 47.76
Aluminia (Al,03) ---------- 38.12 33. 48 35.48 | 35. 84 38.64 | 37.59 | 36.54 | 37.04
Ferric oxide (Fe:Q3)------- 0. 08 1, 04 Trace. - 67 . 83 1.00 1.04 .75
Tyyban® (OLNO)) 2a see 39 1. 61 17 42 .39 . 66 15 . 06
Magnesia (MgQ) —---------- 0.0 -16 41 . 02 i: A ae epee (eee oy .14
Alkalis (Na,O, Ko0)_-----_- 1.28 sili D508) | eet 1.18 | 1.69 .98 | .52
Specific gravity --__-_- ____ 2.8625 | 2.5585 |_________ 2, 5451 DAG Ts aca oon |S ae 2. 46
Nore.—Numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 are taken from Griffin and Little, as suitable
clays for paper makers; A, B, and C are Philippine clays from Laguna Province;
D is from Romblon.
% Chem. Paper Making: (1894) 316.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 103
Agalite, or ground talc, as it is commonly termed, has come into
extensive use as a mineral filler in paper manufacture. Like asbestos,
it has a distinct fibrous structure which causes it to blend well with the
vegetable fiber of the pulp and thus to be retained without the consid-
erable loss incidental to the use of china clay or sulphate of lime for
this purpose. The more valuable tale for paper loading consists of
altered tremolite, the fibrous structure of which is largely retained.
According to the statistics of the New York State Geological Survey
for 1905, there were produced 67,000 short tons of fibrous tale, valued
at $469,000, or an average of $7 per ton. Practically the entire output
finds its way to the paper mills. Tremolite from Ilocos Norte, Luzon,
was examined in the Division of Chemistry, Bureau of Science. It
consisted of irregular, foliated masses of a beautiful greenish-white tint.
Ground in a ball-mill and then passed through a sieve of 100 meshes
it is a greenish-white impalpable powder with a very soapy feel. It
appears as minute, elongated crystals or fibers when seen under the
microscope. Its chemical composition, compared with: that of a com-
mercial tale, is as follows:
; Specific
(ocson | Silica |Alumina) PStG¢ | Lime |Magnesial gravity
ignition),| (S!02)- | (Als02). | (Re,0,), | (C80). | (MEO). | (Joly.
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Ilocos Norte altered tre- ;
MOLE! Sess 22s esse 2.33 57. 62 1. 66 1.36 13. 38 24.18 2. 84
Apaliiene te i< i eseseoc== 2. 67 61. 82 1.59 3.65 29.98 | 2.6-2.8
The specimen which was examined, when judged by its physical prop-
erties, would be considered of very good quality for the purpose of the
paper manufacturer. It is easily ground, is of good color and is
especially free from grit.
No definite figures with respect to the extent of the deposit can be
given. However, it has the advantage of being situated near the sea
and development work should show large pockets of tale in connection
with mica.
Sulphur and pyrites—Although sulphur is found widely distributed
throughout the Philippine Archipelago, careful search has failed to
locate any deposits of commercial importance. The most favorable out-
look for native sulphur is from near Barauen in Leyte and from the
Island of Biliran, which, on superficial examination, show 3,000 and
400 tons of sulphur in sight, respectively, but both these deposits are
too small to warrant the necessary cost of extraction and transportation.
Pyrites——The only deposit of this mineral of any extent and so far
reliably reported, is in Lepanto Province, and here again the question
of transportation, for the present at least, throws it out of reckoning as
a commercial possibility.
104 RICHMOND.
Japanese sulphur.—The nearest and no doubt cheapest source of a
supply of sulphur for industrial use in the Philippines, is Japan. The
output of the Japanese sulphur mines for 1904 was 20,000 tons. About
three-fourths of the total product is exported, the United States of
America and Australia being the chief consumers. Recent quotations
are $17.50 a ton for the best grades and $15.50 for seconds and thirds.
As the yield of sulphur from Japanese ore is probably the highest in
the world, this cost will allow it to be laid down in Manila, duty prepaid,
at a price but slightly if any in advance of the market quotations on
American sulphur. The fact that Japanese sulphur enters the United
States in competition with the home product bears out the above state-
ment. Five samples of Japanese refined sulphurs submitted by the
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha were found to assay from 99.3 to 99.82 per cent in
extremes of fineness.
FUEL.
Coal of a fairly uniform quality is found widely distributed through-
out the Islands. The largest known deposits are located on the Islands
of Batan, Cebu and Polillo, but it also occurs in greater or less quantities
in Negros, Mindanao, Samar, Masbate, Mindoro, and in the Provinces
of Rizal and Nueva Viscaya on Lizon.
Recent work ** in this Bureau on the Philippine Coals has shown that
they are of much better quality for steaming purposes than was hitherto
supposed, and that the poorer grades are very satisfactory from the
standpoint of producer gas manufacture.‘* For more detailed accounts
of the distribution and fuel properties of Philippine coals, see The Coal
Deposits of Batan Island *® and The Coal Measures of the Philippines.*°
Wood for fuel is both cheap and abundant in many localities. The
principal source of firewood is found in the widely distributed man-
grove swamps of the seacoast. The mangrove forests are composed of
a number of trees which produce dye and tan barks for local use and in
which there is some trade. Work on Philippine mangrove tan barks is
in progress in this Bureau and it is belheved that they will compare
favorably with the similar species which are handled commercially in
Africa, Borneo, Java and elsewhere. An exploitation of mangrove tan
bark will materially increase the available supply of cheap fuel for lime
burning and other industrial purposes.
Oil for fuel—The possibility of the use of oil as fuel in the Philip-
pines is as yet uncertain, although a small quantity of oil is known
to exist in Tayabas Province, Luzon, and gas has been encountered in
drilling artesian wells in Pampanga Province.
Cox, A. J.: This Journal (1907) 11, 41.
18 Cox, A. J.: Ibid. (1906) 1, 877.
* Smith, D. D.: Phil. Mining Bureau Bul. Manila (1905) No. 5.
~» Burrett, C. H.: U. 8. War Dept., Div. Ins. Affairs, Bul. (1901).
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 105
PAPER MILL WATER.
Large quantities of water are required in the manufacture of pulp and
paper, and its quality is of the first importance. In no other industry
making use of large quantities of water in the processes of manufacture,
is the purity of the water more carefully guarded. A soft water is not
demanded for making the liquors used in the boiling of stock, because it is
necessarily rendered hard in the operation. For washing the pulp and
for steam-making purposes a soft water is desirable and even necessary.
The importance of using a very soft water in the other departments of
paper manufacture is perhaps overestimated. It is of more concern that
the water be clear and especially free from iron, sediment and organic
matter. A factory making use of the waters of small streams will be
troubled by turbidity during the rainy season of the year. A _ better
source would be in wells or reservoirs fed by pure water brought by
conduits from mountain streams. Artesian wells furnish the greater
supply of water in use here at the present time for boilers and industrial
purposes.
A series of fifty-two analyses of the Manila city water supply, extend-
ing over a period of seven months and representing portions of both the
dry and rainy seasons gave the following extremes in parts per million :**
Maximum. Minimum.
PRO calle STCey es ees ete toe owe eh ee 220 153
[ECT ESIC Carers te ta rae ae, eee ee 190 127
Vio lattlopmaatten peek ee een ae eee ee 46 16
OX Ser CONS UIC desea nee ee ee 2.20 65
(CUAMIOERUTVEY, ee eo a eae ee 4.40 2.13
FEV ea aT CS She eee ce eee Pee Soe mt ire Be Ps Ses ses 109 58.8
Remarks.—The above analyses?* were made on unfiltered water and
they show a high degree of purity. The oxygen consuming power,
equivalent to bleach consuming power, is remarkably low. The source
of this supply is the Mariquina River which empties into the Pasig River
between Manila Bay and Lake Laguna.
The mineral constituents of a water affect its value for paper or pulp
manufacture mainly as they bear upon its suitability for boiler purposes.
Philippine ground and surface waters as a class are considered to be
moderately hard.
While none of the boiler waters which were examined contain sulphate
of calcium, some of them have a high silica content which forms a
troublesome scale. ; ;
A table of analyses of boiler waters collected from various provinces
and islands of the Archipelago is given on page 106.
* Parts: per millonX0.058—erains per United States gallon.
2 Bliss, C. L.; Publications of the Bureau of Government Laboratories (1904)
No. 20.
RICHMOND.
106
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PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 107
WATER POWER.
Abundance of water power in the past has been a more important
factor in determining the location of paper mills than the nearness to
the source of raw materials or to the market. At the present time this
applies more particularly to plants producing mechanical or ground wood
pulp. Steam is necessary for the manufacture of chemical pulp as it is
used for heating the digesters and it also furnishes a much more efficient
and easily controlled power for running paper mill machinery. There
is an abundance of water power in the Philippines, but the cost of
installing plants and their location with respect to the commercial
centers precludes its utilization at the present time.
MARKETS.
The market in the Philippines.—The first consideration of the new
industry would manifestly be to supply the home market with those
grades of paper for which the raw materials are best suited. The annual
imports of paper of all kinds into the Philippine Islands approximates
$1,000,000 in value and the demand for newspapers, magazines and
books is multiplying yearly. This increased demand is but the natural
result of the growth of the public school system throughout the Islands,
which creates a greater desire for the knowledge of Western countries.
. The main items of the total importation are pulp, writing, printing and
wrapping papers, all of which could largely be produced from native raw
materials. The local supply of cotton and linen rags could be drawn upon
for the finer grades of writing and note paper. No other city of its size
in the world is so large a consumer of cotton and linen textiles as Manila.
For the greater part, these are bleached and unadulterated with woolen
fiber, so that the very best grade of paper rags could no doubt be collected
here in considerable quantities.
The foreign market—Japan is a large importer of paper, approx-
imately $2,750,000 in value having been brought into that country in
1905. Japanese paper is principally made from rice straw and from the
bark of the mulberry, but the demand for wood pulp has increased so
greatly in the last four or five years that the Japanese Government has
begun a systematic study of the suitability of Japanese timber for the
purpose of manufacturing this article.
In China, the trade in paper has also attained considerable dimensions,
statistics for 1905 showing importations approximating $2,000,000 in
value. Foreign capital has recently entered the field for the purpose of
manufacturing paper from bamboo, rice straw, etc., so as to meet the
rapidly growing trade. The nearness of both the Chinese and Japanese
markets should enable Philippine manufacturers to obtain at least a
share of the trade in this commodity. ;
108 RICHMOND.
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND AVAILABILITY OF THE
RAW MATERIALS WHICH WERE DISCUSSED IN THE ENTIRE SERIES OF
ARTICLES ON THIS SUBJECT.
MANILA HEMP (ABACA) WASTE.
A considerable quantity of Manila hemp waste has been exported from
the Islands since my work on the suitability of this material for paper
making was published; thus the problems incident to its collection, cur-
ing, sorting, baling and transportation are being solved by the com-
mercial interests involved. It remains to be seen whether the costs of
baling and transporting large quantities of waste from the abaca grow-
ing districts to Manila and thence to New York or London will allow of
this material being economically exported. Fundamentally, it is contrary
to commercial practice to attempt to export such a cheap and bulky
commodity for long distances, particularly when only about 40 per cent
of a given weight is of any value for the purpose for which it is intended.
It is self-evident that if this raw material were pulped on or near the
place where it is produced, the reduction in the cost of baling and
shipping would allow a more attractive price to be paid for the material
itself, and better methods of curing and sorting could be inaugurated.
In my opinion the reduction in cost of freight and handling incident
to placing abaca waste half-stuff on a foreign market, thus allowing a
greater outlay in properly preparing the waste for the digestion process,
is certain to bring better results if the quality of the resulting product
alone is considered, than would the exportation of the raw product. To
pulp the waste here for subsequent exportation would effect a reduction
of 50 per cent in freights alone. The initial cost and daily running
expenses of an hydraulic baling press would nearly offset the cost of
equipment for a pulp mill of 10 tons daily capacity.
COGON GRASS.*
Distribution—The following data with reference to cogon grass are
taken from a report of observations on paper materials in Tarlac made by
myself while traveling over that province in December, 1906. Cogon
of good quality is found between Capas and Concepcion, Tarlac Province,
Luzon; the country is level, consisting for the most part of deserted rice
and sugar lands which contain some scattering scrub timber. A good
road of 7 miles, with but one ford, connects the two places. The two
erasses, cogon and taldhib, are almost invariably found together, the
predominance of one over the other depending upon the altitude, the
talahib being more plentiful m low places. At this season of the year
talahib has flowered and is rapidly drying and becoming worthless.
*8 See Richmond, Geo. F.: This Journal (1906), 1, for the discussion of cogon
and talahib as materials for paper making.
PHILIPPINE FIBERS. 109
Cogon being partially protected from the sun by the taller talahib is
more green and thrifty.
From Capas to O’Donnell the road runs 10 miles to the west, slightly
up grade but fairly level; the region is entirely uncultivated; it is too
high for rice and too poor for sugar; much grass grows everywhere, but
it is of an inferior grade, due to lateness of the season.
There is a good bull-cart road for about 7 miles east from the town of
Tarlac in the direction of La Paz; the country is level, the first 3 miles
being under cultivation in rice; a mile of quite dense woodland occurs
and then 3 miles of uncultivated country follows, covered with a good
quality of grass. The country is more rolling and hilly from Tarlac west-
ward in the direction of Moriones, with grass everywhere, pure in the
valleys but contaminated with buffalo grass on the hills. The natives
informed me that cogon, called iib in Pampanga, is not eaten by horses
and cattle, but that they do forage on the young shoots of talahib.
Practically all the houses in Tarlac Province, with the exception of
those in the towns on the railroad, are constructed of cogon. Talahib is
scarcely ever used for this purpose, but the latter finds some employ-
ment in the construction of fences for yard and garden inclosures. I
observed large stacks of cogon in the various barrios. The natives know
when and how to harvest this grass, having learned this because nipa is
too expensive for general use as a roofing material in all localities distant
from the tide water. Too much stress can not be laid upon the fact that
the people who must be depended upon to supply the demand for this
grass for any future economic use, are already familiar with its habits
of growth and the best methods of harvesting and curing it, and although
the present employment of this material for house thatching is general
throughout the Archipelago, yet the amount so used amounts to but
a small fraction of the quantity which could be obtained under systematic
methods of collection.
In my opinion it is absolutely out of the question to cut the grass by
machinery in Tarlac Province and it is not advisable to bale it where it
grows. If cut with sickles or short grass scythes and tied into bundles
of about 20 pounds each, it is easily handled. One day in the sun is
sufficient to cure the grass, then it may be loaded on carts and hauled to
the railroad station. One native draft animal will haul 500 to 750
kilos (1,100 to 1,650 pounds) of rice and this weight of grass bundles
is not too bulky for the carts now in use, if they are supplied with some
kind of a bamboo rack. J have frequently seen ton lots of clean grass
tied in many neat bundles 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) in
diameter stored under roofs for future use.
The effect of decreased bulk upon freight rates up or down the road to
the factory site would determine whether straw presses should be located
at points on the railroad. I believe that it would be perfectly feasible to
110 RICHMOND.
collect this grass in car lots at several places along the main and branch
lines of the Manila and Dagupan Railway; for instance at Capas and.
Tarlac the surrounding grass lands are tapped for from 5 to 10 miles each
in two directions by fair roads at the season of the year when the grass
is at its best, and before it is dry enough to be fired. One plan would
be to erect bamboo framed storehouses with iron roofs near the freight
tracks at these stations, for the storage of the grass as it is hauled in
from the surrounding country.
Cogon grass is abundant and of good quality in the Visayan Islands.
Thousands of acres of rolling lands are covered with even stands of tall,
thrifty, cogon grass in Masbate and on the Island of Burias. Here the
lay of the land is such that heavy draft mowing machinery could be used
to advantage.
A practical phase of the utilization of Philippine perennial grasses
would be in the material benefit to the forests, as the protection and
cutting of the grass areas would greatly décrease the annual loss of
forests by fire.
Cogon grass is not jointed like the cereal straws, which constitutes a
great advantage in its use for paper pulp; its yield is 5 to 10 per cent
higher than that of the latter, it is more easily pulped with the use of a
less proportion of caustic soda. Another advantage is that in general,
plants which are designed for fiber production should be harvested before
the stems are fully mature; this is impossible when the plant is grown
for production of grain, as is the case where straw, hemp, flax, etc., are
utilized. :
I have been asked what price could be offered for cogon grass as a paper
material. This is very difficult even to approximate. It depends largely
upon whether the grass were to be pulped and manufactured into paper
for local consumption, or simply pulped for exportation, m which latter
event it would have to enter in competition with chemical wood pulp.
The average price paid for American pulp wood in 1905 was #11.10 per
cord ($5.55 United States currency).
*
BAcoN: CRATER LAKHS OF TAAL. ] [PHin. Journ. Sct., Vou. II, No. 2.
Fic. 2.
PLATE Iv.
-
2
v
;
{
BAcoN: CRATER LAKES OF TAAL.]
[PuHru. Journ. Scr., Vou. II, No. 2.
Fic. 1.
Fic. 3.
Fic. 2.
PLATE v.
BAcoN: CRATER LAKES OF TAAL.] [Pain JOURN. Sci, Vou. Li, No.2:
Fic. 1. Fic. 2.
Fic. 3.
PLATE VI.
CATALYSIS BY MEANS OF URANIUM SALTS IN THE
SUNLIGHT.
By RayMonp Foss Bacon.
(From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.)
A few experiments were uhdertaken on the catalyzing effects of
uranium salts in sunlight in conjunction with the study of the radio- -
activity of the waters from Taal volcano, described in the preceding paper.
Seekamp ‘ a great many years ago demonstrated that uranium salts acted
as catalyzers in decomposing oxalic acid in the sunlight, but the same
effect was not produced in the dark, even at 100°. The products of the
_ catalysis were carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water and formic acid;
on substituting succinic acid, Seekamp obtained propionic acid and
carbon dioxide. Since the discovery of radium and of its capability of
powerfully catalyzing many chemical actions, it becomes interesting to
ascertain whether the catalytic action of uranium salts in the sunlight
may not be due to the fact that uranium is one of the elements which
forms radium and whether its power of catalyzing may not in some man-
ner be connected with its radio-activity. As the sunlight of the Tropics
afforded an exceptionally favorable opportunity, the following experi-
ments were undertaken with the view of proving or disproving this
supposition.
The apparatus consisted of a 100 cubic centimeter, graduated Ehrlenmeyer
flask and a eudiometer. The flask was tightly closed with a well-fitting rubber
stopper, through which a glass tube passed to the eudiometer. The gas was
collected over the water. Two or more such flasks were usually placed in the
sunlight simultaneously, and the time necessary to collect a certain number of
cubic centimeters of gas was noted.
The fundamental experiment was instituted to give a comparison of
the rate at which a certain quantity of uranium salt would act as a
catalyser of oxalic acid, when it was compared with pitchblende contain-
ing the same amount of uranium, pitchblende being over five times as
radio-active—measured by the electrical method—as the uranium salt.
It would follow from this that, if radio-activity had any connection with
the catalytic process, the rate of gas formation with pitchblende would
be very much more rapid than it would be with uranium salt.
A few experiments were first made in the apparatus with oxalic acid
alone, 5 grams being used in each instance, and it was found that sunlight
14m. Chem. (Liebig), (1862) 122, 113; (1865) 133, 253.
54329——_4 129
130 BACON.
decomposes pure oxalic acid so slowly, as compared with the speed of the
reaction with uranium salts, that the autodecomposition may be alto-
gether neglected in the present series of experiments.
This result is in accord with those obtained by Richardson * who found that
oxalic acid is only slowly decomposed by sunlight even at 0°, to form carbon mo-
noxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. The reaction does not take place
under the red rays of the spectrum alone; sterilization has no effect, so that micro-
organisms take no part in it, although it is known that certain microérganisms
decompose oxalic acid under proper conditions, to give carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and water. No hydrogen peroxide is formed in the dark, even if oxygen
is present. Dilute sulphuric acid does not decompose oxalic acid in the absence
of light, as was proved by drawing air for seven days through a solution of the
acid and into one of barium hydroxide, the oxalic acid being kept at 70° to 80°.
Dilute sulphuric acid accelerates the decomposition of oxalic acid in the sunlight,
for, in seven days, 0.06 gram of carbon dioxide was obtained from 5 grams of
oxalic acid.
The reactions catalyzed by uranium salts are in the great majority of
cases well known, taking place with extreme slowness when no catalyzer
is present.
‘Experiment 1—August 22. Direct sun from 2 to 2.45 p. m. To determine
the effect of varying quantities of uranium salts on the speed of the reaction.
Quantities in cubic centimeters.
(a) 5 grams oxalic acid.
2.2245 grams crystallized uranium acetate (Kahlbaum).
100 cubic centimeters water.
(b) 5 grams oxalic acid.
1.1386 grams uranium acetate.
-- 100 cubie centimeters water.
(a) (b)
45 40
When placed in diffused light in the laboratory (a@) gave no more gas (b)
gave 2 cubic centimeters. ;
Experiment 2.—August 30. Both flasks (a) and (6b) were left in partial
sunlight for fifteen minutes. One cubic centimeter of gas had collected in each
one. On placing the flasks in the diffused light of the laboratory, gas continued
to be formed for two hours, the amount being 12 cubic centimeters and 7 cubic
centimeters, respectively, for (a) and (b). After placing a solution in the
sunlight it takes some time for the reaction to attain its maximum rate, a fact
which has often been noted concerning it. An oxalic acid solution containing
uranium salts gives no gas, even at 100°, if it is kept in the dark.
Experiment 3—The solutions (a) and (b) were the same; the number of
cubic centimeters of gas obtained from the two solutions in the same length of
time and under the same conditions of sunlight were:
(@) (0)
33 28
10 11
17 12
13 10.5
33 28
2 J. Chem. Soc. (1894) 65, 451.
CATALYSIS. 131
It is therefore evident that the relative amounts of uranium salt only slightly
affect the speed of the reaction.
Haperiment 4.—Two cubie centimeters of concentrated nitric acid added to
(6). Quantities in cubic centimeters.
(@) (b)
32 27
16 11.5
Haperiment 5.—Two quantities of solution (a) were compared with a solution
containing 5 grams of oxalic acid and 2 grams of pitchblende, dissolved in the
smallest possible quantity of nitric acid. The solution containing pitchblende (6)
decomposed the oxalic acid at one half the rate of (a).
Haperiment 6.—
(a) 5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(6) 5 grams oxalic acid.
2 grams thorium nitrate.
100 cubie centimeters water.
In one hour and thirty minutes in sunlight, each gave 0.5 cubic centimeter gas.
The thorium nitrate was but slightly dissolved and the solution was very milky
in appearance. :
Experiment 7.—To each of solutions (@) and (b) from experiment 6, 5 cubic
centimeters of concentrated nitric acid was added partially to dissolve the salt
of thorium, the time in sunlight being two hours. Quantities in cubic centimeters.
(a) (0)
1.2 14
As the thorium salt is only slightly dissolved, this fact may have rendered
the reaction in (6) slower than it otherwise would be, but nevertheless it is
interesting to note that the radio-active thorium salts catalyze a solution of oxalic
acid.
Experiment 8—It was thought that possibly the increased rate of reaction
observed in (b), experiment 7, might be ascribed to the action of finely divided
particles of thorium nitrate as catalyzers. Hence, two flasks were prepared each
containing 5 grams of oxalic acid dissolved in 100 cubic centimeters of water. To
one of these freshly precipitated barium sulphate was added; to the other, finely
ground silica, but no gas was obtained in either flask, even in the sunlight.
Haperiment 9.—October 22, p. m.
(a) 4.31 grams pitchblende from Joachimsthal, containing 1.126
grams uranium dissolved in 5 cubic centimeters of con-
centrated nitric acid.
5 grams oxalie¢ acid.
100 cubie centimeters water.
(0) 2 grams uranium acetate containing 1.126 grams uranium.
5 cubic centimeters concentrated nitric acid.
5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubic centimeters water.
Quantities in cubic centimeters.
Time. (a) (b)
3.25 to 3.40 5.5 0.5
3.40 to 3.55 19.0 1.0
132 BACON.
October 23, a. m. The tubes were now placed in the laboratory in diffused
light; the next morning at 7.50 the reading was—
(a) (b)
35.0 6.0
At 8 a. m. they were again placed in the sunlight.
Time. (a) (b)
8.00 to 8.20 18 33
8.20 to 8.30 35 12
8.30 to 8.38 12 17
8.38 to 8.45 25 40
8.48 to 8.56 10 31
8.59 to 9.14 25 40
9.16 to 9.30 26 36
9.32 to 9.44 22 38
9.46 to 9.56 22 38
9.59 to 10.12 22 37
10.14 to 10.25 22 36
10.27 to 10.43 22 36
10.45 to 10.59 25 38
11.01 to 11.12 24 38
11.42 to 11.58 25 40
October 23, p. m. The tubes stood in the diffused light of the laboratory
from 12.00 to 1.00.
(a) (b)
8.5 24.5
Therefore (a) in two hundred and forty-five minutes gave 297 cubic centimeters
of gas, as compared with 561 cubic centimeters obtained from (6). The solution
containing the pitchblende had the greater initial velocity which may possibly be
due to the presence of iron salts, because the latter at first markedly catalyze solu-
tions of oxalic acid, as is shown by later experiments given below, but radio-
activity would seem to have little or no influence on the rate of the reaction, a
conclusion which is confirmed by other experiments of the same character; the
solution derived from pitchblende always exhibiting a slower rate than the ones
containing uranium salts.
Experiment 10.—October 24, p. m.
(a) 1 gram ferric chloride (sublimed).
5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(6) 5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubic centimeters water.
Picric acid added sufficient to give a color as nearly as
possible like that of the uranium acetate solution used
in (b), experiment 9.
.
Time. (a) (b)
1.25 to 2.15 40 0.5
2.26 to 3.20 40 0.5
The next morning the two tubes were place in sunlight at 8.00 a. m.
(a) (b)
At noon 2 0.7
CATALYSIS. b33
This result is characteristic of iron salts when they are used as
catalyzers in decomposing solutions of oxalic acid; at first the reaction
proceeds quite rapidly, but it becomes slower until finally it is almost
imperceptible.
Solution (b) was colored as given above because it was thought that
perhaps the color of the uranium solution might have some connection
with the absorption of the energy of the sunlight and consequently with
the catalysis. ‘This idea was especially suggested because ferric chloride,
which also acts as a catalyzer in this reaction, is likewise yellow. Another
solution, colored yellow with aniline yellow (Griibler & Co.) likewise
gave negative results.
It was thought that possibly the ionization of the oxalic acid or of the
water might be increased in the sunlight, and that this change in
conditions might have an effect on the reaction. Nichols and Merritt *
have recently demonstrated that fluorescent solutions conduct the current
better in the sunlight than in the dark. Fluorescent substances absorb
light and do not follow Kirchoff’s law; nonfluorescent substances do not
increase the conductivity in sunlight. The amount of fluorescence and
conductivity are proportional to one another. Unfortunately, the original
paper is not accessible to me, so that I was not able to follow the
experimental methods employed by the authors, but I measured con-
ductivities of boiling uranium solutions in the sunlight and in the dark
in the usual Kohlrausch cell. No difference could be detected between
the sunlight and darkness. I also studied the speed of hydrolysis of
ethyl acetate by water at a boiling temperature in the sunlight and in
darkness. No increase in the ionization of water in the sunlight could
be detected by this method, nor does sunlight have any effect on the
speed of esterification of ethyl acetate from glacial acetic acid and
alcohol.
Experiment 10.—p. m.
(a) 1 gram ferric chloride sublimed.
5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(6b) 2 grams ferric chloride sublimed.
5 grams oxalic acid.
100 cubie centimeters water.
Time. (a) (b)
2.10 to 3.00 13 40
3.02 to 3.25 es 40
3.30 to 3.53 20 33
® Phys. Rev. (1905) 19, 396.
134 BACON.
No gas collected when the solutions were left standing over night. Both were
heated to 100° in the morning and then placed in the sunlight.
Time. (@) (b)
8.30 to 10.00 0.5 2.0
10.00 to 11.00 ~ 5 5.0
The marked falling off in the catalysis with ferric salts may be connected
with the formation of a precipitate of ferrous oxalate which soon appears in the
solution.
It would seem probable that the decomposition of oxalic acid takes the
course of first evolving carbon dioxide and leaving formig acid and that
the latter then breaks down into carbon monoxide and water, but formic
acid with uranium acetate as a catalyzer gave no gas. As formic acid can
be demonstrated to be present during the catalysis of oxalic acid by
uranium salts, its formation is probably due to the reaction:
CO O=HCOOr
accelerated by uranium salts as a catalyzer.
The further study of this phase of the reaction is of considerable im-
portance both from a theoretical and a practical standpoint.
Oxalic acid when treated with potassium bichromate, gives off gas
even in the dark, but there is no decomposition either in the dark or
sunlight with chromic chloride or with copper sulphate.
Haperiment 12.—A study of the decomposition of potassium permanganate in
the presence of uranium salts was next undertaken with a solution which contained
approximately 4 grams of potassium permanganate per liter. (1 ce==0.00697 Fe.)
(a) 25 cubic centimeters potassium permanganate solution
(b) 25 eubie centimeters potassium permanganate solution and
10 cubie centimeters water.
(c) 25 eubie centimeters potassium permanganate solution, 0.1
gram uranium acetate and 10 cubic centimeters water.
The solutions were placed in the sunlight from 11.15 a. m. to 1.05 p. m.,
then 40 cubic centimeters of ferrous sulphate solution were added to each, by
which means all were decolorized, and they were then titrated back with
permanganate.
Number of cubic centimeters of permanganate required :
(a) (b) (¢)
3.2 3.3 3.3
Uranium salts therefore have no effect on this reaction.
It is well known that reactions involving oxidation and reduction are
usually very susceptible to catalyzers, and that many substances such
as alkaloids, ammonium salts, sugars, etc., act as if they were poisons
for the latter; whereas copper and iron salts usually accelerate the rate.*
*Young:. J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1902), 24, 301.
CATALYSIS. 135
Some alkaloids also have a similar “poisoning” effect on the decomposi-
tion of oxalie acid in the presence of uranium salts in the sunlight.
Experiment 13.—
(a) 4 grams oxalic acid. _
1 gram uranium acetate.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(b) Same as (@) but with 0.1 gram of brucin added. Measure-
ments in cubic eentimeters.
' Time. (a) (b)
a.m. 8.08to 9.10 47 30
10.22 to 10.45 48 29
10.48 to 11.05 52 35
11.08 to 11.25 54 29
11.28 to 11.42 50 29
11.44 to 12.00 48 26
p.m. 2.55 to 3.25 54 32
a 3.30 to 4.00 50 25
Brucin oxalate separates as white, crystalline needles when brucin is added
to the solution, so that the concentration of the alkaloid was less than was
represented by the amount added.
ELxperiment 14.—The same solution as in experiment 13, excepting that quinine
was substituted for brucin in (0). Quantities in cubic centimeters.
Time. (q@) (b)
a.m. 8.15 to 9.20 71 27
9.24to 9.50 76 21
9.53 to 10:20 77 20
10.23 to 10.45 68 18
10.48 to 11.10 75 20
Haperiment 15.—In this experiment 1 gram atropin was substituted for brucin
and a third solution (c) had added to it 0.2 gram cinchonin. Quantities in cubic
centimeters.
Time. (a) (b) (c)
a.m. 11.25 to 12.00 81 20 13
p-m. 2.20to 3.50 108 40 14
a.m. 10.40 to 11.20 84 34 12
p-m. 1.00to 1.40 78 34 12
a.m. 8.00 to 8.45 72 30 10
8.50 to 9.30 81 40 12
9.40 to 10.15 82 33 8
11.25 to 12.00 80 33 7
Experiment 16.—(a) Standard solution. (0b) With 0.1 gram morphine. (c)
With 0.1 gram strychnine. Quantities in cubic centimeters.
| Time. . —S=_ (a) (b) (c)
p-m.1.15 to 1.37 51 32 32
a.m. 8.30 to 9.30 102 27 34
9.33 to 10.10 — 103 38 40
136 BACON.
I was surprised to discover, as is shown by experiment 1, that the
quantity of uranium salt present did not markedly affect the rate of
the decomposition of oxalic acid, but it was even more curious to find
that the amount of oxalic acid also had relatively little effect.
Experiment 17.—
(a) 4 grams oxalic acid.
1.753 grams uranium acetate.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(b) 2.5 grams oxalie acid.
1.753 grams uranium acetate.
100 cubie centimeters water.
Time. (a) (b)
a.m. 9.24 to 10.02 30 20
10.04 to 10.20 31 27
10.22 to 10.43 38 35
10.45 to 11.08 31 30
11.10 to 11.30 (shady) 21 2] 3
woe WBS co HIE 7 35 29
2.03 to 2.22 32 32
225to 2.46 32 30
Quantities in cubie centimeters.
Experiment 18.—
(a) 7 grams oxalic acid.
1.753 grams uranium acetate.
100 cubic centimeters water.
(6) 2.5 grams oxalic acid and the same amounts of uranium
acetate and water as in (@).
Time. (a) (b)
a.m. 9.00 to 9.45 35 25
9.47 to 10.04 33). 29
10.07 to 10.28 34 30
10.30 to 10.40 32 24
10.43 to 11.08 32 24
11.28 to 11.45 38 32
p.m. 1.32 to 2.00 33 12
2.03 to 2.25 35 13
2.27 to 2.50 35 11
There is therefore relatively little difference in the initial rate of the reaction,
but as it proceeds, a marked variation begins to be noted.
I have also made few preliminary observations on the action of uranium
acetate in the sunlight, on the decomposition of several organic acids.
Propionic acid very slowly gives off carbon dioxide, mixed with a com-
bustible gas which is probably ethane, but the amount which I had
at my disposition was too small to identify. Wisbar® has shown that
n-butyric acid gives propane and carbon dioxide. Tartaric acid evolves
carbon dioxide quite rapidly and among the decomposition products
5 Ann. Chem. (Liebig) (1891), 262, 232.
CATALYSIS. t37
acetaldehyde and pyruvic acid CH,.CO.COOH were detected, the pres-
ence of the latter being determined by obtaining the phenylhydrazone
melting at 188°.
Pyrotartarie acid is also markedly decomposed, carbon dioxide being
evolved, and n-butyric and isobutyric acids remaining; malic and lactic
acids both give carbon dioxide and probably acetaldehyde, but the other
products have not yet been determined. It is not unreasonable to
suppose that the first decomposition product formed by the action of a
uranium salt in the sunlight on malic acid, is lactic acid which is then
further broken down to give acetaldehyde and formic acid.
Mandelic acid decomposes vigorously, benzaldehyde and benzoic acid
being obtained in considerable quantity, the benzoic acid presumably
resulting by oxidation of the benzaldehyde, for benzaldehyde is rapidly
changed to benzoic acid by the tropical sun.
In each of two 250 cubic centimeter Ehrlenmeyer flasks 50 grams benzaldehyde
was placed. One flask was put in the dark and the other in sunlight for one
week; at the end of this time 2.2 grams and 18.5 grams of benzoic acid respectively
had been formed.
It is noticeable that the tropical sunlight greatly accelerates the
reaction. The same effect has been noted with a very high frequency
electric discharge. Citric acid give off carbon dioxide, acetone being
detected among the reaction products; trichlorlactic acid easily produces
chloral hydrate; malonic acid gives acetic acid; all of the above with
the evolution of carbon dioxide; phthalic and cinnamic acids are not
acted upon, probably because of their insolubility.
These few experiments demonstrate the powerful catalytic action of
uranium salts in sunlight; a solution of a uranium salt could probably
be used as a chemical photometer. I consider the action probably to
be intimately connected with the fluorescent nature of the solutions of
these salts. The observations given above are very incomplete but as
researches of greater economic value to the Philippine Islands are more
pressing, I have abandoned the work for the present. It is evident that
many reactions can be studied to far greater advantage in the Tropics
than in the Temperate Zone, so that a new field for tropical investigation
is opened.
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ay.
A NEW COMPARATOR.
By Atyin J. Cox.
(Prom the Chemical Division, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. TI.)
Prof. Dr. Weinstein’ says that in the construction of a comparator
the following things must be taken into consideration: “(1) The external .
conditions, under which the comparison of the measures is made, (2)
the construction of the measuring apparatus (microscope, micrometer),
(3) the properties of the bars investigated.” With regard to the first and
last points, if the bars compared have the same coefficient of expansion,
then it is only necessary to examine them at the same temperature. This
is not difficult, for the external conditions can be controlled by the isola-
tion of the cathetometer room and the exercise of due care.
There remains the construction of the apparatus to be considered.
The demand for a great many provincial and other secondary standards
im connection with the initiation of the new Weights and Measures Law
of the Philippine Islands has made indispensable to this Bureau an
instrument which could be depended upon to give comparisons with
the standard meter bar, accurate within a few numbers in the second
decimal of a millimeter. A high grade cathetometer similar to many *
of those especially designed for making eudiometer readings was tried,
but found unsatisfactory for our purposes. The one used is described by
Gerhardt * as—
A cathetometer with millimeter divisions of one meter length which at 0°
is correct to 0.01 millimeter. The vernier permits a reading of 0.1 millimeter.
The telescope turns in a plane exactly at right angles to the upright bar and the
level upon the top has a sensibility of twenty seconds. For the first adjustment
of the instrument there is a circular spirit level on the base. The telescope, etce.,
are perfectly balanced. The micrometer is so constructed that the possibility
of an inclination of the telescope with the adjustment of the micrometer screw is
excluded. Both the bar and the travel are perfectly straight, so that there is no
turning of the telescope by moving up and down.
1 Weinstein: Deutsche Mechaniker Ztg. (1899) (Berlin), 28.
* Terquem, A.: Journ. de Phys. (1883), 12, 496. Miller, F.: Zischr. f. Instru-
mentenkunde (1883), 3, 409. Fues, R.: Ibid. (1886), 6, 153. Wadsworth,
F.L. O.: Am. J. Se. (1896), 151, 41.
*Gerhardt, C.: Preisverzeichnis iiber Chemische Apparate und Geriitschaften
(1905), 13th Ed., 119, Bonn.
139
140 COX.
This instrument is shown in Plate J, fig. 1. It is not sufficiently ac-
curate for the comparison of measures of length, because the adjustment
of the level when the telescope is moved from one end of the upright bar
to the other is necessary.* The range of the telescope is from three to
five meters and with a level, the fineness of which is twenty seconds,
makes possible an error of nearly a millimeter. This is the best level
usually obtainable for this class of instrument, although sometimes one
sensitive to fifteen seconds is used.° Even this would not be sufficiently
accurate.
As a rule the superiority of an apparatus is proportional to its cost
and in this case it was discovered that the only instruments made at
present which could entirely satisfy our requirements were very expensive
and much more complicated than needed. One was therefore constructed
-after the following plan and I think for a simple apparatus, it has
features worthy of note.® In it the general method of comparison now
employed in nearly all of the most accurate linear measurements is fol-
lowed; that is, the length to be measured is placed parallel with the
standard bar and the images of the linear lines of the two brought suc-
cessively into the field of the observing microscope and their relative
positions determined. In the forms of the cathetometers previously
referred to, this has been done by observing the length to be measured in
the telescope and at the same time the scale on the long vertical axis.
The new arrangement is shown in Plate I, fig. 2. In this apparatus
the short leverage of the shding parts and the angular displacement of
the telescope are obviated. The base and upright travel columns for
the crosshead are the base and standards of a Doolittle torsion vis-
cosimeter.* The crosshead is supported by wires, passing over two wheels
of the same size with a common axis mounted on a frictionless bearing,
and exactly counterbalanced by leaded weights. The bars to be compared
are suspended from the arch by vertical adjustible screws, in turn hori-
zontally controlled by thumbscrews from the front and back. The lower
ends of the bars are held in place by appropriate clamps. The microscope
is mounted on a travel on the crosshead. With the horizontal motion
of this travel and the vertical movement of the crosshead, freedom is
obtained for the microscope over the entire plane bounded by the vertical
columns of the apparatus. The microscope itself has a magnification
*This may have been partially due to the heat radiated from the operator
expanding the side of the bar nearest him.
* Ztschr. f. Instrwmentenkunde (1905), 25, 16.
* Constructed in the workshop of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. IJ., by
Mr. J. A. Gilkerson, Chief Engineer, Bureau of Science.
7 Doolittle, O. S.: J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1893), 15, 173; J. Soc. Chem. Ind.
(1893), 12, 709. Wiley, H. W.: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis
(1897), III, 343, Easton, Pa.
A NEW COMPARATOR. 141
of sixty diameters and a field of one and two-tenths millimeters. A glass
plate graduated into millimeters is adjusted in the microscope tube so that
a millimeter here is exactly equal to a tenth of a millimeter in the field,
that is, these lines divide the field of the microscope into twelve equal
divisions as shown in fig. 1. The glass plate serves as a micrometer
Fig. 1.
device; by its means tenths of a millimeter can directly be read and the
variations between the two bars observed, as they are successively brought
into the field. For the illumination of the bars a small electric hight
(not shown in the plate) is mounted just in front of their graduated
surfaces during the reading. he zero points of the rods are adjusted
by the screws at the top and are then quickly paralleled by passing the
microscope downward along the edges of the bars and the lower ends
brought into focus by adjusting the clamps.
This apparatus could be modified to operate satisfactorily in a hori-
- zontal position. The reason for making it vertical was to have vertical
suspension and avoid the irregularities and inaccuracies produced by
sagging or slight bending of the bars; also so that only the upper edge
of the microscope travel need be perfectly fitted. At a greater expense
an absolutely level table could be constructed for a horizontal apparatus,
the microscope travel perfectly adjusted, the whole operated in a ther-
mostat, and therefore the temperature perfectly controlled. With a
horizontal apparatus, the adjustments of the bars could possibly be made
more quickly.
It is thought that the plan of the double freedom of the microscope
possesses many advantages over the stationary microscope and traveling
track of other comparators, for example the comparator after Abbe.*
8 Ztschr. f. Instrumentenkunde (1892), 12, 311.
142 COX.
With both the vertical and the horizontal apparatus the error of taking
the observations is reduced to a minimum, both because of the close range
of the microscope and the short displacement between the two bars to be
compared. * There is practically no liability of disturbing the adjust-
ment while manipulating the microscope. A series of experimental com-
parisons were made and readings to a hundredth of a millimeter showed
no error in the vertical instrument. This apparatus is thoroughly
satisfactory for the testing of secondary standards. If it is desired to
compare with the greatest accuracy that has yet been obtained, then it
is recommended to follow the elaborate and more expensive plan of the
Kaiserliche Normal-Aichungs-ommission.°
® Ztschr. f. Instrumentenkunde (1895), 15, 313 and 353.
143
Cox: A NEw COMPARATOR. ] [Puin. JOURN. ScI., Vou. Il, No. 2.
PLATE lI.
JUNE, 1907 oer No. 3
THE PHILIPPINE
: sapere OF SCIENCE
_ EDITED BY
PAUL ic FREER, M. D, Pu. 198
)
CO-EDITORS ©
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
_., E. D. MERRILL, M. S.
4
, PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
. A. (GENERAL SCIENCE
_ MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1907
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES.
No. 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.,—Preliminary Report of the Appearance in the Phil-
ippine Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P. Strong, M. D.
No. 2, 1902, Chemical Laboratory.—The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acetyl Peroxide and Its
Use as an Intestinal Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
Cc. eeegt M. D., Ph. D.
No. 8, 1908, Biological Laboratory.—A Preliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the Bhilippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
No. 4, 19038, Serum. Laboratory.—Preliminary Report on the-Study of Rinderpest of
Cattle ey Carabaos in the Philippine Islands. , By James, W. Jobling, M. D,
No. 1903, Biological Laboratory. —Trypanosoma ‘and Trypanosomiasis, with Special
Reference to- Surra in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T.
e ,
ve 6, 1903—New or Noteworthy Plants, I. The American Element in the Philippine
Flora. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1903, Chemical _Laboratory.—The Gutta Percha and Rubber of the Philippine
Islands. By Penoyer L. Sherman, jr., Ph. D.
No. 8, 1903.—A Dictionary of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. By Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
No. 9, 1908, Biological.and Serum Laboratories.—A Report-on Hemorrhagic Septicemia
in Animals in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Two Cases of a Peculiar Form of Hand Infection
(Due to an Organism Resembling the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. MeDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M. D.
No. 11, 1908, Biological Laboratory.——Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 1: Prelimi-
nary Bulletin,on Insects of the Cacao. (Prepared Especially for the Benefit of Farmers.)
By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 12, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by
the Bacillus of Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 13, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed
Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Fetidus. -By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. 7
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera:
An Experimental Study.. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 17, 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—l. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologic Sig-
nificance. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of Intes-
tinal Ameebiasis (Amebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D. ~
No. 19, 120% piolooicat Laboratory.——Some Observations on the Biology of the Cholera
Spirillum. y W. Wherry, M. D.
No. 20, 1904. et le Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where
the Disease is Endemic? ~ By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus.
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S: Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia =:
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro- -Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P. Strong, M. D.
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories.—1. A Description of the New Build-
ings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. I]. A
Cataeue of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk,
ibrarian.
No. 28, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and His-
topathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
Herzog, M. D.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on
nS Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry,
D.
No. 25, 1904.1A—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo: By
Richard ¢. McGregor.
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identifieation of the SnEnies Described in Blanco’s Flora
de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiacez of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philippine
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D.
No. 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila
Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory. —I. Autocatalytic Decomposition of Silver Oxide.
II. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D.
No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—1. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (Together
with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna).
By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. MeDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search
Into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “Peptone,”’ with Special Reference to Its
auBeRce nee the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera-Red Reactions. By William B.
erry, M. D, ~
(Concluded on third page of cover.)
; r
200 ne
SmitH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ]
(PHIL. Journ. Sci., Vou. II, No. 3.
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THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
Vou. II JUNE, 1907 No.
THE ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF ILOCOS
NORTE, WITH NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY
E OF THE REGION.
By Warrken D. SMITH.
(From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science.)
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Field work.
The area and people.
GEOGRAPHY—PHYSICAL.
Topography.
Hydrology.
Climatolgy, ete.
GEOLOGY—GENERAL.
Igneous.
Metamorphism.
- The sedimentary formations.
Correlations.
GEOLOGY—HCONOMIC.
Introduction.
Asbestos, manganese, etc.
Prospecting and development work.
Transportation.
Labor.
55711 145
146 SMITH.
INTRODUCTION.
Reports to the effect that fairly large deposits of asbestos exist in the
northern part of Luzon, have been drifting in from that region for nearly
two years.
About a year ago Mr. F. D. Burdette began systematic prospecting
and development work in the vicinity of Pasuquin and Nagpartian, and
on the receipt of some promising samples from him, the writer was
detailed during the month of September, 1906, to make a preliminary
reconnaissance of the deposits and of their related geology.
FIELD WORK.
In the absence of proper base maps, there being none even approxi-
mately satisfactory save the charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and
of course these do not as yet attempt to take in more than a limited
area near the coast, I had to be content merely with an inspection of the
properties, making lmited notes and such sketches of the general geology
as were possible.
My first aim was to see all the properties on which development work
had been done, afterwards to examine the mere prospects; in the remain-
ing time at my disposal and during the progress of the other work I made
such geological exploration as seemed necessary to gain a comprehensive
knowledge of the mineral deposits and their relationships.
The schist and serpentine area in the vicinity of the Baruyan and
Bamban river valleys occupied the first ten days of the time; my next
work lay in the neighborhood of Nagpartian, the hills near by and the
coast near Cape Bojeador; I then returned to Pasuquin where | was
joined by Mr. Burdette. Together we worked over the country adjacent
to Pasuquin and the territory lying between that place and Nagpartian.
At no time did we penetrate into the interior for more than 10 miles, for
two reasons: First, there has been no prospecting except near the coast ;
second, at this season of baguios or storms, it was found quite impracti-
cable to go any distance from the coast and well-beaten trails; while
traveling in this country one is often held up for days and even weeks
by swollen streams and flooded fields.
Native horses were used during this work both for riding and packing.
When labor was needed, we found the Ilocanos to be very good, although
they were not always available nor willing to leave their rice fields. We
always found accommodations gladly offered to us by Spanish, English,
American, and Filipino residents when near the coast towns, and when
in the hills we usually ran into a cazadore’s hut.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 147
THE AREA AND PEOPLE.
The Province of Ilocos Norte is a wedge-shaped tract, with the point
of the wedge to the south, occupying the extreme northwestern corner
of Luzon. It is bounded on the west by the China Sea, on the north
by Formosa Straits, on the east by the Caraballo del Norte range and
the Province of Cagayan, and on the south by the Province of Ilocos
Sur and Abra.
The people are called Ilocanos and are Christianized, although some
Igorots and Apayaos (Tingianes) inhabit a narrow tract along the slopes
of the eastern mountain rim of the province. The Ilocanos have much
to commend them, they being in the writer’s opinion, together with the
Bicols, the most industrious and peaceable native people of the Archi-
pelago. Ilocos Norte, at the time of the census, ranked fifth in amount of
live stock; it averaged over 10 kilograms of rice (palay—tlocano name)
per hectare, being among the first of the producing provinces; it is
least in the number of paupers, and has very few convicts. At the time
of the taking of the census the schools were not well under way, but to-
day they are crowded and in a flourishing condition. Rice culture is by
far the greatest industry of the province, but the cultivation of maguey,
which is said to make nearly as good rope as abaca fiber, is a growing
industry.
An interesting feature of many of the towns is the architecture of the
churches and towers; the former having strikingly large buttresses ;
the towers, of which the bell tower in Laoag is typical, are of a distinctly
Moorish type, suggesting that the designers came from the Moorish proy-
inces of Spain.
; GEOGRAPHY—PHYSICAL.
TOPOGRAPHY.
I shall treat of this topic in three sections as I did in the case of Cebu,
dividing the province into three physiographic parts, the plains, the
uplands, and the cordillera. Of the last named I shall say practically
nothing, as my observations did not extend sufficiently far to the east.
Suffice it to say that the great backbone of Luzon, that which runs through
the rich mineral Provinces of Benguet and Lepanto-Bontoc, continues
high and unconquered almost to the extreme northern point of the
Island. Not until a point just east of Bangui is reached is it seen to
dip and decline to the sea. At this point there must be a quite precip-
itous drop of nearly a thousand feet; this can plainly be seen by fol-
lowing the profile. From this drop out to the end of Punta Dialao, the
sky line is so very even as strongly to suggest a great marine terrace.
148 SMITH.
The sky line of the cordillera to the south is ragged and jagged, several
peaks standing between 4,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level. It is this
great watershed which causes the seasons to be so regularly and sharply
defined in this region.
The plains.—llocos Norte is fortunately blessed with a fair extent
of coastal plain, particularly in its southern part; this varies from 1
to 10 miles in width and is very irregular, for spurs and offshoots from
the main mountain mass, in places, run well down to the sea. At about
5 miles from the sea one comes out upon the uplands, and at 17 miles
the really high mountains begin; Monte Cayudungan lies just about
that distance east of Sinait and it reaches an elevation of 4,816 feet
according to Coast and Geodetic triangulation. This plain, as one must
reasonably infer from the raised coral reefs along its border, consists of
a foundation of extremely recent coral formation overspread by a blanket
of silt largely derived from the mountains in the rear; I believe the
sediments of this to be to a great extent pluvial; that is, of flood-plain
origin and to be piedmont deposits, especially where the distance from
the foot of the mountains to the sea is considerable; while just bordering
upon the littoral they are eolian, there being considerable dune formation
along this strip. In this connection I should make mention of the
recent articles by Professor Barrell? who has emphasized the importance
of subaérial and pluvial sedimentation in the geologic record. In the
Tropics where we have high mountains and tremendous rainfalls, the
conditions are very favorable for the formation of this class of deposits
which are very fertile and possess a stiff substratum of clay which is so
necessary for rice culture. ‘The Ilocanos inhabit this plain, whereas the
* Apayaos (Tingians) are confined to the back country. This coastal
strip ends near the barrio of Dirique. From there on, around the north
coast, there is every indication of very recent vuleanism; in fact, from
Bojeador Light running eastward for some miles there occurs a long,
black, rugged, treeless ridge of “eruptive conglomerate” which appears
to be more recent and quite apart from the rest of the country.
The uplands.—The upland country is not a continuous tract, but is
constituted of a series of very irregularly shaped plateaus which ap-
proximate 2,000 feet in elevation. These are partly underlain by lime-
stone, partly by dolerite (f. n.) ; in the former case they are rolling and
erassy, in the latter they have more relief and are barren and treeless.
Plate ITI, fig. 2, and Plate IV, fig. 3, will give some idea of this country.
The ascent to these higher levels is quite difficult, but the traveler is
1 Barrell, Jos.: Geological Importance of Sedimentation. Jowr. of Geol., U. of
C. (1906), 14, 328.
* [bid.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 149
amply repaid upon arrival by encountering game in abundance. These
plateaus are quite different from the upland country of Cebu, but they
remind one strongly of the region just around Baguio, Benguet Province.
The change from one class of country to the other is quite marked
and sudden; by crossing a line which is distincly seen to separate them,
one goes from a typical, rolling prairie yery similar to that of Iowa and
Wisconsin in the United States, to a region which, as far as the immediate
surroundings are concerned, seems like some of the barren, treeless Coast
Range country of California. Great, white patches of magnesite are
_ frequent and the whole landscape appears desiccated and abandoned.
These plateau-like uplands may indicate a period of peneplanation prior
to the great Miocene uplift which gave the cordillera its present height.
(Pl. IV, fig. 4.)
There appears to be little or no regularity in the orientation of the
drainage in this lower country, for the basal rocks are igneous and are
jointed and faulted according to no regular system.
HYDROLOGY.
The principal rivers of this region are the Laoag and the Bacarra,
flowing west into the China Sea, and the Bamban northward into Formosa
Straits near Bangui. None of these rivers are navigable for large craft,
and the Laoag is the only one sufficiently large even for virays, the
small native canoes. In the rainy season the two rivers first mentioned
become torrents and at times they can be crossed only with considerable
danger. ;
In all ordinary weather good anchorage may be found in Bangui Bay
during the southwest monsoon. In the season of the northwest monsoon
the north coast is out of the question. There are only three of the
harbors on the west coast which are used, Dirique, Currimao and Sala-
mague, the last named being the best; all of these are reef-bound and
must be entered with great caution. Vessels in skirting Cape Bojeador,
usually keep well out to sea, as this is one of the most dangerous points
with which the inter-island mariner has to deal.
CLIMATOLOGY.
The climate of Ilocos Norte is considered to be very healthful; it is
much cooler than that of most of the coast provinces and its seasons
are quite regular. In the time of the northeast monsoon the north coast
is very windy and it even may be said to be cold. During this season
the town of Laoag, which is the capital of the province, is very pleasant.
The word “Laoag” in the Ilocano dialect means “blue skies.”
The record of the nearest meteorological station, which is at Vigan,
showed the following for the year from January, 1905, to January, 1906:
150 SMITH.
Record of rainfall, from the meteorological station at Vigan, Ilocos Sur.
Millimeters.
January 0
February 0
Mareh 22.6
April 10.6
May 22.3
June 693.3
July (missing).
August 558.1
September 517.5
October (missing).
November 4.)
December 15.5
Total 1,844.0
Or 72.5 inches.
The month of September was particularly unfavorable for my visit
to this province, but circumstances forced me to go at that time or other-
wise indefinitely delay the trip. It might be a matter of interest to
state that we experienced three quite severe typhoons during that month,
one of these being the one which descended so disastrously upon Hong-
kong. Fortunately, we were on the outer rim of this cyclone, but even
as it was we were afforded an ocular demonstration of what the sea can
do along this coast and the necessity of changing ports with the change
of monsoons.
One very noteworthy effect of the high seas was the damming and
backing of water in the lower courses of the rivers by the high waves,
thus greatly increasing the difficulties already attendant upon travel and
the transportation of supplies.
GEOLOG Y—GEN ERAL.
IGNEOUS.
'®
Four totally different classes of igneous rock, as follows, were encoun-
tered in the region which I covered:
A. Dolerite (f. n.), more precisely speaking a pyroxenite. Basal
and plutonic.
B. Granulite—a muscovite granite-intrusive.
C. Andesite—extrusive.
D. “Eruptive conglomerate”—extrusive.
THE PYROXENITE.
This rock is the basal formation, so far as I know, of the region. In
some places it is deeply buried, and is to be seen only in deep cuttings in
the streams, in others it is exposed on the highlands on the surface where
the overlying sedimentary beds have been removed. It is seldom found
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. V5
unaltered, but it occurs in all stages of alteration, from the one showing
the mere beginning of chemical change, to a rock wholly serpentine. I
first encountered this rock on the summit of the plateau at an altitude of
2,000 feet, northeast of Pasuquin, where it is fairly fresh. The forma-
tion is again found near Bangui, and on Monte Inmenso it is little altered,
but in many places in the intervening country it is highly serpentinized.
Description.—In the field the rock is black, usually crumbly, and is
characterized by imnumerable, small veins of magnesite and surface
incrustations of the same; it imparts a very dreary ge to the country
where it is the surface 508%
The hand specimen is quite dull, compact and fine grained, however
with brighter patches of from 2 to 5 millimeters in diameter, rarely more.
These are the rhombic pyroxenes, bronzite and hypersthene, more com-
monly the former. The luster is due to “schillarization,” a well-known
characteristic of these minerals in the basic rocks of this type.
Microscopic.—In thin section in ordinary light there are large areas
of a yellowish, glassy mineral to be seen, full of cracks and veinlets,
forming a mesh structure; occasional irregular sections of a colorless
but dirty mineral, marked by very fine and close prismatic cleavage are
observed, and finally many irregular patches of magnetite and hematite
oceur. The first mineral is enstatite, characterized by its low double
refraction; the fibrous material in the cracks forming the meshes is
serpentine; the large sections with close cleavage and parallel extinction
constitute bronzite, in part changed to bastite.
This slide exhibits one of the four characteristic alterations to ser-
pentine. Below is an analysis* of this rock:
Analysis.
Per cent.
Si0, 37.58
Al,O, Bij
FeO, 9.49
MgO 32.34
CaO .48
Na,O ron
K,O .20
H,O+ 110° 6.70-+-100
H,O— 100° 12.64+110
TiO, : Trace.
P.O; . None.
Mn® 28
THE GRANULITE (MUSCOVITE GRANITE).
Up to this time this rock has been encountered only in three localities
in this province—at Dalumat, the southernmost point, in the headwaters
of Caraon River, and at Baruyen Hill, close to the north coast of Luzon.
% Analysis by L. A. Salinger, Chemical Division, Bureau of Science.
fen SMITH.
In the first and last localities named it is found in fragments or blocks
indefinable from the schists, without any apparent connecttion with any
other similar igneous rock; however, at Caraon it is seen as a great
intrusive mass over a quarter of a mile in width, bordered on both sides
by well-defined schist zones. A very interesting thing about this in-
trusive mass is its various phases. I have traced this dike across the
country for a mile or so and have seen it grade from a quartz-feldspar-
muscovite rock into one of quartz and muscovite, quartz and feldspar with
no mica, and finally into a phase of pure quartz. The rock is quite white,
slightly greenish in the weathered portions, fairly coarse grained and it
possesses an uneven fracture. It consists of quartz, feldspar (plagio-
clase) and muscovite mica, although sometimes the micas when decom-
posed give the appearance of being biotite. There are also phases which
have a very granular appearance.
Microscopic.—The rock is seen very largely to consist of quartz in
both large and minute irregular grains. Some feldspar, usually dirty
and cloudy, occurs, apparently plagioclose, as all that I made out to be
feldspar at all showed twinning of the albite order. I was able to find
symmetrical extinction in only one specimen and in this the angle found
was 10° to 12°, which would identify the mineral as an oligoclase.
Pericline combined with the albite twinning also occurs.
No trace of micas remains in the slides which were examined, but
dirty-greenish aggregates of decomposition products only could be ob-
served ; under high power these were seen to be very minute, low, doubly-
refracting bodies, which may be zoisites and chlorites. I should judge
from the appearance of the slides that there had been a considerable
occurrence of deformative stresses throughout the entire mass from which
these samples came, as minute granulation is quite marked throughout.
the slide. This deformation probably dates back to the time of the intru-
sion of the mass.
Analysis.*
Per cent.
SiO, 72.56
Al.O, 15.13
Fe,0,; 2.54
MgO 95
CaO 2.01
Na,O 5.06
K,O 56
H.O+110° -03-- 100
H,O—110° .93+110
TiO, Trace.
P.O; None.
MnO 46
* Analysis by Mr. L. A. Salinger, Chemical Division, Bureau of Science.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 153
THE BOJEADOR ANDESITE.
The main road from Pasuquin to Nagpartian follows the coast and just
a little past Bojeador light-house it cuts through a spur of the same hill
on which the light-house stands. At this cutting the rock which is
exposed is a light-colored andesite, very lke some phases occurring at
Mariveles. This flow seems to constitute the main part of the rock mass
of Cape Bojeador. I regret that time was not available for a close study
of the field relations of this flow; it doubtless has some very close con-
nection in point of time with the “eruptive conglomerate.” Many of
the bowlders and fragments in the latter mass are petrographically quite
similar-to this flow. I found no other signs of this andesite flow any-
where else in the district. This flow, in all probability, is to be correlated
with the great andesite sheet of Benguet, described by Mr. A. J. Eveland,°
formerly geologist of this Bureau, with a similar flow in Marinduque,
and with that of Cebu.® In the latter island it is found unconformably
above the upturned and truncated coal measures and below the orbitoidal
limestone capping. I shall not here enter into a detailed description,
as farther below I describe sections of practically identical rocks from
the “eruptive conglomerate.”
“DRUPTIVE CONGLOMERATE.”
A long, narrow, black and exceedingly forbidding ridge begins near
Cape Bojeador and extends due east therefrom for several miles at an
elevation of 1,500 feet; it is composed of masses of lava bowlders, some
rounded, more of them angular and fragmentary, all in a very mixed
condition and in a matrix which is also of volcanic origin. For purposes
of convenience, and from its analogy to a similar formation in Borneo
described by Verbeek,‘ I have called this an eruptive conglomerate; it is,
more strictly speaking, an agglomerate.
A line of much lower hills also exists, extending eastward between the
main road and the coast as far as Baruyen River; these hills are of the
same material. The manganese oxide which will be discussed in sub-
sequent pages occurs in the minute veins between the harder fragments
in the decomposed matrix.
Plate V, fig. 5, is a view taken from one portion of this ridge, looking
down on the low country near the coast. Some trails in the uncut jungle
are more difficult, but apart from these, this one across this ridge is the
roughest one which it has been my lot to travel in the Philippines. I
°Eveland, A. J.: Geology and geography of the Baguio Mineral District, to
be published in the next number of this Journal.
*Smith, W. D.: Physiography of Cebu Island, this Journal (1906), 1, 1044.
7Verbeek, R. D. M.: Die Eociinformation von Borneo. und ihre Verstein-
erungen, Cassel (1875), 7.
154 SMITH.
looked in vain for some sign of an old vent, some extinct crater, which
would throw light on the point of origin of this formation. A close
examination of the ridge itself showed some crater-like depressions,
always incomplete, but I finally decided that all of these forms could
be produced in the ordinary processes of erosion.
Next, I turned to the coast. Here I found ash beds, sedimentaries
and lava flows, but no sign of an extinct crater. After the study of
this portion of the country, the Babuyanes Islands and their circular
arrangement, highly suggestive of a drowned crater, occurred to me.
The distance, and the fact that elevation and not subsidence has been
the rule in this region, precluded my making use of their existence to
explain the mystery. Later I examined the roughly circular, flat-bot-
tomed valley in which Nagpartian lies. It is not at all improbable that
this valley, now filled with sediment, may at one time have been the
vent, or it may have contained one or more vents from which all this
eruptive material issued. Several different colors and textures of rock
were found among the bowlders, but they are all petrographically essen-
tially the same.
In the hand specimen, the rock is grayish to reddish, hard, somewhat
vesicular, fine grained, with an aphanitic groundmass containing feldspar
phenocrysts of 1 to 2 millimeters in length. :
Microscopic.—The slide contains plagioclose feldspar and augite in
a fine, andesitic groundmass; that is, a mass consisting of minute, lath-
shaped feldspar crystals, so arranged as in places to show a distinct flow
structure. The angles of the feldspar phenocrysts were found to vary
from 26° to 31°, and, as these were symmetrical angles measured on the
albite twinning, they indicate that labradorite is probably the particular
one of the series constituting this rock. Occasional Carlsbad, Baveno and
Periclne twins were noted; zonal growth is quite common. (PI. VI,
fig. 6.) The other phenocrystic constituent of the slde is augite,
often exhibiting good basal sections with prismatic twinning. In pris-
matic sections extinction angles no higher than 40° were noted. Mag-
netite accompanied by hematite stains occurred almost entirely in some
slides ingrown with the feldspars, in others it was confined to the ground-
mass. The writer has examined almost identical rocks from Baguio,
Benguet Province. The similarity to the recent volcanics of western
America, Alaska and Japan and in fact of many parts of the Philippine
Archipelago is very noteworthy, making it appear to be quite evident
than the great Pacific Arc, or at least the northern part of it, is one
petrographic province as indeed Mr. Becker * has already suggested.
’ Becker, G. F.: Geology of the Philippine Islands, U. S. G. S. 21st An. Rep.
(1900), 518.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 155
METAMORPHISM.
_ he evidence is plentiful of there having been considerable dynamic
metamorphism in former times in this region. It is not local, but
regional, for there are very few parts of the Archipelago which do not
exhibit it. In the Ilocos country the metamorphism can be considered
under two heads, as follows:
Serpentinization—dominated by chemical alteration.
Formation of schists—dominated by physical re-formation.
I have not yet seen any evidence of there being contact metamorphism,
although I expect it to be discovered after further search, and then
somewhere along the border of the granite (f. n.).
Serpentinization is by far the most important from an economic stand-
point, and therefore it will first be considered. Nearly every hand
specimen of the basal rock in the district shows some alteration, and this
alteration is usually to serpentine. The asbestos deposits occur in veins
and pockets in the fractured serpentine masses. This serpentinization
is quite common in Philippine basic rocks; I have seen it on Batan Island,
and along portions of the Zambales coast. Mr. Becker also cites several
other localities. In Ilocos Norte it is more pronounced on the Dungn-
Dungon estate on the Baruven River. At Dalumat, near Pasuquin and
in fact wherever the pyroxenite mass in exposed, some degree of serpen-
tinization will be seen. © In all the slides so far examined from this region
the alteration has been from rhombic pyroxenes. (See Pl. VII, fig. 7.)
I have noted the alteration from olivine in other parts of the Islands
but not here.
The pseudo-conglomerate in the serpentine.—Very characteristic fea-
tures of the serpentine formation are in the brecciation and the con-
glomeratic appearance in many localities. I have called this type of rock
a pseudo-conglomerate. This broken and bowldery condition is quite
marked and is confined largely to the borders of the mass, along or near
the schist zone. Some of the fragments are small, angular blocks ; others,
immense rounded bowlders. “Slickensides” is a very characteristic fea-
ture in this part of the formation, and the brecciation in this and the
jasper formation afford ample proof of the tremendous dynamic move-
ments in this region. That these dynamic forces are still at work is
quite probable, as Luzon is subject to frequent earthquakes, although it is
true that this part of the island is Jess liable to have them occur than the
regions farther south. ‘The photograph (Pl. V, fig. 8) is of this pseudo-
conglomerate near the Baruyen River at Baruyen Hill.
The schists ——Schistose rocks are apparently scattered quite generally
throughout the length of Luzon, as well as in the other islands of the
group; naturally, they are confined to the mountainous portions where
there has been a considerable amount of dynamic movement. In Ilocos
156 SMITH.
Norte we find them in a narrow, irregular belt bordering the granite
(f. n.) dike which runs roughly north and south across the country.
At Dalumat I found magnetite, tale, mica (several species), actinolite
and chlorite schists, all in a very much disturbed and mixed condition,
but in this region the mica and tale schists prevail; farther to the
north near Dungn-Dungon, magnetite schists are better developed, and
there is also a very feeble development of eclogite. I found, from my
study of schists and eclogites from the Coast Ranges of California,
that the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks usually produced gneisses
and schists, whereas the eclogites could in some cases at least be traced
back to an igneous antecedent. However, in the Ilocos Norte region I
have not in mind a single instance where I could actually trace these
transformations in the field. This much, and only this, we can be sure
of at the present time; that is, that the mica and tale schists are found
between the granite (f. n.) intrusive mass and the later sediments;
the magnetite schists and eclogites are more intimately associated in
the field with the basal igneous mass, usually near its edges.
MINERALS OF THE SCHISTS.
Actinolite schists—These are to be found in patches everywhere border-
ing the serpentine area. Some of the rocks are entirely made up of long
actinolite crystals, while in others actinolite is only one of the several
constituents. Slides-from two different rocks from near Pine View Point
were examined. The first one consists largely of a mass of actinolite
fragments with interstitial, more or less rounded feldspar grains, rarely
showing polysynthetic twinning, the whole complex with every appearance
of having been derived from a sediment; extreme granulation is a fea-
ture of this rock. ‘The second one is made up almost entirely of actin-
olite with probably some interstitial chlorite. In parallel, polarized
light the actinolite shows marked dichroism. a=colorless. c=olive
green. The actinolite does not occur in whole, unbroken crystal sec-
tions, but is in a very much frayed state, in fibers which are the result of
breaking along the cleavage lines parallel to c.
Mica and micaceous schists.—Nearly every species of mica known to
mineralogy can be found, it seems, in the schistose areas near Pasuquin.
These minerals all occur in small pieces, seldom as complete crystals,
they occur very irregularly along shearing planes. The lighter micas such
as muscovite, paragonite, etc., and micaceous tale seem to predominate.
In the cut which Mr. Burdette has put into the side of the hill at
Dalumat, I saw pockets of nearly all species of mica, but always in
a more or less comminuted condition. These micas could very possibly
be manufactured into lubricants and paints. One green, chlorite variety
should find some use as a paint in these Islands, particulary in decorating
the frames of the numerous cheap pictures of saints, etc., which the
Chinese sell to the natives. According to “Mineral Industry” for 1905,
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. Hoif
scrap mica finds commercial use for boiler and pipe lagging, for roofing
and fireproofing materials, as a lubricant and for decorative work, wall
papers and paints. If any small sheets should be found they could be
worked up into “micanite,’ now extensively employed in insulating
certain parts of dynamos. ;
Extensive development of mica schists occur in this region, paragonite
and margarite being the predominant micas.
Seales of this white mica, when viewed in a petrographic microscope,
show a fine interference figure with an axial angle of 37°. .A qualitative
analysis demonstrates the presence of sodium and calcium, so that we
probably have both paragonite, the sodium variety, and margarite, the
calcium mica.
Magnetite schist—Many outcrops of schists occur in the vicinity of
the Baruyen River and magnetite schist, in which the magnetite cubes
and octahedra attain a diameter of 10 millimeters or more, is found
among these.
Epidote-magnetite schist—This rock, in thin section, consists largely
of a felty mass of actinolite and chlorite with phenocrysts of magnetite
and epidote. The magnetite occurs in diamond and octagonal sections,
also is rounded and irregular grains; the epidote, in idiomorphic crystal
sections is on the average 0.67 by 0.08 millimeter. These epidotes are
distinguished by high relief, parallel extinction and the characteristic,
irregular fracture. The difference in absorpton along the a and b axes
is as follows: a=colorless, b=straw yellow.
Conclusions in regard to the schists—It is quite possible that some
of these schists may be metamorphosed ancient sediments, although this
is not very probable. The presumption is that they are of very recent
origin. We doubtless have as much reason for placing them in the
Archean as have some writers in the case of the crystalline schists of
Formosa, but there is absolutely no paleontologic evidence in either
case.°
THE SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS.
The following sedimentary formations are found in this region, flank-
ing the basal core of the rocks and in some places as residual patches, in
tiers, resting upon the older formations:
The order is from above downward, and only tentative, as contacts or sections
including more than one formation are very infrequent.
Raised coral reefs.
Marl beds.
Orbitoidal limestone.
Ash beds with sandy shales alternating.
Caleareous sandstone.
Coarse grained sandstone and shale beds alternating.
Ferruginous cherts and slates, jasper.
® Outlines of the Geology of Japan, Tokyo (1902), 26, 33.
158 SMITH.
In discussing these formations it will be best to begin with the one
which is stratigraphically the lowest.
The Jasper Formation (Dungn-Dungan).—This formation was first
discovered on the Dungn-Dungan estate, and it has derived its name
therefrom. It is perhaps the most interesting of any with which this
paper deals. It is exceedingly limited in its outcroppings and quite
variable in its phases, never being encountered as a continuous forma-
tion, but only as isolated outcrops, which reveal little or nothing as to its
position.
On the left bank of the Baruyen River, about 200 feet up the slope,
seemingly projecting out of the talus of a hill which I know to have
a serpentine core, is an outcropping of this formation; here it appears
to possess more the character of a slate, the fissile slabs varying in
thickness from 5 millimeters to several centimeters. It is of a dirty
red color, fine grained and compact. The slabs are exceedingly hard,
but easily break off with a ringing sound. In the Caraon River this
formation is very much brecciated (Pl. VII, fig. 9), but the angular
fragments have been firmly recemented. Float bowlders were seen in
this same stream; they are wholly without structure and in color are a
brilliant red, resembling very much the jasper associated with the hema-
tite deposits in Michigan and Minnesota in the United States. The
resemblance of some phases of this formation to the radiolarian chert of
the San Francisco peninsula which I have seen, also led me to make some
sections, with the following results:
DESCRIPTION OF THE SECTIONS.
In thin section this rock is seen to consist of a fine-grained, amorphous
groundmass of chalcedonic silica, copiusly stained with oxide of iron,
with almost innumerable round and oval areas which are more or less
clear. (PI. IX, fig. 10.) Im ordinary light the whole section resembles
sections of some of the radiolarian cherts of the San Francisco penin-
sula,’° to judge from my memory of them and from descriptions.
Between crossed nicols these areas are seen to be filled with a doubly
refracting material which often exhibits undulating extinction, and
which is in a more or less granulated condition; by using a higher power
(number 4 objective, 3 ocular), it is clearly evident that this granulated
material, with every optical character of chalcedonie silica, constitutes
both the groundmass and the clear areas. (PI. VIII, fig. 11.)
I quote somewhat at length from Mr. Lawson’s paper ** because of
” Lawson, A. C.: Geology of the San Francisco Peninsula, 15 Ann. Rept. U. S.
G. S., 420-426.
4 Loe. cit.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 159
the similarity existing between the phenomena presented here and those
observed in the San Francisco rocks, and also because of the excellence
of his petrographic descriptions :
“When a suitable series of these cherts is viewed in thin section under the
microscope a gradation may be observed from those which are composed almost
wholly of amorphous or isotropic silica to those which are holocrystalline aggre-
gates of quartz granules. In. the most isotropic sections there are, however,
numerous minute scattered points in the field, which polarize light. These can
not be separated in any sharp way by the highest powers from the isotropic base.
They are not inclusions, but centers of incipient crystallization in the amorphous
rock. They correspond to the products of devitrification in glass. In other
slides these centers of crystallization are much more thickly crowded, and definite
areas composed of interlocking granules of quartz appear, interlocking, also, with
the isotropic base. The actual boundaries of these areas can be made out only
with difficulty and uncertainty, owing to the fact that the quartz granules are
characterized by a molecular tension, which results in an undulatory extinction
as the stage is resolved between crossed nicols. Im still other slides these areas
coalesce and the proportion of amorphous base to the whole rock becomes very
SUT | ee a i
“Scattered through the slides of these cherts, whether they be amorphous,
semicrystalline, or holocrystalline, there may usually be observed, in ordinary
light, circular or oval clear spaces or clear rings free from pigment. Between
crossed nicols these clear spaces are seen to be occupied by chalcedony. They are
the casts of Radiolaria, and occasionally remnants of the spines and latticework
may be detected. e These areas and rings are usually more sharply defined in the
amorphous cherts, and are somewhat indefinite in outline, yet distinct as areas,
in the holoerystalline varieties. In thin section they are most readily observed: in
the red cherts, by reason of the contrast which they make with the pigmented
matrix.
* * * oa 7 = =
“It thus seems to the writer that the bulk of the silica can not be proved to
be the extremely altered débris of Radiolaria. The direct petrographical sug-
gestion is that they are chemical precipitates. If now we accept this hypothesis,
it becomes apparent that there are three possible sources for the silica so preci-
pitated, viz: (1) Siliceous springs in the bottom of the ocean, similar to those
well known in volcanic regions; (2) radiolarian and other siliceous remains, which
may have become entirely dissolved in sea.water; and (3) volcanic ejectamenta,
which may have become similarly dissolved.”
I believe that these clear spaces in the Ilocos Norte slides do not
represent individual casts, for I find no trace of “latticework” and but
little to compare with the spines found in the California cherts; in fact,
I think these clear, circular and oval areas represent pores in the tests
of such Nasselarians as Podocrytis, Bothryocampe, etc.; as yet I have
been unable to make any specific determinations from these slides.
The Bangui Sandstone-—On the slopes of Monte Inmenso I found a
very coarse-grained, friable sandstone the beds of which on the average
measure 2 feet in thickness, dipping at rather high angles, from 45°
557112
160 SMITH.
to 65°. These sandstone beds alternate with thin seams of shale, of
from 2 to 6 inches in thickness. The sandstone is of a dirty-brown color,
while the shale is more of a buff; both the sandstone and the shale appear
to be unfossiliferous, as a diligent search for fossils was unrewarded
even by the poorest cast or fragment of a shell, or of vegetable matter.
There also appeared to be no conglomerate between the sandstone and the
underlying serpentine, nor was any indication of contact metamorphism
visible.
The resemblance between this sandstone and some phases of the San
Francisco formation in the Coast Range near San Francisco at once
impressed me; however, from this we need not argue any close connection,
save that the sediments originated from the degradation of similar rocks.
I have called this formation Bangui Sandstone because of its typical
occurrence near that pueblo, where however, it is exposed in a more hori-
zontal position, in a great cliff of 50 feet or more.
Pasuquin arenaceous Limestone Formation.—An arenaceous limestone,
dipping on the average of 25° to the east and southeast is encountered
in going across the river at Pasuquin in a northeasterly direction; the
trail up the hill approximately crosses the strike of the beds the outcrops
of which form a succession of small terraces or steps.
The only indications of fossils which I encountered were a series of
snake-like markings which strongly resemble similar infpressions in the
Cambrian sandstone. However, some of these in the Pasuquin formation
are larger than any the writer has yet seen, in some instances they are
nearly 2 inches in diameter and several feet in length. Several small
casts of what I believe to be Pteropoda were found; in fact one of these
is unmistakably a species of Cleodora.
I am told by Mr. Burdette, who knows this country perhaps better
than anyone else, that this formation can be followed in a semicircular
course all the way to Bangui, with the igneous mass to the left and the
sedimentaries to the right.
The Negra Tuff and Ash beds—Two of the most conspicuous points
scenically as well as geologically along the entire north coast of Ilocos
Norte are Punta Negra, and Punta Blanca which is very close to the
former. Exposure of beds of tuff, sandstone and shale alternating occur
at these two points. I estimated the cliff of Punta Blanca to be 150
feet high, a sheer wall, the beds being approximately horizontal. A short
distance to the east, opposite the place where the manganese is being
opened up, these same beds are tilted at a high angle. (PI. X, fig. 12.)
Below is a sketch of the exposure along this part of the coast:
161
MANGANESE DEPOSITS.
ASBESTOS AND
\
(
VONVIg GNV VUDaN SVINOg LY TYOHS HLYON NO Vivuls JO HOLAMS—eT DIA
[ Ale, eulrxo1dde eyrar J[BY-9u0 ‘90ue{sSIp [e}UOZIIOF]
AZ,
bese 2 22 = Wp OSh--- ---\--
162 SMITH.
To judge from the sequence of sediments, there were evidently periods
of normal erosion, alternating with times of volcanic activity, which
resulted in a shower of pumice and lapilli coming from some unknown
source; In any event there must be some close connection between the
origin of the “eruptive conglomerate” and the tuff beds.
This north stretch of the coast is exceedingly rugged and wild, having
been likened by a Scotchman residing in Nagpartian to the scenery along
his own coast of Scotland. If at times some of the little coves do not
harbor a smuggler or two it is the fault of the smuggler for not taking
advantage of exceptional opportunities. With the exception of a boat
of the Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas once a week, only small
native virays are seen in these lonely waters.
Punta Negra and Punta Blanca Orbitoidal Limestone-—Overlying
and unconformable to both the ash beds and the manganiferous eruptive
material on the coast between Puntas Negra and Blanca there is a lime-
stone capping to the hills, the remnant of what was at one time a more
extensive formation. This limestone is very coarse grained, vesicular and
is largely made up of triturated, hard parts of various shell-bearing inver-
tebrates. Among the numerous foraminiferal tests to be seen in the
slides from this rock, those of Orbitoides belonging to the Lepidocycline
group are seen, these are of the same species as the ones from many other
parts of the Islands, and they agree very closely with ZL. insulae-natalis
Chapman and Jones, from the reef limestones of New Hebrides *” and
Christmas Islands.'? This limestone is Miocene and it is equivalent to
the upper limestone of Cebu, of Mindanao and central and southern
Luzon. Although I have not been able to follow these formations very
continuously in the field, I place this limestone as being younger than the
ash beds of Punta Negra, and older than the marl beds of Bacarra and
Laoag. There is some very interesting stratigraphy to be worked out
at this place in the future.
Laoag Marl Beds.—Some low, rounded hills, hardly larger than good
sized dunes, but which are remnants of a higher land are encountered
on the highway between the towns of Laoag and Bacarra. A road cut
through one of these in one case gives a section of about 40 feet, showing
a cream-colored to brownish, sandy marl which contains some remarkably
preserved and fresh looking fossil shells. These belong to the following
genera :
Pisania. Turbo.
Triton. Dentalium.
Ricinula. Oliva.
Pleurotoma. Crystallaria.
“Chapman, Fred: Notes on the Older Tertiary Foraminiferal Rocks on the
West Coast of Santo, New Herbrides, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales (1905), 2, 271.
13 Mon. of Christmas Island, Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (1900), 242.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 163
As nearly as I could ascertain, these beds are horizontal. I should
say, to judge from the included forms, that the deposit is of shallow
water origin, but not very close to the littoral. Despite their low topo-
graphic position, I consider these beds stratigraphically to be above both
the Pasuquin and the Bangwi formations, and from the very recent
appearance of all the fossils and their close relationship to forms now
living in the Philippine seas with which I have compared most of them,
I shall provisionally refer them to the Pleistocene.
Raised Coral Reefs (Currimao).—Only bare mention will be made of
these, as I could only note them in passing; suffice it to say that coral
reefs elevated to the extent of 10 to 12 feet above high tide exist close
to the water’s edge, and behind these the topography by its terraced
appearance indicates the existence of one or more raised shelves at about
100 feet elevation, and possibly a still higher one.
I have not made a quantitative study of the species in the raised and
living reefs, but even a cursory study shows them to be quite similar.
Much light is thrown on the formation of our great limestone beds in
the Philippines by a close examination of these raised reefs. In the
limestone in many cases a great branching coral head may be seen stand-
ing upright:and in the same position in which it grew, surrounded by
a hardened matrix of limestone which consists of hardened coral sand
and which contains fragments of corals and shells. Spines of Hchino-
_dermata are always plentiful in this matrix.
These raised reefs have a very even upper surface, due to the manner
of growth of corals. Doubtless, they have not been long in their elevated
position for it is well known that these reefs rapidly harden and become
strong after being exposed to the air. Mr. Becker ‘* has already parti-
cularly referred to this phenomenon.
SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL GEOLOGY.
From the foregoing it is evident that here we have a region of greatly
varied geology, probably exhibiting more diverse features than most parts
of the Archipelago; it is primarily a district of metamorphism and this
metamorphism is regional rather than local.
Upon a batholith of diorite there were laid down certain sediments
which by great dynamic forces have became altered into entirely new rocks
in which practically every mimeral has been formed anew out of older
and entirely different minerals. Granulite dikes have enhanced this
general metamorphism. Still later over all these basement rocks and
crystalline schists, there have been deposited sediments which, though
often found tilted at high angles, show little subsequent change in their
4G. F. Becker: Geology of the Philippines, 2/st An. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur.
(1902) 561.
164 SMITH.
mineral composition. Among these sediments we find limestones, sand-
stones, shales, marls, ash and tuff beds. Serpentinized pyroxenite
occurs in this region, but it is difficult always to make out its exact
relation to the other formations, it is doubtedless of a laccolithic nature,
subsequently exposed by erosion. On Plate XI, I have attempted to draw
an ideal section across the country. It must be considered to be merely
tentative.
The existence of marl beds with very recent fossils, some of which still
retain a trace of their original coloring, and extensive, raised coral reefs
containing corals in no wise different from those growing in the adjacent
water, indicate that in this part of the world at least the main feature
of the Pleistocene was not glaciation, but normal marine deposition ;
there was also undoubtedly at the same. time much subaérial erosion and
deposition.
In this connection I wish to offer the suggestion that the entirely
unusual emphasis generally given to glacial deposits as the chief charac-
teristic of the Pleistocene is quite unwarranted. In many parts of the
world at least, glacial deposits appear quite insignificant to those who live
along the sea border.
In conclusion I shall again draw attention to the remarkable similarity
between the geology of the eastern and western portions of the great
Pacific arc. Below I have drawn up a comparative table which is, how-
ever, not meant to be more than suggestive. The right-hand column is
taken from Professor Lawson’s paper, cited above.
Table of comparative stratigraphy.
Ilocos Norte. San Francisco (Cal.) peninsula. as|
Raised coral reefs. The terrace formations Pleistocene and later.
Mar! beds with recent shells.
Shales and tuff beds alternating, andesite Merced series (Pliocene).
flows. Thick volume of sendiments with one stra-
tum of voleanie ash.
Orbitoidal limestone. Montery series (Miocene) white siliceous
shale.
Pasuquin calcareous sandstone. Light colored cavernous sandstone—Tejon
(?) Age.
Baruyen series (shales, sandstone and Franciscan series associated with peridotite
jasper). Serpentinized pyroxenite. serpentines. Laccolithie conglomerate,
San Francisco sandstone foraminiferal,
radiolarian cherts. ‘
Granulite—Dike. ; Montara granite.
Crystalline schists. Crystalline limestone, age unknown. - |
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 165
MAP OF A PORTION OF ILOCOS NORTE
COMPILED FROM
COAST AND GEODETIC CHARTS
and
SKETCHES amD NOTES oF W OD Smith
1807
A = Apatite
T. Mice and Take
KR. outcrops
agen ait
>
ke,
Nigh Platesw
Woe ts 1000
= Piddig
Foice SS 32m Miguel
Dingrase
SM burnay
673
=I Samaranien
m0
Saremege ei |
oe 3
zs a
ay 2 role.
166 SMITH. -
GEOLOGY.
ECONOMIC.
INTRODUCTION.
The northern part of this province, although not yet a mineral pro-
ducing district, bids fair to yield some rich returns, first of all from
its non-metallic minerals, and possibly later from the metalliferous de-
posits which in all likelihood are also to be found.
Dynamic metamorphism which has prevailed throughout most of the
region is directly responsible for the formation of many minerals, both
of economic value and otherwise, which are not to be found in many other
parts of the Islands. The most important of the economic deposits is
asbestos, a collective name for more than one mineral, and actinolite, a
calcium hornblende predominating in the schists.
The following is a list of the minerals and rocks which will probably
prove to be of greater or less value: Asbestos, manganese oaide, apatite,
mica and talc, ocher, quartz, feldspar and building stone.
Asbestos is found as a “stochkwerk” or ramifying vein deposit in the
serpentine formation of the district; the manganese, in the form of an
oxide, is a sedimentary deposit, concentrates from veinlets ramifying the
eruptive conglomerate mass; the mica and tale are entirely secondary
formations in the schist zone; ocher occurs as a concentrate from the
weathered igneous mass; the quartz and feldspar form a part of the
granulite mass; apatite was encountered near the granulite dike, its
exact relations being unknown. Building stone encountered here, both
the granulite and the Pasuquin calcareous sandstone, is suitable for
certain grades of construction.
Of course we must continually bear in mind that the value of each
and every one of these products depends upon the market, after the
available quantity is assured. There seems to be no reasonable doubt but
that all the asbestos which can be mined ean be used both in the Philip-
pines and elsewhere, as the production of this mineral is not at present
sufficiently great to interfere with the disposal of the Philippine product
at good figures. If any considerable quantity of first grade fiber is opened
up, handsome returns should be realized. The best Canadan fiber from the
Thetford mines brings $80 (United States currency) per ton and the
second grade from $13 to $50 1° (New York prices).
It would be premature to say much about the market for manganese
oxide but we are reasonably certain of one thing, there is no local demand
for it and whether it could compete in the outside market is not at all
certain; furthermore, there is at least one other locality in the Islands
which will be a competitor, as reports by various engineers and prospectors
assert that there is a considerable deposit of good manganese ore in the
% U.S. G. S. Press Bulletin, Monday a. m., July 9 (1906).
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 167
Island of Masbate and a deposit, concerning the extent or grade of which
I have as yet received no reports, has been cut through along the new
road from Capas to Iba in Luzon.
‘There can be no question about the sale of apatite, the phosphate, for
it is always valuable as a fertilizer. This mineral and the organic
phosphate deposit, guano, are sure to find a market, if not at present in
the Philippines where the soil has never yet been deeply disturbed for
agricultural uses, certainly among the Japanese firms, who should take
considerable quantities.
Mica and tale, as they are encountered in these deposits, can only be
utilized in minor ways, such as for insulating parts of electrical appa-
ratus, for lubricants, “frosting” for Christmas effects, etc., and it is
doubtful if there is as yet any local demand and also it is improbable that
there would be any great call from the outside.
There should be a good, steady, local market for the ocher for, if I
am correctly informed, the Manila Chinamen handle greater or less quan-
tities of the red and yellow mineral paints. If the day of huge red
barns and granaries is ever inaugurated in these Islands, then there
should be a considerable use for pigment of this class.
The granulated quartz and feldspar might be made use of in the
manufacture of glass, which is just being begun in Manila, and in the
ceramics which are already being manufactured. Although a pure quartz
sand, such as one would get from crushed quartzite, would be better,
doubtless a good grade of silica could be obtained by separating the quartz
from the feldspar in this deposit and using it in glass manufacture,
whereas the feldspar could be employed in the making of pottery.
The building stone would undoubtedly have to depend on an extremely
local demand. The Hongkong granite, a decidedly better and prettier
stone, can very probably be imported to Manila at a figure which would
be the same or less than that for which the Ilocos Norte granulite could
be placed on the market.
Asbestos—The asbestos of Ilocos Norte is of two varieties, the “par-
allel” and the “cross fiber,” with the former species predominating.
The “cross fiber” variety, true chrysotile, has up to the present scarcely
made“its appearance. This, it is hardly necessary to state, is the kind
most eagerly sought. The “parallel fiber” asbestos is a variety of mineral
distinct from that of the “cross fiber” and consists largely of the minerals
anthophyllite and tremolite, both amphiboles ; the latter being the mineral
chrysotile, having its origin in serpentine. The anthophyllite does not
necessarily have any connection with serpentine.
In order to bring the differences clearly before the reader, some of
whom may not be mineralogists, I have culled data of a mineralogical
nature regarding these and other varieties of asbestos from the best
sources at hand.
168 SMITH.
According to Merrill,'° there are four varieties of mineral substances
coming under the general term of “asbestos.” There are:
. True asbestos.
. Anthophyllite.
. Chrysotile (fibrous serpentine).
4. Crocidolite.
Physical characteristics—From Merrill’s Non-Metallic Minerals.
wo
©
Asbestos.—The true asbestos is of a white or gray color, sometimes greenish
or stained yellowish by iron oxide. Its fibrous structure is, however, its most
marked characteristic, the entire mass of material as taken from the parent rock
being susceptible of being shredded up into fine fibers sometimes several feet in
length. In the better varieties the fibers are sufficiently elastic to permit of
their being woven into cloth. Often, however, through the effect of weathering
or other agencies, the fibers are buittle and suitable only for felts and other non-
conducting materials. The shape of an asbestos fiber is, as a rule, polygonal in
outline and of quite uniform diameter; often, however, the fibers are splinter-like,
running into fine needle-like points at the extremity. The diameters of these
fibers are quite variable, and, indeed, in many instances there seems no practical
limit to the shredding. Down to a diameter of 0.002 millimeter and sometimes
to even 0.001 millimeter the fibers retain their uniform diameter and polygonal
outlines. Beyond this, however, they become splinter-like and irregular as above
noted.
The mineral anthophyllite, like amphibole, occurs in both massive, platy, and
fibrous forms, the fibrous form being to the unaided eye indistinguishable from the
true asbestos.
Chemically this is a normal metasilicate of magnesia of the formula (Mg,
Fe) Si0;, differing, it will be observed, from asbestos proper in containing no
appreciable amount of lime. It further differs in crystallization in the ortho-
rhombie rather than monoclinic system, a feature which is determinable only with
the aid of a microscope. The shape and size of the fibers are essentially the same
as true asbestos. The fibrous variety of serpentine to which the name asbestos is
commercially given is a hydrated metasilicate of magnesia of the formula
H,Mg.8i,0, with usually a part of the magnesia replaced by ferrous iron. It
differs, it will be observed, from asbestos and anthophyllite in carrying nearly
14 per cent of combined water and from the first named in containing no lime.
This mineral is in most cases readily distinguished from either of the others by
its soft, silk-like fibers and further by the fact that it is more or less decomposed
by acids. As found in nature the material is of lively oil-yellow or greenish
color, compact and quite hard, but may be readily reduced to the white,
fluffy, fibrous state by beating, hand-picking, or running between rollers. The
length of the fiber is quite variable, rarely exceeding 6 inches, but of very smooth,
uniform diameter and great flexibility.
The mineral crocidolite, although somewhat resembling fibrous serpentine, be-
longs properly to the amphibole group. Chemically it is anhydrous silicate of iron
and soda, the iron existing in both the sesquioxide and protoxide states. More
or less lime and magnesia may be present as combined impurities. The color
varies from lavender-blue to greenish, the fibers being silky-like serpentine, but
with a slightly harsh feeling.
% Merrill, G. P.: The Non-Metallic Minerals (1904), 181.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 169
Another fibrous mineral which is common in the Ilocos Norte region is
an asbestiform actinolite. The analysis shows a considerable percentage
of lime. The cleavage across the long axis of the fiber would certainly
militate against it in spinning.
Analysis. of asbestiform actinolite™ (Ilocos Norte).
. Per cent.
S10, 57.50
Al,O, 87
Fe,O, oe)
FeO 1.50
MgO — : 23.80
CaO 11.42
Na.O 15
KO 06
HO .20
Lose on ignition 2.98
99.41
Plate XI, fig. 14, is a photograph of a specimen of Ilocos Norte
chrysotile.
Field relations.—In the field there are two noteworthy forms of occur-
rence. One is the formation of parallel fiber in the Dalumat and Baruyen
schist areas, and the other is the “pocket” formation on the Dungn-
Dungan estate; that on the Tug-a-tug promises to be very much the
same as that of the Dungn-Dungan. The Dalumat and Baruyen asbestos
is confined almost entirely to shear zones, and hence is of local and
limited occurrence.
A rather large pocket of inferior asbestos consisting largely of tremolite
and tale was struck in the shaft in the estero, tributary to the Baruyen,
but there are also several small veins of “cross fiber” material of good
appearance which makes it more than likely that if this locality were
diligently worked, some good results would be obtained. Below is a cut
showing the appearance of the workings at this place. (Pl. IX, fig. 15.)
Chrysotile or fibrous serpentine is the principal product of the Canadian
mines and its characteristic occurrence in that region is as a fine fiber,
usually not over 1 centimeter in length, running crosswise from wall to
wall of the vein. The serpentine in the Canadian mines is penetrated in
every direction by innumerable, narrow veins filled with this fibrous ser-
pentine. Occasionally, this fiber attains a length of 17 centimeters.
It is my opinion that the mining and dressing operations will be much
the same in the Ilocos region as in Quebec; that is, the whole containing
rock will be mined, crushed in rotary crushers, run through a ‘
blower,” and dried in rotary kilns.
‘cyclone
™ Analysis by L. A. Salinger, Chemical Division, Bureau of Science.
LO SMITH.
The modern methods of mining and of treatment of asbestos are de-
scribed very fully by Cirkel ** in reports of the Canadian Mines Branch.
Manganese.—Seattered over the surface of the ground of the “eruptive
conglomerate” region of Nagpartian, one can see innumerable small nod-
ules of pyrolusite and hmonite. For some time I was at considerable
loss to know just where these came from, for by digging beneath the
surface in certain spots at least, I could not discover any source, in fact
these nodules seem to lie only on the surface, some in stream beds, but
others also on the hilltops. A later examination of the sides of the
Nagpartian road where a great washout had taken pace, revealed many
very small veinlets of manganese oxide between the bowlders of eruptive
material. The matrix appeared to be a sort of tuff, quite soft and yield-
ing. The veinlets are approximately of a width corresponding to the
thickness of the surface nodules, all of which are more or-less flat and
longer than they are wide. This surface material therefore simply
represents the concentrates found as the material below has weathered
and as the manganese veins became freed from the matrix. A sketch
of the actual ocurrence will best present these relations (fig. 16).
- A vy
. “Weathered ‘
“igneous “material
v . v r v . v
[Width of veinlets 5 mm. to 50 mm. ]
Fic. 16.
There seems to be even a greater concentration of the manganese and
limonite in the Nagpartian hills, but the nature of the country and the
difficulties attending transportation preclude any probability of develop-
ment in that locality.
Between Punta Negra and Punta Blanca perhaps the best prospect
for the mining of this ore is seen. It is at this pont, within a very
18 Cirkel, Fritz: Asbestos—Mines Branch, Dept. Int., Ottawa, Canada (1905).
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. gre
few minutes walk of the sea, that Mr. F. D. Burdette has been at work
with a large force of native laborers. The geological relations obtaining
here are shown in the diagram below (fig. 17) :
= Limonte layer
PAGES eruptive Conglomerate
Fic. 17.
Not over 2 feet of concentrates were exposed at the time of the writer’s
visit to this place; only after further work will it be ascertained whether
there is more than one bed of concentrates. If sufficient quantity of
this ore could be found it would be best to “riddle” it, afterward sack
it and transport it by means of cargadores or a cableway down to a
storehouse on the beach and from there it can be shipped during the
southwest monsoon. The lateral distribution seems to be sufficiently
extensive but at the time of my inspection I had some fear as to the
vertical extent of the deposits. Recent development work has in some
measure shown this to be well grounded.
Analysis of the manganese ore.”
Per cent.
SiO, 1.10
Fe.O, : 4.04
H.O—110° “s
H.O-+110° 10.58
xO: .02
MnO. 77.51
93.25
Metallic Mn : 48.93
Apatite.*°—Nothing very definite can be said about the occurrence of
this mineral at the present writing. Some fairly good crystals, sufficient
for making some important crystallographic measurements, were sent in
to us by Mr. Burdette over a year ago. These, in color and superficially
in crystal form, so closely resemble the mineral olivine that they were
at the time classed as such. Later it was found that they belonged to
* Analysis by Mr. L. A. Salinger, Chemical Division, Bureau of Science.
*” This mineral was found near the trail to the “Thetford” workings at
Dalumat, but at the time I was there a landslide had concealed all traces of it.
This is the only place where Mr. Burdette has found it.
yh SMITH.
the hexagonal system and blowpipe tests gave a reaction for phosphorus
and no silica. The complete analysis is as follows:
Analysis of the apatite.
Per cent.
Fe,O, 58.
Al,O, \ ae
MeO tral
*CaO 54.62
H.O at 110° ; -02
120}. 40.95
F (undetermined ) 3.14
Cl Trace.
Loss on ignition 0.20
100.00
By using the contact goniometer the angle between the faces (0001)
and (1011) was found to be a trifle less than 40°. After making the
necessary calculations, I found this would give the figures 0.7266 for
c, which is a little low, 0.7346 being the usual figures, though there is
some fluctuation.
Such crystallographic data as I could work out on the imperfect ma-
terial in our possession are given below.
Color, lemon yellow on fresh fracture; luster, resinous; fracture,
irregular; hardness, 5 to 6; specific gravity, 3.10; system of crystalliza-
tion, hexagonal.
Forms. Angles.
c= (0001) ca=42°
m= (1010)
“= (1011) as=43°
a= (1120)
s= (1121) am=60° ~*~
c= .7266
The finding of apatite in this region associated with the rock pyroxenite
is interesting and may lead to highly valuable results when it is recalled
that this is the same association obtaining in the apatite deposits of
Canada. -
Mica and tale.—In the “Thetford” workings (Ilocos Norte) the most
abundant minerals are the micas and the micaceous chlorites and tale.
Muscovite, biotite, margarite, phlogopite, pennine and tale were noted, all
very mixed in pockets and along shearing planes; much actinolite also
accompanied thesé minerals. No large sheets of mica were seen, in fact
all these micas oceur in rather a triturated condition, so that as I have
mentioned above, they could find use only in the industries which employ
ground material. It is quite possible, although somewhat improbable,
that good sheet mica may be discovered in this region.
ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 73
Agalite, or fibrous tale as it is commercially known, is extensively
used in the manufacture of paper. Like asbestos, it has a distinct fibrous
structure which causes it to blend well with the vegetable fibers of paper
pulp and admits of its retention in paper without the great loss which
accompanies the use of sulphate of lime, china clay, and other mineral
loading materials.
According to the statistics of the New York Geological Survey for
1905, there were produced 67,000 short tons of fibrous tale, valued at
$469,000 which gives an average of $7 per ton. Practically the entire
output of this material finds its way to the paper mills. Mr. Richmond,
chief of the Division of Chemistry of this Bureau, has with this use in
mind examined a specimen of tremolite altered on the exterior to tale.
He reports as follows: “Judged by the physical properties of the sub-
stance examined, it would be considered of very good quality for the
above named purpose. It grinds well, is of a good color, and is especially
free from grit.” Re
The analyses * of the [locos tremolite and talc, and a standard agalite
for comparison, are as follows:
Ilocos mineral. Agalite.
Constituents. Per cent. Per cent.
si0, 57.62 61.82
Al,O; 1.36
Fe.0, 1.66 pe
MgO 24.18 29.98
CaO 13.38 3.65
H.O 2.33 2.6—2.8
100.53 99.64
Specific gravity 2.84 . 2.67
Doubtless only the portion of this deposit represented by tale would
be valuable as a filler in paper pulp, but the tremolite is sufficiently high
in magnesium to make it of use for pipe lagging, etc.
Mineral paint.—Not much can be said concerning the mineral paint,
red and yellow ocher, save that it occurs in considerable quantity at
Dalumat, bordering the igneous mass of the plateau known locally as
Babuy Flats. This ocher has resulted from the decay of the igneous
rock which is rich in iron. There is a vast quantity of it available, and
with cheap labor, as women and children could be used to clean and
sack it, and by employing native cargadores there should be a fair profit
in it. This ocher is nothing more or less than iron oxide in various
stages of hydration, and by burning, the hydration could be regulated
so as to secure several different colors. The yellow is limonite, the red,
hematite. A determination of silica and iron by Mr. Salinger gave 23.5
per cent for the silica and 9.8 per cent ferric oxide.
Analyses by Mr. L. A. Salinger, Chemical Division, Bureau of Science.
174 SMITH.
Feldspar—Quartz and building stone-—These have all been sufficiently
commented upon in previous pages so that repetition is not necessary.
However, one thing should be mentioned, namely that analysis shows
the feldspar to be albite, the soda plagioclose. A physical examination
of the quartz grains proves this material to be suitable for glass manu-
facture, ete.
Analysis of the granulite.
“Silica.” “t pee > Fork we
“pie as Fae)
2g ae net ed Fagen Rs i a
Sti: hoyle ithe 2 8
itty etre Fe] ata tate NGiee Oceana
er. Fa Bs Se uf. Ya cs
gt Creme, ‘f Mere ats ot Sans
r * ‘¥
- her, Be
cabee Siete Aen y
‘
SmiTH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS.] (PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. II, No.
Fic. 1.
PLATE Ill.
SMITH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ] (PHIL. Journ. Sctr., Vou. II, No. 3.
PLATE Iv.
SmitH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ] (PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. II, No. 3.
Fic. 5.
Fic. 8.
PLATE Vv.
SmITH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ]
PLATE VI.
2
[PHIL. JoURN. Sci., Vou. II, No.
wo
SMITH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ] [PHIL. JOURN. ScI., Vou. II, No. 3.
Fic. 9.
PLATE VII.
SmitH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. | [PHIL. JouRN. ScI., Vou. II, No.
Fic. 11.
. f PLATE VIII.
SmItTH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. | [PHIL. JOURN. SCI., Vou. II, No. 3.
Fig. 12.
PLATE IX.
SmItH: ASBESTOS AND MANGANESE DEPOSITS. ] [PHIL. JOURN. ScI., Vou. II, No. 3.
PLATE X.
PLATE I.
ite
Hil.
IV.
VII.
VIII.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Outline map of portion of Luzon showing location of Hocos Norte.
Map of portion of Ilocos Norte showing location of mineral districts.
Fig. 1. View of plain and mountains in the background.
Fig. 2. View of upland country between Pasuquin and Bangui.
Fig. 3. Another view of upland country between Pasuquin and Bangui.
Fig. 4. Looking across the upland country toward the Cordillera, Ca-
raballo del Norte.
. Fig. 5. View from Nagpartian Ridge toward the coast.
Fig. 8. The pseudo-congomerate in the serpentine. _
. Fig. 6. Feldspar phenocryst in andesite, showing twinning and zonal
growth. Magnified about 14 times.
Fig. 7. Thin section of peroxenite. 14 times.
Fig. 9. Brecciated jasper.
Fig. 10. Section of radiolarian (7?) chert. Magnified 120 times.
Fig. 11. Same magnified 350 times.
. Fig. 12. Tilted ash, tuff and sand beds on Punta Negra.
Fig. 15. Open cut in serpentine and “asbestos,” Dungn-Dungan.
. Fig. 14. Crysotile from Dungn-Dungan, Ilocos Norte.
. Ideal section from Pasuquin northeast to Cordillera along line west
to east (Plate II).
Figs. 13, 16, and 17, woodcuts, explained in the text.
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THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON, MINDORO.’
By Ermer D. Merritt.
(From the botanical section of the Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science.)
The Philippine Archipelago is essentially mountainous. Many of
the high peaks have been ascended by white men, although accurate
accounts as to when, by whom and under what circumstances the explo-
rations were made are to be found in but few instances. On making local
inquiries in regard to the ascent of mountains one usually hears vague
rumors of previous attempts to climb them, entailing great difficulties,
privations and not infrequently loss of life. Usually, however, it is
quite impossible to verify many of these rumors for, as a rule, natives
living in the vicinity of the mountains have very little information
regarding them, and because of prevailing superstitions it frequently is
difficult to induce them to accompany a party when the known object of
the expedition is to ascend a high mountain.
Mountain climbing in the Tropics, especially in such tropical coun-
tries as the Philippines, can scarcely be classed as a sport, and here
as in other parts of Malaya, the higher mountains have usually not. been
ascended by persons for the pure love of mountain climbing, but by
those who have had some special object in view, such as the study of the
fauna, flora or geology of the region. In other words, the high peaks
of the Philippines, as in the Malayan region generally, have been ascended:
mostly for what was to be secured on them.
Mount Apo in southeastern Mindanao is the highest in the Philippines,
yet the first recorded ascent which I have been able to find is that of
J. Montano, a Frenchman, who reached the summit in October, 1880.°
Montano, however, states that an attempt was made by the Spaniards
in 1852 under the direction of Oyanguren, which failed after the loss
of twenty men, and that in 1870, Real, then the governor of Davao,
made another, but unsuccessful endeavor, to reach the summit. Dr. 4.
Schadenberg ascended Apo in February, 1882, and Otto Koch must have
made the ascent at about the same time for Vidal * figures some species
1This is the first of a series of articles on geographical subjects which it is
proposed to publish.—P. C. F. :
2 Voyage aux Philippines et en Malasie (1886), 245-264.
® Sinopsis, Atlas (1883).
180 MERRILL.
of plants from the summit of Apo which were collected by the latter.
Since 1880 Mount Apo has been climbed many times by various persons,
to my knowledge by at least ten Americans within the past five years,
and I am informed by those who have made the ascent that there are
comparatively few difficulties to be encountered, either in the approach
to the mountain or in its ascent. Nevertheless, as late as 1905 I have
seen accounts in Manila newspapers “of the first ascent of Mount Apo.”
We have no records that Mount Malindang, the second highest moun-
tain in the Philippines, had been ascended previous to 1906, when in
May of that year Maj. #. A. Mearns and W. I. Hutchinson and their party
reached the summit. Mounts Banajao, Pinatubo, Tonglon, Data, Solis,
and Mayon, all in Luzon, Canlaon in Negros, Madiaas in Panay, all
7,000 feet in altitude or higher, have been ascended one or many times
each, by various persons, and secondary mountains such as Mariveles,
Arayat, Maquiling, Isarog and Iriga in Luzon, Silay in Negros, Pulgar
and Victoria in Palawan, and many others, are more or less known.
Halcon the third highest peak in the Philippines, is situated im the
north-central part of Mindoro. With no known trails leading to it,
surrounded by dense forests, cut off from the coast by difficult ridges
and large rivers subject to enormous and appalling floods, it stood
seemingly inaccessible. Its location is perhaps in the most humid part
of the Philippines, where the rains continue for nine months in the
year, in a region geographically quite unknown and inhabited by a
sparse population of entirely wild and very timid people, and on an island
regarding which there is a widespread and generally accepted belief as
to its unhealthfulness. Although within 100 miles of Manila and not —
more than 15 from Calapan, the capital of Mindoro, so far as I have been
able to determine it remained unconquered up to the year 1906.
MINDORO.
Mindoro ranks as seventh in size among the islands of the Philippine
Archipelago, being located a little north of the center of the entire
group and haying an area of approximately 3,851 square miles. In
general outline it “is roughly triangular, its greatest length being from
northwest to southeast, 110 miles, its greatest breadth from northeast
to southwest, 56 miles. Geographically, it is in closer proximity to
Luzon than to any other large island of the group.
Verde Island passage, separating Mindoro from the south coast of
Batangas Province, Luzon, is but 7$ miles in width in its narrowest part
between Escarceo Point, Mindoro, and Malocot Point, Luzon. The
small island of Lubang lies 15 miles north of the northwest point, while
the larger island of Marinduque is 23 miles east of the central part of
Mindoro. ‘Tablas is situated 31 miles east of southern Mindoro, and
Panay 364 miles east of south. Busuanga, the beginning of the Palawan
chain, is 33 miles southwest.
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 181
The name Mindoro is of Spanish origin, taken from Mina de oro,
meaning mine of gold, applied by the earlier Spanish explorers. It
came no doubt from tales imparted to them by the natives of the fabulous
mineral wealth of the island, yet for over three and three-quarters cen-
turies this reputed golden treasure has remained undiscovered. The
ancient native name of the island was Mait.
‘Topographically, Mindoro is exceedingly rough and the interior is
very imperfectly understood; it is known locally as “the Africa of the
Philippines.” The mountains in the north culminate in the Halcon
Range, the highest peak being exceeded among Philippine mountains
only by Apo and Malindang, both in Mindanao.
The census of the Philippine Islands taken in 1903 gives the total
population of Mindoro as 28,361, of which 21,097 are classified as civil-
ized. and 7,264 as wild. As comparatively little is known regarding
-the Mangyans, the aborigines inhabiting the interior, the latter figure
must be considered as approximate rather than exact. The civilized
inhabitants are confined entirely to the coast region, the Tagalogs pre-
dominating in the north, the Visavans in the south.
Undoubtedly the Negritos are the aboriginal inhabitants of the island
and the Mangyans are the descendents of Negrito and Malayan stock.
They are confined entirely to the interior of Mindoro, except in the
southern part, where one or two towns of semicivilized Mangyans are
located on the coast. Capt. R. G. Offley,* United States Army, Governor
of Mindoro, states that they are non-Christian but not savages by nature
or habit, that they will run at sight of a stranger if his coming and inten-
tions have not previously been announced. They are divided into several
groups, the chief among which are the Buquit, Baigon and Batanga-
nes; these roam in bunches or by families, the oldest acting as chief;
they are willing workers, but they have no knowledge whatever of agri-
culture, and the Christian Filipino avails himself of the fact that they
do not know the value of money by giving a handful of salt for a banca,
while the price of a small working bolo to a Mangyan has been known
to be ten years of servitude. The best description of these people which
I have seen is that given by Dean C. Worcester, to whose book the reader
is referred. In regard to the Mangyans as a whole, Captain Offley’s
statement is inaccurate in some respects, for the ones we encountered on
the north slopes of Halcon have fairly permanent habitations and also
possess a decided knowledge of agriculture, although it is of a very prim-
itive kind. We saw but three representatives of these people on the en-
tire trip, an old man, a boy and a girl, but we passed through numerous
clearings, some of them several hundreds of acres in extent where there
were houses; however, the inhabitants fled at our approach. In one
“Census of the Philippine Islands (1903), 2: 547.
5The Philippine Islands and their People (1901), 375-377; 406-418.
182 MPRRILL.
clearing, at an altitude of about 3,000 feet, we found in cultivation: rice,
corn, sugar-cane, bananas, yams, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, squashes
and taro, while domestic pigs and chickens were in evidence. Most of the
dwellings were very small and primitive, consisting of a platform raised
two or three feet above the ground, with a thin palm-leaf roof and usually
without walls, but in the clearing mentioned above we found an unusually
large and well-constructed house about 20 feet long, 15 feet wide and
12 feet from the floor to the apex of the roof. It was firmly constructed,
elevated on posts about 6 feet above the ground, with a pole floor and
erass-thatched roof and walls and was evidently the abode of a person
of prominence in a local tribe. Such a pretentious house certainly is
unusual among the Mangyans.
Mindoro has attained and still retains a widespread but apparently not
entirely deserved reputation for unhealthfulness, frequently being spoken
of as “the white man’s grave.” In spite of adverse reports as to the un-—
wholesomeness of Mindoro and the prevalence of fevers and various tropical
diseases in the island, on our trip, which extended over forty days in the
‘height of the rainy season when on nearly every day all members of the
party were wet at least once and sometimes all day and for many days in
succession, working our way slowly through drenched forests, fording
streams and much of the time on short rations, none of the Americans in
the party were sick and among the twenty-five natives employed, only three
contracted fever and then in a very mild form. In common with previous
explorers in Mindoro, we found the leeches very abundant and exceedingly
troublesome at the lower altitudes but we became entirely free of them
after reaching the height of about 5,000 feet. Ordinary brown soap
was found -to be an excellent leech repellant and this was given each
day to our native carriers who smeared it on their naked legs. Previous
experience had taught us that canvas or leather leggings ‘are entirely un-
satisfactory as a protection against leeches, and all the Americans in
the party were equipped with woolen “puttees.” These proved to be
more satisfactory and gaye absolute protection against the attacks of
leeches. Quinine was issued regularly to all members of the party.
MOUNT HALCON.
The name Halcon is of Spanish origin signifying falcon, but the
application of this name to the mountain is not clear. As usual, the
native names vary. According to Lieut. Fitzhugh Lee’s report of his
trip made across Mindoro in 1904, the natives living at the mouth of the
Baco River knew it as the Alag Mountain. We found those living at
Subaan, only 7 miles from Baco, speaking of it as the Baco.
The altitude of the highest peak is given on Spanish charts as 3,865
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 183
meters, while our uncorrected aneroid readings determine an altitude of
9,000 feet, both of these records apparently, being too high. In April,
1906, a triangulation party of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, under the
direction of Mr. O. W. Ferguson, estimated the height of the mountain
as 8,504 feet, the mean of three determinations from as many different
stations. The same party ascertained the geographical codrdinates of the
highest peak to be latitude N. 13° 15’ 46’’, longitude EH. 120° 59” 297”.
Viewed from the coast, Halcon appears to present no particular dif-
ficulties so far as the ascent is concerned. It is a long, more or less
broken ridge running from east to west, presenting steep slopes, especially
on the north, but with three pronounced spurs with more gradual slopes
leading from it, one to the east, one to the south and one to the west.
The crest line of these spurs present rather gradual slopes, although
they are steep in places. Several subsidiary spurs lead off from the main
range in various directions, notably to the north. Difficulties encountered
in making the ascent of Halcon, as is the case with most Philippine
mountains, were found to be not so much in the actual climbing as in
the approach to the mountain, the fording of streams, the crossing of
ridges, the cutting of trails through the dense vegetation and in the
transportation of necessary supphes and equipment.
The highest peak of Halcon shows no signs whatever of ever having
been visited by human beings, and as it would be a physical impossibility
for any person to reach the summit without extensive trail cutting, it
seems evident that in recent years at least, it has never been visited by
man. Several attempts to reach the top of the mountain have been made
and in the past three centuries it is possible, but not probable, that some
of the early Spanish explorers in their search for the fabulous mineral
wealth of Mindoro, might have made the ascent. I have been able to
find no account whatever of attempts made by the Spaniards, and the
utter imaccuracy of Spanish maps as to the location of Halcon Peak
and the course of the Alag and Baco rivers would indicate that they
had no positive knowledge whatever of this part of Mindoro. In fact,
on many maps such a large river as the Alag is not indicated at all,
although it joms the Baco at tide water and at less than 3 miles from the
coast.
PREVIOUS ASCENTS OF THE MOUNTAIN.
In April, 1891, Dean C. Worcester visited some Mangyan clearings on.
the slopes of Mount Halcon, probably ascending to about 2,500 or 3,000
feet. However, so far as I can learn he made no attempt to reach the
summit, but his trip in this vicinity is the first one of which I have
any knowledge. The reader is referred to his own account of his Mindoro
experiences.®
° Loc. cit.
184 MERRILL.
In October, 1895, John Whitehead, an English naturalist tried to
reach the summit, but although he did not sueceed in attaining the
highest peak he was undoubtedly the first person to reach an altitude
of 6,000 feet. As Whitehead’s primary object was to collect objects of
natural history and especially birds, he apparently made no serious
attempt to reach the highest poimt on the mountain. I can do no better
here than to quote from W. R. Ogilvie-Grant’s* account of Whitehead’s
experience on Mount Halcon.
On the 19th of Octber, 1895, he (Whitehead) left Manila with a staff of seven
collectors for the Island of Mindoro, with the object of exploring the well-wooded
highlands of this comparatively little known island, and returned to Manila on
the 16th of February, 1896, after four months’ absence. The results of this expe-
dition are, Mr. Whitehead considers, by no means satisfactory, for at the time of
his visit the wet season was at its height and, owing to the almost continuous
rains, collecting could be carried on only under the greatest difficulties. He tells
us that during his stay on Mindoro seventy days out of a hundred were very wet,
twenty dull and drizzling, while but ten were comparatively bright and fine; so it
can be understood easily that he was unable to do as much as he had hoped.
Unfortunately, he experienced great trouble with his collectors, all of whom
suffered at one time or another from fever, and took every opportunity of misbe-
having. One man robbed him of his money, while others, left at the foot of the
mountain to make a lowland collection, did practically nothing during many
weeks, and sold both gun-caps and powder to the natives. He characterizes his
Mindoro collection as representing “four months’ very hard work and slow
starvation”
On landing in Mindoro a guide was engaged as pilot to the high ground, but
this worthy led the expedition by a wrong path, and after a long day’s mareh in
the usual deluge of rain, Mr. Whitehead found himself on the bank of a fine river
surrounded by the most dense and magnificent forest, where he was forced to
remain for ten days waiting for porters. It was here that the expedition was
nearly wrecked, the river coming down in a tremendous flood with very little
warning. The camp had been pitched about 20 feet above the river, which at
this part was about 200 yards wide, but in less than twelve hours, fortunately
in daylight, the water was running from 2 to 3 feet deep like a mill race through
Mr. Whitehead’s tent, while his men had to escape in canoes from another house
lower down the river, where most of the less portable boxes had been left.
By great exertions all the baggage was saved. “I have,” writes Mr. Whitehead,
“seen a good deal of Tropics, but I never encountered such deluges, such incessant
rains, or such thousands of leeches. The leeches quite crippled two of my men,
and one of the two caught ‘beriberi’ so I sent him back to Manila. All the others
- had fever, but I got off with two mild attacks of dysentery. I was so reduced,
from having nothing to eat but tinned foods and rice, that I became quite weak,
. losing most of my energy at times. In four months I had eaten only five pigeons,
two parrots, and some few thrushes, and, with the exception of eggs, there was no
other fresh food to be had.” Such is life in the highlands of the Philippines.
By making friends with the true aborigines of Mindoro (the Mangyans) the
twenty-five porters required to carry the baggage to the mountains were at last
7Grant, W. R. Ogilvie: On the Birds of the Philippine Islands, Part 7. The
Highlands of Mindoro. With field notes by John Whitehead. Ibis: (1906)
VIII, 6, 457.
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 185
obtained, and, after two days’ march under continuous heavy rain, Mr. Whitehead
and his men camped at an altitude of 4,500 feet on Mount Dulangan, in the main
range of Mindoro. This range of mountains is somewhat horseshoe shaped. Mr.
Whitehead continuous: “To cut a long story short, it rained all November, all
December and all January; one deluge began on the 11th of December, and was
perhaps second only to that which floated Noah and his great zoédlogical collection,
for it continued until the 6th of January, 1896. But for all this I was in good
health the climate being cool, seldom over 60° F., and some nights only 52° F.;
the mountain of the east side is perhaps over 8,000 feet, but the ranges are mostly
from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. I was guided by the natives to a part that attained
nearly 6,000 feet, but we could not reach the crest of the mountain from this
position. The undergrowth is very dense and, without cutting paths, impossible to
get through.”
In April, 1904, Lieutenant Fitzhugh Lee, Jr., Twelfth United States
Cavalry, accompanied by three other officers, Mr. H. D. McCaskey, Chief
of the Philippine Mining Bureau, ten Americans soldiers and thirty
native carriers, left Camp MeGrath, Batangas, Luzon, with the object
of crossing northern Mindoro and if possible, of making the ascent of
Haleon. They landed at the mouth of the Baco River and on April 3
proceeded up that river to the junction of the Alag, following that
stream in boats to the head of navigation, an estimated distance of 54
miles. The Alag was chosen as the most feasible route because its
direction is more westerly and because the natives insisted that its source
was somewhere in the vicinity of Alag, the local name of Mount Halcon.
On April 4 the boats were abandoned, the river having become very shallow
and swift. The expedition then followed a narrow trail along the bank,
the carriers being assigned about 80 pounds each. The stream was very
tortuous, averaging from 50 to 60 yards in width and the party was
compelled to ford five or six times during the morning’s march. On
April 5 the advance was continued up the bed of the river but the loads
for the carriers had to be reduced in weight, progress being exceedingly
slow and hard, as the rocks in the river bed bruised the carriers’ feet.
On this day the distance covered was but 3 miles and on the day following
but 34 miles. On the 7th of April progress was reported to be very
difficult and dangerous because of the large bowlders in the stream bed,
the swift current and the steep cliffs on both sides, and on this day they
went but 24 miles. Lieutenant Lee continues:
“It seems to be more difficult than we had anticipated to locate Mount Halcon.
Our field of vision is very limited, confined as we are in the bottom of a deep
canon with lofty perpendicular walls and a wilderness of vegetation growing out
from either side overhead. Just at this time we are particularly anxious to get a
bearing on the mountain that we may locate the easiest course for an ascent.”
On this days’ march several of the party came in contact with some
poisonous plant, spoken of a species of “poison ivy,”® which on the
following days caused them much suffering and inconvenience, eruptions
* Probably Semecarpus perrottetii March (Anacardiaceae)—K. D. M.
y ha
186 MERRILL.
breaking out all over their bodies, and the faces of some individuals
swelling so that they could see only with difficulty. On April 8 they
succeeded only in covering 24 miles but they were fortunate in securing
the services of a Mangyan as a guide. On the following day, finding
further progress up the Alag impossible, they retraced their steps a short
distance, leaving the canon of the Alag and following the bed of a small
river flowing from the west,? making camp in the bed of this stream
at an altitude of 1,500 feet. It rained at intervals during the day and
all the night and the party gave up hope of ascending Halcon. On
April 10 and 11 they crossed the divide at an altitude of 3,230 feet.
striking the headwaters of the Bagbaujan River flowing westward, in
these two days suffering much from the attacks of leeches and from the
constant rain. On the night of April 12 a camp was made in the narrow
canon of the Bagbaujan but, at 8 p. m., because of the heavy rain and the
sudden rise in the river, the water coming up about 5 feet in one-half
hour, the party were obliged to desert their tents in the darkness and take
shelter on a ledge above. The rain continued until 10 p. m. when the
river subsided as fast as it had risen. On the following day they went
down the river for a distance of 14 miles, being obliged to make use of
ropes for scaling the cliffs. This method of procedure continued on
the morning of the 14th, but later in the day they came out into a more
open country and left the river bed. As much of their food had become
wet owing to the prolonged rains, the question of rations became a very
serious one and caused the members of the party considerable anxiety.
Ifowever, after the 14th, no grave difficulties were encountered, the party
continued on down the Bagbaujan and reached the mouth of the river on
April 19, having been seventeen days in crossing Mindoro.
In June, 1906, Lieut. 7. H. Jennings, Seventh United States Cavalry,
accompanied by Mr. MW. L. Merritt of the Philippine Forestry Bureau,
made an attempt to ascend Halcon, but little information regarding their
trip and experiences is available other than Mr. Merritt’s report, who
being ordered to reach Manila on the last of June was obliged to return
to Calapan before the highest part of the mountain was reached. The
party left Calapan on the morning of June 13, going overland by a trail
leading inland, reached the Catuyran River, the south fork of the Baco,
on the morning of the succeeding day and proceeded up this for some
distance, and then followed a stream known as the Dulangan River which
flows from the Haleon Range. Here most of their carriers deserted
them, and they were delayed in securing more. Continuing up the
Dulangan River on the 16th, they left the bed of the stream on the
following day and took one of the ridges, which was followed on the
18th and 19th until they arrived at the place where Whitehead had estab-
lished his camp in 1895. Up to this point the trail was fair. On June
® Apparently the Bolton River. (See map.)
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 187
21, believing that they were on a ridge leading directly up the moun-
tain, they continued up to an altitude of 5,250 feet, the side slopes of
the ridge which they were on being described as very steep and extend-
ing for 2,000 feet below. Continuing along the ridge for the succeeding
days, on June 26 they reached a peak having an altitude of 7,250 feet,
but, on the following day in going along the ridge towards the main
range, they came to an impassable canon separating the spur on which
they were from the main range, and accordingly plans were made to
descend into the deep valley to the west and to follow the ridge beyond.
However, Mr. Merritt who was obliged to return to the coast, left the
party on the 28th of June and returned to Calapan. Regarding Lieu-
tenant Jennings’ experiences after this date we have no information except
that he reached Calapan on the 7th of July, having attained the main
ridge on Halcon but not the highest peak. Mr. Merritt’s report shows
that from June 14 to June 27, rainy weather prevailed most of the time.
Previously Lieutenant Jennings had made a trip into the interior
of Mindoro north of Halcon, following Lieutenant Lee’s course up the
Baco and Alag Rivers for an estimated distance of 10 miles, where he
left the Alag and ascended the ridge to the north, reaching the Binabay
River. Mounting the ridge to the north of the Binabay, he followed
it for three days, mostly in a westerly direction, finally he recrossed the
Binabay River and taking the ridge between it and the Alag River, he
continued for five days, going west and somewhat north of west, reaching
an altitude of 6,000 feet on a ridge some distance north of Mount Halcon.
He reported from his experience on this trip- that he did not consider
the route from the north a feasible one for the ascent of Halcon, recom-
mending that whoever should make the attempt to climb the mountain,
should try a route from the vicinity of Lake Naujan or from the west
coast of Mindoro.
OUR OWN ASCENT OF HALCON.
A geographical and biological expedition to Mount Halcon was planned
in October, 1906, under the direction and with the support of Maj. Gen.
Leonard Wood, its object being to determine some feasible route to the
mountain, to ascend the highest peak, to secure as much data as possible
and to collect objects of natural history. The party was under the imme-
diate direction of Dr. #. A. Mearns, major and surgeon, United States
Army, accompanied by Mr. W. I. Hutchinson, of the Philippine Forestry
Bureau, and myself, with one topographer, one hospital corps man, a
sergeant and five privates of the Twenty-fifth Company of Philippine
Scouts, two natives assistants for Dr. Mearns, and five native carriers
from Antipolo, Luzon. Fifteen additional native carriers were secured
at Subaan, Mindoro. :
We spent the day after our arrival on the morning of October 31 at
Calapan, the capital of Mindoro, in repacking the camp outfit, rations and
188 MERRILL.
equipment, and in endeavoring to obtain information regarding Mount
Halcon. As we expected, but very little which was definite regarding it
could be secured in Calapan. Fortunately, we met an American who had
a placer claim on the Binabay River and who had been as far inland as
the junction of the Binabay with the Alag. He informed as that a good
trail existed from Subaan to the Alag River and although he had no
information regarding the country beyond the Alag, he was of the
opinion that Halcon could be reached and ascended by this route. Topo-
graphically, this seemed to us to be the more direct way, although
Lieutenant Jennings had reported his belief that a more feasible route
could be found from the south, either by way of the Catuyran River, a
tributary of the Baco, from Lake Naujan, or from the west coast. We
were already acquainted with Mr. Whitehead’s experiences on the Du-
langan spur of Halcon and also aware of the fact that Lieutenant Jen-
nings had been unable to reach the highest peak of Halcon by following
Whitehead’s course, and as a selection of any of the routes suggested by
Lieutenant Jennings would have necessitated much more overland travel
than by way of the trail leading inland from Subaan to the Alag River,
the latter was chosen. Accordingly, two large native boats were secured
to take the party and equipment up the coast to Subaan, a small village
about 10 miles northwest of Calapan; November 1 was entirely occupied
in making this trip, and in securing the native carriers for the journey
inland. On the morning of November 2 the party left Subaan for the
Binabay River, two scouts remaining behind to guard the food supply
and equipment which was not immediately taken forward. As rations
for forty days had been brought and as the equipment and _Supplies for
field work were bulky and difficult to transport, it was found quite im-
possible to secure the necessary carriers to take all at one trip, so that
plans were made to establish camps from time to time and have the
material brought in by relays. The trail for about 2 miles led through
an open, flat, semicultivated region and shortly after leaving the coast
we were obliged to ford the Subaan River, a stream of considerable size.
At the end of 2. miles the trail left the level land and crossed a broad,
interrupted ridge, densely forested with magnificent trees and broken by
ravines containing small streams, some tributary to the Subaan River,
others to the Binabay. The highest altitude reached on this ridge was
about 1,000 feet. We established our first camp where the trail crossed
the Binabay River at a distance of about 6 miles from Subaan and at
an altitude of 700 feet, making it with some American miners who had
located a placer claim in the stream bed as coarse gold to a limited extent
is found in the sand.
On November 3 the carriers were sent back to Subaan for more sup-
plies and the other members of the party reconnoitered for trails in the
vicinity leading towards Halcon, climbing to the top of the ridge to the
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 189
southwest to an altitude of 1,200 feet. At the top of this ridge we entered
the first Mangyan clearing and here saw the only representatives of
these people who were encountered on the entire trip.
Three small houses, each consisting of a platform raised 2 to 3 feet
from the ground, with a thin roof of palm leaves, but without walls,
were located in this clearing, and later, along the ridge a short distance
to the southwest, a larger house was found. All the houses were deserted
on our arrival in the clearing, but on the return trip, in the first house
we found an old man and his son, who told us that is family had fled
at our approach, but that when he saw there were white men in the party
he had returned. These people were all small in size, being about 4 feet
10 inches in height, their hair was short and curly.
From the opening which we had reached we secured a magnificent
view of Halcon to the south, while the coast region and Calapan were
visible to the east. We found two trails leading down to the Alag River,
one from the southeast corner of the clearing and the other from the
_south side. The latter, being more in the direction of Halcon Peak, was
selected for our route. On November 5, our carriers having arrived
from Subaan the day before, we left the Binabay River and on arrival
in the clearing mentioned above again encountered the old Mangyan who
said that he was too old to act as our guide, but that he could secure for
us one who knew the trails. As a guide familiar with the routes leading
to Halcon would have greatly facilitated our work, he was asked to procure
one, but after waiting about an hour we decided that he had no intention
of returning and so we went on to the Alag River. The trail was well
defined, leading down a 30° to 45°, well forested slope. Just before we
reached the Alag the path crossed a tributary stream of considerable
size which offered no difficulties in fording and as none of our natives had
a name for it, we christened it the Egbert River in memory of the late
General Harry V. Egbert, United States Army. The distance from the
Binabay River to the Alag was about 2 miles. At the point where the
trail reached the Alag, the stream was about 100 yards wide, not very
deep but quite swift and from the place where we first forded the stream
to an altitude of 1,200 feet, where we made our last crossing in the ascent,
we found no still water whatever. The American miners living on
the Binabay informed us that during the previous ten days there had
been comparatively little rain and accordingly we found the Alag ford-
able. An attempt was made to cross it at the junction of the Egbert
River, but it was found to be too swift and deep at that point and we
were obliged to proceed up the stream for several hundred yards. and
then to follow an indirect course along the bars in the more shallow
water. It was necessary to ford the stream several times during the
day’s march in order to avoid abrupt bluffs and cliffs. The Alag, at a
distance of about 1 mile above the junction of the Egbert, divides into
557114
190 MERRILL.
two nearly equal branches; one, flowing from the direction of the Halcon
Range was considered to represent the main stream and the other, being
unknown to any of our party, was named Whitehead River in honor of
the late John Whitehead, an English naturalist who made the first serious
attempt to ascend Halcon.
From the entrance of the Egbert River to that of the Whitehead, the
Alag flows through a rather wide valley lying between two low, densely
forested ridges, the river in this interval being from 50 to 100 yards
wide. Our trail followed the margin of the stream, sometimes on one
side, sometimes on the other. However, after passing the entrance of
the Whitehead River the banks of the stream became very irregular, its bed
being much narrower, so that because of the corresponding increasing dif-
ficulties in fording it was found advantageous to travel through the
underbrush along a bench about 25 feet above the level of the stream.
This necessitated slow progress as we were obliged to cut a trail
through the dense vegetation. Continuing on up the Alag for a short
distance above the junction of the Whitehead River, Camp Number Two
was established late in the afternoon. On November 6 and 7 the carriers
were sent back to Subaan for further supplies and the remainder of the
party reconnoitered up the Alag. The river canon was found to be very
narrow, with perpendicular cliffs sometimes several hundred feet in
height and covered with dense vegetation, which often rose abruptly
from the bed of the stream. In searching for the most feasible route
for our carriers the banks were climbed at intervals, but in no case
could a view be secured because of the dense thickets. It was decided
that the only practicable course, for the present at least, was along the
bed of the stream. The advance was-rendered very difficult because of the
narrowness of the canon and the swiftness of the water which made
fording impossible in most places; moreover, we were aware of the fact
that the river was subject to sudden and enormous floods and that in
case of heavy rains we were almost certain to be cut off from our base
of supplies. The tremendous force of the water in times of floods was
much in evidence as we traveled upstream; great water-worn bowlders,
6 to 15 feet in diameter, were everywhere encountered and in places
large caverns had been cut in the solid cliffs by the action of the water.
At a distance of about a mile above Camp Number Two and at an
altitude of 900 feet, another smaller river joins the Alag from the east,
this we named the Bolton, in memory of the late Lieut. Edward C.
Bolton, former Governor of the District of Davao, Mindanao. This was
undoubtedly the stream which Lieutenant Lee’s party followed in cross-
ing the divide between the Alag and Baghaujan Rivers in April, 1904.
A beautiful cascade about 15 feet in height exists just below the junc-
tion of this with the Alag, here the whole volume of the river is forced
through a narrow passage between two large bowlders, falling into a pool
surrounded by high cliffs.
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 191
On November 8, with twenty loaded carriers, we broke camp and
proceeded up the stream to the junction of the Bolton River. Here,
finding it no longer possible to follow the Alag, it was decided to take
the ridge between_it and the Bolton which, however, was exceedingly
steep and covered with dense forests. No trail was to be found and
accordingly one had to be cleared as we advanced. Ascending to an
altitude or 2,250 feet, we came into a deserted Mangyan clearing and
before us, across the valley of the Alag, was a magnificent panorama of
the entire Halcon Range. Progress during this day had been exceed-
ingly slow because of the difficulties encountered in proceeding along the
Alag and in ascending the ridge, it being necessary to limit our speed
to that of our loaded carriers. Late in the afternoon it was found that
we had convered a distance of but approximately 1$ miles. It was then
decided to establish Camp Number Three in the Mangyan clearing,
with a subsidiary base camp at the junction of the Alag and Bolton
Rivers and consequently natives were sent out to locate water and a
messenger was despatched on the trail to instruct our scouts to establish
a base camp at the place indicated and to build grass houses of suffi-
cient size to accommodate all of our carriers who were to be traveling back
and forth bringing supplies. Just before dark our natives reported “no
water” and we prepared for a dry camp, when a brisk shower came on ©
which enabled us to catch enough water for our immediate needs on the
tent fly and ponchos. Early on the following morning our natives located
a small stream tributary to the Bolton River at several hundred feet
below our camp. :
As many essential supplies remained at Subaan and at various points
along the trail, most of the carriers were sent back to the coast, and from
November 9 to 11 the country was explored for trails or for a feasible
route to the main range of Halcon. At first it was thought that the best
one would be by way of the ridge which we were then on, and that by
following this we could avoid descending into the canon of the Alag.
Two of the party followed the ridge to the southwest of our camp for
some distance, attaining an altitude of 3,500 feet. Although they found
that it might be possible to gain the main range by this route, such a
course would necessitate a long detour in order to pass the Alag and
practically every foot of the distance would be gained only by trail cut-
ting of the most difficult kind through the dense ridge thickets. In the
meantime others of the party reconnoitered in the direction of Halcon
peak, finding a well-defined Mangyan trail leading to the Alag at some
distance from our camp. On November 12, some of our carriers having
returned the night before, we left the camp in charge of two natives
and proceeded with thirteen loaded carriers along the Mangyan trail to
the Alag. The slope was very steep, being 60° to 70°, and after descend-
ing about 1,000 feet we reached the bottom of the canon at a point where
192 MERRILL.
two streams of equal magnitude joined. Here we found that the Mang-
yans, in order to be independent of the river in times of flood, had
constructed a suspension bridge across the canon. This was about 75
feet long, made of seven rattan stems so arranged that the lower three
strands formed a foot bridge, the upper two serving as hand rails. On
both sides of the canon these rattans were firmly attached to large trees
and on the west bank they passed over a huge bowlder in order to give the
span sufficient altitude above the water in times of flood.
The west branch was considered to represent the main stream, and the
fork flowing from the direction of Halcon Peak was named the Halcon
River. The party crossed the Alag, some by means of the suspension
bridge, others by fording ; the trail was found to continue on up the opposite
bank, undoubtedly leading to a recent clearing of considerable magnitude
which was plainly to be seen from our Camp Number Three and from
which it did not appear feasible to ascend Halcon. Accordingly, we
crossed the Halcon River, taking the ridge between it and the Alag,
continuing until we reached an altitude of about 3,200 feet, under the
impression that we were on the ridge leading to the main range. Late in
the afternoon it was discovered that we had still another canon to cross,
and as our carriers were exhausted, we established-Camp Number Four
in the forest, without water other than the small supply which we had in
our canteens and such meager amounts as could be secured from freshly
cut rattan stems.
Striking camp at daybreak on the 13th, we proceeded along the ridge
for a short distance when we reached a deserted clearing; passing
through this we entered a more recent and occupied one which was several
hundred acres in area, where one or two deserted houses were found.
About one and one-half hours after this we reached the canon between
us and the main ridge, crossing it near its head. The stream in this
canon was called the Cuming River in honor of Hugh Cuming, an
Englishman who made extensive collections of plants and animals in the
Philippines between the years 1836 and 1840. Breakfast was prepared
at this point and at about 10 o’clock we were again on the march, proceed-
ing up the steep eastern bank of the Cuming River, following a rather
indistinct Mangyan trail. Near the top of the ridge we entered a
deserted clearing containing the ruins of an old house, where the trail
seemed to end. From this point a course was taken up the crest of the
ridge, which here was rather broad, although it gradually narrowed as
we ascended and we soon found ourselves forced to cut our way through
exceedingly dense thickets up an 80° slope. After much difficulty we
attained the summit of a small spur covered with dense, characteristic,
mossy forest. As it was late in the afternoon when the crest line was
reached, Camp Number Five was established on the narrow bench in the
dense forest, just below the top of the ridge, a small stream being located
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 193
about one-fourth of a mile distant and 300 feet below. The distance coy-
ered in this day was only about one and one-half miles. On November 14
the carriers were sent back to the base camp on the Alag River for fur-
ther supplies and on this and the following day trails were opened up on
the ridge to an altitude of 7,000 feet, and a point at an altitude of 6,300
feet was selected for Camp Number Six.
Trail cutting became progressively more laborious as we advanced,
because of the increasingly stunted character of the vegetation. No par-
ticular difficulties were encountered in the first mile, the trail being opened
just below the crest of the ridge, but beyond this point further progress was
found to be impossible because of a perpendicular landslide which was in
our path, making it necessary for us to force our way through the exceed-
ingly dense thickets up a very steep slope to the top of the ridge, the sum-
mit of which was attained at an altitude of about 6,650 feet. This ridge
was found to slope gradually upward and it varied from 5 to 30 feet in
width, in most parts breaking abruptly on both sides in nearly perpendicu-
lar slopes. The crest line forest was composed of stunted trees with short,
stout trunks and stiff branches, often semiprostrate, and with large spread-
ing roots raised more or less above the ground. Intermixed with the trees
was a heavy stand of shrubs and bushes, while an abundance of the very
spiny rattans, and nearly as spiny smilax, clambering everywhere through
the thickets, rendering trail cutting always a difficult operation and fre-
quently a painful one as well. Hverywhere the ground and the trunks
and branches of the trees were covered with thick masses of yellow and
green moss, filmy ferns, numerous orchids and other epiphytic plants,
the ground mat often being one foot or more in thickness, composed of
mosses, lichens, ferns and herbaceous plants. A trail was cleared along
this ridge to the foot of the sharp slope at an altitude of about 7,000 feet.
We had been favored with exceptionally good weather up to this time,
only an occasional shower interfering with our progress, causing no
greater inconvenience than a more or less thorough wetting of our
persons, which was of minor importance as we were wet nearly every
day in fording streams. However, on reaching an altitude of 4,500 feet
we entered the region of practically constant fogs and rains which made
traveling exceedingly unpleasant because of the wet thickets and heavy
drip from the leaves even when it was not raining, as well as because of
the reduced temperature, the thermometer rarely registering above 60° F.
We established Camp Number Six on November 17 at an altitude of
6,300 feet at a point previously selected and at a-short distance below
where our trail ascended to the crest of the ridge. No running water
was to be found within a half mile of the camp, but the practically
constant rain which prevailed for the thirteen succeeding days rendered
the distance from running water of secondary importance. The slopes
on the north were very precipitous and in many places entirely denuded
194 MERRILL.
of soil and vegetation, where extensive portions of the main ridge had
slid into the valley. The land slides, some of them of recent origin,
present a bare, rocky face, covered only in places with a scant growth of
grass, herbaceous plants and small bushes. We secured a magnificent,
view of Halcon, which was 1$ miles distant across a deep valley, by
cutting out a few trees on the steep slopes below our camp, but the peak
was very rarely visible because of the prevailing fog and rain. Occasio-
nally at intervals of cessation in the severe storm which now came on,
the wind would drive the fog away. Judging from these glimpses it
became very evident to us that from our present position the only route
leading to the latter was by way of the ridge on which we were. On
November 18 our carriers came in from Subaan, having made the trip
from the coast in three and one-half days. Some were retained for
work about the camp, some were sent back to the base camp at the junc-
tion of the Baco and Alag Rivers to remain there until further orders,
while others were returned to Subaan to bring in food to supply the
party on the trip back to the coast. The ones whom we retained at
Camp Number Six suffered much from the cold and dampness, as also
did the Americans in the party.
Realizing that our food supply was limited and that, because of the
present storm, the Alag would be unfordable and accordingly no further
supplies could be brought in, it was deemed unwise to remain in camp
hoping for a change in weather, hence, on the morning of November 19,
Mr. Hutchinson and I proceeded by way of the ridge to an altitude
of 7,000 feet where previously we had cleared a trail. We continued
it up the steep slope, attaining the main ridge at an altitude of 7,800
feet; the one leading to Halcon Peak running from the east to the
west at about right angles to our ridge trail. The montane brush of
the upper ridges became reduced to an open heath commencing at the
crest line and extending for some distance down the southern slope, the
ground cover consisting of tufted grasses, with only occasionally scat-
tered stunted bushes and shrubs, a most grateful change from the
dense, mossy ridge thickets through which previously we had been obliged
to cut trails. However, these heath lands were limited in extent and so
we passed rapidly through them and found the succeeding ridge thickets
to be very much more dense than those farther down. Progress through
them was literally foot by foot and then only by constant use of bolo.
The heavy rain which had set in a few days before, still continued with-
out cessation, adding to our discomfort, the temperature being constantly
below 15° C. Owing to the low temperature, the high wind and the con-
tinual rain, our position was exceedingly uncomfortable and at times
of especially heavy downpours the warmth of our bodies did not suffice
to keep the temperature of our wet clothes up to a degree of comfort,
the occassional, heavy bursts of cold rain cooling the body to such an
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 195
extent that, even with the very active and arduous work of trail clearing
in the dense thickets, our sufferings from cold were greatly accentuated.
At times, as we came to the crest line, the cold wind would add to our
discomfort, although much of the time we were fortunately sheltered from
it by the dense thickets. Pitcher plants (Nepenthes) became very abun-
dant, clambering everywhere in the thickets, so that in cutting our way
through the underbrush, at frequent intervals our bolo slashes would
upset the equilibrium of from one to a half dozen pitchers, each holding
one-half quart or more of water, which would be precipitated upon us.
These irregular douches were far more disagreeable than the constant
shower bath from the falling rain.
The heath lands on the upper ridges were interrupted by deep ravines,
filled with very dense vegetation through which progress was exceedingly
slow. Unfortunately for us, these heath lands were very limited in area
and we soon came to a dense ridge thicket which we afterwards learned
continued uninterruptedly to the summit of the highest peak. Along
this ridge we cleared a narrow trail to an altitude of about 8,300 feet.
As it was then late in the afternoon and with the heavy rain still con-
tinuing, we returned to camp, arriving just after dark. On November
20 the storm was much more severe than it had been on the preceding
days and we were obliged to remain in camp, having little to do other
than to listen to the constant drip of the rain and the roar of the streams
in the yalley below and wondering about the state of the Alag and the
safety of our base camp. On the following day the heavy rain con-
tinued through the morning, but it slackened at midday, so that we left
Camp Number Six at noon and proceeded up to the main ridge, making
Camp Number Seven on the open heath at an altitude of 7,900 feet,
carrying with us a tent fly and blankets, as well as food for three days.
The carriers employed in transporting the material to the high ridge
were immediately sent back to Camp Number Six. Light rains continued
during the afternoon’s march, but toward evening the clouds lifted
somewhat, giving us an indistinct view to the south and west. The
country south was much more open than that to the north, many of the
slopes being grass covered instead of forested, and a number of Mangyan
houses were to be seen below +4,000 feet. The entire country toward
the south, so far as could be seen, was very rough and mountainous, but
the ocean was visible to the southwest; no view to the east and north
could be obtained owing to the fogs and clouds. At the point where
we pitched our tent a well-defined Mangyan trail crossed the main ridge
from north to south, apparently leading up by way of the cafion of the
Halcon River or by one of its tributaries, or from one of the Mangyan
clearings which we did not visit. As the trail was a much traveled one
it seems probable that there is considerable communication between the
people living to the north and to the south of Haleon. Evidently, these
196 MERRILL.
Mangyans do not possess the usual superstitions regarding mountains
which are found among most natives of the Philippines, or at least not
to such a degree as to prevent them from ascending the high ridges.
Just before dark the heavy storm set in again, continuing all night and
throughout the following day. In spite of it, we left camp on the
morning of November 22 with the object of reaching the highest point
on Halcon. In passing from the point where we stopped trail cutting a
few days before, to the summit of the mountain, we encountered the
densest thickets seen on the entire trip, and immediately below the peak it
took two men three and one-half hours of constant and heavy work with
bolos to open a very narrow trail, for a distance of less than one-half a mile.
At 1 o’clock in the afternoon of November 22, twenty-one days from the
coast, the party reached the highest point on Halcon. The summit being
shrouded in clouds, no view was obtained and as all the members of the
party where suffering severely from the cold and rain, we stopped only
long enough to take aneroid readings and to deposit a record of the trip,
which was placed in a sealed bottle and secured to the largest tree on
the summit, there being no bowlders available of which to build a cairn.
The top of Halcon is a somewhat flattened ridge about one-eighth of a
mile long, sloping gradually to the southeast; the peak is covered
with a dense growth of stunted trees, none of them more than 10 feet
in height, the ground and the trunks, branches and even smaller branchlets
of the trees being thinkly covered with from 5 to 15 inches of moss.
No marks of a trail were observed and no signs were seen anywhere in
the vicinity of the peak which would indicate that the summit had ever
been visited by human beings, and it would be physically impossible for any
person to reach it through the dense forest growth without leaving signs
of trail cutting. Late in the afternoon the party arrived at Camp Num-
ber Seven and spent a most disagreeable night in wet clothes and blankets,
as it was impossible to start a fire because of the continuous wind and
rain and consequently no warm food could be prepared. On the morn-
ing of November 23 we returned to Camp Number Six and during the
two following days we were obliged to remain there because of the storm.
On the morning of November 26, our carriers who had remained at the
base camp at the junction of the Alag and Bolton Rivers, came back
reporting the Alag River very high and unfordable, and for that reason
the carriers who had been sent to Subaan had been unable to return;
moreover, the food supply at the base camp was very low. As we had
no further object in remaining at the higher altitudes we broke Camp
Number Six on the morning of November 26 with the intention of sleeping
that night at the large Mangyan house described on page 182. As we
had but few carriers, every member of the party was obliged to pack a
heavy load. The topographer and hospital corps man left Camp Num-
ber Six about half an hour before the remainder of the party, but on
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 197
our arrival at the Mangyan house they were not to be found, having
apparently lost the trail, nor did they appear that night.
On the following day, with the Mangyan house as headquarters, search
was made on the back trail for the missing men and messengers were
sent down to the Alag River to see if they had arrived at the base camp.
No trace of them was found on this day and on the 28th the search was
continued. In the morning word was received that they had not ap-
peared at the base camp and accordingly a party was detailed to make
a more thoreugh search on the back trail. However, in the afternoon
the lost men appeared in the Mangyan clearing. It seems that on com-
ing down the ridge from Camp Number Six they had missed the trail
crossing the headwaters of the Cuming River, and had proceeded for
some distance down the main ridge leading toward the Halcon before
discovering their mistake. Thinking it possible that they could easily
reach the Alag at the point where the suspension bridge crossed the
cation, they continued on down the ridge, but where unable to reach the
stream because of the steep cliffs. Accordingly, they retraced their steps
for some distance and found an old Mangyan trail which they followed
for some time, crossing the Halcon by a second suspension bridge and
again attempting to reach the Alag and follow it to the junction of the
Bolton River, but once more, because of the dense thickets and high
cliffs, they were obliged to give up the attempt. Finally, they retraced
their steps by the main ridge, located the trail crossing the headwaters
of the Cuming River, and arrived at the Mangyan house after having
been out nearly three days without other food than a few acorns which
they found in the forest. While we were searching for this party on
the ridges, they were in the canons attempting to reach the streams and
accordingly did not hear our shouts or shots.
Because of the weak condition of the men who had been lost, no further
progress was made until December 1, except to concentrate our supplies
and equipment at Camp Number Nine, at the point where the Bolton
River joints the Alag. The Alag was still high and unfordable, although
the water was about six feet below the point at which it had been a few
days before. All members of the party had been on short rations for
several days and there seemed to be no immediate prospect of further
supplies reaching us from the coast. On the afternoon of November
30 a rude bridge was built across the Alag at Camp Number Nine
by felling trees and floating the trunks down stream so that they lodged
against bowlders in the bed of the river, the ends of the trunks being
lashed in place with rattan and a hand-rail was added. A brisk rain
in the night caused the river to rise considerably and one-half of the
bridge was carried away, so that we had to replace it on the following
morning. On December 1, the first clear day after thirteen days and
nights of nearly constant rain, we broke Camp Number Nine and moved
198 MERRILL.
all the material across the river, but as we had with us only seven carriers,
a temporary camp was established on the opposite bank and the two
American soldiers, who were still in a weak condition, were left in charge.
At noon, the remaining members of the party, all heavily loaded,
proceeded down the east bank of the Alag. Many difficulties were
encountered during the afternoon. In a number of places where bluffs
arose abruptly from the stream and which on the up trip we had been
able to avoid by fording the river, we were now obliged to climb, fording
being entirely out of the question. These frequent detours entailed
extensive trail cutting which, with a 50-pound pack, soon became a
decidedly painful operation, especially as in order to find a feasible route
we had frequently to climb the steep banks or to follow the nearly as
steep ravines to a height of two or three hundred feet or more. Camp
was made just after dark at the foot of a bluff on the edge of the river.
A daybreak on December 2 we proceeded down the stream to a point
opposite the entrance of the Egbert River, where Camp Number Ten
was established.
All the carriers were immediately sent up the river to bring down
more supplies, a scout, who succeeded in crossing the Alag with some
difficulty, went into Subaan for additional ones, and one man was
sent to the Binabay River for food. Fortunately for us the weather
still continued clear and the Alag fell rapidly. On December 3 the
carriers were again dispatched up the Alag to bring down the remaining
equipment, returning to camp late in the afternoon, the two soldiers
accompanying them and at the same time the bearers from Subaan
arrived, reporting that they had encountered serious difficulties in cross-
ing the Alag on the trip back to the coast, but that they had finally
reached their destination and started back with supplies. On their return,
finding that the river was high and that it was impossible to cross, they
remained on the north bank of the stream for three days waiting for
the waters to subside, and then returned to Subaan. As the carriers
came in late in the afternoon it was impossible for us to move camp
across the river on that day. A heavy rain came on in the night which
caused us considerable anxiety for the reason that if it continued for
any length of time, we should be unable to cross the river on the follow-
ing day and would be obliged to follow the stream down to tide-water
along the south bank.
The rain continued throughout the night and at daybreak we found
that the-water had risen about six inches, so that the stream was still
fordable, although with great difficulty and considerable danger. Heavily
loaded carriers with the assistance of one or two men without loads could
usually keep their footing, but some of them were carried downstream
by the current, wetting some of our equipment. The Americans in the
party who attempted to cross without loads, depending entirely on heavy
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 199
poles for assistance, were invariably carried down by the current and
were obliged to swim the last few yards in the very swift water.
After many delays and heavy work all the equipment was taken across
the river and transported to the top of the ridge between the Alag
and Binabay Rivers, where Camp Number Eleven was established. The
party made an early start on the morning of December 5 and proceeded
by way of the Binabay to Subaan, arriving there about 2 o’clock in the
afternoon. We were obliged to remain in Subaan throughout the fol-
lowing day and 4 o’clock on the morning of December 7 embarked for
Calapan on a large sailing banca, arriving at noon. On the night of
December 9, after forty days, the party returned to Manila, having
accomplished the objects of the trip.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
No data are available regarding the rainfall in Mindoro but judging
solely from the vegetation in the southern part of the Island, the rainfall
there is much less and the dry season much more prolonged than it is in
the North, in the vicinity of Halcon. The presence of this high mountain
and its subsidiary ranges causes an enormous precipitation, extending
continuously over nine months of the year, from May to January, while
the so-called dry months, February, March and April, are not always
completely so, as is to be seen from the heavy rain encountered by Lieut-
enant Lee in April, 1904. During most of the year the mountain is
shrouded in fogs and is very rarely entirely free from clouds for any
extended period. The fact that the rivers flowing from the Halcon
Range, although comparatively short, carry an enormous body of water
~and that they are subject to great and frequent floods, as both our party
and Whitehead learned from experience, would indicate an abnormally
heavy rainfall. The vegetation of Halcon, not only that of the higher alti-
tudes, but of the lowlands surrounding the mountain and extending even
to the coast at Baco, demonstrates a high and practically uninterrupted
humidity throughout the year. Abundant epiphytes, ferns, orchids and
other plants and especially the filmy ferms, which are dependent upon a
high and constant humidity for their existence and are identical with,
or similar to the species on other mountains in the Philippines at altitudes
above 3,000 feet, are found in the vicinity of Halcon, sometimes at sea
level. In the forests along the rivers at as low an elevation as 250 feet
such plants are abundant and many species are represented.
Haleon is covered with and surrounded by the most dense forests
excepting where the vegetation has been destroyed by the Mangyans.
From the limits of cultivated land along the coast, extending inward and
up to an altitude of 3,000 feet, the trees are of large size and would prove
to be of considerable commercial value for timber if the ‘question of trans-
portation were a more simple one. Beginning at an altitude of about
200 MERRILL.
1,200 feet on the ridge between the Alag and Binabay and at about 5 or
6 miles from the nearest Tagalog settlements, one finds traces of the
Mangyans in clearings, occupied or deserted. It is the custom of these
people to clear a given area by chopping down the trees and brush and
after burning it over they plant upland rice, corn, and other crops. Such
clearings will be occupied for one or more years until the soil shows
signs of exhaustion, until the slopes are denuded by erosion or until the
exuberent tropical vegetation becomes too great an obstacle to the
primitive agriculturist. He then clears another piece of ground and the
deserted one soon reverts to its former forested condition. After a term
of years the same land may be cleared again by the same methods. Every-
where on the more gentle slopes from the Binabay River to an altitude of
3,500 feet on Halcon, we observed clearings in all stages, from those
freshly cut and not yet burned to those in cultivation, and from those
recently deserted to clearings in all stages of reversion to forest. Some
of these were very extensive and must have entailed a great amount
of labor, for many of the trees felled were 3 feet in diameter, and the
only tools possessed by the Mangyans are working bolos and very small,
narrow axes.
From a forestry standpoint, practically all the forests in the im-
mediate vicinity of Halcon have been ruined by the above methods of
clearing, for it seems evident that the Mangyan selects virgin woods for
his work of destruction, doubtless because he has found from experience
that the soil is better than in those localities where he has previously
cleared and which have reverted.
The floristic conditions *° of the lower forests indicate high and con-
tinuous humidity, shown by the numerous ferns, mosses and epiphytes.
As higher altitudes are reached these epiphytes become progressively more
abundant, until on the exposed crest-line ridges, beginning at 4,000 feet, the
trees are found to be completely covered with a dense mass of mosses and
epiphytes, so thick and close that frequently the bark of the tree is not
visible. The character of the vegetation entirely changes, the constituent
species of the lower forests disappear and others totally different in aspect
take their place. Various species of oak and one species of maple are
abundant at intermediate altitudes, but on the ridges the vegetation is
largely characterized by certain species found in such habitats throughout
Malaya. Epiphytic ferns and orchids and other plants become more
plentiful and there is a greater diversity in species; mosses are much
thicker and more luxuriant, enwrapping even the branches and branchlets
of the trees and forming a deep, soft, soil cover, frequently a foot in
thickness. -Epiphytic shrubs and vines are abundant and give an added
character to the vegetation ; rhododendrons, huckleberries, raspberries and
2% For.an account of the Flora of Mount Halcon see Merrill, this Journal
C. Botany (1907), 2, 251. 5
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 201
other plants characteristic of the more temperate regions made their ap-
pearance, and the pitcher plant (Nephenthes), becomes common, climbing
through the thickets. The vegetation again gradually changes above 4,000
feet, the trees and shrubs become more stunted and dwarfed, epiphytes
increase in abundance, peat moss appears in the ground cover and many of
the constituent species of trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, epiphytes, etc.,
are again quite different from the ones at 4,000 feet. On gaining the
high, main ridge, at 7,800 feet, there is a most radical change; the mon-
tane brush has become reduced to a mere heath over considerable areas,
the ground having a thin cover of grasses with scattered, stunted bushes
and shrubs, a curious mixture of north-temperate and Australian types.
These heath lands disappear along the ridge towards the high peak and the
montane brush is again in evidence, but more stunted and much more
dense than on the lower ridges ; epiphytic orchids and ferns become reduced
to few species and there is a corresponding increase in the abundance
_and density of the mosses and lichens which everywhere cover the ground
and trunks of the brush. Small branches, even no larger than the finger,
appear to be 6 inches or more in thickness owing to their dense covering
of yellow and green moss. These upper thickets represent the densest .
vegetation I have ever observed in the Philippines. It was almost impos-
sible to penetrate it even with a liberal use of the bolo.
CONCLUSION.
The origin of most of the mountains in the Philippines is due to volcanic
activity, but Halcon is radically distinct from the others in structure. It
is a mass of granite, white quartz, schist and marble. Iron pyrites was
observed in some localities, while gold in small amounts is found in the
sands of the streams flowing from it. Slate was observed by Mr. Mc-
Caskey a short distance north of the main range. In general structure,
so far as can be determined from descriptions to be obtained, Halcon
seems geologically to be the same as Mount Kinabalu, British North
Borneo, the highest peak in the Malayan region.
Halcon Range is a fold, the main ridge running in a generally east
and west direction, irregular in profile, but continuous for a long distance
at high altitudes. So far as could be determined, three great ridges
radiate from the main range, one to the west, one to the south and one
to the east, while to the north especially, the slopes are very precipitous
and show several subsidiary spurs.
Mindoro itself is anomalous in some respects as compared with other
islands of the Philippine group, but later when more definite knowl-
edge is secured regarding it and its neighbors, it may be shown that it is
really the oldest part of the Archipelago proper. The one large mammal
found in the Philippines, Bubalus mindorensis, said to be most closely
related to a Celebes form, is confined to the Island of Mindoro; certain
202 MERRILL.
genera of lowland plants, such as Antiaris, Chrysophyllum, Ochtho-
charis, etc., characteristic of the Malayan region in the west and south, are
known in the Philippines only from Mindoro, while the plants from the
higher altitudes on Halcon show remarkable affinities with those known
from Mount Kinabalu, North Borneo, in many cases they are of specific
identity and encountered only in the two localities. At the same time
there is a remarkable number of Australian types present in the Halcon
flora. From the geological, botanical and zodlogical evidence at hand,
indications are found which would seem to point to an early land connec-
tion between Mindoro and some great mass to the west and south, but at
the same time there is shown a prolonged separation and apparently a
greater age than has been discovered in any other part of the Philippines
proper. It is probable that Mindoro, in the various disturbances which
have from time to time submerged portions of the Archipelago, has
constantly remained above the sea.
Extensive collections of natural history specimens were made on the
trip, but most of the material was collected and prepared under the most
adverse conditions. A series of papers based on this matter, which will
add much to our knowledge of the fauna and flora of the Philippines is
planned.
A feasible route to the mountain was discovered and mapped, and it
was proved that Halcon could be ascended even at the most unfavorable
season of the year. The course of the Alag River was in part determined
and charted, this large stream not being shown at all on many maps of the
Philippines. Several of its tributaries were located and named.
To anyone contemplating a like trip on Halcon the followimg recom-
mendations will prove to be of some value, and will apply as well to many
other mountains in the Philippines. Brown soap should be issued reg-
ularly to the native carriers to be used as a leech repellent. This is
smeared on the bare legs once or several times a day if necessary, for the
loss of blood from the attacks of leeches is always considerable, and
serious complications which might cripple a party in regard to transporta-
tion might arise from a resulting infection, for on Halcon the only
feasible method of transportation is by carriers. All members of the
party wearing shoes should be equipped with woolen puttees instead of
leather or canvas leggings, as the former are proof against the attacks of
leeches, while the two latter give no protection whatever. Eyeholes on
shoes should be smeared with soap each day. Quinine should be issued
regularly to the members of the party to guard against outbreaks of
malaria. All supplies needed on the entire trip should be carried, as no
food can be secured in the interior of Mindoro, at least on the north of
the Halcon Range, except a few very poor camotes, and some small game
such as birds, rats and monkeys, the latter two generally not being con-
sidered acceptable food. If one is not limited as to time, doubtless the
THE ASCENT OF MOUNT HALCON. 203
best carriers for such a trip as we took would be the Mangyans, but
they can be approached only with difficulty and because of their supersti-
tions can not be relied upon to stay with a party. As carriers are very
difficult to secure in Mindoro and do not prove satisfactory even when they
are found, they should be secured at some point in Luzon and landed
with the party, making the ascent. Camp outfit and equipment should
be made as light as possible and food should be confined to essentials. All
food supplies and equipment should be wrapped in waterproof packages ;
the packs should be adapted to carriers and should not exceed 40 or 50
pounds in weight for the ordinary carrier.
The proper time for ascending Halcon, judging from our imperfect
knowledge of the rainfall in the vicinity of the mountain, is in. the months
of February, March, April, and May, but these months are by no means
dry, as is shown by Lieutenant Lee’s experience north of Halcon in
April. During the remaining months of the year heavy rains prevail,
and anyone penetrating beyond the Alag River on our route would do
so at the constant risk of being cut off from his base of supplies, as in
reality happened to our party. To be cut off for any extended period in
the interior of Mindoro would be in most cases a very serious complication
and every precaution should be taken to avoid it.
My acknowledgment and thanks are due to Major J. K. Thompson,
United States Army, for the accompanying map and for the copies of
Lieutenant Lee’s report; and to Major George P. Ahern, Director of
Forestry of the Philippine Islands, for copies of Lieutenant Jenning’s
and Foresters Merritt’s and Hutchinson’s reports.
ILLUSTRATION.
Pxrate I. Sketch map of route taken by exploring expedition from Calapan to
summit of Mount Haleon, Mindoro, P. I.
55711——_5 205
2
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Sct., Vou. II, No.
[PHIL. JOURN.
THE ASCENT OF Mount HAtcon.]
MERRILL
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PLATE
Brio: VousLis AUGUST, 1907 No. 4
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
EDITED BY
PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D.
CO-EDITORS
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
E. D. MERRILL, M. S.
PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
MANIL
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1907 ;
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES,
No. 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.—Preliminary Report of the Appearance in the Phil-
ippine Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P. Strong, M. D.
No. 2, 1902, Chemical Labor atory.—The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acetyl Peroxide and Its
Use as an Intestinal Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
C. Freer, M. D., D.
No. 35, 1908; ‘piglogical Laboratory.—A Preliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
No. 4, 1908, Serum Laboratory.—Preliminary Report on the Study of Rinderpest of
Cattie and Carabaos in the Philippine Islands. By James W. Jobling, M. D.
5; Biological Laboratory.—Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, with Special
Reference re Surra in the Philippire Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T.
ess
anOls The American Element in the Philippine
Flora. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1903, Chemical Laboratory.—The Gutta Percha and Rubber of the Philippine
Islands. By Penoyer L. Sherman, jr., Ph. D.
No. 8, 1903.—A Dictionary of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. By Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
. 9, 1903, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—A Report on Hemorrhagic Septicemia
in Animals in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Two Cases of a Peculiar Form of Hand Infection
(Due to an Organism Resembling the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. MeDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M. D.
No. 11, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 1: Prelimi-
nary Bulletin on Insects of the Cacao. (Prepared Especially for the Benefit of Farmers.)
By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 12, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions vaoaned by
the Bacillus of "Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M.
No. 13, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed
Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Fetidus. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D.
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories. —Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera:
An Exper ‘imental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 17, 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, Il. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—l. Amebas : Their Cultivation and Etiologic Sig-
nificance. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of Intes-
tinal Amebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D.
No. 19, 1904, sol gual Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Cholera
Spirillum. By W. Wherry, M. D.
No. 20, 196) Bioloyical Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where
the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus.
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambeesia :
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro- -Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P. Strong, M. D.
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories.—1. 5s: Description of the New Build-
ings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul GC. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. If. A
eS of the Library of the Bureau of Government ‘Laboratories. By Mary Polk,
ibrarian
No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and His-
topathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
Herzog, M. D.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on
qe ates and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B.. Wherry,
No. 25, 1904.1—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By
Richard C. McGregor.
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora
de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiacew of the Philippine Isiands. II. Edible Philippine
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph.
No. 29, 1904.—1. New or Ne ore Philippine Plants, III. I1..The Source of Manila
Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory. —I. Autocatalytic Decomposition of Silver Oxide.
Il. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D.
No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—t1. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (Together
with Some Obsery ations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna).
By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search
Into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “Peptone,’ 2h ‘with Special Reference to Its
ee es the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera-Red Reactions. By William B.
erry, M, D.
(Concluded on third page of cover.)
THE PEerPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
; , A. GENERAL SCIENCE
Von. IL AUGUST, 1907 No.
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY OF THE
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT.
By A. J. EvELAnp.,
(From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY.
GEOGRAPHY.
Position.
Transportation.
Climate.
Vegetation and timber.
HypROGRAPHY.
Drainage.
Mineral springs.
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
Physiographic districts.
The mountain region.
The elevated plateau.
The intermediate uplands.
The incised valley system.
GEOLOGY.
General.
Basal mass.
Intrusives.
Extrusives.
Sedimentaries.
Basal con@lomierate \ Bued River sonics,
Baguio limestone
Tuffs.
Ore deposits.
SUMMARY.
58011 20
=I
208 EVELAND.
INTRODUCTORY.
Benguet and some portions of adjacent northern Luzon have been
visited and explored by numerous scientists and travelers and in addi-
tion to the interest which the region and its inhabitants have aroused,
the undoubted occurrence of gold, apparently in considerable quantity
throughout the region, has increased the desire for more knowledge of
this part of the Philippine Islands.
Almost since the day when Spain released the Islands to the United
States, prospecting and development of the mineral resources of the
country has gone on and confidence in its value has steadily increased.
With that confidence, active operations have gradually expanded and at
this date, the mineral wealth of the Philippines seems to be assured. The
Benguet district in particular may be ranked as one of the most promising
of the Islands.
The investigation of which this report is the result was begun by
me in April, 1905, and attention was first turned to a topographic map
of as much territory as seemed to be under immediate development.
Mapping was carried on over the area covered by mineral claims and
this ground was extended also to take in that area in which the study
of the geologic and related problems would seem to have a bearing on
the purely economic questions involved. With the assistance of one
American and occasionally a few Igorots, the map work was completed
by the beginning of the rainy season in June. The area embraces about
100 square miles including, in addition to the work of the writer, a
survey of the Bued River canon, made by Major L. W. V. Kennon,
United States Army, when he was in charge of the construction of the
Benguet road; and a topographic survey of the immediate vicinity of
Baguio by Mr. G. H. Guerdrum, assistant engineer of the Bureau of
Public Works, in charge of Baguio surveys.
Stadia work with a transit based on a system of triangulation of the
most prominent points and checked by traverses and rapid reconnaissance
methods such as were consistent with the accuracy required, were em-
ployed to accomplish the work in as short a time as possible. The map,
which is published with the report, includes the region between Mount
Santo Tomas on the west and the limit of mining or prospecting opera-
tions on the east; from near Trinidad on the north to a little south of
Kias or “Camp Four” of the Benguet road on the south. In November,
1905, the field work was resumed and the investigation of the geology
and mines taken up during a field season of four months.
The latter work, which I carried out alone, only using native labor in
transporting specimens, etc., was undertaken first with headquarters at
]
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 209
Baguio, from which point at least the more elevated portions of the area
could be reached by aid of a horse. A general geologic reconnaissance
of the district extending beyond the mapped area, in order fully to grasp
certain broader problems was followed by a more detailed study of the
geologic relations of the smaller area. The perhaps extraordinary
occurrence and sequence of geologic phenomena in so limited an area
‘made this portion of the work extremely interesting, and, needless to
add, correspondingly difficult.
Within a comparatively limited field, the study of recent vulcanism
reveals lava flows of different ages, igneous intrusions of notable extent
and the still active evidence of numerous hot springs; ore deposits are
encountered of undoubted value and extent, varying in type from free
milling gold ores to “basic” gold-bearing sulphides of copper, lead, zinc
and iron; sedimentary beds with a rich fauna can be seen, the study
of which may be vitally important to broader questions of the former
extent of the Philippine Islands, or rather their connection with con-
tinental areas; rarely can such a combination be found, both as to the
_ interest to the scientist and the value of knowledge to be gained from
an economic standpoint.
With the information acquired by me, the way was clear to a closer
study of smaller areas from a purely economic basis. It was possible
by camping at the different places where prospecting and mining opera-
tions were going on thoroughly to examine every opening of importance.
Ores and veins were inspected, faults measured—in short, all that was
necessary was done to attain the total of information, so far as it might
be derived from the present stage of the district in mine development.
Numerous samplings and assays aided in the work, and in addition some
underground surveys were made where vein structure or dislocation made
it advisable.
In the field, excepting in rare instances, every assistance and codpera-
tion was met with. The natives, miners and others with whom it was
necessary and desirable to come in contact made Smooth many rough
paths, and this brief acknowledgment of those courtesies and aids may be
taken as but a fraction of the appreciation of the writer.
It is a pleasure to record the aid of my colleague Mr. W. D. Smith
in determining and classifying the fossil remains of this region while I
was studying and working on field material during the preparation. of
this report, and in that connection no little codperation was rendered by
him in aiding me to an understanding of the paleontology and the
petrography of the region; this will be spoken of later. I also desire
to express my appreciation of three weeks’ assistance in the field given
me by Mr. Smith.
210 EVELAND.
GEOGRAPILY.
POSITION.
As has already been stated, the area mapped and discussed in this
report embraces about 100 square miles, of which Baguio, although near
the northern boundary of the area, is the logical center. From Baguio
radiate such roads as the region possesses, and like any other, the develop;
ment of transportation precedes or parallels development along all other
lines.
Baguio is the seat of government of the entire Province of Benguet;
its location is given in the Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands for 1902
as approximately in longitude 120° 38’ 50’” E. and in latitude 16° 32’ N.
Later observations give exact figures as latitude 16° 24’ 27.14’” N. and
-longitude 120° 36’ 6.9’’ E., making the site of Baguio somewhat less
than 150 miles almost due north of Manila.
TRANSPORTATION.
Baguio is reached from Manila from both the south and the west, as
will be seen by reference to the map showing transportation routes of the
region. At present, Dagupan is the “farthest north” as far as rail
transportation from Manila is concerned, but preliminary work is well
advanced for the continuation of the railroad through to Camp One on
the Benguet road. The western coast of Luzon is also marked by a rail-
road route, and a few years more will see it in operation. From the _
western coast and the foothills at Camp One, a horse trail and an auto-
mobile road respectively terminate at Baguio. The mineral region les
to the east of the Benguet road and that region will be spoken of in this
report from now on as the “Baguio district.” Prospecting or mining has
been done to a more limited extent outside of this area and so little definite
information has been gathered, that for all purposes “Benguet,” as the
miner speaks of it, is translated into the plateau region extending easterly
from the eastern slope of Mount Santo Tomas and lying partly on the
elevated plateau or ridge which is a portion of a northwest-southeast
range of considerable extent, and for the remainder and greater part
including the headwaters of those rivers which have cut laterally and
transversely into the main mountain mass.
In this region transportation is generally by trail. On the upper and
more level portion of the area, and especially in the vicinity of Baguio,
considerable road work has been done. Between La Trinidad and Baguio
a good wagon road has been constructed, the southern continuation of
which has been carried to Loacan and the Copper King mine. A wagon
road has been built to Bua from Baguio over which the Benguet Con-
solidated Mining Company hauled the mill recently installed. In the
region set apart for a summer colony near Baguio, numerous drives have
been laid out.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. Pv
Well-graded horse trails have been constructed from Kias to Baguio,
around the east flank of Kias Ridge, and from Bua to Itogon. There is
some form of trail between all the pueblos and barrios of the district,
and the present governor of the province is carrying on excellent work
in the construction of new and the repair of old lines of communication.
Freight for Baguio can be handled via steamer to San Fernando, on
the west coast of Luzon, and thence to Baguio over part of the distance
(to Naguilian) by road and the remainder by pack train, a total distance
of about 25 miles from the coast; or, as at present, via rail to Dagupan
and from Dagupan to Baguio over the Benguet road. The distance
from Dagupan to Baguio via the Benguet road is 53.54 miles, of which
the. distance to Camp One is 26.2 miles over flat grass country. The
construction from Camp One on is that which has attracted considerable |
attention, principally because of its high cost—$75,000 per mile, or a
total of about $2,500,000 to the date of nominal completion.
The first survey of this road was made late in 1900 and an estimate
of $75,000 for cost of construction given. Various causes contributed
to the delay in completion and the increased cost, and it was not until
January, 1905, that it was possible to make the through trip on wheels.
As many as 2,500 laborers of almost every nationality were employed
at one time on the construction work, native Filipino labor being exten-
sively used. An elevation from sea level at Dagupan, and a slight
elevation at Camp One, to 4,800 feet at Baguio is gained in its 50 miles
of length with an actual maximum grade of 10 per cent. Whatever the
cost (and although maintenance costs will be heavy) the road supports
traffic and furnishes the only real highway to the Baguio district.
The route from Baguio to San Fernando is perfectly feasible for
cheap wagon-road construction and when the coast railroad is completed
to the latter point, the coast route may seriously compete with the
Benguet road either by wagon or railroad extension. Present freight
rates from Manila to Baguio are as below:
Manila to Dagupan, rail, 41 cents (Philippine currency) per 100 pounds.
Dagupan to Baguio, wagon 33 cents (Philippine currency) per pound.
Manila to San Fernando, steamer, #6 per ton of 40 cubic feet.
San Fernando to Baguio, packing, estimated #3 per 100 pounds.
The cheaper route is, therefore, via Dagupan, and of course it is
quicker. Passengers can go through in twelve hours from Manila via
rail and automobile. The railroad to Camp One will cut time and prices,
and beyond occasional washouts, etc., which are to be expected, the
Baguio district will at the close of 1907 have a reliable and rapid method
of communication with Manila.
From Baguio, the transportation problem is one of small magnitude.
The Copper King region is reached by an almost level‘wagon road which
needs little expense for maintenance. Bua is reached by a wagon road
of a maximum grade of 6 per cent, and trails and roads to the Antamok
Zl EVELAND.
and Gold Creek region are easy and cheap of construction and mainte-
nance if properly located and built in the beginning. Wagon transpor-
tation is perfectly feasible to any part of the mineral district. Repairs
will not be excessive, provided proper ditching is done and culvert work
is constructed and the torrential rains of the summer are taken into
account; and such small bridge work as is necessary can be done cheaply
with the abundant standing timber and cheap native labor.
CLIMATE.
The chmate of this region has been much discussed because of the
proposed use of Baguio as a summer capital, and as a conyalescing station
for the United States Army, Navy, and the Civil Government employees
of the Philippine Islands. Briefly summarized, from various reports of
the Weather Bureau, the following may be stated:
The temperature, taken at Baguio and representative of all the Baguio
plateau, is on the average consistently lower than that registered at
Manila by 7° C., the difference ranging between 7° and 9° C. throughout
the year, as is shown by the following table, which is a plot of the tem-
perature variations at Baguio and Manila, recorded during 1900 and 1901.
The daily variation ranges from 2.4° C. to 8.7° C., the changes being
quite in inverse proportion to the rainfall and increased cloudiness.
Variation of the temperature at Baguio and Manila for the years 1900 to 1901.
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.| July. | Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.
°C. °C. °C. oC: CxGs °C. °C. XO IN EXGE || SXOG |) ACH °C.
Manila _____ 25.25 | 25.15 | 26.7 | 28.4 | 29 28.3 27.5 | 26.9 | 27.5 | 27.2 | 26.5 | 25.4
Baguio -____ 17.45 | 16.8 | 19.35 | 21.35 | 20.15 | 19.5 | 19.15 | 18.15 | 19.4 | 19.6 | 18.9 | 17.95
Difference; 7.80| 8.35| 7.35| 7.05| 895| 8.80| 8.85] 875| 81| 7.6| 7.6| 7.45
The minimum temperature both in Manila and in Benguet is reached
in February, with a second minimum in August, due to the extraordinary
rainfall which occurs in that month. From February a steady rise
occurs, which culminates in a maximum of about 29° C. in April, the
warmest month, followed by a steady decline to the end of the year, only
broken by the August depression, with a reaction of about one degree in
September.
The annual rainfall, considerably more important than the temperature,
amounting to over 100 inches per annum, places the Baguio district under the
classification of the regions of abundant rainfall. The year is divided more
or less distinctly into a dry and a rainy season. The salubrious climate of the
region, at least during the dry season from February up to and including June,
is principally due to the rainfall conditions. As there is no high land on the east
and south, the prevailing winds during these months, from the west and southwest,
cause a moderate rainfall, thereby reducing the temperature during March, April,
May, and June.
[PHIL. JourRN, Sci., Vou. II, No. 4.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT.]
EVELAND:
TYPICAL TIMBER STAND ON BAGUIO PLATEAU.
PLATE I.
a
F
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 2h
Rainfall for 1900-1901 at Baguio, in millimeters.
lover Feb. Mar. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Nov. mae
| 1.49 | 14.46 | 37.08 8.11 | 102.11 | 318.52 | 391.93 | 940.33 | 288.66 | 125.70 | 64.00 | 138. al
Total, 2,431.16 millimeters = 96.23 inches.
During the same period the rainfall at Manila amounted to an average of 1,986
millimeters. _
From September, 1902, to August, 1903, observations were as below:
May. | June. | July. aug. |
| 602.7 | 212.1 75.9 24.1 5.1 0.0 16.5 97.0 | 131.8 | 168.4 | 760.8 | 767.9 |
Sept. Oct. | Nov. | Dee. | Jan. Feb. | Mar. | Apr.
Total, 2,862.3 millimeters = 112.77 inches.
Care in road construction is one of the principal necessities caused by
rainfalls of such magnitudes as are recorded, and the drainage in the
streams creates a problem of control to be considered wherever water
power is used. During the rainy season, and especially after one of the
heavy rains of a few hours’ duration, where 20 inches or more may be
recorded in a day, streams which have been but threads of water become
rivers of great velocity and power for harm.
VEGETATION AND TIMBER.
Open grass land and areas of pine timber constitute almost all of the
Baguio district, with the grass lands predominating; an almost insignifi-
eant percentage of agricultural lands also exists. A thick stand of cogon
grass of 2 or 3 feet or more in height, which is burned during the
dry season, is on the open grass land, and these areas are the cattle ranges
of the country.
The timber is practically all pine, of one species (Pinus insularis
Endl.) ; it resembles the loblolly pine of the southern United States very
closely in size, form, rate of growth and character of wood; when it is on
the upper slopes and ridges in more open and exposed stands, it is very
similar to the western United States yellow pine. The forest is quite
open, with heavier growths along streams, north slopes and other shel-
tered locations. Here the timber attains its best height and growth.
Some hard wood occurs, but it is neglhgible in amount, except on the
summit and west slopes of Mount Santo Tomas.
The timber will average about 100 feet in height and in diameter 21
inches, giving a merchantable length of 57 feet, with four logs with a
yield of about 550 to 750 board feet per tree, or as measured on a given
area, a cut of about 2,300 feet per acre, the entire stand amounting to
7,500 feet per acre.
Q14 EVELAND.
One company has been taking out timber for local use with a small
mill and native labor; the wood which up to the present has been used
for building construction was of sapwood (Alburnwm) and unseasoned ;
it has shrunk and warped badly, but it is beleved that with proper season-
ing it will give satisfaction. The sapwood, yellow white in color lke
the loblolly pime, rots too readily in contact with the ground, but the
light, red-brown heartwood, is more durable it is frequently very resinous,
and when so, is practically indestructible.
For mining purposes, there is sufficient timber within every distance
to satisfy demands for some time to come for a camp of moderate size,
and with a greater growth of the mineral industry, logging can keep pace
with development at a reasonable expenditure.
Agriculture in the district is confined to a very small area and only
a sufficient amount for local consumption is produced.
The population of the Baguio district proper only embraces two or
three barrios of small size. Benguet Province has a population (census
of 1903) of 22,745, of which 917 are civilized and 21,929 “wild ;” that is,
Igorots. The civilized population which is congregated almost entirely
in Baguio and La Trinidad, consists of Ilocanos, with a sprinkling of
other coast races. The total population, of which about one-half or
approximately 11,000 are males, with possibly another 9,000 from sur-
rounding provinces, represents a body of not over 20,000 males to draw
on for possible labor. “Possible” is used advisedly, for of this number,
because of condition, location, aversion to work, etc., it is not believed
that more than several. thousand are to be considered in any way as
“ robable” labor. The Igorot-of these parts at least is a mild-mannered
brown man, small in stature, but well endowed physically, whose wants
are infinitesimal. Experience with him as a Jaborer has demonstrated
his usefulness to a degree. A considerable number of the race are quite
familar with crude mining operations and are fair workers underground.
They are fairly intelligent, peaceable and good, natured, and when for
some cause they are driven to labor, are—in view of their low rate of wage
(25 cents, gold, per day) and efficiency—satisfactory, unskilled laborers.
Anything beyond that can not be looked for and moreover there are but
few of them who will remain in employment for any length of time.
HYDROGRAPIY.
Probable nowhere in the Philippine Islands is the work of rain and
running water so clearly indicated as in the Bagwio district and vicinity.
Changes take place in the surface of the area; drainage shifts, and the
topography alters almost visibly from day to day. The drainage of the
region is noteworthy.
“OVIMNAWNVY JO HLYON ASTIVA YSAIY ONSV “Il 3tvId
"p ‘ON ‘II “I10OA “109 “Nunor ‘11H ] [GOrmLsTd IVAN OINYVE +: GNV IAAT
|
EVELAND: BAGUIO MINERAL DISTR
|
BAGUIO MINERAL DisTRICT.]
[Pui Journ. Sct, Vou, Il, No. 4.
IVELAND +
Piate II]. THE ANTAMOK RIVER VALLEY.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 215
DRAINAGE.
Although the Agno, the largest river of the Province of Benguet, is
beyond the border of the district to the east, it has an important bearing
on the drainage. The headwaters of this river are on the eastern flank
of Mount Data, the divide between southern Lepanto and northeastern
Benguet, and in its passage south to the plains of Pangasinan it gathers
the run off from the western slopes of the main mountain range, the Cor-
dillera Central, the backbone of Luzon, and the eastern slopes of the
smaller range and ridge which forks southwesterly from Data and termi-
nates at Santo Tomas, forming the Benguet highland. Therefore, it
gathers meteoric waters over a comparatively large area, and erosion by
it and its tributaries has been considerable. All the drainage from the
eastern half of the Baguio district feeds into one branch, the Itogon.
The Antamok River drains the smaller valley east of the Pakdal-Itogon
Ridge; it is quite dissimilar to the rest of the drainage in that it pos-
sesses no tributaries of any magnitude. Although the valley has been
deeply incised, no lateral streams have kept pace with it within the map
limits. At its headwaters east of Pakdal there is more or less of a basin
of auxiliary drainage; at Bua, one small western branch is developed,
and east of Antamok a somewhat larger branch to the north has ‘cut
into the eastern wall of the valley, but erosion has generally been confined
to the main valley. Some rough measurements on the Antamok in the
dry season gave the quantity of water flowing as 1,200 cubic feet per
minute, or 20 second-feet. Power is being taken from the river at this
point for use in a stamp-mill and developed by pipe line and impulse
wheel.
A short distance below Antamok, the Antamok River joins the Itogon,
of which it is a lateral tributary. The Itogon drains the area from the
Pakdal-Itogon Ridge to the Kias Ridge, through several good-sized
streams and through the Sile or Gold Creek, the Batwaan and many
smaller streams. Gold Creek has the larger territory, heading in the
eastern and southern sides of the Baguio Plateau and reaching the Kias
Ridge with its eastern branches. Its volume normally is greater than
that of the Antamok, and throughout its area the lateral branches have
kept pace with the erosion of the main channel, cutting a well-defined
basin between the Kias and the Pakdal-Itogon Ridges.
The Batuaan heads in the southern end of the Kias Ridge and again
resembles the Antamok in its clean-cut valley with little lateral extension.
The system described above constitutes the drainage of the larger and
eastern part of the Baguio district.
The Baguio Plateau is drained to the north and west directly to the
China Sea, via the Irisan and Trinidad Rivers, which in the Baguio
district proper are mere creeks, cutting slight valleys mm the plateau.
216 EVELAND.
Their work has been different from the erosion of the southern portion
of the area and except for the drainage purpose they serve, they are
unimportant. This will be further discussed under physiography.
On the western side of the Baguio-Kias Ridge, the Bued, or Moti River
is the channel through which drainage proceeds. The origin of the Bued
is not far from Baguio, on the plateau, and after collecting the waters
of the elevated regions, it cuts its way, between Mount Santo Tomas and
the Kias Ridge, south to the plains. Laterals tributaries are numerous,
and some of them, like the Balatok Creek at Kias and the large tributary
(the Quisat, in the native dialect) coming in east of the crest of Santo
Tomas, have in erosion almost kept pace with the main stream. The-
Bued River cafion is the most noteworthy in the district. Cut in a
gentle reversed curve from the edge of the Baguio Plateau to the
debouchement on the plain below at Caoriugan, and in depth over
2,000 feet to the bed of the stream, this gorge is opened up by the
Benguet road on its lower slopes, where formerly travel was well-nigh
impossible, the old Igorot trails being on the ridges on either side.
Viewed from the standpoint of possible water supply, the region is
well watered, even in the dry season. Numerous large and pure streams,
enough to supply a population as numerous as will probably ever occur
on the Baguio Plateau, exist there. The district throughout is well
supplied with potable water, and, although by the arbitrary map bound-
aries, certain hot springs do not fall within its lines, it may be well to
mention them.
MINERAL SPRINGS.
Large sulphur springs which have been used for ages for medicinal
_ purposes by both natives and others in the country are found in the
lower part of the Bued River canon, a half mile or so below Balongabong
or Twin Peaks, on the west bank of the river. These springs have a
temperature of about 50° C. and are distinctly sulphurous. Other
smaller and similar springs may be noticed at various places along the
river above.
On the Itogon River just outside of the eastern boundary of the map
of the district accompanying this paper, is a group of hot mineral springs
_ which have formed deposits of considerable extent. ‘The water in these
has a temperature of about 86° C. and in several of them distinct geyser
action, with an intermittent flow of some force, is noticeable. The
springs are saline and some of them contain sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
The most noteworthy constituents of the water, by analysis, are: carbonic
acid gas, sodium chloride, sodium and calcium sulphates, silica, calcium
and iron bicarbonates and nitrogen, a total of about 2.5 grams of salt
in solution in a liter. The spring is claimed to be very beneficial for
medicinal purposes and it could well be utilized by proper construction,
as it is less than 10 miles from Baguio.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 2G
North of the Baguio district, at Tublay, hot springs also exist of the
same general character, but slightly lower in temperature (70° C.) and
containing a smaller amount of salts in solution. Iron springs, now
apparently quiet, have left large deposits in the vicinity of Bua, and in
various other localities hot-spring action is plainly indicated.
The northern part of Benguet Province is particularly richly endowed
with mineral springs, hot and cold, and the geology of this and adjacent
regions clearly indicates, geologically speaking, the evidence of only
recent vulcanism, or more strictly, its final and dying phenomena.
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.
The Baguio district—that is, the region covered by the topographic
map accompanying this paper—is a small portion of a part of northern
Luzon, with which it is very closely connected and of which it is rep-
resentative; it so happens that this small region is immediately on one
of the main tectonic axes of. the Philippine Islands, and hence of the
Malayan Archipelago. The Cordillera del Norte situated a few miles
to the east of Baguio is the main axis, at least of the western half of
northern Luzon. The mountain system of Benguet, on the southern end
of which the Baguio district is located, is only one of the many rami-
fications of this master axis, which has its origin on the east side of
southern Luzon and which may safely be continued to east Mindanao.
This major axis is probably one of the original tectonic axes of the Asiatic
Continent, formed by the wrinkling of the more plastic crust of the
earth as the globe has contracted. In it the oldest of the Philippine
rocks are found and on it all of the agencies of construction and destruc-
tion have been at work since the Philippine Islands, as such, originated.
Throughout the Province of Benguet there runs a subsidiary chain,
the two ends of which are established by Mount Data on the north and
by Mount Santo Tomas on the south; this range, or more strictly
speaking, this ridge, describes a curve, concave to the east.
_ The Agno River, cutting its valley, which originally was a purely
tectonic depression, between the Benguet Ridge and its main trunk, the
Cordillera, has incised its main valley so deeply and has, by erosion of
its tributaries over its catch basin, removed such an amount of material
to the plains lying toward the south, that the Benguet Ridge stands out
as a mountain range, small but fully developed, between the coastal
plain along the China Sea and the Cordillera Central_del Norte, the
backbone of Luzon, with a large valley, that of the Agno River, separ-
ating them. The mountain region of Benguet then, of which the
Baguio district is representative, is of this simple type. It represents
no diastrophic change of the earth’s crust, as the “block” type of
mountains in which huge blocks of strata have been uplifted along a
fault plane and tilted into prominence, as is the case in the southern
218 EVELAND.
Oregon (United States) ranges and is true of other parts of the Great
Basin region of the United States, nor does it represent the folded type
of which the Alps are the most familiar example; huge folds and
overturns of strata lke crumplings of so much paper. The strata
covering the east and west flanks of the Philippine mountain areas have
been gently raised and broken, leaving the ends of the arch on either
side, but a part of this tiltmg was due to the formation of the sea
deposits on the already inclined floor of the mass where the ridge has
been produced; moreover there has only been comparatively gentle
arching.
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DISTRICTS.
Beginning with a small region which locally represents such a simple
type of elevated country, there is developed within it four distinct phys-
lographic types:
(1) The mountain region.
(2) The elevated plateau.
(3) The intermediate uplands.
(4) The incised-valley system.
THE MOUNTAIN REGION.
The mountain region is barely represented. The eminence of Pakdal
is a remnant, no doubt, of the original ridge which ran north at an
elevation of probably over 6,000 feet, to join the higher region’ of north-
ern Benguet. It stands up from the eastern edge of the Baguio Plateau
to a height of about 5,500 feet, and though seen from the west its eleva-
tion is not particularly noteworthy, the absence of the plateau on the
east reveals the height of this region in the drop-off to the valley of the
Antamok River and in the unobstructed view of the Agno Valley and
the main Cordillera to the east from the top of the ridge.
Mount Santo Tomas on the other hand is a part of the “mountain
region,” but it is so only because of its height. It is not, as is Pakdal, a
remnant of the former configuration. Santo Tomas is a block mountain
of the faulted type and it is locally developed, being the only instance
of such development in the Baguio district. A fault scarp of about
1,500 feet marks the northeastern slope, which is closer to a vertical than
to a horizontal plane. The tilting of this large block of sedimentaries
is plainly to be seen from the Bued River side of the Baguio Plateau
and the corner of the block—the crest of Santo Tomas—at 7,342 feet
above sea level, is as sharply defined as it could be pictured. Because
Santo Tomas is on the edge of the plateau the height is more apparent
from the south and west, where the slopes of the mountain run down
to the coastal plain. From the plateau side, where there is a difference
of elevation of less than 2,500 feet, this height is not as noticeable.
EVELAND: BAGUIO MINERAL DIST
BVELAND: BAGUIO MINPRAL DISTRICT. ] [Pur, Journ, Sct., Vou. II, No. 4.
Piate IV. BAGUIO.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 219
Typical mountain topography prevails on both these eminences (Santo
Tomas being included, although abnormal). There is but little good
water, almost none in fact, at these elevations, standing as they do clear
of all the surrounding country; consequently all erosion is a direct
result of the very considerable rainfall of 100 to 120 inches per annum.
Denudation has been rapid, especially on Santo Tomas and deep scars
have been cut into its flanks by the erosion of the streams carrying the
run-off. All the streams are naturally far above base level, and deep,
V-shaped gorges represent the type of stream beds. While frost is rare
here, the difference in temperature is sufficiently great, no doubt, some-
what to aid in the disintegration of the rocks. Steep slopes prevail,
and talus is carried away by the excessive erosion, so that sharpness of
outline continues to exist.
THE ELEVATED PLATEAU.
The Baguio Plateau is the most striking of the four physiographic
types of the region. It is a peneplain of limited extent, with an average
elevation of about 5,000 feet and with a drainage and topography so
characteristic of a lowland region, that, viewed from a central point
where the valleys of the Bued and Agno River drainage are not visible,
it is hard to realize the situation of the area.
The drainage is not deeply marked and there is plain evidence of much
shifting of divides and valleys. Only small streams prevail over the
region and except for transitional border areas where gradients. are in-
ereased very rapidly before the streams drop off into the deeper valleys, the
erosion has not been great in stream beds. Baguio proper drains to the
north into the Irisan and Trinidad Rivers. The Pakdal area divides its
drainage between the north, uniting with that from Baguio, and the south-
east, draining into the deeper valley of the Agno tributaries. There are
no streams of any size in this portion of the district and the large rainfall
seems to be partly added to the ground water and partly run off in
numerous small channels, rather than through any well defined system.
South of Baguio and Pakdal the drainage is to the east and west of
the Baguio-Kias Ridge, into both the Bued and Agno waterways. The
topography is of a mature type over the entire region. Low, rounded
hills with gentle slopes, graded valleys with low gradients and in part
winding streams which show some small amount of rejuvenation in the
more deeply cut valleys exist, but they have not altered the serpentine
course they followed originally. The stream draining Baguio affords one
instance of this character. It is a barely noticeable brook from the divide
where it originates up to a ponding which occurs south of Baguio;
the softer rock materials here have yielded to erosion and the stream,
although formerly large and flowing directly from the depression through
220 EVELAND.
a now deserted wind gap to the north, has barely sufficient gradient to
join the Pakdal drainage to the east of Baguio, where a small, well-defined
valley, with slopes and a gradient out of all proportion to the remainder
of the drainage back of it, joins with a second flattened area north of
Baguio. From this it finally escapes into the Trinidad River.
The headwaters of the Pakdal are merely rivulets which follow such
valleys as they have themselves been able to cut during the seasonal rains,
and in many instances the shifting of the local divide for a few feet has
resulted in the capture of adjacent streams and the abandonment of the
older channels.
The Pias Valley is more marked and although it is relatively of small
size, it has rounded out a fairly mature existence before it drops off into
the Bued River channel west of Laoacan. At Laoacan another old valley,
now devoted to the cultivation of rice and which has a small stream
flowing through it, is evidently a relic of the former drainage of the
region. This valley is mature and almost devoid of running water; at
its mouth it drops off through a declivity of almost a thousand feet to
the valley of the Bued River.
The drainage of the whole plateau is striking in that in itself it ex-
hibits every evidence of maturity and that only the corrasion of the near
and the more powerful superimposed drainage has thrown it into relief,
at an elevation of 5,000 feet and over.
THE INTERMEDIATE UPLANDS.
The intermediate uplands are represented by the drainage of the Bued
and Agno River tributaries. The elevation of these regions ranges from
2,500 to 4,500 feet, and as they are evidently confined to one period, they
are normal in every particular; with the valleys of the Antamok, Batuaan
and Gold Rivers and their total drainage area, the intermediate uplands
and the valleys they constitute one region, all lying to the east of the
Baguio-Kias Ridge. A comprehensive view of the region from either the
Pakdal or Kias elevation shows that the central valley, namely that of the
Gold River, is the more mature. The Antamok and Batuaan streams
have confined their work to the cutting of steep-walled valleys with few
lateral tributaries ; their slopes are steep, with a gradient generally of over
30°, and both streams maintain a fairly direct course. Their headwaters
are basin-like in character and in these situations erosion is pronounced.
The Gold River has been widened to a greater extent by lateral tributaries,
and it presents a valley broad enough and sufficiently graded to support
several small villages with their attendant industries, agriculture and:
the raising of cattle.
EVELAND: BAGUIO MINERAL DIST!
‘
¥
a
1
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,
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t
EVELAND :
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT.]
Piate V. LAOACAN, SANTO TOMAS IN THE BACKGROUND.
[Puit, Journ, Ser, Vou. I, No,
My Oe.
EVELAND: BAGUIO MINERAL DIS
7 PHIL. JOURN. T., VOL. No. 4.
EVvELAND: BAGUIO MINERAL DIsaRreT.) DRE JOURN. Scr. Vou. Il, 2
OK.
Piate VI. VALLEY OF THE ANTAMOK RIVER BELOW ANTAM
oo
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“KATIVA YSAIY GANG TINA 34Vid
‘b 'ON ‘II “IOA “Iog ‘Naor “ITE QI] [LOrmastqd IVYANI O1Nyvg : GNVIGAG
*SVIM LV YSAIY GANG SHL JO SAdO1S YAMOT INIA 34¥Id
‘p ‘ON ‘II “IOA “IOS ‘NunOLr “TIHG] [LOIULSIG TVUANIW OLNYVG : GNVIGAW
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. Dak
THE INCISED VALLEY SYSTEM.
As has been stated before, the Bued Valley is noteworthy for its
beauty and grandeur. Its side slopes will average much over 30° and
in that portion of it covered by the map, it gains an elevation of from
2,000 to 5,000 feet. In the transverse section there is evidence of several
stages of deepening and at Kias there is pronounced evidence of recent
uplift, tilting from the south; nowhere is the V-shaped gorge sufficiently
wide at is bottom, nor sufficiently gentle of slope to support more than
an Igorot hut or two, and it is only since the construction of the Ben-
guet road along the valley that it has been the scene of human activity.
Hanging valleys are common along its course and the entire evidence
of topographic forms tends to the conclusion that the drainage has
been of more recent origin than that of the Baguio Plateau. It is ©
especially evident that this is the case where lateral gorges enter the
main valley, and at the southern end of the valley the present stream
is cutting at a rapid rate vertically into its V-shaped canon.
GEOLOGY.
GENERAL.
Although the Baguio district is but small in area, there are involved
in it geological problems almost too broad and complex to be within the
scope of this reconnaissance. Such data as have been gathered, and
which will have to serve until a study may be made of a more extended
field, will be subject to greater or less modifications in the light of
future work. Beginning with the oldest rocks, we have a basal mass
composed of dioritic rocks which can be correlated with, and evidently
is, an integral part of the dioritic base exposed in Lepanto and in other
northern provinces of Luzon. Excepting certain local variations of
composition and texture, these two rocks are petrographically identical,
and the stratigraphic evidence is all on the side of the hypothesis of
a dioritic igneous core, of at least this one (Luzon) of the Philippine
Islands. It has been taken for granted by a number of the few who
have heretofore written on Philippine geology on such evidence as was
available, that the hidden core of the ‘Philippine group would eventually
be found to consist of crystalline schists upon which post-Tertiary sedi-
mentaries have been laid down and to which mass the neo-volcanics
have been added, but so far, at least in northern Luzon, the areas seen
have uniformly exhibited a massive dioritic base. Becker* has care-
fully summarized all the occurrences of schists and older rocks of the
+Report on the geology of the Philippine Islands, U. 8S. G. S. 21st. Ann. Rep.
(1899-1900).
222 EVELAND.
Archipelago which were known at the time his paper was written, and
while he points out that there may be a more or less close connection
between the Philippine group and Borneo on lithologic grounds, he
admits that there is no inconsistency in Abella’s view? that the dioritic
rocks represent the oldest of the Philippine series, if those schists of
similar composition are included under the head of “dioritic rocks.” It
is a pleasure to record in the results of work even so little detailed as
that given in the present paper, data which coincide with the deductions
of Mr. Becker, who had only vicarious observations of varying reliability
to serve as criteria and also with the observations of Abella, who,
although limited in his scope of work, has ‘proved, for the most part,
to be the most trustworthy of the workers in this field.
BASAL MASS.
There seems then to be good ground for believing that the diorite
I have observed in the Baguio district represents the starting point of
our Philippine geology, at least for northern Luzon. I have described
it in a former paper,* discussing its appearance in Lepanto; it occurs
over a large area of the present Benguet field; various observers have
noted it over a sufficiently large portion of Luzon; and Abella in
particular has verified his field notes with the microscope in order to
justify the above hypothesis.
In the Baguio district the exposures of the basal diorite, as would
naturally be supposed, are generally most prominent at the lower eleva-
tions, although on the western border of the area, the most prominent
exposure is the highest point in the district, namely the crest of Mount
Santo Tomas. Here the rock is hight green in color, finely grained, holo-
crystalline to the eye, hard and compact, with apparently little weather-
ing. Plagioclase and amphibole may be distinguished with a lens,
together with some chlorite and occasional quartz and magnetite crystals.
The valley of the Antamok River shows the best exposures of this diorite
and it is here most typical of the large area.
The rock megascopically is dark green, holocrystalline, massive; it is
very hard and apparently more resistant to erosion than any other rock
in the district. Only plagioclase, amphibole and a dark-green chloritic
mineral can be distinguished with the eye. Locally, over a small area,
the amphibole is developed to a greater extent. At one of the tunnels
of the Bua Mining Company, the main cross-cut to the “main reef,”
* Abella: Apuntes fisicos y geolégicos (1884), 30.
® Eveland: Preliminary Reconnaissance of the Mancayan-Suyoc Mineral Region.
Bull. Min. Bur., Manila (1905), 4.
+
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 228
the porphyritic nature of the rock, which has amphiboles sometimes
measuring 15 millimeters in length, is very evident. In connection with
the development of the amphiboles, the almost universal quartzose
nature of the rock is less evident or entirely wanting—no quartz can
be seen with the eye or with a hand lens. Under the microscope the
normal phase of the basal diorite presents a granitic or a pan-idio-
morphic granular structure. In almost all the sections examined much
saussuritization has taken place and the resultant minerals are variable
in different localities. The structure is plainly that of a plutonic rock
and there is evidence of slow cooling, the first crystallization taking
place being that of the feldspars. Certain sections show porphyritic
facies and the mass is evidently variable. The plagioclase feldspars
show polysynthetic twinning, and in these sections they are probably
near the lime end of the series, calcite being pronounced. Possible
intergrowths of feldspars are noticed. Measurement of extinction an-
gles on different sections in some cases gives labradorite (observed on
Carlsbad twins) ; other sections at right angles to the albite twinning
gave 31° to 33° as extinction angles. A slide occasionally shows anor-
thite, and a sample of the rock from the valley of the river Sil exhibits -
andesine.
The feldspars are much decomposed, and calcite, zeolites, epidote, and
chlorite are present in varying amounts. The ferro-magnesium min-
erals generally are too much decomposed to show more than outline of
faces, but from occasional fresher sections they are clearly determined to
be pyroxenes. Actinolite has evidently been a constituent of prominence,
although hornblende more nearly represents the average composition.
Magenctite is present in large amount, over 10 per cent being present in
some sections, and it, and chlorite developed in light-green flakes and
strings throughout the shdes, are most prominent.
Although it is apparently a basal mass the diorite has been through
other processes than mere crystallization from the magma. The micro-
scopic aspect of samples from certain localities seems to point to a granu-
lation and recrystallization of the original rock, and in view of the neo-
volcanics which are so prominent over the area, some metamorphism is
to be expected. There is enough evidence in the numerous slides exam-
ined to make it certain that, although basal in position, the diorite is
not, strictly speaking, representative of a deep-seated igneous mass. It
shows variation of structure and composition identical with those exhib-
ited by an extrusive and although subsequent alteration may be, and
probably is, responsible for many of these variations, it seems to be a
more justifiable hypothesis that the diorite, although now it is strati-
graphically the basal mass of Luzon, at the time of its origin was, in
58011—2
224
part at least, extrusive and intrusive in relation to some still older forma-
tion of which, so far, no trace has been seen. Five analyses of samples
EVELAND.
of the diorite from various localities are as follows:
Analyses of the Benguet diorite.*
Constituent. ifs 1 Ii. IV. Vv.
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Moisture at 110° (M—110°)______ 0.37 0.32 0. 46 0.16 0.18
Loss on ignition (M +-110°) _____ 3.16 3.54 3. 24 75 3. 24
Silica(S1Os) Bas ss aaa 49, 89 51. 08 49, 20 51. 48 50.71
sAllmin a CAs O,) ene 1.87 1.47 3. 64 20. 31 4.74
Ferric oxide (Fe,03) ----___---__ 2.61 3.57 . 84 6. 24 2.26
Ferrous oxide (FeQ) —--_________ 23.47 25. 30 25. 00 3.46 20. 64
Calcium oxide (CaO) ~------___. 10.75 8.15 10. 66 8. 86 13.48
Magnesium oxide (MgO) --_--_- 6.57 4.12 6.76 4.29 4,21
Potassium oxide (K,O) . 09 522 . 06 2.07 .18
Sodium oxide (NaoO) _______-___ 2.01 P1183 . 76 3. 01 1.03
Total 22 S24 eee eee 100.79 99. 90 100. 62 100.63 | 100.27
Number I represents the porphyritic variety from the “Middle Reef.”
Numbers II, II], are from the Antamok River.
Number IV is from Gold Creek.
These analyses should be compared with the following ones, made
on samples from the Lepanto area on specimens of the “Mancayan
diorite” which probably were fresher:
Analyses of the Mancayan diorite.°
Constituent. I. Il. II. IV.
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Moisture (110°) = eS ee 0.50 0. 28 0. 38 0.12
Loss on ignition (+110°) ------____--------____ 2.74 1.38 -70 2.26
50. 67 51. 00 . 47.98 47.94
21.21 18. 01 18. 94 21.96
11.31 23 7.08 2.48
=i 9.31 3.98 3. 42
6. 86 8.89 11. 01 12. 63
4.10 6.53 7.06 6. 83
-10 46 44 .19
1.41 4,42 2.56 1.49
99.11 100. 51 100. 13 99. 35
+ Analyses Numbers I, II, III and V are by Dr. R. F. Bacon, and Number IV
is by Paul J. Fox of the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science.
° Analyses of Mancayan rock are by Mr. L. A. Salinger, Chemical Laboratory,
Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I., 1905.
BAGUIO MINERAL DISTRICT. 225
A comparison will show that although the silica remains fairly con-
stant in amount, there is very little stability in the percentages of the
other constituents excepting in the soda. This fact is not extraordinary
and, indeed, it might be expected from variations in the magma in a
distance of 50 miles, and from the subsequent alterations to which the
rock has been subjected.
The exposure of the diorite in the Antamok River is continuous from
Pakdal to a point a mile below Antamok, where a granitic intrusion (to
be described later) comes in. The valley of Gold Creek is also in this
rock, from its junction with the Batuaan to the headwaters at Pakdal.
On the north side of the area diorite again crops out where the drainage
north and west of Baguio has cut deeper into the surface, and in various
places in the Bued River canon, where later sedimentaries and extrusives
have been cut through, good exposures of the diorite are laid bare.
From below Camp IV, or Kias, on the Benguet road, the diorite
does not outcrop, later extrusives and sedimentaries taking its place in
the river bed, and it is evident from the occurrence of a massive intrusion
of more granitic character to the east of this, that from this point on,
the dioritic exposure leads off to the east toward the Cordillera Central,
or in other words that on the topography of this basal mass, this south-
ernmost point represents the limit of exposure of any great elevation.
From here to the south, the diorite is evidently considerably lower and
as may reasonably be supposed, is buried in the plains region between
Benguet and Manila by a great thickness of recent sedimentaries.
INTRUSIVES.
About a mile to the south of Antamok, on the river of the same name
occurs a massive exposure of a rock which here is classed as an intrusive,
but which may possibly be but a phase of the diorite. On the Antamok
and Batuaan Rivers, both of which cut across the contact between the
diorite and the intrusive, the contacts are obscured by heavy talus and
wash, and the relative ages of the formations, if they differ, can not be
determined. The float on the Antamok River seems to show all varia-
tions in appearance from the one rock to the other. The rock may be
classed in the field as a granite or quartz diorite. It is a hard, light-
green massive rock showing to the eye quartz, feldspars, and a dark-green
hornblende (?) arranged in a granular holocrystalline structure with
particles of a light-green secondary mineral scattered throughout the
feldspars. Under the microscope the minerals exhibited are quartz,
plagioclase, amphibole and magnetite. The quartz does not form a
conspicuous constituent and it occurs as an interstitial fillimg. The ex-
tinction angles measured on the plagioclase show it to be oligoclase in
226 EVELAND.
idiomorphic crystals showing zonal growth and considerable polysynthetic
twinning. The amphibole is normal hornblende and the magnetite seems
to occur principally as inclusions in the former, or adjacent to it. In
the Bued River canon, where the same rock occurs, a marked peculiarity
is developed, which appears to be the presence of inclusions of diorite
caught up in the quartzose magma. ‘This “Kugelstruktur” (Rosenbusch)
when examined under the microscope, is seen to be due to difference in
texture, in fineness of grain, rather than in any difference of mineral-
ogical composition, and as before, the sections show plagioclase, horn-
blende, magnetite and quartz, with a slight development of accessory
sphene and secondary iron oxide. No explanation of this, other than
variation in the magma, can be offered. The area covered by this phase
of the quartz diorite is considerable, to judge from the length of the ex-
posure in the Bued River canon, and over all the area examined, these
“inclusions” prevail. Although mapped as a separate mass, the weight
of evidence tends to the view that the diorite assumes a more quartzose
variation only locally, and that the Batwaan Creek area is a part of the
diorite core.
Many small dikes of basalt cut through this rock, but they are un-
important, excepting that the directions of the dikes seem to be quite
uniformly along east and west lines. In common with the system of
ore deposits in the diorite, the majority of the veins striking east and
west, or approximately in that direction, this prevailing direction would
point to a line, or rather a direction, of weakness in the main mass of
the rock. Three analyses ® of these rocks are as follows:
Analyses of the basalt.
Constituent. if, Il. Iii.
Percent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Moisture at 110° (M—1109) __________ 0.14 0. 08 0.13
Loss on ignition (M-+-110°)__________ 1.61 1.08 0.77
Silica (S105) Bee ee ee ees 57.49 58. 35 57. 06
Auman ay (CAS ©) eee eee 18. 40 16.70 20. 00
Herricjioxides (ie O;) eae 5. 46 4.08 3. 03
Berrous.oxide) (He@) 22s 22255) ae ie wil 3.28 3. O01
Calcium oxide (CaO) —______________ 7.61 Tio (Al 7.18
Magnesium oxide (MgO) ___--______ 3.05 3.29 3. 27
Potassium oxide (K»sQ) ~__-_________ 1.99 | 2.87 3. 06
Sodium oxide (NagQ) ____-__________ 3.38 | 2. 62 2.95
a Total, 222. =2-The names Luzonose and Baguiose are offered merely as suggestive names.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Puate |. Line drawings, 11 figures.
Il. Fig. 1, quartz diorite (No. 12) X 15, polarized light; fig. 2, quartz
diorite (No. 153) X 15, polarized light.
Ill. Pig. 1, hypersthene-augite andesite (No. 106) X 9, ordinary light;
fig. 2, andesitic tuff (No. 101) X 9, ordinary light.
VI. Fig. 1, andesite porphyry (No. 132) X 9; fig. 2, feldspar porphyry
(Nox23) x9. y
V. Fig. 1, foraminiferal limestone (No. 108) X 15 approx.; fig. 2, gray-
wacke (No. 127) X 10.
253
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SMITH: BENGUET PETROGRAPBY.] (PHIL. JouRN. ScI., Vou. II, No. 4.
ra ace ie
elspar of older
generation
felspar of younger
generation
onal structure
Greenish yellow
reddish yeHow
granular yeu
mass of qua
felspar- magnetite
= ‘anular mass
“HZeglites «calcite
PLATE I.
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ai pp eneg ae mey al hastcagly: ae : z
Ne
SMITH: BENGUET PETROGRAPHY.] [PHIL. JOURN. SCI., Vou. II, No. 4.
SMITH: BENGUET PETROGRAPHY. | (PHIL. JouRN. SciI., Vou. II, No.
¢
aN
ao Ewes
Fic. 2
PLATE IlIl-
SaoTH: BENGUET PETROGRAPHY.] [PHIL. JOURN. Scti., Vou. II, No. 4.
SMITH: BENGUET PETROGRAPHY. ] [PHIL. JOURN. SclI., Vou. II, No. 4.
REVIEWS.
An Elementary Study of Chemistry. By William McPherson, Ph. D. and
William Edwards Henderson, Ph. D. Revised edition. Cloth. Pp. vim+434.
Paice, $1.25. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906.
This little text-book for beginning students in chemistry is the revision
of a manual which has been used by several teachers during the past
three years. The present work is this manual rewritten in the hght of
the criticisms offered by successful chemistry teachers, based upon their
practical experience in its use. A very clear, accurate and practical
text-book has been the result.
The book is throughly up to date. The theory of electrolytic disso-
ciation is used throughout the book, being introduced in the ninth chapter,
Solutions. The presentation of this theory, as of that of other theories
used by chemists, is remarkably clear, the explanation being based on
experimental facts with simple compounds with which the student is
already familiar.
The same may be stated of the introduction to the law of mass action
in Chapter XIII.
In discussing the methods employed commercially in the manufacture
of chemical compounds, in all cases the most modern systems are cited.
Thus we find described the methods of manufacture of phosphorus,
carbon bisulphide, aluminium, sodium hydroxide, calcium carbide, graph-
ite, bleaching solutions, the alkali metals, the artificial abrasives, etc.,
by the application of electricity. °
The definition of steel as “the products of the Bessemer or open-hearth
processes” appeals to a chemist as much more accurate than the defini-
tions based on carbon content often found in small books. It might
be remarked that such a definition would hardly include the tool steels
manufactured directly from the ore in electric furnaces. But we can not
expect a book of this size to be comprehensive. Another minor error
noticed was the statement on page 399 that all the hydrocarbons of the
methane series up to C,,H,, are known. Probably the word normal has
been omitted.
The reviewer considers this book as by far the best elementary text-
book on chemistry which he has seen.
5sOt ‘ 255
256 REVIEWS.
A First Course in Physics. By Robert Andrews Millikan, Ph. D., and Henry
Gordon Gale, Ph. D. Cloth. Pp. vitt+488. Price, $1.25. Boston: Ginn
& Company, 1906.
This book is written as if it were the intention to make the laboratory
work, which is given only in footnote references to a manual, teach the
text rather than for the text to teach the laboratory work. Unlike
many elementary physics the subject matter is presented in a logical and
a thoroughly comprehensible manner. A distinctive feature is the excel-
lence of the portraits and illustrations which are “in the fullest possible
sense educative.”
fae fe
Vou. IT OCTOBER, 1907 No. 5
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
EDITED BY
PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D.
CO-EDITORS
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
E. D. MERRILL, M. 8.
PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
OF THE |
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1907 «
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES.
No. 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.—Preliminary Report of the Appearance in the Phil-
apnine Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P. Strong, M. D.
. 2, 1902, Chemical Labor atory. —The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acetyl Peroxide and Its
pee kis an Intestinal 7s Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
Freer,
No. 8, 1908, Biological Laboratory.—A Preliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the Philippine Islands. By W. HE. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
No, 4, 1903, Serum Laboratory.—Preliminary Report on the Study of Rinderpest of
Cattle gad Carabaos in. the Philippine Islands. By James W. Jobling, M. D.
No, 5, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, with Special
Reference to Surra in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T.
ess
- I. The American ae in the Philippine
Flora. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1903, Chemical Laboratory.—The Gutta Percha and Rubber of the Philippine
Islands. By Penoyer L, Sherman, jr., Ph. D.
No. 8, 1903.—A Dictionary of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. By Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
No. 9, 1903, Biological and Serum Laboratories —A Report on Hemorrhagic Septicemia
in Animals in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley,-M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Two Cases of a Peculiar Form of Hand Infeetion
(Due to an Organism Resembling the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. McDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M. D.
No. 11, 1903, Biological Laboratory.——Entomological Diyision, Bulletin No. 1: Prelimi-
nary Bulletin on Insects of the Cacao. ges Especially for the Benefit of Farmers.)
By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 12, 19038, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions Produbed by
the Bacillus of "Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M.
No. 13, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed
Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Feetidus. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D.
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera:
An Experimental Study. By Richard P, Strong, M. D.
Wo. 17, 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—1l. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologie Sig-
nificance. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of Intes-
tinal Amebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D.
No. 19, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Cholera
Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D.
No. 20, 1904.—Biological Laboratory: 1. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where
the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus.
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambeesia :
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro- Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P. Strong, M. D.
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories.—I. A Description of the New Build-
ings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. II. A
a ame Nate of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk,
ibrarian.
No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and His-
wpatheloey a gy (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
erzog, M.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its, Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on
EpO. < BagleMioree® and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry,
No. 25, 1904.1—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By
Richard C. McGregor.
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora
de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 28, 1904.—I1. The Poly podiacez of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philippine
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D.
No. 29, 1904.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila
Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. 4 i .
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ON A NESTING PLACE OF SULA SULA (LINNA:US) AND
STERNA ANAESTHETA SCOPOLI.
By DEAN C. WORCESTER.
On Saturday, June 15, 1907, when on a trip of inspection to the
Babuyanes and Batanes Islands in company with the Governor-General,
our party sailed from Port San Pio on the Island of Camiguin in a
general northwesterly direction in order to observe a volcano said to
exist in the immediate vicinity of the Didikas rocks.
We found that this voleano, which rose from the sea in 1859 and
gradually increased in size until it attained a height of 700 feet, had
completely disappeared.
The Didikas rocks consist of three separate masses, two of which rise
to a height of about 150 feet each and are quite sharply pointed, while
the third mass is longer, lower, and runs up to a narrow crest (PI. I).
There were signs of recent volcanic activity on the western side of this
lower mass of rock; and as the sea was perfectly calm at the time, we at-
tempted to land in order to make a closer examination. As our boat
approached the rocks large numbers of boobies [Sula sula (Linn.) | and
terns (Sterna anestheta Scop.) flew out to meet us and hovered about
our boat in evident curiosity. They were little disturbed by the shots
that ended the earthly careers of several of their number, and continued
to follow us about as long as we remained in the immediate vicinity of
the rocks.
The two higher pointed rocks were covered with the excrement of the
boobies, and as a number of terns were seen issuing from holes in the
voleanic conglomerate which made up a part of the third rock, it seems
probable that both species use these rocks as a nesting place.
The Didikas rocks le fairly in the main typhoon track and are swept
by fierce winds and strong currents. There is no more isolated and inac-
cessible breeding ground for water-birds in the Philippine Islands. Even
with the sea apparently perfectly calm, it proved impossible to land, as
the almost imperceptible swell was breaking so heavily at the base of the
rocks that there would have been serious danger of destroying our boat
had we attempted to do so.
275
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NOES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE
ISLAND OF BASILAN WITH DESCRIPTIONS
@F THREE NEW SPECIES.
By Ricwarp C. McGrecor.
(From the zoélogical section, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science.)
The Island of Basilan is about 8 miles south of the long peninsula
of Mindanao on which Zamboanga is situated. It is separated from
Mindanao by shallow water and there are several small islands in the
channel. Basilan is well wooded and its surface is broken, but there
are no high mountains. The small island of Malamaui is separated
from Basilan by so narrow a channel that I have not thought it worth
while to consider the two islands as distinct localities.
Steere visited Basilan in 1874 and obtained 23 species of birds, 14 of
which were described by Sharpe. Everett spent a short time there in
1878 and added 48 species to the list. The Steere Expedition in No-
vember, 1887, obtained specimens of 8 species which were described as
new by Steere. In 1890 the Menage Expedition made a large collection
in Basilan, adding 15 species to the list of those already known from the
island; one of these was new to science. The species known from Ba-
silan as given in McGregor and Worcester’s Hand-List amount to 122,
but one of these (Callisitta wenochlamys) is not found in the island, so that
121 is believed to be the correct number.
Collectors from the Bureau of Science worked near Isabela, Basilan,
from December 14, 1906, to March 19, 1907, and the specimens obtained
by them furnish the material for this paper. I am now able to add
29 species to the list of Basilan birds, one of which appears to be new
to science. At the same time I have described, as new, two species which
have previously been united with their relatives found in Mindanao.
LIST OF SPECIES NOT PREVIOUSLY RECORDED FROM BASILAN.
Excalfactoria lineata. AMagialitis dubia.
Rallina euryzonoides. Magralitis peroni.
Gallinula chloropus. Himantopus leucocephalus.
Charadrius fulvus. Totanus eurhinus.
Ochthodromus mongolus. Heteractitis brevipes.
bo
=I
eo)
280 M’GREGOR.
LIST OF SPECINS NOT PREVIOUSLY RECORDED FROM BASTLAN.—Cont’d.
Rhyacophilus glareola. Cuculus canorus.
Limonites damacensis. Chaleococcyx xanthorhynchus.
Dissoura episcopus. Chalcococcyx malayanus.
Ardea sumatrana. Pitta fastosa, new species.
Hgretta garzetta. Hemichelidon griseisticta.
Bubulcus coromandus. Pericrocotus cinereus.
Dendrocygna guttulata. Locustella ochotensis.
Mareca penelope. Acanthopneuste borealis.
Astur, sp. Budytes leucostriatus.
Astur soloensis.
LIST OF NEW SPECIES.
Thriponax multilunatus. Orthotomus mearnst.
Pitta fastosa.
TITLES OF PRINCIPAL PAPERS ON THE BIRDS OF BASILAN.
BourNS AND Worcester, Preliminary notes on the birds and mammals
collected by the Menage Scientific Expedition to the Philippine
Islands. Minn. Acad. Nat. Sci., Occ. Papers (1894), 1, 1-64..
McGrecor anD Worcester, A hand-list of the birds of the Philippine
Islands. Publications of the Bureau of Government Laboratories
(1906), 86, 1-123.
Sraree, Prof. Steere’s Expedition to the Philippines.. Nature (1876),
14, 297-98.
SHARPE, On the birds collected by Professor J. B. Steere in the Philip-
pime Archipelago. V'rans. Linn. Soc. Zool. (1877), 1, 8307-355, pls.
46-54.
SrepRE, A list of the birds and mammals collected by the Steere Ex-
pedition to the Philippines. Ann Arbor (July 14, 1890) 1-30.
TWEDDALE, On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island
of Basilan. Proc. Zool. Soc. (1879), 68-73.
Worcester, Notes on the distribution of Philippine birds. Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus. Wash. (1898), 20, 567-625, pls. 55-61.
WORCESTER AND Bourns, A list of the birds known to inhabit the Phil-
ippine and Palawan Islands, showing their distribution within the
limits of the two groups. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Wash. (1898), 20,
549-566.
NOTES ON THE SPECIES OBSERVED.
Megapodius cumingi Dillw.
This megapode appeared to be rare in Basilan; a live specimen was seen which
had been taken in a snare.
BIRDS FROM THE ISLAND OF BASILAN. 281
Excalfactoria lineata (Scop.). e
A male was taken February 6; the species is not common in Basilan and so
far has been unrecorded from the island.
Gallus gallus (Linn.).
The jungle fowl was rather abundant in thick second growth on Malamaui and
several individuals were killed.
Osmotreron axillaris (Bp.).
A female was taken March 13.
Osmotreron vernans (Linn.).
This species like the last was not common; a female was taken in December.
Phapitreron brunneiceps Bourns & Worcester.
This species is very distinct from P. amethystina, being smaller and differently
colored. A male taken February 28 yields the following measurements: Length,
10.5 inches; wing, 5.32; tail, 3.94; culmen from base, 0.98.
Phapitreron occipitalis Salvad.
Fairly abundant; bill and bare skin about eyes, black; irides light-purple; feet
deep rose; nails gray. This species is well separated from P. leucotis by its lighter
chin and malar region and by its much shorter wing; it seems to be very near
P. brevirostris but it has more metallic color on head and neck than the latter
species.
Leucotreron occipitalis Bp.
A male in adult plumage has albinistic feathers in mantle, back, tail, and
wings.
Spilotreron bangueyensis (A. B. Meyer).
This handsome little dove was abundant and specimens collected were very
fat. It was found feeding on the fruit of small, second growth trees and shrubs.
Muscadivora znea (Linn.).
Several specimens killed.
Zonophaps poliocephala (Hartl.).
This large zone-tailed pigeon is represented by a female taken March 15.
Macropygia tenuirostris Bp.
The slender-billed cuckoo-dove is represented by a female taken in December.
Streptopelia dussumieri (Temm.).
Not common.
Chalcophaps indica (Linn.).
A female was taken in January.
Phlogeenas crinigera (Jacq. & Pucher.).
But three specimens of this species obtained. Length, 10.8 to 11.5 inches;
bill, black; irides dark-blue; legs and feet flesh; scales dark carmine; nails white.
Rallina euryzonoides (Lafr.).
A male of this rail, which has not been recorded from Basilan, was taken
February 22. ;
Poliolimnas cinereus (Vieill.).
An immature male was taken December 26.
Amaurornis phoenicura (Forster).
A pair taken December 21.
282 » M’GREGOR.
Gallinula chloropus ¢Linn.).
A female was taken December 29 and several other individuals were seen;
the species has not been previously noted from Basilan.
Charadrius fulvus (Gm.).
Two specimens were preserved and others were seen during December; the
species has not been recorded from Basilan.
Ochthodromus mongolus (Pallas).
A female plover, taken December 20, is of this species which is new to the
Basilan list.
AEgialitis dubia (Scop.).
A male specimen of this small plover was taken January 3 and the species
is new to the Basilan list.
AZgialitis peroni (Bp.).
A female was taken December 16; like the last this species has not been
recorded from Basilan.
Himantopus leucocephalus Gould.
A solitary bird, which I have no hesitation in referring to the above species,
was repeatedly seen on Malamani; this species has been recorded from Mindanao
and so far from no other island in the Philippines.
Totanus eurhinus (Oberh.).
A female of this species was taken December 29; the species has not been
recorded from Basilan.
Heteractitis brevipes (Vieill.).
A female was taken December 12; this species appears not to have been re-
corded from Basilan.
Rhyacophilus glareola (Gm.).
This species, which was fairly common, seems to be unrecorded from Basilan;
specimens were obtained in December.
Limonites demacensis (Horsf.).
Small flocks of stints were found about old, flooded rice-fields on Malamaui;
a male and two females taken December 26 are of this species, which is an addi-
tion to the Basilan list.
Gallinago megala Swinhoe.
Snipe were abundant about the duck pond on Malamaui and the only specimens
killed were of the above species.
DissoOura episcopus (Bodd.).
This stork was seen in flight and resting in small trees near the town of
Isabela; the species has not been noted as an inhabitant of Basilan.
Ardea sumatrana Raffi.
A female was taken December 18. . One, of two fish extracted from its gullet
measured 3.5 inches in depth. This species of heron is an addition to the
Basilan list.
Egretta garzetta (Linn.).
A male taken December 20 measured 24 inches in length; legs, blackish with
blotches of green on upper parts; feet and lower part of tarsi, green; bill, black,
except basal half of lower mandible which was white. This is the first record of
the species from Basilan.
: BIRDS FROM THE ISLAND OF BASILAN. 283
Butorides javanica (Horsf.).
Common in mangrove swamps.
Bubulcus coromandus (Bodd.).
A few small flocks observed and a female taken in December. This species
is new to the Basilan list.
Ardetta cinnamomea (Gm.).
Fairly abundant; an immature female was taken December 29.
Dendrocygna arcuata (Horsf.).
A few ducks, for the most part of this species, were observed on.a small pond
in Malamaui.
Dendrocygna guttulata Wallace.
A male of this species was found in a string of D. arcuata killed December 26;
the species has not been previously noted in this locality.
Mareca penelope (Linn.).
A female widgeon in very poor plumage was taken January 5. The only
previous Philippine record is based on a specimen killed by me in Calayan.
Fregata species.
On January 17 a small flock of frigate pelicans was seen near Basilan.
Astur species.
A female taken January 24 is provisionally identified as Astur trivirgatus.
Astur soloensis (Lath.).
Specimens were obtained in January, February, and March.
Spilornis holospilus (Vig.). ;
Two specimens taken.
Butastur indicus (Gm.).
A female taken January 31.
Haliaétus leucogaster (Gm.).
Occasionally seen.
Haliastur intermedius Gurney.
A few seen.
Ninox japonica (Temm. & Schl.).
A male and a female taken in Basilan, February 27, are darker than specimens
from Cuyo and Calayan. The following notes indicate the variations in specimens
at hand.
Basilan, February, male and female; six dark tail-bands, first and second
primaries with no light bands, third and fourth slightly banded.
Cuyo, March, male; four tail-bands, all primaries strongly banded.
Fuga, August, two males; five tail-bands, all primaries banded.
Calayan, November, male; five tail-bands, and primaries strongly banded;
December, male and November, female; five tail-bands, first primary with indica-
tions of light bands.
Hondo, Japan; five tail-bands, all primaries weakly spotted.
Ninox spilocephala Tweed.
Five specimens were taken in February and March. This species is very much
like Ninoxw philippensis but is easily recognized by its spotted head.
Cacatua hzmaturopygia (P. L. S. Miiller).
Abundant.
284 M’GREGOR.
Prioniturus discurus ( Vieill.).
Abundant; feeding on bananas.
Tanygnathus lucionensis (Linn.).
Abundant.
Loriculus apicalis Souancé.
Fairly abundant.
Batrachostomus septimus Tweed.
A pair of frog-mouths taken March 1 are in perfect rufous plumage. These
specimens agree fairly well with the description of the above species.
Eurystomus orientalis (Linn.).
The oriental roller was seen in its usual numbers.
Pelargopsis gigantea Walden.
A female taken December 20.
Alcedo bengalensis Briss.
Abundant.
Ceyx mindanensis Steere.
A number of specimens of this species taken in February and March.
Ceyx bournsi Steere.
Several specimens taken.
Halcyon winchelli Sharpe.
Fairly abundant.
Halcyon chloris (Bodd.).
Abundant.
Hydrocorax mindanensis (Tweed.).
Several specimens secured.
Penelopides basilanica Steere.
Abundant.
Merops philippinus Linn.
Two males collected.
Lyncornis macrotis (Vig.). 4
A male from Basilan can be almost exactly matched by birds from Luzon
and Mindoro. This species seems to be somewhat dichromatic and in the series
of fifteen specimens before me the dark, brown-headed form is the commoner.
The variation from this is most strongly marked in a female from lLamao,
Bataan Province, Luzon, collected January 3, 1905. The forehead and top of
head are light rusty-fulvous with fine, blackish vermiculations and the black
spots on vertex are much reduced in size; the jaws, sides of face, ear-coverts
and supercilia are rufous with black cross-lines; in the commoner type these
parts are black with narrow rufous cross-lines. The same general condition
extends to the wings and coverts, namely an increase of rufous at the expense
of the black. The light areas of the scapulars which are normally white or
nearly white, are fulvous in the rufous phase. The light tail-bars are more
pronounced and are nearly entire across the webs, instead of being greatly broken.
The under surface of the body is similar to that of the normal type except the
fore-breast which is more strongly vermiculated with rufous.
Macropteryx major Hartert.
Two specimens secured.
BIRDS FROM TH ISLAND OF BASILAN. 285
Chezetura species.
A large swift, presumedly C. celebensis, was frequently seen.
Pyrotrogon ardens (Temm.).
Specimens from Basilan have much larger bills than specimens from Luzon
but the colors are exactly similar.
Surniculus velutinus Sharpe.
Three males obtained in January and February.
Cuculus canorus Linn.
A male in good plumage was killed December 27; this species is new to the
Basilan list.
Cacomantis merulinus (Scop.).
Fairly abundant.
Chalcococcyx xanthorhynchus (Horsf.).
An adult male was taken January 9; both this and the following species are
unrecorded from Basilan.
Chalcococcyx malayanus (Rafil.).
An immature male was taken December 26; length 6.5 inches; irides and
eyelids, red; bill and feet, black. A female taken December 31 has throat, breast,
and sides of neck heavily washed with rusty-brown; length 6.3 inches; irides,
red; bill, black; base of bill, dark red; feet, dark green.
Eudynamis mindanensis (Linn.).
A male taken March 18.
Centropus viridis (Scop.).
A few seen.
Centropus melanops Less.
The black-eyed cuckoo occurs in some abundance in Basilan; there is con-
siderable variation in the size of bill in this species, but it is purely individual.
Birds from Basilan and Bohol do not differ in coloration.
Thriponax multilunatus sp. nov.
Specific characters—Similar to Thriponax javensis but the white lines on
throat wider and feathers of fore-breast narrowly edged with pale-fawn or
buffy-white, forming crescentic marks, this approaching 7. pectoralis.
Type.—No. 6171, g, Bureau of Science Collection; Isabela, Island of Basilan,
P. I., December 28, 1906; R. C. McGregor and A. Celestino.
Description of type.—Forehead, crown, crest, and malar stripe bright-crimson,
the feathers withish at base; nasal plumes, blackish; lores and a wide trans-
ocular band black; rest of upper parts, wings, and tail, black; second, third, and
fourth primaries with a white spot at base of inner web; third to seventh
primaries with a white spot at tip of outer web; inner secondaries white at
base; chin, throat, and postauricular area, black, each feather narrowly maregined
with whitish, producing a striped appearance; breast, black, the feathers of fore
part narrowly bordered with buffy producing a series of crescentic light marks;
abdomen and sides, buffy white; thighs black, each feather widely bordered with
light buff; vent and tail-coverts, black. Length in flesh, 16.5 inches; wing, 8.25;
tail, 6.55; culmen from base, 2.05; tarsus, 1.16.
Ten specimens from Basilan differ uniformly from Fhriponax javensis and
maintain the specific characters assigned above. That the crescentic breast
marks are not due to immaturity is evident from an examination of young
specimens of 7. javensis from Luzon for these have the breast entirely black.
286 M’GREGOR.
Yungipicus fulvifasciatus Hargitt.
This small woodpecker is a common species in Basilan.
Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Scop.).
Abundant.
Sarcophanops steerei Sharpe.
A large series of this curious species was obtained. A male and a female,
taken January 23 and March 1 respectively, are immature and differ from the ~
adult as follows: Throat, white. the black confined to chin and sides of throat
except a few black feathers; under tail-coverts, tinged with brown; top of head,
blackish, forehead, washed with yellow, some of the adult feathers present; back
and wing-coyerts, dark slate-gray widely edged with olive-green; yellow wing
bar paler, the white portion washed with buff; the young male differs from the
young female in having a few pale-lavender feathers on throat and breast.
Pitta fastosa sp. noy.
Specific characters.—Similar to Pitta moluccensis P. L. S. Miiller but vertical
stripe black not dark brown.
Type.—No. 11,900, 9, Bureau of Science Collection; Island of Basilan, P. L.;
February 9, 1907; Celestino and Canton.
Description of type.—Sides of head including -lores, cheeks, supercilia. and
ear-coverts black connected by wide black collar; wide vertical stripe black,
bordered on each side by a wide stripe of fulvous brown, the feathers edged with
pale-buff on exterior webs; back, scapulars, and tertiaries dark green; rump,
upper tail-coverts, and lesser wing-coverts bright ultramarine-blue; chin, black;
throat, white; lower throat, breast, abdomen. and flanks ruddy-buff, most intense
on breast; vent, under tail-coverts, and middle of abdomen bright-red; tail, black
tipped with dull-blue; primaries black, each feather with a white patch, mesial
and smallest on first, reaching tip on seventh; secondaries, black, edged with
dull blue on terminal half; alula. primary coverts, axillaries, and wing lining
black. Length in flesh, “7.5” inches; wing, 4.65; tail, 1.58; culmen from base,
1.10; bill from nostril, 0.72; tarsus, 1.44.
The type and only specimen was secured near the town of Isabela. Oates?
states that Pitta moluccensis is found in the Philippines but Walden? makes
no remarks on the species in his review of Philippine ornithology and none of the
more recent collectors has taken it.
Pitta erythrogaster Temm.
A young male was taken March 7.
Pitta atricapilla Lesson.
Several specimens.
Hirundo javanica Sparr.
This swallow was building nests in December and January.
Hemichelidon griseisticta (Swinh.).
A female was collected January 15 and this species is new to the Basilan list.
Cyornis philippinensis Sharpe.
A female was preserved.
Muscicapula basilanica (Sharpe).
One female specimen.
1QOates: Bds. of British Burmah (1883), 1, 416.
* Trans. Zool. Soc. (1875), 9, 187-89.
BIRDS FROM THE ISLAND OF BASILAN, 287
Hypothymis occipitalis (Vig.).
A male in fine plumage was taken January 16; numerous other individuals
were seen.
Hypothymis superciliaris Sharpe.
This species was fairly abundant and several specimens were taken.
Cyanomyias ccelestis (Tweed.).
Fairly abundant and usually found in company with the last two species. In
a male taken February 2 the longest crest feathers measure 1.5 inches. The male
taken by me near Mariveles, Luzon, differs in no way from Basilan specimens.
‘Rhipidura nigritorquis Vig.
A common species.
Zeocephus cinnamomeus Sharpe.
This race appears to differ very little from Zeocephus rufus, but fully adult
individuals are believed to be quite distinguishable. I will here transcribe per-
tinent MS. notes by Worcester and Bourns: “We have some suggestions to
offer, after looking over our series of thirty-one specimens from Luzon, Mindoro,
Panay, Negros, Cebu, Basilan, Sulu. and Tawi Tawi. The immature birds of
Z. rufus have the white belly and general coloring of Z. cinnamomeus. They are
not to be distinguished from birds of the latter species. Second, out of fifteen
specimens from the south, seven do not show a trace of white on the belly, and
are of a uniform deep rufous color. Third, we have a male bird in breeding
plumage from Cebu which is indistinguishable, so far as shade of rufous is con-
cerned, from Basilan birds. The confusion between the two species is thus readily
understood. Are they then distinct? We think they are for the following
reasons. The average fully adult bird from the northern islands is very much
darker in color than the darkest of the southern birds. The northern birds
have the tail much more strongly graduated than that of the birds from the south.
None of our specimens from the south show any special elongation of the
central tail-feathers. The northern birds in good plumage all have the central
tail-feathers decidedly elongated. In one specimen from Tablas and another from
Sibuyan the central tail-feathers exceed the rest by full three inches. Other
birds, collected at the same time and place do not show nearly so strong a
development of these feathers, but the fact remains that nothing even approaching
it is shown by our specimens from the south.
“The dark tips of the tail-feathers described by Dr. Sharpe as characteristic of
Z. cinnamomeus are simply a sign of immaturity, as is the white of the belly.
“Zeocephus rufus, then, inhabits the northern and central Philippines, and is
to be distinguished from Z. cinnamomeus by its darker color when fully adult.
and by its more strongly graduated tail, which has the central tail-feathers at
least three inches longer than the others when the birds are in perfect plumage.
A male from Sibuyan with elongated central tail-feathers measures 11.25 inches
in length; tail, 6.40.”
I may add that a male collected by me in Sibuyan June 28, 1904, was 12
inches in total length and the tail measures 7.45, the central feathers exceeding
the others by 3.38.
Abrornis olivacea Moseley.
A female taken December 31 does not differ from a female taken in Bohol.
Rhinomyias ruficauda (Sharpe).
Fairly abundant in forest.
288 M GREGOR.
Artamides kochi lutter.
An abundant species. In some female skins the black bars of under tail-coverts
are almost entirely wanting. Specimens from Bohol and from Basilan are speci-
fically identical and differ in no way.
Edoliisoma mindanense (Tweed.).
Numerous specimens from Basilan agree with the description of the type from
Mindanao and are doubtless identical with the above species. Birds in young
banded plumage were taken January 12 and 19 and March 7. Hdoliisoma eluswm
is found to be quite distinct from this species. In the male of H. mindanense
the rump and upper tail-coverts are pale-gray, the coverts tipped with white,
while in the male of elusum the back, rump, and tail-coverts are uniform. The
females of the two species differ in the same way and in addition the female of
mindanense has the abdomen and under-tail coverts very pale-gray, almost white,
while in the female of elwswm the under parts are uniform slate-gray.
Pericrocotus cinereus Lafr.
Two specimens of the ashy minivet were secured February 18; this appears to
be the most southern point in the Philippines from which the species is known.
Lalage niger (Forster). :
Fairly common.
Irena melanochlamys Sharpe.
This species was very abundant in Basilan and was more often killed in
small trees near cultivated land than in forest. The figure which accompanies the
original description® represents very poorly the coloration of lower parts. In
the plate the line between black and blue of fore breast is altogether too sharpely
defined and the blue is far too light.
lole rufigularis (Sharpe).
This distinct species of fruit-thrush is abundant and does not differ in habits
from its relative found in Luzon.
Poliolophus urostictus (Salvad.).
I am inclined to think that Steere’s name Poliolophus basilanicus may have to
be recognized for the bird inhabiting Basilan. The bill is noticeable longer and
the white spots of rectrices occupy more space in Basilan specimens than in
others from Luzon. The species is fairly abundant in the forest near Isabela.
Pycnonotus goiavier (Scop.).
Very abundant.
Ptilocichla basilanica Steere.
The length of tarsus (.11) given in the original description* is clearly a
misprint for 1.11 inches.
Zosterornis capitalis (Tweed.).
Three specimens taken during February and March.
Macronus striaticeps Sharpe.
Abundant.
Copsychus mindanensis (Gm.).
One female, December 18.
’> Trans. Linn. Soc. Ser. 2 Zool. 1, 334.
*Steere: List birds and mammals Steere Exp., Ann Arbor (1890), 18.
BIRDS FROM THE ISLAND OF BASILAN. 289
Locustella ochotensis (Midd.).
A male taken January 2. The species was abundant on flooded rice land and
has not been recorded from Basilan.
Orthotomus mearnsi sp. noy.
Orthotomus frontalis SHARPE, Trans. Linn. Soc. 2d ser. Zool. (1877), 6, 336-37
(pt.) ; TWEEDDALE, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1879), 72, McGrecor AND WORCESTER, Hand-
List (1906), 88 (pt.).
Specific characters—Similar to Orthotomus frontalis Sharpe but chestnut of
forehead extending on crown to or nearly to posterior margin of eyes, not ending
abruptly; the whole crown and nape slightly suffused with chestnut; behind
eye the chestnut extends over side of nape; the crown never clear gray as in
O. frontalis.
Type—No. 6043, g, Bureau of Science Collection; Isabela, Basilan, P. I.;
December 15, 1906; R. C. McGregor and A. Celestino.
Description of type.—Forehead, lores, and ring around eye chestnut, this color
extending on crown to about opposite center of eye and then gradually fading,
becoming merely a wash on occiput and neck; from behind eye the chestnut extends
backward a little stronger than on back of head; rest of upper parts, including
wings light olive-green; rectrices with light edges and wide, dusky tips; under
parts white with more or less of the gray bases of feathers showing on throat and
breast; flanks, pale greenish-yellow; thighs, chestnut. Total length in flesh, 4.5
inches; wing, 1.84; tail, 1.74; tarsus, 0.84.
Female.—The female does not differ from the male.
This species which is quite distinct, has been confused with O. frontalis, the
error having originated with Sharpe who apparently had one male from Zamboan-
ga, Mindanao, and two males from Basilan; the latter were supposed to be young
birds. In the paper cited, Sharpe says: “The two young specimens seen to me
to belong to the same species as the adult male: but this is by no means certain;
for in one specimen J can detect a slight rufous shade on the sides of the crown,
the adult 0. frontalis of course not having this colouring.”
Tweeddale also remarked the same difference and ascribed it to individual
variation. He says: “The amount of rufous on the head of this species varies
considerably in different individuals. Im some it occupies the whole forehead
and extends back to the vertex, and also colours the ear-coverts and a broad
space below the eyes.”
For comparison with Basilan birds I have had two examples collected by
Mearns near Zamboanga and three collected by Clemens near Camp Keithley,
Lake Lanao, Mindanao. The large series collected by us in Bohol are identical
with specimens from Mindanao.
Orthotomus cinereiceps Sharpe.
Fairly abundant. Specimens occur with different amounts of white on chin
and throat and I believe this is a sign of immaturity, the old birds having chin
and throat pure black.
Acanthopneuste borealis (Blas.).
A male was taken December 24 and a female January 2. The occurrence of
this species in Basilan appears to have been overlooked.
Artamus leucorhynchus (Linn.).
Fairly abundant.
Otomela lucionensis (Linn.).
A few examples seen.
60053——3
290 M’GREGOR.
Hyloterpe apoensis Mearns.
The thick-head of Basilan appears to belong to this species.
Callisitta lilacea (Whitehead).
This fine species is easily recognized as pointed out by Grant,® by the feathers
of the face and ear-coverts being lilac instead of blue. The white loral spot
is washed with lilac and there is a distinct nuchal band of the same color. A
specimen of C. @nochlamys from Cebu has a heavier violet wash on lower parts
than specimens from Bataan Province, Luzon.
Rhabdornis minor Grant.
A number of specimens secured.
Zosterops basilanica Steere.
The Basilan silver-eye was rarely observed and but few specimens were taken.
Diczum papuense (Gm.).
-Two males taken.
Diczeum hypoleucum Sharpe.
A number of specimens killed from flower trees.
Prionochilus olivaceus Tweed.
Specimens from Bohol and from Basilan seem to be specifically the same.
Eudrepanis pulcherrima (Sharpe).
A few specimens collected.
Cinnyris juliz Tweed.
Abundant.
Cinnyris jugularis (Linn.).
Less abundant than the last.
Arachnothera flammifera Tweed.
Specimens from Bohol have bills considerably shorter than specimens from
Basilan, but the coloration does not differ.
Anthreptes chlorigaster Sharpe.
A male was taken January 10.
Budytes leucostriatus Hom.
A male in winter plumage was taken January 2. The species is unrecorded
from Basilan.
Anthus gustavi Swinh.
One specimen was killed on Malamaui.
Munia jagori Martens.
Very few seen.
Uroloncha everetti (Tweed.).
One female taken December 31.
Oriolus chinensis Linn.
Abundant.
Oriolus steerei Sharpe.
The small forest oriole of Basilan was very abundant near Isabela and a good
series was collected.
*Grant: Ibis (1906), 6, 474.
BIRDS FROM THE ISLAND OF BASILAN. 291
Dicrurus striatus Tweed.
This species was very abundant near Isabela. A female taken January 15
differs from the usual specimens in having feathers of lower breast and abdomen
tipped with gray. A pensile nest of this species found March 12 is composed of
plant fibers. Its inside diameter is 3 inches and its inside depth is 2 inches.
The three eges are light cream, almost white, in color decorated with faint spots
of pale lilac and brighter spots of reddish brown, mostly near the larger end of
the egg. The eggs measure: 1.14 by 0.76; 1.15 by 0.75; 1.16 by 0.77.
Sarcops melanonotus Grant.
Abundant.
Lamprocorax panayensis (Scop.).
Abundant.
Corone philippina (Bonap.).
Abundant. .
DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW PHILIPPINE BIRDS.
By RicHarp C. McGREGoR.
Turnix celestinoi sp. nov.
Specific characters——Similar to Turnix whiteheadi but larger, bill longer and
heavier, wing and tarsus longer, coloration darker.
Type.—No. 5408, g, Bureau of Science Collection; Guindulman, Bohol Island,
P. I.; collected June 22, 1906 by McGregor, Celestino and Canton.
Description of type——Above, ground color black; feathers of head narrowly
edged with dull-buff, paler on forehead; a narrow, median line of pale-buff from
forehead to nape; hind neck, mantle, rump, and tail coverts with wavy broken
cross lines of dark rusty-buff, obsolete on neck; lores and side of head, light-buff
with small, black tips to feathers; a patch on each side of neck pale vinaceous-
buff with narrow, black cross-lines; chin and throat, white, each feather with
narrow buff tip; middle of abdomen, white; rest of lower parts rusty-buff, a
trifle lighter than in 7. worcesteri; sides of breast marked with a wide, black
bar on each feather; primaries, secondaries, primary covers, and alula, slate; first
primary and first feather of alula edged exteriorly with ocherous buff; secondary
coverts and tertials with wide edges of ocherous-buff preceded by large, black
spots or bars; wing lining and axillaries, slate; tail, bluish-slate and hidden by the
long coverts. Total length, 5.0 inches; wing, 2.58; tail, 0.70; exposed culmen,
0.45; depth of bill at angle of gonys, 0.16; tarsus, 0.78; middle toe with claw, 0.74.
Zosterornis affinis sp. nov.
Zosterornis nigrocapitatus McGrecor, Publications of the Bureau of Govern-
ment Laboratories, Manila (1905), No. 34, 29.
Specific characters.—Similar to Zosterornis nigrocapitata (Steere) but slightly
larger; chestnut of chin and upper throat diffused and not forming a patch on
each side.
Type-—No. 10260, g, Bureau of Science Collection; Lamao, Bataan Province,
Island of Luzon, P. I.; collected December 3, 1904 by Celestino and Canton.
Description of type.—Forehead and crown, black, the shafts obscurely whitish ;
a small patch of chestnut behind each eye, next to the black crown; general color
above dull olive-gray, feathers of neck and mantle with conspicuous, narrow,
whitish shaft lines; rump, uniform; a narrow ying around eye, ear coverts, and
cheeks gray with pale-yellow shaft lines; chin, throat, and fore breast, pale
lemon-yellow the chin heavily washed with chestnut rufous which becomes grad-
ually less on throat and disappears on breast; middle of breast and abdomen,
very pale yellow, their sides gray, overlaid with a faint yellow wash; under tail
coverts pale yellow; wings blackish-brown, outer edges of quills lighter and inner
edges whitish; median and lesser coverts with light shaft lines; upper tail coverts
dull olive-brown; rectrices, dark brown, except the outer feather, their outer webs
292,
FOUR NEW PHILIPPINE BIRDS. 293
edged with olive-brown, all but the center pair tipped with white, increasing in
extent towards the outermost feather which has its outer web almost entirely
white. “Length, 6.00 inches;” wing, 2.70; tail, 2.40; exposed culmen, 0.58; bill
from front margin of nostril, 0.41; tarsus, 0.78.
The exact type locality of Parus elegans Lesson is unknown, but it is
fair to assume that specimens from Luzon represent this species. Speci-
men No. 452 d, Bureau of Science Collection; Mariveles, Bataan Prov-
ince, Luzon; February 18, 1902; McGregor and Celestino, is here used
as a basis for comparison. It may briefly be described as follows:
Pardaliparus elegans (Lesson).
Head above, neck, cheecks, chin, throat, and fore breast glossy-black; space
below eye, ear coverts, sides of neck, a large irregular spot on hind neck, breast,
abdomen, under tail-coverts, and thighs lemon-yellow; flanks lightly washed with
greenish-yellow; mantle with large spots of black, yellow, and white; lower back
and rump olive-green; upper tail-coverts and rectrices black, the latter with
white tips and two or three outer pair, with a white spot in middle of outer
web; wings black; median and greater coverts and secondaries with large, white
tips; small white spots on alula; outer webs of primaries narrowly edged with
white or pale olive-green: quills edged with white on inner web; under wing
coverts white, edged with yellow and mottled with blackish; irides and bill black;
feet and nails plumbeous. Length im flesh, 4.75 inches; wing, 2.58; tail, 1.66:
exposed culmen, 0.38; tarsus, 0.75.
Pardaliparus albescens sp. noy.
Parus elegans McGrecor. Bull. Philippine Mus. (1903), 1, 11 (Ticao and
Masbate) .
Pardaliparus elegans MCGREGOR AND WoRCESTER, Publications of the Bureau
of Government Laboratories (1906), 36, 94 (part).
Specific characters—Similar to P. elegans Lesson, but little or no olive-green
on upper parts and the white much more extensive, to a large extent replacing the
black.
Type—No. 1000 § adult, Bureau of Science Collection; Ticao Island, P. L.;
May 9, 1902; R. C. MeGregor and A. Celestino, collectors. Total length in flesh,
4.37 inches; wing, 2.53; tail, 1.55; exposed culmen, 0.38; tarsus, 0.72. Ivrides
dark; bill black; legs and nails lead-color.
Remarks.—Gadow * observes that: “Immature birds and females have the back
more yellow and olive-grey, the white spots and the white wash getting more
pronounced in old birds, sometimes giving the back a nearly white appearance.”
While this is true, the characters assigned to the present species are believed to
be quite independent of age and season. Adults from Masbate and Ticao agree
in having these characters, while not one in a large series from Luzon shows
them. It may be added that the wearing away of the tips of the dorsal feathers
produces a considerable difference in the bird’s appearance and in birds with
worn plumage the yellow head band, the breast, and the abdomen become much
paler in color than in freshly moulted birds. Excluding young birds, I have before
me two skins from Ticao, three from Masbate, three from Mariveles, Luzon and
19 from Baguio, Benguet, Luzon. For a large part of the Benguet series I am
indebted to Dr. E. A. Mearns.
1Gadow: Cat. Bds. (1883), 8, 23.
294 M’GREGOR.
Pardaliparus edithz sp. nov.
Pardaliparus elegans McGreeor, Bull. Philippine Mus. (1904), 4, 27.
Specific characters.—Size and color pattern as in P. elegans from which it is
most easily distinguished by the reduction of the white spots on wing coverts
and the general paler yellow, particularly of the light band on side of head and
neck which is nearly pure white.
Type.—No. 3475, g, Bureau of Science Collection; Calayan Island, Babuyan
Group, P. I.; collected October 5, 1903 by McGregor and Celestino.
Description of type——Top of head, sides of neck, and mantle, glossy blue-black;
an irregular white patch in center of nape; a number of large, white spots on
mantle; back and rump gray washed with olivaceous; upper tail coverts glossy
black; chin, throat and fore breast, dead black forming a large triangular patch,
bounded above by a broad band of white, slightly washed with yellow, which
extends under eye across ear coverts onto side of neck; rest of lower parts pale
lemon-yellow washed with olivaceous on sides on neck and abdomen and on flanks ;
wings, glossy black; primaries, narrowly edged with gray on their outer webs
and with white on the inner; greater and median coverts with white spots at tips
(much smaller than in P. elegans and not forming bands as in that species) ;
secondaries tipped with white; tail, black with white markings as in P. elegans,
but the white tips much smaller than in the latter species. Bill, black except
basal third which is whitish; legs dull-blue; nails horn-brown. Total length,
4.8 inches; wing; 2.66; tail, 1.70; culmen from base, 0.48; bill from nostril, 0.39;
tarsus, 0.72; middle toe with claw, 0.68. ~
Pardaliparus mindanensis (Mearns).
Pardaliparus elegans mindanensis MEARNS, Proc. Biol. Soe. Wash. (1905), 18,
8 (Mindanao).
This species is the smallest among the Philippine members of its genus; it
may be recognized by its small bill and the dark and yellow coloration of upper
parts.
THE OCCURRENCE OF BLYTH’S WATTLED LAPWING AND
THE SCAUP DUCK IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
By RicHarp C. McGrecor.
Through the interest of Dr. Leon Guerrero, a Filipino naturalist resid-
ing in Manila, the Bureau of Science has aquired a perfect specimen of
Blyth’s wattled lapwing, Microsarcops cinereus (Blyth),* which repre-
sents a subfamily of birds not previously known to occur in these Islands.
Sharpe gives the range of this species as “From Corea and the southern
Japanese islands to Mongolia and northern China, wintering in southern
China, the Indo-Burmese countries, and northeastern Bengal.” ‘The
species may prove to be a regular winter visitant to the Philippines.
The present specimen, a male in young winter plumage, was taken
January 20, 1906, near Malabon, a short distance from Manila. The
specimen is about 12.3 inches in length; wing, 9; tail, 4; tarsus, 2.9;
culmen, 1.5. This bird resembles a large plover, but is distinguished by
having a small hind toe, a short and blunt wing spur, and a small, fleshy
wattle or lappet between the eye and base of bill. The plumage may be
‘ described as follows:
Upper parts, brown with a slight gloss, the feathers with dusky shafts;
forehead and neck a trifle lighter and grayer; upper tail coverts and
tail, white, rectrices with a subterminal blackish band which is widest
on central pair and absent from outermost pair; chin whitish; throat
and sides of head and neck, light brown with whitish streaks; breast
brown, rest of under parts, white; wing coverts, brown like the back but
a little paler, median coverts with narrow, white tips, except the outer
ones which are pure white; greater coverts, nearly entirely white, with
brown at extreme base, increasing in extent on inner ones; ‘alula dark
brown; primary-coverts and quills, black; secondaries, white, the inner
one externally lLght brown and the innermost brown lke the black.
“ ee 5534) (needy 1.31 . 82 99
348 M’GREGOR.
Cisticola cisticola (Temm.).
Fairly abundant.
Hyloterpe illex sp. nov.
Specific characters.—Similar to H. fallax of Calayan Island, but larger; breast
and sides more strongly suffused with yellow.
Type.—No. 6573 ¢ adult; Bureau of Science Collection; Camiguin Island,
P. I.; June 27, 1907; R. C. MeGregor and A. Celestino. Length, 7.2 inches;
wing, 3.62; tail, 2.93; exposed culmen, 0.62; tarsus, 0.92.
Remarks.—While closely related to H. fallax this species differs in its greater
size; the greater length of wing is especially noticeable. The yellow on the
breast extends forward for a greater distance than in H. fallax. This new
species was not uncommon in the forest on Camiguin, but most of the specimens
secured were in poor plumage.
Measurements of Hyloterpe fallax and H, illex, male specimens.
Species, Locality. Date. | Wing. | Tail. Hee Dosed Tarsus.
Tf ULC Calayan —--------_ Sept. 19 3.18 2.62 0.57 0. 85
DOx222 soe 23 |e GOS ea Oct. 4 3.21 2.74 . 60 . 86
DO ca AB ae ese ed ae (6 (o\pue ees ee Oct. 6 3.25 2.80 7 - 86,
DO 2S eee a Ee ee Coie ee Dec. 9 3.19 2.60 . 60 . 83
EL ULC ee re Camiguin —_______ June 20 3.40 2.89 . 64 . 88
ID eee | (6 (0) June 27 3. 62 2.93 - 62 92
DOs ee | Saree d0=23-e= eee & wee CORE oct 2.91 . 64 92
DOS eee tees ee (6 oye meer June 28 3. 64 2.92 . 64 . 90
Pardaliparus edithae McGregor.
Fairly common. A number of specimens taken are mostly young birds. The
only adult male obtained is similar to the type from Calayan.
Zosterops meyleri, sp. nov. .
Specific characters——Similar to Zosterops awreiloris Grant, but bill longer,
forehead brighter yellow, and circle of white feathers about eye much wider.
_ Lype—No. 6561, g in breeding plumage; Bureau of Science Collection;
Camiguin Island, P. I.; June 25, 1907; R. C. McGregor and A. Celestino.
Description—Above, bright olive-yellow, lighter on rump; forehead, golden-
yellow; ear-coverts and side of neck like the back; a wide circle of short, silky,
white feathers about eye, bordered below by a dusky line; lores, rich golden-
yellow; below, bright-yellow; side, slightly dusky; wing, and tail, olive-green like
the back. Irides, brown; bill black, but basal two-thirds of lower mandible
leaden-blue; legs and nails flesh. Total length, 4.5 inches; wing, 2.10; tail, 1.57;
bill from nostril, 0.32; tarsus 0.66.
Cotype.—No. 6672, 2 adult, Bureau of Science Collection; Camiguin Island,
P. I.; July 11, 1907; McGregor and Celestino. In color similar to the male.
Total length, 4.3 inches; wing, 2.08; tail, 1.50; bill from nostril, 0.32; exposed
culmen, 0.43; tarsus, 0.65.
Remarks.—This species belongs to the section of the genus having the lower
parts all bright yellow and including Z. awreiloris, luzonica, richmondi, etc., but
it may be recognized at once by its very wide white eye-circle. In color it is like
Z. richmondi from Cagayancillo but it lacks the black line under eye. The
species is named for Mr. John Meyler, the only American inhabitant of Camiguin
Island.
THE BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC. 349
Diczeum papuense (Gm.).
This species, the only representative of its family in Camiguin, was seldom
observed. An adult male was taken June 27 and a young male July 8.
Cinnyris whiteheadi Grant.
Fairly abundant; specimens from Camiguin differ in no way from specimens
taken in other islands.
Budytes leucostriatus (Hom.).
The only specimen seen was a male killed June 27. This individual had lost
his left leg and had been unable to migrate.
Anthus rufulus Vieill.
Fairly abundant on a flat near the town.
Uroloncha everetti Tweed.
Specimens were taken June 2 and 28; abundant in the vicinity of newly planted
rice fields.
_ Oriolus chinensis (Linn.).
Abundant.
Lamprocorax panayensis (Scop.).
A few pairs were nesting in dead trees near the town.
Y AMI.
Y’Ami, the most northern of the Philippine Islands, is a mass of
broken rock covered with a thick growth of grass, vines, and stunted,
twisted trees. During half an hour spent ashore here on the morning
of June 17 an immature male specimen of Haliaetus leucogaster (Gm.),
and a male, in worn plumage, of Zosterops batanis McGregor were killed.
Tn addition four species were observed of which no specimens were taken.
These species are: Halcyon chloris (Bodd.), Terpsiphone nigra Mc-
Gregor, Hypsipetes batanensis Mearns, and Petrophila manilla (Bodd.).
BABUYAN CLARO.
In a short time spent on the volcanic island of Babuyan Claro, June
18, specimens of Hypsipetes batanensis Mearns and Salangana marginata
(Salvad.) were collected and Cinnyris whiteheadi Grant, Hirwndo java-
nica Sparrm., and Corone philippina (Bp.) were identified.
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ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATE I. T'erpsiphone nigra sp. nov. adult male.
Il. Terpsiphone nigra, adult female.
Ill. Terpsiphone nigra, young.
IV. Fig. 1, Cypselus pacificus (Lath.); fig. 2. Cypselus subfurcatus Blyth.
V. Fig. 1, Cypselus pacificus (Lath.); fig. 2. Cypselus subfurcatus Blyth.
351
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McGrReEGoOR: BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC.] [PHin. JouRN. Sct., Vou. II, No: 5.
PLATE |. TERPSIPHONE NIGRA McGREGOR. (No. 6422, ¢ ADULT.)
McGreGorR: BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC.] [PHIL. JourRN. ScI., Vou. II, No. 5.
PLATE Il. TERPSIPHONE NIGRA McGREGOR. (No. 6495, 2 ADULT.)
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se
McGreEGoR: BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC.] [PuH1Iu. Journ. Scr, Vou. II, No. 5.
PLATE Ill. TERPSIPHONE NIGRA. (No. 6418, ¢ HORNOTINE.
McGREGOR: BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC.] [PHIL. JouRN. ScI., Vou. II, No. 5.
Piate IV. 1, CYPSELUS PACIFICUS; 2, C. SUBFURCATUS, (SLIGHTLY REDUCED VENTRAL VIEW.)
McGREGOR: BIRDS OF BATAN, ETC.]
Pate V. 1, CYPSELUS PACIFICUS; 2, C, SUBFURCATUS.
[PuHIL. JouRN. ScI., Vou. II, No.
(SLIGHTLY REDUCED DORSAL VIEW.)
ei
TWO ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF THE PHILIPPINES.
By Enear A. Mrarns.
(Major and Surgeon, U. S. Army.)
Butorides spodiogaster (Sharpe).
On a nameless islet in Malampaya Sound off the Island of Palawan, I shot an
adult female of this heron, September 12, 1906. This specimen is No. 14319 of
the author’s collection.
Spodiopsar cineraceus (Temminck).
At Laoag, Ilocos Norte Province, Luzon, January 25, 1907, I shot a male of
the Chinese gray starling. The bird was alone and shy. The specimen is No.
14776, author’s collection.
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DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW GENUS AND NINE NEW
SPECIES ORE WWLIPPINE BIRDS:
By Epgar A. MEARNS.
(Major and Surgeon, U. S. Army.)
Since the publication of several papers on Philippine birds in the
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, in the year 1905,
I have continued my explorations in the Philippine Islands, with the
result that several new forms have been added to the Philippine avifauna,
some of which are described in the present paper.
In identifying my birds I have had the use of the personal library
of Commissioner Dean C. Worcester; and I am indebted to Dr. Paul C.
Freer and Mr. Richard C. McGregor for every facility afforded by the
collections and library of the Bureau of Science, in Manila. For op-
portunities of making expeditions in the field, I am deeply grateful to
Major-General Leonard Wood and Brigadier-General Tasker H. Bliss,
United States Army, under whom I have served.
All measurements given in this paper are in millimeters.
Malindangia, new genus of Campophagide.
Type.—Malindangia megregori, sp. nov.
Characters.—Wing and tail about equal; wing-feathers as in Hdoliisoma, 3d
4th, and 5th quills longest; tail, forked, 4th quill longest, 3d subequal, outer quill
shortest; webs of outer pair of rectrices sharply pointed. In form and pattern
the tail resembles that of Campochera, but has the webs more pointed. Bill with
eulmen decidedly shorter than tarsus; narrower, at gape, than length of outer toe
(without claw). Stiffened shafts of rump-feathers very pronounced.
Malindangia mcgregori, sp. noy.
MeGregor’s cuckoo-shrike. :
Type.—No. 14178, Mearns collection. Adult male from Mount Bliss, Ma-
lindang group (altitude 5,750 feet), northwestern Mindanao, Philippine Islands,
May 20, 1906.
Geographical distribution—Peaks of Mount Malindang, northwestern Min-
danao, from 4,000 to 9,000 feet.
Adult male and female.—Upper parts, including crown, mantle, rump, upper
tail-coverts, and middle pair of tail-feathers, uniform light gray; forehead, chin,
throat, breast, and sides of head to above eyes, black; innermost secondaries.
Scapulars, and least wing-coverts, gray like the back; middle and greater wing-
coverts, and a broad external band on innermost pair of secondaries, white;
remaining wing-quills black externally, broadly white on inner webs at base;
bastard wing all black; axillars and under wing-coverts white; three outer rec-
trices tipped with grayish-white on both webs, the innermost of the three nar-
355
356 MEARNS.
rowly, the next broadly, and the outermost for more than one-third of its length;
chest, flanks, and thighs, gray like the back, this color fading to whitish on the
abdomen and becoming pure white on the under tail-coverts. Iris, red or reddish-
brown; bill all black; feet, plumbeous-black, with under side of toes yellow.
Remarks.—The black of the under side of the head extends around the neck
and forms an incomplete black neck-collar which in the oldest males is but
narrowly interrupted in the median line above. The sexes are colored alike;
but one female (No. 14177), probably immature, has the black areas of the head
and neck replaced by a dark gray color. The plumage otherwise differs from that
of the adults only in having scarcely discernible fulvous edgings and wavy cross-
bands to the feathers of the abdomen.
This species was abundant on Mount Malindang. Fifteen specimens were
collected, ten of them males and five females.
Measurements (taken from fresh specimens by the author)—Three adult
males: Length, 236-240; alar expanse, 335-342; wing, 110-113; tail, 108-117;
culmen, 19-19.5; tarsus,-23-24; middle toe with its claw, 20-21. Female (No.
’ 14177): Length, 230; alar expanse, 330; wing, 108; tail, 111; culmen, 19; tar-
sus, 23; middle toe with its claw, 21.
Centropus carpenteri, sp. nov.
Batan Island coucal.
Type.—No. 15190, collection of Edgar A. Mearns. Adult male. Shot by Mr.
William Dorr Carpenter (for whom the species is named), in the foothills of
Mount Irada, in the northern part of Batan Island, Philippine Islands, May 27,
1907.
Characters.—Similar to Centropus mindorensis (Steere), but larger, with less
greenish reflections to the general black color.
Description of type (adult male.)—General color, black, with bluish and
purplish, and some greenish luster to the metallic plumage; wings, purplish-
brown. Bill, black; feet, plumbeous, claws, plumbeous-black.
Measurements——Type (skin of adult male): Length, 440; wing, 166; tail,
278; culmen (chord), 32; depth of bill, 16; tarsus, 42; middle toe with its
claw, 44.
Remarks.—This coucal is almost exactly like Centropus mindorensis, differing
only in size and in the color of the metallic reflections to the black plumage.
Centropus mindorensis is known only from Mindoro and the adjacent islet of
Semirara. Following are its measurements, for comparison with those of
Centropus carpenteri: Average of three adult male topotypes: Length, 398; wing,
153; tail, 238; culmen (chord) 29.2; depth of bill, 13.7; tarsus, 40; middle toe
with its claw, 42.
Cyornis mindorensis sp. nov.
Mindoro red-breasted flycather. ‘
Type.—No. 14519, Mearns collection. Adult male from the Alag River at 500
feet altitude, Mindoro, Philippine Islands, December 1, 1906.
Adult male.—Similar to Cyornis philippinensis Sharpe except that the blue
of upper parts is slightly darked; and the under parts differ in having the
abdomen and under tail-coverts orange instead of white. Specimen No. 4667,
Bureau of Science collection, taken March 14, 1905, on the Rio Baco, Mindoro,
by Messrs. McGregor, Celestino and Canton, has the following data written upon
the label: “Bill black. Legs reddish flesh color, nails brown. Length, 5.9 inches.”
Measurements (taken from skins).—Type (adult male): Length, 145; wing,
75; tail, 67; culmen, 14.5; bill from nostril, 11; tarsus, 19; middle toe with its
DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW GENUS, ETC. 357
claw, 17. Adult male No. 4667, Bureau of Science collection: Length, 135; wing,
75; tail, 65; culmen, 14; bill from nostril, 10; tarsus, 19; middle toe with
claw, 17.
Remarks.—All of the series of specimens of Cyornis philippinensis in the collec-
tion of the Bureau of Science have the crissum white, the Mindoro form being the
only one, of all the islands represented, in which this part is orange.
Rhipidura hutchinsoni, sp. nov.
Mount Malindang fan-tailed flycatcher.
Type.—No. 52, collection of Robert Schroder. Adult male from Mount Bliss,
Malindang group (altitude 5,750 feet), northwestern Mindanao, Philippine
Islands, June 9, 1906. f
Geographic distribution.—Peaks of Mount Malindang, northwestern Mindanao,
from 4,000 to 9,000 feet.
Characters—Similar to Rhipidura nigrocinnamomea Hartert, but larger, with-
out white on chest, this being replaced by deep cinnamon; and the short
supraorbital white stripes unite in front, forming a band across the forehead which
encroaches upon the black which edges the bill. The cinnamon color of the under
parts is darker in hutchinsoni than in nigrocinnamomea. In two adult males,
taken May 20, the colors of the soft parts were noted as follows: Iris, dark
brown; bill, black; feet, plumbeous, with claws nearly black.
Measurements.—An adult male (No. 14166, Mearns collection), measured in
the flesh, presented the following dimensions: Length, 178; alar expanse, 233;
wing, 77; tail, 90; culmen, 11.5; tarsus, 20; middle toe with its claw, 14. Skin
measurements of the type (adult male) are as follows: Length, 155; wing,
78; tail, 95; culmen, 11.7; tarsus, 19.5. Skin measurements of adult female
(No. 14167, Mearns collection): Length, 153; wing, 73; tail, 84; culmen, 11;
tarsus, 20.
Material.—Five specimens from the type locality, where the species is abundant.
Hypsipetes batanensis, sp. nov.
Batan red-eared bulbul.
Type.—No. 15199, collection of Edgar A. Mearns. Adult male from Santo
Domingo de Basco, Batan Island, Philippine Islands, May 27, 1907.
Characters.—Exactly like topotypes of Hypsipetes fugensis Grant, but larger,
and with the forehead rufescent instead of cinereous.
Measurements.—Type (skin of adult male): Length, 262; wing, 130; tail,
127; culmen (chord), 28; bill from anterior margin of nostril, 20; tarsus, 26;
midde toe with its claw (about), 27. Average of 3 adult males (including the
type): Length, 264; wing, 128; tail, 127; culmen (chord), 28; bill from anterior
margin of nostril, 26; middle toe with its claw (about), 27. Adult female:
Length, 245; wing, 116; tail, 112; culmen (chord), 25; bill from anterior margin
of nostril, 17.5; tarsus, 25; middle toe with its claw (about), 25.5.
Remarks.—Following, for comparison with Hypsipetes batanensis, are average
measurements of three adult male topotypes of typical Hypsipetes fugensis, taken
by the author on Fuga Island, May 30, 1907: Length, 261; wing, 123; tail, 125;
culmen (chord), 25.2; bill from anterior margin of nostril, 17.1; tarsus, 21.3;
middle toe with its claw (about), 23.3.)
Merula malindangensis, sp. nov.
Mount Malindang blackbird.
Type—No. 14134, Mearns collection. Adult male from Mount Malindang
(Lebo Peak, 5,750 feet), northwestern Mindanao, Philippine Islands, May 15,
1906.
Geographic distribution—Peaks of Mount Malindang, northwestern Mindanao,
from 5,000 to 9,000 feet.
358 MEARNS.
Characters.—Largest of the Philippine species of Werula. Breast and under
side of neck, light drab-gray, a darker shade of this color extending to the throat
and chin, and forming an indistinct collar around the hind neck; middle of
abdomen and crissum, nearly white, mantle, back, rump and upper tail-coverts,
light sooty-brown; wings and tail dark, sooty-brown.
Adult male.—Upper side of head, mantle, back, rump and upper tail-coverts
light sooty-brown; flanks slightly paler and browner; wings and tail dark sooty-
brown, more fuliginous on under surface; chest and under side of neck, light
drab-gray, a darker shade of this color encircling the neck and extending to the
chin and throat, where the feathers have dark shaft-streaks; sides of head pale
sooty-brown; feathers of the median area, from chest to crissum, with broad, white
edges and a dark central area inclosing a sagitiate white spot, giving a spotted
appearance to the middle of the under surface of the body; crissum with this
light area expanded and practically all white; under tail-coverts sooty-brown,
longitudinally striped with white or pale buff.
Adult female—Similar to the male, but slightly smaller, and dingier in color,
with a slight rufescence on sides of lower breast and flanks.
Immature male (No. 14625, Mearns ecollection).—Sides of lower chest and
flanks more strongly washed with raw umber than in adult females; chest and
throat darker.
First plumage (male, No. 14266, Mearns collection).—Upper surface, dusky,
washed with raw umber, especially on the head, neck, upper back, and wing-
coverts; scapulars with pale rusty shaft-streaks, and some of the lesser wing-
coverts edged with the same; under surface, sepia-brown strongly mixed with
reddish-brown, and spotted with brownish-black, the rufescence covering the
middle of the throat and much of the chest, the blackish cordate spots being
confined to the tips-and the rusty bands crossing the middle of the feathers;
whitish median stripe distinct, but with pale rufescent edging to the feathers
except on lower abdomen; under tail-coverts, sepia-brown with rusty edging and
broad, white, median stripes.
In other specimens, taken at the same season, the molt was nearly finished,
leaving a few feathers with rusty bands and black spots, and with a stronger
rusty washing to the flanks than in adults.
Material—Fourteen skins from the type locality.
Merula mayonensis, sp. nov.
Mount Mayon blackbird.
Type—No. 15272, collection of Edgar A. Mearns. Adult male from Mount
Mayon at 4,000 feet, Albay Province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, June 5, 1907.
Characters.—Pattern of coloration similar to that of Werula thomassoni Grant,
but darker, with less contrast between the coloration of the head and that of
the body. Smaller, with relatively stouter bill; prenal feathers not tipped with
white.
Description of type (adult male)—Upper surfaces, except head and neck, all
black; under surface of body black, perceptibly washed with brown on feather
edges; head and neck, very dark brown, almost black on crown; entire under
surface of wings and tail, dull black; under tail-coverts, black, with narrow
median white stripes, involving the shafts. Iris, very dark brown; eyelids, bill,
feet, and claws, all yellow. Female exactly like the male. A yunger male than
the type differs only in having the feathers of the under side of the body edged
with yellowish brown.
Measurements.—Type (skin of adult male): Length, 215; wing, 120; tail, 101;
culmen (chord, measured from true base), 22; bill from anterior margin of
nostril, 13; tarsus, 34; middle toe with its claw, 32.5.
DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW GENUS, ETC. 309
Adult female: Length, 210; wing, 117; tail, 99; culmen, 20.5; bill from nostril,
13; tarsus, 33; middle toe with its claw, 32.
Remarks.—This form is very closely related to Werula thomassoni Grant, from
the Province of Benguet, in the highlands of Luzon, but is smaller, 8 adult male
topotypes. averaging: Length, 225; wing, 121; tail, 102; culmen (chord), 23.2;
bill from anterior margin of nostril, 14.7; tarsus, 33; middle toe with its claw
(about), 32. As lateral measurements of the bill are the same as those of
Merula thomassoni, and the length of the latter’s bill is 1.7 millimeters greater
than that of Merula mayonensis, the bill has the appearance of being stouter.
The series of topotypes of Merula thomassoni with which comparison has been
made was taken at the same season (May 8 to June 7).
Key to the Philippine species of Merula.
[Based on adult males.]
a. Wing less than 115 millimeters; sides of lower breast and flanks chestnut.
: Merula mindorensis (Grant) .
aa. Wing more than 115 millimeters; sides of lower breast and flanks not chestnut.
b. Chest, head and neck all round nearly uniform broccoli-brown (slightly
darkest on crown). °
ce. Wing about 120 millimeters; body uniformly blackish; under tail-coverts
longitudinally striped with white.
d. Larger; length, 225; wing, 121; bill from nostril, 14.7; body dark brown.
Merula thomassoni Seebohm.
dd. Smaller; length, 215; wing, 120; bill from nostril, 13; body practically
ERC Ke pees eeeer ote Bes te nee eee ea Merula mayonensis, new species.
ec. Wing less than 120 millimeters; body, including tail-coverts and crissum,
>> unitormly clove-brown 920.2) Merula kelleri Mearns.
bb. Chest paler, contrasting strongly with the dark color of crown.
e. Smaller (wing, 124.5 millimeters; tail, 96.5 millimeters) ; chin, throat
and chest pale sooty-brown, rather lighter on breast, flanks, and belly;
median area of under surface dark, except at vent; under tail-
coverts dark brown, with pale, whitish, brown tips.
Merula nigrorum (Grant).
ee. Larger (wing, 127 millimeters; tail, 115 millimeters) ; chin, throat,
and chest pale drab-gray; flanks and breast similar in color to the
upper surface of body; median area of under surface spotted with
white anteriorly, all white posteriorly; under tail-coverts sooty-
brown, with broad, longitudinal white stripes.
Merula malindangensis, new species.
Geocichla mindanensis, sp. nov.
Mindanao ground-thrush. ,
Type.—No. 14264, Mearns collection. Adult female from Mount Malindang at
6,500 feet, northwestern Mindanao, Philippine Islands, June 4, 1906.
Description of type (and only specimen) .—Upper surface, including head, dark,
ashen-gray, closely resembling the shade of the same parts in Geocichla cinerea
Bourns and Worcester; feathers of the back, edged with black; scapulars with
black spots occupying the tip of the web on the upper side; wing and tail-feathers,
shaded with brown, and crossed by obsolete, wavy bars of darker; lores, eyelids,
ear-coverts, and checks, cinereous, finely mixed with pale fawn color, the malar
region being cross-banded with black and fawn, and the ear-coverts longitudinally
striped with white; chin and throat, white, narrowly cross-banded with black,
and bordered by black stripes; pectoral region, plain cinerous-ash, with pale shafts
to the feathers; lower chest and flanks, black-and-white, each feather heavily
€
360 MEARNS.
margined with jet black inclosing a sharply pointed white spot; middle of ab-
domen, white; crissum white, faintly washed with buff which is strongest on the
lower tail-coverts; under side of wing-quills broadly white on inner border at
base; edge of wing, white; axillars, white at base, broadly black at tip; under
wing-coverts, black, tipped with white and pale cream color; upper wing-coverts
without white spots.
Measurement of type (from skin).—Length, 230; wing, 125; tail, 78; culmen
(chord), 25; bill from nostril, 19; tarsus, 32; middle toe with its claw, 30.
This species was occasionally seen as it darted through the mossy forest or
alighted upon the ground; but it was so shy that only a single specimen was
shot, although its loud, sweet song was frequently heard at morning and evening.
It is closely related to Geocichla andromeda (Temminck), which Mr. Walter Good-
fellow has recently (February, 1905) discovered at 8,000 feet on Mount Apo,
Mindanao, as recorded by Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, in the Ibis for July, 1906,
pages 468 and 477. :
Zosterops halconensis, sp. nov.
Mount Halcon silver-eye.
Type.—No. 14480, Mearns collection. Adult male from Mount Halcon, Min-
doro, Philippine Islands, at the altitude of 4,500 feet, November 14, 1906.
Remarks.—In the Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club, vol. XIV, page
13, October 30, 1903, Mr. Ernst Hartert separated the mountain Zosterops from
Lepanto, Island of Luzon from the lowland Zosterops meyeni Bonaparte, under the
name Zosterops whiteheadi, and, in the same paper (page 14) described the
mountain form from 8,000 feet on Mount Apo, Mindanao, as Zosterops whiteheadi
vulcami, observing that the form vulcani evidently represented Zosterops whiteheadi
whiteheadi “on Mt. Apo, but probably older forms will also come as subspecies
into this group, so that its name—that is, that of the species—may have to be
altered eventually.” ;
In addition to the forms whiteheadi and vulcani, which are represented by
large series in my collections, the form here described was obtained in the Min-
doro highlands. - ;
Characters.—Sexes alike. Similar to Zosterops vulcani, but slightly larger.
Wing, 56 against 55 millimeters; tail, 42-41; culmen 12-11.5. Color yellower,
but without a longitudinal yellow stripe on middle of abdomen; sides more
whitish gray; cheeks and ear-coverts paler and yellower, but the yellow con-
fined to the chin and throat, not suffusing the upper chest; upper surfaces of a
more golden green.
From Zosterops whiteheadi the Mindoro form is easily distinguished, when
similar seasonal plumages are compared, by its greater size and more yellow
coloration.
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
By W. SCHULTZE.
(From the Entomological Section, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.)
Since the publication of Georg Semper’s famous book, “Die Schmet-
terlinge der Philippinischen Inseln,” little work has been done on Philip-
pine Lepidoptera, but the fact remains that our lepidopterous fauna is
fairly well known. ‘This is mostly due to the efforts of the above-men-
tioned author.
Most of the new species published herein are from the Lake Lanao
District, Mindanao, which, up to the present, has been but little explored.
This paper contains 11 new species together with 35 species which
are new to these Islands.
RHOPHALOCERA.
LYCAENID4.
RATHINDA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1881), 1, 99.
Rathinda cuzneri, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 1.)
? palpi black above, second joint white below. Wings dark-brown with
a bronze sheen in certain lights. Fore-wing with a large white spot on
the disc. Hind-wing; an oblong spot at the upper margin and tips of
tails white. Underside; fore-wing as above but somewhat lighter, a white
costal streak basally, and extending across the thorax; the large, white
spot extends to inner margin. Hind-wing also with a white, basal band
along costal margin and a small, subtriangular, post-medial, costal spot.
Large, white, triangular, discal spot: its base parallel with the inner
margin. Beyond the latter and below the post-medial costal spot, another
subtriangular, post-medial one. The area between and around the white
spots is brown, but along the outer and inner margin, ocherish. A series
of small, black, submarginal spots toward upper angle, another black
spot between tails 1 and 2 and another larger one between tails 2 and 3.
A white streak between the latter spot and margin. ‘Two black bands
between the large, white, discal spot and inner margin, the one next to
361
362 SCHULTZE.
the margin being the smaller, connected with the black spot between
tails 2 and 3. All black spots and markings with metallic, blue streaks
on their proximal margins. ‘Tips of cilia and tails white.
3: palpi white, third joint black above. Wings slightly darker than
in ?. Fore-wing with a few, light-blue scales between the discal spot and
base.
Length of wing, d: defective.
Length of wing, 2: 15 millimeters.
Lamao, Bataan, P. I.
Time of capture: August, 1907. (Harold Cuzner and W. Schultze,
collectors. ) :
I take great pleasure in naming this very interesting species after Mr.
Harold Cuzner who added the first specimen of this species to our
collection.
Type 3, No. 5498, and 2, No. 7876, in Entomological collection, Bureau
of Science, Manila, P. I.
HETEROCERA.
EUPTEROTID 2.
PSEUDOJANA, Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1892), 1, 48.
é
Pseudojana clemensi, sp. noy. (PI. I, fig. 2.)
Palpi dark chestnut-brown; head, on top, grey-brown; collar and pro-
thorax black; meso- and metathorax brownish-grey. Abdomen above,
reddish-ocher, each segment with a marginal, crescent-shaped, black
band ; below, brownish-red and without the bands. Wings brownish-grey ;
fore-wing darker along costal margin and with a darker, indistinct,
curved, subbasal line, an indistinct ante-medial, very distinct, dark-
brown, medial and post-medial lines, nearly straight. Traces of a sub-
marginal line, angled at vein IV. Hind-wing with a straight, oblique,
medial line and an indistinct, post-medial band. General color of both
wings towards outer margin more reddish. Underside, dark reddish-
ocher; both wings with a red-brown, medial and a very distinct, dark-
brown, post-medial line, latter curved, 2: area on both wings between
medial and post-medial lines greyish and beyond the latter diffuse brown,
with some greyish patches on hind-wing along outer margin. Underside
paler than in 6, but red-brown along outer margin.
Length of wing, d: 63 millimeters.
Length of wing, 2: 77 millimeters.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Mindanao, P. I.
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. 363
Time of capture: April, May, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, U. S.
A., collector.)
Types d and %, No. 7557 in Entomological collection, Bureau of
Science, Manila, P. I.
I take pleasure in naming this species in honor of Rev. Joseph Clemens,
chaplain in the Fifteenth Infantry, United States Army, who has given
a large number of insects to our collection, from the very interesting
Lake Lanao District.
ZYGAENID 2.
ZYGAENIN &.
PSEUDEUCHROMIA, gen. nov.
?: antenne bipectinate; palpi short and porrect. Mid and hind tibie,
each with one pair of terminal spurs. Wings broad, apex rounded.
Fore-wing with veins IV and V from lower
angle of the cell, vein VII stalked with VIII,
latter with branch VIIla: vein IX forming an
areole with vem VIII. Huind-wing, vein V
absent.
Pseudeuchromia catachroma gen. et sp: nov.
(Pl. I, fig. 3.)
?: head dark-brown; frons and collar yellow;
thorax and abdomen dark-brown. A yellow spot
on mesothorax, metathorax and first and second Fic. 1.
abdominal segments. Other segments with yel-—
low, marginal bands. Legs brown with the coxe yellow. Wings dark-
brown. Fore-wing: a yellow basal, a large medial and a post-medial spot.
Hind-wing with yellow basal, medial, small elongated post-medial spots;
a very small marginal spot, at. the inner margin near lower angle of the
wing. The spots on both wings are elongated.
Length of wing, ¢: unknown.
Length of wing, ?: 16 millimeters.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Minpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: September, 1906. (Mrs. Mary Strong Clemens,
cutlector. )
Type ¢, No. 6264, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
364 SCHULTZE.
THYRIDIDE.
VERNIFILIA, gen. nov.
? Palpi thickly scaled ; reaching above vertex of head; antenne simple.
Legs with femora and tibie hairy, mid tibize with one pair of spurs,
hind one with two pairs. Fore-wing with the costa nearly straight,
slightly toward apex; acute.
Outer, margin below apex somewhat excised.
Vein V from lower angle and veins VII, VIII,
IX from close to upper angle of the cell; vein
IX forked with vein X. Hind-wing, outer
margin evenly rounded, veins IV, V, VI from °
close to lower angle and vein VII from the
upper angle of the cell. Thorax and abdomen
rather stout. Fig. 2.
Vernifilia hyalipuncta, gen. et sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 4.)
3 Head red-brown; thorax, abdomen and
wings .above, ocherish-red, latter somewhat
lighter basally and with numerous fine dark
striz all over. Fore-wing with a row of four medial, semihyaline spots
of which two are between veins I and II and the others between II-III
and III-IV. The second spot from behind double. Marginal line,
dark-brown, cilia grey. Hind-wing; cila, interior half dark-brown,
exterior half white. Underside of both wings darker, the strize longer
and more pronounced; traces of a medial, broad, greyish band. Fore-
wing with a large, dark-brown spot just below the apex on outer margin.
Abdomen below, greyish ; fore femur and tibia dark-brown, others above,
greyish, below ocherish. Tarsi above dark-brown; below ocherish with
stripes of the same color above.
? with the striz arranged in more definite lines.
Length of wing, 3: 15 millimeters.
Length of wing, ?: 16 millimeters.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Mrnpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: March and May, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens,
United States Army, collector.)
Types Nos., do 7562, and ? 7380, in Entomological collection, Bureau
of Science, Manila, P. I.
This new genus should be placed before Dysodia Clem., as given by
Clemens and by Hampson.*
Fic. 2.
1 Dysodia, Clemens, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phila. (1860), 349. Dysodia Clemens,
Hampson, Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1892), 1, 368.
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. 365
NOCTUID 2.
GONOPTERIN &.
CAPOTENA, WIk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. Mus. (1857), 11, 714.
Capotena spatulata sp. nov. (PI. J, fig. 5.)
Head and thorax dark-olive-brown, abdomen above, lighter; below,
whitish with some ocherish scales. Anal tuft ocherish. Fore-wing grey-
ish-brown, suffused toward imner margin. A large, dark-olive-brown,
spatulate, costal spot extending posterior to disc with a darker dot in its
center and surrounded by a light-grey line. This spot extends from one-
fourth to three-fourths length of costal margin and three-fourths width
ef wing from costa toward inner margin. A wavy, submarginal, brown-
ish line, angled between veins III and IV. Hind-wing fuscous, lighter
toward base. Underside fuscous; hind-wings lighter.
Length of wing, ¢: unknown.
Length of wing, ?: 16.5 millimeters.
Mania, P. I.
Time of capture: 18 April, 1905. (W. Schultze, collector.)
Type 2, No. 2755, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
QUADRIFIN A.
FODINA, Guen., Noct. (1852), 3, 274.
Fodina lanaoensis, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 6.)
Head and collar red-brown, the space between antennz and their base
whitish. Thorax chestnut-brown with a pink band and brown tuft pos-
terior to it, another brown tuft on first abdominal segment. Abdomen
and legs orange suffused with pink. Fore-wing with a small, basal,
brown area along costa, the color suffusing with pinkish-grey. This area
is separate from a large, irregular, dark-brown patch on basal half and
along two-thirds of inner margin, by a cream-colored line which surrounds
the latter except along inner margin. A broad, greyish-pink, oblique,
irregular band from middle of costa to lower outer angle. Another
large, dark-brown, subtriangular, apical patch also surrounded except
along the costal margin by a cream-colored line. The cilia dark-greyish-
pink. Huind-wing orange with the apical area fuscous-brown. Under-
side, orange, fuscous toward outer margin.
Length of wing, d: 21 millimeters.
Length wing, ?: unknown.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Minpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: 8 April, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, United
States Army, collector.)
Type dg, No. 7359, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
366 SCHULTZE.
HYPOPYRA, Guen., Noct. (1852), 2, 198.
Hypopyra donata, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 7.)
Antenne red-brown; head and collar light-grey-brown ; palpi, toward
tip, black. Thorax and abdomen light-ocher, the latter with a lateral
series of black dots near anal end. Legs greyish-ocher, femoro-tibial
joint of posterior legs black: spurs with black, apical bands. Wings
light-ocher, irrorated with black scales. Fore-wing with very indistinct,
wavy, black, basal and antemedial and with traces of a medial line on
costa ; three oblique lines, dentated between veins II and V, from apex to
middle of inner margin. Nearly straight, light, submarginal line, with
darker edges, joining the oblique lines at apex. A marginal row of light
and dark dots on the veins. Cilia greyish. Hind-wing with the ante-
medial line straight and distinct; a slightly curved, medial zigzag line
and a straight postmedial line with darker edges, from the costal margin
near the apex to posterior outer angle. Three marginal dots toward
anterior outer angle and two at posterior angle. Underside with more
black scales than above. Fore-wing with two indistinct, black dots in the
cell; distinct, curved, medial, zigzag, line; indistinct, straight, submar-
ginal line and marginal row of dots. Hind-wing with black spot in the
cell, very distinct: curved, medial, zigzag line and indistinct submarginal
line; marginal row of dots as above.
Length of wing, d: 35 millimeters.
Length of wing, $: unknown.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Mrxpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: March, 1906. (Mrs. M. 8. Clemens, collector.)
Type o, No. 6294, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
FOCILLIN 2.
PSEUDAGLOSSA, Grote, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sei. (1874), 2, 47.
Pseudaglossa peregrina, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 8.)
Antenne and third joint of palpi ocher, other jomts fuscous-brown,
as are head, thorax, abdomen and fore-wing. Costa of fore-wing, with
an ocherish streak for three-fourths of its length and around the shoulders,
A black spot, with white center, at the end of the cell. Dark, wavy.
postmedial and indistinct, whitish, submarginal lines. The outer area,
beyond the postmedial line, shghtly darker. A thin, ocherish, inter-
rupted, marginal line; cilia alternately brown and ocher. One small,
light spot near apex on costal margin. Hind-wing lighter than fore-
-wing, especially toward base. A darker and a lighter medial and traces
of a postmedial line, near inner margin.. Marginal line and cilia as on
fore-wing. Below; fore-wing, light-grey, cell spot as above, traces of a
postmedial line, a broad, submarginal band, darkest at costal margin and
a pronounced ocherish apical spot. Hind-wing, ocherish-grey, toward
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. f 367
outer margin fuscous. Distinct waved antemedial, medial and_post-
medial bands and dark marginal line.
Length of wing, ¢: unknown.
Length of wing, 2: 14 millimeters.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Mrnpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: 11 May, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, United
States Army, collector.)
Type ¢, No. 7556, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
CATADA, WIk., Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. (1858), 16, 209.
Catada rubricaea, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 9.)
Second joint of palpi brown with white spots, third joint and face
white ; face with a brown spot in center. Top of head and collar brown,
outlined with white. Thorax and first abdominal segment ocher ; others
fuscous above, whitish below. Fore-wing reddish-ocher changing to fus-
cous along outer margin. A nearly straight, small, white, medial band
with a thin dark-brown line, along its outer edge. Cilia fuscous with
light ocherish interspaces. Hind-wing fuscous, the cilia light-ocher.
Underside: fore-wing fuscous, lighter along the markin ; traces of a post-
medial band near costa, a few light spots along outer half of costa. Cilia
as above. Hind-wing whitish with a fuscous spot at the end of cell
and a wavy postmedial line.
Length of wing, d: 12 millimeters.
Length of wing, ?: unknown.
’ Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, MinDANao, Pol,
Time of capture: 25 March, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, United
States Army, ‘collector. )
Type ¢, No. 7387, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
-GEOMETRIDZ.
BoARMIIN 2%.
MEDASINA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1886), 3, 408.
Medasina nigrivincula, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 10.)
General color black-brown; tips of antenne white. Fore-wing with
subcireular, antemedial, white spot in the cell, another antemedial, white
spot along inner margin; two postmedial, white spots, the one in the
center of the outer half of the wing being the larger, the other on inner
margin. Apical spot, smaller than spot in cell. Hind-wing with broad,
white, curved antemedial and postmedial bands.
$: fore-wing; the antemedial spot at inner margin larger than in ?
and nearly connected with the one in the cell. The medial, white band
on hind wing more excised exteriorly at middle.
368 SCHULTZE.
Length of wing, d: 21.5 millimeters.
Length of wing, 2: 29 millimeters.
Camp Keithley, Lake Lanao, Mrnpanao, P. I.
Time of capture: March and April, 1907. (Mrs. Mary Strong Clem- —
ens, collector.)
Types, 3, No. 6939 and 2, 7368, in Entomological collection, Bureau of
Science, Manila, P. I.
PYRALID 6.
GALLERIIN &.
ACARA, WIk., Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. (1863), 27, 198.
Acara strata, sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 11.) F
Head and thorax pale-buff; metathorax white. First and second ab-
domwinal segments, above, with a velvet-like, light-brown saddle, other
segments buff, with a few scattered brown scales. A large anal tuft con-
sisting of large, triangular, greyish shiny scales. Fore-wing pale-buff,
a few brown scales scattered over entire surface. A very oblique line of
indistinct dots from middle of inner margin to near apex. A marginal
row of brown dots midway between the veins. Hind-wing pearly-white,
with brown dots as on margin of fore-wing, but only from the middle to
the apex. Underside pearly-white, the costal area of fore-and hind-
wings with the same color as on fore-wing above. Each wing with a
darker spot in the cell, traces of a postmedial line; the row of dots along
outer margin the same as above.
Length of wing, d: unknown.
Length of wing, ?: 31 millimeters.
Antipolo, Riza, P. I.
Time of capture: 30 May, 1907. (W. Schultze, collector.)
Type %, No. 7520, in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science,
Manila, P. I.
LIST OF SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA NEW TO THE PHILIPPINES.
RHOPALOCERA.
LYCAENID.
DRUPADIA, Moore, Journ., A. 8. B. (1884), 53, pt. 2, 31.
Drupadia moorei.
Sithon moorci Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1882), ser. 5, 10, 246.
Drupadia moorei Dist., Rhop. Malay. (1882-86), 236, pl. xx, figs. 20-23.
Lamao, BATAAN, P. I.
Dec., 1906, Feb., 1907. (H. Cuzner and W. Schultze, collectors.)
Nos. 6437 and 7877 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
pai
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. 369
PAPILIONID AH.
CHILASA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1881), 1, 153.
PAPILIO, Linn., Syst. Nat. (1767), 1, 2, 744.
Papilio (Chilasa) idaeoides.
Papilio idaeoides Hewits., Exot. Butterflies, I. Ornith. and Pap. pl. 1, fig. 2.
Semper, Schm. d. Phil. 5, 266.
Montalban, Riza, P. I.
10 Mar., 1906. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 5707 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
This interesting species is known from Mindanao, but as Semper makes the
statement that the most northerly locality where it is found is between the seventh
and eighth degrees of latitude, I give the above data for one female.
Papilio brama. :
Guerin, Rev. Zool. (1840), 43, taf. 1. figs. 3, 4. Dist., Rhop. Malay. 338.
Lamao, Bataan, P. I.
Jan., 1907. (EH. M. Ledyard, collector.)
No. 7700 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
HETEROCERA.
SPHINGIDE.
OXYAMBULYX, Rothschild & Jordan, Rev. Lep. Fam.
Sphing. (1903), 192.
Oxyambulyx semifervéns var.
Basiana semifervens Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1864), 31, 38.
Oxyambulyx semifervens Rothschild & Jordan, 1. c. 207.
Manin, P. I.
July, 1903. * (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 1332 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
HIPPOTION, Hiibn., Verz. Bek. Schm. (1822), 134.
Hippotion rafflesi.
Chaerocampa raffiesi Butl., Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1877), 9, 556, n. 14.
Hippotion raffiesi Rothschild & Jordan, 1. ¢. 755.
Mania, P. I. :
3 Nov., 1904. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 699 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
CECHENENA, Rothschild & Jordan, 1. c. 799.
Cechenena helops.
Philampelus helops Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1856), 8, 180.
Cechenena helops Rothschild & Jordan, 1. c. 801.
_ Manina, P. I.
5 Apr., 1906. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 5703 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
60053——8
370 SCHULTZE.
MEGACORMA, Rothschild & Jordan, 1. ¢. 15.
Megacorma obliqua.
Macrosila obliqua Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1856), 8, 208.
Diludia obliqua Moore, Lep. Ceylon (1882), 2, 4, pl. 74, fig. 2.
Megacorma obliqua Rothschild & Jordan, 1. ¢. 15.
Mania, P. I.
1903. (Rev. R. E. Brown, 8S. J., collector.)
CYPA, Walker, Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1864), 31, 41.
Cypa decolor.
Smerinthus decolor Wlk., 1. ¢. (1856), 8, 255.
Cypa decolor Rothschild & Jordan, 1. e. 298.
Manita, P. I.
4 Aug., 1906. (Charles 8. Banks, collector.)
No. 5879 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
NOTODONTID &%.
CERURA, Schrank, Fauna Boica (1802), 2, 2 Abth. 155.
Cerura liturata.
Wik., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1855), 5, 988.
Harpyia kandyia Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 2, 108, pl. 120, figs. 7 & la. larva and pupa.
Cerura liturata Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1892), 1, 155.
Mania, P: I.
Sept., 1905. (B. E. Ingersoll, collector.)
No. 4306 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
LASIOCAMPID.
ESTIGENA, Moore, Lep. E. I. Co. (1859), 426.
Estigena paradalis.
Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1855), 6, 1453.
Estigena nandina Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 2, 149, pl. 142, figs. 1, la.
Estigena paradalis Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1892), 1, 424.
Mount Pinatubo, ZAMBALES, 2,500 ft., and Manima, P. I.
Apr. and July, 1907. (Charles S. Banks and W. Schultze, collectors.)
Nos. 7422 and 7708 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
Pod
LYMANTRIID 24.
DASYCHIRA, Stephens, Ill. Brit. Ent., Haust. (1829), 2, 58.
Dasychira thwaitesi.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 2, 98, pl. 116, figs. 1, la (b. larva). Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind.,
Moths (1892), 1, 449. =
BonoL; Camp Keithley, Minpawnao, P. I.
May, 1906; Apr., 1907. (A. Celestino and Rev. Joseph Clemens, United
States Army, collectors. )
Nos. 6707 and 7404 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
Pe 24h
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. 371
ARCTIIDA.
LITHOSIIN &.
LITHOSIA Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl. (1798), 459.
Lithosia antica.
WIk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1854), 2, 505. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 79.
Camp Keithley, Minpawnao, P. I.
Mar. and June, 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, United States Army, collector.).
Nos. 7397 and 7569 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
TPS Ie
NYCTEOLIN &.
EARIAS, Hiibn., Verz. Bek. Schm. (1818), 395.
Earias chromataria.
Wilk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1863), 27, 204. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 133.
Maao, Necros Occ., P. I.
Feb., 1902. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 3529 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
NOCTUIDZ.
. TRIFIN 2.
MAGUSA, Walker, Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1857), 11, 762.
Magusa tenebrosa.
Moore, Proce. Zool. Soe. Lond. (1867), 59.
Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 226.
MAnina, P. I.
May, 1905. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 2918 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, Pest.
CARADRINA, Ochsenheimer, Eur. Schm. (1816), 4, 80.
Caradrina quadripunctata.
Fabr., Syst. Ent., 594. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1899), 2, 260.
Manita, P. I.
June, 1905.. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 3088 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
LEUCANIA, Ochsenheimer, Eur. Schm. 4, 81.
Leucania decisissima.
Wik., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1865), 32, 624. Butl. Ill. Het. Br. M. 6, pl. 109,
fig. 6. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 269.
Camp Keithley, Minpawnao, P. I.
Sept., Oct., 1906. (Mrs. Mary S. Clemens, collector.)
No. 6940 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
Ske SCHULTZE.
Leucania exempta.
Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1857), 11, 710. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 273.
Manita; Bago, Necros Occ., P. I.
Dee., 1905; May, 1906. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
Nos. 4781 and 6285 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
Pale
LEOCYMA, Guen., Noct. (1852), 2, 212.
Leocyma sericea.
Hamps., Ill. Het. Br. M. (1856), 9, 92, pl. 161, fig. 7. Hamps. Fauna Br. Ind.,
Moths, (1894), 2, 289.
Manina, P. I.
Sept., 1905. (Charles S. Banks, collector.) ;
No. 4457 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
PALINDIIN &.
CALLYNA, Guenee, Noct. (1852), 1, 112.
Callyna costiplaga.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 3, 100, pl. 156, fig. 10. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 357.
Mania, P. I.
Feb., 1902. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 7685 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
BAORISA, Hewitson & Moore, Deser, New Ind. Lep. from Atkinson
Coll. (1879), 133.
Baorisa hieroglyphica.
Moore, 1. ¢. 133, pl. 4, fig. 14.
Ramadasa hieroglyphica Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 358.
Manita, P. I.; Camp Keithley, Minpanao, P. I.
Apr., 1906; Mar., 1907. (M. Lindquist and Rev. Joseph Clemens, United
States Army, collectors. )
Nos. 6224 and 7363 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila,
12, ib
SARROTHRIPIN &.
PLOTHEIA, Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1857), 13, 1108.
Plotheia strigifera. -
Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 3, 103, pl. 158, figs. 3, 3a. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 370.
Manin, P. I.
Aug., 1905. (Charles 8. Banks, collector.)
No. 3855 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. Bio
STICTOPTERIN 2.
STICTOPTERA, Guenée, Noct. (1852), 3, 51.
Stictoptera costata.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl. 3, 123, pl. 159, fig. 8. Hamps, Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1894), 2, 403.
Manira, P. I.
June, 1905. (Charles S. Bank, collector.)
No. 3181 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
QUADRIFIN &.
HY POCALA Guenée, Noct. (1852), 3, 73.
Hypocala deflorata.
Fabr., Ent. Syst 3, 472. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 453.
Manina, P. I.
Nov., 1905. (Charles S. amie collector. )
No. 4676 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
DELGAMMA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1885), 3, 168.
Delgamma pangonia.
Guen., Noct. 3, 214. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 512.
Manipa, P. I. (Rev. R. E. Brown, S. J., collector.)
ACANTHOLIPES, Lederer, Noct. Eur. (1857), 198.
Acantholipes trajectus.
Wik., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. 33, 986. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894),
2, 521.
Manina, P. I.
Dec., 1905. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 4730 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
OPHIDERES, Boisduval, Fauna Ent. Madag. (1834), 99.
Ophideres tyrannus.
Guenée, Noct. 3, 110. Moore, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 11, 69, pl. 13, fig. 5.
Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1894), 2, 562.
Manna, P. I.
Jan., 1906. (Charles 8. Banks, collector.)
No. 4941 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
DELTOIDIN 4.
SIMPLICIA, Guenée, Delt. et Pyr. (1854), 51
Simplicia marginata.
Bocana marginata Moore, Descr, Lep. Atk., 195, pl. 6, fig. 19.
Simplicia marginata Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1895), 3, 35.
Camp Keithley, Mrnpanao, P. I.
Apr., 1907. (Rev. Joseph Clemens, United States Army, collector. )
No. 7563 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
374 SCHULTZE.
HYPENIN 2.
MARAPANA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1885), 3, 227.
Marapana pulverata.
Guenée, Noct. 3, 351. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1895), 3, 72.
MANILA, P. I.
July, 1907. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 7711 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
HYPENA, Schrank, Fauna Boica (1802), 2, 2, 163.
Hypena biplagiata.
Butl., Ill., Het. 7, 86, pl. 134, fig. 1. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1895),
3, 90.
Mailum, Bago, Necros Occ., P. I.
June, 1906. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 6283 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
GEOMETRID 24.
GEOMETRIN &.
PSEUDOTERPNA, Hiibn., Verz. Bek. Schm. (1818), 284.
Pseudoterpna ruginaria.
Hypochroma ruginaria Guenée, Phal. (1857), 1, 278.
Pseudoterpna rugimaria Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1895), 3, 472.
Manina, P. I.
1903. (Rey. R. HE. Brown, 8S. J., collector.)
PYRALIDZE.
GALLERIIN A.
GALLERIA, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl. (1798), 462.
Galleria mellonella.
Phalaena mellonella Tinn., Syst. Nat. 10, I, 537.
Galleria mellonella Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1896), 4, 9.
Manina, P. I.
10 Jan., 1905. (W. Schultze and R. Clute, collectors.)
No. 2199 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
SCHOENOBIIN &.
RAMILA, Moore, Proe. Zool. Soe. Lond. (1867), 667.
Ramila acciusalis.
Wik., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M., 19, 977. Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 3, pl. 184, fig. 5.
Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1896), 4, 42.
Mailum, Bago, Nreeros Occ., P. I.
June, 1906. (Charles S. Banks, collector.)
No. 6288 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
NEW LEPIDOPTERA OF THE PHILIPPINES. 375
HYDROCAMPIN &.
TALANGA, Moore, Lep. Ceyl. (1885), 3, 300.
Talanga sexpunctalis.
Moore, 1. ¢. 301, pl. 181, fig. 13. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1896), _
4, 221.
Mania, P. I.
Aug., 1907. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 7956 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
DICHOCROCIIN &.
GONIORHYNCHUS, Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind. Moths (1896), 4, 322.
Goniorhynchus plumbeizonalis.
Hamps., 1. c. 323.
Manita, P. I.
Aug., 1905. (W. Schultze, collector. )
No. 4164 in entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
PYRAUSTIN A.
REHIMENA, WIlk., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M. (1865), 34, 1492.
Rehimena phyrnealis.
Wik., 1. c. 1859, 18, 630. Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 3, 290, pl. 181, fig. 5. Hamps.,
Fauna Br. Ind., Moths (1896), 4, 261.
Mania, P. I.
Jan., 1907. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 6509 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
MEROCTENA, Led., Wien. Ent. Monatsschr. (1863), 392.
Meroctena tullalis.
Wik., Cat. Lep. Het. Br. M., 1859, 18, 649. Hamps., Fauna Br. Ind., Moths
(1896), 4, 376.
Manin, P. I.
Aug., 1905. (W. Schultze, collector.)
No. 4001 in Entomological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.
ave "CART EEE ee GRP Ailes escent. Wane.
Beas Cults 1 ot
sigh? 2 ea carat Honan
Leen. YS pee oh
ci
nee i
— f iy i,
¥
La
‘ A Pigg ke aan, Pb
=) owe rhe aes = ee
Caer * airaiae t=
ENS SS =
aes &E 4 BAECS bie <8 1. an aa
era Val : ‘
: ¢ oe er Cae hee
is a eal ad eee az d : a
[PHIL. JOURN. SCI., VoL. II, No. 5. 7
NEw LEPIDOPTERA. ]
SCHULTZE:
PEATE
Vou. IT DECEMBER, 1907 No. 6
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
EDITED BY
PAUL C. FREER, M. D., PH. D.
CO-EDITORS
RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D.
E. D. MERRILL, M. 8S:
PUBLISHED BY
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1907
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES.
‘
No, 1, 1902, Biological Laboratory.—Preliminary Report of the Appearance in the Phil-
se Islands of a Disease Clinically Resembling Glanders. By R. P..Strong, M. D.
No. 2, 1902, Chemical Labor atory. —The Preparation of Benzoyl-Acetyl Peroxide and Its
Use as an Intestinal Antiseptic in Cholera and Dysentery. Preliminary Notes. By Paul
C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D.
No. 3, 1903, Biologic al Laboratory.—A Preliminary Report on Trypanosomiasis of Horses
in the suey pine Islands: By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Norman E. Williamson.
No, 4, 1908, Serum Laboratory—Prehminary Report on the Study pe Rinderpest of
Camus and Carabaos in the Philippine Islands. By James W. Jobling, M.
53, 1903, Biological Laboratory. —Trypanosoma and I nOataae with Special
Reference to Surra in the Philippine Islands. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T.
egg.
No. 6, 1908.—New or Noteworthy Plants, I. The American Element in the Philippine
Flora. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. (Issued January 20, 1904.)
No. 7, 1903, Chemical Laboratory. ana Gutta Percha and Rubber of the. Philippine’
Islands. By Penoyer L. Sherman, jr., Ph.
No. 8, 1903.—A Dictionary of the Plant Race of the Philippine Islands. ~By. Elmer D.
Merrill, Botanist.
No. 9, 1903, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—A Report on Heemorrhagic Septicemia |
in Animals in “the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and J. W. Jobling, M. D.
No. 10, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Two Cases of a Peculiar Form of Hand Infection
(Due to an Organism Besem IRE the Koch-Weeks Bacillus). By John R. MeDill, M. D.,
and Wm. B. Wherry, M.
No, 11, 1903, Bistogical Laboratory.—Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 1; Prelunis.
nary Bulletin on Insects of the-Cacao. (Prepared Especially for the Benefit of Farmers. Di
By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 12, 1903, Biological Laboratory.—Report on Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by
the Bacillus of “Hemorrhagic Septicemia of Carabaos. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 13, 1904, Biological Laboratory._——A Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed ©
j Chromogenic Bacterium: Bacillus Aureus Fetidus. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D.
No. 14, 1904.—Serum Laboratory: Texas Fever in the Philippine Islands and the Far
East. By J. W. Jobling, M. D., and Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Biological Laboratory:
Entomological Division, Bulletin No. 2: The Australian Tick (Boophilus Australis Fuller)
in the Philippine Islands. By Charles S. Banks, Entomologist.
No. 15, 190%, Biological and Serum Laboratories. —Report on Bacillus Violaceus Ma-
nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism,. ~ By Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation Against Asiatic Cholera =
An Experimental Study. By Richard P. Strong,'M.
No. 17; 1904.—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—l. Amebas:; Their Cultivation and Btiologic Sig-
nificance.. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D,, and Moses T. Clegg... II. The Treatment of Intes-
tinal Amcebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D.
No, 19, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Cholera
Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D.
No. 20, 190} .—Biological Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Bxist Where |
the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum
Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. RoviseDrieus)
By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V..S. III. Pinto (Panto Blanco).
Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water tae
the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M.S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia :
Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By’ Paul G. Woolley, M. D.
No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of
Micro- -Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard
P. Strong, M. D. ~
No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories.—1: A Description of the New Build-—
ings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul C: Freer; M. D., Ph. D. IL. A
Calelgeye of the Library of the Bureau of Government. Laboratories. ‘By Mary Polk,
ibrarian.
No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague :: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and. ‘His-
topathology (Including a Consideration of Insects ‘as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian
Herzog, M. D.
No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.——Glanders; Its Diagnosis and Prevention (Together
with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on’
2 Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry,
MoD: : :
No. 25, 1904..—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. BY
Richard C. MiuGeeear
No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological’ SESE of
Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D.
No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’ s Flora -
de Filipinas. By, Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. ?
No. 28, 1904.—1. The Polypodiacex of the Philippine Islands, II. Edible Philippine:
Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D.
No, 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III.. II. The Source of Manila
Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist.
No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory —T. Aulocatalstic Decomposition. of Silver Oxide.
Il. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph.
No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—t. Notes ona Paace of Hzematochyluria (Together
with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna).
By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search
Into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “Peptone,” with Special Reference to Its
Pee ae the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera-Red Reactions. By William B.
erry, M. D, f He ae
(Concluded on third page of cover.)
THE PHILIPPINE
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
A. GENERAL SCIENCE
Vou. ID DECEMBER, 1907 No.
THE GEOLOGY OF THE COMPOSTELA-DANAO
COAL FIELD.
By WaRREN D. SMITH.
(From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. 1.)
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
GEOGRAPHY.
General.
Climate.
Vegetation.
Population.
Hydrology.
Topography and physiography.
GEOLOGY : GENERAL.
The Acsubing-Muao region.
The Mount Licos region.
The Cajumayjumayan Valley.
STRATIGRAPHY.
The igneous base.
Basal conglomerate.
The coal measures.
The upper limestone.
STRUCTURE.
GnroLocy: Economic.
History of the district.
The coal seams.
CLASSIFICATION oF CeBu Coat (By A. J. Cox.)
LABOR.
TRANSPORTATION.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
62926 37
-I
378 SMITH.
INTRODUCTION.
The Island of Cebu shows outcrops of coal in almost all portions of
its area. Abella in his “Descripcion de Cebv” * cited as many as fifteen
localities scattered from one end of the island to the other, and on both
coasts. Some desultory mining has been carried on near Mount Uling,
in the barrios of Lutac, Alpaco and Guilaguila, but the most serious
undertakings in the colliery lne were the workings at Licos and Camansi
in the region behind (west of) Compostela and Danao, on the east coast,
about 50 kilometers north of the city of Cebu. The last active work in
this field was done in 1895, for the insurrection broke out in 1896, and
since the American occupation no production has been recorded, although
diligent exploration and development has been resumed.
A topographic and geologic survey of the Compostela, Danao and
Carmen areas was undertaken in the early part of 1906 with the intention
of aiding in this work. The area which is mapped comprises approxi-
mately 100 square kilometers (36 square miles) and is indicated by the
rectangular space marked on the index map. (Map I.) Messrs. Good- —
man and Ickis executed the topography, using transit and stadia, their
work being tied to the Liloan light-house, the position of which has been
closely determined by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. I was engaged in
mapping the geology during the months of December, January and
February ; in this work I was assisted during the latter portion of the
time by Mr. Goodman.
The difficulties attendant upon all tropical work have made it impossible
to indicate as many details as we desired to. The two great obstacles to
geologic work in Cebu are the exceptional growth of cogon grass and
the very thick formation of talus. Outcrops consequently are not suf-
ficient in frequency to allow of accurate correlation of many of the strata.
If the latter were undisturbed, or even approximately so, as is the case
in horizontal formations, we might infer that what we found to be true
in one part of the field would hold in all parts, but in Cebu we have
found’ such serious disturbance, the dips and strike of the beds changing
so radically within only a few meters, that it would be extremely
hazardous, save in a very general way, to attempt to predict the courses
of these formations beneath the surface. During the progress of the
mapping we found ourselves very rarely able to trace boundaries on the
surface, but in time we came to judge of the underlying formation with
fair accuracy by studying the topography and the character of the vegeta-
tion. All who have tried to do exploratory work through cogon grass and
“ticbao” will agree that, even though the dense jungle of such districts
as Batan Island is lacking in Cebu, nevertheless for certain features of
the work the kind of country we have encountered in this work can be
* Abella y Casariego, Enrique: Rapida descripcién fisica, geol6gica y minera
de la Isla de CebG, Madrid (1886).
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 379
just as bad. In order to run a traverse along an arroyo, the only place
where there is any hope of reaching outcrops and obtaining a key to the
structure, I was forced actually to tunnel my way through the vegetation
with the help of natives and bolos. This will give some idea of the
difficulties we encountered. In one afternoon we covered approximately
one-half mile. In a way it might appear that I owe an apology for
publishing anything at all on this region at this time, but I feel that
even the incomplete data which I can furnish will give information which
will be of some guidance to those financially interested in the field and of
interest to geologists in other lands.
I shall refer readers of this paper to the work of Abella, cited above,
for an account of the mining work done in Spanish days in this field;
however, I shall exhibit oné map which was made after his publication.
An examination of his geologic map will show that he did not attempt to
map the region in detail, so that we feel that the new one will be a
distinct advance on what has already been done. I shall add no more
_in regard to the present state of exploration and development than that
‘there are two companies on the ground who are making vigorous and
honest efforts to ascertain the value of the properties. There are many
interesting features in connection with the work which I would like
to publish, but both companies in extending me many courtesies and
showing me everything have requested that for the present at least this
- information be considered confidential. I wish to make grateful acknowl-
edgments to the Bureau of Constabulary, which, through its two officials
in Cebu and Capt. H. W. Hunt at Danao, rendered much assistance and
showed our parties numerous personal courtesies; and to Mr. H. D.
Everett of the Bureau of Forestry, for valuable forestry notes.
GEOGRAPHY.
GENERAL.
The area under discussion comprises a rectangular tract of about
100 square kilometers (36 square miles) of territory on the upper waters
of the Cot-Cot and Danao Rivers. The eastern boundary of the district
is the front, or coast, range of hills which includes Mounts Licos and
Mangilao; the western is formed by the Cordillera Central, which is the
long, sinuous backbone of the island. The area extends as far north as
a line east and west from the pueblo of Carmen, while Mount Acsubing
marks its southernmost extension.
CLIMATE,
The monsoons are not as clearly marked in Cebu as, for instance,
they are in Luzon. This is largely due to the fact that the mountains
are not so high, nor is the width of the island sufficiently great to
make conditions on one coast appreciably different from those on the
other.
580 SMITH.
Tables are given below showing the monthly record of rainfall and
temperature. Rainfall is not always a vital point for consideration in
many temperate regions, but in the tropics, where the precipitation
takes such a prominent place at certain periods of the vear and at times
causes such destruction, before constructing important engineering works
it is absolutely necessary to know the amount of rainfall and whether it
is apt to be concentrated.
1
>
iy
TasBLe I1.—T'emperature and rainfall in Cebu during the year 1904.
[Philippine Weather Bureau. ]
Month. Taupe, [Reinfall. Oraave |inonedae |
Tal Se =e |
| oO” mm. mm. |
25.8} 327.5 23) 1180.8 |
25.7 | 48.5 | 11 20.6 |
26.7 78 9 40.4
| 27.1 145.2 | 13 63.8
| 27.6 158. 6 13 40}
| De 178.1 15 48.3 |
| 27.4 92.8 6 6
| 27.2 156.4 17 36.1 |
| 26.5 116.1 16 24.9 |
| 26.4 145.1 20 25.6 |
ee 26el 149.1 10 50.3
| lo probes 50.7 12 15.5
| if
aTotal for the twelve months, 1,646.1 millimeters, or 64.81 inches.
> Or 7.12 inches.
Taste Il.—Temperature and rainfall in Cebu during the year 1906.
[Philippine Weather Bureau.]
Temperature.
Month. == sass Rainfall.
Mean. Maximum, Minimum.
* | |
RAGS XC °C. mm.
January eee 26. 4 31.2 | 19.5 59.5
Rebruar y= see 26.5 | 31.4 | 21 33.9
7A) 31.9 | 20.6 35.8
28.1 32.1 | 22.8 18.6
28.5 | 33.9 23.4 94.3
27,5 32.5 | 22.8 219.8
27.3 | 32.5 | 21.5 128.1
27.7 32.5 | 23 94.6
ONE AL | 32.5 | 22.4 191.9
27.1 32.4 22.8 293.4
26.5 31.5 | 20.5 175
26.9 30.9 21.9 98.6
*Total for the twelve months, 1,373.5 millimeters, or 54.07 inches.
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 381
An inspection of this table will show that there are no sharply
defined dry and rainy seasons. The heavy precipitation of January might
in another year come in the month of May. The rainfall in Cebu, where
the. relief is pronounced and trees over much of the area conspicously
lacking, gathers very quickly in the arroyos and in a very short time the
streams attain alarming proportions and work great havoc.
VEGETATION.
I am very fortunate in being able to make use of the excellent report
of Forester H. D. Everett, of the Bureau of Forestry. His report is
much more reliable and complete than any discussion I could give and
therefore I have abstracted it almost in its entirety and in his own
words :
Less than fifty years ago most of this hill and mountain country was covered
with a good, merchantable forest, but clearing has been so rapid that now only
an inferior forest remains, small in area and located on the steepest and most
inaccessible slopes and peaks. The forest areas are as follows, in order from
the poorest to best: On the mountains of Licos, Manghilao, Pulgason, Lantauan,
Donga and Uguis. Licos and Pulgason are near the mines of the Insular Coal
Company, but the others are nearer and more accessible to the mines of J. G.
White & Co. On the west side of the main divide of the island and tributary
to the Balamban River are the forests of Sacsac, large in area and in good condi-
tion, but practically inaccessible from the east.
The forest of Mount Licos——Mount Licos is a long, narrow ridge extending
from Camansi to the Compostela mines, reaching a height of 1,750 feet above
the sea. Only its top and steepest rocky slopes, which can scarcely be climbed,
have any tree growth and this is small and scattered. It is mapped as noncom-
mercial. Almost no trees of the better species grow there, although twenty
years ago a considerable quantity of good timber was secured in this place.
Almost no timber can be obtained for the mines. A few pieces for temporary
work of inferior kinds can*possibly be cut.
Although this forest is small and in a deplorable condition, if it were protected
from cutting and cuitgins (forest clearings) for some years, it would probably
recover. The land is only fit for forest use.
The forest of Mount Pulgason—Mount Pulgason is a large mountain with
many radiating ridges most of which are covered with cogon or small brush.
Many caingins cultivated to corn are on its slopes. The forest is located on the
top and in some of the draws near the top. on both the east and west sides.
Some of this may be considered as merchantable, although it has been cut over
for many years by the licensee, Ambrosio Lao. It is evidently by his efforts
that so much of this forest has been preserved from destruction by eaiigins.
since the slopes are not very rocky and caingins could easily be made.
The forests have a denser stand, larger trees and better species than on
Mount Licos, yet nevertheless they are in a poor condition, being characterized
by small trees and scattered growth. ‘The species are mostly unknown small trees
382 SMITH.
with aluan,? sambulauan, and a little narra and amaga. The narra and amaga
are small trees and scarce.
The forest of Mount Manghilao—Mount Manghilao is part of the coast range
of hills and lies close to the towns of Danao and Carmen, showing prominently.
Its elevation is about 2,250 feet above the sea. The remaining forest rests on
the rockiest part of the top and partly down the rocky slopes, which in places
are cliffs. The forest has been subjected to excessive cutting in the past and to
considerable destruction by caiitgins. It is a tangle of vines, saplings and small
trees with a few scattered large trees of lauan, manaog, nipot-nipot and nato.
There are present, as in all of these mountains, a large number of tree species,
few of which are valuable. A part of this forest may be called merchantable
here, although in better timbered regions it would be nonmerchantable. First-
group trees are practically wanting. What is really called for in this forest is
absolute protection for many years.
The forest of Mount Lantawan.—This mountain is a sharp peak of volcanic
rock, so rocky and precipitous that some good timber still remains because it is
so difficult to cut. In places the forest is fairly dense and of good sized trees,
chief among which are white lauan, duca, nato, maobog, lanete, narra, bagtican
and ditaa. On this mountain considerable mine timber can be cut without serious
silvicultural damage to the forest.
*List of tree species with native and botanical names mentioned in Mr.
Everett’s report:
Agusahis =Ficus sp.
Amaga =Diospyros sp.
Amahuyan =Dysoxylum sp.
Bagtican =Shorea sp.
Betis =TIllipe betis (Bleo.) Merr.
Bogo : =Garuga floribunda Dene.
Camungayon =Aglaia sp. ?
Datilis or caballero =here refers to Leucena glauca Benth.
Ditaa or dita =Alstonia scholaris R. Br,
Duca =Cynometra sp.
Dungon (bayog) =Tarrietia syWwatica Merr. or Pterospermum sp.
Dungula =Vitex aherniana Merr.
Guijo =Shorea guiso Bl.
Hambabe =Nauclea sp. or Randia sp.
Lanete =Wrightia sp.
Lauan = Shorea sp.
Manaog (balacbacan) =Shorea sp.
Mata-mata =Agilaia sp.
Moabog =z
Molave =Vitex sp.
Nancaon = 7
Narra =Pterocarpus sp.
Nato =Palaqium sp.
Nipot-nipot =Gleditsia rolfei Vid. ?
Pagolingan =Cratoxylon floribundus F. Vill.
Pagsagon =Mimusops elengi L.
Pili =Canarivm sp.
Putian =Aglaia sp.
Quia-quia =?
Sambulauan (amuguis) =Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Bleo.) Merr.
Taguilumboy =BHugenia sp. or Cynometra sp.
Tindalo =Pahudia rhomboidea Prain.
Tunguatingan =Nauclea sp.
White lauan =Shorea sp.
Yacal = Hopea sp.
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 383
The forest of Mounts Uguis and Donga.—Mount Donga is really a foothill of
the higher mountain or ridge called Uguis. The upper slopes and tops of these
mountains are fairly well wooded and have suffered less from cutting than
the other mountains. This is due to the fact that they are farther from
Danao and that their steep slopes, covered with huge volcanic bowlders, make
logging extremely difficult and in places impossible. However, mine timbers
could be cut on these slopes and skidded out by hand at a considerable expense.
It is probable that timber could be imported from other islands at less expense
than it could be secured on this mountain, except in famine years when the people
work very cheaply.
Uguis and Donga have a fair sprinkling of narra, bagtican, amaga, lanete
and duigon among the many inferior species which are also present.
The forest of the Sacsac River—An extensive virgin forest exists across the
main divide of the island and tributary to the Balamban River, containing large
trees of lauan, sambulauan, quia-quia, narra, pili, bagtican and other timber
species. Bejuco (rattan) also grows in this forest in fair abundance. At present
the forest is inaccessible from the east, but it is barely possible that at great ex-
pense, yet not a prohibitive one, a road could be made up the Uguis stream and
across the divide by which this timber could be brought to the Danao River and
thus to the mines.
Cutting rules, copies of which have been sent to the three licensees, are based
on the following facts and conclusions:
(1) In these forests it is possible to secure only a small part of the necessary
mine timber from first-group trees.
(2) There are some species of the lower groups which will serve fairly well,
especially for temporary work.
(3) The cutting of small trees of the first and second groups in these forests
will exterminate those species. ;
(4) It will be necessary to import timber from other regions for the proper,
future development of the mines.
(5) The future development of the mines will double the demand for timber.
(6) The trees at present being cut are small with an average diameter of not
more than 25 centimeters.
(7) The forests, especially those of Licos, Pulgason and Manghilao, are in
very poor condition.
Use of timber in the coal mines.—Timber was used in former times and is
needed at present in the form of ties for the tramway leading from Camansi to
Danao and as posts, caps and lagging for the tunnels. The company which
operated the mines in Spanish times used mostly the most durable timber of the
first group such as molave and tindalo, both for the tramway and for the
tunnels.
Old timbers of the Compostela mines——Most of the timbers were placed in
these mines in the years 1895 and 1896. They consist for the greater part of
molave, tindalo, yacal and narra, with a few of the inferior or little known
species which grow in the neighborhood. The lagging was made of poles of datilis
or caballero. Some of the old tunnels are now being cleared out and new timbers
put in where the old ones are no longer serviceable. Up to the present time not
more than 40 per cent of the old posts and caps have been removed in the
Enrique Abella tunnel. Many of the molave timbers are perfectly sound after
about twelve years of service. The following specimen sections were taken from
some of the old timbers at the ends where they were in contact with the soil.
No. 1.—Pagsagon post, sound with the exception of about one centimeter on
the outside and one bad knot which had weakened the post.
384 SMITH.
No. 2.—Betis (?) post, in good condition.
No. 3.—Guijo cap, badly rotted at the ends.
No. 4.—Pagsagon post, fairly sound but weakened.
No. 5.—Tindalo post, affected in spots but fairly sound.
No. 6.—Bogo post, affected in spots so as to be useless.
No. 7.—Molave post, sligntly affected so as to be weakened.
No 8.—Molave cap, fairly sound with hollow at the heart which was probably
there originally.
No. 9.—Tindalo cap, still useful.
No. 10.—Nipot-nipot cap, badly rotted.
No. 11.—Putian (7?) post, stightly affected at heart.
No. 12.—Taguilumboy post, still fairly sound and could serve for some time
longer.
No. 13.—Nancaon post, in fair condition.
The above timbers have seen ten to twelve years’ service. In general, the caps
are affected by decay sooner than the posts.
A large proportion of the inferior or little known woods of the locality were
used in the Camansi mines. Some of them have proved to be very durable, almost
as much so for the purpose as molave. Tnese are most notably taguilumboy and
hambabe. Putian, camungayon, nancaon, mata-mata, tunguatingan, and ama-
huyan have shown themselves to be fairly satisfactory.
The conditions affecting the durability of the mine timbers are different from
those influencing an harigue (house post) or other timber exposed to light and
air; they are in almost complete darkness, are constantly dripping with moisture
and are covered with slime. The air inside the tunnels is heavy, hot, laden with
moisture and it varies but little in temperature. The white ant is said not to
work, except at the entrance to the tunnels, and no injurious work of insects
was observed in the old timbers. Consequently, conditions are not such as to
cause the most rapid decay, although favorable to the growth of destructive fungi.
Present use of timber.—The wood used in the mines is in the form of posts,
caps and lagging. For 100 meters of tunnel 170 caps, about 7,000 short stakes
for lagging and 340 posts are used, having an approximate volume for posts and
caps of about 20 cubic meters. The lagging used is formed of the small stems of
the datilis or caballero, a brushwood growing in thickets near streams, which
does not make a timber tree.
The caps are about 1.35 meters in length and 0.50 in cireumference; the posts
about 2.35 by 0.55 meters. They are entire, round logs, cut from small trees
and are not treated in any way to preserve them from decay. A coal-mining
operation on a fairly large scale would run about 1,500 meters of tunnels a year,
which would require about 300 meters of timber for posts and caps, exclusive
of that used for the tramway and for general construction. This would mean
about 2,000 small trees to be cut to about the size now being used.
Since work is now progressing only on a small scale, old tunnels being cleared
and a few new ones started, at present but a small amount of timber is required.
This demand can be supplied for a time by the neighboring forests, but as soon
as the operations are greatly extended it will be necessary to secure material
from other sources.
Possible sources.—It is probable that rejected railroad ties can be obtained
which should make good mining timbers. The dungula growing on the tract of
the Insular Lumber Company should be a most excellent mine timber. This is
now being cut and doubtless, from time to time, a steamer load could be secured.
The better forested islands, such as Mindanao, Samar, Paragua, and Mindoro,
should be a source for mine timbers of the first group. Only further experience
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 385
and observation will show how durable for the mines are the many, little known
timbers of the Islands. Some of ‘these will undoubtedly prove to be very
satisfactory.
It is probable that in time it will be practicable and advisable to treat mine
timbers with preservatives, in this way using the most abundant and cheaper
kinds. Painting timber with the preservative or giving the timber an open bath
treatment will be found the cheapest methods. In this connection, attention is
called to Press Bulletin No. 141, November 27, 1906, United States Forest Serv-
ice. “Prolonging the Life of Mine Props.”
POPULATION MARCH 1, 1907.
The Filipinos inhabiting this island are called Visayans and are, save
for minor differences in dialect, the same as the people of Leyte, Negros
and Panay.
As I have pointed out in my previous paper,*® the greater part of
the population and also that portion which belongs to the better educated
class, is confined to the narrow coastal tract in the towns of Carmen,
Danao and Liloan, and others and to their outlying barrios. The
dwellers in the hill country are extremely poor, when their state is
compared with our manner of living or even the mode of life of the
people of the coastal plain. Corn is their chief staple. I believe this
dominant corn diet is peculiar to the Cebuanos. The ilustrados largely
control the fertile cove areas in the intermontane tracts.
The peasant of Cebu is very superstitious. As an instance of his
ignorance and credulity I may cite one rather remarkable case, which,
however, at one time came very near to not having an amusing aspect.
In our trips here and there over the field we were obliged to pass by many
native houses and near the end of the work we were surprised to
find the children all running away from us, or their mothers would
quickly hide them as soon as we came in sight, a thing which had never
been done in this district on previous visits. This continued for some
time, with also an increasing surliness on the part of the men. Finally,
an engineer of one of the coal development companies was stopped late in
the evening when he was some distance from camp. ‘The natives proved
themselves to be in a hostile mood and as they had bolos (long knives)
and one or two spears he felt warranted in drawing his side arm to protect
himself and not until the teniente of the local barrio appeared and
explained in Spanish, did he learn the cause of their attitude. It seems
that some malicious person or persons had played upon the credulity of
the people, making them believe that the Americans were stealing the
children in order to kill them and let their blood drop on the ground,
this being a supposed means of ascertaining where the coal was. It
took some days to eradicate this belief from the minds of the peasants and
*“Contributions to the Physiography of the Philippine Islands: I. Cebu Is-
lands.” This Journal (1906), 1, 1043.
386 SMITH.
for a time it kept the local Constabulary force doing guard over the several
camps. This is the only incident of the kind which has ever been
brought to my attention in the Philippines and I consider it altogether
exceptional.
HYDROLOGY.
The area under consideration is well drained by two fair-sized streams,
the Danao and the Cot-Cot Rivers, which become raging torrents in rainy
weather, but quickly subside, and in the dry season are so shallow that
not even the smallest bancas can navigate them. The generally deforested
condition of the region is responsible for this condition.
TOPOGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY.
The general appearance of this country is mountainous although in
reality the highest point, apart from the Cordillera Central is not over
685 meters (2,245 feet). The reason for the exaggerated topography is
the pronounced relief which is due to two main causes, first, the folded
and warped condition of the rocks, and second, the absence of forest,
which gives the meteoric waters a free field to do their work of dissection.
The absence of forest is also a factor in making visible at a glance even
the minutest topographic features, whereas in countries with a heavy
forest mantle much of the relief would not be seen. .
The topographic features of this region are as follows: 1. The quite
complete dissection of the country. 2. The long, limestone-capped ridges
of Mounts Licos, Manghilao and Lantauan. 3. The rather unconyen-
tional orientation of the drainage. 4. The change of topography with’
change of formation. :
In a previous paper,* I have spoken of the intermediate uplands o
this island. They comprise all of the elevated tract between the coastal
plain, with the low coast hills, and the Cordillera. They are largely
underlaid by limestone. Corn is the principal product. The people,
while apparently very poor, nevertheless are satisfied and have all they
need. They form the most peaceable portion, by far, of the native
population.
In the terms of the modern science of physiography this region is in
maturity, namely, it is in such a condition that a little less denudation
or a little more would decrease the relief and make all the outlines less
pronounced. Further denudation, unaccompanied by elevation or warp-
ing, would cause the region to pass into “old age.”
The most striking topographic features are the limestone-capped ridges
of Licos, Lantauan, and Manghilao. The limestone being more resistant
than the underlying shales and soft sandstone, has protected certain areas
between the master streams and hence the highest points are of the
* Loc. cit., 1043.
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 387
former material. This limestone does not conform to the beds below,
but lies as a mantle upon the folded and truncated coal measure beds, and
in some cases upon igneous formations. However, there is a decidedly
warped appearance to this formation which is in part due to the configura-
tion of the older topography upon which the limestone was laid down,
and also to some minor folding subsequent to its deposition.
A somewhat noteworthy feature of the drainage is the orientation
of the Cot-Cot and its tributaries, the Jimarco, the Parel and the Muao;
and the peculiar course of the Danao.
The Cot-Cot and its three tributaries are seen to conform with
reasonable closeness to two lines which make an angle of 92° with one
another. The Jimarco and the Cot-Cot fall on a line the course of
which is N. 37° W., while the Muao and the Parel come into the main
stream approximately at right angles or along a line N. 55° HE. I am
strongly of the opinion that the N. 37° W. line is a fault line, although I
have no other cause to think so than its great persistence.
Side branches under normal conditions do not join the trunk stream
at right angles, but always in such a manner as to make an acute angle
upstream with it. The reason for this departure in this region lies in
the structure of the underlying formations. In a traverse of the Muao,
in more than one place, I found that the strike of the beds conformed to
the direction of the stream and there should be little doubt but that
this factor has controlled its course, as it would be much easier for the
stream to cut along this line than across the formations. As the dip
is generally to the southeast throughout the greater part of this region,
it would be expected that the stream would shift laterally and in the
direction of the dip.
J am not so certain that this holds true in the case of the Taganejan,
as exposures of the sedimentaries are not so plentiful. If we now examine
the course of the Danao, the headwater tributaries of which are known
as the Cajumayjumayan and the Donga we see that it starts on the north-
east slope of Mount Lantauan and flows southwest in the Cajumayjumayan
basin until it strikes the Cordillera, it then swings to the south at the
base of this ridge and turns rather sharply to the southeast, worming its
way in great curves through a cafion-like cut in the basal igneous forma-
tion, and still farther down it takes a due easterly course to the
sea.
As the Cajumayjumayan Valley is a syncline, the river in this part
of the course is a consequent stream. In time the courses of Donga and
' Cajumayjumayan Creeks will coincide, as both shift laterally along the dip. ©
That part of the stream which hes between Sibacan and Ustaganon
Creeks is antecedent. Its present incised meanders in that portion are
evidently inherited from an earlier and higher stage of the stream, and
may point to a post-Miocene peneplain.
388 SMITH.
I found that the courses of the Mantija and Mangliji side streams were
almost entirely controlled by structural conditions. As‘can be seen by
a cross section of almost any part of the field, the coal measures are
folded to a considerable degree in some places. The Magliji is located
on the crest of a small local anticline and the reason for this position is
that there is usually along the crest of an anticline a fracture system
which would give a stream a foothold.
It would be interesting to know to what extent jointing and faulting
had affected the orientation of drainage in this area, but unfortunately
there are few good exposures, and quarries and mining operations have
not yet proceeded far enough to throw much light on the underground
condition.
To one accustomed to read topographic features much of the underlying
structure and formations of a country is revealed, whereas to another
person a surface examination would disclose nothing. For instance,
the abrupt change in the contours at the point where the Ustaganon comes
into the Danao should be noted; west of that point the rock is igneous,
a hard, fairly structureless diorite, east of that point to a place as far as
the end of the railroad, the contours are fewer and farther apart, showing
gentle slopes and outlines, the underlying formation is that of the coal
measures, consisting largely of soft shales. Again, the crowded contours
just south of the end of the railroad track at Camansi should be
considered. They mark 4 great, white cliff of limestone, which usually
gives this character to the topography. I may state that such topog-
raphy is not very favorable to engineering projects.
GEOLOGY : GENERAL.
For purposes of convenience, and also because of a natural distinction
between the areas, I shall treat the geology of this region under the
following heads:
1. The Acsubing-Muao region.
2. The Mount Licos region.
3. The Cajumayjumayan region.
4. The Sili Creek region.
THE ACSUBING-MUAO REGION.
This portion of the district, lying south of the Cot-Cot River, is
largely covered by a sheet of andesite and it therefore is much more
simple to deal with. Although this part of the area was evidently
entirely covered by this sheet of andesite, the streams have greatly dis- _
sected it, cutting down through it for over 200 meters (nearly 700 feet)
to the unconformable coal series below. Isolated residual patches of the
upper limestone are scattered at long intervals, resting upon the andesite.
The streams are naturally for the greater part deeply incised with V-
shaped cross sections as a result of the character of the formation which
is predominantly igneous.
‘9 ‘ON ‘II “IOA “IOS “NUNO¢ “IIHQ] [ong ‘ADOTOND AHL : HOINS
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 389
Although the region is maturely dissected, it may be seen that the
majority of the hilltops come up to ’a common plane which does not
signify a peneplain, but simply the surface of the great lava flow which
just antedated the deposition of the Miocene limestone.
This section is very rugged and at first sight quite forbidding. The
larger part of the people live in barrios and reconcentration camps on
narrow ridges. These camps were established in 1903 and 1904 by the
Constabulary to protect the people from some bands of “pulajanes”
infesting the country at that time. Although at first sight the country
would appear to be barren and unproductive, the wash from its decaying
limestone and the disintegrated andesite produce a fairly rich soil. I have
seen some very good corn in this section. Plate I is a view of the
Cot-Cot country which very well shows the general appearance of tlus
dissected Tertiary lava field.
The most widespread formation is a porphyritic rock which will be
described at greater length further on. In many hand specimens it is
clearly an andesite, with feldspar and pyroxene phenecrysts in a fine
groundmass ; in others, all which can be seen are white feldspars (usually
kaolinized) in a fine-grained, green groundmass.
A series of shales, sandstones and graywackes are found to be exposed
where the streams have cut down through this lava capping, where the
talus is not too thick, dipping sometimes at high angles and with
constantly changing strikes. It would be highly advantageous to be
able to map these, giving their underground courses, but the outcrops are
not sufficiently numerous or contiguous to do this with any assurance
of safety.
There has been some mineralization in the vicinity of Acsubing Moun-
tain, as galena is found in veins in the andesite. We have been able
to see these veins only in two localities, but these limited observations led
us to believe that the deposits are in the form of a “stock work.”
I have been unable to find any coal in this series, nor have I
encountered any fossils, but I have no reason to doubt that the series
belongs to the coal measures. A portion of it may be terrestrial in
origin, as seems to be the case with the formations to the north of the
Cot-Cot and the east of Mount Licos.
THE MOUNT LICOS REGION.
This includes both the old Compostela and the Camansi workings and
was the principal field in Spanish days. This portion of the district is
quite different from the preceding, in that the igneous extrusives are
lacking over most of the territory. As the western-part of the field abuts
on the igneous basement complex, in our mapping we have kept well to
the east. By referring to the map, a belt which widens and narrows
(represented by the blue color) may be seen; in general it runs in a
northeast-southwest direction. ‘This is the productive portion of the coal
390 SMITH.
measures; to the east it dips beneath the limestone and still farther to
the east it undoubtedly would be found, although at no inconsiderable
depth. This belt of productive measures can readily be traced in a
general way by the topography and the vegetation. The topography is
marked by moderate, gentle slopes and rounded contours. The vegeta-
tion consists largely of rank cogon and talahib, with absolutely no
forests. . .
Mount Licos is a long, irregular mountain the highest point of
which is just above the Compostela workings. From its height of
520 meters (1,700 feet) it declines gradually to the northeast to the
Danao River. This eminence is capped with a white, orbitoidal limestone
of 30 to 150 meters (100 to 500 feet) in thickness. This capping is
very rugged, exceedingly conspicuous and easily traced; it is fairly well,
but not densely, clad with forest trees. To the north of the mountain we
find a great mass of conglomerate, not basal, but such a formation as is
characteristic of coal fields. I have called this the barren measures. Its
thickness is at least several hundred feet, although just how great it
is I am unable to say. Although it is treeless, it is marked by its
accentuated relief. This formation will be treated of more fully in a
subsequent portion of this paper.
THE CAJUMAYJUMAYAN VALLEY.
Another field containing coal lies to the north of Sili Peak and
Lantauan ridge. This is simply an extension of those to the.south. Its
structure, to judge from rather incomplete data, is that of a basin or
syncline. Practically the same formations as those mentioned under the
Mount Licos region occur here and in the same order. The most
characteristic feature of the field is the hogback in the center of the
basin, which is a remnant of the upper or barren conglomerate. ‘There
are five seams in this valley, as is the case in the others.
TaBLeE III.—Stratigraphy of the Compostela-Danao region.
Recent. Alluvial deposits in streams and extensive and thick talus on
all slopes; and travertine.
UNCONFORMITY.
Miocene. Upper white limestone, coralline and containing Orbitoides,
Lithothamnium and many mollusea in its basal portion.
Oligocene. Shaly limestone—cream colored and soft—unfossiliferous.
UNCONFORMITY.
Extrusive rocks-—chiefly andesite.
Terrestrial deposits consisting largely of conglomerate—show-
ing much oxidation.
UNCONFORMITY (?)
Hocene.
Coarse gray sandstone.
Coal measure shales including five
coal seams.
90 to 150 meters (300
to 500 feet.)
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 391
UNCONFORMITY.
Pre-Eocene (7?) Basal diorite and conglomerate.
STRATIGRAPHY.
I have compiled in Table III a statement of the stratigraphic column
which gives, as nearly as I now know it, the relation of the different
formations in this part of the island. Beginning with the lowest, we
have the basal complex largely composed of diorite and, as a closely related
part of this, the basal conglomerate. Its extension where it comes to the
surface can be seen on the map, represented by the red single-cross-hatched
color. It occupies a portion of its western part, in fact the map was not
extended farther because of it. A typical diorite is found in the winding
gorge of the Danao River, in every respect resembling the basal rock of
Masbate, Benguet, etc. A typical development of basal conglomerate is
to be seen in portions of the river course, while in others but little of
this can be observed.
THE IGNEOUS BASE.
For some time I was puzzled by the particular phase of igneous rock
constituting the hills on the left, or north side, of the Danao River. Here
the rock is more of a porphyry than holocrystalline. From all the
evidence I was able to procure the rock exposed on this higher ground
is merely a porphyritic facies of the diorite, as would be natural to
expect in the upper part of the mass, where the cooling had been more
rapid. A feature of this rock is the innumerable, minute, calcite veins
cutting through it without definite system.
‘The following is a description of this rock from the region of Sili
Creek, not far from the coal méasures :
CEBU NO. 5 (DILWORTH).—DIORITE PORPHYRY.,
Hand specimen.—A dark colored, fine-grained, igneous rock. The only minerals
identifiable in the hand specimen are dark green plagioclase and rare specks of
magnetite.
Microscopic (2 sections).—The rock is composed almost entirely of feldspar,
rather decomposed. There are several porphyritic crystals reaching a maximum
size of 2 by 1 millimeters, but the majority are small laths. About 5 per cent
of the feldspars seem to be orthoclase. No good determinations could be made
of the plagioclases, but six rather doubtful ones gave three of acid labradorite
and three of basic oligoclase. Many of the feldspars show good zonal structure.
Several, especially among the smaller laths, are bent.
Biotite is present in all stages of decomposition, but is always well chloritized.
There are no well-defined plates.
Quartz occurs in small and inconspicuous grains. It forms a very small part
of the rock and is accessory rather than essential.
There are a large number of small crystals of titaniferous magnetite or limo-
nite, generally associated with the biotite. The presence of titanium is shown by
the dirty white titanite, which surrounds these crystals.
Secondary minerals are: Kaolin and sericite, along cracks in the feldspars;
chlorite replacing biotite; patches of calcite; and titanite associated with the
magnetite. PF
392 SMITH.
BASAL CONGLOMERATE,
The basal conglomerate, in some places at least, overlies the igneous
basement; however, this does not appear anywhere to have the strong
development it has in the Benguet region.
This conglomerate marks an unconformity, probably the greatest break
in the stratigraphic column within the limits of the Archipelago, and it
differs from the conglomerate in the coal measures by the fact that all the
included pebbles are igneous, whereas in the case of the latter they are
mixed with sandstone, shale, etc., clearly showing that they were not
altogether derived from the basal mass. It would be difficult to determine
the age of the basement complex, but it is certainly pre-Miocene. -
In the region of Sili Creek we find a formation which, taken altogether,
I call a greenstone. Some phases of this are certainly diorite, others are
porphyritic, and near the head of the creek, at 380 meters (1,250 feet),
there is a dark phase of rock which may be a diabase and hence a dike,
but the extremely limited exposure of the outcrop preyented my being
absolutely certain. A very important question affecting our knowledge
of the extent of the coal on the north side of the Danao River, is whether
or not this upper portion of the formation in Sili Creek might not be
an intrusive or even an extrusive, like the flow south of the Cot-Cot River.
We might then, in the event of this proving to be so, expect to find
the coal beds below and possibly exposed somewhere in the bed of Sili
Creek. Nowhere in this channel was any coal formation encountered,
but on the other hand a clean section of several hundred feet of green-
stone was observed.
I found the greenstone in this stream at an elevation of 238 meters
(780 feet) with marked joiting, the directions and dips of which are
as follows: 8. 25° E., dip 60° NE.; N. 82° W., dip 76° NE.; 8S. 40° W.,
dip 40° SE.
THE COAL MEASURES.
I have divided the coal measures into two subdivisions for purposes of
convenience in description, although in the field I have found no sharp
line between these. The lower part of the measures consists of gray
shales, the upper portion of a coarse, gray sandstone. There are five
coal seams. I have mapped the slates and sandstone under one color
(the blue), because it is practically impossible to separate them in the
field.
The photograph (Pl. II) shows the contact of the coal measure shales
with the basal conglomerate. It also shows the intense plication in the
weaker rocks, where they abut on the resistant igneous base.
The shales, as this stream (the Suqui) is ascended, become more and
more coarse until the coal seams are encountered where a grit appears.
There are about 60 or 100 centimeters (2 or 3 feet) of clay and shale,
}
just above the “Enriqueta” vein, then the coarse gray sandstone comes
‘9 ‘ON ‘II “IOA “10g ‘NUuNOf “TIEq] [onm ‘Ap0T0my GH, : HII
COMPOSTELA-DANAO GOAL FIELD. 393
in, and from there on up to the base of the limestone all outcrops
(which are very few indeed) show sandstone. This sandstone in its
composition very clearly demonstrates that it was largely derived from
the igneous material near at hand and we may infer that the only
high land at the time of its formation consisted of the diorite and
greenstone hills which stood above and immediately to the westward of
the tidal swamps in which the coal was forming. We can estimate the
thickness of the sandstone only approximately, but considering the
outcrops on the slopes of Mount Licos, I believe it to be not over 150
meters (500 feet). It is very improbable that there is an unconformity
between the shales and the sandstone. Numerous observations of the
strike and dip of these formations show the strike in general to vary
from N. 27° H. to N. 55° KE. and the dip anywhere from 20° to 90° SE.
In the region to the west of the Mount Licos workings and in the arroyos
which head in or near the igneous formation, I found some westward dips
at rather high angles, showing complete overturn, but this is to be ex-
pected as the igneous rock is approached.
There is every reason to believe that the limestone rests unconformably
above the sandstone. This formation has two well-marked phases; the
lower characterized by being softer, more of a yellowish color and so far
appearing to be unfossiliferous, it also is more stratified than the upper
part; the upper portion is a very white, hard, sometimes crystalline lime-
stone, revealing little regularity of structure.
Before describing it in detail I should discuss two other formations
which occur in the stratigraphic column between the sandstone and the
limestone.
Both of these are terrestrial deposits—the first or lower is a conglom-
erate made up of igneous sandstone, shale and slaty pebbles. The very
reddish-brown color of both the pebbles and the matrix, the evidence of
oxidation and the general heterogeneous character of the pebbles show
pretty clearly that this formation is in the nature of a flood-plain deposit,
or as Professor Barrell would call it, piedmont deposit. On the map
this is denoted by the brown color, and the formation is to be found exten-
sively developed on the east side of Mount Licos. In places it is at least
90 meters (300 feet) thick, and it may be more. A remnant of it is found
in the hogback in the bottom of the Cajumayjumayan Valley and in
several other isolated patches above the coal. The pebbles in this forma-
tion are usually small; I saw none exceeding 2 inches in diameter.
The second terrestrial deposit of consequence in this field is the andesite
just south of the Cot-Cot, the extension of which I have already alluded
to. I have mapped a series with this formation, which is rather dif-
ficult to demarcate and separate from the andesite because when the two
are weathered they strongly resemble one another. This series Abella
alluded to as lobas, which means a clastic rock derived from the wear
62926——2
394 SMITH.
of other rocks, chiefly igneous; we would call them graywackes. Some
rocks of pyroclastic origin are also doubtless associated with these. The
best place to see these graywackes is in the gorge of the Cot-Cot just above
Muao, where they can be seen dipping at a low angle to the east; and
above them at approximately 300 meters (1,000 feet) elevation is the
andesite capping.
Petrographic descriptions of both the andesite and the detrital material
made for me by my colleague, Mr. H. G. Ferguson, are given below:
CEBU NO. 45.—ARKOSE.
Hand specimen.—Extremely fine grained, grayish rock, the distinguishable
minerals of which are pink feldspars, quartz, magnetite and occasional hornblende
(?). The grains are all very small and approximately the same size.
Microscopic.—The rock is much decomposed, especially the feldspars. Feldspar
is the most prominent mineral, and is chiefly orthoclase, but one grain of albite
was found. There are no perfect crystals, but occasional crystal faces occur.
Quartz is rather rare in definite grains, but seems to fill spaces between other
crystals. Biotite occurs in small amounts, but in bent and frayed fragments
rather than plates. Occasional fragments of hornblende crystals are present.
Magnetite occurs in numerous, small grains, often partly altered to limonite. One
grain of topaz (?), a few minute grains of olivine (7) and numerous very
minute grains (diameter generally about 0.01 millimeter) of a mineral with
high refractive index and rather high double refraction, apparently titanite, are
the accessory minerals.
The rock shows no definite structure. The grains vary in size; but never
exceed 0.25 millimeter and perfect crystals are never found. The biotite especially
presents a fragmental appearance. I believe the rock to be an arkose, formed by
the decay of a trachytic igneous rock and with only slight transportation, as
there is no evidence of assortment of the minerals.
CEBU NO. 70.—ANDESITE.
Hand specimen.—The specimen is taken from the contact of two igneous rocks
of different texture, one a greenish-gray. aphanitic rock and the other more
porphyritic. consisting of greenish and glassy-white feldspars, In a purplish
groundmass. The contact is a shearing plane, stained with iron oxide.
Microscopic (2 shdes, both from the porphyritic rock)—Feldspars in idio-
morphic crystals are very prominent, but are all completely decomposed, chiefly
to sericite aggregates, and are also to a large extent replaced by calcite. One
doubtful case of albite twinning was found, which gave extinction: angles corre-
sponding to oligoclase.
Biotite is present in considerable amount (possibly 5 per cent of the slide).
This mineral is interesting as it shows different stages of decomposition. In
part it has simply lost a portion of its iron content and become more hydrated,
showing in plane polarized light a greenish pleochroism and under crossed
nichols a much lower double refraction than normal biotite, the colors ranging
from first order gray to first order yellow. For a part of the mineral, however,
the alteration has been more complete and the biotite has gone over to chlorite;
sometimes both stages can be observed in the same crystal. Biotite has also
suffered somewhat from replacement by calcite.
Other dark silicates if originally present have been altered beyond reconmatient
Magnetite is present both in large grains (largest 0.3 by 0.2 millimeter)
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 395
associated with the bietite, and. in small specks*in the groundmass. It is
generally fresh, but rarely is somewhat decomposed, staining the surrounding
portion of the slide with iron oxide.
The grourndmass is for the most part a mass of cloudy decomposition products
and secondary calcite. Occasional remnants of feldspar microlites can be made
out. There are also numerous small rods and specks, visible only with the highest
power objective. These are colorless, brown and opaque, but not clearly resolvable.
Numerous small specks of magnetite also occur.
THE UPPER LIMESTONE.
The upper limestone is quite hard, dazzling white on fresh exposures
and the boundary of the formation is readily followed even where it
happens to be covered with talus. This formation is found in more or
less detached areas, it being remnants of what was most probably a
continuous blanket. It rarely reveals any stratification and hence its dip
and strike is generally a matter of conjecture. It is my conception that
prior to the formation of this blanket of limestone there existed many
irregularities in the surface, due to previous erosion, and that the lime-
stone deposit first filled in these irregularities.
This horizon of the limestone in places is quite coralline, with many of
the characteristic genera now growing in the surrounding reefs. These
corals now appear to be segregated in colonies, although there may pre-
viously have been a continuous reef formation of which we have merely
the remnants left, the other portion having been destroyed by erosion.
The lower part of the formation is in places very fossiliferous and the
mollusca now fossilized undoubtedly lived in colonies, as we know them >
to do to-day. At an elevation of 275 meters (900 feet) and near the
barrio of Mabasa I found a great many fossils which had weathered out
of the rock. They are all casts and a number of them are in poor con-
dition. (Pls. II] and IV.) Some of the genera represented are:
Cerithium. Trochus.
Fusus. Bulla.
Turbo. Pectin.
Natica. Dosinia.
Teredina. Conus.
It is not my intention to make this a paleontologic discussion and
therefore I shall leave these fossils with the statement that I have com-
pared them with many of Martin’s illustrations in his monograph on
the Tertiary of Java and have found many that I believe to be identical
with those from which his illustrations are taken.
I have thought it best not to treat of the paleontology at this time, as it
is my purpose later to prepare a monograph on the Tertiary fossils of
the Philippines.
6
396 SMITH.
Foraminiferal tests can be found at nearly any point where a piece of
this limestone is chipped. The genus Lepidocyclina (Orbitoides) pre-
dominates. Generally, these fossils are found most thickly near the base
of the upper white limestone, they are much larger in this situation than
in the upper horizons and I believe them to be of quite a different species.
The two best localities in which to find these Orbitoides are at Mount
Lantauan, near the large sink hole at the eastern end of the ridge, and at
320 meters (1,050 feet) elevation on the southwest slope of Mount Licos,
where the trail passes around to the coal workings.
Another characteristic form found in this limestone is the marine
alga Lithothamnium ramossisium Reuss. This is shown in two sections
on Plates III and IV.
There seems to be little question but that this is the same horizon as
the Baguio, Theila Pass, Binangonan and Masbate upper limestones.
Following Martin ® in his work on Java, and Newton and Holland® on
Formosan fossils, | have been inclined to assign this formation, at least
this horizon of it, to the Miocene, although fossils from a very similar
limestone which I have also examined in the field in Batan Island have
been classified by a European paleontologist * as Oligocene. The fossils
so classified were collected by Mr. O. Halvorsen Reinholt and he simply
states that they came from above the coal. However, I suspect, judging
from similar forms which I collected myself on Batan Island, that his
forms did not come from the uppermost horizon, therefore, future search
and study of the fossils already collected may reveal this Oligocene horizon
in Cebu.
It will be of interest to attempt to correlate our Cebu section with
Verbeek’s § classification of the Eocene in Java as amended in 1892, which
is as follows: i
Stage IV. Orbitoides—Miocene.
III. Marl sandstone—Oligocene.
II. Quartz-sandstone—Hocene.
I. Breccia stage—basal conglomerate. Ass
This scheme is more in accord with Martin’s idea as expressed in 1900,
as follows:
Quaternary ; consisting of fluviatile and marine deposits, the latter rich in
Mollusea, and at some localities remains of whales. :
Upper Pliocene; represented by the Rendon Beds, rich in remains of Stegodon
and Cervus, containing also Pithecanthropus erectus Dub.
Pliocene-Miocene, or the Java series, possibly including some pre-Miocene rocks.
This constitutes the greater part of the Island of Java and most of the fossils
from the island which have been described come from it. Among them are
* Tertiirschichten auf Java, Leyden (1880).
° J. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ., Tokyo (1902), 17, Art. 6.
*Reinholt, O. Halvorsen: Hngineering Journ. (1906), 30, 510.
* Neues Jahrb. fur Mineralogie, ete. (1892), 66.
Scr., Vou. If, No: 6:
(PHIL. JOURN.
SMITH: THE GEOLOGY, ETC.]
PLATE Ill.
[Puiu. Journ. Sct., Vou. II, No. 6.
SMITH: THE GEOLOGY, ETC.]
Pesaran, FEA
IV.
PLATE
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 397
Lepidocyclina and Cycloclypeus. This series extends northward through the
Philippines to central Japan.
‘Kocene; marine beds of small extent with Nwmmulites, Alveolina and Ortho-
phragmina. They contain coal.
Cretaceous limestone with Obitolina from Banjoemaas. This rock is not known
to exist at other points in Java.
By comparison with the table on page 390 it will be seen that my
column is fairly well in accord with Verbeek’s divisions in Java, and
with Martin’s Pliocene-Miocene or Java series.
Recent formations—The latest deposits to be laid down in this region
are those which are still forming in the river bottoms, on the coastal plains
where the streams issue from the mountains, and along the coast, but
in our limited field we need only refer to two of these, the river-bottom
deposits and the talus slopes, for these are in part alluvial, although gray-
ity is probably much the most potent agent in producing the latter,
whereas water is the cause of the former.
All the waters in this region in addition to the mechanical detritus of
the streams, carry a large quantity of lime in solution. This is generally
deposited on the shales of the coal measures. I have- picked up fresh-
water snail shells which had a coating of half an inch in thickness of
ealeium carbonate.
STRUCTURE.
The importance of geologic structure is nowhere exemplified as it
is in a coal field. Not only the condition of the coal is generally greatly
changed by an increase in the inclination of the strata, but the cost
of mining is enhanced almost in geometric ratio under certain’ condi-
tions; an instance of such conditions being those under which the
miner is forced to work down the dip, hauling the coal up an incline by
- steam or electricity, and where it is necessary to pump. In_ discussing
the structure of this district I shall merely make mention of the struc-
ture of the coal measures. The general strike of the formations on the
east coast of Cebu is north and south, but in the Compostela-Danao
‘region the Cordillera swings somewhat to the east and likewise the
strike of the coal measures changes to about N. 25° E. The dip, which
on this side is generally easterly, changes to southeast. It is not uni-
form, uninterrupted and always to the east, but in some places the forma-
tion is plicated to an extreme degree, with westerly dips. An instance
of the close folding is shown in the cut of the tramroad just below the
Camarin at Camansi, and again in Suqui Creek, where the igneous rock
is approached; besides this there seems to be abundant indication of a
minor north and south cross folding, but this is not a bad feature, as
it is not noticeable except over great distances.
I am not able to assert that much indication of faulting appears on
the surface, although I suspect it to have been considerable, but of a
minor character, in this district and until more underground data are
398 SMITH.
acquired, I shall dispense with further discussion of this feature, merely
stating that in the very limited workings of the Spaniards, several faults
were encountered, but according to Abella, who exammed them all, they
were neither sufficiently great nor numerous to cause any serious diffi-
culty in mining operations.
I shall now briefly summarize the geological history of this district,
before passing on to the discussion of its economic phases. We may
think of a basal mass of igneous rock with little or no sediments covering
it. Whether this was a part of the mainland of a then extended conti-
nent, or an outlying island mass, we can not at present say. ‘This ig-
neous mass must have had some elevation, otherwise the later sediments
could not have been formed. About this igneous mass a coral platform
undoubtedly formed in places. This grew up to a limiting plane, the
sea level. Upon this, the detritus of the hills poured and made a shelf.
This substructure of coral may have been lacking in other parts. At
all events, there were low, tidal flats, girting the elevated igneous mass
at the beginning of the Eocene. These flats were the sites of unusually
rank forests, and deposits began to form which afterwards were to become
coal. Sinking of the whole mass must have begun at this time and
later elevation again occurred. There were periods of quiescence, followed
by oscillations of level, in which shales and coarse sandstone were alter-
nately deposited above the coal beds. Finally, there came at the close
of the Eocene a subsidence so great that the entire mass sank under the
sea and a coral mantle was deposited over the whole region. At the
close of the Miocene, which was the period of the deposition of the lime-
stone, there occurred a period of uplift and rather pronounced folding of
the strata. Since that time erosion has denuded the area of a large part
of its mantle of limestone, uncovering the coal-bearing formations below.
GEOLOGY : ECONOMIC.
HISTORY OF THE DISTRICT.
As the complete history of the discovery of coal and operations in Cebu
is recorded in “The Coal Measures of the Philippines” ® which is simply
a compilation and translation from the Spanish records, I will only in
this place summarize what was given.
Coal was discovered in Cebu in 1827. The first concessions in the
Compostela~-Danao region were solicited by Isaac Conui in 1871. A
wagon road was built from Cot-Cot cove to the workings at Dapdap in
1877. The formation of the association known as the Sociedad Nuevo
Langrea and the beginning of actual work took place about 1890. The
construction of a tramroad from Danao to Camansi, and from Compostela
to Mount Licos, was undertaken in 1895. Then followed the Spanish-
American war in 1898. In this year all the concessions in this district
came into the hands of Mr. Enrique Spitz. These concessions have
* Burritt, Chas. H.: Wash. (1901).
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 399
changed hands again and are controlled by the Insular Coal Company,
which is now in the field carrying on exploratory work.
Operations.—It will be sufficient at the present time to state that two
companies, of which the Insular Coal Company is one and: the other a
New York syndicate, are vigorously investigating these fields ; the Insular
Coal Company in the Mount Licos and Camansi regions, the latter in
the Cajumayjumayan Valley. As both these companies seem to be very
much in earnest and backed by responsible men who command consider-
able capital, we should obtain as a result of their investigations a far
more thorough knowledge of these fields than we now have.
The district is one in which the geology is very complicated but not
more so, it is believed, than that of other coal-bearing areas of the
Archipelago. It certainly has some features possessing advantages over
other parts of the Island of Cebu, although coal may be found in almost
all districts of the island.
COAL SEAMS.
The three fields at present being developed are rather limited, but
amply sufficient for a considerable production of coal. Various estimates
have been made of the possible tonnage, some of which are founded on
guesswork and are very wild. A very conservative estimate would be
2,000,000 workable tons in the Cajumayjumayan valley and two to four
million in the combined Mount Licos and Camansi fields. The coal
seams are rather highly inclined, from 30° to 90°, which would necessitate
some system like the “Battery” being employed. The proper drainage
of the workings will be a serious factor. Both the roof and floor are
weak, the floor being of shale and fire clay, and the roof of shale or friable
sandstone. Great care will need to be taken in timbering. There will
also be increased expense for timber, because the greater part of it will
need to be brought from some distance, probably from another island (see
Forester Everett’s timber report in the first part of this paper, p. 38+).
Methods for preservation of mine timbers must be devised. However,
when molave is used the timbers will last for many years; in fact I have
examined such timbers which were for nearly ten years completely buried
in loose earth in the “Enrique Abella” tunnel and they were perfectly
sound. It must be remembered that timber does not last underground
proportionately as long in the tropics as in higher latitudes. Forepoling
and lagging will be necessary in the shafting and drifts.
There is evidence of considerable minor faulting, but probably none
which will seriously affect mining operations. There are five known
coal seams, at least three of which should be profitable; two of these are
over ten feet thick in one part of the field. The ‘following beds were
encountered at Mount Licos, from west to east, that is from lowest to
highest :
1. The “Carmen;” thickness 1.60 meters, strike NE.—SW., dip 30’
SE. ; 40 meters interval.
400 SMITH.
2. “Esperanza ;” 50 centimeters, strike the same as above, dip same;
9 meters interval.
3. “Enrique Abella ;” thickness 1.20 to 1.50 meters, strike N. 23° E., -
dip 40° to SE.; 40 meters interval.
4. “Pilarica ;” thickness 1.40 meters, strike N. 23° E., dip 30° SE.
There formerly existed over 300 meters of drifts at the old Licos
workings. About 100 tons of coal, taken from the “Esperanza,” “Ramon-
cita” and “Enrique Abella” galleries have been on the dump for three
or four years. In this time the coal has not taken fire, nor has it “air-
slacked” very greatly, which bodes good for its handling and storing.
The coal throughout the district is remarkably free from dirt, “butter”
and “bone” and is quite low in sulphur.
We believe that this coal will ultimately find its greatest utility as a
gas producer and with this end in view it should be mentioned that Dr.
Cox, of this Bureau, is devoting much of his time to experimenting on
this problem. It is hoped that at no distant date the Bureau of Science
will be able to make a practical demonstration in this direction. The
Philippine Commission has just appropriated a sum sufficient to cover
the expense of installing a producer gas plant at the laboratory of this
Bureau.
Dr. A. J. Cox has added a contribution from his own chemical inyes-
tigations. His report is as follows:
The quality of the coal from the Cebu fields is no exception to the general
average of this commodity in the Philippines. I have been over a large part
of the territory and have analyzed samples from all the sources where coal is
known to occur. None of the samples show a woody structure, and in general
the coal is compact, lustrous and commonly has both hackly and conchoidal
fracture. The coal as mined is very black, but when finely powdered (60 mesh)
it assumes a tinge of brown. It is of the non-coking, sub-bituminous to bitumi-
nous variety. The latter class is perhaps best represented by that from the Com-
postela region. In this field the active work which is now being carried on is
beyond the prospecting stage, so that more definite information is at hand
regarding the extent of the deposits and thoroughly average samples have been
obtained for chemical work. A study of the volatile matter from this coal shows
it to contain a fairly good percentage of heavy hydrocarbons and it could
probably be used successfully as a gas coal. The composition of the gas and the
yield from this coal is not greatly different from that obtained from Polillo™
coal. Attention has already been directed to the peculiar, elliptical, pit-like
markings which characterize Compostela coal.
I have analyzed a great many samples from both the Carmen and Compostela
fields. Some of the results have already been published * and other more recent
determinations will be printed in a future communication. Barring diluents,
water, ash, sulphur, etc., and considering the relation of the percentage of
volatile combustible matter to fixed carbon, which by many authorities is taken
™ Cox, A. J.: This Journal (1906), 1, 893.
u Jbid, Sec. “A,” Gen. Sci. (1907), 2, 50.
13 Ibid, 52.
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 401
as the criterion of classification, there is a surprising regularity in the analyses
of all of the samples taken from a single field. The averages of all the samples
give the following results:
Averages of analyses of Cebu coals.
[The figures give percentages. ]
| For the Carmen region. For the Compostela region.
Constituent. j { a | | tf “ |
; Mini- Maxi- s Mini- Maxi-
mum. | mum. |“VeP@8e-| mum. | mum. “AVerage-
MOISHIT C28 Sewer ig eis k 5 |} - 13.5 21.6 | 16.70 7.5 | 9.5 §. 60
Volatile combustible matter _____- | 33) | 38 -| 35.10 35.1 | 38 | 36.95 |
Musedienmbon sess ecm Sao wt 38.7 | 49.3] 43.92 Blea) ease Salo) |
SHS ee sae a tip daha 8 4.28 ees 3.8 | 2.70 |
esi eee ere alee PE ae af |
Motels cece es! es Eee mee 100), | = eee sane el oe Cheats 100 |
Sulphur reesei ee =O | Dai | 67 22) 6B} ap
Calorific value in calories SyO20, alepso30h. | |eee seus (5 Se a 6, 380
Although a careful study has been made of all of the Philippine coals thus
far discovered, not a single sample of coking coal has been found. The usefulness
of a coke in this Archipelago is well recognized, for were it to be readily
accessible the iron industry would be in line for development. In view of this
I have tried to make coke in various ways. The coal from the Compostela region
yields a certain per cent of tar and it was thought that by mixing this product
with the coal itself before charging into the coke oven, a good coke might result.
Several experiments were made. The pulverized coal and tar in varying amounts
up to 12 per cent of the weight of the coal were warmed to 110°, intimately
mixed and then subjected to a heat similar to that of a coke oven; in fact, the
heat was varied to cover the various ranges present in coke ovens. All experi-
ments gave negative results. In none of them was there more than a semblance
of coke, consequently for the present we must give up the hope of obtaining coke
in these Islands.
I have added below a copy of an analysis of the upper limestone which
will be of interest in view of the fact that possibly a cement plant will
be erected in this region at some future date. As this paper has been
devoted almost entirely to the question of the coal, I shall not discuss this
matter further at the present time.
The absence of magnesia which seems to be characteristic of recent
limestones, should be noted.
Analysis of the limestone.
Per cent.
Insoluble acid ; 0.36
Fe,O,
Al.0, 18
CaO : 55.62
Loss on ignition 43.50
H,.0 at 110° C. alli
Total i 99.83
402 SMITH.
LABOR.
Labor conditions on the whole are good in Cebu, and in the Compos-
tela~-Danao district the natives have more or less familiarity with under-
ground work, gained by experience of a score of years under the tutelage
of the Spaniards. The present wage in this field is 40 centavos and
subsistence, for the outside laborers, and 50 centavos for the underground
man ; however, of late the Insular Coal Company has found it best to pay
so much a foot for driving a drift. The price per foot will of course vary
according to conditions. The Philippine Railroad Construction Company
has found the native labor to be very satisfactory. In their work thou-
sands of natives are used at a wage of 50 centavos and subsistence. The
subsistence is arranged for by contract with a Chinaman. It is the belief
of many in these Islands that the Visayans are the best laborers of any
of the tribal groups. However, this is a matter more or less of personal
opinion. i
TRANSPORTATION.
The new railroad from the city of Cebu to Danao, a distance of 32
kilometers (20 miles), is completed at this date. From Danao to the
Camansi workings is a distance of about 8 kilometers (5 miles) with a
rise of 75 meters (250 feet). There is now a tramroad over this course,
an heirloom from the Spanish régime; but this will need to be replaced
by new rails and more clearing will have to be done before any extensive
work is undertaken. The transportation problem in the other parts of
the district will not be so simple and I believe overhead cables or inclined
planes will be found to be necessary.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
I would caution any company which intends any great outlay of money,
thoroughly to explore the field with drills or by means of numerous drifts.
I do not believe the diamond drill will be best for these soft formations,
but a churn or a calyx drill should be on hand for certain parts of the
work. The disadvantage in using such a drill is the difficulty found
in obtaining an accurate record of the formations encountered. It would
be foolish, judging from the folded condition of the rocks, to suppose that
the beds will continue as they appear along the outcrops. Without more
records from shafts, drifts or bore holes, I should consider any estimates
as to the quantity of coal, the position of the beds and their condition
to be little more than guesswork.
The vicinity of Luguayan Creek on the eastern edge of the map should
be prospected, as here the coal is found exposed below the upper con-
~ glomerate. It is probable that in this position the beds are less folded
than they are farther to the west. I should even go so far as to predict
the finding of good, regular beds underlying the more level country near
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL FIELD. 403
Danao. The saving in transportation and the greater regularity of the
beds might more than offset the cost of sinking a shaft and pumping.
I may also add that drilling in the vicinity of the andesite formation
might, not improbably, discover anthracitized coal, should the andesite
come in contact with the coal bed at any point. This has been known
to be the case in the anthracite region of Colorado, in the United States.
In conclusion it should be said that the coal formation in this district
does not differ greatly from that of Batan Island and operations in either
field will necessitate considerable outlay of capital. Furthermore, the
problem connected with coal mining in either field will tax the ingenuity
of any engineer and it will be a saving in the long run to spare nothing
in order to get the best man available.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Facing page
Pate I. View of the country in the vicinity of Siglo XX. Mount Licos in
the right background. The formation in the foreground is
EXDRU SIV HIOTICO US LO CRg ese eres at re ee ee ee ee is 389
II. Contorted coal measure shales at contact with basal igneous
TEN SESS ee eee rae a seen ata eee Sor oA SoS: aitsra th Bs oman can eset 392
Ill. Lithothammium ramossisimwm Reuss.......--..-...-22--.-------020--22-2eeeeeee eee 396
IV. Lithothamnium ramossisimum (7) Reuss... 396
VY. Mount Mangilao, showing the base of the upper limestone............ 406
VI. Panorama south of the Cot-Cot River from Camp Clark.
VII. About 1 mile east of Camansi on the line of the old tramway to
the coal workings.
VIII. Coal-measure shales dipping to the east in Suqui Creek.
IX. Characteristic vegetation and topography in the coal regions.
X. Showing structure in shales on the Parel River.
XI: Cirque-like valley in the hills to the west of Camp Clark.
XII. Rubble limestone exposed in a gorge of the Danao River.
XIII. The upper limestone dipping to the east in a gorge of the Danao
Skutvers
XIV. The “Enrique Abella” entry, Compostela mines.
XV. Plan of workings of the Compostela mines.
Map No. 1.
Map No. 2.
405
“NO ALVI1d
Sea
—_
‘9 ‘ON ‘II ‘TOA “IOS ‘NUNOL ‘ITHgG] [ong ‘Apo10Omy WHY, : HLINS
IAN SLV1d
9 ‘ON ‘II “IOA “IOS "NUNor “11Hg] [ong ‘AD010m9 aH : HIINS
“IIA SLV1d
‘9 ‘ON ‘II “OA “IOS -NUNOf ‘ITIHg] [dam ‘ADoTOUDy HAL : Hans
TIA SLV1d
‘9 ‘ON ‘II “IOA “IOS ‘NUnOL “11Hg] [oug ‘ApoTOay AHL : HLING
‘9 ‘ON ‘IT “TOA “IOg ‘Nuno “IIHg] [ong “AD0TOMD) AHL :ALINS
JOURN. Scr., Vou. II, No. 6.
(PHIL.
THE GEOLOGY, ETC.]
SMITH
PLATE XX.
"Ix SAV 1d
. ‘oO ‘ "TO i o) WONG 7 °° 1
9 ON II A “IOS ‘NunOP “ITH ] [ong ‘Apo TOMy tg, : rag
6.
[PuHin. JouRN. Sct., Vou. II, No.
THE GEOLOGY, Erc.]
SMITH :
PLATE XII.
ter,
JOURN. Sct., Vou. II, No. 6.
[PHIn.
: THE GHoLoGy, Erc.]
SMITH
PLATE XIII.
“AIX SLV1d
"9 ‘ON ‘II “I0A “IOS ‘NuNOr “IIH ] [ong ‘aAD0T0m5 aH, : HLINS
“aindh wuyeah, sevnlnd
lp sept 8 eon’,
é ye, - | cen
; j “aaah suye a" Siewsled
was Gh Svlshavee, tery Nee Were
ee wy oa) 2
7.
‘7 bh
SONINBORA 40
MINAS pe CARBON
DE
COMPOSTELA
CEBU
Scale !: 2000
Corte trasversal parla traviesa dela galeria
“Esperania™
Ausiliar
Culatas deus galerias
Eperania
An
tapas
lid bapates
limenea.
Chimenca metre ta
al
Ohi
S
Galeria “ Esperanza~
Desarralle en un plane paralele a la capa
«Visita del Exina Sor Inspector)
|
aa i
TIN 3s
Soe
oneal ale
Galeria“ Esperanza”
Desarrolo ei pee paralela 3a capa
(Visita del Exémo Sor: Inspector)
q 5 Gundida de “Caridad”
An
Sabor leg
Ane
Galeria buntids
Swotre /ahares aniiguas
eat ||
HE = = -
Galer/a" Esperanza” ie
Desarrollo enun plato paralelo dla capa “9,18
(Visita de 1895)
babar hundjde
ty Geleris Enrique Abella
ap Perera
Arbol de Tayaan
Labor hundida
ee
vt Afloramiento
\s o
Labor hundida
Desarrolie en un plane paralelo /a capa
(Visita de 1896)
Galeria “ Esperanza™
Desarrolla enun plano paralelo a lacapa
(Visila de 1897)
I? hundida
Gal" hundida
Galeria “Esperanza”
a b&b oy
W) yl Al
Cortes trasversales sucesives inmediates ¥ salto
Escala t:200
\Regs*hundido
SS Galt hundida
ab cd
et
PPI
Prayeccion heritonial de /a galeria
en elsalte dela capa(Escala de 1200
a \y Nie 2, Vj 0
Hashales dels traviesa del E.en la culate
donde st manifiestan los indicies emberrascades dela 2* capa
Pirate XV.
PLAN of WORKINGS
1898
(Permission of the Insular Coal Co)
aes Galera’ Esperance sohGes ( Visita del Excimo. Sor Inspector)
Corte por A.B.
Géleria Esperantay
(Visita de 1895)
Corte por 6.0.
|
oars qs (Visita del Excmo Sor Inspector)
Gale ria‘Enrigue Abella”
Desarrallo enun plano paraleloala capa
== (Visita del Excmo. Sor: Inspector)
jaleria" Ei nrique Abella:
Desarrallo enun plano paralelo ala capa
we" 1:400
PI
ant
_—————
(Visita de 1895 )
Galeria “Enrique Abella” —
O:sarrallo enun plano paralelo a /a capa
y
i
foes del J" ps0
2 —— = (Visita de 1896)
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GEOLOGICAL SKETCH
OF
CEBU
ADAPTED FROM ABELLA
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CONVENTIONAL SIGNS
CITIGS
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MINES
COAL os
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ERUPTIVE ROCKS
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MAP OF
COMPOSTELA-DANAO COAL MINING DISTRICTS
CEBU Pl.
Scale: 1inch = 2600 ft.
Contour Interval 50 ft,
SURVEYED BY
MAURICE GOODMAN
HaRRY M. IcKis
FIELD ASSTS MINING DIVISION BUREAU OF SCIENCE
MANILA PI.
MARCH - MAY 1806
LEGEND
Alluvial
Upper hard limestone
Lower shaly 9»
Andesite, luffs and sediments derived
from exirusive ignoous rocks
Conglomorate ss and soles
Jargely terrestrial
Coal Seams
Cool Measures
Bosal Mi
including conglomerate
Unmapped
Profile and section along the road fo the Compostela Mines ( aller Abslla)
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NOTEZONE TEs OCCURRENCE OF REYOLITE IN CEBU:
By Henry G. Frercuson.
(From the Division of Mines, Bureaw of Science, Manila, P. I.
This rock, collected by Mr. Warren D. Smith during his investigation
of the coal fields of Cebu,* seemed to be of interest because of the difficulty
in determining whether it should be classed as an igneous rock or a sili-
ceous precipitate.
The field relations are not at all clear. The rock occurs in scattered
outcrops along the side of the Muao River valley, and near the Bureau
of Science bench mark (B-++S on the map accompanying Mr. Smith’s
paper). “Greenstone” and andesite outcrop in the stream bed, and
limestone forms the capping of the hill. The contacts are everywhere
masked by talus.
CEBU NO. 57.
Hand specimen.—The rock in the hand specimen is whitish, compact and
extremely fine grained. It is rather light, four determinations of specific gravity
giving: 2.20, 2.26, 2.10, 2.17, average, 2.18. It is sufficiently soft so that it
can be scratched with a knife and gives no effervescence with hydrochloric acid.
In one part of the specimen there is a well-marked banding which consists of
small, slightly darker lines about 2 millimeters apart. A slight tendency to
break along this banding was noticed in making the thin sections. A few small
grains of magnetite appear in these dark bands. The rock is too fine grained
for any other minerals to be identified in the hand specimen.
Another specimen bearing the same number seems to be a more weathered
phase of this rock. The color is light green instead of white, as in the unaltered
specimen. Beyond this the rocks seem the same. One grain of quartz (about
0.5 millimeter in diameter) was seen in the weathered rock. No banding was
noticed. Specific gravity 2.14, 2.15, 2.15.
UKE Microscopic—The most easily recognizable min-
raz rals . 7, S 7 5 rine 7 7
LT aa) erals are quartz and feldspar, occurring in STINE
j Y/p grains. The quartz is clear and glassy, the grains
a as a rule have sharp edges; and apparently, in
some cases at least, crystal faces are present. The
= grains sometimes are broken and occasionally con-
tain inclusions.
The feldspars occur in‘small, clear, fresh grains.
The edges are sharp, but there are no idiomorphic
erystals. Only one good determination could be
made and this gave basic oligoclase (extinction
Hie, Wed. Ibis Ghee angle of albite twins, 6° and index of refraction
grain; b, quartz grain with lower than quartz). Probably the majority of
inclusions. the undetermined feldspars are orthoclase. ,
4Smith, W. D.: This Journal, Sec. “A,” Gen, Sci. (1907), 2.
407
408 : FERGUSON.
Rare grains of epidote occur, generally along the darker bands.
The groundmass in great part is composed of small rods and grains of a
practically isotropic mineral with a slight greenish tinge, which, with crossed
nicols, gives a very faint, grayish polarization or remains entirely dark. The
index of refraction is lower than balsam, hence they are either crystallites or
else small rods of opal. They have a wavy, parallel arrangement suggesting
flow structure (microfelsitic). Between these rods are aggregates of a mineral
having low polarization colors and suggesting chlorite. These sometimes have
definite boundaries suggesting the replacement of some other mineral, or possibly
only a large interspace between the small rods, or else they fill up irregular inter-
stitial spaces. The polarization is extremely irregular and parts of these aggre-
gates seem isotropic, hence they may represent a eryptocrystalline structure
resulting from devitrification. i
Small aggregates of a mineral having a high double refraction and resembling
either sericite or tale also occur, but these are rare. The banding seems to be
due to small patches of nearly opaque brownish. matter.
Below is an analysis made by Mr. Herbert 8. Walker of this Bureau.
'
Analysis of Cebu No. 57.
Pericent.
S10, 67.25
Al,O, 13.12
Fe,O, .24
CaO 1.23
MgO 1.10
Kk.O 4.38
Na.O 0.59
at 11S 6.15
0} on ignition 6.11
Total : 100.17
The most striking features of the analysis are: (1) The rather large
ratio of aluminia to silica, 1: 5.1, which is above what would be expected
in a siliceous precipitate; (2) the large percentage of both contained
and included water, which would be natural to expect in a chemical pre-
cipitate of the nature of a novaculite, having an opaline groundmass, but
which, if the rock is igneous, must be referred to devitrification and
chloritization of the groundmass, a process which seems hardly far enough
advanced to justify such a large amount of water; (3) the extremely low
iron content, natural to a precipitate but hardly to be looked for in an
igneous rock as fresh as this appears to be; (4) the comparatively high
percentage of magnesia; (5) the great excess of potash over soda (7.4: 1
taking percentage values, or 4.7: 1 taking molecular proportions).
In addition to the high water content and the low percentage of iron,
there are two other arguments against the rock being of igneous origin.
First, the specific gravity (2.18) is abnormally low for an igneous rock,
but neglecting all the water this figure would increase to about 2.6, and
RHYOLITE IN CEBU. . 409
neglecting only the water lost at 110°, to about 2.4. Second, the quartz
and feldspar do not occur in well-formed crystals, but in sharp, angular
grains with the quartz often cracked, as if the siliceous waters forming
the precipitate had carried a small amount of clastic material. However,
fig. 1 and Plate I, fig. 1, show that reéntrants are common and the absence
of crystal forms may be explained by magmatic corrosion.
The small isotropic rods may be either casts of, or precipitates around
alge,” or they may be crystallites formed in the glassy base of an igneous
rock. They seem to bear a greater resemblance to the latter. The
banding may be explained as either the result of original deposition or
as a flow structure.
Below are tables of analyses of different rocks for comparison and a
recast of the analysis of this rock and classification by the quantitative
system. I have not been able to find any analysis of siliceous precipitates
which at all corresponds to this rock, the nearest being a pulverent sinter,
No. 9. It will be seen that the rock agrees closely with Nos. 2, 3, and
4 and falls into the same subrang in the quantitative system.
Comparative table of analysis.
at ee oe ia | | |
Constituent. fale 2 3. | eee oh le 6: E oie ui
ity, eee eee 76.51 76.41 | 72.68 74.58 75.20 | 73. gL | 99.47 | $1.95 94.63
NEC or | 14.93| 14.42] 15.62] 18.81} 12.96] 15.29 )) .17) 6.49!
Th or fee 27 \eoe 28 05 es) 28 By =| = 15. 95
TEO 4 per p7aateneda (entds (227.989. 12) \ffPrace:
epee As Ueriees Venera Braces 26) 12) | 50 .25| Trace.
Ci as ieonlermieasal eer osiinest-Gih= 329: 4.771 «60 |;’ <50.| 1-00
GEO re na GiuhweeeG3. Te1g {1.52 |" 2.02 | 8.62 Ty ezeocite, 280
ees ee ee S| 4.98 | 3:88} 4.30| 4.87| 838] 4.79 07) .65 [2 1.02
+ TEC saa eee a ae DjO2 |e 2O0)F 2508)" x.58 169.12}, 7650)| 97.48 |
S(O) a RES eee eee ees 12) | eee! He Bs Hea eee etceaes hee =, els oe | ae Se |
Metals tae | 100.00 | 100.65 | 100.02 | 99.49 | 100.19 | 100.46 “100 99.97
« Loss
Specific gravity, 2.229.
1. Cebu No. 57, neglecting H,O.
2. Porphyry, Kiserngrat, Windgille Mountains, Switzerland. Schmidt C.:
Neu. Jahrb. B. B. (1886), 4, 432. (Washington, H. S.: U. 8. G. S., P. P. 14,
130.)
ea Rhyolite, Nagy-Mihaly, Hungary. Murokozy K.: Féldtam Kézlény Buda-
pest (1892), 22,54. (Washington, H.S.: U. 8. G. S., P. P. 14, 130.)
4. Porphyry, Arolo, Lago Maggiore, Piedmont. Ricciardi L.: Att. Acad. Gioen.
(1885), 18, 14. (Washington, H.8.: U. 8S. G.S., P. P. 14, 132.)
Nos. 2, 3, 4: Persalane \ Columbare, Alsbachase, Mihalose,
Quarfelic, Domalkalic, Dopotassic.
5. Rhyolite, Silver Cliff, Colo. Cross: Col. Sci. Soc. (1887), 229. (Kemp,
J. F.: Handb. of Rocks (1906), 28.)
2 Weed, W. H.: U. 8. G. 8., 9th An. Rep. (1888), 667,
629263
a
410 FERGUSON.
6. Rhyolite, McClelland Peak, Washoe Dist., Nev. Gooch. F. A.: U. S. GS.
(1885), Bull. 17. (Kemp. J. F.: Handb. of Rocks (1906), 28.)
7. Novaculite, Rockport, Ark. Beachett, R. N., for Griswold, L. §8.: Geol. Ark.
(1890), 3, 161. (Kemp, J. F.: Handb. of Rocks (1906), 89.)
8. Geyserite. Yellowstone Park. Weed, W. H.: U. S. G. S., 9th An. Rep.
(1889), 670.
9. Pulverent Siliceous Sinter, Rotura, New Zealand. Weed, W. H.: U.S. G.S.,
Ith An, Rep. (1889), 670.
Recast analysis of Cebu No. 57, considered as an igneous rock.
Molee- | ortho- An-
4 Per | = | Corun-| Hema- Mgo |
Constituent. |ular pro-| |, , Albite.| orth- : F | Quartz
| cent ‘portions. clase. | tie, dum tite SiO. |
[cee a Ferennen oa | es |
SiQp S222 Ss Sane 76. 51 1.275 | 0.318 WE OGS |) WUBI) Eee el | 0.0381 | 0. 810
Alo Q3\222ch52 sees 14. 93 - 146 -053 ) .O11 025 0.57 josoeao=- rea
fesee as AAA De toa) EE OMT 2 ee
Sqn ees [saat eg a |: eee
Po oot AEN) Ee AT 9 |. 0378) 5 eae
| |
NOM | 222s" aha es ee ee | Sees eS
es a ea Ee el ea |eoeee ee
|
|
| Per cent.
-810 48.60 Q48.60 |
-053 29, 47
O11 5. a F 42.18) Salic 96.59
- 025 6.95
- 057 5.81 C 5.81
- O31 3.10 .P 3.10
MgO:-SiQg:. 222 22st 5 ee ee eee
Hematite: 5.2.22. ee eee | .002 Asy 9 lel 58
\ Femic 3. 42
| ee
100. 01 100. 01 100. 01
Class I. Persalane
Subclass I. Persalone
Order 3. (Quarfelic) Columbare
Rang 2. (Domalkalic) Alsbachose
Subrang 2. (Dopotassic) Mihalose.
ILLUSTRATION.
PLATE I, Fic. 1. Photomicrograph of Cebu, No. 57.
411
FERGUSON: OCCURRENCE OF RHYOLITE, ETC.] [PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. II, No. 6.
PLATE I.
THE OCCURRENCE, COMPOSITION AND RADIOACTIVITY
OF THE CLAYS FROM LUZON, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
By Atvin J. Cox.
(From the Chemical Division, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.)
INTRODUCTION.
It seems hardly necessary to define a material of such common occur-
rence as clay, still at the outset a good definition may more clearly indicate
some of its characteristics. Ries? says:
The term clay is applied to a natural substance or rock which, when finely
ground and mixed with water, forms a pasty, moldable mass that preserves its
shape when air-dried and when burned, changes to a hard, rock-like substance by
the coalescence of its particles through softening under the action of heat.
In other words, heat expels the volatile constituents, decomposes many
of the finely ground particles and causes the clay to sinter together.
Clays under the microscope are shown to be heterogeneous aggregates of
hydrous and anhydrous aluminium silicates mixed with a variable quantity
of other crystals, mineral particles and impurities in all stages of decay.
The fact that silicate of aluminium is so characteristic a constituent
of clay is caused by this substance being one of the most insoluble of
natural compounds. The size of the crystals or particles varies from
0.01 millimeter up to grains distinctly visible to the naked eye. The
varieties of clays are extremely numerous, as they form a continuous
series ranging from pure kaolin (kaolinite) down to the more imperfect
varieties. This variance is caused by the increasing admixture with
kaolin of the common clays, consisting of other silicates of aluminium,
the silicates, oxides, carbonates, etc., of iron, calcium, magnesium, and
the alkalies, as well as free silica, and often organic matter. Kaolinite
itself may only enter into this mixture in a small proportion. This
variation is not surprising when we consider the difference in the compo-
sition of the original rocks from which the clays are derived. Kaolinite
(pure kaolin) is derived from the aluminous minerals, especially feld-
spar.” In practice it rarely exists in the pure state, since decomposition
DUS GaSe bbs. (1903) \lidselb:
*Dana, J. D.: A System of Mineralogy, New York (1900), 319, gives 23
analyses of this species from varied sources. The average is as follows (figures
give percentages): Si0,, 65.06; Al,O,, 19.27; CaO, 0.68; K,0, 10.85; Na,O, 3.68;
Fe,0,, 0.16; MgO, 0.07; BaO, 0.05; ignition, 0.08; total, 99.9.
; 413
414 cox.
of the pure, parent rock seldom takes place unassociated with that -of
other minerals, foreign substances in small amount being always mechan-
ically mixed with it; however, because of its almost universal presence,
it is often considered the basis of all clay. Kaolinite has the composi-
/ OH
tion: Si,O,Al,H,;* or perhaps better Al—SiO,=H, which indicates its
\$10,= Al
relation to the parent mineral *; it contains alumina 39.45, silica 46.65,
and water 13.9 per cent, respectively.
Other clays result not only from the decomposition of feldspar, but
from the breaking down of other associated crystalline silicates to° which
they are related somewhat as kaolin is to the feldspars, and they also
- contain foreign matter which is mixed with them. Usually these mix-
tures are so complicated that it is almost impossible to identify them.
Just as the clays range from pure kaolin to impure varieties, so in the
end, because of a greater proportion of certain of the minerals in the
parent rock, the products of decomposition may lose all the characteristic
physical features of a clay and thus pass out of this class of bodies
entirely.
Clay deposits are usually designated as residuary or sedimentary. As
the names imply, these originate from their method of formation, accord-
ingly as this is due to the decomposition of rocks in place or to the
resulting decomposition products being transported by the streams and
deposited in regular sedimentary beds elsewhere. Kaolin is termed a
primary or residuary clay because it is always in the condition of original
deposit. This is true of that from Laguna; that is, it is in place but
thoroughly leached out. The formation of all clay begins in the same
way, by the decay and disintegration of the rock mass. In this Archi-
pelago, where we have no frost during the year, the principal active
agents accomplishing this change are water and the sun. Dana ® says,
“Feldspar may be altered through the action of waters rendered acid by
the decomposition of sulphides.” Such waters filter into the rock, causing
partial disintegration, then the drying action of the sun opens cracks for
more water to enter and further to attack and break down the mineral
grains in the rocks. By means of such infiltrating waters the feldspar
of the feldspathic rocks acted on, first loses its lime, which is soon de-
posited as gypsum (calcium sulphate), next its alkalies as sulphates, and
the change finally ends in kaolin or some other silicate of aluminium.
In the less resistant portion of the vein the weathering will penetrate to
a much greater depth than in the harder parts. An ideal section showing
* Groth, P.: Tabellarische Ubersicht der Mineralien, Braunschweig (1898), 137.
* Clarke, F. W.: U.S. G. S. Bull. (1905), 125, 28: MeNeil, H. C.: Journ. Am.
Chem. Soc. (1906), 28, 592.
* System of Mineralogy. New York (1900), 320.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. 415
the characteristic breaking down in the formation of residuary clay de-
posits is as follows:
ere ose ee
ean ecie 4 6 ¢€ « oS
Fie. 1.
One of the best examples known to me where such decomposition is
now going on is in northern Rizal along Macoburobod Creek. This
stream empties into Poray Creek, San Mateo River, about 10 kilometers
above Montalban. Its waters are extremely acid from the decomposition
of sulphides. Along its banks is an outcrop of vein material carrying
quartz which is characteristically weathered into clay and which shows
the whole process taking place in the formation of primary clay deposits.
The quartz is unaffected by the action of these waters and remains as
grit in the final product. Wherever we have grit in a clay, we can almost
invariably attribute it to unweathered particles of quartz which were
present in the parent rock. An emulsion of the above clay was filtered
through a sixty-mesh sieve. This filtrate, when thoroughly air-dried
represents the result of the decomposition in this vein and the product
is as follows:
Constituent. Per cent.
Silica 59.00
Alumina including titanium oxide 16.79
Ferric oxide 7.87
Ferrous oxide 0.42
Lime 0.40
Magnesia 0.00
Alkalies 3.89
Loss on ignition 7.46
Water below 110° 3.18
Sulphur 4.79
101.80
Less oxygen 1.79.
Total 100.01
The formation of a great many of the clay deposits in various parts
of the world is attributed to causes almost identical with the above.
Bacon,® in connection with his investigation of the acid waters of “The
° This Journal, Sec. A, Gen. Sci. (1907), 2, 120.
416 COX,
Crater Lakes of Taal Volcano” has recorded that aluminium hydrate is
continually being deposited as a sediment from these takes. It appears
probable that many of the clay beds of the Philippines may have been
deposited as a result of the chemical action of similar waters.
As the raw materials vary, so in a similar way do the uses to which
clays are put, namely, the manufacture of porcelain, stoneware, earthen-
ware, tiles (drain and roof), terra cotta, sewer pipes, common bricks,
“vitrified” bricks for paving, doorknobs, playing marbles, as a filler for
paper,” a food adulterant, etc. At one end of a series we find the
analyses of the fine Huropean porcelain, which is made from practically
pure kaolin with admixtures of flint, feldspar, ete., and at or near the
other we encounter the crude pottery of the majority of savage tribes,
which is usually made from clay very high in iron and containing very
little kaolin. If we continue in the direction of silicious dilution, we
find the analyses of fire-clay wares and of the so-called “dinas brick”
much used for building purposes in many places, for example in western
Germany. The latter are pure, crushed quartz, excepting the residue
from the milk of lime or clay in the water used for moistening the
material before it is molded into the bricks and which is the cementing
constituent. ,
EXPERIMENTAL.
The object of this paper is rather to show in a preliminary way the
geologic distribution and quality of clays on Luzon than to pronounce
upon their economic values. The chemical composition is the first step
toward a complete knowledge of the quality of these materials and I
therefore give, in the following table, analyses and tests of a few specimens
of the Luzon clays:
Sample DESCRIPTION OF THE CLAYS.
No. "a
1. Kaolinite calculated from the theoretical formula Al,O,-2Si0,-2H,0O.
2. Koalin or china clay from Los Batios, Laguna. Approaches closely to koalin-
ite in composition.
3. Kaolin or china clay from the Vicenti Jesus mine, Laguna. Approaches
closely to kaolinite in composition.
4. Kaolin or china clay, not from Luzon, but from Romblon. It approaches
closely to kaolinite in composition and is given for the purpose of com-
parison.
5. Koalin or china clay from Laguna Province.
6. Kaolin or china clay from Los Bafios, Laguna Province. Approaches closely
to kaolinite in composition.
* Attention has already been directed by Richmond (This Journal, Sec. A, Gen.
Sci. (1907), 2, 81) to the probable usefulness of Philippine clays as a filler and
a glazing material for paper manufacture. Standards for the purchasing and
testing of such filling materials are given by Schacht, W., Papier Ztg. (1906),
31, 4234; Chem. Abstracts (1907), 1, 485.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. ALT
. Kaolin or china clay from the west side of Pajo Arroyo, Laguna Province.
Approaches closely to kaolinite in composition. Taken from the bottom of
a pit 3 meters deep.
8. Kaolin or china clay from Tagonton-Paracale, Camarines. Taken from the
wall next to the vein in the San Mauricio mine.
9. Kaolin or china clay from Bauan Solfatara near Point Cazador, Batangas
Province. ; :
10. Kaolin or china clay from the east side of Pajo Arroyo, Laguna Province.
Taken from the bottom of a pit. 3 meters deep.
11. Kaolin or china clay from Bucay, Abra.
12. Kaolin or china clay from Calamba, Laguna Province.
13. Kaolin or china clay from Nasugbu, Batangas Province.
14. Kaolin or china clay from Albay Province.
15. Kaolin or china clay from llocos Norte.
16. Kaolin or china clay from Ilocos Norte.
17. Kaolin or china clay from Matiquo, Laguna Province.
18.2 Kaolin or china clay from Dolores, Abra. Not quite white.
19. Kaolin from Wolfson mine, Laguna Province.
20. Kaolin from the district east of Nasugbu, Batangas Province.
21. Silicious ferruginous kaolin. Exact source unknown.
22. Silicious ferruginous kaolin. Exact source unknown.
23. Kaolin from near Cervantes, Lepanto-Bontoc.
White, silicious clay from San Agustin-Magalang, Pampanga Province.
Dark, cream river clay from Laguna Province.
. Gray river clay from Laguna Province.
. Gray river clay from Laguna Province.
. Gray river clay from Laguna Province.
. Gray clay from Clarke’s gold mine, Antimok, Benguet. This was refined by
making an emulsion, passing through a 60-mesh sieve, and drying at
110° before analyzing. About 39 per cent of quartz and rock fragments
were retained on the sieve and discarded.
30. Clay taken from the surface of a deposit of considerable extent which occurs
on the banks of the Tinajeros River near Malinta, Bulacan Province.
Clay of this quality seems to abound along the route of the Manila and
Dagupan Railroad north of Caloocan.
31. Brick clay from Bulacan Province.
32. Common clay from Binangonan, Rizal Province.
33. Clay used in Mandaloyan on the Pasig River, for making brick. Taken from
the bottom of a pit about 2 meters deep.
34. Clay from the first hills on the road to Bannangar, Rancherio Tablan, Benguet.
35. Clay used to paint houses. Near Nasugbu, Batangas Province.
36. Clay subsoil.
37. Igorot clay.
38. Igorot clay.
ca f
oe
Sw Ww Wh Ww
“1 SS
Nm Ww
co ©
aIt may be possible to remove enough iron by washing to make this clay
available as an alkaline silicious kaolin. Otherwise it is of low value because
the quantity of iron oxide is great enough to give a red body after firing, it is
too alkaline for refractory ware and calcareous enough to have a low fusion
point.
>It may be possible to remove iron from this by selecting and washing and
to make it available as a first-class china clay.
COX.
418
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CLAYS FROM LUZON.
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In most places, the supply of clay for commercial uses is obtained
from surface openings or clay banks and, with the exception of Numbers
8 and 29, this is the case with the specimens given in Table I. Some com-
panies are operating underground works and so obtain a more uniform
and purer product.
It is exceptional for clays to be used in their natural state for other
than common work, because of the numerous bits of rock which are
mingled with their mass. In almost every parent rock there are very
hard mineral particles which resist the weathering and remain behind,
contaminating the clay. A certain amount of sorting is always necessary.
Herein is the justification for printing analyses of the unpurified speci-
mens. It will at once be evident that the deposits will not through
sorting become poorer than the published results. For the above reason,
a chemical analysis of a residuary clay may not always be reliable as a
means of judging its usefulness from the standpoint of the ceramic
industries, as it may contain impurities which render it useless in the
rough state, but by grinding and decantation it may be separated from its
impurities. Ries * in summing up the facts obtainable from the ultimate
analysis of aclay, gives the following main points:
1. The purity of the clay, showing the proportions of silica, alumina, combined
water, and fluxing impurities. High-grade clays show a percentage of silica,
alumina and water, approaching quite closely to those of kaolinite.
2. The refractoriness of the clay for, other things being equal, the greater the
total sum of fluxing impurities, the more fusible the clay.
3. The color to which the clay burns. This may be judged approximately, for
clays with several per cent or more of ferric oxide will burn red, provided the
iron is evenly and finely distributed in the clay, and there is no excess of lime.
The above conditions will be affected by a reducing atmosphere in burning, or the
presence of sulphur in the fire gases.
4. The quantity of water. Clays with a large amount of chemically com-
bined water sometimes exhibit a tendency to crack in burning, and may also show
high shrinkage. If kaolinite is the only mineral present containing chemically
combined water, the percentage of the latter will be approximately one-third that
of the percentage of alumina, but if the clay contains much limonite or hydrous
silica the percentage of chemically combined water may be much higher.
5. Excess of silica. A large excess of silica indicates a sandy clay, and if
much is present in the analysis of a fire clay, it indicates low refractoriness.
6. The quantity of organic matter. If this is determined separately and it
is present to the extent of several per cent, it will require slow burning if the
clay is dense.
7. The presence of several per cent of both lime (CaO) and carbon dioxide
(CO.) in the clay indicates that it is quite calcareous.
Several of the above analyses do not to any large degree indicate acci-
dental impurities. A few show minute traces of sulphuric anhydride,
probably accounted for by crystals of gypsum which probably could be -
removed by washing. The iron in most cases is in all likelihood present
* Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. (1906), 15, Econ. Ser. 10, 12.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. AP 1
as the oxide resulting from the decomposition of iron sulphides during
the original leaching of the clay material. In rough work it does little
harm, and in fine work, if present in particles of any size, it could easily
be removed by washing. In some of the Philippine kaolins the iron was
observed to be in tiny grains. However, there are many things which
are not shown by a chemical analysis. The results of such an analysis
are expressed as if all of the metals existed as oxides and the acids as
anhydrides. For example, gypsum (CaSO,), calcium carbonate (CaCO,)
and siderite (FeCO,) would be considered as present in the form of
lime (CaO) and sulphuric anhydride (SO,), lime and carbonic anhydride
or carbon dioxide (CO,), and ferrous oxide (FeO) and carbon dioxide,
respectively. In general, the fusibility of a clay increases directly in
proportion to the percentage of fluxing materials which it contains, but
there are exceptions depending on the mineral condition of the oxides.
If the oxide is present as a carbonate it generally fuses at a different
temperature than if it were present in the form of a silicate, and
furthermore, the fusibility of the various silicates of the same oxide com-
ponents vary.
Some of the commonest minerals in clays are quartz, feldspar, calcite,
dolomite, gypsum, apatite, pyrite, other iron ores, mica, talc, serpentine,
hornblende, pyroxene, garnet, tourmaline, etc.; these are constituents
of the parent rock which have escaped decomposition. With the excep-
tion of quartz, the particles are usually too small to be detected by the
naked eye so that the “rational analysis” ® and the mechanical analysis,
to supplement the ultimate analysis, are resorted to in order to determine
the different percentages of the minerals present. It is not claimed that
these are accurate methods, but they are the best yet offered. When
a great many different kinds of mineral particles are present in one
clay, the methods become extremely complicated and with the common
clays are seldom used. For kaolin, where the only constituents are
kaolinite, feldspar, and quartz, the “rational analysis” becomes quite
simple and especially useful and as most clay workers understand the
relative importance of these constituents, when they are determined the
behavior of the clay can approximately be estimated.
Research in the direction of mechanical analysis has established methods
by which not merely the size of the grains, but also their shape, the
specific gravity of the materials, etc., may be determined; these are
important factors in establishing the usefulness of clays.
The determination of the fineness of the mechanical division is im-
portant, since it gives an idea of the loss when the material is prepared
for certain kinds of work. The following data by Mr. L. A. Salinger
show the proportion of certain sizes of grains in some of the clays
* The actual method is given in almost any text on clay analysis, for example:
Ashby, H. M.: “How to Analyse Clay,” Chicago (1901), 48.
492 cox.
mentioned in this paper. ‘The raw clays were suspended in water, pressed
through a 60-mesh sieve, and dried at 110°.
Passed through 60 Retained on 60
Number. mesh (per cent). mesh (per cent).
3 90.2 9.8
12 87.4 12.6
19 95.6 4.4
25 12.2 27.8
26 $3.2 16.8
27 (2.5 2.0
28 67.0 33.0
I have not been able further to study these properties at this time.
Bourry *° has formulated a very satisfactory classification of clays,
and he gives the following as a differentiation of the principal kinds of
kaolin :
I. Pure kaolins do not contain more than from 5 to 6 per cent of silica and
2 per cent of fluxes, the proportion of each of the fluxes taken singly being not
more than 1 per cent. They are always brought to this degree of purity by
washing, and present themselves in the form of a white powder, occasionally
slightly tinted with yellow, gray or red, and very unctuous to the touch. After
firing they form a body of milky whiteness. They are used in the manufacture
of porcelain and fine faience. ;
Il. Alkaline kaolins.—The only ditference between these kaolins and the pre-
ceding is that they contain a higher proportion of alkalies, which can mount up
to 5 per cent, coming from the mixture of feldspar and mica. In the meantime
the proportion of oxide of iron rises sometimes to 2 per cent. They have the
same use as the preceding, but it must be observed that a very careful washing
results in taking away the greatest part of the alkalies.
III. Silicious kaolins—In these kaolins, hydrosilicate of alumina is mixed in
a considerable proportion with quartz in the state of impalpable powder. This
content of silica depends greatly on the care bestowed in the washing; it can
rise to 20 or 25 per cent. These kaolins furnish a body of small plasticity, and
are of a light, granulous texture. They are used in the manufacture of porcelain
and certain kinds of faience, but for bodies which have no need to be very plastic.
IV. Alkaline silicious kaolins contain at the same time a considerable propor-
tion of alkalies and of silica, and partake of the properties and uses of the two
preceding kinds.
V. Ferruginous kaolins—These kaolins contain a quantity of oxide of iron
which is too great to give an entirely white body after firing. When this content
is not too high it is utilized in the manufacture of porcelain and faience of inferior
quality. For a greater proportion" they can be used in the manufacture of
refractory productions, but on the condition that they have not too much alkali.
The clays, the analyses of which are given above, have not been sub-
jected to washing. Such treatment would probably improve and change
the classification of some of them. As they are, numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
” Treatise on Ceramic Industries, London (1901), 59.
“Too much iron must be avoided, for it is a fluxing impurity and will lower
the fusing point of the clay, especially when in the ferrous condition or in the
presence of silicates. Fire clays should not greatly exceed 3 per cent of iron.
If the clay contains 5 per cent or more it is suitable only for bricks.
CLAYS FROM LUZON.
423
6, and 7 would be classed as pure kaolins; 8 and 9 as alkaline; 10, 11
and 12 as silicious; 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 as alkaline silicious; and
19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 as ferruginous kaolins.
A satisfactory classification of common clays is more difficult and of
less importance; therefore we
numbers 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
this class.
Analyses numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 compare favorably with the
will group all the remainder, namely
S00, sil, Be. deh, se Bla, Bx enol iy poaler
analyses of the best quality of kaolin from all parts of the world which
are given below:
TaBLeE II.1°—Analyses of the best quality of kaolin from all parts of the world.
===> a a. a a St T ] PT pa
Source. | Silica. Alumina.| Bene Lime. Meee | Allkalies. Ignition.
| | |
inuytirG (eee eee 47.10} 87.33 i Oi 0.47 0.20} 13.45
DORs pens no Sa sees 43.32 39.74 | 27 | OSG) he see eee ae eae 12. 67
DORs eae ee 45, 52 ATG Nee em! 2.17; Trace 1.90 9,61
PANN CT Cal ateu Sa 8 ee. 47. 66 37. 56 1.39 0. 20 0. 36 0, 25 13. 47
i D (0 fae eee ee ee a 46. 47 38, 82 0. 89 0. 28 0, 25 0, 48 13. 34
IRTAN CG} 22s soe ase | 48.00 BO: O00 lS aeeeaee == Se 2a ae ee 2.00 13. 00
Chin aie tse es re | 50,50 3370) jaeeree cee ete soo See Ace! 1.90} 11.20
Japan (Schiraye)_----____ 47.74 36. 68 | 0. 42 0,99 0. 30 0. 45 13. 64
Germany (Dolau) ------__ 48.15 37.03 | 0. 60 0, 27 0.30 0. 82 12,76
Bohemia (Zettlitz) --.-_- 45. 68 38. 54 | 0, 90 0, 08 0. 38 0, 66 13.00
The analyses of porcelains from China, Vienna, Meissen, Berlin, Sevres,
ete., show a composition of—
Constituent.
Silica
Alumina
lron
Lime
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Minimum Maximum Average
(per cent).
53
18
As little
0
0
0
0
(per cent). (per cent).
75 66
35 28
as possible 0.8
5) 1
i153) 0.2
5 2.5
3 isto
The water from kaolin passes off at a temperature somewhat above 330°
(Hillebrand). If we recalculate the analyses numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7 of Table I to the anhydrous clays as is shown by Table III, we
have an average of fluxing materials much below that in the finished
The alumina is higher and the silica lower, and
this condition, as no flint has been added, is to be expected. The proper
percentages of alumina and silica would be produced by the addition of
the latter, and the fluxes would be reduced still lower, or a greater margin
for impurities in the flint would be obtained.
product given above.
“ Binns, C. F.; Ceramic Technology, Lond, (1897),
11; Bourry
:) oc: cit 65:
424 COX.
Tas_eE III.—Analyses of clays 1 to 7 recalculated to the anhydrous conditions.
———— -- = — = ~~: oe ~ vot,
| |
| 4 |
Sample No. | Silica, Alumina, Gxide, | Lime. | MMag- alkalies. |
= a | | | : | |
YS BE oped a es 54.2 45.8 | 0.0: 0.0 0.0 0.0 |
P ieeecepmererte WS aie 200 sere BV Se 0 a pn | 25 43.5 1.2 | 0.2 O05) LW)
Sui Os eee a Sn 50.5 48,2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.4
fet ane nad ayaa 55.8 43.2 09] 0}) 02 (ore
pC eeerpaeree nc i, 0) ra Ger Sos 54.2 41.3 0.4 | 0.6. 0.4 2.3 |
6: Scotus Seen were eee 52.0 42.8 1.1 | 0.8 0.0 1.9
hate ES ee ee eae, 51.6 43.4 1.7 0.5 | 0.4 il
INSTSEY{Speeee e 53.0 44.0 0.8 0.4 0.2 fen
Some analyses of standard fire clays are given in Table IV and, as
will be seen, the analyses of the silicious kaolins numbered 10, 11, 12,
19, 20, 21, and 22 compare well with them.
Tasie LV.°—Analyses of standard fire clays.
Source. Silica, Alumina, Ferfe Lime. M88" | alkalies. Ignition.
England (Stourbridge). 65.10, 22, 22 1.92 0.14| 0.18 0.18 9.86
England (Brierley Hill) __ 51. 80 30. 40 4.14 0. 40 0.50 1.05; 13.11
Do thed nn cn Sai 69.25 17.90 2136) als Mean ihBO Rees | 7.58
United States_____________ 74.93 | 17.19 0.79 0.29 0.46| ~ 16} 5,44 |
Bohemia (Zettlitz) 45.68 38.54 0.90 0.08 0.38 0.66 13.00 |
Analyses of the products of primitive peoples are given by Binns **
from which the following have been selected :
TaBLe V.—Analyses of the products of primitive peoples.
~ — —— ———- ; —— ai
: eae | s | i ei Mag- aie
Material. Silica. Alumina.) Hew Lime. wera aes
| Wig t ean Hees iE ie aa re oa |
Seandinavian pottery_______________ | 63. 90 12.76 | 10. 24 | 1. 04 0. 52 11.00 |
Reni visi hy pOULCL ee | 67.04) 10.83) 10.17 3.24 | 0. 28 8.07 |
Dtruscan pottery = eee 64.00 | 12.51 | 8.00 | 3. ol | 1.83 10:15) }
| | | | }
The loss on ignition demonstrates that these products have been fired
at a very low temperature. They are given in order to show the com-
parison with the clay materials used by the Igorots. Analyses numbered
36 and 37 of Table I are only slightly better than the material the
analyses of which are given in the above table. Practically all of the
native pottery, cooking pots, “pelones,” etc., outside of Manila are made
from ordinary brick clay.
Chemical analyses of clays to be used for commercial purposes, are
fundamental and at the outset necessary, for without them the reconstruc-
Cf. Bourry, 65.
+ Woe; elt., 1G.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. ° 425
tion of the final material would be next to impossible. Because of the
variation needed in making different wares it is seldom that a single
clay is used for the purpose of manufacture; as a rule, several are mixed
together. One kind of clay by judicious admixture of other materials
is often adaptable to the manufacture of several varieties of wares. A
practical potter, if he has a complete knowledge of the chemical compo-
sition of a clay, is able to mix different varieties and materials to suit a
given purpose; that is, a chemical analysis shows him what ingredients
must be added or removed to give a desired result. In itself, a chemical
analysis does not show whether or not a clay is useful for a given purpose,
for of the impurities in a clay some are easily melted, others are infusible,
some are plastic and others are brittle, and slight differences in the
plasticity, tensile strength, shrinkage, fusibility, color, etc., which are
not controlled by the chemical composition, may very largely affect the
commercial value of a clay.
Plasticity, that common property of all clay to form a moldable mass
when wet, varies with different samples, forming an entire series, from
those of low to the ones of very high plasticity. This property can not
be inferred from the chemical analysis. Up to a certain point there is
a coincidence of plasticity and bonding power and several of the other
physical properties stand in close relation to the former. Manufacturers,
as a consequence, carefully study the means of changing the degree of
plasticity of clays; those which are commonly known are: The reduction
by adding sand or less plastic clay, while materials of too low plasticity
may often have this property increased by washing and thereby removing
a part of the sand. Rohland *® gives the following:
A. The ways of increasing the plasticity of clays: First, by contact with spring
or river water, by means of which colloids are formed by hydrolysis. Thus
silicie acid, aluminium, and iron hydroxides are produced. The action is expe-
dited by fine grinding. Because the hydroxyl ions resulting from the hydrolysis
tend to decrease the plasticity, pure water is not suitable for the above purpose,
but owing to the acid fermentation of the organic constituents present; spring
or river water, assisted by the organic matter of the clay or substances added
intentionally, neutralize the action of the hydroxyl ions. Second, by lowering
the temperature which has also to do with the colloids of clay. The effect is a
very slow one. Third, by the addition of colloids and organic substances like
dextrin, tannic acid, catechu, etc.
B. The ways of decreasing the plasticity, as: First, by the addition of hydroxyl
ions, lime water being the cheapest reagent for this purpose. If the concen-
tration of the hydroxyl ions of the lime water is too low for some clays, it may
be increased by the addition of sodium hydroxide solution or any strong base
combined with a weak acid. The latter. class is represented by phosphates,
silicates, etc. Neutral salts like sodium chloride, Glauber’s salt, magnesium
chloride, etc., appear to be indifferent. Borax weakens the effect of the hydroxyl
ion and potassium carbonate strengthens the action. Second, by raising the
temperature. Just as gelatin, agar-agar, etc., liquefy on heating to a certain
* Sprechsaal (1906), 42, 1371; Chem. Abstracts (1907), 1, 90.
62926—_4
426 COX.
temperature. so increased temperature causes clay to “run” and hence decreases
plasticity. It appears likely that the organic constituents of clay cause this
liquefaction as soon as a certain limiting temperature has been exceeded. The
increase in temperature may be brought about mechanically by stirring.
There is no uniform way of determining plasticity. Some workers
employ Bischof’s method ‘of forcing the moist clay through a die and
measuring the distance it projects; others use the Vicat needle, *® the
method of Grout,?* etc. There is a certain degree of relationship between
the plasticity and the amount of water necessary to be added in order to
form a workable paste. A fine-grained clay usually requires more water
and as a rule is more plastic than one which is coarse. In the experi-
ments recorded in Table VI water was added until the Vicat needle
showed normal consistency, the water being afterwards determined by
allowing the sample to air-dry.
Tensile or breaking strength is the resistance to rupture which is
offered by the air-dried clay. This is an important factor to be deter-
mined in order to know the amount of nonplastic material that can
safely be added and the sample still resist the shocks and strains in
handling to which it is always subjected in the process of manufacture.
This may be determined on any standard machine such as is used for
the same purpose in cements. In carrying out the test the tempered
clay is molded into briquettes, just as is the case with cement, the
briquettes having a cross section of 6.45 square centimeters (1 square
inch) when molded. They are allowed to dry, first in the air, then
at 100°; then placed in the testing machine and a uniformly increasing
load gradually applied so as not to produce a shock, until they break.
Care must be exercised in placing the briquettes in the machine to
prevent all cross strains from improper centering, and from other causes.
Theoretically, a briquette should break across its smallest cross section,
but failure to take any of the above precautions may result in anything
but this.
Shrinkage is of two kinds—that which occurs in the air after the
clay has been molded in a wet condition and that which takes place
during the operation of burning. Both of these quantities vary greatly
and are very useful in estimating the value of the raw material. The
decrease of volume in the air is due to the drawing together of the
particles, when the water added to afford a workable mass evaporates.
Even in the same clay, this factor is often somewhat variable in propor-
tion to the pressure given the material in molding. The amount of
shrinkage of a clay upon burning depends not only upon the quantity
of volatile constituents such as organic matter, water of constitution,
carbon dioxide, etc., but also upon the texture of the clay and the tem-
perature at which it is burned. Some clays containing high percentages
of calcium and magnesium carbonates, even expand during certain stages
*® Langenbeck, Karl: Chemistry of Pottery, Easton, Pa. (1895), 19.
" Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1905), 27, 1037.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. 427
of the process, although they show normal shrinkage at other periods
during the burning. Many clays shrink to such an extent that they
warp, crack, or blister when burned. When the fire shrinkage is large,
other substances of small or no fire shrinkage must be added. It is
also necessary to know the air shrinkage in order to estimate the size
of a mold necessary to give a finished product of given dimensions.
The shrinkages expressed in Table VI are given in per cent of the
length of the briquette when freshly molded. The clays were all burned
at a uniform temperature of about 1,100° C. (slightly above the melting
point of gold), which is well above that at which all water of constitution
passes off.
- Fusibility is either increased or decreased by each constituent of a
clay. Fire clay is practically pure aluminium silicate together with
silica, and it will bear intense heat without melting. The presence of
different quantities of iron alone varies the fusibility of the clay and there-
fore the use which can be made of it. The less the iron content the more
refractory the clay. Other common fluxing materials are magnesia,
lime, sodium and potassium compounds, and I have arranged them in
the order of their fluxing power. The presence of any of these with
the iron helps to form a flux and greatly to lower the fusion point.
For example, if more than 2 or 3 per cent of lime or potash is present
in a clay, good brick will not result as these substances cause the bricks
to run into glass while they are being burned. The fusion point cf a
clay can best be determined by means of a pyrometer. It may also be
satisfactorily judged by comparison with test pieces of known composi-
tion (standard Seger cones),** ete. The elaborate work on the composi-
tion and fusing point of Seger cones will be of assistance in deciding
the fusibility of a clay from its analysis, as well as in actual comparative
tests made by placing cones and clay side by side in the furnace. Cone
number 1 melts at 1,150° and cone number 20 at 1,530°. The difference
between any two successive numbers is 20° and the highest number is
36; this cone is composed of absolutely pure kaolin. The temperatures -
usually obtained in porcelain furnaces lie between the melting points of
cones numbered 1 and 20.7*
* Reis, H.: U: 8S. G. S., P. P. (1903), 11, 24; Bourry, E.: Loe. cit., 396.
” The following data taken from Bourry’s “Treatise on Ceramic Industries”
give an idea of the numbers of the Seger cones which are used in various potteries:
Muttlestinine for decoration: 2s. se ee - 0.022to 0.010
burning tusiple bodies: 32. ee ee .015to 01
Burning slightly fusible bodies —.....-....22....22--2.-2--------- 1 to 10
Stone ware burning ... 2.2.2... Orono 5 to 10
Burning the body for fine faience._............-.0.......--..- 3 to 10
Burning the glaze for fine faience............-...---.------------ 010to .01
Burning fire-clay ware and porcelain.......................-.--- 10 to 20
The tests from 20 to 36 are used only in experiments for fusibility. The work
of Simonis, Sprechsaal, 6, 71, Chem. Abstracts (1907), 1, 2166, shows that cones
20-25 melt within 18° of each other and that their use seems unnecessary.
428 cox.
The highest constant temperature obtainable in this country is at Zobel’s
pottery kim in San Pedro Macati. In it a temperature of over 1,300°
is attained, which is about the same as the highest temperature attainable
in the muffle furnace of this Bureau. The kiln was placed at my disposal
for experimental purposes and the temperatures of fusibility recorded
in Table VI were determined there by comparison with standard cones
and the temperature confirmed thermoelectrically. The fusing points
marked 6 either lay above the temperature obtained with the furnace
used, or a sufficient quantity of the sample was not at hand and therefore
they were estimated from their analyses given in Table I, by comparison
with a table of Seger cones and the fusion points actually Sheree
and by our general knowledge of fluxing materials.
The color of a raw clay is usually due to the presence of organic matter
or of iron. In general, the former imparts a gray or black and the latter
a buff or red color.
The color of a burned clay to a large extent depends on the proportion
of iron and the state of its oxidization. Its presence makes the result-
ing product buff-brown or red. The more iron the clay contains, the
deeper the red color. A quantity of iron as small as 1 per cent may
impart a slight, yellowish tint. Clay which bears practically no iron
burns white. In many cases the oxides of other metals are present and
these often modulate the effect of the iron. The intensity of the color
depends also on the temperature and the supply of air entering the kiln;
in some cases it is possible to vary it from pink to reddish violet by chang-
ing these conditions and influencing the degree of oxidization. Sometimes
these means are used to produce a standard or varied shade in wares.
In terra cotta, especially, a certain percentage of iron is sought to give
the finished product a definite and desired color. A certain manufac-
ture is often known by the particular shade of the finished product.
Titanium *° renders clay yellow on burning. This is visible only when
the material has a very low percentage of iron; when more iron is
present the yellow is entirely obscured.
Below are given some physical properties of Philippine clays, includ-
ing the plasticity, breaking or tensile strength, the shrinkage from the
plastic condition in the air and with burning, and color.
” Attention is directed to the fact of the usual occurrence of titanic oxide in
Philippine clay (see Table I). Its determination has not been carried out in
every case, but not a single analysis has been made where it was not present and
it usually occurs to the extent of from 0.4 to 1.3 per cent.
I have recently been interested in the titaniferous sands of these Islands and
find them of almost universal occurrence. The commonest titaniferous minerals
in these are ilmenite and rutile. These minerals occur only in small quantities in
the rocks from which the sands are derived, for the sands represent large con-
centration; however, their universal distribution clearly indicates that they are
the probable source of the titanium in clay.
CLAYS FROM LUZON.
Fusi-
TABLE
Riegel Se st
sae Tensile graye | Shrinkage
Spo Sp (pounds per (per cent)
\ PaaS | square inch). P :
| 5 fo | KRAUL Sys) To-
2 sake tal.
= [Sr o|
3 (= 25) Air-|
a '55e dri-| Burned. | Air. | Fire.)
| & lse3| ed
See sete ei | |
| = = a = ar | |
| (®) | 14.0 | 181 | Medium ___| 7.5 |_____- pene
| OMNFSING at | LOX ease oe BC) leat: Biel aikse}
| +3 WBletetmel fs ts do | 4.2) 4.4] 8.6
fps ES Eee ig ly Ce se eee
A BOB ae LOW. see) Dy oat Oren a0
6 | 38.6 |____- ERE o fe 3.6| 4.0] 7.6
TRACT ae A do = 2.0} :6..0) 8.0
8 | 27.9 | 68 |____-do____. 4.8) 1.9] 6.7
9 | 24.9 | 43 | Medium ___ 3.2 | 18.6 | 16.8
KO! 38.6.4_-52= Low 2---<-s CE | eee ol eee
AMS: 31/8) | 963) [oo do_--| 8.2! 0.9
(2s [an | 8a]
NpedeeO. Ou LSA tae (Xoo 8.2} 4.4] 12.6
; 28 | 23.8 | 16" | Bagh 2-2 10.0} 3.8 | 13.8
pee fe ae ee te ed| el
C310) beer ee (SP) I ae (ee ee en ee
iE ea Eh RS jee tN Ree a
32 | 26.5 | 131 Medium --_| 12.5 | 11.9 | 24.4
oo Paes | 180 | High ---_-- TOi0/)- 18" elas:
34 | 24.6 | 78 |) Medium___| 4.4} 9.8 | 14.2
35 | 24.3 | 77| Below me- |__|. 8.0
dium. f
! |
»Given on page 415.
» Estimated.
1330
61720
»1740
»1760
+1680
+1650
+1650
»1560
61450
01690
>1760
1730
61590
»1410
+1350
| >1300
1350
1150
»1510
01635
b1420
»1490
»1360
1200
| 61500
1350
1350
1330
1310
¥1150
61290
1330
1200
+1370
| »1270
DUES ee
VI.—Physical properties of Philippine clays.
Color.
Creamy white __
Light buff ______
Creamy white __
Creamy white __
Smoky creamy |
white.
Bluish white ___
Grayish white__
Creamy white __
Dark cream -__-
Bluish gray —-_-
Light gray
Light slate gray_
Light gray_____-
Light ocherish |
gray.
Burned.
Pale violet gray.
Very light
white.
Rosy cream,
grayish
Creamy white.
White.
Pinkish white.
Creamy white.
Pale lilac and rose.
Light cream.
Creamy white.
White.
Pale lilac.
Pale reddish choco-
‘late.
Yellowish pale violet.
Very pale violet.
Pale gray lilac.
Very pale reddish
chocolate.
Violaceous pale gray.*
Gray lilac.4
| Pale gray lilac.4
Reddish gray lilac.
Reddish chocolate.
Do.
Do.
Very pale
ocher.
reddish °
e Ente pieces decrepitate upon burning.
4 Decrepitates very badly yen burning.
It is realized that the field for the ceramic ipleenetax is very large and
that the contribution of the data which I have collected is of small sig-
nificance, but since all information regarding Philippine clays is meager,
430 COX.
these analyses may be of service in indicating the quality and the extent of
the distribution.
McCaskey ** in discussing the occurrence of clay in the Philippine
Islands says:
White clays, or kaolin, have been found in the Provinces of Abra, Camarines,
Ilocos Norte, Antique, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Laguna, Marinduque. Masbate,
Pampanga, Pangasinan, Albay, Romblon, and Zambales.
Red clays, from which natives make large amounts of pottery for local use.
are found in almost every province in the Islands.
Fire clay has been found in the coal beds and may afford a profitable industry
in the future.
Red bricks are made in large quantities in Bulacan, Capiz, Rizal, Ilocos Norte,
Isabela, Marinduque, Masbate, and Pampanga.
Not much information is available regarding the magnitude of these
deposits in Luzon; but the geologists report some of them to be large.
Ickis ® says:
In the Pajo Arroyo about 3 miles west of Los Bafios and 13 miles from the
lake occurs a deposit of white clay which at present is being mined, sacked, and
carried on the backs of natives to the Los Bafios road; thence it is carted to Los
Bafios and shipped to Manila. All of the clay contains brown, iron-stained streaks,
but below the first 2 feet the percentage of iron-stained material is very small.
For a depth of 2 feet the clay contains some organic matter, besides a consid-
erable percentage of iron, and is very plastic. The firm, white clay below varies
greatly as regards plasticity. Most of the material exposed in the various holes
possesses this valuable quality to a limited extent only, but one pit on the west
side of the arroyo furnishes a pure, white clay highly prized by the workmen,
which is much more plastic. Sample number 10, taken from the largest pit on
the east side of the arroyo, represents the first class while number 7 is a sample
of the more plastic clay.*
It was impossible for me to determine the extent of this bed of clay, owing
partly to the limited time at my disposal and partly to want of exposures or
extensive development work, but from surface indications the deposit seems to be
large.
A study of Table III plainly shows that if deposits of sufficient
magnitude warrant the establishment of porcelain factories, these kaolins
can be recomposed by judiciously selecting and combining the clays with
other materials to give the desired results. For example, if 70 per cent
of specimen number 2, 20 per cent of feldspar (K,O-A1,0,°6Si0,)
and 10 per cent of flint (SiO,) were to be mixed together, and the result
calculated, which would be obtained after the expulsion of the water and
other material lost on ignition, we would obtain the following compo-
sition :
aad ; Titanic
Silica. Alumina. Iron. Lime. Magnesia. Alkalies. oxide.
58.3 34.8 0.87 0.13 0.0 4.90 1.07
* Fifth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau, Manila (1904), 35.
“Sixth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau, Manila (1905), 58.
“The analyses are given under the same numbers. in Table I.
CLAYS FROM LATZON. 431
which is almost identical with that of Meissen porcelain, given by Binns **
as follows:
Silica. Alumina, Iron. Lime. Magnesia. Alkalies.
58.5 35.10 0.80 0.30 Trace. 5.00
The common clays of Luzon are already used in several places in
the manufacture of brick and crude pottery. For example, the brick-
kilns at Mandaloyon and the one near San Pedro Macati, on the
Pasig River near Santa Ana, each of which employs from ten to twenty
laborers, turn out from one to three thousand bricks a day per kiln.
Sample number 33, Table I, is an analysis of the clay used in Mandaloyon.
No sand is added to it before molding, but the whole bank is broken down,
mixed by the tread of carabaos, and used for the bricks. This makes
the composition slightly different from the analysis given, but tests of
the shrinkage and tensile strength show that its physical properties
remain almost unchanged.
At present there is no fine pottery being made on this island. There
is a factory near Manila which manufactures plates, cups, saucers, bowls,
etc., and for these about 20 tons of the good Laguna kaolin are used
every year.
The kaolin from Calamba employed in this pottery is too plastic
when used alone, so it is recomposed by mixing with two varieties from
Bulacan and Ilocos Norte Provinces, respectively. Experiments are now
being made with Mariquina clay. The quartz used is picked from the
gravel which is being dredged from the Pasig River near by; the asbestos
which is placed in a layer between the plates in burning is from Zambales
Province. It is of very poor quality, probably a much better variety may
be obtained from Ilocos Norte.** The ware is dipped once for the
siliceous glaze before it is burned. The breakage is small, not exceeding
2 or 3 per cent during the molding, drying, etc., and 4 or 5 per cent
during the burning. Some of the ware is decorated in simple designs.
It is difficult to describe the final product, which is quite similar to the
English Dolton ware. This establishment employs eight men and the
output is about 5,000 pieces per month. Formerly this ware had a large
sale in Manila, but now is sold mostly in the provinces. ‘There are two
men still engaged in bringing kaolin from Laguna Province to the Manila
market. The two sources are near Calamba and Los Banos from which
are brought about 75 or 100 tons per year, respectively, it sells at
wholesale in Manila for from #23 ($11.50, United States currency) to
#32 ($16, United States currency) per ton. It is usually bought in
10-pound balls and finds its principal purchasers among the Chinese of
Binondo, who make of it a sort of whitewash. The retail price varies
with the supply from 25 centavos (124 cents, United States currency)
* Ceramic Technology, London (1897), 19.
** Smith, W. D.: This Jowrnal, Sec. A, Gen. Sci. (1907), 2, 145.
432 cox.
a ball in the dry season to 40 centavos (20 cents, United States currency )
during the rains, the higher price being due to the difficulties encountered
in transporting the clay to market. These may be judged from an
account of the working of Calamba clay given by Senor de la Rosa. He
says that the clay is dug and carried on the backs of natives about 7 or 8
kilometers to the barrio of Bucal where the women make it into balls.
When 500 to 1,000 of these are ready they are loaded into bancas and
taken about 4 or 5 kilometers to Calamba where they are transferred to
a casco and brought under tow to Manila.
The depth of the kaolin at Calamba has not been investigated, for
after digging down about 2 meters it becomes too hot 2° to allow further
penetration and then the washing of the rain fills up the hole. The
superficial exposure is about a hectare. This kaolin has been used to
some extent as a fire clay, for example, to repair the brickkiln at San
Pedro Macati and the furnace of the glass factory. Senor Varcena at
the school in Sampaloc has made some fire bricks and crucibles of good
appearance from this clay.
As the price of building materials of all kinds is very high and shows
little sign of decreasing, the demand for clay products of this nature is
sure to increase. Many which are now in use can be replaced entirely by
manufactures from local clays, if their preparation is taken up and placed
upon a commercial basis. The tests of clays here reported should aid in
the selection of suitable localities and in the finding of proper material
for the development of these industries.
RADIOACTIVITY.
In carrying out a series of experiments to ascertain the cause of the
abnormal amounts of radioactive emanations contained in. the air of
cellars and caves, it was demonstrated by Elster and Geitel 7’ that such
emanations were not of spontaneous origin, but rather came from the soil
and clay. They proved ** that the air removed by simple suction from
the soil was charged with active emanation and that its activity ac-
tually exceeded that of the air of cellars and caves. This activity is
either a universal property of the air of the ground independent of
the nature of the soil, or it is the result of a certain amount of
primarily active substance contained in the material of the soil itself.
Elster and Geitel have shown the latter assumption to be the only tenable
theory. They found *® that clay dug from their garden, introduced into
their apparatus, after three days had reached a constant maximum value
of about three times the normal. They considered that most of the
“The Los Bajos springs are thermal.
“Chem. News (1903), 88, 29.
* Phys. Ztschr. (1902), 3, 574.
“Ibid. (1903), 4, 522; Chem. News. (1903), 88, 30.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. 433
conductivity observed in the gas was due to a radioactive emanation
which diffused from the clay into the air in the vessel. They *° say:
It did not matter in this experiment whether the earth was in the moist
condition in which it was removed, or whether it was introduced underneath
the bell-glass after protracted drying; after the lapse of eight months no decrease
of activity was apparent in the material.
In another experiment several substances were placed one-half meter
in the earth, after four weeks they were dug up and the potter’s clay,
which in the beginning was inactive, was unmistakably active. The
other substances used were still inactive. This shows that clays also
have induced activity. Elster and Geitel found at different places con-
siderable difference in the radioactivity of clays, it being invariably less
near the sea.
The conductivity in the gas above the clay in the case already cited
has been calculated ** to be the same as that produced by the emanation
from 7.107 grams of radium. Taking the density of clay as 2, this cor-
responds to about 10™ grams radium per gram of clay. This has been
calculated to be not greatly different from the amount of radium neces-
sary in the earth to emit sufficient heat to compensate for the loss by
conduction and radiation. On the basis of this Rutherford ** expresses
it as his opinion that the present rate of loss of heat of the earth might
have continued unchanged for long periods of time.
I have examined several different specimens of the clays of Luzon,
namely, numbers 8, 12, 32 and 33, by means of the leakage apparatus
and all efforts failed to discover a trace of primary radioactivity in the
material. The apparatus was of the general type of instrument used
by Elster and Geitel,** Mache and Meyer,** Bacon** and other workers
in their investigations of the radioactivity of ordinary materials. (See
Pl De)
Three methods of determination were used in each case. One por-
tion of the clay amounting to 10 grams was put immediately in the
measuring chamber and the fall of the charged gold leaf observed for a
period of hours; another was digested with acid in an Ehrlenmeyer
flask, for some time tightly stoppered and allowed to stand. A third
portion was fused with sodium carbonate, slaked in water, neutralized
with hydrochloric acid and tightly stoppered in an Ehrlenmeyer flask.
After one month these Ehrlenmeyer flasks in turn were connected in
circuit with the apparatus and air was sucked through the solution so
® Chem. News (1903), 88, 30.
* Rutherford, H.: Radioactivity, Cambridge, Eng. (1905), 507.
32 Toid., 496.
% Phys. Ztschr. (1904), 5, 321. -
% Monatsh. f. Chem. (1905), 26, 596.
* This Journal (1906), 1, 435.
43 COX.
that any emanation would be drawn with it into the apparatus. In all
cases excepting one, the air leak was perfectly normal for a period of
hours, being identical with that produced by the natural activity of the
air. In the first experiment with clav number 32 the conductivity was
observed to be nearly double for a period of two hours, when the
increase fell away.
The apparatus was sufficiently sensitive as-is shown by test experi-
ments with a sample of black uranium oxide (Kahlbaum) and one of
pitchblende from Joachimthal which contained 26 per cent of uranium.
One gram of the oxide was in turn uniformly spread over the bottom
of platinum containers of various sizes, from a platinum crucible the
bottom of which is 2 centimeters in diameter to a dish 4.5 centimeters
in diameter and put immediately in the electroscope jar. The rate of
fall in these was from 80 to 107 scale divisions per minute, 4,800 to
6,420 per hour, depending on the thinness of the layer of powder.
Similarly, the rate of fall for one gram of the pitchblende varied from
100 to 203 scale divisions per minute, 8,000 to 12,180 per hour, depend-
ing on the spreading. The larger of these rates in each case is about
the same as that obtained by Bacon*® who used a dish of 4 or 5 centi-
meters diameter as the container in his experiments.
These numbers are not necessarily the maximum value because of the
unavoidable absorption of the emanation at the surface of the powder,
but with reasonably large spreading surface and working under constant
conditions, the results are roughly comparable. The greatest activity of
pitchblende yet observed is about five or six times that of uranium, and
when they are considered with reference to the uranium content, ap-
proximately, that is the relation which exists between the above samples.
By dissolving a mineral and then setting it aside in a closed vessel, the
amount of emanation present reaches a maximum value after a month’s
interval. This was done with a gram of the pitchblende, the emanation
being drawn into the apparatus by sucking air through the solution and
a rate of fall of 640 scale divisions or 38,400 per hour was obtained as
the average of eight closely agreeing readings under different chargings.
The apparatus therefore was so’ sensitive that this pitchblende gave a
rate of fall of the gold leaf more than 12,000 times as fast as that
produced by the leakage through normal air.
From the work of Elster and Geitel the conclusion may be drawn that
no primary radioactivity can be present in the above samples of Philip-
pine clays, since they suffered no diminution in eight months. If our
clays contained primary radioactive bodies this effect would have been
noted since the samples were all investigated in less than eight months
from the time they were taken. An extremely small amount of induced
" [bid, Gen. Sct., Sec. A (1907), 2, 124.
CLAYS FROM LUZON. ~ 435
radioactivity was observed in clay number 32, while a certain amount
might have been lost from the other samples during the time inter-
vening between the taking of the sample and its examination in the
laboratory. However, it seems more probable that there may be prac-
tically no radioactive badies in these Islands, for two reasons, first,
according to Elster and Geitel, very little radioactivity exists near
the sea and, second, matter dissociates under the influence of radiant
energy. The tropical sunlight affords opportunity for the maximum
effect of the latter. Le Bon * calls attention to the fact that radiant
energy falling upon matter causes it to dissociate, and if it is of suffi-
cient intensity to heat the substance it also causes an expulsion of a
small quantity of the radioactive elements produced by the dissociation.
The action of the intense tropical sunlight for centuries on the various
deposits occurring here may be accountable for the almost entire absence
of radioactivity in these Islands. In support of this suggestion attention
is called to the work of Ramsay and Spencer ** where the “fatigue of
metals,” a perhaps comparable phenomenon, is produced by the action
of intense light. It should also be remembered that Bacon *® found
no radioactivity in the waters of the crater lakes of Taal Volcano.
Compt. Rend. Acad. d. se. (1906), 143, 647.
*s Philosophical Mag. (1906), 12, 402.
9° This Journal, Gen. Sci., Sec. A (1907), 2, 115.
.
ne
yer eet
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Prats J. Leakage apparatus used in examining several different specimens of
the clays of Luzon (Cf. p. 433).
Fie. 1 (in text). Section showing the characteristic breaking down in the forma-
tion of residuary clay deposits.
437
a
PYOPP ARTA
eh ee entis jrivteipa ae ’
ek ov eater ow
‘S1ozZ][VNbo oinssaig ‘f pue J, ‘“eqn} BulAIp opl1o[yo UINO[VO ‘GS ‘BABA B YIM Qing ‘YW ‘poyeS[JsoAuT oq 0} 9oOUBISqns
eq} JO WoLyNjoS oY} AOJ opoejdesoy ‘H ‘oedoosejo, Burpvoy ‘q “elvos oY} SulyeuluIN{[{ 10} JYUSIT JUoOSopuBoUuy ‘MO ‘julod SursaeyH ‘wv ‘s1oze[NUINDDB 9} IO OAT
‘uw ‘snyeredde SulsieyO ‘y ‘eprxovjued snaoydsoyd Suyuyeyuoo ysiq “y —“AequIvYyo SulLinsvou ey} Sulsojo 10 Supuedo soy yooodoyg “f ‘yee, ploS ey Surjaoddns drys
[ejoul poxeinsuy “% ‘snzeredde oy} yNoyI{AM JousvUI Areulpao ue Jo oOUONUT oy} Aq (2) Clays OT[[VJOUL OY} YIM 4oORJMOD OFUT FYSNOIg 0q ABUT YOM S[poou oJouseUM oY)
sufjioddns 10J pue sdoosorjoolo Jvo[-plos oY} SULsivyO 1OJ OTA “Y ‘“o[poou oTJOUSeW “6 “YoOIsS JojouL Arvulpao ue Suyqdeasojoyd =. 7s = 2s ate SEE | —22° C. —6.5° ©. | —7. 5° C. —25° C,
|
a Average 8 determinations. ¢ Oil obtained on the Hongkong market.
» Average 4 determinations. ‘Pure oil obtained from expression of hand-picked seed.
"Kew. Bull. (1906), 117; Bull. Imp. Inst. (1907), 5, 134,
e
444 RICHMOND AND VIVENCIO DEL ROSARIO.
Calophyllum inophyllum (Palo maria).7—A large, hardwood tree be-
longing to the family Guttiferw, found along the sea shores throughout
the tropics of both hemispheres. In the Philippines it is known as
palo maria de la playa to distinguish it from Calophyllum wallichianum,
the widely distributed form found in upland forests known as palo
maria del monte. It has a beautiful, dark green, thick, fine-nerved leaf,
4 to 5 inches long, from whence is derived the name Calophyllum or
Schonblatt. The fruit is the size of a walnut, with a fleshy rim contain-
ing a thin-shelled seed which incloses a hard, oily kernel. The fruit
of the mountain variety is only two-thirds to three-fourths the size of
that growing near the seashore. Each tree yields several bushels of nuts
per year. ‘There is no established industry, although in some localities
the oil is expressed and used for lights.
Oil from the expressed seeds of Calophyllum inophyllum is called
domba, and in Indo-English, improperly, laurel-nut oil. The kernels
on extraction yield 70 to 75 per cent of a greenish-yellow oil. The oil is
not servicable as an edible fat, since it contains a poisonous resin to which
the color and odor are due. On the other hand, it finds application as
a natural remedy in skin diseases and rheumatism, and it is used for that
purpose in many districts of India; it is exported in considerable amounts
from ‘Travancore, particularly from Burma, and under the name of
“udilool” it has been experimentated with in Europe for some time in the
treatment of rheumatism.
“The seeds of Calophyllum inophyllum, a forest tree widely distributed in
the eastern tropics, furnish an oil known by various names (dilo, domba, pinnay,
poon seed or tamanu oil) ; when mixed with pigments, this forms a paint that
dries in twelve hours, without any previous boiling. Owing to the large yield
of oil and the plentifulness of the trees in India, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago
and Java, and the South Pacific islands, ete., this oil appears likely to be an
important article in the future.”
“Domba oil’ is obtained from the nuts of Calophyllum inophyllum. Tt is
chiefly used as an embrocation for rheumatism, and for illuminating purposes.
Domba oil is sold in Burma at four times the Calcutta price of castor oil, which it
resembles.” G. Fenler’ has made a chemical examination of the oil from
Calophyllum inophyllum. He describes it as greenish-yellow in color, of a bitter,
pungent taste, soluble in all proportions in the usual solvents, but insoluble in
absolute alcohol. The following values are recorded:
Specific gravity at 15° C. 0.942
Reichert Meissel number 13
Acid value 28.45
Saponification value : 196
Todine value 92.8
‘Tavera: Medicinal Plants of the Philippines, Manila (1901), 38.
* Alder Wright, C. R.: Fixed oils, fats, butters and waxes (1903), 348.
* J. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1901), 20, 624.
“Chem. Ztsehr. (1905), 29, 15.
5
PHILIPPINE OIL-BEARING SEEDS. 445
By treating with ‘caustic soda the oil yields a greenish resin of semiliquid
consistency, soluble in alcohol. The fatty acids consist mainly of palmitic, oleic
and stearic. It is stated that the oil is also used in the manufacture of soap.
Ceiba pentandra (kapok.)—The cotton tree which furnishes the fiber
used commercially for upholstering, under the Malayan name “kapok,”
is exceedingly common in cultivation along the highways, in all parts
of the Philippine Islands. It is a somewhat thorny tree 40 to 60 feet
high, with horizontal branches in whorls. The fruit is a pod 4 to 6
inches long, spindle shaped and filled with black seeds embedded in fine,
silky hairs.
It is distributed throughout the tropics of the world. In Java a
considerable industry exists in the products of this tree. The seed
hairs are used for pillows, mattresses, sofas, etc., where their lightness,
softness, elasticity and immunity from moths, makes them superior
for the above-mentioned purposes. In Manila it is being used with ex-
cellent results for insulation.
The undecorticated seeds by extraction with ether yield 25.3 per cent
of bland oil of a yellowish color and agreeable taste, and 20 per cent by
a pressure of 450 atmospheres with the laboratory hydraulic press.
Undecorticated, ground seeds are too difficult to press and the yield of
oil is too low for economical milling.
The fertilizer analysis of extracted kapok seed meal which is given in
Table III compares very favorably with the average composition of upland
cotton-seed meal, which is used so extensively in the Southern States
of North America. Experiments in feeding ground kapok seed to hogs,
cattle and horses at the experimental station of the Philippine Bureau of
Agriculture were favorable to its use as a stock food. The product much
resembles ground linseed in food value.
The recorded physical and chemical constants of kapok oil are as
follows : **
Specific gravity at 15° C. 0.9237
Saponification value - 181
Todine value 117.9
Hehner value 94.9
Maumené test 95
Refractive index piles
~ Anacardium occidentale.—This plant furnishes the cashew nut and
is very common throughout the Archipelago, having been introduced from
tropical America. The nut is a large, yellow, pear-shaped fruit, and
contains a brown, kidney-shaped seed attached to one end of the fleshy
part. Both the fruit and nut are edible, the latter, when roasted, having
a very agreeable taste. The roasted kernel is said to be used in the
adulteration of chocolate. The expressed kernel yields a sweet, yellowish
u Lewkowitsch, J.: Oele, Fette und Wachse, Braunshweig (1905), 2, 94.
446 RICHMOND AND VIVENCIO DEL ROSARIO.
oil. The nuts may be obtained in quantities in nearly all Philippine
market places.
Jatropha curcas.—A shrubby tree 8 to 10 feet high, common through-
out the Philippines, having been introduced from Mexico; it is cultivated
for hedges in the towns and along the roadways. ‘The seeds of this plant
in shape and size are similar to a large, ground-nut kernel and yield from
30 to 40 per cent of a yellow oil. These seeds are called purging or
physic nuts by the English and the expressed oil is the well-known cureas
oil of commerce. According to Tavera '* the oil is used for purposes of
illumination in some parts of the Philippines and is exported to Europe
to adulterate soaps and candles.
A recent examination of purging nuts from Lagos ™* gave the follow-
ing results :
“The kernels constitute 66 per cent of the whole weight of the seeds. Extrac-
tion with ether of the desiccated seeds yields 52 per cent of a yellow oil of a
faint, peculiar odor and a bland, nutty taste. The oil furnishes the following
constants :” ‘
Specific gravity at 15° C. 0.919
Free acid value 4.47
Free acid calculated as oleic acid 2.25
Saponification value 204
Iodine value 99.1
Ester value 199.5
Neutral oil 97.76
Cureas oil has been examined previously by several observers whose
results vary within limits given in the following table:
Specific gravity 0.919-0.925
Free fatty acids (calculated as oleic acid),
per cent .36—-11.8
Saponification value 192-210
lodine value 98-110
This oil belongs to the class of semidrying oils. It is employed in the
manufacture of soaps and candles and also as an illuminant and lubricant,
but because of its drying properties it is not well adapted for the last-
mentioned purpose. It is a strong purgative and in India it is used
medicinally.
Physic nuts examined in the laboratory gave 45 per cent of hulls
and 55 per cent of kernels, the latter yielded by extraction with chloro-
form 63.05 per cent of oil, which corresponds to 34.65 per cent calculated
on undecorticated seeds. Because of its purgative action the seed cake
left after expression of the oil would be unsuitable as a cattle food. Its
fertilizer value is given in Table ITT.
* Medicinal Plants of the Philippines, Manila (1901), 216.
Bull. Imp. Inst. (1904), 2, 170.
PHILIPPINE OIL-BEARING SEEDS. 447
Sesamum indicum.—The black-seeded variety has been grown as a
minor crop for many years in these Islands; the white-seeded, which
produces a finer grade of oil, is found only where it was introduced by
W. 5S. Lyons ** of the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture. He reports very
favorably on the possibility of culture in these Islands of this important
oil-bearing seed.
Ricinus communis (castor-oil plant).—A weed universally distributed
throughout the tropics of the world and more or less cultivated in tem-
perate and subtemperate regions. It grows in waste places in and about
towns throughout the Philippines, apparently seed producing throughout
the entire year. This plant is entirely naturalized and grows wild in
the Islands, although it is occasionally cutivated for ornamental purposes.
In the provinees it is used medicinally, two or three plants frequently
being found near the nipa houses pf the poorer classes. It is not culti-
vated here on a commercial scale, the castor oil used in Manila and the
larger towns apparently being imported from Europe. The plant thrives
without cultivation in poor soils and is one of the commonest and most
widely distributed species found in the Philippines, having been intro-
duced by way of the Malayan region probably long before the Spanish
conquest. ‘The original home of the species presumably is Africa.
I can find no data regarding the methods of gathering the crop, but it
ig presumed that the capsules are picked by hand from time to time, as
the seeds ripen throughout the year.
The following notes are abstracted concerning the castor-oil industry,
from data compiled by Dougherty 1° of the United States Bureau of
Statistics :
First and most important is its use in connection with calico dyeing and
printing, in the preparation of so-called “turkey-red oil” which is sulphuretted
castor oil, a product soluble in water, possessing the important property of
fixing aniline dyes. The second and probably the next most important channel
of consumption is the drug trade. It is used in China as a cooking grease, as
lard is used in America. It is used extensively in British India and other
countries as an illuminant. Australia imported 769,000 gallons in 1898 and
Cape of Good Hope 307,000 gallons in 1902 for the same purpose. The peculiar
properties of this oil, which is heavy, viscous and non-drying, adapt it for
lubrication purposes, as is well known. Heavy petroleum is used more exten-
sively only on account of its greater cheapness. Its value as a lubricant is
suggested by the fact that petroleum products adulterated with resin are now
sold under the name “machine castor oil.” Castor oil also has properties that
adapt it as a leather dressing. Many minor uses may be mentioned such as its
- employment in the manufacture of sticky fly paper, and so-called “glycerine soap.”
Process of manufacture.—The equipment for a castor-oil mill is identical in
its main features with that of mills for the manufacture of linseed, cotton-seed,
™Parmers’ Bull. (1903), No. 7, 12.
*% Year Book, U. 8. Dept. Agr. (1905), 287.
448 RICHMOND AND VIVENCLO DEL ROSARIO.
or coconut oil; that is, the mechanical unit of production is the hydraulic press.
Hulling and crushing the seeds is unnecessary. They are hand picked and sub-
mitted to hydraulic pressure either hot or cold. Two grades of oi] are produced,
the first for medicinal use, and the second for the various other purposes. One-half
to one cent per pound difference in price exists between the two grades, 9 to 11
cents per pound being the prevailing price in the United States. The oil cake,
called castor pomace, on account of its poisonous properties, has no food value,
but it contains potash and phosporic acid, and is especially rich in nitrogen,
therefore it is well adapted for a manurial. The high percentage of oil left
in oil cake by commercial processes is said to prevent its rapid decomposition
in the soil and thus to prolong its fertilizing effect. In some sections of the
United States the castor pomace is highly regarded as a fertilizer for tobacco.
In British India, where more of this product is made and used than in
any other country in the world, it is much esteemed as a manure for potatoes,
wheat, oats and corn. Good qualities of beans contain about 45 per cent of
oil, but the yield extracted by manufacturing processes in the United States
approximates only about 32 per cent. At this rate there is obtained 16 pounds
(2 gallons) of oil and 34 pounds of pomace per bushel of 50 pounds of the
beans. .
The supply of the United States is almost entirely derived from two widely
separated regions: the first. a few counties in Oklohama, Kansas, Missouri and
Illinois, the second, British India, a country that has long held the monopoly
of the commercial castor bean production of the world. Statistics show that.
probably three-fourths. and. possibly four-fifths. of the castor oil manufactured
in the United States is from imported beans. The maximum demand for this
product in the United States is 1.000.000 gallons annually in round numbers.
British India is the only great castor bean producing country, the United
States, England, France and Germany all deriving their supply from this
particular source. The castor bean production in the United States has declined
steadily for years, while the demand for its products has had a steady upward
trend until, as above stated, practically the entire supply is now imported.
Several reasons for this condition of things may be given. The castor plant
being tropical in its origin must be acclimated in a country of late and early
frosts, to which the plant is very susceptible, while the land is much more
valuable for the growing or crops already adapted to the prevailing climatic
conditions.
In the Philippine Islands we find the plant producing abundantly
under natural conditions, therefore much may be accomplished under
proper cultivation. Furthermore, any initial outlay in milling machinery
would be unnecessary, as the product can be worked up in a coconut-oil
mill. We might therefore be able to place on this market an oil for
purposes of lubrication and illumination which would be nonedible and
which could be produced as cheaply as coconut oil, now in general use.
We are nearer to the Australian market than is British India, from
whence the supply of castor oil is brought, but most important of all if
we could supply the increasing demands of America and thus divert the
large export trade from British India to the Philippine Islands, the result
would warrant the exploitation of castor oil in the Archipelago.
PHILIPPINE OIL-BEARING SEEDS. 449
TaBie II1.—Comparison of the fertilization value of some Philippine seed cakes with
that of cotton-seed meal.
Lumbang 7 ) a sell
banuca- Kapok. Castor. ao Cotton | Physic: |
la
maria. seed. nut.
Lumbang
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.
Moistive he 8.189 8. 480 13. 67 8. 64 6. 248 7.50 9.91
Total nitrogen ___________ 6. 464 3. 968 5.21 4. 80 2.68 6.37 2.14
Nitrogen equivalent to
RERINEN. GENE Sos ne 7. 852 4.818 6.326 5.83 3.234 7.75 2.60
Total phosphoric acid____ 3.355 2. 292 2.798 1.75 1. 006 2.65 1.33
Ayailable phosphoric
TET | eee Sa ae aes 3. 280 2.183 2.741 1.55 964 2.45 1.23
Potash soluble in water __ 1.502 1.311 1.758 1.04 1.00 1.55 2.42
Relative commercial
value per ton of 2,000
WOUMdS 8S S| 927-67 $17.51 $24. 61 $19.77 $13.83 $26.76 | $11.22
2The valuation is based on the average market quotation on the unmixed ingredients used in the
mannuiacture of commercial fertilizers.
_ ERRATA
teron. read Osmotreron.
read fasciolata.
451
pat
INDEX.
(New generic, specific, and subspecific names are printed in heavy-faced type.)
Abaca waste, 108; sulphite digestion of, 94.
Abrornis olivacea, 287, 327.
Acantholipes trajectus, 373.
Acanthopneuste borealis, 289, 307, 314, 329.
Acara strata, 368.
Accipiter gularis, 302.
Accipiter manillensis, 302.
Acrocephalus orientalis, 307, 328, 342.
Acsubing-Muao region, 388.
Actitis hypoleucus, 301, 320, 339. }
/Dgialitis alexandrina, 301, 320.
AMgialitis dubia, 282, 301, 319. |
ADgialitis peroni, 282, 301, 311, 320.
ZEthopyga bonita, 308.
AMthopyga magnifica, 308. |
Alcedo bengalensis, 284, 303, 313, 324, 332, |
339. |
Aleurites moluccana; description and local
uses of, 441.
Aleurites trisperma ;
uses of, 443.
Alkaloids, effect on catalysis of oxalic acid
with uranium salts, 135.
Amaurornis olivacea, 300, 319, 339.
Amaurornis phenicura, 281, 300, 319.
Amyrin, 37.
Anacardium occidentale ;
local uses of, 445.
Ancylochilus subarquatus, 301.
Andesite; description of, 394.
Anthreptes chlorigaster, 290, 308.
Anthus gustavi, 290, 308, 332.
Anthus rufulus, 314, 332, 344, 349.
Arachnothera flammifera, 290, 332.
Ardea sumatrana, 282, 312, 321.
Ardetta cinnamomea, 283, 322.
Arenaria interpres, 300, 311, 319.
Arkose ; description of, 394. }
Artamides cebuensis, 305.
Artamides kochi, 288, 327.
Artamus leucorhynchus, 289, 307, 314, 329. |
description and local
description and
Asbestos, 431. |
Astur soloensis, 283.
Astur species, 283.
Babuyan Claro; birds from, 349.
BACON, RAYMOND FOSS, Catalysis by |
means of uranium salts in the sunlight, |
129; The crater lakes of Taal Volcano,
ils :
BACON, RAYMOND FOSS, and FREER,
PAUL C., The action of sodium on
acetone, 67.
+ Calophyllum
Baguio mineral district; basal diorite of,
222; climate of, 212; drainage of, 215;
extrusives of, 227; geographical position
of, 210; geology of, 221; hydrography of,
214; intrusives of, 225; mineral springs
of, 216; ore deposits of, 232; physiogra-
phy and topography of, 217; sedimen-
taries of, 229; transportation in, 210;
tuffs of, 231; vegetation and timber in,
213.
| Baorisa hieroglyphica, 372.
Batan ; birds from, 338.
Batrachostomus septimus, 284.
Benguet petrography ; bibliography of, 237.
Benguet Province; andesite of, 244; an-
desite porphyry of, 246; andesite tuff of,
246; andesitic tuff of, 245; augite an-
desite from, 245; basaltic tuff from,
248 ; dacite from, 243; diorite from, 240;
feldspar porphyry from, 247; foraminif-
eral limestone from? 249; graywacke
from, 241; hypersthene augite from, 244;
limestone from the Benguet road in, 249;
quartz diorite found in, 238, 242.
| Bricks, 431,
Bubuleus coromandus, 283, 302, 322, 339.
| Budytes leucostriatus, 290, 308, 332, 344,
349.
Butastur indicus, 283, 302, 323.
Butorides amurensis, 302.
Butorides javanica, 283,
345, 353.
312, 322, 339,
| Cacatua hematuropygia, 283, 303, 312, 324.
Cacomantis merulinus, 285, 304, 313, 325.
Callisitta #nochlamys, 307.
Callisitta lilacea, 290.
Callyna costiplaga, 372.
inophyllum ;
local uses of, 444.
Camiguin; birds from, 344.
description and
| Camiguinia, 346.
Camiguinia personata, 346.
Capotena spatulata, 365.
| Caprimulgus griseatus, 271, 303.
Caprimulgus manillensis, 303, 313, 325.
Caradrina quadripunctata, 371.
Catada rubricaea, 367.
Cathetometer, 139.
Cebu; classification of coal from, 400;
peasant of, 385; population of, 385.
Cechenena helops, 369.
453
454 INDEX.
Ceiba pentandra; description and local uses | CLOVER, A. M., The Terpene Oils of
of, 445.
Centropus carpenteri, 340, 356.
Centropus javanicus, 313, 326, 340.
Centropus melanops, 285, 326.
Centropus viridis, 285, 304, 313, 325, 346.
Cephalophoneus nasutus, 307, 329.
Cerura liturata, 370.
Ceyx bournsi, 284, 303.
Ceyx mindanensis, 284.
Cheetura species, 285.
Chalcococcyx malayanus, 285.
Chalcococecyx xanthorhynchus, 285.
Chalcophaps indica, 281, 300, 318, 339,
345.
Charadrius fulvus, 282, 300, 311, 319, 339.
Chloropsis flavipennis, 306.
Chrysocolaptes lucidus, 286.
Chrysocolaptes rufopunctatus, 326.
Cicindela clara rugothoracica, 76.
Cinnyris jugularis, 290, 308, 314, 331.
Cinnyris julie, 290.
Cinnyris sperata, 331.
Cinnyris whiteheadi, 349.
Circus melanoleucus, 312, 322.
Cisticola cisticola, 329, 343, 348.
Cisticola exilis, 329, 307, 314.
Cittocinela cebuensis, 307.
Clay; Abra, 417, 429; air shrinkage of,
426, 429; analyses of, 415, 418; analyses
of Luzon, recaleulated to the anhydrous
condition, 424; Batangas, 417, 429;
Benguet, 417, 429; Bulacan, 417, 429,
431; Camarines, 417, 429; classification |
of, 422; color of burned, 428, 429; color |
of raw, 428, 429: composition of Luzon, |
415, 418; definition of, 413; effect of
alkalies on, 427; effect of fluxes on, 421,
427; effect of fluxes on color of, 427;
effect of iron on, 427, 428; effect of lime
on, 427; effect of magnesia on, 427;
effect of titanium on, 428; effect of |
tropical sunlight on, 435; facts obtain- |
able from the ultimate analysis of, 420;
fire shrinkage of, 426, 429; formation |
of, 414; fusibility of, 421, 427, 429; |
Ilocos Norte, 417, 429, 431; Laguna, 414, |
416, 429, 431; Lepanto-Bontoc, 417, |
429; mechanical analysis of, 421; occur-
rence of, in the Philippines, 416, 430, |
432 ; Pampanga, 417, 429; physical prop-
erties of, 425, 429; plasticity of, 425, |
429; radioactivity of Philippine, 432,
434; rational analysis of, 421; recon-
struction, 424, 430; residuary, 414;
Rizal, 415, 417, 429; Romblon, 416,
429; section showing the breaking down
in the formation of residuary deposits
of, 415; sedimentary, 414; some of the
commonest minerals in, 421; table of
analyses of Luzon, 418; table of physical |
properties of Luzon, 429; tensile or
breaking strength of, 426, 429; ultimate
analysis, 421; uses of Luzon, 416, 424,
431. :
Pa
Manila Elemi, 1.
Coal; curve showing the influence of the
presence of water upon the accurate
estimation of the volatile combustible
matter in, 61; dependency of fixed carbon
value of, 55; importance of the elemen-
tary and proximate analysis of, 41; in-
fluence of the difference in the breaking
down of the volatile constituents of, on
the percentage of volatile combustible
matter, 55; influence of the presence of
water upon the accurate estimation of
the volatile combustible matter in, 57;
mechanical loss of, by the official method
of analysis, 43, 47, 49, 52; new and
accurate method of analysis of, 44;
relationship between the external ap-
pearance and the properties of, 41;
significance of the factors obtained by
the proximate analysis of, 41; time nec-
essary to expel the volatile combustible
from, 63.
Coals; comparative analyses of Philippine,
52; inapplicability of the official method
of analysis to Philippine, 42; list and
classification of Philippine, 50; summary
of the results on the proximate analysis
of Philippine, 65. :
Cogon grass, 108.
Columba griseigularis, 338.
Comparator; micrometer device for, 141;
plan of, 140; a new, 139.
Comparison of the fertilization of some
Philippine seed cakes with that of cotton-
seed meal, 449. ,
Compostela-Danao coal field; history of
the, 398; labor in, 402; structure of,
397; transportation in, 402.
Compostela-Danao coal region; climate of,
379; geography of, 379; hydrology of,
386; list of species of trees found in,
382; report of Forester Everett on, 381;
stratigraphy of the, 391; the basal con-
glomerate of, 392; the coal measures of,
392; the igneous base of the, 391; the
upper limestone of, 395; topography and
physiography of, 386; vegetation of, 381.
| Copsychus mindanensis, 288, 307, 313, 328.
Corone philippina, 291, 309, 314, 333, 349.
COX, ALVIN J., A new comparator, 139;
The occurrence, composition, and radio-
activity of the clays from Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, 413 ; The proximate analysis
of Philippine coals, 41.
Cryptolopha cebuensis, 305.
Cuculus canorus, 285, 340.
Cujumajumayan Valley, 390.
Cupan; data on the stand of, in Bataan
Province, 85; description of, 84; experi-
ments with, 88.
| Cyanomyias celestis, 287.
Cyornis mindorensis, 356.
Cyornis philippinensis, 286, 304, 313, 327.
Cypa decolor, 370.
INDEX.
Cypselus pacificus, 339, 346.
Cypselus subfurcatus, 346.
Dasyehira thwaitesi, 370.
Delgamma pangonia, 373.
Demiegretta sacra, 312, 321, 339.
Dendrocygna arcuata, 283, 312, 322, 345.
Dendrocygna guttulata, 283. ;
Diacetone alcohol; action of sodium on,
Diceum cinereigulare, 330.
Diceum everetti, 330.
Diceum hypoleucum, 290.
Diceum pallidior, 307.
Diceum papuense, 290, 307, 330, 349. |
Diceum pygmeum, 308, 330.
Dicrurus mirabilis, 309, 314.
Dicrurus striatus, 291, 332.
Diorite porphyry; description of, 391.
Diss6ura episcopus, 282, 321.
Dita; description of, 84.
Drupadia moorei, 368.
Earias chromataria, 371.
Edoliisoma alterum, 305.
Edoliisoma mindanense, 288.
Egretta garzetta, 282, 302, 321.
Elanus hypoleucus, 312, 323.
Elemi, 1; experimental work on, 4; oil in
the aggregate, 39; oil of, 3; Manila, 2.
Estigena paradalis, 370.
Eudrepanis decorosa, 330.
Eudrepanis pulcherrima, 290.
Eudynamis mindanensis, 285, 313, 325, 346.
Eurystomus orientalis, 284, 303, 312, 324,
345.
EVELAND, A. J,, Notes on the geology and
geography of the Baguio mineral district,
207. :
Excalfactoria lineata, 281, 338.
Falco perigrinus, 345.
FERGUSON, HENRY G., Note on the Oc-
currence of Rhyolite in Cebu, 407. |
Fire clays; analyses of, 423. |
Fodina lanaoensis, 365.
FREER, PAUL C., The action of sodium
on acetone, 67.
Fregata ariel, 312.
Fregata species, 283.
Fuligula marila, 295.
Galleria mellonella, 374.
Gallicrex cinerea, 311, 319.
Gallinago gallinago, 321.
Gallinago megala, 282, 312.
Gallinula chloropus, 282, 319.
Gallus gallus, 281, 300, 317, 344.
Geocichla mindanensis, 359.
Glottis nebularius, 301, 320.
Goniorhynchus plumbeizonalis, SDs
Halcyon chloris, 284, 303, 313, 324, 339,
346, 349. |
Haleyon coromandus, 345.
Haleyon gularis, 303, 324.
Haleyon winchelli, 284, 324.
Haliaétus leucogaster, 283, 302, 312, 323, |
339, 345, 349.
73.
| HORN, WALTHER, A
455
Haliastur intermedius, 283, 302, 312, 323.
Helodromas ochropus, 320.
Hemichelidon griseisticta, 286, 327.
Heteractitis brevipes, 282, 301, 312, 320,
339.
Heteropygia acuminata, 339. ,
| Hierococcyx fugax, 325.
Himantopus leucocephalus, 282.
Hippotian rafflesi, 369.
| Hirundo gutturalis, 304, 326.
Hirundo javanica, 286, 304, 313, 326, 340,
346, 349.
Hirundo striolata, 304, 326, 340, 346.
new subspecies of
Philippine Cicindelide, 77.
Hydrocorax mindanensis, 284.
Hydrocorax semigaliatus, 324.
Hyloterpe apoensis, 290, 329.
Hyloterpe illex, 348.
Hyloterpe winchelli, 307.
Hypena biplagiata, 374.
‘Hypocala deflorata, 373.
Hypopyra donata, 366.
Hypotenidia torquata, 300, 311, 345.
Hypothymis occipitalis, 287, 304, 313.
Hypothymis samarensis, 327.
Hypothymis superciliaris, 287.
Hypsipetes batanensis, 342, 349, 357.
Hypsipetes camiguinensis, 347.
Ilocos Norte; apatite in, 171; area and
people in, 147; asbestos in, 167; Boje-
ador andesite found in, 153; economic
geology of, 166; eruptive conglomerate
found in, 153; feldspar in, 174; field
work in, 146; formation of schists in,
155; general geology of, 150; granulite
found in, 151; labor in, 175; manganese
in, 170; mica and tale in, 172; mineral
paint in, 173; minerals of the schists
in, 156; physical geography of, 147;
prospecting and development work in,
174; pyroxenite found in, 150; sedimen-
tary formations in, 157; serpentinization
in, 155; transportation in, 174.
Iole guimarasensis, 313.
Iole monticola, 306.
Iole philippensis, 306, 327.
Tole refigularis, 288.
Irena melanochlamys, 288.
Jatropha curcas; description and local uses
of, 446.
Kaolin; analyses of, 418, 423.
Kaolinite ; composition of, 414.
Lalage niger, 288, 306, 313, 327.
Lamprocorax panayensis, 291, 309, 314,
333, 344, 349.
Lauan; data on the stand of, in Bataan
Province, 85; description of, 83; ex-
periments with, 87.
Leocyma sericea, 372.
Leucania, decisissima, 371.
Leucania exempta, 372.
Leucotreron leclancheri, 311, 318, 338, 345.
Leucotreron occipitalis, 281, 300.
456
Limicola platyrhyncha, 302, 321.
Limonene, 20.
Limonites damacensis, 282.
Limonites ruficollis, 302, 312, 321.
Limosa nove-zealandiz, 311, 320.
Lithosia antica, 371.
Locustella fasciolata, 342.
Locustella ochotensis, 289, 328, 342.
Loriculus apicalis, 284. :
Loriculus chrysonotus, 303.
Loriculus worcesteri, 324.
Lumbang oil; test for, in coconut oil, 442.
Lyncornis macrotis, 284.
Macronus mindanensis, 328.
Macronus striaticeps, 288.
Macropteryx major, 284.
Macropygia phea, 338.
Macropygia tenuirostris, 281, 318.
Magusa tenebrosa, 371.
Malindangia, 355.
Malindangia megregori, 355.
Manila hemp, 93.
Marapana pulverata, 374.
Mareca penelope, 283.
Mayapis; data on the stand of, in Bataan
Province, 85; description, of, 84; ex-
periments with, 88.
McGREGOR, RICHARD C., Birds Observed
in Bantayan Island, Province of Cebu,
310; Descriptions of Four New Philip-
pine Birds, 292; Note on a Bird Un-
recorded from Mindanao, 296; Notes on
a Collection of Birds from the Island of
Basilan, with Descriptions of Three New
Species, 279; Notes on Birds Collected
in Cebu, 298; Notes on Specimens of
the Monkey-Eating Eagle (Pithecophaga
jefferyi Grant) from Mindanao and Lu-
INDEX.
| Microhierax erythrogenys, 323.
Microsarcops cinereus, 295.
Motacilla melanope, 308, 332.
Mount Halcon; description of, 182; gen-
eral observations on, 199; previous as-
cent of, 183; our own ascent of, 187.
Mount Licos region, 389.
Munia jagori, 290, 308, 314, 332, 344.
Muscadivora enea, 281, 300, 311, 318.
Muscadivora nuchalis, 345.
Muscicapula basilanica, 286.
Myristicivora bicolor, 311, 318.
| Ninox japonica, 283, 302, 345:
zon, 297; The Birds of Batan, Camiguin, |
Y’Ami and Babuyan Claro, Islands North
of Luzon, 337; The Birds of Bohol, 315;
The Occurrence of Blyth’s Wattled Lap-
wing and the Scaup Duck in the Philip-
pine Islands, 295.
MEARNS, E. A., Descriptions of a New
Genus and Nine New Species of Philip- |
pine Birds, 355; Two Additions to the
Avifauna of the Philippines, 353.
Medasina nigrivincula, 367.
Megacorma obliqua, 370.
Megalurus palustris, 329.
Megalurus ruficeps, 307, 329.
Megapodius cumingi, 280, 310, 344.
Meroctena, tullalis, 375.
Merops americanus, 303, 325.
Merops philippinus, 284, 303, 313, 325.
MERRILL, ELMER D., The ascent of Mount
Halcon, Mindoro, 179.
Merula malindangensis, 357.
Merula mayonensis, 358.
Mesityloxide and sodium, 76.
Mesophoyx intermedia, 321.
Ninox spilocephala, 283.
Ninox spilonota, 303.
| Numenius cyanopus, 301, 320.
Numenius variegatus, 301, 311, 320.
Nycticorax manillensis, 302, 312, 322, 345.
Ochthodromus geoffroyi, 300, 311, 319, 339.
Ochthodromus mongolus, 282, 301, 311,
319, 339.
Oils; classification of terpene, 32; high-
boiling, 33.
Ophideres tyrannus, 373.
Oriolus assimilis, 308.
Oriolus chinensis, 257, 290, 308, 314, 332,
349.
Oriolus steeri, 290.
Orthorhamphus magnirostris, 345.
Orthotomus castaneiceps, 314.
Orthotomus cinereiceps, 289.
Orthotomus frontalis, 328.
Orthotomus mearnsi, 289.
Orthotomus samarensis, 328.
Osmotreron axillaris, 281, 300.
Osmotreron vernans, 281, 300, 310, 317.
Otomela lucionensis, 289, 307, 314, 329.
Otus boholensis, 323.
Oxalic acid, catalysis by uranium salts,
129.
Oxyambulyx semifervens, 369.
Paper; foreign market for, 107; Philippine
market for, 107.
Paper mill water, 105.
Papilio brama, 369.
Papilis idaeoides, 369.
Pardaliparus albescens, 293.
Pardaliparus edithe, 294, 348.
Pardaliparus elegans, 293, 307.
| Pardaliparus mindanensis, 294.
Passer montanus, 308:
Pelargopsis gigantea, 284, 303, 324.
Penelopides basilanica, 284.
.Penelopides samarensis, 325,
Pericrocotus cinereus, 288.
| Petrophila manilla, 342, 349.
| Phapitreron albifrons, 317.
Phapitreron amethystina, 317.
Phapitreron brunneiceps, 281.
Phapitreron nigrorum, 300.
Phapitreron occipitalis, 281.
Phellandrene, 24.
INDEX.
Philippine Archipelago; account of ascen-
sion of high peaks in, 179: general de-
seription of Island of Mindoro in, 180. |
Philippine Islands; fuel in, 104; loading |
materials in, 102.
Philippine oil seeds; partial list of, 440.
Philippine woods, 83; analyses of, 106;
chemical analyses of, 87, dimensions of
ultimate fibers of some, 86; shrinkage of, |
on barking, 86; sulphite digestions on,
90.
Phlogenas crinigera, 281.
Pitchblende, catalyzer for oxalic acid, 131.
Pithecophaga jefferyi, 297.
Pitta atricapilla, 286, 304, 313, 326.
Pitta erythrogaster, 286, 326, 346.
Pitta fastosa, 286.
Pitta steerei, 326.
Plotheia strigifera, 372.
Podicipes philippinensis, 319.
Poliolimnas cinereus, 281, 318.
Poliolophus urostictus, 288, 328.
Porcelains, analyses of, 423.
Porphyrio pulverulentus, 319. |
Pratincola caprata, 307, 314, 328.
Prioniturus discurus, 284, 303, 324.
Prionochilus inexpectatus, 330. |
Prionochilus olivaceus, 290.
Prionochilus quadricolor, 308.
Pseudaglossa peregrina, 366.
Pseudeuchromia, 363.
Pseudeuchromia catachroma, 363.
Pseudojana clemensi, 362.
Pseudoterpna ruginaria, 374.
Ptilocichla basilanica, 288.
Pulp- and paper-making chemicals, 99.
Pulp and paper mills; initial cost of, 111.
Pulp manufacture; comparison of the acid
and alkaline processes of, 96.
Pycnonotus goiavier, 288, 306, 328.
Pyrometer, 428.
Pyrotrogon ardens, 285, 325.
Pyrrherodias manillensis, 321.
Rallina euryzonoides, 281.
Ramila acciusalis, 374.
Rathinda cuzneri, 361.
Rehimena phyrnealis, 375.
|
Resin; changes in, on standing, 37; de-
structive distillation of, 38. al
Rhabdornis inornatus, 296.
Rhabdornis minor, 290, 329. |
Rhinomyias ruficauda, 287, 327.
Rhipidura hutchinsoni, 357.
Rhipidura nigritorquis, 287, 305, 313, 327. |
Rhyacophilus glareola, 282, 301, 320.
Rhyolite; analysis of, 408; description of, |
407; recast analysis of, 410. |
RICHMOND, GEORGE F., Philippine fibers
and fibrous substances: Their suitability
for paper making. Part III (conclu-
sion), 81.
62926-——6
| Ricinus communis,
| SCHULTZE, W.,
457
RICHMOND, GEORGE F., and VIVENCIO
DEL ROSARIO, MARIANO, Commercial
utilization of some Philippine oil-bearing
seeds: Preliminary paper, 439.
description and local
uses of, 447.
Salangana marginata, 304, 325, 346, 349.
Salangana troglodytes, 304, 325.
Salangana whiteheadi, 304, 313, 325, 339.
Santol; description of, 85.
Sarcophanops steerei, 286.
Sarcops calvus, 257, 309.
Sarcops melanonotus, 291, 314, 332.
New Lepidoptera of the
Philippine Islands, 361.
Seger cones, 427.
Sesamun ‘indicum :
uses of, 447.
SHUFELDT, R. W., Osteological and Other
Notes on Sarcops calvus of the Philip-
pines, 257.
Simplicia marginata, 373.
SMITH, WARREN D., Petrography of some
rocks from Benguet Province, Luzon,
P. I., 235; The asbestos and manganese
deposits of Ilocos Norte, with notes on
the geology of the region, 145; The
geology of the Compostela-Danao coal
field, 377.
Soda wood pulps, 87.
Sodium acetone; older work on,
aration and composition of, 69.
description and local
67; prep-
_ Sphenocercus australis, 338, 344.
Spilornis holospilus, 283.
Spilornis panayensis, 323.
Spilotreron bangueyensis, 281.
Spodiopsar cineraceus, 353.
Squatarola helvetica, 300, 311, 319.
Sterna anestheta, 275.
Sterna boreotis, 300, 311, 319.
Stictoptera costata, 373.
Streptopelia dussumieri, 281, 300, 311, 318.
Strix candida, 339. _
Sula sula, 275, 339.
| Sulphite bamboo pulp, 92.
| Sulphite pulp from fibers other than wood,
On.
Sulphite wood pulp, 89.
Surniculus velutinus, 285.
Taal Voleano; analysis of massive rock
from, 116; quantitative analysis of water
from the crater of, 118; specimens of
water from the boiling crater lake of,
117; specimens of water from the green
lake of, 118; specimens of water from
the green pool immediately to the north
of the boiling crater lake, 117; study of
the radioactivity of the waters of the,
122.
Tachornis pallidior, 304, 325.
Talanga sexpunctalis, 375,
Tanygnathus 284, 303, 312,
324.
Temperatures, detendhinetin of, 427.
Terekia cinerea, 301, 320,
Terpinene, 31.
Terpsiphone nigra, 340, 349.
Thriponax javensis, 304.
Thriponax multilunatus, 285.
Thriponax pectoralis, 326.
Totanus eurhinus, 282, 301, 311, 320.
Turnix celestinoi, 292, 317.
Unbleached sulphite fibers; analyses of
prepared by the quick-cooking process,
93.
Uranium salts as catalyzers, 129.
Uroloncha everetti, 290, 332, 349,
Vegetable oils; principal uses of, 439.
Vernifilia, 364.
Vernifilia hyalipuncta, 364.
VIVENCIO DEL ROSARIO, MARIANO,
Commercial utilization of some Philip-~-
pine oil-bearing seeds: Preliminary
paper, 439.
lucionensis,
O.
i“
(Linneus) and —
275, :
Xantholema roseum, 304.
Y’Ami; birds from, 349.
Yungipicus fulvifasciatus, 286.
Yungipicus leytensis, 326.
Yungipicus “maculatus, 304. aoe
Zeocephus cinnamomea, 287.
Zeocephus rufus, 305. ;
Zonophaps poliocephala, 281.
Zosterops basilanica, 290. + aes P
Zosterops batanis, 343, 349.
Zosterops everetti, 307.
Zosterops halconensis, 360.
Zosterops leta, 329.
Zosterops meyleri, 348.
Zosterornis affinis, 292,
Zosterornis capitalis, 288.
Zosterornis nigrocapitata, 328.
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